From 920c085adf1cf8c04a297090629137aa4ba5132d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 02:37:48 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 5577 new, 3096 updated, 8927 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 77717504 -> 78512128 bytes ...A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery-0.md | 43 +++ .../wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khujandi-0.md | 34 +++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-0.md | 32 ++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-1.md | 40 +++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-ʻIjliyyah-0.md | 39 +++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alidade-0.md | 53 ++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almucantar-0.md | 40 +++ ..._Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-0.md | 26 ++ ..._Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-1.md | 24 ++ ..._Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-2.md | 29 ++ ..._Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-3.md | 18 ++ ..._Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-4.md | 42 +++ .../wiki/Armillary_sphere-0.md | 28 ++ .../wiki/Armillary_sphere-1.md | 19 ++ .../wiki/Armillary_sphere-2.md | 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zEXGx$BskM4A(t-EJp()sK@LjW-B9)-&kJD$YP9MPb8tII58>PvyB8P=rHas;L?$omIVz^yKe}_M{f|5W1PMd1+aBDV1nCgPJaThkP;Q$d7Cv z!INmX%6q6JuZy6@lo4X}SBhvgalF5#PXD6s^rTYvqLu$Mf_ifB*=I|TKS$I~kL6(rvVPa8rh#sl^4Qw4~s{Da=+PhR?vW-eTF@^gakb%EV*HjLzn~q72J2H7q=mmj?>l zpIamsGAf}4YaVJOB4@_(M33z4Dadv(tw8*ZyqMAdJ5XzwR#aSC+CBtvUmW%A85#za zK^pYIc+@)(D6OEq%N)t@I)pd0ucbGjZqx!onH9@BHmS})L1B48NlAGTMsTrg>=4cHiE)=FBqY>R`2PWBDG diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5a17eca48 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:31.008006+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery, or the full title, A Philosopher giving that Lecture on the Orrery in which a lamp is put in place of the Sun, is a 1766 painting by Joseph Wright of Derby depicting a lecturer giving a demonstration of an orrery – a mechanical model of the Solar System – to a small audience. It is now in the Derby Museum and Art Gallery The painting preceded his similar An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump (National Gallery, London). +The first of Wright's candlelit masterpieces, Three Persons Viewing the Gladiator by Candlelight, was painted in 1765, and showed three men studying a small copy of the "Borghese Gladiator". The Gladiator was greatly admired; but his next painting, The Orrery, caused a greater stir, as it replaced the Classical subject at the centre of the scene with one of a scientific nature. Wright's depiction of the awe produced by scientific "miracles" marked a break with previous traditions in which the artistic depiction of such wonder was reserved for religious events, since to Wright the marvels of the technological age were as awe-inspiring as the subjects of the great religious paintings. +In both of these works, the candlelit setting had a realist justification. Viewing sculpture by candlelight, when the contours showed well, and there might even be an impression of movement from the flickering light, was a fashionable practice described by Goethe. In the orrery demonstration the shadows cast by the lamp representing the sun were an essential part of the display. But there seems no reason other than heightened drama to stage the air pump experiment in a room lit by a single candle, and in two later paintings of the subject by Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo the lighting is normal. + + +== Context == +The painting was one of a number of British works challenging the set categories of the rigid, French-dictated, hierarchy of genres in the late 18th century, as other types of painting aspired to be treated as seriously as the costumed history painting of a Classical or mythological subject. In some respects the Orrery and Air Pump subjects resembled conversation pieces, then largely a form of middle-class portraiture, though soon to be given new status when Johann Zoffany began to paint the royal family in about 1766. Given their solemn atmosphere however, and as it seems none of the figures are intended to be understood as portraits (even if models may be identified), the paintings can not be regarded as conversation pieces. The 20th-century art historian Ellis Waterhouse compares these two works to the "genre serieux" of contemporary French drama, as defined by Denis Diderot and Pierre Beaumarchais, a view endorsed by Egerton. +An anonymous review from the time called Wright "a very great and uncommon genius in a peculiar way". + + +== Provenance, and portraits == + +The Orrery was painted without a commission, probably in the expectation that it would be bought by Washington Shirley, 5th Earl Ferrers, a British Royal Navy officer who had an orrery of his own, and with whom Wright's friend Peter Perez Burdett was staying while in Derbyshire. Figures thought to be portraits of Burdett and Ferrers feature in the painting, Burdett taking notes and Ferrers seated with a youth next to the orrery. +Ferrers purchased the painting, which was displayed at the Exhibition of 1766 of the Society of Artists, for £210, but the 6th Earl auctioned it off, and it is now in the Derby Museum and Art Gallery, where it is on permanent display, close to a working replica of a full-sized mechanical Grand Orrery. +A biographer of Wright, Benedict Nicolson, argued in 1968 that John Whitehurst was the model for the lecturer, while another commentator points out the figure's resemblance to "a painting of Isaac Newton by Godfrey Kneller". Close observation of the adult faces in the picture reveals that each one demonstrates one or other of the main phases of the Moon – new moon, half moon, gibbous moon and full moon. Jonathan Powers, in The Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery, claims that 'the Philosopher' was John Arden, a scholar and lecturer best known for teaching the young Mary Wollstonecraft. +A working reconstruction of the grand orrery depicted in Joseph Wright's painting was commissioned by Derby Museums in 1993. It was built by clock and orrery-maker, John Gleave, and is displayed alongside the original work in the museum's art gallery. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Baird, Olga (2003). "Joseph Wright of Derby: Art, the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution". Revolutionary Players—Museums, Libraries and Archives—West Midlands. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2007. +Brooke, John Hedley (1991). Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge Studies in the History of Science). Cambridge University Press. p. 434. ISBN 0-521-28374-4. +Egerton, Judy (1990). Wright of Derby. Tate Gallery. p. 296. ISBN 1-85437-037-5. +Egerton, Judy (1998), National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The British School. catalogue entry pp. 332–343, ISBN 1-85709-170-1 +Elliott, Paul (1 January 2000). "The Birth of Public Science in the English Provinces: Natural Philosophy in Derby, c. 1690–1760". Annals of Science. 57 (1): 61–100. doi:10.1080/000337900296308. S2CID 145603120. +Guilding, Ruth; et al. (2004). William Weddell and the transformation of Newby Hall. Jeremy Mills Publishing for Leeds Museums and Galleries. ISBN 0-901981-69-9. +Jones, Jonathan (1 November 2003). "Yes, it is art". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 January 2007. +Kimmelman, Michael (7 September 1990). "Review/Art; In Praise of a Neglected Painter of His Time". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2007. +Nicolson, Benedict (1968). Joseph Wright of Derby. The Paul Mellon Foundation for British Art Pantheon Books. +Uglow, Jenny (2002). The Lunar Men. London: Faber and Faber. p. 588. ISBN 0-571-19647-0. +Waterhouse, Ellis, (4th Edn, 1978) Painting in Britain, 1530–1790. Penguin Books (now Yale History of Art series), ISBN 0-300-05319-3 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khujandi-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khujandi-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d7aac005 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khujandi-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Abu-Mahmud Khujandi" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khujandi" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:00.430468+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr al-Khujandi (known as Abu Mahmood Khujandi, al-khujandi or Khujandi, Persian: ابومحمود خجندی, c. 940 – 1000) was a Transoxanian astronomer and mathematician. He was born in Khujand (now part of Tajikistan) and lived in the late 10th century. He helped build an observatory, near the city of Ray (near today's Tehran), in Iran. + + +== Astronomy == + +Khujandi worked under the patronage of the Buwayhid Amirs at the observatory near Ray, Iran. There he is known to have constructed the first huge mural sextant in 994 AD, intended to determine the Earth's axial tilt ("obliquity of the ecliptic") to high precision. +He determined the axial tilt to be 23°32'19" for the year 994 AD. He noted that measurements by earlier astronomers had found higher values (Indians: 24°; Ptolemy 23° 51') and thus discovered that the axial tilt is not constant but is in fact (currently) decreasing. His measurement of the axial tilt was however about 2 minutes too small, probably due to his heavy instrument settling over the course of the observations. + + +== Mathematics == +Khujandi stated a special case of Fermat's Last Theorem for n = 3, but his attempted proof of the theorem was incorrect. The spherical law of sines may have also been discovered by Khujandi, but it is uncertain whether he discovered it first, or whether Abu Nasr Mansur, Abul Wafa or Nasir al-Din al-Tusi discovered it first. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews + + +== External links == +Brummelen, Glen Van (2007). "Khujandī: Abū Maḥmūd Ḥāmid ibn al‐Khiḍr al‐Khujandī". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 630–1. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version) +Tekeli, Sevim (2008) [1970-80]. "Al-Khujandī, Abū Maḥmūd Ḥāmid Ibn Al-Khiḍr". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia. +History of Islamic Science Archived 2011-06-05 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6045aebc8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Al-Zarqali" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:18.928040+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī al-Tujibi (Arabic: إبراهيم بن يحيى الزرقالي); also known as Al-Zarkali or Ibn Zarqala (1029–1100), was an Arab maker of astronomical instruments and an astrologer from the western part of the Islamic world. +Although his name is conventionally given as al-Zarqālī, it is probable that the correct form was al-Zarqālluh. In Latin he was referred to as Arzachel or Arsechieles, a modified form of Arzachel, meaning 'the engraver'. He lived in Toledo, Al-Andalus before moving to Córdoba later in his life. His works inspired a generation of Islamic astronomers in Al-Andalus, and later, after being translated, were very influential in Europe. His invention of the Saphaea (a perfected astrolabe) proved very popular and was widely used by navigators until the 16th century. +The crater Arzachel on the Moon is named after him. + +== Life == +Al-Zarqālī, of Arab origin, was born in a village near the outskirts of Toledo, the then capital of the newly established Taifa of Toledo. He started work after 1048 under Said al-Andalusi for the Emir Al-Mamun of Toledo and also under Al-Mu'tamid of the Taifa of Seville. Assuming a leading position under Said, Al-Zarqālī conducted solar observations for 25 years from 1050. + +He was trained as a metalsmith and due to his skills he was nicknamed Al-Nekkach "the engraver of metals". His Latinized name, 'Arzachel' is formed from the Arabic al-Zarqali al-Naqqash, meaning 'the engraver'. +He was particularly talented in geometry and astronomy. He is known to have taught and visited Córdoba on various occasions, and his extensive experience and knowledge eventually made him the foremost astronomer of his time. Al-Zarqālī was also an inventor, and his works helped to put Toledo on the intellectual center of Al-Andalus. He is also referred to in the works of Chaucer, as 'Arsechieles'. +In the year 1085, Toledo was taken by the Christian king of Castile Alfonso VI. Al-Zarqālī and his colleagues, such as Al-Waqqashi (1017–1095) had to flee. It is unknown whether the aged Al-Zarqālī fled to Cordoba or died in a Moorish refugee camp. +His works influenced Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Tufail (Abubacer), Ibn Rushd (Averroës), Ibn al-Kammad, Ibn al-Haim al-Ishbili and Nur ad-Din al-Betrugi (Alpetragius). +In the 12th century, Gerard of Cremona translated al-Zarqali's works into Latin. He referred to Al-Zarqali as an astronomer and magician. Ragio Montanous wrote a book in the 15th century on the advantages of the Sahifah al-Zarqalia. In 1530, the German scholar Jacob Ziegler wrote a commentary on one of al-Zarqali's works. In his "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium", in the year 1530, Nicolaus Copernicus quotes the works of al-Zarqali and Al-Battani. + +== Science == + +=== Instruments === +Al-Zarqālī wrote two works on the construction of an instrument (an equatorium) for computing the position of the planets using diagrams of the Ptolemaic model. These works were translated into Spanish in the 13th century by order of King Alfonso X in a section of the Libros del Saber de Astronomia entitled the "Libros de las laminas de los vii planetas". +He also invented a perfected kind of astrolabe known as "the tablet of al-Zarqālī" (al-ṣafīḥā al-zarqāliyya), which was famous in Europe under the name Saphaea. +There is a record of an al-Zarqālī who built a water clock, capable of determining the hours of the day and night and indicating the days of the lunar months. According to a report found in al-Zuhrī's Kitāb al-Juʿrāfīyya, his name is given as Abū al-Qāsim bin ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, also known as al-Zarqālī, which has made some historians think that this is a different person. + +=== Theory === +Al-Zarqali corrected geographical data from Ptolemy and Al-Khwarizmi. Specifically, he corrected Ptolemy's estimate of the width of the Mediterranean Sea from 62 degrees to the correct value of 42 degrees. In his treatise on the solar year, which survives only in a Hebrew translation, he was the first to demonstrate the motion of the solar apogee relative to the fixed background of the stars. He measured its rate of motion as 12.04 arcseconds per year, which is remarkably close to the modern calculation of 11.77 arcseconds. Al-Zarqālī's model for the motion of the Sun, in which the center of the Sun's deferent moved on a small, slowly rotating circle to reproduce the observed motion of the solar apogee, was discussed in the thirteenth century by Bernard of Verdun and in the fifteenth century by Regiomontanus and Peurbach. In the sixteenth century Copernicus employed this model, modified to heliocentric form, in his De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58617827c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Al-Zarqali" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zarqali" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:18.928040+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Tables of Toledo === +Al-Zarqālī also contributed to the famous Tables of Toledo, an adaptation of earlier astronomical data by Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Battani, to locate the coordinates of Toledo. His zij and almanac were translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century, and contributed to the rebirth of a mathematically based astronomy in Christian Europe and were later incorporated into the Tables of Toledo in the 12th century and the Alfonsine tables in the 13th century. +Famous as well for his own Book of Tables, of which many had been compiled. Al-Zarqālī's almanac contained tables which allowed one to find the days on which the Coptic, Roman, lunar, and Persian months begin, other tables which give the position of planets at any given time, and still others facilitating the prediction of solar and lunar eclipses. This almanac that he compiled directly provided "the positions of the celestial bodies and need no further computation", it further simplifies longitudes using planetary cycles of each planet. The work provided the true daily positions of the sun for four Julian years from 1088 to 1092, the true positions of the five planets every 5 or 10 days over a period of 8 years for Venus, 79 years for Mars, and so forth, as well as other related tables. +In designing an instrument to deal with Ptolemy's complex model for the planet Mercury, in which the center of the deferent moves on a secondary epicycle, al-Zarqālī noted that the path of the center of the primary epicycle is not a circle, as it is for the other planets. Instead it is approximately oval and similar to the shape of a pignon (or pine nut). Some writers have misinterpreted al-Zarqālī's description of an earth-centered oval path for the center of the planet's epicycle as an anticipation of Johannes Kepler's sun-centered elliptical paths for the planets. Although this may be the first suggestion that a conic section could play a role in astronomy, al-Zarqālī did not apply the ellipse to astronomical theory and neither he nor his Iberian or Maghrebi contemporaries used an elliptical deferent in their astronomical calculations. + +== Works == +Major works and publications: + +Al Amal bi Assahifa Az-Zijia +Attadbir +Al Madkhal fi Ilm Annoujoum +Rissalat fi Tarikat Istikhdam as-Safiha al-Moushtarakah li Jamiâ al-ouroud +Almanac Arzarchel + +== See also == +Islamic astronomy +Islamic scholars +List of Arab scientists and scholars + +== Notes == + +== Further reading == +Puig, Roser (2007). "Zarqālī: Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Tujībī al-Zarqālī". In Hockey, Thomas; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 1258–60. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version) +Vernet, J. (1970). "Al-Zarqālī (or Azarquiel), Abū Isḥāqibrāhīm Ibn Yaḥyā Al-Naqqāsh". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-10114-9. +E. S. Kennedy. A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables, (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 46, 2.) Philadelphia, 1956. + +== External links == +Muslim Scientists Before the Renaissance: Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) Archived 2013-11-11 at the Wayback Machine +'Transmission of Muslim astronomy to Europe' +'An Extensive biography' \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-ʻIjliyyah-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-ʻIjliyyah-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..929c75761 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-ʻIjliyyah-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Al-ʻIjliyyah" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-ʻIjliyyah" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:47.719208+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Al-ʻIjliyyah bint al-ʻIjliyy (Arabic: العجلية بنت العجلي) was a 10th-century maker of astrolabes active in Aleppo, in what is now northern Syria. +She is sometimes known in modern popular literature as Mariam al-Asṭurlābiyya (Arabic: مريم الأسطرلابية) but her supposed first name 'Mariam' is not mentioned in the only known source about her life. + + +== Life == +According to ibn al-Nadim, she was the daughter of another astrolabe maker known as al-ʻIjliyy; she and her father were apprentices (tilmīthah) of an astrolabe maker from Baghdad, Nasṭūlus. +Al-ʻIjliyyah manufactured astrolabes, an astronomical instrument, during the 10th century; she was employed by the first Emir of Aleppo, Sayf al-Dawla, who reigned from 944 to 967. +Beyond that information, nothing is known about her. Her supposed name, "Mariam", is not supported by sources from her time, and the phrase "al-Asturlabiyy" in the names by which she and her father are known simply means "the astrolabist", and indicates their profession; astrolabes were long known by her time. + + +== Legacy == +The main-belt asteroid 7060 Al-ʻIjliya, discovered by Henry E. Holt at Palomar Observatory in 1990, was named in her honor. The naming citation was published on 14 November 2016 (M.P.C. 102252). +She inspired a character in the 2015 award-winning book Binti and Netflix series Vikings: Valhalla. She was named an extraordinary woman from the Islamic Golden Age by 1001 Inventions. + + +== See also == +Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world +List of Muslim astronomers +List of women astronomers +Timeline of women in science + + +== References == + + + +== External links == +Astrolabe: the 13th Century iPhone – Daily Sabah +GPS and its Islamic origins, The Star Online, 3 October 2013 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alidade-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alidade-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..39b3d42a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alidade-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Alidade" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alidade" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:20.541498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An alidade () (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) or a turning board is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform a task. This task can be, for example, to triangulate a scale map on site using a plane table drawing of intersecting lines in the direction of the object from two or more points or to measure the angle and horizontal distance to the object from some reference point's polar measurement. Angles measured can be horizontal, vertical or in any chosen plane. +The alidade sighting ruler was originally a part of many types of scientific and astronomical instrument. At one time, some alidades, particularly using circular graduations as on astrolabes, were also called diopters. With modern technology, the name is applied to complete instruments such as the 'plane table alidade'. + + +== Origins == + +The word in Arabic (الحلقة العضدية, al-ḥilqa al-ʿaḍudiyya, lit. 'the ruler'), signifies the same device. In Greek and Latin, it is respectively called δίοπτρα, "dioptra", and linea fiduciae, "fiducial line". +The earliest alidades consisted of a bar, rod or similar component with a vane on each end. Each vane (also called a pinnule or pinule) has a hole, slot or other indicator through which one can view a distant object. There may also be a pointer or pointers on the alidade to indicate a position on a scale. Alidades have been made of wood, ivory, brass and other materials. + + +== Examples of old alidade types == + +The figure on the left displays drawings that attempt to show the general forms of various alidades that can be found on many antique instruments. Real alidades of these types could be much more decorative, revealing the maker's artistic talents as well as his technical skills. In the terminology of the time, the edge of an alidade at which one reads a scale or draws a line is called a fiducial edge. +Alidade B in the diagram shows a straight, flat bar with a vane at either end. No pointers are used. The vanes are not centred on the bar but offset so that the sight line coincides with the edge of the bar. +The vanes have a rectangular hole in each with a fine wire held vertically in the opening. To use the alidade, the user sights an object and lines it up with the wires in each vane. This type of alidade could be found on a plane table, graphometer or similar instrument. +Alidades A and C are similar to B but have a slit or circular hole without a wire. In the diagram, the openings are exaggerated in size to show the shape; they would be smaller in a real alidade, perhaps 2 mm or so in width. One can look through the openings and line the openings up with the object of interest in the distance. With a small opening, the error in sighting the object is small. However, if a dim object such as a star is observed through a small hole, the image is difficult to see. +This form is shown in the diagram as having pointers. These can be used to read off an angle on a scale that is engraved around the outer edge (or limb) of the instrument. Alidades of this form are found on astrolabes, mariner's astrolabes and similar instruments. +Alidade D has vanes without any openings. In this case, the object is viewed and the alidade is rotated until the two opposite vanes simultaneously eclipse the object. With skill, this sort of alidade can yield very precise measures. In this example, pointers are shown. +Alidade E is a representation of a very interesting design by Johannes Hevelius. Hevelius was following in Tycho Brahe's footsteps and cataloging star positions with high accuracy. He did have access to the telescopic sights that were being used by astronomers in other countries, however, he chose to use naked-eye observations for his positional instruments. Due to the design of his instruments and the alidades, as well as his diligent practices, he was able to yield very precise measures. +Hevelius' design featured a pivot point with a vertical cylinder and a vane at the observer's end. The vane had two narrow slits that were spaced precisely the same distance apart as the diameter of the cylinder (in the diagram, the portion of the vane between the slits is removed for clarity; the left and right edges of the opening represent the slits). If the observer could sight a star on only one side of the cylinder, as seen in F, the alignment was off. By carefully moving the vane so that the star could just barely be seen on either side of the cylinder (G), the alidade was aligned with the position of the star. This could not be used with a closely located object. A star, being so far away as to exhibit no parallax to the naked-eye, would be observable as a point source simultaneously on both sides. + + +== Modern alidade types == + +The alidade is the part of a theodolite that rotates around the vertical axis, and that bears the horizontal axis around which the telescope (or visor, in early telescope-less instruments) turns up or down. +In a sextant or octant the alidade is the turnable arm carrying a mirror and an index to a graduated circle in a vertical plane. Today it is more commonly called an 'index arm'. +Alidade tables have also long been used in fire towers for sighting the bearing to a forest fire. A topographic map of the local area, with a suitable scale, is oriented, centered and permanently mounted on a leveled circular table surrounded by an arc calibrated to true north of the map and graduated in degrees (and fractions) of arc. Two vertical sight apertures are arranged opposite each other and can be rotated along the graduated arc of the horizontal table. To determine a bearing to a suspected fire, the user looks through the two sights and adjusts them until they are aligned with the source of the smoke (or an observed lightning strike to be monitored for smoke). See Osborne Fire Finder. + + +== See also == +Gunsight +Pelorus (instrument) + + +== References == + +Gerard L'E. Turner, Nineteenth Century Scientific Instruments, Sotheby Publications, 1983, ISBN 0-85667-170-3 +Gerard L'E. Turner, Antique Scientific Instruments, Blandford Press Ltd. 1980, ISBN 0-7137-1068-3 + + +== External links == + + This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almucantar-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almucantar-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4be62f2f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almucantar-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Almucantar" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almucantar" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:21.691077+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An almucantar (also spelled almucantarat or almacantara) is a circle on the celestial sphere parallel to the horizon. Two stars that lie on the same almucantar have the same altitude. +The term was introduced into European astronomy by monastic astronomer Hermann Contractus of Reichenau, Latinized from the Arabic word al-muqanṭarah ("the almucantar, sundial", plural: al-muqanṭarāt), derived from qanṭarah ("arch, bridge") + + +== Almucantar staff == +An almucantar staff is an instrument chiefly used to determine the time of sunrise and sunset, in order to find the amplitude and consequently the variations of the compass. Usually made of pear tree or boxwood, with an arch of 15° to 30°, it is an example of a backstaff. + +The sun casts that shadow of a vane (B in the adjacent image) on a horizon vane (A). The horizon vane has a slit or hole to allow the observer to see the horizon in the distance. The observer aligns the horizon and shadow so they show at the same point on the horizon vane and sets the sighting vane (C) to align his line of sight with the horizon. The altitude of the sun is the angle between the shadow vane and the sighting vane (B-A-C). + + +== Solar almucantar == +The almucantar plane that contains the Sun is used to characterize multiple scattering of aerosols. Measurements are carried out rapidly at several angles at both sides of the Sun using a spectroradiometer or a photometer. There are several models to obtain aerosol properties from the solar almucantar. The most relevant were developed by Oleg Dubovik and used in the NASA AERONET network, and by Teruyuki Nakajima (named SkyRad.pack). + + +== See also == +Circle of equal altitude + + +== References == + +Adelaide Observatory: Almucantar graphs of hour angles, Adelaide, R. E. E. Rogers, Govt. printer, 1927. +Chandler, Seth Carlo, (1846–1913): The almucantar, Cambridge, J. Wilson and Son, 1887. +Dubovik, O. and M. D. King, 2000: A flexible inversion algorithm for retrieval of aerosol optical properties from Sun and sky radiance measurements," Journal of Geophysical Research, 105, 20 673-20 696 pdf version +Nakajima T, Tonna G, Rao RZ, et al.:Use of sky brightness measurements from ground for remote sensing of particulate polydispersions, Applied Optics 35 (15), 2672–2686, 1996 + + +== External links == +"Compendium on Using the Device Known as the Almucantar Quarter" is an Arabic manuscript from 1757 about the Almucantar Quarter + + This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c55b099d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:00.402844+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump is a 1768 oil-on-canvas painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, one of a number of candlelit scenes that Wright painted during the 1760s. The painting departed from convention of the time by depicting a scientific subject in the reverential manner formerly reserved for scenes of historical or religious significance. Wright was intimately involved in depicting the Industrial Revolution and the scientific advances of the Enlightenment. While his paintings were recognized as exceptional by his contemporaries, his provincial status and choice of subjects meant the style was never widely imitated. The picture has been owned by the National Gallery in London since 1863 and is regarded as a masterpiece of British art. +The painting depicts a natural philosopher, a forerunner of the modern scientist, recreating one of Robert Boyle's air pump experiments, in which a bird is deprived of air before a group of onlookers. The group members exhibit a variety of reactions, such as grief, disbelief and dismay, but for most of the audience scientific curiosity overcomes concern for the bird. The central figure looks out of the picture as if inviting the viewer's participation in the outcome. +The painting was featured in the 1980 BBC Two series 100 Great Paintings. + +== Historical background == + +In 1659, Robert Boyle commissioned the construction of an air pump, then described as a "pneumatic engine", which is known today as a "vacuum pump". The air pump was invented by Otto von Guericke in 1650, though its high cost deterred most contemporary scientists from constructing the apparatus. Boyle, the son of the Earl of Cork, had no such concerns—after its construction, he donated the initial 1659 model to the Royal Society and had a further two redesigned machines built for his personal use. Aside from Boyle's three pumps, there were probably no more than four others in existence during the 1660s: Christiaan Huygens had one in The Hague, Henry Power may have had one at Halifax, and there may have been pumps at Christ's College, Cambridge, and the Montmor Academy in Paris. Boyle's pump, which was largely designed to Boyle's specifications and constructed by Robert Hooke, was complicated, temperamental, and problematic to operate. Many demonstrations could only be performed with Hooke on hand, and Boyle frequently left critical public displays solely to Hooke—whose dramatic flair matched his technical skill. +Despite the operational and maintenance obstacles, construction of the pump enabled Boyle to conduct a great many experiments on the properties of air, which he later detailed in his New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects, (Made, for the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical Engine). In the book, he described in great detail 43 experiments he conducted, with occasional assistance from Hooke, on the effect of air on various phenomena. Boyle tested the effects of "rarified" air on combustion, magnetism, sound, and barometers, and examined the effects of increased air pressure on various substances. He listed two experiments on living creatures: "Experiment 40", which tested the ability of insects to fly under reduced air pressure, and "Experiment 41," which demonstrated the reliance of living creatures on air for their survival. In this attempt to discover something "about the account upon which "respiration" is so necessary to the "animals" that Nature hath furnished with Lungs." Boyle conducted numerous trials during which he placed a large variety of different creatures, including birds, mice, eels, snails and flies, in the vessel of the pump and studied their reactions as the air was removed. Here, he describes an injured lark: + +... the Bird for a while appear'd lively enough; but upon a greater Exsuction of the Air, she began manifestly to droop and appear sick, and very soon after was taken with as violent and irregular Convulsions, as are wont to be observ'd in Poultry, when their heads are wrung off: For the Bird threw her self over and over two or three times, and dyed with her Breast upward, her Head downwards, and her Neck awry. +By the time Wright painted his picture in 1768, air pumps were a relatively commonplace scientific instrument, and itinerant "lecturers in natural philosophy"—usually more showmen than scientists—often performed the "animal in the air pump experiment" as the centerpiece of their public demonstration. These were performed in town halls and other large buildings for a ticket-buying audience, or were booked by societies or for private showings in the homes of the well-off, the setting suggested in both of Wright's demonstration pieces. One of the most notable and respectable of the travelling lecturers was James Ferguson FRS, a Scottish astronomer and probable acquaintance of Joseph Wright (both were friends of John Whitehurst). Ferguson noted that a "lungs-glass" with a small air-filled bladder inside was often used in place of the animal, as using a living creature was "too shocking to every spectator who has the least degree of humanity". + +The full moon in the picture is significant as meetings of the Lunar Circle (renamed the Lunar Society by 1775) were timed to make use of its light when traveling. +Wright met Erasmus Darwin in the early 1760s, probably through their mutual connection, John Whitehurst In 1767, Wright first consulted Darwin regarding health concerns and stayed with the Darwin family for a week. The energy and vivacity of both Erasmus and Mary (Polly) Darwin impressed Wright. In the 1980s Eric Evans (National Gallery) suggested that Darwin is the figure in the left foreground who holds a watch. As this composed timekeeper is not consistent with Darwin's flamboyant character, it is more likely that this is Dr William Small. The attention to timekeeping fits with Dr Small's role as the social secretary for the Lunar Circle. Small returned from Virginia in 1764 and established his practice in Birmingham in 1765, consistent with this being a meeting in 1767. The profile and wig of this figure are consistent with a contemporary portrait of Small by Tilly Kettle. + +== Painting == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6fa11b1c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:00.402844+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Background === + +During his apprenticeship and early career Wright concentrated on portraiture. By 1762, he was an accomplished portrait artist, and his 1764 group portrait James Shuttleworth, his Wife and Daughter is acknowledged as his first true masterpiece. Benedict Nicolson suggests that Wright was influenced by the work of Thomas Frye; in particular by the 18 bust-length mezzotints which Frye completed just before his death in 1762. It was perhaps Frye's candlelight images that tempted Wright to experiment with subject pieces. Wright's first attempt, A Girl reading a Letter by Candlelight with a Young Man looking over her shoulder from 1762 or 1763, is a trial in the genre, and is fetching though uncomplicated. +Wright's, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump forms part of a series of candlelit nocturnes that he produced between 1765 and 1768. +There was a long history of painting candlelit scenes in Western art, although as Wright had not at this date traveled abroad, there remains uncertainty as to what paintings he might have seen in the original, as opposed to prints. Nicolson, who made studies of both Wright and other candlelight painters such as the 17th-century Utrecht Caravaggisti, thought their paintings, among the largest in the style, those most likely to have influenced Wright. However, Judy Egerton wonders if he could have seen any, referring to influences of the far smaller works of the Leiden fijnschilder Godfried Schalcken (1643–1706), whose reputation was much greater in the early 18th century than later. He had worked in England from 1692 to 1697, and several of his paintings can be placed in English collections. +Although he was the leading expert writing in English, Nicolson does not suggest that Wright is likely to have known of the 17th-century candlelit narrative religious subjects of Georges de La Tour and Trophime Bigot, which, in their seriousness, are the closest works to Wright that are lit only by candle. The Dutch painters' works and other candlelit scenes by 18th-century English painters such as Henry Morland (father of George) tended instead to exploit the possibilities of semi-darkness for erotic suggestiveness. Some of Wright's own later candlelit scenes were by no means as serious as his first ones, as seen from their titles: Two Boys Fighting Over a Bladder and Two Girls Dressing a Kitten by Candlelight. + +The first of his candlelit masterpieces, Three Persons Viewing the Gladiator by Candlelight, was painted in 1765, and showed three men studying a small copy of the "Borghese Gladiator". Viewing the Gladiator was greatly admired; but his next painting, A Philosopher giving that Lecture on the Orrery, in which a Lamp is put in place of the Sun (normally known by the shortened form A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery or just The Orrery), caused a greater stir, as it replaced the Classical subject at the center of the scene with one of a scientific nature. Wright's depiction of the awe produced by scientific "miracles" marked a break with traditions in which the artistic depiction of such wonder was reserved for religious events, since to Wright the marvels of the technological age were as awe-inspiring as the subjects of the great religious paintings. +In both of these works the candlelit setting had a realist justification. Viewing sculpture by candlelight, when the contours showed well and there might even be an impression of movement from the flickering light, was a fashionable practice described by Goethe. In the orrery demonstration the shadows cast by the lamp representing the sun were an essential part of the display, used to demonstrate eclipses. However there seems no reason, other than heightened drama, to stage the air pump experiment in a room lit by a single candle, and in two later paintings of the subject by Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo the lighting is normal. +The painting was one of a number of British works challenging the set categories of the rigid, French-dictated hierarchy of genres in the late 18th century, as other types of painting aspired to be treated as seriously as the costumed history painting of a Classical or mythological subject. In some respects, the Orrery and Air Pump subjects resembled conversation pieces, then largely a form of middle-class portraiture, though soon to be given new status when Johann Zoffany began to paint the royal family in about 1766. Given their solemn atmosphere however, and as it seems none of the figures are intended to be understood as portraits (even if models may be identified), the paintings can not be regarded as conversation pieces. The 20th-century art historian Ellis Waterhouse compares these two works to the "genre serieux" of contemporary French drama, as defined by Denis Diderot and Pierre Beaumarchais, a view endorsed by Egerton. +An anonymous review from the time called Wright "a very great and uncommon genius in a peculiar way." The Orrery was painted without a commission, probably in the expectation that it would be bought by Washington Shirley, 5th Earl Ferrers, an amateur astronomer who had an orrery of his own, and with whom Wright's friend Peter Perez Burdett was staying while in Derbyshire. Figures thought to be portraits of Burdett and Ferrers feature in the painting, Burdett taking notes and Ferrers seated with his son next to the orrery. +Ferrers purchased the painting for £210, but the 6th Earl auctioned it off, and it is now held by the Derby Museum and Art Gallery. + +=== Detail === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e5c79bbaf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:00.402844+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump followed in 1768, the emotionally charged experiment contrasting with the orderly scene from The Orrery. The painting, which measures 72 by 94½ inches (183 by 244 cm), shows a grey cockatiel fluttering in panic as the air is slowly withdrawn from the vessel by the pump. The witnesses display various emotions: one of the girls worriedly watches the fate of the bird, while the other is too upset to observe and is comforted by her father; two gentlemen (one of them dispassionately timing the experiment) and a boy look on with interest, while the young lovers to the left of the painting are absorbed only in each other. The scientist himself looks directly out of the picture, as if challenging the viewer to judge whether the pumping should continue, killing the bird, or whether the air should be replaced and the cockatiel saved. +David Solkin suggests that little sympathy is directed toward the bird; the subjects of the painting show the dispassionate detachment of the evolving scientific society. Individuals are concerned for each other: the father for his children, the young man for the girl, but the distress of the cockatiel elicits only careful study. Another reading is that interest in the bird increases from the left side to the right; viewers on the left are scientifically interested (older men and boy) or distracted (young lovers), while those on the right are concerned (girls, older man, assistant) or attending to those who are (father). To one side of the boy assistant at the right side in the rear, the cockatiel's empty cage can be seen on the wall, and to further heighten the drama it is unclear whether the boy is lowering the cage on the pulley to allow the bird to be replaced after the experiment or hoisting the cage back up, certain of its former occupant's death. It has also been suggested that he may be drawing the curtains to block out the light from the full moon. + +Jenny Uglow believes that the boy echoes the figure in the last print of William Hogarth's The Four Stages of Cruelty by pointing out the arrogance and potential cruelty of experimentation, while David Fraser also sees the compositional similarities with the audience grouped round a central demonstration. The neutral stance of the central character and the uncertain intentions of the boy with the cage were both later ideas: an early study, discovered on the back of a self-portrait, omits the boy and shows the natural philosopher reassuring the girls. In this sketch it is obvious that the bird will survive, and thus the composition lacks the power of the final version. Lochlann Jain has analyzed the painting in the context of a contemporary cultural history and medicine of human suffocation and choking. +Wright, who took many of his subjects from English poetry, probably knew the following passage from "The Wanderer" (1729) by Richard Savage: + +So in some Engine, that denies a Vent, +If unrespiring is some Creature pent, +It sickens, droops, and pants, and gasps for Breath, +Sad o'er the Sight swim shad'wy Mists of Death; +If then kind Air pours powerful in again. +New Heats, new Pulses quicken ev'ry Vein; +From the clear'd, lifted, life-rekindled Eye, +Dispers'd, the dark and dampy Vapours fly. + +The cockatiel would have been a rare bird at the time, "and one whose life would never in reality have been risked in an experiment such as this". It did not become well known until after it was shown in illustrations to the accounts of the voyages of Captain Cook in the 1770s. Prior to Cook's voyage, cockatiels had been imported only in small numbers as exotic cage-birds. Wright had painted one in 1762 at the home of William Chase, featuring it both in his portrait of Chase and his wife (Mr & Mrs William Chase) and a separate study, The Parrot. In selecting such a rarity for this scientific sacrifice, Wright not only chose a more dramatic subject than the "lungs-glass", but was perhaps making a statement about the values of society in the Age of Enlightenment. The grey plumage of the cockatiel also shows much more effectively in the darkened room than the small dull-coloured bird in Wright's early oil sketch. A resemblance has been pointed out between the group of the bird and the two nearest figures and a type of depiction of the Trinity found in Early Netherlandish painting, where the Holy Spirit is represented by a dove, to which God the Father (the philosopher) points, while Christ (the father) gestures in blessing to the viewer. +On the table are various other pieces of equipment that the natural philosopher would have used during his demonstration: a thermometer, candle snuffer and cork, and close to the man seated to the right is a pair of Magdeburg hemispheres, which would have been used with the air pump to demonstrate the difference in pressure exerted by the air and a vacuum: when the air was pumped out from between the two hemispheres they were impossible to pull apart. The air pump itself is rendered in exquisite detail, a faithful record of the designs in use at the time. What may be a human skull in the large liquid-filled glass bowl would not have been a normal piece of equipment; William Schupbach suggests that it and the candle, which is presumably lighting the bowl from behind, form a vanitas—the two symbols of mortality reflecting the cockatiel's struggle for life. + +=== Style === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..764c28d03 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:00.402844+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The powerful central light source creates a chiaroscuro effect. The light illuminating the scene has been described as "so brilliant it could only be the light of revelation". The single source of light is obscured behind the bowl on the table; some hint of a lamp glass can be seen around the side of the bowl, but David Hockney has suggested that the bowl itself may contain Sulphur, giving a powerful single light source that a candle or oil lamp would not. In the earlier study a candle holder is visible, and the flame is reflected in the bowl. Hockney believes that many of the Old Masters used optical equipment to assist in their painting, and suggests that Wright may have used lenses to transfer the image to paper rather than painting directly from the scene, as he believes the pattern of shadows thrown by the lighting could have been too complicated for Wright to have captured so accurately without assistance. It may be observed, however, that the stand on which the pump is situated casts no shadow on the body of the philosopher, as it could be expected to do. +Wright's Air Pump was unusual in that it depicted archetypes rather than specific people, though various models for the figures have been suggested. The young lovers may have been based on Thomas Coltman and Mary Barlow, friends of Wright's, whom he later painted in Mr and Mrs Thomas Coltman (also in the National Gallery) after their marriage in 1769; Erasmus Darwin has been suggested as the man timing the experiment on the left of the table, and John Warltire, whom Darwin had invited to help with some air pump experiments in real life, as the natural philosopher; but Wright never identified any of the subjects or suggested they were based on real people. +In The Orrery, all the subjects have been identified apart from the philosopher, who has physical similarities to Isaac Newton but differs enough to make positive identification impossible. Nicolson detects the strong influence of Frye throughout the picture. Particularly striking is the similarity between Frye's mezzotint Portrait of a Young Man of 1760–1761 and the figure of the boy with his head cocked staring intently at the bird. In 1977, Michael Wynne published one of Frye's chalk drawings from around 1760, An old man leaning on a staff, which is so similar to the observer in the right foreground in Wright's picture to make it impossible that Wright had not seen it. There are other hints of Frye's style in the painting: even the figure of the natural philosopher has touches of Frye's Figure with Candle. Though Henry Fuseli would later also develop on the style of Frye's work there is no evidence of him having painted anything similar until the early 1780s. So, although he had already been in England at the time the Air Pump was produced, it is unlikely that he was an influence on Wright. +Wright's scientific paintings adopted elements from the tradition of history painting but lacked the heroic central action typical of that genre. While ground-breaking, they are regarded as peculiar to Wright, whose unique style has been explained in many ways. Wright's provincial status and ties to the Lunar Society, a group of prominent industrialists, scientists and intellectuals who met regularly in Birmingham between 1765 and 1813, have been highlighted, as well as his close association with and sympathy for the advances made in the burgeoning Industrial Revolution. Other critics have emphasised a desire to capture a snapshot of the society of the day, in the tradition of William Hogarth but with a more neutral stance that lacks the biting satire of Hogarth's work. + +== Reception == + +The scientific subjects of Wright's paintings from this time were meant to appeal to the wealthy scientific circles in which he moved. While never a member himself, he had strong connections with the Lunar Society: he was friends with members John Whitehurst and Erasmus Darwin, as well as Josiah Wedgwood, who later commissioned paintings from him. The inclusion of the moon in the painting was a nod to their monthly meetings, which were held when the moon was full. Like The Orrery, Wright apparently painted Air Pump without a commission, and the picture was purchased by Dr Benjamin Bates, who already owned Wright's Gladiator. An Aylesbury physician, patron of the arts and hedonist, Bates was a diehard member of the Hellfire Club. Wright's account book shows a number of prices for the painting: Pd£200 is shown in one place and £210 in another, but Wright had written to Bates asking for £130, stating that the low price "might much injure me in the future sale of my pictures, and when I send you a receipt for the money I shall acknowledge a greater sum." Whether Bates ever paid the full amount is not recorded; Wright only notes in his account book that he received £30 in part payment. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5bd00e6b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_the_Air_Pump" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:00.402844+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Wright exhibited the painting at the Society of Artists Exhibition of 1768 and it was re-exhibited before Christian VII of Denmark in September the same year. Viewers remarked that it was "clever and vigorous", while Gustave Flaubert, who saw it on a visit to England between 1865 and 1866, considered it "charming in naivety and depth". It was popular enough that a mezzotint was engraved from it by Valentine Green which was published by John Boydell on 24 June 1769, and initially sold for 15 shillings. This was reprinted throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, in increasingly weak impressions. Ellis Waterhouse called it "one of the wholly original masterpieces of British art". +From Bates, the picture passed to Walter Tyrell; another member of the Tyrell family, Edward, presented it to the National Gallery, London, in 1863, after it had failed to sell at an auction at Christie's in 1854. The painting was transferred to the Tate Gallery in 1929, although it was actually on loan to Derby Museum and Art Gallery between 1912 and 1947. It has been lent out for exhibitions to the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., in 1976, the National Museum of Fine Arts in Stockholm in 1979–1980, and Paris (Grand Palais), New York (Metropolitan) and the Tate in London in 1990. It was reclaimed by the National Gallery from the Tate in 1986. They describe its condition as good, with minor alterations visible on some figures. It was last cleaned in 1974. In 2025, it was the subject of its own exhibition at the National Gallery entitled Wright of Derby: From the Shadows. That exhibit prompted a BBC Online article weighing whether it could be considered the first work of modern art. +The striking scene has been used as the cover illustration for many books on topics both artistic and scientific. It has even spawned pastiches and parodies: the book cover of The Science of Discworld, by Terry Pratchett, Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen, is a tribute to the painting by artist Paul Kidby, who replaces Wright's figures with the book's protagonists. Shelagh Stephenson's play An Experiment with an Air Pump, inspired by the painting, was the joint winner of the 1997 Margaret Ramsay Award and had its premiere at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester, in 1998. + +== Notes == + +== References == +Baird, Olga (2003). "Joseph Wright of Derby: Art, the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution". Revolutionary Players – Museums, Libraries and Archives – West Midlands. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2007. +Boyle, Robert (2003) [1744]. Works of the Honorable Robert Boyle. Kessinger Publishing. p. 740. ISBN 0-7661-6865-4. +Brooke, John Hedley (1991). Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge Studies in the History of Science). Cambridge University Press. p. 434. ISBN 0-521-28374-4. +Busch, Werner (1986). Joseph Wright of Derby, Das Experiment mit der Luftpumpe: Eine Heilige Allianz zwischen Wissenschaft und Religion. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) +Egerton, Judy (1990). Wright of Derby. Tate Gallery. p. 296. ISBN 1-85437-037-5. +Egerton, Judy (1998), National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The British School. catalogue entry pp. 332–343, ISBN 1-85709-170-1 +Elliott, Paul (1 January 2000). "The Birth of Public Science in the English Provinces: Natural Philosophy in Derby, c. 1690–1760". Annals of Science. 57 (1): 61–100. doi:10.1080/000337900296308. S2CID 145603120. +Harrison, James (2006). Farthing, Stephen (ed.). 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die. London: Quintet Publishing Ltd. p. 960. ISBN 1-84403-563-8. +Hockney, David (2001). Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters. New York: Studio Books. ISBN 0-670-03026-0. OCLC 150844927.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) +Guilding, Ruth, and others, William Weddell and the transformation of Newby Hall, Jeremy Mills Publishing for Leeds Museums and Galleries, 2004, ISBN 978-0-901981-69-1, Google books +Jardine, Lisa (2004). The Curious Life of Robert Hooke. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-053897-X. OCLC 53276386. +Jones, Jonathan (1 November 2003). "Yes, it is art". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 January 2007. +Kimmelman, Michael (7 September 1990). "Review/Art; In Praise of a Neglected Painter of His Time". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2007. +"An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump". The National Gallery. Archived from the original on 7 February 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2007. +Nicolson, Benedict (1968). Joseph Wright of Derby. The Paul Mellon Foundation for British Art Pantheon Books. +Shapin, Steven (November 1984). "Pump and Circumstance: Robert Boyle's Literary Technology" (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 14 (4): 481–520. doi:10.1177/030631284014004001. S2CID 5106843. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2006. +Solkin, David (1994). "ReWrighting Shaftesbury: The Air Pump and the Limits of Commercial Humanism". In John Brewer (ed.). Early Modern Conceptions of Property (Consumption & Culture in 17th & 18th Centuries). Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd. p. 599. ISBN 0-415-10533-1. +Uglow, Jenny (2002). The Lunar Men. London: Faber and Faber. p. 588. ISBN 0-571-19647-0. +Waterhouse, Ellis, (4th Edn, 1978) Painting in Britain, 1530–1790. Penguin Books (now Yale History of Art series), ISBN 0-300-05319-3 +West, John B. (2005). "Robert Boyle's landmark book of 1660 with the first experiments on rarified air". Journal of Applied Physiology. 98 (1): 31–39. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00759.2004. PMID 15591301. + +== External links == + +Zoomable version of the painting from the National Gallery, London +An interactive soundscape of the painting \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ba9c7d2e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Armillary sphere" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:22.848952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An armillary sphere (variations are known as spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is a model of objects in the sky (on the celestial sphere), consisting of a spherical framework of rings, centered on Earth or the Sun, that represent lines of celestial longitude and latitude and other astronomically important features, such as the ecliptic. As such, it differs from a celestial globe, which is a smooth sphere whose principal purpose is to map the constellations. It was invented separately, in ancient China possibly as early as the 4th century BC and ancient Greece during the 3rd century BC, with later uses in the Islamic world and Medieval Europe. +With the Earth as center, an armillary sphere is known as Ptolemaic. With the Sun as center, it is known as Copernican. +The flag of Portugal features an armillary sphere. The armillary sphere is also featured in Portuguese heraldry, associated with the Portuguese discoveries during the Age of Exploration. Manuel I of Portugal, for example, took it as one of his symbols where it appeared on his standard, and on early Chinese export ceramics made for the Portuguese court. In the flag of the Empire of Brazil, the armillary sphere is also featured. +The Beijing Capital International Airport Terminal 3 features a large armillary sphere metal sculpture as an exhibit of Chinese inventions for international and domestic visitors. + +== Description and use == + +The exterior parts of this machine are a compages [or framework] of brass rings, which represent the principal circles of the heavens: + +The equinoctial A, which is divided into 360 degrees (beginning at its intersection with the ecliptic in Aries) for showing the sun's right ascension in degrees; and also into 24 hours, for showing its right ascension in time. +The ecliptic B, which is divided into 12 signs, and each sign into 30 degrees, and also into the months and days of the year, in such a manner that the degree or point of the ecliptic on which the sun appears, on any given day, stands over that day in the circle of months. +The tropic of Cancer C, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Cancer in e, and the tropic of Capricorn D, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn in f; each circle 231⁄2 degrees from the equinoctial circle. +The Arctic Circle E, and the Antarctic Circle F, each circle 231⁄2 degrees from its respective pole at N and S. +The equinoctial colure G, passing through the north and south poles of the heavens at N and S, and through the equinoctial points in Aries and Libra, in the ecliptic. +The solstitial colure H, passing through the poles of the heavens, and through the solstitial points in Cancer and Capricorn, in the ecliptic. Each quarter of the equinoctial colure is divided into 90 degrees, from the equinoctial to the poles of the world, for showing the declination of the sun, moon, and stars; and each quarter of the solstitial colure, from the ecliptic as e and f, to its poles b and d, for showing the latitude of the stars. +In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which is fixed one end of the quadrantal wire. To the other end is a small sun Y, which is carried around the ecliptic B—B, by turning the nut. In the south pole of the ecliptic is a pin d, on which another quadrantal wire is situated, with a small moon Ζ upon it, which may be moved around by hand. A mechanism causes the moon to move in an orbit which crosses the ecliptic at an angle of 51⁄3 degrees, to opposite points called the lunar nodes, and allows for shifting these points backward in the ecliptic, as the lunar nodes shift in the heavens. +Within these circular rings is a small terrestrial globe I, fixed on an axis K, which extends from the north and south poles of the globe at n and s, to those of the celestial sphere at N and S. On this axis the flat celestial meridian L is fixed, which may be set directly over the meridian of any place on the globe, so as to keep over the same meridian upon it. This flat meridian is graduated the same way as the brass meridian of the common globe, and its use is much the same. +To this globe is fitted the movable horizon M, so as to turn upon the two strong wires proceeding from its east and west points to the globe and entering the globe at the opposite points off its equator, which is a movable brass ring set into the globe in a groove all around its equator. The globe may be turned by hand within this ring, so as to place any given meridian upon it, directly under the celestial meridian L. The horizon is divided into 360 degrees all around its outermost edge, within which are the points of the compass, for showing the amplitude of the sun and the moon, both in degrees and points. The celestial meridian L passes through two notches in the north and south points of the horizon, as in a common globe: if the globe is turned around, the horizon and meridian turn with it. At the south pole of the sphere is a circle of 25 hours, fixed to the rings. On the axis is an index which goes around that circle, if the globe is turned around its axis. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f1f4b2ab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Armillary sphere" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:22.848952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The globe assembly is supported on a pedestal N, and may be elevated or depressed upon the joint O, to any number of degrees from 0 to 90 by means of the arc P, which is fixed in the strong brass arm Q. The globe assembly slides in the upright piece R, in which is a screw at r, to fix it at any proper elevation. +In the box T are two wheels (as in Dr Long's sphere) and two pinions, whose axes come out at V and U; either of which may be turned by the small winch W. When the winch is put upon the axis V, and turned backward, the terrestrial globe, with its horizon and celestial meridian, keep at rest; and the whole sphere of circles turns round from east, by south, to west, carrying the sun Y, and moon Z, round the same way, and causing them to rise above and set below the horizon. But when the winch is put upon the axis U, and turned forward, the sphere with the sun and moon keep at rest; and the earth, with its horizon and meridian, turn round from horizon to the sun and moon, to which these bodies came when the earth kept at rest, and they were carried round it; showing that they rise and set in the same points of the horizon, and at the same times in the hour circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in the heaven. If the earthly globe be turned, the hour-index goes round its hour-circle; but if the sphere be turned, the hour-circle goes round below the index. +And so, by this construction, the machine is equally fitted to show either the real motion of the earth, or the apparent motion of the heavens. +To reset the sphere for use, one must first slacken the screw r in the upright stem R, and taking hold of the arm Q, move it up or down until the given degree of latitude for any place lies at the side of the stem R; then the axis of the sphere will be properly elevated, so as to stand parallel to the axis of the terrestrial globe, if the globe assembly is to be aligned to north and south by a small compass: once this is done, the user must count the latitude from the north pole, upon the celestial meridian L, down towards the north notch of the horizon, and set the horizon to that latitude. The user then must turn the nut b until the sun Y comes to the given day of the year in the ecliptic, and the sun will be at its proper place for that day. +To find the place of the moon's ascending node, and also the place of the moon, an ephemeris must be consulted to set them right accordingly. Lastly, the user must turn the winch W, until either the sun comes to the meridian L, or until the meridian comes to the sun (moving the sphere or globe at the user's discretion), and then set the hour-index to the XII, marked noon, the whole sphere will be reset. Then the user must turn the winch, and observe when the sun or moon rises and sets in the horizon. The hour-index will show the times thereof for the given day. + +== History == + +=== China === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..177373b51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Armillary sphere" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:22.848952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Throughout Chinese history, astronomers have created celestial globes (Chinese: 渾象; pinyin: húnxiàng) to assist the observation of the stars. The Chinese also used the armillary sphere in aiding calendrical computations and calculations. +According to Joseph Needham, the earliest development of the armillary sphere in China goes back to the astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De in the 4th century BC, as they were equipped with a primitive single-ring armillary instrument. This would have allowed them to measure the north polar distance (declination) a measurement that gave the position in a xiu (right ascension). Needham's 4th century BC dating, however, is rejected by British sinologist Christopher Cullen, who traces the beginnings of these devices to the 1st century BC. +During the Western Han dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD) additional developments made by the astronomers Luoxia Hong (落下閎), Xiangyu Wangren, and Geng Shouchang (耿壽昌) advanced the use of the armillary in its early stage of evolution. In 52 BC, it was the astronomer Geng Shouchang who introduced the first permanently fixed equatorial ring of the armillary sphere. In the subsequent Eastern Han dynasty (23–220 AD) period, the astronomers Fu An and Jia Kui added the ecliptic ring by 84 AD. With the famous statesman, astronomer, and inventor Zhang Heng (張衡, 78–139 AD), the sphere was totally complete in 125 AD, with horizon and meridian rings. The world's first water-powered celestial globe was created by Zhang Heng, who operated his armillary sphere by use of an inflow clepsydra clock. +Subsequent developments were made after the Han dynasty that improved the use of the armillary sphere. In 323 AD the Chinese astronomer Kong Ting was able to reorganize the arrangement of rings on the armillary sphere so that the ecliptic ring could be pegged on to the equator at any point desired. The Chinese astronomer and mathematician Li Chunfeng (李淳風) of the Tang dynasty created one in 633 AD with three spherical layers to calibrate multiple aspects of astronomical observations, calling them 'nests' (chhung). He was also responsible for proposing a plan of having a sighting tube mounted ecliptically in order for the better observation of celestial latitudes. However, it was the Tang Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and monk Yi Xing in the next century who would accomplish this addition to the model of the armillary sphere. Ecliptical mountings of this sort were found on the armillary instruments of Zhou Cong and Shu Yijian in 1050, as well as Shen Kuo's armillary sphere of the later 11th century, but after that point they were no longer employed on Chinese armillary instruments until the arrival of the European Jesuits. + +In 723 AD, Yi Xing (一行) and government official Liang Ling-zan (梁令瓚) combined Zhang Heng's water powered celestial globe with an escapement device. With drums hit every quarter-hour and bells rung automatically every full hour, the device was also a striking clock. The famous clock tower that the Chinese polymath Su Song built by 1094 during the Song dynasty would employ Yi Xing's escapement with waterwheel scoops filled by clepsydra drip, and powered a crowning armillary sphere, a central celestial globe, and mechanically operated manikins that would exit mechanically opened doors of the clock tower at specific times to ring bells and gongs to announce the time, or to hold plaques announcing special times of the day. There was also the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Being the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of astronomy, and improved the designs of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra clock, and sighting tube fixed to observe the pole star indefinitely. When Jamal al-Din of Bukhara was asked to set up an 'Islamic Astronomical Institution' in Khubilai Khan's new capital during the Yuan dynasty, he commissioned a number of astronomical instruments, including an armillary sphere. It was noted that "Chinese astronomers had been building [them] since at least 1092". + +=== Indian Subcontinent === + +The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention in the works of Āryabhata (476 CE). The Goladīpikā—a detailed treatise dealing with globes and the armillary sphere was composed between 1380 and 1460 CE by Parameśvara. On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India, Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere (gola-yantra) was based on equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably, the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so." + +=== Hellenistic world and ancient Rome === + +The Greek astronomer Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) credited Eratosthenes (276 – 194 BC) as the inventor of the armillary sphere. Names of this device in Greek include ἀστρολάβος astrolabos and κρικωτὴ σφαῖρα krikōtē sphaira "ringed sphere". The English name of this device comes ultimately from the Latin armilla (circle, bracelet), since it has a skeleton made of graduated metal circles linking the poles and representing the equator, the ecliptic, meridians and parallels. Usually a ball representing the Earth or, later, the Sun is placed in its center. It is used to demonstrate the motion of the stars around the Earth. Before the advent of the European telescope in the 17th century, the armillary sphere was the prime instrument of all astronomers in determining celestial positions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e8dedfd75 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Armillary sphere" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:22.848952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In its simplest form, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, the armilla is one of the most ancient of astronomical instruments. Slightly developed, it was crossed by another ring fixed in the plane of the meridian. The first was an equinoctial, the second a solstitial armilla. Shadows were used as indices of the sun's positions, in combinations with angular divisions. When several rings or circles were combined representing the great circles of the heavens, the instrument became an armillary sphere. +Armillary spheres were developed by the Hellenistic Greeks and were used as teaching tools already in the 3rd century BC. In larger and more precise forms they were also used as observational instruments. However, the fully developed armillary sphere with nine circles perhaps did not exist until the mid-2nd century AD, during the Roman Empire. Eratosthenes most probably used a solstitial armilla for measuring the obliquity of the ecliptic. Hipparchus probably used an armillary sphere of four rings. The Greco-Roman geographer and astronomer Ptolemy (c. 100 – c. 170 AD) describes his instrument, the astrolabon, in his Almagest. It consisted of at least three rings, with a graduated circle inside of which another could slide, carrying two small tubes positioned opposite each other and supported by a vertical plumb-line. + +=== Medieval Middle East and Europe === +Persian and Arab astronomers such as Ibrahim al-Fazari and Abbas Ibn Firnas continued to build and improve on armillary spheres. The spherical astrolabe, a variation of both the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, was likely invented during the Middle Ages in the Middle East. About 550 AD, Christian philosopher John Philoponus wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant treatise on the instrument. The earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates back to the Persian astronomer Nayrizi (fl. 892–902). Pope Sylvester II applied the use of sighting tubes with his armillary sphere in order to fix the position of the pole star and record measurements for the tropics and equator, and used armillary spheres as a teaching device. + +=== Korea === + +Chinese ideas of astronomy and astronomical instruments were introduced to Korea, where further advancements were also made. Chang Yŏngsil, a Korean inventor, was ordered by King Sejong the Great of Joseon to build an armillary sphere. The sphere, built in 1433 was named Honcheonui (혼천의,渾天儀). +The Honcheonsigye, an armillary sphere activated by a working clock mechanism was built by the Korean astronomer Song Iyeong in 1669. It is the only remaining astronomical clock from the Joseon dynasty. The mechanism of the armillary sphere succeeded that of Sejong era's armillary sphere (Honŭi 渾儀, 1435) and celestial sphere (Honsang 渾象, 1435), and the Jade Clepsydra (Ongnu 玉漏, 1438)'s sun-carriage apparatus. Such mechanisms are similar to Ch'oe Yu-ji (崔攸之, 1603~1673)'s armillary sphere(1657). The structure of time going train and the mechanism of striking-release in the part of clock is influenced by the crown escapement which has been developed from 14th century, and is applied to gear system which had been improved until the middle of 17th century in Western-style clockwork. In particular, timing device of Song I-yŏng's Armillary Clock adopts the early 17th century pendulum clock system which could remarkably improve the accuracy of a clock. + +=== Renaissance === +Further advances in this instrument were made by Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), who constructed three large armillary spheres which he used for highly precise measurements of the positions of the stars and planets. They were described in his Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica. +Armillary spheres were among the first complex mechanical devices. Their development led to many improvements in techniques and design of all mechanical devices. Renaissance scientists and public figures often had their portraits painted showing them with one hand on an armillary sphere, which represented the zenith of wisdom and knowledge. +The armillary sphere survives as useful for teaching, and may be described as a skeleton celestial globe, the series of rings representing the great circles of the heavens, and revolving on an axis within a horizon. With the earth as center such a sphere is known as Ptolemaic; with the sun as center, as Copernican. + +A representation of an armillary sphere is present in the modern flag of Portugal and has been a national symbol since the reign of Manuel I. + +== Paralympic Games == +An artwork-based model of an Armillary sphere has been used since the March 1, 2014 to light the Paralympic heritage flame at Stoke Mandeville Stadium, United Kingdom. The sphere includes a wheelchair that the user can rotate to spark the flame as part of a ceremony to celebrate the past, present and future of the Paralympic Movement in the UK. The Armillary Sphere was created by artist Jon Bausor and will be used for future Heritage Flame events. The flame in the first-ever ceremony was lit by London 2012 gold medallist Hannah Cockroft. + +== Heraldry and vexillology == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a0635d9c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Armillary sphere" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:22.848952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The armillary sphere is commonly used in heraldry and vexillology, being mainly known as a symbol associated with Portugal, the Portuguese Empire and the Portuguese discoveries. +In the end of the 15th century, the armillary sphere became the personal heraldic badge of the future King Manuel I of Portugal, when he was still a Prince. The intense use of this badge in documents, monuments, flags and other supports, during the reign of Manuel I, transformed the armillary sphere from a simple personal symbol to a national one that represented the Kingdom of Portugal and in particular its Overseas Empire. As a national symbol, the armillary sphere continued in use after the death of Manuel I. +In the 17th century, it became associated with the Portuguese dominion of Brazil. In 1815, when Brazil gained the status of kingdom united with that of Portugal, its coat of arms was formalized as a golden armillary sphere in a blue field. Representing Brazil, the armillary sphere became also present in the arms and the flag of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. When Brazil became independent as an empire in 1822, the armillary sphere continued to be present in its national arms and in its national flag. The celestial sphere of the present Flag of Brazil replaced the armillary sphere in 1889. +The armillary sphere was reintroduced in the national arms and in the national Flag of Portugal in 1911. + +== See also == + +== References == + +=== Sources === +Encyclopædia Britannica (1771), "Geography". +Darlington, Oscar G. "Gerbert, the Teacher," The American Historical Review (Volume 52, Number 3, 1947): 456–476. +Kern, Ralf: Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Vom 15. – 19. Jahrhundert. Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König 2010, ISBN 978-3-86560-772-0 +Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. +Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing +Williams, Henry Smith (2004). A History Of Science. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4191-0163-3. + +== External links == + +Starry Messenger Archived 2014-10-12 at the Wayback Machine +Armillary Spheres and Teaching Astronomy | Whipple Museum +AstroMedia* Verlag in Germany offers a cardboard construction kit for an armillary sphere ("Das Kleine Tischplanetarium") \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatic_needles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatic_needles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3347cfa8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatic_needles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Astatic needles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatic_needles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:24.009462+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An astatic system comprises two equal and parallel magnetic needles, but with their polarities reversed. This arrangement protects the system from the influence of the terrestrial magnetic field, as the magnetisms of the two needles cancel each other out. Because of this phenomenon, astatic needles were often used in galvanometers. + + +== References == +"Museo Galileo - object description". +"Static Needles - Joseph Henry Project - Princeton University". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4965db091 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Astrarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:25.196479+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An astrarium, also called a planetarium, is a medieval astronomical clock made in the 14th century by Italian engineer and astronomer Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio. The Astrarium was modeled after the Solar System and, in addition to counting time and representing calendar dates and holidays, showed how the planets moved around the celestial sphere in one timepiece. This was its main task, in comparison with the astronomical clock, the main task of which is the actual reading of time. A complex mechanism, it combined the functions of a modern planetarium, clock, and calendar into a singular constructive device. Devices that perform this function were known to have been created prior to the design of Dondi, though relatively little is known about them. It is occasionally erroneously claimed by the details of some sources that the Astrarium was the first mechanical device showing the movements of the planets. + + +== History == + + +=== Greek and Roman World === +The first astraria were mechanical devices. Archimedes is said to have used a primitive version that could predict the positions of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets. On May 17, 1902, an archaeologist named Valerios Stais discovered that a lump of oxidated material, which had been recovered from a shipwreck near the Greek island of Antikythera, held within it a mechanism with cogwheels. This mechanism, known as the Antikythera mechanism, was recently redated to end of the 2nd century BCE. Extensive study of the fragments, using X-rays, has revealed enough details (gears, pinions, crank) to enable researchers to build partial replicas of the original device. Engraved on the major gears are the names of the planets, which leaves little doubt as to the intended use of the mechanism. +By the collapse of the Roman Empire, the know-how and science behind this piece of clockwork was lost. + + +=== Middle Ages and Renaissance === +According to historians Bedini and Maddison, the earliest astrarium clock with an "almost complete description and incontestable documentation" to have survived is the astrarium completed in 1364 by Giovanni de' Dondi (1318–1388), a scholar and physician of the Middle Ages. The original clock, consisting of 107 wheels and pinions, has been lost, perhaps during the sacking of Mantua in 1630, but de' Dondi left detailed descriptions, which have survived, enabling a reconstruction of the clock. It displays the mean time, sidereal (or star) time and the motions of the Sun, Moon and the five then-known planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. It was conceived according to a Ptolemaic conception of the Solar System. De' Dondi was inspired by his father Jacopo who designed the astronomical clock in the Piazzi dei Signori, Padua, in 1344 – one of the first of its type. +In later ages, more astraria were built. A famous example is the Eise Eisinga Planetarium, built in 1774 by Eise Eisinga from Dronrijp, Friesland, the Netherlands. It displayed all the planets and was fixed to the ceiling in a house in Franeker, where it can still be visited. +In modern times, the astrarium has grown into a tourist attraction as a commercially exploited planetarium-showing in IMAX theaters, with such presentations as The History of the Universe, as well as other astronomical phenomena. + + +== See also == +Astronomical clock +Orrery +Planetarium + + +== References == + + +== Literature == +Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio – "Tractatus astarii" + + +== External links == +Annosphere An electro-mechanical model of the Earth/Sun relationship. +Science and Society Picture Library: - a picture of De Dondi’s "Astrarium", the world’s first astronomical clock, 1364. +de Dondi's Astrarium Hi-Tech, 14th Century style +Het Eise Eisinga Planetarium +Solar tempometer An astrarium clock running to the Sun. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..20833a94c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Astrolabe" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:26.368952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An astrolabe (Ancient Greek: ἀστρολάβος, romanized: astrolábos, lit. 'star-taker'; Arabic: ٱلأَسْطُرلاب, romanized: al-Asṭurlāb; Persian: ستاره‌یاب, romanized: Setāreyāb) is an astronomical instrument dating to ancient times. It serves as a star chart and physical model of the visible half-dome of the sky. Its various functions also make it an elaborate inclinometer and an analog calculation device capable of working out several kinds of problems in astronomy. In its simplest form it is a metal disc with a pattern of wires, cutouts, and perforations that allows a user to calculate astronomical positions precisely. It is able to measure the altitude above the horizon of a celestial body, day or night; it can be used to identify stars or planets, to determine local latitude given local time (and vice versa), to survey, or to triangulate. It was used in classical antiquity, the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Golden Age, the European Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery for all these purposes. +The astrolabe, which is a precursor to the sextant, +is effective for determining latitude on land or calm seas. Although it is less reliable on the heaving deck of a ship in rough seas, the mariner's astrolabe was developed to solve that problem. + +== Applications == + +The 10th century astronomer ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī wrote a massive text of 386 chapters on the astrolabe, which reportedly described more than 1,000 applications for the astrolabe's various functions. +These ranged from the astrological, the astronomical and the religious, to navigation, seasonal and daily time-keeping, and tide tables. At the time of their use, astrology was widely considered as much of a serious science as astronomy, and study of the two went hand-in-hand. The astronomical interest varied between folk astronomy (of the pre-Islamic tradition in Arabia) which was concerned with celestial and seasonal observations, and mathematical astronomy, which would inform intellectual practices and precise calculations based on astronomical observations. In regard to the astrolabe's religious function, the demands of Islamic prayer times were to be astronomically determined to ensure precise daily timings, and the qibla, the direction of Mecca towards which Muslims must pray, could also be determined by this device. In addition to this, the lunar calendar that was informed by the calculations of the astrolabe was of great significance to the religion of Islam, given that it determines the dates of important religious observances such as Ramadan. + +== Etymology == +The Oxford English Dictionary gives the translation "star-taker" for the English word astrolabe and traces it through medieval Latin to the Greek word ἀστρολάβος: astrolábos, +from ἄστρον: astron "star", and λαμβάνειν: lambanein "to take". +In the medieval Islamic world the Arabic word al-asturlāb (i.e., astrolabe) was given various etymologies. In Arabic texts, the word is translated as ākhidhu al-nujūm (Arabic: آخِذُ ٱلنُّجُومْ, lit. 'star-taker') – a direct translation of the Greek word. +Al-Biruni quotes and criticises medieval scientist Hamza al-Isfahani, who stated: + +"asturlab is an Arabisation of this Persian phrase" (sitara yab, meaning "taker of the stars"). +In medieval Islamic sources, there is also a folk etymology of the word as "lines of lab", where "Lab" refers to a certain son of Idris (Enoch). This etymology is mentioned by a 10th century scientist named al-Qummi but rejected by al-Khwarizmi. + +== History == + +=== Ancient era === +An astrolabe is essentially a plane (two-dimensional) version of an armillary sphere, which had already been invented in the Hellenistic period and had probably been used by Hipparchus to produce his star catalogue. Theon of Alexandria (c. 335–405) wrote a detailed treatise on the astrolabe. The invention of the plane astrolabe is sometimes wrongly attributed to Theon's daughter Hypatia (born c. 350–370; died 415 ce), +but it is known to have been used much earlier. +The misattribution comes from a misinterpretation of a statement in a letter written by Hypatia's pupil Synesius (c. 373–414), +which mentions that Hypatia had taught him how to construct a plane astrolabe, but does not say that she invented it. +Lewis argues that Ptolemy used an astrolabe to make the astronomical observations recorded in the Tetrabiblos. However, Emilie Savage-Smith notes + +"there is no convincing evidence that Ptolemy or any of his predecessors knew about the planispheric astrolabe". + +In chapter 5.1 of the Almagest, Ptolemy describes the construction of an armillary sphere, and it is usually assumed that this was the instrument he used. +Astrolabes continued to be used in the Byzantine Empire. Christian philosopher John Philoponus wrote a treatise (c. 550) on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant treatise on the instrument. +Mesopotamian bishop Severus Sebokht also wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in the Syriac language during the mid-7th century. +Sebokht refers to the astrolabe as being made of brass in the introduction of his treatise, indicating that metal astrolabes were known in the Christian East well before they were developed in the Islamic world or in the Latin West. + +=== Medieval era === +Astrolabes were further developed in the medieval Islamic world, where Muslim astronomers introduced angular scales to the design, adding circles indicating azimuths on the horizon. It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and as a way of finding the Qibla, the direction of Mecca. Eighth-century mathematician Muhammad al-Fazari is the first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Islamic world. The earliest Arabic treatise on astrolabes was composed sometime around 815 CE. +The mathematical background was established by Muslim astronomer Albatenius in his treatise Kitab az-Zij (c. 920 ce), which was translated into Latin by Plato Tiburtinus (De Motu Stellarum). The earliest surviving astrolabe is dated AH 315 (927–928 ce). In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers (salat). In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, prayer, Salat, Qibla, etc. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..73035d972 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Astrolabe" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:26.368952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The spherical astrolabe was a variation of both the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, invented during the Middle Ages by astronomers and inventors in the Islamic world. +The earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates to Al-Nayrizi (fl. 892–902). In the 12th century, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī invented the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which was + +"a simple wooden rod with graduated markings, but without sights. It was furnished with a plumb line and a double chord for making angular measurements and bore a perforated pointer". The geared mechanical astrolabe was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235. +The first known metal astrolabe in Western Europe is the Destombes astrolabe made from brass in the eleventh century in Portugal. Metal astrolabes avoided the warping that large wooden ones were prone to, allowing the construction of larger and therefore more accurate instruments. Metal astrolabes were heavier than wooden instruments of the same size, making it difficult to use them in navigation. + +Herman Contractus of Reichenau Abbey, examined the use of the astrolabe in Mensura Astrolai during the 11th century. +Peter of Maricourt wrote a treatise on the construction and use of a universal astrolabe in the last half of the 13th century entitled Nova compositio astrolabii particularis. Universal astrolabes can be found at the History of Science Museum, Oxford. David A. King, historian of Islamic instrumentation, describes the universal astrolobe designed by Ibn al-Sarraj of Aleppo (a.k.a. Ahmad bin Abi Bakr; fl. 1328) as "the most sophisticated astronomical instrument from the entire Medieval and Renaissance periods". +English author Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400) compiled A Treatise on the Astrolabe for his son, mainly based on a work by Messahalla or Ibn al-Saffar. +The same source was translated by French astronomer and astrologer Pélerin de Prusse and others. The first printed book on the astrolabe was Composition and Use of Astrolabe by Christian of Prachatice, also using Messahalla, but relatively original. +A simplified astrolabe, known as a balesilha, was used by sailors to get an accurate reading of latitude while at sea. The use of the balesilha was promoted by Prince Henry (1394–1460) while navigating for Portugal. + +The astrolabe was almost certainly first brought north of the Pyrenees by Gerbert of Aurillac (future Pope Sylvester II), where it was integrated into the quadrivium at the school in Reims, France, sometime before the turn of the 11th century. In the 15th century, French instrument maker Jean Fusoris (c. 1365–1436) also started remaking and selling astrolabes in his shop in Paris, along with portable sundials and other popular scientific devices of the day. Thirteen of his astrolabes survive to this day. One more special example of craftsmanship in early 15th-century Europe is the astrolabe designed by Antonius de Pacento and made by Dominicus de Lanzano, dated 1420. +In the 16th century, Johannes Stöffler published Elucidatio fabricae ususque astrolabii, a manual of the construction and use of the astrolabe. Four identical 16th century astrolabes made by Georg Hartmann provide some of the earliest evidence for batch production by division of labor. +Greek painter Ieremias Palladas incorporated a sophisticated astrolabe in his 1612 painting depicting Catherine of Alexandria. The painting, entitled Catherine of Alexandria, in addition to the saint, showed a device labelled the 'system of the universe' (Σύστημα τοῦ Παντός). The device featured the classical planets with their Greek names: Helios (Sun), Selene (Moon), Hermes (Mercury), Aphrodite (Venus), Ares (Mars), Zeus (Jupiter), and Cronos (Saturn). The depicted device also had celestial spheres, following the Ptolemaic model, and Earth was shown as a blue sphere with circles of geographic coordinates. A complicated line representing the axis of the Earth covered the entire instrument. + +=== Sanskrit works === + +==== Yantrarāja ==== + +In 1370, the first Indian treatise on the astrolabe was written by the Jain astronomer Mahendra Suri, titled Yantrarāja. With the support and patronage of Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Mahendra Sūri composed the first ever Sanskrit manual on astrolabes. It was Sūri who coined the Sanskrit name "Yantrarāja" ("the king of astronomical instruments") for the astrolabe and he also titled his manual on astrolabes as Yantrarāja. Sūri composed the manual in 1370 CE. Mahendra Sūri's student Malayendu Sūri composed a commentary on Yantrarāja in 1382. Two other commentaries on Yantrarāja are known, one by Gopirāja written in 1540 and other by Yajñeśvara in 1842. +The Yantrarāja manual in 128 verses is divided into five chapters. The first chapter Gaṇitādhyāya discusses the theory behind the astrolabe. The second chapter Yantraghatanādhyāya is devoted to descriptions of the various components of the astrolabe. The third chapter Yantraracanādhyāya describes the details of the construction of the astrolabe. The fourth chapter Yantrasodhanādhyāya discusses method for ascertaining whether the astrolabe has been properly constructed. It is in the fifth and final chapter Yantravicāraṇādhyāya one can see descriptions on how to use the instrument for observational and computational purposes. This chapter also dwells on the different types of astronomical and trigonometrical problems that can be solved using the astrolabe. +While Mahendra Sūri's manual is in 128 verses and contains no data in the form of tables, Malayendu Sūri's commentary is interspersed with neatly prepared tables. + +==== Other Sanskrit works on astrolabe ==== +Over the centuries since the publication of Mahendra Sūri's Yantrarāja in 1370, several other Sanskrit manuals on the astrolabe have been composed. These include the following: + +Yantra-rāja-adhikāra (Chapter 1 of Yantrakiraṇāvalī) by Padmanābha in 1423 +Turya-yantra-prakāśa by Bhūdhara in 1572 +Yantrarāja-vicāra-vimśādhyāyī by Nayanasukhopādhyāya in 1730 +Yantrarāja-racanā by Savāī Jaya Siṃha (1688 - 1743) +yantrarāja-kalpa by Mathurānātha Śukla (1782) + +=== Astrolabes and clocks === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bed87ac63 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Astrolabe" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:26.368952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mechanical astronomical clocks were initially influenced by the astrolabe; they could be seen in many ways as clockwork astrolabes designed to produce a continual display of the current position of the sun, stars, and planets. For example, Richard of Wallingford's clock (c. 1330) consisted essentially of a star map rotating behind a fixed rete, similar to that of an astrolabe. +Many astronomical clocks use an astrolabe-style display, such as the famous clock at Prague, adopting a stereographic projection (see below) of the ecliptic plane. In recent times, astrolabe watches have become popular. For example, Swiss watchmaker Ludwig Oechslin designed and built an astrolabe wristwatch in conjunction with Ulysse Nardin in 1985. Dutch watchmaker Christaan van der Klauuw also manufactures astrolabe watches today. + +== Construction == +An astrolabe consists of a disk with a wide, raised rim, called the mater (mother), which is deep enough to hold one or more flat plates called tympans, or climates. A tympan is made for a specific latitude and is engraved with a stereographic projection of circles denoting azimuth and altitude and representing the portion of the celestial sphere above the local horizon. The rim of the mater is typically graduated into hours of time, degrees of arc, or both. +Above the mater and tympan, the rete, a framework bearing a projection of the ecliptic plane and several pointers indicating the positions of the brightest stars, is free to rotate. These pointers are often just simple points, but depending on the skill of the craftsman can be very elaborate and artistic. There are examples of astrolabes with artistic pointers in the shape of balls, stars, snakes, hands, dogs' heads, and leaves, among others. The names of the indicated stars were often engraved on the pointers in Arabic or Latin. Some astrolabes have a narrow rule or label which rotates over the rete, and may be marked with a scale of declinations. +The rete, representing the sky, functions as a star chart. When it is rotated, the stars and the ecliptic move over the projection of the coordinates on the tympan. One complete rotation corresponds to the passage of a day. The astrolabe is, therefore, a predecessor of the modern planisphere. +On the back of the mater, there is often engraved a number of scales that are useful in the astrolabe's various applications. These vary from designer to designer, but might include curves for time conversions, a calendar for converting the day of the month to the sun's position on the ecliptic, trigonometric scales, and graduation of 360 degrees around the back edge. The alidade is attached to the back face. An alidade can be seen in the lower right illustration of the Persian astrolabe above. When the astrolabe is held vertically, the alidade can be rotated and the sun or a star sighted along its length, so that its altitude in degrees can be read ("taken") from the graduated edge of the astrolabe; hence the word's Greek roots: "astron" (ἄστρον) = star + "lab-" (λαβ-) = to take. The alidade had vertical and horizontal cross-hairs which plots locations on an azimuthal ring called an almucantar (altitude-distance circle). +An arm called a radius connects from the center of the astrolabe to the optical axis which is parallel with another arm also called a radius. The other radius contains graduations of altitude and distance measurements. +A shadow square also appears on the back of some astrolabes, developed by Muslim astrologists in the 9th Century, whereas devices of the Ancient Greek tradition featured only altitude scales on the back of the devices. This was used to convert shadow lengths and the altitude of the sun, the uses of which were various from surveying to measuring inaccessible heights. +Devices were usually signed by their maker with an inscription appearing on the back of the astrolabe, and if there was a patron of the object, their name would appear inscribed on the front, or in some cases, the name of the reigning sultan or the teacher of the astrolabist has also been found to appear inscribed in this place. The date of the astrolabe's construction was often also signed. The inscriptions on astrolabes also allowed historians to conclude that astronomers tended to make their own astrolabes, but that many were also made to order and kept in stock to sell, suggesting there was some contemporary market for the devices. + +== Mathematical basis == +The construction and design of astrolabes are based on the application of the stereographic projection of the celestial sphere. The point from which the projection is usually made is the South Pole. The plane onto which the projection is made is that of the Equator. + +=== Designing a tympanum through stereographic projection === + +The tympanum captures the celestial coordinate axes upon which the rete will rotate. It is the component that will enable the precise determination of a star's position at a specific time of day and year. +Therefore, it should project: + +The zenith, which will vary depending on the latitude of the astrolabe user. +The horizon line and almucantar or circles parallel to the horizon, which will allow for the determination of a celestial body's altitude (from the horizon to the zenith). +The celestial meridian (north-south meridian, passing through the zenith) and secondary meridians (circles intersecting the north-south meridian at the zenith), which will enable the measurement of azimuth for a celestial body. +The three main circles of latitude (Capricorn, Equator, and Cancer) to determine the exact moments of solstices and equinoxes throughout the year. + +==== The tropics and the equator define the tympanum ==== + +On the right side of the image above: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ee74601ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Astrolabe" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:26.368952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + The blue sphere represents the celestial sphere. + The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the North Star). + The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location). + The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the projection pole. + The celestial equatorial plane serves as the projection plane. +Three parallel circles represent the projection on the celestial sphere of Earth's main circles of latitude: + In orange, the celestial Tropic of Cancer. + In purple, the celestial equator. + In green, the celestial Tropic of Capricorn. +When projecting onto the celestial equatorial plane, three concentric circles correspond to the celestial sphere's three circles of latitude (left side of the image). The largest of these, the projection on the celestial equatorial plane of the celestial Tropic of Capricorn, defines the size of the astrolabe's tympanum. The center of the tympanum (and the center of the three circles) is actually the north-south axis around which Earth rotates, and therefore, the rete of the astrolabe will rotate around this point as the hours of the day pass (due to Earth's rotational motion). +The three concentric circles on the tympanum are useful for determining the exact moments of solstices and equinoxes throughout the year: if the sun's altitude at noon on the rete is known and coincides with the outer circle of the tympanum (Tropic of Capricorn), it signifies the winter solstice (the sun will be at the zenith for an observer at the Tropic of Capricorn, meaning summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere). If, on the other hand, its altitude coincides with the inner circle (Tropic of Cancer), it indicates the summer solstice. If its altitude is on the middle circle (equator), it corresponds to one of the two equinoxes. + +==== The horizon and the measurement of altitude ==== + +On the right side of the image above: + + The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the North Star). + The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location). + The black arrow represents the zenith direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's latitude). + The two black circles represent the horizon surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the celestial sphere visible to the observer, and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane. + The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the projection pole. + The celestial equatorial plane serves as the projection plane. +When projecting the horizon onto the celestial equatorial plane, it transforms into an ellipse upward-shifted relatively to the center of the tympanum (both the observer and the projection of the north-south axis). This implies that a portion of the celestial sphere will fall outside the outer circle of the tympanum (the projection of the celestial Tropic of Capricorn) and, therefore, won't be represented. + +Additionally, when drawing circles parallel to the horizon up to the zenith (almucantar), and projecting them on the celestial equatorial plane, as in the image above, a grid of consecutive ellipses is constructed, allowing for the determination of a star's altitude when its rete overlaps with the designed tympanum. + +==== The meridians and the measurement of azimuth ==== + +On the right side of the image above: + + The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the North Star). + The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location). + The black arrow represents the zenith direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's latitude). + The two black circles represent the horizon surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the celestial sphere visible to the observer, and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane. + The five red dots represent the zenith, the nadir (the point on the celestial sphere opposite the zenith with respect to the observer), their projections on the celestial equatorial plane, and the center (with no physical meaning attached) of the circle obtained by projecting the secondary meridian (see below) on the celestial equatorial plane. + The orange circle represents the celestial meridian (or meridian that goes, for the observer, from the north of the horizon to the south of the horizon passing through the zenith). + The two red circles represent a secondary meridian with an azimuth of 40° East relative to the observer's horizon (which, like all secondary meridians, intersects the principal meridian at the zenith and nadir), and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane. + The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the projection pole. + The celestial equatorial plane serves as the projection plane. +When projecting the celestial meridian, it results in a straight line that overlaps with the vertical axis of the tympanum, where the zenith and nadir are located. However, when projecting the 40° E meridian, another circle is obtained that passes through both the zenith and nadir projections, so its center is located on the perpendicular bisection of the segment connecting both points. Indeed, the projection of the celestial meridian can be considered as a circle with an infinite radius (a straight line) whose center is on this bisection and at an infinite distance from these two points. +If successive meridians that divide the celestial sphere into equal sectors (like "orange slices" radiating from the zenith) are projected, a family of curves passing through the zenith projection on the tympanum is obtained. These curves, once overlaid with the rete containing the major stars, allow for determining the azimuth of a star located on the rete and rotated for a specific time of day. + +== See also == + +== Footnotes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3aab2cc45 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Astrolabe" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:26.368952+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Bibliography == +Evans, James (1998), The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-509539-1 +Stöffler, Johannes (2007) [First published 1513], Stoeffler's Elucidatio – The Construction and Use of the Astrolabe [Elucidatio Fabricae Ususque Astrolabii], translated by Gunella, Alessandro; Lamprey, John, John Lamprey, ISBN 978-1-4243-3502-2 +King, D. A. (1981), "The Origin of the Astrolabe According to the Medieval Islamic Sources", Journal for the History of Arabic Science, 5: 43–83 +King, Henry (1978), Geared to the Stars: the Evolution of Planetariums, Orreries, and Astronomical Clocks, University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-2312-4 +Krebs, Robert E.; Krebs, Carolyn A. (2003), Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World, Greenwood Press, ISBN 978-0-313-31342-4 +Laird, Edgar (1997), Carol Poster and Richard Utz (ed.), "Astrolabes and the Construction of Time in the Late Middle Ages", Constructions of Time in the Late Middle Ages, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press: 51–69 +Laird, Edgar; Fischer, Robert, eds. (1995), "Critical edition of Pélerin de Prusse on the Astrolabe (translation of Practique de Astralabe)", Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, Binghamton, New York, ISBN 0-86698-132-2{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link) +Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-511-48303-5 +Morrison, James E. (2007), The Astrolabe, Janus, ISBN 978-0-939320-30-1 +Neugebauer, Otto E. (1975), A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-61912-0 +North, John David (2005), God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-85285-451-5 + +== Further reading == +For a scanned copy of a manuscript of the treatise Yantrarāja published by S. Dvivedi and Lattara Sarma, Benaras, 1883: Yantraraja (Internet Archive) (Retrieved on 21 December 2023.) +For a detailed description of an astrolabe constructed in India in 1664 CE and now preserved in Edinburgh Museum: Sreemula Rajeswara Sarma (July 2006). Yantraraja at Edinburgh: On a Sanskrit Astrolabe made for Manirama in ad 1644. Edinburgh: Organising Committee of 13th World Sanskrit Conference. Retrieved 21 December 2023. (In proceedings of the 13th World Sanskrit Conference, held in Edinburgh, 10–14 July 2006, pages 77 – 110) +Yukio Ohashi (1997). "Early History of the Astrolabe in India" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 32 (3): 199–295. Retrieved 21 December 2023. This paper includes the full text and English translation of a treatise titled Yantrarāja-adhikāra composed by Padmanābha in 1423 CE. +Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma (2008). The Archaic and the Exotic: Studies in the History of Indian Astronomical Instruments. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 978-8173045714. Part III of the book containing five articles on astrolabe provides an exhaustive account of the history, construction, distribution and descriptions of the astrolabes in India. +For a critical assessment of the correctness or otherwise of the statements in Yantrarāja: Kim Plofker (February 2000). "The astrolabe and spherical trigonometry in medieval India". Journal for the History of Astronomy: 37–54. Retrieved 21 December 2023. + +== External links == + +Interactive digital astrolabe by Alex Boxer +A digital astrolabe (HTML5 and javascript) +Astrolabe Tech Made ... Not So Easy +Paper astrolabe generator, from the ESO +Printable astrolabe for every 10° of latitude up to 60°, by John Krieger, Lyncean Education (2023) +"Hello World!" for the Astrolabe: The First Computer Video of Howard Covitz's Presentation at Ignite Phoenix, June 2009. Slides for Presentation Licensed as Creative Commons by-nc-nd. +Video of Tom Wujec demonstrating an astrolabe. Taken at TEDGlobal 2009. Includes clickable transcript. Licensed as Creative Commons by-nc-nd. +Archive of James E. Morrison's extensive website on Astrolabes +Fully illustrated online catalogue of world's largest collection of astrolabes +Mobile astrolabe and horologium +Medieval equal hour horary quadrant +A Beginner's Guide to Basic Construction and Use of the Astrolabe (using ruler, protractor and compasses) (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2015, retrieved 26 October 2018 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d42603f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical clock" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:27.581434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An astronomical clock, horologium, or orloj is a clock with special mechanisms and dials to display astronomical information, such as the relative positions of the Sun, Moon, zodiacal constellations, and major planets. + +== Definition == + +The term is loosely used to refer to any clock that shows, in addition to the time of day, astronomical information. This could include the location of the Sun and Moon in the sky, the age and Lunar phases, the position of the Sun on the ecliptic and the current zodiac sign, the sidereal time, and other astronomical data such as the Moon's nodes for indicating eclipses), or a rotating star map. The term should not be confused with an astronomical regulator, a high precision but otherwise ordinary pendulum clock used in observatories. +Astronomical clocks usually represent the Solar System using the geocentric model. The center of the dial is often marked with a disc or sphere representing the Earth, located at the center of the Solar System. The Sun is often represented by a golden sphere (as it initially appeared in the Antikythera mechanism, back in the 2nd century BC), shown rotating around the Earth once a day around a 24-hour analog dial. This view accorded both with the daily experience and with the philosophical world view of pre-Copernican Europe. + +== History == + +The Antikythera mechanism is the oldest known analog computer and a precursor to astronomical clocks. A complex arrangement of multiple gears and gear trains could perform functions such as determining the position of the sun, moon and planets, predict eclipses and other astronomical phenomena and tracking the dates of Olympic Games. Research in 2011 and 2012 led an expert group of researchers to posit that European astronomical clocks are descended from the technology of the Antikythera mechanism. +In the 11th century, the Song dynasty Chinese horologist, mechanical engineer, and astronomer Su Song created a water-driven astronomical clock for his clock-tower of Kaifeng City. Su Song is noted for having incorporated an escapement mechanism and the earliest known endless power-transmitting chain drive for his clock-tower and armillary sphere to function. Contemporary Muslim astronomers and engineers also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories, such as the astrolabic clock by Ibn al-Shatir in the early 14th century. + +The early development of mechanical clocks in Europe is not fully understood, but there is general agreement that by 1300–1330 there existed mechanical clocks (powered by weights rather than by water and using an escapement) which were intended for two main purposes: for signalling and notification (e.g. the timing of services and public events), and for modelling the solar system. The latter is an inevitable development because the astrolabe was used both by astronomers and astrologers, and it was natural to apply a clockwork drive to the rotating plate to produce a working model of the solar system. American historian Lynn White Jr. of Princeton University wrote: Most of the first clocks were not so many chronometers as exhibitions of the pattern of the cosmos … Clearly, the origins of the mechanical clock lie in a complex realm of monumental planetaria, equatoria, and astrolabes. +The astronomical clocks developed by the English mathematician and cleric Richard of Wallingford in St Albans during the 1330s, and by medieval Italian physician and astronomer Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio in Padua between 1348 and 1364 are masterpieces of their type. They no longer exist, but detailed descriptions of their design and construction survive, and modern reproductions have been made. Wallingford's clock may have shown the sun, moon (age, phase, and node), stars and planets, and had, in addition, a wheel of fortune and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge. De Dondi's clock was a seven-faced construction with 107 moving parts, showing the positions of the sun, moon, and five planets, as well as religious feast days. +Both these clocks, and others like them, were probably less accurate than their designers would have wished. The gear ratios may have been exquisitely calculated, but their manufacture was somewhat beyond the mechanical abilities of the time, and they never worked reliably. Furthermore, in contrast to the intricate advanced wheelwork, the timekeeping mechanism in nearly all these clocks until the 16th century was the simple verge and foliot escapement, which had errors of at least half an hour a day. +Astronomical clocks were built as demonstration or exhibition pieces, to impress as much as to educate or inform. The challenge of building these masterpieces meant that clockmakers would continue to produce them, to demonstrate their technical skill and their patrons' wealth. The philosophical message of an ordered, heavenly-ordained universe, which accorded with the Gothic-era view of the world, helps explain their popularity. +The growing interest in astronomy during the 18th century revived interest in astronomical clocks, less for the philosophical message, more for the accurate astronomical information that pendulum-regulated clocks could display. + +== Generic description == +Although each astronomical clock is different, they share some common features. + +=== Time of day === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2357ad4b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical clock" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:27.581434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Most astronomical clocks have a 24-hour analog dial around the outside edge, numbered from I to XII then from I to XII again. The current time is indicated by a golden ball or a picture of the sun at the end of a pointer. Local noon is usually at the top of the dial, and midnight at the bottom. Minute hands are rarely used. +The Sun indicator or hand gives an approximate indication of both the Sun's azimuth and altitude. For azimuth (bearing from the north), the top of the dial indicates South, and the two VI points of the dial East and West. For altitude, the top is the zenith and the two VI and VI points define the horizon. (This is for the astronomical clocks designed for use in the northern hemisphere.) This interpretation is most accurate at the equinoxes, of course. +If XII is not at the top of the dial, or if the numbers are Arabic rather than Roman, then the time may be shown in Italian hours (also called Bohemian, or Old Czech, hours). In this system, 1 o'clock occurs at sunset, and counting continues through the night and into the next afternoon, reaching 24 an hour before sunset. +In the photograph of the Prague clock shown at the top of the article, the time indicated by the Sun hand is about 9am (IX in Roman numerals), or about the 13th hour (Italian time in Arabic numerals). + +=== Calendar and zodiac === +The year is usually represented by the 12 signs of the zodiac, arranged either as a concentric circle inside the 24-hour dial, or drawn onto a displaced smaller circle, which is a projection of the ecliptic, the path of the Sun and planets through the sky, and the plane of the Earth's orbit. +The ecliptic plane is projected onto the face of the clock, and, because of the Earth's tilted angle of rotation relative to its orbital plane, it is displaced from the center and appears to be distorted. The projection point for the stereographic projection is the North pole; on astrolabes the South pole is more common. +The ecliptic dial makes one complete revolution in 23 hours 56 minutes (a sidereal day), and will therefore gradually get out of phase with the hour hand, drifting slowly further apart during the year. +To find the date, find the place where the hour hand or Sun disk intersects the ecliptic dial: this indicates the current star sign, the sun's current location on the ecliptic. The intersection point slowly moves around the ecliptic dial during the year, as the Sun moves out of one astrological sign into another. +In the diagram showing the clock face on the right, the Sun's disk has recently moved into Aries (the stylized ram's horns), having left Pisces. The date is therefore late March or early April. +If the zodiac signs run around inside the hour hands, either this ring rotates to align itself with the hour hand, or there's another hand, revolving once per year, which points to the Sun's current zodiac sign. + +=== Moon === +A dial or ring indicating the numbers 1 to 29 or 30 indicates the moon's age: a new moon is 0, waxes become full around day 15, and then wanes up to 29 or 30. The phase is sometimes shown by a rotating globe or black hemisphere, or a window that reveals part of a wavy black shape beneath. + +=== Hour lines === +Unequal hours were the result of dividing up the period of daylight into 12 equal hours and nighttime into another 12. There is more daylight in the summer, and less night time, so each of the 12 daylight hours is longer than a night hour. Similarly in winter, daylight hours are shorter, and night hours are longer. These unequal hours are shown by the curved lines radiating from the center. The longer daylight hours in summer can usually be seen at the outer edge of the dial, and the time in unequal hours is read by noting the intersection of the sun hand with the appropriate curved line. + +=== Aspects === +Astrologers placed importance on how the Sun, Moon, and planets were arranged and aligned in the sky. If certain planets appeared at the points of a triangle, hexagon, or square, or if they were opposite or next to each other, the appropriate aspect was used to determine the event's significance. On some clocks you can see the common aspects – triangle, square, and hexagon – drawn inside the central disc, with each line marked by the symbol for that aspect, and you may also see the signs for conjunction and opposition. On an astrolabe, the corners of the different aspects could be lined up on any of the planets. On a clock, though, the disc containing the aspect lines can't be rotated at will, so they usually show only the aspects of the Sun or Moon. +On the Torre dell'Orologio, Brescia clock in northern Italy, the triangle, square, and star in the centre of the dial show these aspects (the third, fourth, and sixth phases) of (presumably) the moon. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ce28455c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical clock" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:27.581434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== "Dragon" hand: eclipse prediction and lunar nodes === +The Moon's orbit is not in the same plane as the Earth's orbit around the Sun but crosses it in two places. The Moon crosses the ecliptic plane twice a month, once when it goes up above the plane, and again 15 or so days later when it goes back down below the ecliptic. These two locations are the ascending and descending lunar nodes. Solar and lunar eclipses will occur only when the Moon is positioned near one of these nodes because at other times the Moon is either too high or too low for an eclipse to be seen on the Earth. +Some astronomical clocks keep track of the position of the lunar nodes with a long pointer that crosses the dial, with its length extended out to both sides of the dial to pointing at two opposite points on the solar or lunar dial. This so-called "dragon" hand makes one complete rotation around the ecliptic dial every 19 years. It is sometimes decorated with the figure of a serpent or lizard (Greek: drakon) with its snout and tail-tip touching the outer dial, traditionally labelled Latin: "caput draconam" and Latin: "cauda draconam" even if the decorative dragon is omitted (not to be confused with the similar-seeming names of the two sections of the constellation Serpens). +During the two yearly eclipse seasons the Sun pointer coincides with either the dragon's snout or tail. When the dragon hand and the full Moon coincide, the Moon is on the same plane as the Earth and Sun, and so there is a good chance that a lunar eclipse will be visible on one side of the Earth. When the new Moon is aligned with the dragon hand there is a moderate possibility that a solar eclipse might be visible somewhere on the Earth. + +== Historical examples == + +=== Su Song's Cosmic Engine === +The Science Museum (London) has a scale model of the 'Cosmic Engine', which Su Song, a Chinese polymath, designed and constructed in China in 1092. This great astronomical hydromechanical clock tower was about ten metres high (about 30 feet) and featured a clock escapement and was indirectly powered by a rotating wheel either with falling water and liquid mercury, which freezes at a much lower temperature than water, allowing operation of the clock during colder weather. A full-sized working replica of Su Song's clock exists in the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung city. This full-scale, fully functional replica, approximately 12 meters (39 feet) in height, was constructed from Su Song's original descriptions and mechanical drawings. + +=== Astrarium of Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio === +The Astrarium of Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio was a complex astronomical clock built between 1348 and 1364 in Padua, Italy, by the doctor and clock-maker Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio. The Astrarium had seven faces and 107 moving gears; it showed the positions of the sun, the moon and the five planets then known, as well as religious feast days. The astrarium stood about 1 metre high, and consisted of a seven-sided brass or iron framework resting on 7 decorative paw-shaped feet. The lower section provided a 24-hour dial and a large calendar drum, showing the fixed feasts of the church, the movable feasts, and the position in the zodiac of the moon's ascending node. The upper section contained 7 dials, each about 30 cm in diameter, showing the positional data for the Primum Mobile, Venus, Mercury, the moon, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars. Directly above the 24-hour dial is the dial of the Primum Mobile, so called because it reproduces the diurnal motion of the stars and the annual motion of the sun against the background of stars. Each of the 'planetary' dials used complex clockwork to produce reasonably accurate models of the planets' motion. These agreed reasonably well both with Ptolemaic theory and with observations. For example, Dondi's dial for Mercury uses a number of intermediate wheels, including: a wheel with 146 teeth, and a wheel with 63 internal (facing inwards) teeth that meshed with a 20 tooth pinion. + +== Interior clocks and watches == + +=== The Rasmus Sørnes Clock === + +Arguably the most complicated of its kind ever constructed, the last of a total of four astronomical clocks designed and made by Norwegian Rasmus Sørnes (1893–1967), is characterized by its superior complexity compactly housed in a casing with the modest measurements of 0.70 x 0.60 x 2.10 m. Features include locations of the sun and moon in the zodiac, Julian calendar, Gregorian calendar, sidereal time, GMT, local time with daylight saving time and leap year, solar and lunar cycle corrections, eclipses, local sunset and sunrise, moon phase, tides, sunspot cycles and a planetarium including Pluto's 248-year orbit and the 25 800-year periods of the polar ecliptics (precession of the Earth's axis). All wheels are in brass and gold-plated. Dials are silver-plated. The clock has an electromechanical pendulum. +Sørnes also made the necessary tools and based his work on his own astronomical observations. Having been exhibited at the Time Museum in Rockford, Illinois (since closed), and at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry, the clock was sold in 2002 and its current location is not known. The Rasmus Sørnes Astronomical Clock No. 3, the precursor to the Chicago Clock, his tools, patents, drawings, telescope, and other items, are exhibited at the Borgarsyssel Museum in Sarpsborg, Norway. + +=== Table clocks === +There are many examples of astronomical table clocks, due to their popularity as showpieces. To become a master clockmaker in 17th-century Augsburg, candidates had to design and build a 'masterpiece' clock, an astronomical table-top clock of formidable complexity. Examples can be found in museums, such as London's British Museum. +Currently Edmund Scientific among other retailers offers a mechanical Tellurium clock, perhaps the first mechanical astronomical clock to be mass-marketed. +In Japan, Tanaka Hisashige made a Myriad year clock in 1851. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b106d006b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical clock" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:27.581434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Watches === +More recently, independent clockmaker Christiaan van der Klaauw created a wristwatch astrolabe, the "Astrolabium" in addition to the "Planetarium 2000", the "Eclipse 2001" and the "Real Moon." Ulysse Nardin also sells several astronomical wristwatches, the "Astrolabium," "Planetarium", and the "Tellurium J. Kepler." + +=== Other examples === +Two of Holland America's cruise ships, the MS Rotterdam and the MS Amsterdam, both have large astronomical clocks as their main centerpieces inside the ships' atriums. + +== Examples by country == + +=== Austria === +Innsbruck. The astronomical clock in the gable of 17–19 Maria-Theresien-Strasse is a 20th-century copy of the astronomical clock of the Ulm Rathaus in Germany. +Peuerbach. The facade of Peuerbach Town Hall features an astrolabe clock, an enlarged copy of Georg von Peuerbach's original astrolabe of 1457. + +=== Belgium === +Lier. The Zimmer tower houses an astronomical clock installed by Louis Zimmer in 1930. On twelve dials surrounding a central clockface, it gives indications including the time around the world, the date, the moon phase, and the equation of time, and includes a tide clock. +Senzeilles. The Senzeilles astronomical clock was constructed by self-taught Lucien Charloteaux between 1896 and 1912. A domestic clock housed in a wooden case, it gives indications including the solar, mean and sidereal time around the world, the positions of the constellations and planets, and the appearance of Halley's Comet. +Sint-Truiden. The astronomical clock constructed by Kamiel Festraets between 1937 and 1942 is now housed in the Festraets Museum. + +=== Croatia === +Dubrovnik. The Dubrovnik Bell Tower constructed in 1444 has housed a clock since its creation, though due to earthquake damage, both the tower and the clock were replaced in 1929. A rotating moon ball shows the lunar phase. + +=== Czech Republic === + +Prague. The Prague astronomical clock at the Old Town Hall is one of the most famous astronomical clocks. The central section was completed in 1410, the calendar dial was added in 1490. The clock was renovated after damage during World War II, and in 1979. On the hour, Death strikes the time, and the twelve apostles appear at the doors above the clock. +Olomouc. The Olomouc astronomical clock at the Town Hall is a rare example of a heliocentric astronomical clock. Dated 1422 by legend, but first mentioned in history in 1517, the clock was remodelled approximately once every century; in 1898 the astrolabe was replaced with a heliocentric model of the solar system. Badly damaged by the retreating German army in 1945, the clock was remodelled in socialist realism style in 1955, under the Communist government. The religious and royal figures were replaced with athletes, workers, farmers, scientists, and other members of the proletariat. +Litomyšl. The tower of the Old Town Hall has an art nouveau astronomical clock, installed in 1907. +Prostějov. The astronomical clock in the tower of the New Town Hall was installed in 1910. +Kryštofovo Údolí. The Kryštofovo Údolí astronomical clock is a modern astronomical clock (inaugurated in 2008), built-in a former electrical substation. +Hojsova Stráž. An astronomical clock in the Bohemian Forest was inaugurated in 2017. It has a concentric dial showing the 24-hour time, the date and zodiac, and the moon phase, and a star map dial with a dragon hand, and indicates the time of sunrise and sunset. +Třebíč. At the Třebíč Astronomical Observatory, a modern astronomical clock which shows the time in world cities, the time of sunrise and sunset, the date and zodiac, and the orbits of the planets. +Žatec. The Temple to Hops and Beer, a museum and amusement complex dedicated to beer, has an astronomical clock on which the zodiac indication illustrates the annual processes of beer production. + +=== Denmark === +Copenhagen. Jens Olsen's World Clock in Copenhagen City Hall was designed by Jens Olsen and assembled from 1948 to 1955. + +=== France === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3a89981c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical clock" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:27.581434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Auxerre. The 15th-century clock in the Tour de l'Horloge has a 24-hour sun hand and a moon hand which completes a revolution in a lunar day of 24 hours 50 minutes, and shows the lunar phase on a rotating moon ball. +Beauvais. The Beauvais astronomical clock in Beauvais Cathedral, constructed 1865–1868 by Auguste-Lucien Vérité, has 52 dials that display the times of sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset, the phases of the moon, the solstices, the position of the planets, the current time in 18 cities around the world, and the tidal hours. Its 68 automata enact the Last Judgement on the hour. +Besançon. The Besançon astronomical clock in Besançon Cathedral (1860) was also constructed by Auguste-Lucien Vérité. Its 70 dials provide 122 indications. +Bourges. The Bourges astronomical clock in Bourges Cathedral was installed in 1424. It shows the zodiac, and the moon phase and age. +Chartres. The Chartres astronomical clock in Chartres Cathedral is an astrolabe clock, installed in 1528. It was overhauled, its mechanism replaced by an electric mechanism, in 2009. +Haguenau. The facade of the Musée alsacien displays an astronomical clock, a modern copy of the clock of the Ulm Rathaus. +Lyon. The Lyon astronomical clock in Lyon Cathedral was constructed in 1661, replacing a 14th-century original. It has an astrolabe dial and a calendar dial. +Munster. The Church of Saint-Léger houses the Clock of Creation, installed in 2008. It shows the time, the day of the week, the month and zodiac, and the moon phase. +Ploërmel. The Ploërmel astronomical clock, constructed 1850–1855, comprises an astronomical clock with 10 dials and an orrery. +Rouen. The Gros Horloge has a movement built in 1389, with a dial added in 1529. It indicates the moon phase on a rotating sphere above the dial, and the day of the week in an aperture at the base of the dial. +Saint-Omer. The Saint-Omer astronomical clock in Saint-Omer Cathedral is an astrolabe clock of 1558. +Strasbourg. The Strasbourg astronomical clock is the third clock housed in Strasbourg Cathedral, following 14th-century and 16th-century predecessors. Constructed by Jean-Baptiste Schwilgué from 1838 to 1843, it shows many astronomical and calendrical functions (including what is thought to be the first complete mechanization of the computus needed to compute Easter) and several automata. +Versailles. The Passemant astronomical clock in the Palace of Versailles near Paris is a rococo astronomical clock sitting on a formal low marble base. It took 12 years for a clockmaker and an engineer to build and was presented to Louis XV in 1754. + +=== Georgia === +Batumi. The facade of the former National Bank Building on Europe Square has an astronomical clock based on the clock at Mantua, which shows the positions of the sun and moon in the zodiac, and the moon phase. + +=== Germany === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..28d00a4d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical clock" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:27.581434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A group of interior astronomical clocks of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries in churches of Hanseatic League towns in northern Germany, known as the Hanseatic clocks (the group also includes the clock at Gdańsk, now in Poland). +Bad Doberan. At Doberan Minster, an astrolabe clock was installed by Nikolaus Lilienfeld in 1390. Only the dial survives, now positioned above the west door. +Lübeck. The astronomical clock of St. Mary's Church, constructed 1561–1566, was destroyed in the bombing of Lübeck in 1942. The present clock is a replacement by Paul Behrens, installed in 1967. +Münster. The Münster astronomical clock of 1540 in Münster Cathedral, adorned with hand-painted zodiac symbols, which traces the movement of the planets, plays a glockenspiel tune every noon. +Rostock. The Rostock astronomical clock in St. Mary's Church dating from 1472, built by Hans Düringer. Clock with daily time, zodiac, moon phases, and month. With a dedicated electronic database this clock is particularly well documented. +Stendal. At St. Mary's Church, an astronomical clock of the 1580s, rebuilt in 1856 (and vandalized by the clockmaker), and restored in 1977. +Stralsund. The astronomical clock in St. Nicholas' Church is an astrolabe clock installed by Nikolaus Lilienfeld in 1394. It has not been in working order since the 16th century. +Tangermünde. At St. Stephen's Church, Tangermünde, an astronomical clock of the 2023 built by Volker Schulz and Thomas Leu. +Wismar. The 15th-century astronomical clock in St. Mary's Church was destroyed by bombing in 1945. +A group of 16th-century clocks on the facade of town halls in southern Germany, which have a 12-hour dial, a moon phase indication, and a calendar dial indicating the positions of the sun and moon in the zodiac, with a dragon hand: +Esslingen am Neckar. The Clock of Esslingen Old Town Hall, constructed 1581–1586. +Heilbronn. The Kunstuhr of Heilbronn Town Hall of Isaac Habrecht, installed 1579–1580. +Tübingen. The clock of Tübingen Town Hall, installed in 1510. +Ulm. The 16th-century astronomical clock of Ulm Town Hall has a 24-hour astrolabe format, although the zodiac is repeated as a rotating ring of gold sculptures, and the outer ring of the dial is a 12-hour chapter ring. +Cologne. At the Cologne Planetarium, a modern astronomical clock which shows the hour in regular and sidereal time, the moon phase, positions of the sun and moon in the zodiac, and the rotation of the earth according to the geocentric model. +Esslingen am Neckar. At the headquarters of Festo, Professor Hans Scheurenbrand has constructed the Harmonices Mundi (named after Kepler's book of the same name), which consists of an astronomical clock, a world time clock, and a 74 bell glockenspiel. +Görlitz. Görlitz Town Hall and the Church of St Peter and St Paul both have 16th-century clocks which indicate the lunar phase. +Munich. The Old Town Hall and the Deutsches Museum both have clocks which indicate the moon phase on a rotating ball, and the zodiac on a fixed ring within a 12-hour dial. +Schramberg. The Town Hall has an astronomical clock installed in 1913. Its indications are similar to the clock of Ulm (except that the outer hour ring is 24-hour), with an offset astrolabe ring repeated as a golden zodiac ring. +Stuttgart. A modern clock in the tower of Stuttgart Town Hall shows the moon phase and the day of the week. +Worms. The clock tower Worms Town Hall has a modern calendar dial that shows the month, the positions of the sun and moon in the zodiac, the moon phase, and has a dragon hand. + +=== Hungary === +Székesfehérvár: A modern astronomical clock with automata and carillon, at the Clock Museum. + +=== Italy === + +Arezzo. The clock of the Palazzo della Fraternita dei Laici, installed in 1552, shows the moon phase and age. +Bassano del Grappa. 24-hour dial with zodiac indication on the Palazzo del Municipio, first installed in 1430, reconstructed by Bartolomeo Ferracina in 1747. +Brescia. Astronomical clock dated c. 1540–1550 in the Torre dell'Orologio. +Clusone. Fanzago's astronomical clock at the Palazzo Comunale, built by Pietro Fanzago in 1583. +Cremona. The 16th-century astronomical clock of the Torrazzo, the bell tower of Cremona Cathedral, is the largest medieval clock in Europe. +Macerata. An astronomical clock installed in the Torre Civica, a modern replica of the original clock of 1571, which shows the orbits of the planets. +Mantua. Astronomical clock was installed in 1473 in the Torre dell'Orologio of the Palazzo della Ragione. +Merano. Clock tower at the entrance to Merano town cemetery, installed in 1908 by Philipp Hörz of Ulm, with a calendar dial showing the month, zodiac, and moon phase. +Messina. The Messina astronomical clock in the tower of Messina Cathedral. Multi-dial clock equipped with complex automata. Constructed between 1930 and 1933 by the Ungerer Company of Strasbourg. It is one of the largest astronomical clocks in the world. +Padua. 15th-century astronomical clock in the Torre dell'Orologio. +Rimini. The clock tower on Piazza Tre Martiri has a calendar dial installed in 1750 showing the date, zodiac, and moon phase and age. +Soncino. 24-hour dial with zodiac indication in the town hall. The terracotta zodiac dial dates from 1977. +Trapani. Astronomical clock of 1596 in the Porta Oscura, with a dial for the hours and the zodiac, and a lunar dial. +Venice. St Mark's Clock, in the clocktower on St Mark's Square, was built and installed by Gian Paulo and Gian Carlo Rainieri, father and son, between 1496 and 1499. + +=== Japan === +Tokyo: The Shinjuku I-Land clock tower features a clock face that is an exact replica of Prague's astronomical clock. On the other side of the tower is a more conventional analog clock face featuring a rotating planisphere disc that shows the current constellations seen in the night sky over Japan. + +=== Latvia === +Riga: The clock on the facade of the House of the Blackheads shows the time, date, month, day of the week, and lunar phase. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0936ff56d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical clock" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:27.581434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Malta === +Valletta. The clock of the Grandmaster's Palace, installed in 1745, shows the hour, date, month, and lunar phase, and has bells struck by four jacquemarts. +Malta has several church clocks that show calendar indications on separate dials, including those of St John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta; St Paul's Cathedral, Mdina; the Rotunda of Mosta; and the Church of St Bartholomew, Għargħur. + +=== Netherlands === +Arnemuiden. The 16th-century church clock at Arnemuiden indicates the lunar phase and the time of high tide. +Franeker. The Eise Eisinga Planetarium, built 1774–1781, is an orrery and astronomical clock which shows the movements of the solar system. + +=== Norway === +Oslo. A 20th-century astronomical clock at Oslo City Hall. + +=== Poland === +Gdańsk. In St. Mary's Church there is the Gdańsk astronomical clock dating from 1464 to 1470, and built by Hans Düringer of Toruń. It was reconstructed after 1945. +Wrocław. A 16th-century clock showing the moon phase at Wrocław Town Hall. + +=== Slovakia === +Stará Bystrica: An astronomical clock in the stylized shape of Our Lady of Sorrows was built in the town square in 2009. The astronomical part of the clock consists of an astrolabe displaying the astrological signs, positions of the Sun and Moon, and the lunar phases. Its statues and automata depict Slovakian historical and religious figures. The clock is controlled by computer using DCF77 signals. + +=== South Korea === +Honcheonsigye: is an astronomical clock made by Song Yi-Yeong (송이영; 宋以潁), a professor of Gwansanggam (관상감; 觀象監) (one of the scientific institution of Joseon dynasty) in 1669. It was designated as South Korean national treasure number 230 on August 9, 1985. The clock used the alarm clock technology created by Christiaan Huygens in 1657. This relic shows that Huygens' technology was spread to East Asia in just 12 years. Also, It demonstrates the astronomy and mechanical engineering technology of the Joseon dynasty. Korea has been making armillary sphere since the 15th century as part of King Sejong's technology development policy, and this clock is an important historical document that shows the fusion of East Asian astronomy and European mechanical technology. + +=== Spain === +Astorga: The interior face of the clock of Astorga Cathedral has a 24-hour dial which shows the lunar phase and the date. + +=== Sweden === +Lund: Lund astronomical clock in Lund Cathedral in Sweden, (Horologium mirabile Lundense) was made around 1425, probably by the clockmaker Nicolaus Lilienveld in Rostock. After it had been in storage since 1837, it was restored and put back in place in 1923. Only the upper, astronomical part is original, while some of the other remaining medieval parts can be seen at the Cathedral museum. When it plays, one can hear In Dulci Jubilo from the smallest organ in the church, while seven wooden figures, representing the three magi and their servants, pass by. +Fjelie: Emil Ahrent, the local priest, constructed and donated an astronomical clock to Fjelie Church in 1946. +Nottebäck: K.L. Lundén, the local priest, installed an astronomical clock in Nottebäck Church in 1954. +Rinkaby: An astronomical clock was installed in Rinkaby Church in the 1950s. Modelled on medieval clocks, it was made by a local electrician. + +=== Switzerland === + +Bern. The Zytglogge is a famous 15-century astronomical clock housed in a medieval fortification tower. +A set of 16th-century clocks which show the zodiac and the days of the week in concentric rings within a 12-hour clock face, with a moon phase ball above: +Bremgarten. The clock of the Spittelturm, installed in 1558. +Diessenhofen. The clock of the Siegelturm, installed in 1546. +Mellingen. The clock of the Zeitturm, installed in 1554. +Schaffhausen: The astronomical clock by Joachim Habrecht in the gable of the Fronwagturm, installed in 1564, has five hands, including indications of the positions of the sun and moon in the zodiac, and a dragon hand indicating the lunar nodes. +Sion: The Sion astronomical clock on the town hall dates from 1667 to 1668. Its current mechanism was installed in 1902. +Solothurn. This astronomical clock, installed by Lorenz Liechti and Joachim Habrecht in 1545 to replace an original of 1452, shows the positions of the sun and moon in the zodiac. +Winterthur. This astrolabe astronomical clock was installed in 1529. The building which housed it was demolished in 1870. The clock is now an exhibit at the Museum Lindengut. +Zug: The astronomical clock of the Zytturm was installed in 1574. Its calendar dial shows the zodiac, the lunar phase, the day of the week and the leap year cycle. + +=== United Kingdom === + +A group of four famous astronomical clocks in the West Country, dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, all of which show the 24-hour time and the moon phase: +Exeter. The Exeter Cathedral astronomical clock (c. 1484) +Ottery St Mary. The Ottery St Mary astronomical clock (15th century) +Wells. The Wells Cathedral clock (1386–1392) +Wimborne Minster. The Wimborne Minster astronomical clock (14th century) +Durham. Prior Castell's Clock in Durham Cathedral, installed between 1494 and 1519. +Hampton Court Palace. The Hampton Court astronomical clock (1540) is on the interior façade of the Main Gatehouse. It is a fine early example of a pre-Copernican astronomical clock. +Leicester. The Leicester University astronomical clock (1989) is on the Rattray Lecture Theatre opposite the Physics department. +London. The astrological clock of Bracken House was installed in 1959, and depicts the Signs of the Zodiac. +Snowshill. The Nychthemeron Clock, installed in the garden of Snowshill Manor in Gloucestershire. +St Albans. A modern clock dating from 1995, built from notes by Richard of Wallingford held in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. On display in St Albans Cathedral. +York. The York Minster astronomical clock, an astronomical clock installed in 1955 as a memorial to airmen killed in World War II, shows the positions of the sun and stars from the perspective of a pilot flying over York. It was damaged by fire in 1984, and is not currently working. + +=== United States === +Cedar Rapids, Iowa: The clock tower outside the National Czech and Slovak Museum and Library features an exact replica of Prague's astronomical clock. + +== See also == +Astrolabe +Astrarium +Clock of the Long Now, also called the 10,000-year clock +Orrery +Solar System models +Torquetum + +== Notes == + +== References == +Needham, Joseph (1986). Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 4. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. +North, John (2005). God's Clockmaker, Richard of Wallingford and the invention of time. Hambledon and London. +Sørnes, Tor (2008). The Clockmaker Rasmus Sørnes. Borgarsyssel Museum, Sarpsborg, 2003 Norwegian edition, and 2008 English edition (available from the museum). +King, Henry (1978). Geared to the Stars: the evolution of planetariums, orreries, and astronomical clocks. University of Toronto Press. Bibcode:1978gtse.book.....K. + +== Further reading == +Needham, Joseph; Ling, Wang; deSolla Price, Derek J. (1986). Heavenly Clockwork: The Great Astronomical Clocks of Medieval China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32276-8. + +== External links == + +The search for Rasmus Sørnes 4th clock +Prague Astronomical Clock +A modern, online astronomical clock +Les Cadrans Solaires (Sundials), also showing European astronomical clocks (in French) +MoonlightClock.com – Handmade Astronomical Clocks +Festraets' astronomical clock \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_rings-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_rings-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..902991a4f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_rings-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "Astronomical rings" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_rings" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:29.975083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Astronomical rings (Latin: annuli astronomici), also known as Gemma's rings, are an early astronomical instrument. The instrument consists of three rings, representing the celestial equator, declination, and the meridian. +It can be used as a sun dial to tell time, if the approximate latitude and season is known, or to tell latitude, if the time is known or observed (at solar noon). It may be considered to be a simplified, portable armillary sphere, or a more complex form of astrolabe. + + +== History == +Parts of the instrument go back to instruments made and used by ancient Greek astronomers. Gemma Frisius combined several of the instruments into a small, portable, astronomical-ring instrument. He first published the design in 1534, and in Petrus Apianus's Cosmographia in 1539. These ring instruments combined terrestrial and celestial calculations. + + +== Types == + + +=== Fixed astronomical rings === + +Fixed astronomical rings are mounted on a plinth, like armillary spheres, and can be used as sundials. + + +=== Traveller's sundial or universal equinoctal ring dial === +The dial is suspended from a cord or chain; the suspension point on the vertical meridian ring can be changed to match the local latitude. The time is read off on the equatorial ring; in the example below, the center bar is twisted until a sunray passes through a small hole and falls on the horizontal equatorial ring. + + +=== Sun ring === +A sunring or farmer's ring is a latitude-specific simplification of astronomical rings. On one-piece sunrings, the time and month scale is marked on the inside of the ring; a sunbeam passing through a hole in the ring lights a point on this scale. Newer sunrings are often made in two parts, one of which slides to set the month; they are usually less accurate. + + +=== Sea ring === + +In 1610, Edward Wright created the sea ring, which mounted a universal ring dial over a magnetic compass. This permitted mariners to determine the time and magnetic variation in a single step. These are also called "sundial compasses". + + +== Structure and function == +The three rings are oriented with respect to the local meridian, the planet's equator, and a celestial object. The instrument itself can be used as a plumb bob to align it with the vertical. The instrument is then rotated until a single light beam passes through two points on the instrument. This fixes the orientation of the instrument in all three axes. +The angle between the vertical and the light beam gives the solar elevation. The solar elevation is a function of latitude, time of day, and season. Any one of these variables can be determined using astronomical rings, if the other two are known. +The altitude of the sun does not change much in a single day at the poles (where the sun rises and sets once a year), so rough measurements of solar altitude don't vary with time of day at high latitudes. + + +=== Use as a calendar sundial === +When the solar time is exactly noon, or known from another clock, the instrument can be used to determine the time of year. +The meridional ring can function as the gnomon, when the rings are used as a sundial. A horizontal line aligned on a meridian with a gnomon facing the noon-sun is termed a meridian line and does not indicate the time, but instead the day of the year. Historically they were used to accurately determine the length of the solar year. A fixed meridional ring on its own can be used as an analemma calendar sundial, which can be read only at noon. +When the shadow of the rings are aligned so that they appear to be in the same, or nearly the same, place, the meridian identifies itself. + + +=== Meridional ring === +The meridian ring is placed vertically, then rotated (relative to the celestial object) until it is parallel to the local north-south line. The whole ring is thus parallel to the circle of longitude passing through the place where the user is standing. +Because the instrument is often supported by the meridional ring, it is often the outermost ring, as it is in the traveller's rings illustrated above. There, a sliding suspension shackle is attached to the top of the meridional ring, from which the whole device can be suspended. The meridional ring is marked in degrees of latitude (0–90, for each hemisphere). When properly used, the pointer on the support points to the latitude of the instrument's location. This tilts the equatorial ring so that it lies at the same angle to the vertical as the local equator. + + +=== Equatorial ring === +The equatorial ring occupies a plane parallel to the celestial equator, at right angles to the meridian. It is aligned by + +being attached to the meridional ring at the marking for latitude zero (see above) +being aligned to the declension ring, which is aligned to the celestial object. +Often equipped with a graduated scale, it can be used to measure right ascension. On the traveller's sundial shown above, it is the inner ring. +This ring is sometimes engraved with the months on one side and corresponding zodiac signs on the outside; very similar to an astrolabe. +Others have been found to be engraved with two twelve-hour time scales. Each twelve-hour scale is stretched over 180 degrees and numbered by hour with hashes every 20 minutes and smaller hashes every four minutes. The inside displays a calendrical scale with the names of the months indicated by their first letters, with a mark to show every 5 days and other marks to represent single days. On these, the outside of the ring is engraved with the corresponding symbols of the zodiac signs. The position of the symbol indicates the date of the entry of the sun into this particular sign. The vernal equinox is marked at March 15 and the autumnal equinox is marked at September 10. + + +=== Declination ring === + +The declination ring is moveable, and rotates on pivots set in the meridian ring. An imaginary line connecting these pivots is parallel to the Earth's axis. The declination "ring" of the traveller's sundial above is not a ring at all, but an oblong loop with a slider for setting the season. +This ring is often equipped with vanes and pinholes for use as the alidade of a dioptra (see image). It can be used to measure declination. +This ring is also often marked with the zodiac signs and twenty-five stars, similar to the astrolabe. + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == + +Frisius, Gemma (1548). Usus annuli astronomici [The Use of the Astronomical Rings] (digital reprint) (in Latin). Antwerp. OCLC 166113158. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission's_Historical_Advisory_Committee-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission's_Historical_Advisory_Committee-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a3c421336 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission's_Historical_Advisory_Committee-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Atomic Energy Commission's Historical Advisory Committee" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission's_Historical_Advisory_Committee" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:52.283375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Atomic Energy Commission's Historical Advisory Committee was established in February 1958, when the United States Atomic Energy Commission was a decade old and continued until 1974 when the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and later the United States Department of Energy replaced the commission. + + +== History == +In 1957, the United States Atomic Energy Commission appointed Dr Richard G. Hewlett to be the historian of the Atomic Energy Commission. Upon taking up this post, Hewlett proposed the creation of an historical advisory committee for the AEC. His proposal was referred to historians James Phinney Baxter III and Samuel Eliot Morison and Nobel Prize–winning physicist Isidor I. Rabi. These three men recommended the approval of Hewlett's proposal as a means of giving credibility of the AEC Historical Office's work and avoiding self-serving official history. + + +== Chairman == +The following is a chronological list of chairmen, 1958–1974. In cases where a chairman also served as a regular member of the committee, his dates of such service are listed in the alphabetical listing of members. + +James Phinney Baxter III, 1958-1967 +George E. Mowry, 1967-1969 +Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., 1969-1974 + + +== Members == +The following is an alphabetical listing of members who served on this committee: + +John Morton Blum, 1958-1962 +James L. Cate, 1958-1969 +Thomas C. Cochran, 1973-1974 +A. Hunter Dupree, 1968-1973 +Constance McL. Green, 1964-1969 +Ralph W. Hiddy, 1962-1969 +Thomas P. Hughes, 1973-1974 +Richard S. Kirkendall, 1973-1974 +Richard W. Leopold, 1973-1974 +Ernest R. May, 1969-1973 +George E. Mowry, 1962-1967 +Robert P. Multhauf, 1969-1973 + + +== Sources == +Richard W. Leopold, "Historians and the Federal Government: Historical Advisory Committees: State, Defense, and the Atomic Energy Commission," The Pacific Historical Review, vol. 44, No. 3. (Aug 1975), pp. 373–385. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..18704b374 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Backstaff" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:31.201916+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The backstaff is a navigational instrument that was used to measure the altitude of a celestial body, in particular the Sun or Moon. When observing the Sun, users kept the Sun to their back (hence the name) and observed the shadow cast by the upper vane on a horizon vane. It was invented by the English navigator John Davis, who described it in his book Seaman's Secrets in 1594. + +== Types of backstaffs == +Backstaff is the name given to any instrument that measures the altitude of the sun by the projection of a shadow. It appears that the idea for measuring the sun's altitude using back observations originated with Thomas Harriot. Many types of instruments evolved from the cross-staff that can be classified as backstaffs. Only the Davis quadrant remains dominant in the history of navigation instruments. Indeed, the Davis quadrant is essentially synonymous with backstaff. However, Davis was neither the first nor the last to design such an instrument and others are considered here as well. + +== Davis quadrant == + +Captain John Davis invented a version of the backstaff in 1594. Davis was a navigator who was quite familiar with the instruments of the day such as the mariner's astrolabe, the quadrant and the cross-staff. He recognized the inherent drawbacks of each and endeavoured to create a new instrument that could reduce those problems and increase the ease and accuracy of obtaining solar elevations. +One early version of the quadrant staff is shown in Figure 1. It had an arc affixed to a staff so that it could slide along the staff (the shape is not critical, though the curved shape was chosen). The arc (A) was placed so that it would cast its shadow on the horizon vane (B). The navigator would look along the staff and observe the horizon through a slit in the horizon vane. By sliding the arc so that the shadow aligned with the horizon, the angle of the sun could be read on the graduated staff. This was a simple quadrant, but it was not as accurate as one might like. The accuracy in the instrument is dependent on the length of the staff, but a long staff made the instrument more unwieldy. The maximum altitude that could be measured with this instrument was 45°. +The next version of his quadrant is shown in Figure 2. The arc on the top of the instrument in the previous version was replaced with a shadow vane placed on a transom. This transom could be moved along a graduated scale to indicate the angle of the shadow above the staff. Below the staff, a 30° arc was added. The horizon, seen through the horizon vane on the left, is aligned with the shadow. The sighting vane on the arc is moved until it aligns with the view of the horizon. The angle measured is the sum of the angle indicated by the position of the transom and the angle measured on the scale on the arc. +The instrument that is now identified with Davis is shown in Figure 3. This form evolved by the mid-17th century. The quadrant arc has been split into two parts. The smaller radius arc, with a span of 60°, was mounted above the staff. The longer radius arc, with a span of 30° was mounted below. Both arcs have a common centre. At the common centre, a slotted horizon vane was mounted (B). A moveable shadow vane was placed on the upper arc so that its shadow was cast on the horizon vane. A moveable sight vane was mounted on the lower arc (C). +It is easier for a person to place a vane at a specific location than to read the arc at an arbitrary position. This is due to Vernier acuity, the ability of a person to align two line segments accurately. Thus an arc with a small radius, marked with relatively few graduations, can be used to place the shadow vane accurately at a specific angle. On the other hand, moving the sight vane to the location where the line to the horizon meets the shadow requires a large arc. This is because the position may be at a fraction of a degree and a large arc allows one to read smaller graduations with greater accuracy. The large arc of the instrument, in later years, was marked with transversals to allow the arc to be read to greater accuracy than the main graduations allow. +Thus Davis was able to optimize the construction of the quadrant to have both a small and a large arc, allowing the effective accuracy of a single arc quadrant of large radius without making the entire instrument so large. This form of the instrument became synonymous with the backstaff. It was one of the most widely used forms of the backstaff. Continental European navigators called it the English Quadrant. +A later modification of the Davis quadrant was to use a Flamsteed glass in place of the shadow vane; this was suggested by John Flamsteed. This placed a lens on the vane that projected an image of the sun on the horizon vane instead of a shadow. It was useful under conditions where the sky was hazy or lightly overcast; the dim image of the sun was shown more brightly on the horizon vane where a shadow could not be seen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d9a353319 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Backstaff" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:31.201916+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Usage === +In order to use the instrument, the navigator would place the shadow vane at a location anticipating the altitude of the sun. Holding the instrument in front of him, with the sun at his back, he holds the instrument so that the shadow cast by the shadow vane falls on the horizon vane at the side of the slit. He then moves the sight vane so that he observes the horizon in a line from the sight vane through the horizon vane's slit while simultaneously maintaining the position of the shadow. This permits him to measure the angle between the horizon and the sun as the sum of the angle read from the two arcs. +Since the shadow's edge represents the limb of the sun, he must correct the value for the semidiameter of the sun. + +=== Instruments that derived from the Davis quadrant === +The Elton's quadrant derived from the Davis quadrant. It added an index arm with spirit levels to provide an artificial horizon. + +== Demi-cross == + +The demi-cross was an instrument that was contemporary with the Davis quadrant. It was popular outside England. +The vertical transom was like a half-transom on a cross-staff, hence the name demi-cross. It supported a shadow vane (A in Figure 4) that could be set to one of several heights (three according to May, four according to de Hilster). By setting the shadow vane height, the range of angles that could be measured was set. The transom could be slid along the staff and the angle read from one of the graduated scales on the staff. +The sight vane (C) and horizon vane (B) were aligned visually with the horizon. With the shadow vane's shadow cast on the horizon vane and aligned with the horizon, the angle was determined. In practice, the instrument was accurate but more unwieldy than the Davis quadrant. + +== Plough == + +The plough was the name given to an unusual instrument that existed for a short time. It was part cross-staff and part backstaff. In Figure 5, A is the transom that casts its shadow on the horizon vane at B. It functions in the same manner as the staff in Figure 1. C is the sighting vane. The navigator uses the sighting vane and the horizon vane to align the instrument horizontally. The sighting vane can be moved left to right along the staff. D is a transom just as one finds on a cross-staff. This transom has two vanes on it that can be moved closer or farther from the staff to emulate different-length transoms. The transom can be moved on the staff and used to measure angles. + +== Almucantar staff == + +The Almucantar staff is a device specifically used for measuring the altitude of the sun at low altitudes. + +== Cross-staff == + +The cross-staff was normally a direct observation instrument. However, in later years it was modified for use with back observations. + +== Quadrant == +There was a variation of the quadrant – the Back observation quadrant – that was used for measuring the sun's altitude by observing the shadow cast on a horizon vane. + +== Thomas Hood cross-staff == + +Thomas Hood invented this cross-staff in 1590. It could be used for surveying, astronomy or other geometric problems. +It consists of two components, a transom and a yard. The transom is the vertical component and is graduated from 0° at the top to 45° at the bottom. At the top of the transom, a vane is mounted to cast a shadow. The yard is horizontal and is graduated from 45° to 90°. The transom and yard are joined by a special fitting (the double socket in Figure 6) that permits independent adjustments of the transom vertically and the yard horizontally. +It was possible to construct the instrument with the yard at the top of the transom rather than at the bottom. +Initially, the transom and yard are set so that the two are joined at their respective 45° settings. The instrument is held so that the yard is horizontal (the navigator can view the horizon along the yard to assist in this). The socket is loosened so that the transom is moved vertically until the shadow of the vane is cast at the yard's 90° setting. If the movement of just the transom can accomplish this, the altitude is given by the transom's graduations. If the sun is too high for this, the yard horizontal opening in the socket is loosened and the yard is moved to allow the shadow to land on the 90° mark. The yard then yields the altitude. +It was a fairly accurate instrument, as the graduations were well spaced compared to a conventional cross-staff. However, it was a bit unwieldy and difficult to handle in wind. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1a1e9b500 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Backstaff" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstaff" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:31.201916+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Benjamin Cole quadrant == + +A late addition to the collection of backstaves in the navigation world, this device was invented by Benjamin Cole in 1748. +The instrument consists of a staff with a pivoting quadrant on one end. The quadrant has a shadow vane, which can optionally take a lens like the Davis quadrant's Flamsteed glass, at the upper end of the graduated scale (A in Figure 7). This casts a shadow or projects an image of the sun on the horizon vane (B). The observer views the horizon through a hole in the sight vane (D) and a slit in the horizon vane to ensure the instrument is level. The quadrant component is rotated until the horizon and the sun's image or shadow are aligned. The altitude can then be read from the quadrant's scale. In order to refine the reading, a circular vernier is mounted on the staff (C). +The fact that such an instrument was introduced in the middle of the 18th century shows that the quadrant was still a viable instrument even in the presence of the octant. +English scientist George Adams created a very similar backstaff at the same time. Adam's version ensured that the distance between the Flamsteed glass and horizon vane was the same as the distance from the vane to the sight vane. + +== Cross bow quadrant == + +Edmund Gunter invented the cross bow quadrant, also called the mariner's bow, around 1623. It gets its name from the similarity to the archer's crossbow. +This instrument is interesting in that the arc is 120° but is only graduated as a 90° arc. As such, the angular spacing of a degree on the arc is slightly greater than one degree. Examples of the instrument can be found with a 0° to 90° graduation or with two mirrored 0° to 45° segments centred on the midpoint of the arc. +The instrument has three vanes, a horizon vane (A in Figure 8) which has an opening in it to observe the horizon, a shadow vane (B) to cast a shadow on the horizon vane and a sighting vane (C) that the navigator uses to view the horizon and shadow at the horizon vane. This serves to ensure the instrument is level while simultaneously measuring the altitude of the sun. The altitude is the difference in the angular positions of the shadow and sighting vanes. +With some versions of this instrument, the sun's declination for each day of the year was marked on the arc. This permitted the navigator to set the shadow vane to the date and the instrument would read the altitude directly. + +== References == +Ephraim Chambers, Cyclopædia, The First Volume, 1728 explaining the use of a backstaff +Maurice Daumas, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, Portman Books, London 1989 ISBN 978-0-7134-0727-3 +Gerard L'Estrange Turner, Antique Scientific Instruments, Blandford Press Ltd. 1980 ISBN 0-7137-1068-3 + +== Notes == + +== External links == +"Backstaff" at answers.com – Good diagram of how a backstaff is held in use. +Attribution + This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_galvanometer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_galvanometer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b93d6cda1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_galvanometer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "Ballistic galvanometer" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_galvanometer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:32.373814+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A ballistic galvanometer is a type of sensitive galvanometer; commonly a mirror galvanometer. Unlike a current-measuring galvanometer, the moving part has a large moment of inertia, thus giving it a long oscillation period. It is really an integrator measuring the quantity of charge discharged through it. It can be either of the moving coil or moving magnet type. + +Before first use the ballistic constant of the galvanometer must be determined. This is usually done by connecting to the galvanometer a known capacitor, charged to a known voltage, and recording the deflection. The constant K is calculated from the capacitance C, the voltage V and the deflection d: + + + + + K + = + C + V + + / + + d + + + {\displaystyle K=CV/d} + + +where K is expressed in coulombs per centimeter. +In operation the unknown quantity of charge Q (in coulombs) is simply: + + + + + Q + = + k + d + + + {\displaystyle Q=kd} + +. + + +== Grassot Fluxmeter == +The Grassot Fluxmeter solves a particular problem encountered with regular galvanometers. +For a regular galvanometer, the discharge time must be shorter than the natural period of oscillation of the mechanism. In some applications, particularly those involving inductors, this condition cannot be met. The Grassot fluxmeter resolves this problem, by operating without any restoring force, making the oscillation period effectively infinite and thereby longer than any discharge time. +Its construction is similar to that of a ballistic galvanometer, but its coil is suspended without any restoring forces in the suspension thread or in the current leads. The core (bobbin) of the coil is of a non-conductive material. When an electric charge is connected to the instrument, the coil starts moving in the magnetic field of the galvanometer's magnet, generating an opposing electromotive force and coming to a stop regardless of the time of the current flow. The change in the coil position is proportional only to the quantity of charge. The coil is returned to the zero position manually or by reversing the direction of the current. + + +== References == + +Earle Terry, Advanced Laboratory Practice in Electricity and Magnetism. McGraw-Hill, New York 1929 Page 24-34 +Electrical Instruments, "Tylor-Cambridge", Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, Trade catalog, 1908 Page 34 +Bakshi, U.A. and Bakshi, L.A.V., Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation, Technical Publications, 2020, Chapter 2 +Bakshi, U.A. and Bakshi, L.A.V., Electric Measurements and Instrumentation, Technical Publications, 2020, Chapter 2 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_astrolabe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_astrolabe-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..18250195b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_astrolabe-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Barcelona astrolabe" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_astrolabe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:33.541647+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Barcelona astrolabe is the oldest astrolabe with Carolingian characters that has survived in the Christian Occident. +The French researcher Marcel Destombes founded the astrolabe, and left it as legacy to the Institute of the Arab World of Paris in 1983. +The Academy of Sciences of Barcelona asked the astrolabe in loan to the Musée of l'Institut du Monde Arabe, to make a replica, today this replica is on display at the Academy of Sciences in the Ramblas. + + +== Description == +This astrolabe presents some unusual characteristics. All the engraved characters are in Latin, this fact made the scholars think that the instrument was made in Christian Europe. The pointers of his "spider" indicate eighteen stars: ten boreal stars and eight austral stars (that is to say, situated beneath of the equator). Eleven of them correspond to the date of 980 AD. Still like this, the names of the stars are not engraved on the brass. The words ROMA and FRANCIA are engraved in Latin characters in one of the eardrums. These characters are accompanied by the numbers 41-30 (in Arabic figures). The characters are identical to those used at the end of the 10th century in the Catalan Latin manuscripts, being Catalonia in that moment a mark of the Carolingian France. This would explain the presence of the word FRANCIA. The figures express in degrees and minutes: 41° 30′, which correspond exactly to the latitude of Barcelona. +The fact of having engraved the date 980 AD. and the latitude of Barcelona (41–30), which archdeacon in those dates was Sunifred Llobet, to whom is attributed the authorship of the Ripoll manuscript: ms.225, which contains the description of an astrolabe, has led the scholars to attribute the paternity of the astrolabe to this famous astronomer. + + +== Data == +Name: Astrolabe of Barcelona +Place of manufacture: Barcelona, Principality of Catalonia +Date / period: To the year 980 +Material and technical: Brass decorated with recorded +Dimensions: 15,2 cm of diameter +Conservation (city): Paris +Conservation (place): Bequeathed by Marcel Destombes to the Musée of l'Institut du Monde Arabe (Paris) +Number of inventory: AY 86-31 + + +== See also == +Gerbert of Aurillac + + +== References == + + +== External links == +‘Carolingian' astrolabe. To Qantara – Mediterranean Heritage (English) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_the_History_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_the_History_of_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e205ae49b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_the_History_of_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "British Society for the History of Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_the_History_of_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:53.464500+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The British Society for the History of Science (BSHS) was founded in 1947 by Francis Butler, Joan Eyles and Victor Eyles. + + +== Overview == +It is Britain's largest learned society devoted to the history of science, technology, and medicine. The society's aim is to bring together people with interests in all aspects of the field, and to publicise relevant ideas within the wider research and teaching communities and the media. Its mission statement states the society will strive "to foster the understanding of the history and social impact of science, technology and medicine in all their branches in the academic and the wider communities, and to provide a national focus for the discipline." +Publications are a key feature of the society's professional activity. Print publications include: + +The British Journal for the History of Science (BJHS): a peer-reviewed quarterly academic journal, including articles and reviews of the latest books in the history of science, technology and medicine +BJHS Themes: a peer-reviewed open access academic journal, an annual themed collection of articles +Viewpoint: magazine of the society, published three times a year and featuring news and views from across the field +BSHS Monographs: work of lasting scholarly value that might not otherwise be made available, and aids the dissemination of innovative projects advancing scholarship or education in the field +Other publications are online, including the BSHS List of Theses, and the BSHS Guide to Institutions. +The society also awards several prizes: + +The Singer Prize, awarded every two years for an unpublished research essay by new scholars +The BSHS Hughes Prize, awarded every two years to the best history of science book written for a popular audience +The BSHS Slade Prize, awarded between 1999 and 2009 for studies of conceptual innovation or scientific methodology +The BSHS John Pickstone Prize, awarded every two years to the best scholarly history of science book written in English + + +== Presidents == +Presidents from the Society's founding up to 1997 are reported by Janet Browne in a British Journal for the History of Science article. + +1946–48 Charles Joseph Singer +1949–51 J. R. Partington +1951–53 Frank Sherwood Taylor +1953–55 H. Hamshaw Thomas +1955–57 Herbert Dingle +1957–62 E. Ashworth Underwood +1962–64 Thomas Martin +1964–66 Alistair Cameron Crombie +1966–68 Alfred Rupert Hall +1968–70 G. J. Whitrow +1970–72 W. P. D. Wightman +1972–74 John Anthony Chaldecott +1974–76 Maurice P. Crosland +1976–78 D. W. Waters +1978–80 William Hodson Brock +1980–82 Robert Fox (historian) +1982–84 Jack B. Morrell +1984–86 Gerard L'Estrange Turner +1986–88 Colin A. Russell +1988–90 Robert G. W. Anderson +1990–92 Hugh S. Torrens +1992–94 Geoffrey Cantor +1994–96 D. M. Knight +1996–98 John Hedley Brooke +1998–2000 Ludmilla Jordanova +2000–01 James Arthur Bennett +2002–03 Janet Browne +2004–06 Peter Bowler +2006–08 Frank James +2008–09 Jeff Hughes +2010–12 Sally Horrocks +2012–14 Hasok Chang +2014‒16 Gregory Radick +2016–18 Patricia Fara +2018–20 Tim Boon +2020–22 Charlotte Sleigh +2022–24 James A. Secord +2024–present Chiara Ambrosio + + +== Wikipedia == +The society hosted an editathon at their annual conference in July 2015 at Swansea, which included wiki–skills training, and which resulted in better content on British scientists on Wikipedia. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bygrave_slide_rule-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bygrave_slide_rule-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3309fb7b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bygrave_slide_rule-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Bygrave slide rule" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bygrave_slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:34.708068+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Bygrave slide rule is a slide rule named for its inventor, Captain Leonard Charles Bygrave of the RAF. It was used in celestial navigation, primarily in aviation. Officially, it was called the A. M. L. Position Line Slide Rule (A.M.L. for Air Ministry Laboratories). +It was developed in 1920 at the Air Ministry Laboratories at Kensington in London and was produced by Henry Hughes & Son Ltd of London until the mid-1930s. It solved the so-called celestial triangle accurately to about one minute of arc and quickly enough for aerial navigation. The solution of the celestial triangle used the John Napier rules for solution of square-angled spherical triangles. The slide rule was constructed as two coaxial tubes with spiral scales, like the Fuller's cylindrical slide rules, with yet another tube on the outside carrying the cursors. +During the Second World War, a closely related version was produced in Germany by Dennert & Pape as the HR1, MHR1 and HR2. + + +== Famous users == +Sir Francis Chichester was a renowned aviator and yachtsman. He used a Bygrave Slide Rule as an aid to navigation during flights in the 1930s, one of which was the first solo flight from New Zealand to Australia in a Gipsy Moth biplane. He later completed a round the world cruise in his yacht Gipsy Moth IV. This was the first solo circumnavigation using the clipper route. Sir Francis Chichester wrote about these exploits in his autobiography, entitled The Lonely Sea and the Sky. + + +== See also == +Otis King's Patent Calculator + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +LaPook, Gary. "Modern Bygrave Slide Rule". +van Riet, Ronald W.M. "Position Line Slide Rules" (PDF). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._H._Douglas-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._H._Douglas-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b9113ef6a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._H._Douglas-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "C. H. Douglas" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._H._Douglas" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:18.412919+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Major Clifford Hugh Douglas, MIMechE, MIEE (20 January 1879 – 29 September 1952), was a British engineer, economist and pioneer of the social credit economic reform movement. + + +== Education and engineering career == +C. H. Douglas was born in either Edgeley or Manchester, the son of Hugh Douglas and his wife Louisa (Hordern) Douglas. Few details are known about his early life and training; he probably served an engineering apprenticeship before beginning an engineering career that brought him to locations throughout the British Empire in the employ of electric companies, railways and other institutions. He taught at Stockport Grammar School. After a period in industry, he went up to Pembroke College, Cambridge, at the age of 31 but stayed only four terms and left without graduating. +He worked for the Westinghouse Electric Corporation of America and claimed to have been the Reconstruction Engineer for the British Westinghouse Company in India (the company has no record of him ever working there), Deputy Chief Engineer of the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway Company, Railway Engineer of the London Post Office (Tube) Railway and Assistant Superintendent of the Royal Aircraft Factory Farnborough during World War I, with a temporary commission as captain in the Royal Flying Corps. His second wife was Edith Mary Douglas, President of the Women's Engineering Society. + + +== Social credit == +While he was reorganising the work of the Royal Aircraft Establishment during World War I, Douglas noticed that the weekly total costs of goods produced was greater than the sums paid to workers for wages, salaries and dividends. This seemed to contradict the theory of classic Ricardian economics, saying that all costs are distributed simultaneously as purchasing power. +Troubled by the seeming difference between the way money flowed and the objectives of industry ("delivery of goods and services", in his view), Douglas set out to apply engineering methods to the economic system. +Douglas collected data from more than 100 large British businesses and found that all except those becoming bankrupt, spent less in salaries, wages and dividends than the value of goods and services produced each week: the workers were not paid enough to buy back what they had made. He published his observations and conclusions in an article in the magazine English Review where he suggested: "That we are living under a system of accountancy which renders the delivery of the nation's goods and services to itself a technical impossibility." The reason, Douglas concluded, was that the economic system was organized to maximize profits for those with economic power by creating unnecessary scarcity. Between 1916 and 1920, he developed his economic ideas, publishing two books in 1920, Economic Democracy and Credit-Power and Democracy, followed in 1924 by Social Credit. +The basis of Douglas's reform ideas was to free workers from this system by bringing purchasing power in line with production, which became known as social credit. His proposal had two main elements: a national dividend to distribute money (debt-free credit) equally to all citizens, over and above their earnings, to help bridge the gap between purchasing power and prices; also a price adjustment mechanism, called the "just price", to forestall inflation. The just price would effectively reduce retail prices by a percentage that reflected the physical efficiency of the production system. Douglas observed that the cost of production is consumption; meaning the exact physical cost of production is the total resources consumed in the production process. As the physical efficiency of production increases, the just price mechanism will reduce the price of products for the consumer. The consumers can then buy as much of what the producers produce that they want and automatically control what continues to be produced by their consumption of it. Individual freedom, primary economic freedom, was the central goal of Douglas's reform. +At the end of World War I, Douglas retired from engineering to promote his reform ideas full-time, which he would do for the rest of his life. His ideas inspired the Canadian social credit movement (which obtained control of Alberta's provincial government in 1935), the short-lived Douglas Credit Party in Australia and the longer-lasting Social Credit Political League in New Zealand. Douglas also lectured on social credit in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and Norway. +In 1923, he appeared as a witness before the Canadian Banking Inquiry, and in 1930 before the Macmillan Committee. In 1929 he made a lecture tour of Japan, where his ideas were enthusiastically received by industry and government. His 1933 edition of Social Credit made a reference to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which, while noting its dubious authenticity, wrote that what "is interesting about it, is the fidelity with which the methods by which such enslavement might be brought about can be seen reflected in the facts of everyday experience." + + +== Death and legacy == +Douglas died in his home in Fearnan, Scotland. Douglas and his theories are referred to several times (unsympathetically) in Lewis Grassic Gibbon's trilogy A Scots Quair. He is also mentioned, together with Karl Marx and Silvio Gesell, by John Maynard Keynes in The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936, p. 32). Douglas's theories permeate the poetry and economic writings of Ezra Pound. Robert Heinlein's first novel For Us, The Living: A Comedy of Customs describes a near future United States operating according to the principles of social credit. + + +== Publications == +Economic Democracy (1920) new edition: December 1974; Bloomfield Books; ISBN 0-904656-06-3 +Credit-Power and Democracy (1920) new edition: August 2011; BiblioLife; ISBN 978-1241274955 +The Control and Distribution of Production (1922) +Social Credit (1924, Revised 1933) new edition: December 1979; Institute of Economic Democracy, Canada; ISBN 0-920392-26-1 +Warning Democracy, C M Grieve, London; (1931) +The Monopoly of Credit (1931) new edition: 1979; Bloomfield Books; ISBN 0-904656-02-0 +The Use of Money (1935) +The Alberta Experiment: An Interim Survey (1937) +The Brief for the Prosecution, Legion for the Survival of Freedom, Incorporated; (December 1986) ISBN 0-949667-80-3 +Whose Service is Perfect Freedom?, Canada; Veritas Publishing Company; (June 1986) ISBN 0-949667-64-1 +The Big Idea, Veritas Publishing Company, Canada; (June 1986) ISBN 0-88636-000-5 +The Grip of Death, Jon Carpenter, UK; (May 1998) ISBN 1-897766-40-8 + + +== See also == + +Monetary reform +Monetary reform in Britain + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Janet Martin-Nielsen, "An Engineer’s View of an Ideal Society: The Economic Reforms of C.H. Douglas, 1916-1920", Spontaneous Generations, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2007), pp. 95–109 +George Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier, Chapter VI + + +== Further reading == +Major Douglas and Alberta Social Credit by Bob Hesketh ISBN 0-8020-4148-5 +Clifford Hugh Douglas by Anthony Cooney ISBN 0-9535077-4-2 +Four monetary heretics by Hugh Gaitskell in What Everybody Wants To Know About Money Gollancz 1936 + + +== External links == +Works by or about C. H. Douglas at the Internet Archive +Works by Clifford Hugh Douglas at Faded Page (Canada) +Social Credit Secretariat +Australian League of Rights online library +Guido Giacomo Preparata – Major Douglas in the witness box \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f9df37510 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Cabinet of curiosities" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:35.931697+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cabinets of curiosities (German: Kunstkammer [ˈkʊnstˌkamɐ] and Kunstkabinett [ˈkʊnstkabiˌnɛt]), also known as wonder-rooms (German: Wunderkammer [ˈvʊndɐˌkamɐ] ), were encyclopedic collections of objects whose categorical boundaries were, in Renaissance Europe, yet to be defined. Although more rudimentary collections had preceded them, the classic cabinets of curiosities emerged in the sixteenth century. The term cabinet originally described a room rather than a piece of furniture. Modern terminology would categorize the objects included as belonging to natural history (sometimes faked), geology, ethnography, archaeology, religious or historical relics, works of art (including cabinet paintings), and antiquities. In addition to the most famous and best documented cabinets of rulers and aristocrats, members of the merchant class and early practitioners of science in Europe formed collections that were precursors to museums. + +Cabinets of curiosities served not only as collections to reflect the particular interests of their curators but also as social devices to establish and uphold rank in society. There are said to be two main types of cabinets. As R. J. W. Evans notes, there could be "the princely cabinet, serving a largely representational function, and dominated by aesthetic concerns and a marked predilection for the exotic," or the less grandiose, "the more modest collection of the humanist scholar or virtuoso, which served more practical and scientific purposes." Evans goes on to explain that "no clear distinction existed between the two categories: all collecting was marked by curiosity, shading into credulity, and by some sort of universal underlying design". +In addition to cabinets of curiosity serving as an establisher of socioeconomic status for its curator, these cabinets served as entertainment, as particularly illustrated by the proceedings of the Royal Society, whose early meetings were often a sort of open floor to any Fellow to exhibit the findings his curiosities led him to. However purely educational or investigative these exhibitions may sound, the Fellows in this period supported the idea of "learned entertainment," or the alignment of learning with entertainment. This was not unusual, as the Royal Society had an earlier history of a love of the marvellous. This love was often exploited by eighteenth-century natural philosophers to secure the attention of their audience during their exhibitions. + +== History == + +=== To c. 1600 === +The earliest pictorial record of a natural history cabinet is the engraving in Ferrante Imperato's Dell'Historia Naturale (Naples 1599) (illustration). It serves to authenticate its author's credibility as a source of natural history information, by showing his open bookcases (at the right), in which many volumes are stored lying down and stacked, in the medieval fashion, or with their spines upward, to protect the pages from dust. Some of the volumes doubtless represent his herbarium. Every surface of the vaulted ceiling is occupied with preserved fishes, stuffed mammals and curious shells, with a stuffed crocodile suspended in the centre. Examples of corals stand on the bookcases. At the left, the room is fitted out like a studiolo with a range of built-in cabinets whose fronts can be unlocked and let down to reveal intricately fitted nests of pigeonholes forming architectural units, filled with small mineral specimens. Above them, stuffed birds stand against panels inlaid with square polished stone samples, doubtless marbles and jaspers or fitted with pigeonhole compartments for specimens. Below them, a range of cupboards contain specimen boxes and covered jars. + +In 1587 Gabriel Kaltemarckt advised Christian I of Saxony that three types of items were indispensable in forming a "Kunstkammer" or art collection: firstly sculptures and paintings; secondly "curious items from home or abroad"; and thirdly "antlers, horns, claws, feathers and other things belonging to strange and curious animals". When Albrecht Dürer visited the Netherlands in 1521, apart from artworks he sent back to Nuremberg various animal horns, a piece of coral, some large fish fins and a wooden weapon from the East Indies. +The highly characteristic range of interests represented in Frans II Francken's painting of 1636 (illustration, above) shows paintings on the wall that range from landscapes, including a moonlit scene—a genre in itself—to a portrait and a religious picture (the Adoration of the Magi) intermixed with preserved tropical marine fish and a string of carved beads, most likely amber, which is both precious and a natural curiosity. Sculptures both classical and secular (the sacrificing Libera, a Roman fertility goddess) on the one hand and modern and religious (Christ at the Column) are represented, while on the table are ranged, among the exotic shells (including some tropical ones and a shark's tooth): portrait miniatures, gem-stones mounted with pearls in a curious quatrefoil box, a set of sepia chiaroscuro woodcuts or drawings, and a small still-life painting leaning against a flower-piece, coins and medals—presumably Greek and Roman—and Roman terracotta oil-lamps, a Chinese-style brass lock, curious flasks, and a blue-and-white Ming porcelain bowl. + +The Kunstkammer of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (ruled 1576–1612), housed in the Hradschin at Prague, was unrivalled north of the Alps; it provided solace and retreat for contemplation that also served to demonstrate his imperial magnificence and power in the symbolic arrangement of their display, ceremoniously presented to visiting diplomats and magnates. +Rudolf's uncle, Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria, also had a collection, organized by his treasurer, Leopold Heyperger, which put special emphasis on paintings of people with interesting deformities, which remains largely intact as the Chamber of Art and Curiosities at Ambras Castle in Austria. "The Kunstkammer was regarded as a microcosm or theater of the world, and a memory theater. The Kunstkammer conveyed symbolically the patron's control of the world through its indoor, microscopic reproduction." Of Charles I of England's collection, Peter Thomas states succinctly, "The Kunstkabinett itself was a form of propaganda." + +=== 17th century === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4d030138d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Cabinet of curiosities" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:35.931697+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Two of the most famously described seventeenth-century cabinets were those of Ole Worm, known as Olaus Wormius (1588–1654) (illustration, above right), and Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680). These seventeenth-century cabinets were filled with preserved animals, horns, tusks, skeletons, minerals, as well as other interesting man-made objects: sculptures wondrously old, wondrously fine or wondrously small; clockwork automata; ethnographic specimens from exotic locations. Often they would contain a mix of fact and fiction, including apparently mythical creatures. Worm's collection contained, for example, what he thought was a Scythian Lamb, a woolly fern thought to be a plant/sheep fabulous creature. However he was also responsible for identifying the narwhal's tusk as coming from a whale rather than a unicorn, as most owners of these believed. The specimens displayed were often collected during exploring expeditions and trading voyages. +Cabinets of curiosities would often serve scientific advancement when images of their contents were published. The catalog of Worm's collection, published as the Museum Wormianum (1655), used the collection of artifacts as a starting point for Worm's speculations on philosophy, science, natural history, and more. +Cabinets of curiosities were limited to those who could afford to create and maintain them. Many monarchs, in particular, developed large collections. A rather under-used example, stronger in art than other areas, was the Studiolo of Francesco I, the first Medici Grand-Duke of Tuscany. Frederick III of Denmark, who added Worm's collection to his own after Worm's death, was another such monarch. A third example is the Kunstkamera founded by Peter the Great in Saint Petersburg in 1714. Many items were bought in Amsterdam from Albertus Seba and Frederik Ruysch. The fabulous Habsburg Imperial collection included important Aztec artifacts, including the feather head-dress or crown of Montezuma now in the Museum of Ethnology, Vienna. +Similar collections on a smaller scale were the complex Kunstschränke produced in the early seventeenth century by the Augsburg merchant, diplomat and collector Philipp Hainhofer. These were cabinets in the sense of pieces of furniture, made from all imaginable exotic and expensive materials and filled with contents and ornamental details intended to reflect the entire cosmos on a miniature scale. The best preserved example is the one given by the city of Augsburg to King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632, which is kept in the Museum Gustavianum in Uppsala. The curio cabinet, as a modern single piece of furniture, is a version of the grander historical examples. +The juxtaposition of such disparate objects, according to Horst Bredekamp's analysis (Bredekamp 1995), encouraged comparisons, finding analogies and parallels and favoured the cultural change from a world viewed as static to a dynamic view of endlessly transforming natural history and a historical perspective that led in the seventeenth century to the germs of a scientific view of reality. + +=== 18th century and after === + +In seventeenth-century parlance, both French and English, a cabinet came to signify a collection of works of art, which might still also include an assembly of objects of virtù or curiosities, such as a virtuoso would find intellectually stimulating. In 1714, Michael Bernhard Valentini published an early museological work, Museum Museorum, an account of the cabinets known to him with catalogues of their contents. + +In the second half of the eighteenth century, Belsazar Hacquet (c. 1735 – 1815) operated in Ljubljana, then the capital of Carniola, a natural history cabinet (German: Naturalienkabinet) that was appreciated throughout Europe and was visited by the highest nobility, including the Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph II, the Russian grand duke Paul and Pope Pius VI, as well as by famous naturalists, such as Francesco Griselini and Franz Benedikt Hermann. It included a number of minerals, including specimens of mercury from the Idrija mine, a herbarium vivum with over 4,000 specimens of Carniolan and foreign plants, a smaller number of animal specimens, a natural history and medical library, and an anatomical theatre. +A late example of the juxtaposition of natural materials with richly worked artifice is provided by the "Green Vaults" formed by Augustus the Strong in Dresden to display his chamber of wonders. The "Enlightenment Gallery" in the British Museum, installed in the former "Kings Library" room in 2003 to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the museum, aims to recreate the abundance and diversity that still characterized museums in the mid-eighteenth century, mixing shells, rock samples and botanical specimens with a great variety of artworks and other man-made objects from all over the world. +Some strands of the early universal collections, the bizarre or freakish biological specimens, whether genuine or fake, and the more exotic historical objects, could find a home in commercial freak shows and sideshows. + +=== England === + +In 1671, when visiting Thomas Browne (1605–1682), the courtier John Evelyn remarked, + +His whole house and garden is a paradise and Cabinet of rarities and that of the best collection, amongst Medails, books, Plants, natural things. +Late in his life Browne parodied the rising trend of collecting curiosities in his tract Musaeum Clausum, an inventory of dubious, rumoured and non-existent books, pictures and objects. + +Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753) an English physician, member of the Royal Society and the Royal College of Physicians, and the founder of the British Museum in London, began sporadically collecting plants in England and France while studying medicine. In 1687, the Duke of Albemarle offered Sloane a position as personal physician to the West Indies fleet at Jamaica. He accepted and spent fifteen months collecting and cataloguing the native plants, animals, and artificial curiosities (e.g. cultural artifacts of native and enslaved African populations) of Jamaica. This became the basis for his two volume work, Natural History of Jamaica, published in 1707 and 1725. Sloane returned to England in 1689 with over eight hundred specimens of plants, which were live or mounted on heavy paper in an eight-volume herbarium. He also attempted to bring back live animals (e.g., snakes, an alligator, and an iguana) but they all died before reaching England. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d71e999c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Cabinet of curiosities" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:35.931697+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sloane meticulously cataloged and created extensive records for most of the specimens and objects in his collection. He also began to acquire other collections by gift or purchase. Herman Boerhaave gave him four volumes of plants from Boerhaave's gardens at Leiden. William Charleton, in a bequest in 1702, gave Sloane numerous books of birds, fish, flowers, and shells and his miscellaneous museum consisting of curiosities, miniatures, insects, medals, animals, minerals, precious stones and curiosities in amber. Sloane purchased Leonard Plukenet's collection in 1710. It consisted of twenty-three volumes with over 8,000 plants from Africa, India, Japan and China. Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort (1630–1715), left him a twelve-volume herbarium from her gardens at Chelsea and Badminton upon her death in 1714. Reverend Adam Buddle gave Sloane thirteen volumes of British plants. In 1716, Sloane purchased Engelbert Kaempfer's volume of Japanese plants and James Petiver's virtual museum of approximately one hundred volumes of plants from Europe, North America, Africa, the Near East, India, and the Orient. Mark Catesby gave him plants from North America and the West Indies from an expedition funded by Sloane. Philip Miller gave him twelve volumes of plants grown from the Chelsea Physic Garden. +Sloane acquired approximately three hundred and fifty artificial curiosities from North American Indians, Inuit, South America, Lapland, Siberia, East Indies, and the West Indies, including nine items from Jamaica. +"These ethnological artifacts were important because they established a field of collection for the British Museum that was to increase greatly with the explorations of Captain James Cook in Oceania and Australia and the rapid expansion of the British Empire." +Upon his death in 1753, Sloane bequeathed his sizable collection of 337 volumes to England for £20,000. In 1759, George II's royal library was added to Sloane's collection to form the foundation of the British Museum. +John Tradescant the Elder (circa 1570s–1638) was a gardener, naturalist, and botanist in the employ of the Duke of Buckingham. He collected plants, bulbs, flowers, vines, berries, and fruit trees from Russia, the Levant, Algiers, France, Bermuda, the Caribbean, and the East Indies. His son, John Tradescant the Younger (1608–1662) traveled to Virginia in 1637 and collected flowers, plants, shells, an Indian deerskin mantle believed to have belonged to Powhatan, father of Pocahontas. Father and son, in addition to botanical specimens, collected zoological (e.g., the dodo from Mauritius, the upper jaw of a walrus, and armadillos), artificial curiosities (e.g., wampum belts, portraits, lathe turned ivory, weapons, costumes, Oriental footwear and carved alabaster panels) and rarities (e.g., a mermaid's hand, a dragon's egg, two feathers of a phoenix's tail, a piece of the True Cross, and a vial of blood that rained in the Isle of Wight). By the 1630s, the Tradescants displayed their eclectic collection at their residence in South Lambeth. Tradescant's Ark, as it came to be known, was the earliest major cabinet of curiosity in England and open to the public for a small entrance fee. +Elias Ashmole (1617–1692) was a lawyer, chemist, antiquarian, Freemason, and a member of the Royal Society with a keen interest in astrology, alchemy, and botany. Ashmole was also a neighbor of the Tradescants in Lambeth. He financed the publication of Musaeum Tradescantianum, a catalogue of the Ark collection in 1656. Ashmole, a collector in his own right, acquired the Tradescant Ark in 1659 and added it to his collection of astrological, medical, and historical manuscripts. In 1675, he donated his library and collection and the Tradescant collection to the University of Oxford, provided that a suitable building be provided to house the collection. Ashmole's donation formed the foundation of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. +Places of exhibitions of and places of new societies that promoted natural knowledge also seemed to culture the idea of perfect civility. Some scholars propose that this was "a reaction against the dogmatism and enthusiasm of the English Civil War and Interregum [sic]." This move to politeness put bars on how one should behave and interact socially, which enabled the distinguishing of the polite from the supposed common or more vulgar members of society. Exhibitions of curiosities (as they were typically odd and foreign marvels) attracted a wide, more general audience, which "[rendered] them more suitable subjects of polite discourse at the Society." +A subject was considered less suitable for polite discourse if the curiosity being displayed was accompanied by too much other material evidence, as it allowed for less conjecture and exploration of ideas regarding the displayed curiosity. Because of this, many displays simply included a concise description of the phenomena and avoided any mention of explanation for the phenomena. Quentin Skinner describes the early Royal Society as "something much more like a gentleman's club," an idea supported by John Evelyn, who depicts the Royal Society as "an Assembly of many honorable Gentlemen, who meete inoffensively together under his Majesty's Royal Cognizance; and to entertaine themselves ingenously, whilst their other domestique avocations or publique business deprives them of being always in the company of learned men and that they cannot dwell forever in the Universities." +Cabinets of Curiosities can now be found at Snowshill Manor and Wallington Hall, and the Ashmolean Museum has a display of items from its disparate Ashmole and Tradescant founding collections. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3adba7514 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Cabinet of curiosities" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:35.931697+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== United States === +Thomas Dent Mutter (1811–1859) was an early American pioneer of reconstructive plastic surgery. His specialty was repairing congenital anomalies, cleft lip and palates, and club foot. He also collected medical oddities, tumors, anatomical and pathological specimens, wet and dry preparations, wax models, plaster casts, and illustrations of medical deformities. This collection began as a teaching tool for young physicians. Just prior to Mütter's death in 1859, he donated 1,344 items to the American College of Physicians in Philadelphia, along with a $30,000 endowment for the maintenance and expansion of his museum. Mütter's collection was added to ninety-two pathological specimens collected by Doctor Isaac Parrish between 1849 and 1852. The Mütter Museum began to collect antique medical equipment in 1871, including Benjamin Rush's medical chest and Florence Nightingale's sewing kit. In 1874 the museum acquired one hundred human skulls from Austrian anatomist and phrenologist, Joseph Hyrtl (1810–1894); a nineteenth-century corpse, dubbed the "soap lady"; the conjoined liver and death cast of Chang and Eng Bunker, the Siamese twins; and in 1893, Grover Cleveland's jaw tumor. The Mütter Museum is an excellent example of a nineteenth-century grotesque cabinet of medical curiosities. +P. T. Barnum established Barnum's American Museum on five floors in New York, "perpetuating into the 1860s the Wunderkammer tradition of curiosities for gullible, often slow-moving throngs—Barnum's famously sly but effective method of crowd control was to post a sign, 'THIS WAY TO THE EGRESS!' at the exit door". +In 1908, New York businessmen formed the Hobby Club, a dining club limited to 50 men, in order to showcase their "cabinets of wonder" and their selected collections. These included literary specimens and incunabula; antiquities such as ancient armour; precious stones and geological items of interest. Annual formal dinners would be used to open the various collections up to inspection for the other members of the club. + +== Declining influence == +By the early decades of the eighteenth century, curiosities and wondrous specimens had begun to lose their influence among European natural philosophers. As Enlightenment thinkers placed growing emphasis on patterns and systems within nature, anomalies and rarities came to be regarded as potentially misleading objects of study. Curiosities, previously interpreted as divine messages and expressions of nature's variety, were increasingly seen as vulgar exceptions to nature's overall uniformity. + +== Notable collections started in this way == +Ashmolean Museum Oxford – Ashmole and Tradescant collections +Boerhaave Museum in Leiden +British Museum in London – Sir Hans Sloane's and other collections +Chamber of Art and Curiosities, Ambras Castle in Austria, remains largely intact +Deyrolle in Paris +Fondation Calvet, Avignon +Grünes Gewölbe in Dresden +Kunstkamera in Saint Petersburg, Russia +Pitt Rivers Museum (Oxford, England) – former Ashmolean dodo +Teylers Museum in Haarlem +World Museum in Liverpool – 13th Earl of Derby's collection + +== In contemporary culture == + +The Houston Museum of Natural Science houses a hands-on Cabinet of Curiosities, complete with taxidermied crocodile embedded in the ceiling a la Ferrante Imperato's Dell'Historia Naturale. In Los Angeles, the modern-day Museum of Jurassic Technology anachronistically seeks to recreate the sense of wonder that the old cabinets of curiosity once aroused. +In Spring Green, Wisconsin, the house and museum of Alex Jordan, known as House on the Rock, can also be interpreted as a modern day curiosity cabinet, especially in the collection and display of automatons. In Bristol, Rhode Island, Musée Patamécanique is presented as a hybrid between an automaton theater and a cabinet of curiosities and contains works representing the field of Patamechanics, an artistic practice and area of study chiefly inspired by Pataphysics. +The idea of a cabinet of curiosities has also appeared in recent publications and performances. For example, Cabinet magazine is a quarterly magazine that juxtaposes apparently unrelated cultural artifacts and phenomena to show their interconnectedness in ways that encourage curiosity about the world. The Italian cultural association Wunderkamern uses the theme of historical cabinets of curiosities to explore how "amazement" is manifested within today's artistic discourse. In May 2008, the University of Leeds Fine Art BA programme hosted a show called "Wunder Kammer", the culmination of research and practice from students, which allowed viewers to encounter work from across all disciplines, ranging from intimate installation to thought-provoking video and highly skilled drawing, punctuated by live performances. +The concept has been reinterpreted at The Viktor Wynd Museum of Curiosities, Fine Art & Natural History. In July 2021 a new Cabinet of Curiosities room was opened at The Whitaker Museum & Art Gallery in Rawtenstall, Lancashire, curated by artist Bob Frith, founder of Horse and Bamboo Theatre. +Several internet bloggers describe their sites as "wunderkammern" either because they are primarily links to interesting things, or inspire wonder similarly to the original wunderkammern (see External Links, below). Researcher Robert Gehl describes such internet video sites as YouTube as modern-day wunderkammern, although in danger of being refined into capitalist institutions "just as professionalized curators refined Wunderkammers into the modern museum in the 18th century." + +== See also == +Antiquarian +Holophusikon +Found objects +Guillermo del Toro's Cabinet of Curiosities +Imaginarium +Maximalism +Medical oddities +Museum + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..52f7390f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Cabinet of curiosities" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:35.931697+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Further reading == +Under the Sign: John Bargrave as Collector, Traveler, and Witness, Stephen Bann, Michigan, 1995 +Beßler, Gabriele, Chambers of Art and Wonders, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2015, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (pdf). +The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe, ed. Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor, 2001, paperback, 431 pages, ISBN 1-84232-132-3 +Cabinets for the curious: looking back at early English museums, Ken Arnold, Ashgate, 2006, ISBN 0-7546-0506-X. +Mr. Wilson's Cabinet Of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, and Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology, Lawrence Weschler, 1996, trade paperback, 192 pages, ISBN 0-679-76489-5 (see website link above) +The Cabinet of Curiosities (novel), Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child, Warner Books, 2003, paperback, ISBN 0-446-61123-9. +Helmar Schramm et al. (ed.). Collection, Laboratory, Theater. Scenes of Knowledge in the 17th Century, Berlin/New York 2005, ISBN 978-3-11-017736-7 +The Lure of Antiquity and the Cult of the Machine: The Kunstkammer and the Evolution of Nature, Art and Technology Horst Bredekamp (Allison Brown, translator) (Princeton: Marcus Weiner) 1995. +Steven Lubar, "Cabinets of Curiosity: What they were, why they disappeared, and why they’re so popular now" + +== External links == + +Historic cabinets + +J. Paul Getty Museum Augsburg Cabinet: 3-D model online interactive with high-resolution photography, description of subjects depicted, and mapping of exotic materials +Ashmolean Museum: Powhatan's Mantle, pictures, full descriptions and history +The Augsburg Art Cabinet, about the Uppsala art cabinet +Dutch influence on 'wunderkammer' or 'rariteitenkabinet' +The King's Kunstkammer, a Danish Internet exhibition on the idea behind renaissance art and curiosity chambers (text in English) +Metropolitan Museum, New York: Collecting for the Kunstkammer exhibition +Rijksmuseum Amsterdam: Presentation and very large and detailed image of the art cabinet made for Duke August of Brunswick-Lüneburg +Smithsonian Institution: Crocodiles on the Ceiling exhibition +Website with photos of remaining Germanic cabinets +Wunderkammer Theorie High resolution images of two Wunderkammer +Kunstkammer Image rich German site of Kunstkammer and Wunderkammer +Idols of the Cave A history of science website devoted to Wunderkammern +Salvadoriana History and current items of the Wunderkammer that the Salvador family started in the 17th century in Barcelona +Modern "cabinets" + +Cabinets of Curiosities. Museum in Waco, Texas, with a Cabinets of Curiosities Room named for John K. Strecker, who was curator for 30 years, the museum was established in 1893 and was the oldest museum in Texas when it closed in 2003 to be incorporated into the Mayborn Museum Complex. +A Small Wunderkammer. Web magazine issue dedicated to building a small, contemporary cabinet of curiosities. +MuseumZeitraum Leipzig. Work and collections of the pioneering German modernist Johann Dieter Wassmann (1841–1898). +The Renwick Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution includes a contemporary cabinet of curiosity entitled "Bureau of Bureaucracy" by Kim Schmahmann. +Weblog modern equivalent of a Wunderkammer (anthropology essay) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gunnar_Engström-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gunnar_Engström-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..806cb90f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gunnar_Engström-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Carl Gunnar Engström" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gunnar_Engström" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:52.416806+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Carl Gunnar David Engström (1 September 1912 – 9 January 1987) was a Swedish physician and innovator. He is the inventor of the first intermittent positive pressure mechanical ventilator that could deliver breaths of controllable volume and frequency and also deliver inhalation anesthetics. +The Engström150 Respirator (EngströmUniversal Respirator) began series production in 1954. The basic principle of the mechanical ventilator is still the same today, but a technological leap was made with the Siemens-Elema servo fan in the 1970s. + + +== Life == +Engström was born on 1 September 1912 in Oskarshamn to Carl Johan Engström and Judith Ringberg. He obtained is degree in medicine in 1941. He worked from 1941 at Stockholm Hospital for Infectious Diseases and started to work in the Swedish Air Force in 1956. He got his PhD in medicine at Uppsala University in 1963 with a thesis entitled The clinical application of prolonged controlled ventilation: with special reference to a method developed by the author. +Before the invention of Engström, the only available respirator was the iron lung. It is a negative pressure ventilator, a mechanical respirator which encloses most of a person's body, and varies the air pressure in the enclosed space, to stimulate breathing. It assists breathing when muscle control is lost, or the work of breathing exceeds the person's ability suffering from polio and botulism and certain poisons (for example, barbiturates, tubocurarine). +Rows of iron lungs filled hospital wards at the height of the polio outbreaks of the 1940s and 1950s helping children, and some adults, with bulbar polio and bulbospinal polio. A polio patient with a paralyzed diaphragm would typically spend two weeks inside an iron lung while recovering. This machine kept the patient breathing, with the help of underpressure and overpressure. The whole body, except the head, was placed in a pressure chamber, where it was not possible to regulate how much air the patient received. Engstrom found that the iron lungs did not adequately ventilate patients with severe poliomyelitis. +This problem solved Engström with his respirator, by blowing air into the patient's lungs via a simple tube through the trachea. The respirator had a cylinder and a pump to determine the amount of air. A tube was inserted into the patient's trachea, a small balloon was inflated as a seal around the tube, and then the respirator pumped air into the lungs. The amount of air and the amount per unit of time was set with a knob. +Engström patented the respirator in 1950. Engstrom's respirators were used for the first time in Blegdams Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark, during a polio outbreak in 1952. Engström respirators were also tested in the 1953 Swedish polio epidemic. +The Engstrom 150 Respirator (Engstrom Universal Respirator) began series production in 1954. Mivab, the company that first manufactured Engström's respirator, is today a part of the Datex / Ohmeda division of General Electric Health Care. +Positive pressure ventilation systems are now more common than negative pressure systems like the iron lungs. It proved to be lifesaving in other conditions including respiratory insufficiency and soon superseded the iron lung throughout Europe. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Image of the 1954 Engstrom 150 respirator at www.woodlibrarymuseum.org +Picture of Carl-Gunnar Engström, page 12 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavallo's_multiplier-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavallo's_multiplier-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ae96fb9b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavallo's_multiplier-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Cavallo's multiplier" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavallo's_multiplier" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:37.078596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cavallo's multiplier was an early electrostatic influence machine, invented in 1795 by the Anglo-Italian natural philosopher Tiberius Cavallo. Its purpose was to multiply, or amplify, a small electric charge to a level where it was detectable by the insensitive electroscopes of the day. Repeated operation of the device could produce voltages high enough to generate sparks. + + +== Description == +Cavallo described his machine in his 1795 Treatise on Electricity. He had examined Bennet's charge doubler of 1787 and found it wanting in several regards, notably in its inconsistent operation and tendency to retain the charge from an earlier experiment. Cavallo resolved to build a better device. His machine consisted of four metal plates supported on a wooden board by posts, of which three were insulating and one conducting. +The charge to be multiplied was applied to the first of these (plate A), which stood on an insulating post. A moveable insulated metal plate (B) was brought close to A (though not permitted to touch it), and then grounded. The charge on A caused charge separation on B due to electrostatic induction. Plate B was then moved away, breaking its earth connection. Since B was insulated, it acquired and retained a small charge opposite in sign to the charge on A. Plate B was transferred by means of an insulating rod to be brought into electrical contact with the third metal plate C which was insulated. Since both B and C were conducting, B would transfer a portion of its charge to C. To maximise the transferred charge, C was placed in close proximity to a final metal plate D, which was earthed. +The experimenter would move Plate B repeatedly back and forth, placing it near to A and earthed at one end of its motion, and then into contact with C at the other. With each cycle, charge was drawn from the Earth and added to C. After a suitable number of cycles, the grounded plate D would be removed, and the electrostatic potential on C would rise to approximately the potential of A multiplied by the number of operations. +Cavallo termed his device a multiplier, though 'addition' was perhaps a more accurate description of its operation, as the charge on C was accumulated by successive additions. + + +== Wilson's machine == +Wilson's machine, described by its inventor in Nicholson's Journal in August 1804, was a development on this concept which simultaneously operated two Cavallo's multipliers by means of a pair of reciprocating levers. One side would accumulate the charge of the other, and since the two accumulating plates were connected together by means of a wire, Wilson's machine was a true multiplier, rather than an addition machine. The charge would thus accumulate more rapidly than Cavallo's multiplier and the machine could generate high voltages in a short period of time. It moreover was self-exciting, needing no initial charge to operate, as the small initial charge acquired from contact electrification was enough to start the accumulation process. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Video of reproduction Wilson's machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4db2ce15 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:38.333218+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Celestial Sphere (also known as the Woodrow Wilson Memorial Sphere) is an armillary sphere artpiece situated in the Palais des Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, one of the four headquarters of the United Nations. It was donated in 1939 by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to what was then the League of Nations building. It is today a symbol of Geneva International and of Geneva as the centre of dialogue and peace. +The grounds of the Palais des Nations (seat of the United Nations Office at Geneva) contain many fine objects donated by member states of the United Nations, private sponsors and artists. One of them is the huge—over four-meter-diameter—Celestial Sphere is the chef d'oeuvre of the American sculptor Paul Manship (1885–1966) located in the Ariana Park of the Palais des Nations. + +== History == +Contacted in late 1935 by the Board of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation, Manship was asked to provide an idea for a memorial to President of the United States Woodrow Wilson as the founding father of the League of Nations. At that time the Palais des Nations was still under construction. + +The first idea for Manship's contribution to the new buildings was to have him design two doors to the Assembly Hall from the Halle des Pas Perdus. Both the artist and the donor, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation, rejected this idea because doors would not be suitable for a memorial. Manship then proposed a large-scale version of the present celestial sphere, which he had developed after years of study. It is based upon several earlier versions, including the Aero Memorial in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It differs from these in that the Sphere is supported upon the backs of four tortoises, taken from his models for the gates to the New York Bronx Zoo, which in turn rest upon a stepped socle bearing a cast representation of the Chinese "celestial sea" (Hai Shui Jiang Ya). The tortoises may therefore be thought to represent the Chinese tortoise of immortality (Ao) - an auspicious symbol from Tang times on. Other zodiac signs come from the world's major civilizations, both past and present. +Manship described this sphere in the following words: + +The representation of the heavenly constellations is derived from Babylonia and Assyria: the Greeks and Latins added their names and gave the constellations a local significance in some cases and I have adhered as closely as possible to the ancient forms. Thus the star, Aldebaran, which represents the eye of Taurus, dictates the character of the design, as is also the case of Regulus, Leo's Heart, and so with all the constellations. The forms and attitudes of the figures have been made to correspond firstly with the positions and the meanings of the emblems themselves. After that the inter-relationship of the constellations was designed to create a harmonious ensemble. +In a letter written by Ham Armstrong to Arthus Sweetser dated 30 June 1935, we read that the building committee considered the Celestial Sphere, which they had seen in Paris, superb, not only in originality of conception, but in delicacy of execution and in spirituality of meaning. However, two obstacles were foreseen; first, that it would cost more than the budget available and, second, that it would be difficult to obtain the approval of committee in New York and Geneva on anything so novel and non-utilitarian. Nonetheless, Manship's proposal for a monumental celestial sphere was accepted and a commission for the project was awarded to him in April 1936. + +== Process == +In spring of 1936, immediately after the approval by the committee, Manship began working on a large-scale model in wax. At his atelier, he gathered a team of sculptors and other artists to work on the various aspects of the design. The team included such famous names as Angelo Colombo, Giuseppe Massari, and Richard Pousette-Dart, the renowned painter who collaborated with Herbert Kammerer on the sphere's lettering. +The original plaster moulds, executed by Flitzer, were ready in 1938 and were sent to the Bruno Bearzi Atelier in Florence for casting. Bearzi cast the sphere's elements from these plaster moulds using a cire-perdu process from a bronze/zinc high-tin alloy with added lead. The constellations were originally gilded, with chrome-silvered starts. The meridians and architectural elements of the composition have been variously nielloed. +The Celestial Sphere measures 410 cm. in diameter and weighs some 5,800 kg. The spherical frame is adorned with constellations and stars. The Sphere represents 85 constellations of the universe and shows four stars of the first four magnitudes. The constellations are gilded and the 840 stars are silvered. As his signature, it bears Manship's self-portrait with his tools, in profile, hidden among the constellations. + +== A place for the Celestial Sphere == +One of the main difficulties was to find a location for the sphere. Even though Manship designed it for the Court of Honour in front of the Assembly Hall, the question was raised in 1937 whether this space should be left completely open for a full panorama. When neither the Woodrow Wilson Foundation nor the artist wanted to hear of a change in 1938, it was decided to put the sphere in the middle of the Park, not too close to the building and not too close to the trees. The sphere was placed in a small reservoir that would reflect the image of the sphere and the building in the water. The sphere was installed in its present location, in the Court d'Honneur of the Ariana park of the Palais des Nations by the Bearzi Atelier in August 1939. The official inauguration of what has become a United Nations symbol took place in September 1939. +The sphere is equipped with a motor. In the words of the artist it was designed "so that it would rotate slowly" around an axis turned to the Pole star, and it was intended to be illuminated at night. + +== Concerns == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2432c9a53 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:38.333218+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Dysfunctional rotation system and illumination === +Due to the outbreak of the Second World War the rotation motor of the Celestial Sphere was used for several months only. In the files of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation, the following brief description was found: "A complex silence and solitude reigned; the great ceremony of dedication, with the 30th Assembly in session, had become impossible: only an occasional chance visitor and a few especially interested Americans watched the Italians putting the great sphere, representative of universal comity, into its place of high honour." The rotation motor of the Celestial Sphere was not used during 1940–1945 and ceased to function in the early 1960s. + +=== Deteriorating conditions === +The sphere began to have significant problems as early as 1942. The alloy used by the Bearzi Atelier contracted so sharply during the winter that a considerable amount of water could and did enter the hollow constellations. The freezing of that water caused the metal to crack. Already several of the constellations had to be repaired in 1942–43 and at least one cover of a meridian had to be replaced after falling off. "Weep holes" were drilled in all the constellations at that time to allow the water to drain out. The socle, which bears the whole of the 5,800 kg weight, has cracked. Large areas of corrosion and uneven natural patina are seen. The 840 chrome-plated stars, once present in four sizes, have been widely lost. The sphere cage is at the limit of its weight bearing load. Metal fatigue, cracks and corrosion have increasingly added to its deterioration. + +=== Restorations === +A restoration of the monument was first undertaken in 1983, qualified as "clumsy" for using materials such as concrete in filling parts of the shallow pieces. +In 2003, some elements of the sphere were regilded towards a start of, restoration although it had to be delated for more than a decade. Finally, in the late 2010s, thanks to the funding by "an anonymous donation," the sculpture was newly restored in Italy by the Ferdinando Marinelli Artistic Foundry. + +== Symbol of Peace "Pax Universalis" == +Today the Celestial Sphere stands in the Court d’Honneur of the Palais des Nations, itself an important landmark of the City of Geneva. It serves as a vivid reminder that despite all cultural and religious differences we are inhabitants of one and the same planet of the galaxy, the Earth. The time has come to think in terms of Pax Universalis rather than of other Paxes, and one of the contributors to a Pax Universalis is an action-oriented dialogue, based on common human values and the ideals of the United Nations. + +== Gallery == + +== References == + +Jean-Claude Pallas (2001). Histoire et architecture des Palais des Nations, 1924-2001: l'art déco au service des relations internationales, Nations Unies, pp. 48, 65, 100, 111, 354. +Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Edgar Burkhardt Nixon, Donald B. Schewe (1979)Franklin D. Roosevelt and foreign affairs, second series, January 1937-August 1939. +Ernest Willian Watson, Arthur Leighton Guptill (1951), American artist, Watson-Guptil Publications. +Janis C. Conner, Joel Rosenkranz, David Finn (1989). Rediscoveries in American sculpture: studio works, 1893-1939. +(2006).Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, p. 264. +I.Dembinski (2009). International Geneva Yearbook 2008, Dominique Dembinski-Goumard, p. 341. +Harry Rand (1989). Paul Manship Smithsonian Institution Press, p. 124-126. +(1949). United Nations world, UN World Inc., p. 63. +Albert Picot (1965). Le rayonnement international de Genève, Editions du Griffon. +Laure De Gonneville (2009). Suisse 2009 Edition Petite Futé. +(2006). Geneva - centre for new dialogue among civilizations, UN Special Magazine, No. 652 (www.unspecial.org) +(2008). Pax Universalis Aeternaque, UN Special Magazine, No. 671 (www.unspecial.org) +Christian David and Evelina Rioukhina (2010). The Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial, UN Special (magazine), No. 699 +Tom Armstrong (1976). 200 years of American sculpture, Whitney Museum of American Art +(1985) Paul Manship: changing taste in America: 19 May to 18 August 1985, Minnesota Museum of Art, Landmark Center. +(2000). Booklet “The Dutch 17th Century in Etchings” for the exhibition of Rembrandt at the United Nations by Museum Geelvinck Hinlopen Huis (with the project proposals by Maecenas World Patrimony Foundation (www.maecenasworldpatrimony.org) “Contribute to the Cycle of Life – the restoration of the Armillary Sphere”, Geneva. +Alastair Duncan (1986). American art deco, Abrams. +Carol Hynning Smith (1987). Drawings by Paul Manship: the Minnesota Museum of Art collection, Minnesota Museum of Art. + +== External links == + +Genève tourisme Archived 2005-03-18 at the Wayback Machine +La Genève internationale +Peace monuments in Switzerland +UN Special magazine +Maecenas World Patrimony Foundation \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_History_and_Philosophy_of_Science,_University_of_Leeds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_History_and_Philosophy_of_Science,_University_of_Leeds-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bed89f145 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_History_and_Philosophy_of_Science,_University_of_Leeds-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Centre for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_History_and_Philosophy_of_Science,_University_of_Leeds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:54.673496+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Centre for History and Philosophy of Science is a research centre devoted to the historical and philosophical study of science, technology and medicine, based in the School of Philosophy, Religion and History of Science, at the University of Leeds in West Yorkshire, England. The Centre – previously known as the Division of History and Philosophy of Science, which was founded in 1956 – is one of the oldest units of its kind in the world. Throughout its history, the Centre has been home to many of the leading historians and philosophers of science who have deepened our understanding of scientific activity and how it shapes and is shaped by wider society. + + +== History == +The key figure in establishing history and philosophy of science (HPS) as a discipline at Leeds was the philosopher of science Stephen Toulmin, who was appointed Professor of Philosophy at Leeds in 1954 and head of department in 1956. Whilst Thomas Kuhn is often seen as the founder of the modern field of history and philosophy of science, Toulmin had argued for an integration of philosophy of science and history of science some nine years before Kuhn published his famous work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. The distinguished philosophy of science, Mary Hesse, who was based at Leeds from 1951-55 as a lecturer in mathematics, was also instrumental in establishing what became the Division of History and Philosophy of Science. One of the earliest PhD students in the division was the historian and author June Goodfield, who graduated in 1959 before a varied career spanning appointments at Wellesley College, Michigan State University, and George Washington University. +The 1970s saw a period of further expansion of the Division, with the appointments of John Christie, Jonathan Hodge (recipient in 2019 of the distinguished Hull Prize awarded by the ISHPSSB), and Geoffrey Cantor following the arrival of Robert Olby. Olby in particular became a leading figure in the Division, not least through his ground-breaking book, Path to the Double Helix, which showed how the 1953 discoveries of Crick and Watson were rooted in the work of two University of Leeds scientists: the creator of molecular biology, William Astbury, and the Nobel prizewinning inventor of X-ray crystallography, William Henry Bragg. Cantor, Christie, Hodge, and Olby formed the core of the Division for the following decade, culminating in the joint publication of the major reference text, Companion to the History of Modern Science (1989), known locally simply as the Leeds Companion. This cemented the reputation of the Division, which made regular further appointments over the following years, before becoming incorporated as a Centre within the School of Philosophy, Religion and History of Science in 2013. +Since its inception the Centre, now a core part of the broader School of Philosophy, Religion and History of Science, has fostered the development of significant figures in history and philosophy of science, including Jerry Ravetz, who wrote in Leeds one of the foundational works of Post-normal science. Major research projects, especially Science in the Nineteenth Century Periodical, Owning and Disowning Invention, the Leeds Genetics Pedagogies Project, and Scientific Realism and the Quantum, have been based in the Centre, with significant collaboration across other research institutions within and beyond the UK. + + +== Degree Programmes == +The Centre has a long history of innovation in teaching the history and philosophy of science, particularly in conjunction with other subject areas in both the sciences and the arts and humanities. At undergraduate level the suite# includes Joint Honours degree programmes in history and philosophy of science with history, biology, physics, or philosophy, and a unique programme in Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Thought. At Masters level the MA History of Science, Technology and Medicine is the Centre's flagship programme, and prepares students for a wide range of careers as well as further historical research. The Centre maintains a sizeable cohort of doctoral researchers, and has since 2007 received the largest number of AHRC Collaborative Doctoral Awards of any academic unit in the UK. + + +== Activities == +The Centre runs two major seminar series during the academic year, each of which cuts across the broad field of history and philosophy of science. The fortnightly HPS Seminar Series features a diverse range of field-leading speakers from within the UK and internationally. Meanwhile the weekly HPS Work-in-progress Seminar Series serves as a testing ground for postgraduate researchers and academic members of the Centre, who showcase their research at various stages of development, from inception of ideas to preparing for publication. Other focal points include regular reading groups, particularly in history and philosophy of biology and the history of technology, and stand-alone conferences. +Research in the Centre has been supported by a range of funding bodies, including the AHRC, UK Research and Innovation, Wellcome Trust, National Science Foundation, British Academy, and Leverhulme Trust. The Centre has been involved in significant partnership work with science and heritage organisations, including the Leeds-based Thackray Museum of Medicine, Science Museum Group, Leeds Museums & Galleries, Action on Hearing Loss, BT Archives, Women's Engineering Society, British Library, and National Institute of Agricultural Botany. + + +== Museum and "HPS in 20" == +The Museum of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine is a major focal point of research, teaching, and engagement activities. The Museum was formed in 2007 by staff and students in the Centre, and works to preserve and promote the use of scientific artefacts in teaching, research and public engagement. Led by its director, the Museum maintains and catalogues objects in storage, develops exhibitions and digital materials, runs public events and school visits, and plays a key role in teaching activities for both undergraduate and postgraduate students. With over 20,000 objects and specimens in storage or on display in various locations across campus, the collections are broad-ranging and reflect the historic scientific strengths of the University of Leeds in textiles and colour chemistry, as well as in science education. Particular highlights from within the collection include the Newlyn-Phillips Machine (the only extant prototype of MONIAC, the hugely influential early computation device), an example of the very early 'Laennec' stethoscope (), Irene Manton's microscope, and William Astbury's camera. +Across 2016 and 2017 the collections formed the basis of a major series of twenty lectures charting the History and Philosophy of Science in 20 Objects. The lectures featured academic members of staff, postdoctoral and visiting researchers, and postgraduate researchers and provided a synoptic overview of the history and philosophy of science. It has since been reimagined as an online resource for pre-university students with interests in both history and science, technology, and medicine. + + +== Further information == +Graeme Gooday, 'History and Philosophy of Science at Leeds', Notes and Records of the Royal Society 60 (2006), 183–192. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Centre website +HPS Research at Leeds +Current staff and research students within the broader School of Philosophy, Religion and History of Science +Undergraduate degree programmes +Postgraduate degree programmes +Research degree programmes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Boyling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Boyling-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e93d2433 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Boyling-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Christian Boyling" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Boyling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:48.883715+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Christian Boyling (flourished in 1669) was a scientific instrument maker. +All that is known for certain about this craftsman is that he was serving as "Mechanic" to the Duke of Saxony in 1669. +He designed and built a perpetual calendar held by the Museo Galileo in Florence, consisting of two overlapping brass plates sandwiching a revolving disk containing twelve enameled disks representing the months (eleven are extant) which show through a window on the front plate. The finely perforated front plate is decorated with the arms of the House of Saxony. At its center is a circle showing the hours and containing three-time disks: a moon phase night clock, a perpetual calendar, and a zodiacal calendar showing lengths of the diurnal cycle over the year. + + +== See also == +Duke of Saxony + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Conservation_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Conservation_Society-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..550189cf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Conservation_Society-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "Computer Conservation Society" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Conservation_Society" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:55.853249+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Computer Conservation Society (CCS) is a British organisation, founded in 1989. It is under the joint umbrella of the British Computer Society (BCS), the London Science Museum and the Manchester Museum of Science and Industry. + + +== Overview == +The CCS is interested in the history of computing in general and the conservation and preservation of early British historical computers in particular. +The society runs a series of monthly public lectures between September and May each year in both London and Manchester. The events are detailed on the society's website. +The CCS publishes a quarterly journal, Resurrection. +The society celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2014. +Dr Doron Swade, formerly the curator of the computing collection at the London Science Museum, was a founding committee member and As of 2021 is the current chair of the society. David Morriss, Rachel Burnett, and Roger Johnson are previous chairs, also all previous presidents of the BCS. + + +== Projects == +The society organises a number of projects to reconstruct and maintain early computers and to conserve early software. For example: + +Restorations +Elliott 401 +Elliott 803 +Elliott 903 and 905 +DEC Systems +Ferranti Pegasus +ICT 1301 Project +Harwell Dekatron Computer +Differential analyser +HEC 1 +Reconstructions +Colossus Rebuild +Manchester Baby +Bombe Rebuild +EDSAC Replica Project +Babbage's Analytical Engine +Other projects +Software preservation +"Our Computer Heritage" website +Tony Sale Award for computer conservation and restoration + + +== Locations == +London Science Museum: + +Ferranti Pegasus (Not currently being displayed working) +Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester: + +Manchester Baby +Hartree Differential Analyser +The National Museum of Computing: + +Colossus +Harwell Dekatron or WITCH +ICL 2966 +Elliot 803 +Elliott 905 +EDSAC Replica +Bletchley Park Trust: + +Bombe +Currently not on public display: + +ICT 1301 (Currently in storage at The National Museum of Computing) +Elliott 401 + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official Website +Our Computer Heritage – a project led by the CCS \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbett's_electrostatic_machine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbett's_electrostatic_machine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f72fcdcb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbett's_electrostatic_machine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Corbett's electrostatic machine" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbett's_electrostatic_machine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:40.611013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Corbett's electrostatic machine is a static electricity generating device that was made by the Shaker physician Thomas Corbett in 1810. Intended to treat rheumatism, the device built up a static charge and stored it in a Leyden jar, an early type of capacitor. + + +== Description == + +Corbett was a medical physician for the Shakers, a religious group of colonial America. He was a botanist and preferred herbal medicines to bloodletting. His machine was hand-operated. Rotating a glass cylinder in contact with a silk pad caused a static charge to accumulate on the cylinder. A metal comb collected this charge, which was then stored in a Leyden jar. From the jar, the electrical charge could then be released into the patient, producing a shock akin to "touching a doorknob after walking across carpet in dry weather". + + +== See also == +Franklin's electrostatic machine + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4347913ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Crookes tube" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:41.769217+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A Crookes tube (also Crookes–Hittorf tube) is an early experimental discharge tube with partial vacuum invented by English physicist William Crookes and others around 1869–1875, in which cathode rays, streams of electrons, were discovered. +Developed from the earlier Geissler tube, the Crookes tube consists of a partially evacuated glass bulb of various shapes, with two metal electrodes, the cathode and the anode, one at either end. When a high voltage is applied between the electrodes, cathode rays (electrons) are projected in straight lines from the cathode. It was used by Crookes, Johann Hittorf, Julius Plücker, Eugen Goldstein, Heinrich Hertz, Philipp Lenard, Kristian Birkeland and others to discover the properties of cathode rays, culminating in J. J. Thomson's 1897 identification of cathode rays as negatively charged particles, which were later named electrons. Crookes tubes are now used only for demonstrating cathode rays. +Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays using the Crookes tube in 1895. The term Crookes tube is also used for the first generation, cold cathode X-ray tubes, which evolved from the experimental Crookes tubes and were used until about 1920. + +== History == + +=== Invention === + +Crookes tubes evolved from the earlier Geissler tubes invented by the German physicist and glassblower Heinrich Geissler in 1857, experimental tubes which are similar to modern neon tube lights. Geissler tubes had only a low vacuum, around 10−3 atm (100 Pa), and the electrons in them could only travel a short distance before hitting a gas molecule. So the current of electrons moved in a slow diffusion process, constantly colliding with gas molecules, never gaining much energy. These tubes did not create beams of cathode rays, only a colorful glow discharge that filled the tube as the electrons struck the gas molecules and excited them, producing light. +By the 1870s, William Crookes (among other researchers) was able to evacuate his tubes to a lower pressure, 10−6 to 5×10−8 atm, using an improved Sprengel mercury vacuum pump invented by his coworker Charles A. Gimingham. He found that as he pumped more air out of his tubes, a dark area in the glowing gas formed next to the cathode. As the pressure got lower, the dark area, now called the Faraday dark space or Crookes dark space, spread down the tube, until the inside of the tube was totally dark. However, the glass envelope of the tube began to glow at the anode end. What was happening was that as more air was pumped out of the tube, there were fewer gas molecules to obstruct the motion of the electrons from the cathode, so they could travel a longer distance, on average, before they struck one. By the time the inside of the tube became dark, they were able to travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode, without a collision. They were accelerated to a high velocity by the electric field between the electrodes, both because they did not lose energy to collisions, and also because Crookes tubes were operated at a higher voltage. By the time they reached the anode end of the tube, they were going so fast that many flew past the anode and hit the glass wall. The electrons themselves were invisible, but when they hit the glass walls of the tube they excited the atoms in the glass, making them give off light or fluoresce, usually yellow-green. Later experimenters painted the back wall of Crookes tubes with fluorescent paint, to make the beams more visible. +This accidental fluorescence allowed researchers to notice that objects in the tube, such as the anode, cast a sharp-edged shadow on the tube wall. Johann Hittorf was first to recognise in 1869 that something must be travelling in straight lines from the cathode to cast the shadow. In 1876, Eugen Goldstein proved that they came from the cathode, and named them cathode rays (Kathodenstrahlen). +At the time, atoms were the smallest particles known and were believed to be indivisible, the electron was unknown, and what carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many ingenious types of Crookes tubes were invented and used in historic experiments to determine what cathode rays were. There were two theories: Crookes believed they were 'radiant matter'; that is, electrically charged atoms, while German scientists Hertz and Goldstein believed they were 'aether vibrations'; some new form of electromagnetic waves. The debate was resolved in 1897 when J. J. Thomson measured the mass to charge ratio of the cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which was later named the electron. +The colorful glowing tubes were also popular in public lectures to demonstrate the mysteries of the new science of electricity. Decorative tubes were made with fluorescent minerals, or butterfly figures painted with fluorescent paint, sealed inside. When power was applied, the fluorescent materials lit up with many glowing colors. +In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays emanating from Crookes tubes. The many uses for X-rays were immediately apparent, the first practical application for Crookes tubes. Medical manufacturers began to produce specialized Crookes tubes to generate X-rays, the first X-ray tubes. +Crookes tubes were unreliable and temperamental. Both the energy and the quantity of cathode rays produced depended on the pressure of residual gas in the tube. Over time the gas was absorbed by the walls of the tube, reducing the pressure. This reduced the amount of cathode rays produced and caused the voltage across the tube to increase, creating more energetic cathode rays. In Crookes X-ray tubes this phenomenon was called "hardening" because the higher voltage produced "harder", more penetrating X-rays; a tube with a higher vacuum was called a "hard" tube, while one with lower vacuum was a "soft" tube. Eventually the pressure got so low the tube stopped working entirely. To prevent this, in heavily used tubes such as X-ray tubes various "softener" devices were incorporated that released a small amount of gas, restoring the tube's function. +The electronic vacuum tubes invented later around 1904 superseded the Crookes tube. These operate at a still lower pressure, around 10−9 atm (10−4 Pa), at which there are so few gas molecules that they do not conduct by ionization. Instead, they use a more reliable and controllable source of electrons, a heated filament or hot cathode which releases electrons by thermionic emission. The ionization method of creating cathode rays used in Crookes tubes is today only used in a few specialized gas discharge tubes such as thyratrons. +The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in Crookes tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, and particularly in the invention of the cathode-ray tube by Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is now used in sophisticated processes such as electron microscopes and electron beam lithography. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9dad28252 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Crookes tube" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:41.769217+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Discovery of X-rays === + +When the voltage applied to a Crookes tube is high enough, around 5,000 volts or greater, it can accelerate the electrons to a high enough velocity to create X-rays when they hit the anode or the glass wall of the tube. The fast electrons emit X-rays when their path is bent sharply as they pass near the high electric charge of an atom's nucleus, a process called bremsstrahlung, or they knock an atom's inner electrons into a higher energy level, and these in turn emit X-rays as they return to their former energy level, a process called X-ray fluorescence. Many early Crookes tubes undoubtedly generated X-rays, because early researchers such as Ivan Pulyui had noticed that they could make foggy marks on nearby unexposed photographic plates. +On November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen was operating a Crookes tube covered with black cardboard when he noticed that a nearby fluorescent screen glowed faintly. He realized that some unknown invisible rays from the tube were able to pass through the cardboard and make the screen fluoresce. He found that they could pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen began to investigate the rays full-time, and on December 28, 1895, published the first scientific research paper on X-rays. Röntgen +was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics (in 1901) for his discoveries. +The many applications of X-rays created the first practical use for Crookes tubes, and workshops began manufacturing specialized Crookes tubes to generate X-rays, the first X-ray tubes. The anode was made of a heavy metal, usually platinum, which generated more X-rays, and was tilted at an angle to the cathode, so the X-rays would radiate through the side of the tube. The cathode had a concave spherical surface which focused the electrons into a small spot around 1 mm in diameter on the anode, in order to approximate a point source of X-rays, which gave the sharpest radiographs. These cold cathode type X-ray tubes were used until about 1920, when they were superseded by the hot cathode Coolidge X-ray tube. + +== Operation == + +Crookes tubes are cold cathode tubes, meaning that they do not have a heated filament in them that releases electrons as the later electronic vacuum tubes usually do. Instead, electrons are generated by the ionization of the residual air by a high DC voltage (from a few kilovolts to about 100 kilovolts) applied between the cathode and anode electrodes in the tube, usually by an induction coil (a "Ruhmkorff coil"). The Crookes tubes require a small amount of air in them to function, from about 10−6 to 5×10−8 atmosphere (7×10−4 - 4×10−5 torr or 0.1-0.006 pascal). +When high voltage is applied to the tube, the electric field accelerates the small number of electrically charged ions and free electrons always present in the gas, created by natural processes like photoionization and radioactivity. The electrons collide with other gas molecules, knocking electrons off them and creating more positive ions. The electrons go on to create more ions and electrons in a chain reaction called a Townsend discharge. All the positive ions are attracted to the cathode or negative electrode. When they strike it, they knock large numbers of electrons out of the surface of the metal, which in turn are repelled by the cathode and attracted to the anode or positive electrode. These are the cathode rays. +Enough of the air has been removed from the tube that most of the electrons can travel the length of the tube without striking a gas molecule. The high voltage accelerates these low-mass particles to a high velocity (about 37,000 miles per second, or 59,000 km/s, about 20 percent of the speed of light, for a typical tube voltage of 10 kV). When they get to the anode end of the tube, they have so much momentum that, although they are attracted to the anode, many fly past it and strike the end wall of the tube. When they strike atoms in the glass, they knock their orbital electrons into a higher energy level. When the electrons fall back to their original energy level, they emit light. This process, called cathodoluminescence, causes the glass to glow, usually yellow-green. The electrons themselves are invisible, but the glow reveals where the beam of electrons strikes the glass. Later on, researchers painted the inside back wall of the tube with a phosphor, a fluorescent chemical such as zinc sulfide, in order to make the glow more visible. After striking the wall, the electrons eventually make their way to the anode, flow through the anode wire, the power supply, and back to the cathode. +The full details of the action in a Crookes tube are complicated, because it contains a nonequilibrium plasma of positively charged ions, electrons, and neutral atoms which are constantly interacting. At higher gas pressures, above 10−6 atm (0.1 Pa), this creates a glow discharge; a pattern of different colored glowing regions in the gas, depending on the pressure in the tube (see diagram). The details were not fully understood until the development of plasma physics in the early 20th century. + +== Experiments == +During the last quarter of the 19th century Crookes tubes were used in dozens of historic experiments to try to find out what cathode rays were. There were two theories: British scientists Crookes and Cromwell Varley believed they were particles of 'radiant matter', that is, electrically charged atoms. German researchers E. Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz, and Eugen Goldstein believed they were 'aether vibrations', some new form of electromagnetic waves, and were separate from what carried the current through the tube. The debate continued until J. J. Thomson measured cathode ray’s mass, proving they were a previously unknown negatively charged particle in an atom, the first subatomic particle, which he called a 'corpuscle' but was later renamed the 'electron'. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7c4cb4e76 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Crookes tube" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:41.769217+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cathode rays move in parallel lines === +Julius Plücker in 1869 built a tube with an anode shaped like a Maltese Cross facing the cathode. It was hinged, so it could fold down against the floor of the tube. When the tube was turned on, the cathode rays cast a sharp cross-shaped shadow on the fluorescence on the back face of the tube, showing that the rays moved in straight lines. This fluorescence was used as an argument that cathode rays were electromagnetic waves, since the only thing known to cause fluorescence at the time was ultraviolet light. After a while the fluorescence would get 'tired' and the glow would decrease. If the cross was folded down out of the path of the rays, it no longer cast a shadow, and the previously shadowed area would fluoresce more strongly than the area around it. + +=== Perpendicular emission === + +Eugen Goldstein in 1876 found that cathode rays were always emitted perpendicular to the cathode's surface. If the cathode was a flat plate, the rays were shot out in straight lines perpendicular to the plane of the plate. This was evidence that they were particles, because a luminous object, like a red hot metal plate, emits light in all directions, while a charged particle will be repelled by the cathode in a perpendicular direction. Cathode rays heat matter which they strike. If the electrode was made in the form of a concave spherical dish, the cathode rays would be focused to a spot in front of the dish. This could be used to heat samples to a high temperature. + +=== Electrostatic deflection === + +Heinrich Hertz built a tube with a second pair of metal plates to either side of the cathode ray beam, a crude CRT. If the cathode rays were charged particles, their path should be bent by the electric field created when a voltage was applied to the plates, causing the spot of light where the rays hit to move sideways. He did not find any bending, but it was later determined that his tube was insufficiently evacuated, causing accumulations of surface charge which masked the electric field. Later Arthur Schuster repeated the experiment with a higher vacuum. He found that the rays were attracted toward a positively charged plate and repelled by a negative one, bending the beam. This was evidence they were negatively charged, and therefore not electromagnetic waves. + +=== Magnetic deflection === + +Crookes put a magnet across the neck of the tube, so that the North pole was on one side of the beam and the South pole was on the other, and the beam travelled through the magnetic field between them. The beam was bent down, perpendicular to the magnetic field. To reveal the path of the beam, Crookes invented a tube (see pictures) with a cardboard screen with a phosphor coating down the length of the tube, at a slight angle so the electrons would strike the phosphor along its length, making a glowing line on the screen. The line could be seen to bend up or down in a transverse magnetic field. This effect (now called the Lorentz force) was similar to the behavior of electric currents in an electric motor and showed that the cathode rays obeyed Faraday's law of induction like currents in wires. Both electric and magnetic deflection were evidence for the particle theory, because static electric and magnetic fields have no effect on a beam of light waves in vacuum. + +=== Paddlewheel === + +Crookes put a tiny vaned turbine or paddlewheel in the path of the cathode rays, and found that it rotated when the rays hit it. The paddlewheel turned in a direction away from the cathode side of the tube, suggesting that the force of the cathode rays striking the paddles was causing the rotation. Crookes concluded at the time that this showed that cathode rays had momentum, so the rays were likely matter particles. However, later it was concluded that the paddle wheel turned not due to the momentum of the particles (or electrons) hitting the paddle wheel but due to the radiometric effect. When the rays hit the paddle surface they heated it, and the heat caused the gas next to it to expand, pushing the paddle. This was proven in 1903 by J. J. Thomson who calculated that the momentum of the electrons hitting the paddle wheel would only be sufficient to turn the wheel one revolution per minute. All this experiment really showed was that cathode rays were able to heat surfaces. + +=== Electric charge === +Jean-Baptiste Perrin wanted to determine whether cathode rays actually carried negative charge, or whether they just accompanied the charge carriers, as the Germans thought. In 1895 he constructed a tube with a 'catcher', a closed aluminum cylinder with a small hole in the end facing the cathode, to collect the cathode rays. The catcher was attached to an electroscope to measure its charge. The electroscope showed a negative charge, proving that cathode rays really carry negative electricity. + +=== Anode rays === + +Goldstein found in 1886 that if the cathode is made with small holes in it, streams of a faint luminous glow will be seen issuing from the holes on the back side of the cathode, facing away from the anode. It was found that in an electric field these anode rays bend in the opposite direction from cathode rays, toward a negatively charged plate, indicating that they carry a positive charge. These were the positive ions which were attracted to the cathode, and created the cathode rays. They were named canal rays (Kanalstrahlen) by Goldstein. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3ce6d1cc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Crookes tube" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:41.769217+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Spectral shift === +Eugen Goldstein thought he had figured out a method of measuring the speed of cathode rays. If the glow discharge seen in the gas of Crookes tubes was produced by the moving cathode rays, the light radiated from them in the direction they were moving, down the tube, would be shifted in frequency due to the Doppler effect. This could be detected with a spectroscope because the emission line spectrum would be shifted. He built a tube shaped like an "L", with a spectroscope pointed through the glass of the elbow down one of the arms. He measured the spectrum of the glow when the spectroscope was pointed toward the cathode end, then switched the power supply connections so the cathode became the anode and the electrons were moving in the other direction, and again observed the spectrum looking for a shift. He did not find one, which he calculated meant that the rays were traveling very slowly. It was later recognized that the glow in Crookes tubes is emitted from gas atoms hit by the electrons, not the electrons themselves. Since the atoms are thousands of times more massive than the electrons, they move much slower, accounting for the lack of Doppler shift. + +=== Lenard window === + +Philipp Lenard wanted to see if cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. See diagram. He built a tube with a "window" (W) in the glass envelope made of aluminum foil just thick enough to hold the atmospheric pressure out (later called a "Lenard window") facing the cathode (C) so the cathode rays would hit it. He found that something did come through. Holding a fluorescent screen up to the window caused it to fluoresce, even though no light reached it. A photographic plate held up to it would be darkened, even though it was not exposed to light. The effect had a very short range of about 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in). He measured the ability of cathode rays to penetrate sheets of material, and found they could penetrate much farther than moving atoms could. Since atoms were the smallest particles known at the time, this was first taken as evidence that cathode rays were waves. Later it was realized that electrons were much smaller than atoms, accounting for their greater penetration ability. + +== See also == +Crookes radiometer – 1873 device that rotates when exposed to light + +== References == + +== External links == + +An illustration of a "maltese cross" Crookes tube. +The Cathode Ray Tube site +Crookes and Geissler tubes shown working +Java animation of a Crookes tube +"The Cathode Rays". Library. Oracle Thinkquest Education Foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2008-04-28. History of d +Jenkins, John. "Crookes and Geissler tubes". Spark Museum. Retrieved 2008-04-29. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanometer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanometer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3c0fe1213 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanometer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Cyanometer" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanometer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:45.088006+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A cyanometer (from cyan and -meter) is an instrument for measuring "blueness", specifically the colour intensity of blue sky. It is attributed to Horace-Bénédict de Saussure and Alexander von Humboldt. It consists of squares of paper dyed in graduated shades of blue and arranged in a color circle or square that can be held up and compared to the color of the sky. + + +== History == + +Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, a Swiss physicist and mountain climber, is credited with inventing the cyanometer in the 1760s. De Saussure's cyanometer was divided into colored, numbered sections, ranging from white to gradually darker shades of blue, dyed with Prussian blue and arranged in a circle. The cyanometers were manually produced with a predefined recipe of watercolor concentration for each section, and then distributed to friends and fellow naturalists to gather more observations. +In an article from 1790, de Saussure presents an illustration of a wheel with 40 stops, though clarifies that it serves merely to give the reader "an idea of its form"; the actual cyanometer had 53 stops (or "degrees"), starting with white as 0 and black as 52. +De Saussure believed that the color of the sky was dependent on the amount of particles suspended in the atmosphere, and that these particles had an opaque color blue (thought to be 34 degrees on the scale). If this were true, then one could estimate the concentration of such particles using the cyanometer. +The tool was meant to be used outside, by holding it up to the sky and finding the closest color to the sky's. Additionally, in an attempt to standardize testing, de Saussure gives a few pointers on how observations should be made. For example: + +[...] si on faisoit son observation à la fenêtre ou sur le seuil d'une porte, ces couleurs ne seroient éclairées que par la lumière qui viendroit de l'intérieur de la maison & ainsi elles paroîtroient plus obscures qu'en rase campagne où elles sont éclairées par une grande partie du Ciel. +[(...) if one were to make an observation at the window or at a door, the colors would only be illuminated by the light coming from inside the house, and thus they would appear darker than in the open countryside where they are illuminated by a large part of the Sky.] + +De Saussure used the device to measure the color of the sky at Geneva, Chamonix, and Mont Blanc (Col du Géant): + +Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) was an eager user of the cyanometer on his voyages and explorations: during his trip across the Atlantic Ocean, he observed 23.5 degrees at noon; at the summit of Teide, a record 41 degrees; and, while climbing to the summit of Chimborazo, on 23 June 1802, Humboldt broke both the record of highest altitude ever reached by humans, but also of observed darkness of the sky, with 46 degrees on the cyanometer. +In his satirical verse epic Don Juan (Canto IV, 112), Lord Byron alludes to this device as an ironical means of measuring the blue of bluestocking ladies, crediting Humboldt for its invention. + + +== Theory == + +The blueness of clear air in Earth's atmosphere is due to Rayleigh scattering by nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Dry air is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. Atmospheric water content ranges from 0% to 5%. +When looking through clear air toward the horizon, distant sunlight of all wavelengths (colors) will generally undergo Mie scattering from spherical suspended particles. In an unpolluted sky, these spherical particles will primarily be liquid water condensed onto natural atmospheric dust grains. This is known as "wet haze". Therefore, in an unpolluted clear sky, wet haze adds white sunlight to blue Rayleigh-scattered light. More wet haze in the observer's line of sight results in a brighter and paler blue sky color. +When looking toward the horizon, an observer looks through up to 40 times as much atmosphere compared to looking overhead. Therefore, more Mie scattering is seen when viewing parts of the sky closer to the horizon. A darker blue sky will be observed if less wet haze is in the observer's line of sight. This occurs when looking directly overhead and at a higher altitude. + + +== See also == +Diffuse sky radiation + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Heubner (1840). "Über das Cyanometer". Zeitschrift für Physik und verwandte Wissenschaften. 6: 201. +Hermann von Schlagintweit, Adolf Schlagintweit (1850). Untersuchungen über die physicalische Geographie der Alpen in ihren Beziehungen zu den Phaenomenen der Gletscher, zur Geologie, Meteorologie und PflanzengeographieBarth. p. 441. + + +== External links == +The Cyanometer Is a 225-Year-Old Tool for Measuring the Blueness of the Sky (9 May 2014), an article by Christopher Jobson for Colossal. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8caf04dc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Dark Romanticism" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:17.269786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Dark Romanticism is a literary sub-genre of Romanticism, reflecting popular fascination with the irrational, the demonic and the grotesque. Often conflated with Gothic fiction, it has shadowed the euphoric Romantic movement ever since its 18th-century beginnings. Edgar Allan Poe is often celebrated as one of the supreme exponents of the tradition. Dark Romanticism focuses on human fallibility, self-destruction, judgement, punishment, as well as the psychological effects of guilt and sin. + +== Historical context == +The term "Romanticism" comes from Old French "romanz," meaning stories written in the vernacular (local) "Roman" tongue (not Latin), which evolved from Latin "romanice" ("in the Roman manner"). Not only has it become an iconic style of art, but also had an effect on literature and music. It was driven by emotions and imagination rather than science and rationality. The Romantic Movement began in Europe at the end of the 18th century and migrated to America in the early 19th century. American Romanticism authors were most productive between 1830 and 1865. Within Romanticism, two conflicting sub-genres arose: optimists who believed in human virtue and spirituality formed the Transcendentalism Movement, while pessimists who accepted human fallibility and our proclivity for sin formed the Dark Romantic Movement. + +== Definitions == +Romanticism's celebration of euphoria and sublimity has always been dogged by an equally intense fascination with melancholia, insanity, crime and shady atmosphere; with the options of ghosts and ghouls, the grotesque, and the irrational. The name "Dark Romanticism" was given to this form by the literary theorist Mario Praz in his lengthy study of the genre published in 1930, The Romantic Agony. +According to the critic G. R. Thompson, "the Dark Romantics adapted images of anthropomorphized evil in the form of Satan, devils, ghosts, werewolves, vampires, and ghouls" as emblematic of human nature. Thompson sums up the characteristics of the sub-genre, writing: + +Fallen man's inability fully to comprehend haunting reminders of another, supernatural realm that yet seemed not to exist, the constant perplexity of inexplicable and vastly metaphysical phenomena, a propensity for seemingly perverse or evil moral choices that had no firm or fixed measure or rule, and a sense of nameless guilt combined with a suspicion the external world was a delusive projection of the mind—these were major elements in the vision of man the Dark Romantics opposed to the mainstream of Romantic thought. + +=== Example quote === +"Cannibals? Who is not a cannibal? I tell you it will be more tolerable for the Fejee that salted down a lean missionary in his cellar against a coming famine; it will be more tolerable for that provident Fejee, I say, in the day of judgement, than for thee, civilized and enlightened gourmand, who nailest geese to the ground and feastest on their bloated livers in thy pate de fois gras.” – Herman Melville's Moby Dick: or The Whale + +== Characteristics == +To fully grasp the idea of dark romanticism, we must recognize the attributes that come with the artwork so we can identify them. The characteristics that define dark romanticism are questioning the natural perfection of man, believing that man cannot ever be perfect, that man will never have perfection. People began to have a less conventional perspective of religion, to pay greater attention to catastrophes, and to let the investigation into terrible realities into their daily life. +Furthermore, the most popular notions are that humans are naturally subject to sin and destruction, that people cannot ever escape sin or be rescued from it, and that people may destroy society, religions, and themselves. + +== Artists' impact == +Loneliness and sadness, desire and death, the obsession with horror, and the absurdity of dreams are all themes explored in the artwork. Artists like Salvador Dalí, René Magritte, Paul Klee, and Max Ernst continued to think in this spirit throughout the twentieth century. Dark Romanticism arose as a reaction to the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, and widespread rationalization, emphasizing raw emotion, pure aesthetic experiences, and other types of extreme emotion. + +=== Artists === + +==== Johann Heinrich Fuseli ==== + +In Switzerland, Johann Heinrich Fuseli had studied to be an evangelical preacher. He produced an emblem of Dark Romanticism with his artwork. This piece leads off the exhibit, which spans two levels of the temporary exhibition space. The appearance of the incubus and the lecherous horse in a scenario situated in the present, shocked Fuseli's contemporaries greatly. Furthermore, the voyeur's requirements were met by the erotic-compulsive and daemonic material, as well as the sad environment. + +==== William Blake ==== + +This painting reflects the conflict between good and evil, misery and lust, light and darkness, and other aspects of his work. Fuseli's unique pictorial language impacted a number of painters, including William Blake, whose famous watercolor The Great Red Dragon is on display at the Brooklyn Museum. + +==== Francisco Goya ==== + +One of the most significant individuals in Spanish painting was Francisco Goya. He was also a precursor of Romanticism in the creation of contemporary artistic appreciation, both in terms of the substance of his paintings, with their in-depth examination of reality and references to the dream realm, and in terms of his innovative technique. His art expresses his own innovative views, opposing academicism and established topics. Goya characterized himself as a student of Velazquez, Rembrandt, and nature, gaining a taste for delicately shaded color applied in layers from Velazquez, a preference for dark and enigmatic backdrop settings from Rembrandt, and an unending diversity of shapes from nature; some beautiful, others ugly. + +==== John Constable ==== + +The goal of John Constable's landscape paintings was to represent nature with honesty, to convey its beauty and simplicity without becoming pretentious. He is not the personification of nature's passion, poetry, or sorrow. He thought his life and art were in ruins, so he looked for a glimpse of his own spirit in nature, which he discovered in a bleak landscape of Hadleigh Castle in Essex. + +==== Eugène Delacroix ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7ebb123f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Dark Romanticism" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:17.269786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Delacroix is usually considered as the founder of the Romantic movement in French painting throughout the nineteenth century. His painting technique – full of rich, agitated brushwork and throbbing with vibrant color – expressed the movement's concern for emotion, exoticism, and the sublime, and his life and work embodied the movement's concern for passion, exoticism, and the sublime. + +== Timeline == +The American Renaissance (literature) was between 1840 and 1860. This included Dark Romanticism and Transcendentalism. +Since it allowed for the study of gloomy ideas, writing, and topics, Dark Romanticism had a huge effect on American literature. +Dark Romanticism began as a response to the Transcendental movement of the mid-nineteenth century. This was a mental shift in thinking from rigid religious Puritan thought to a dark, immoral point of view. People were disinterested in optimism when they considered their sin and human nature. +Authors and artists were not afraid to express their sinister side. Authors began to investigate man's wicked nature even before 1840. +1809 – Edgar Allan Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts. Poe is probably one of the most influential writers of this time. His themes focused on human sin and the evil in man. +Herman Melville – another influential writer, but he is completely different in his writing from Poe and Hawthorne. His themes focus on "the truths of ragged edges" +From 1840 to the late 1870s, Dark Romanticism dominated literature and art. +The primary element employed was symbolism. They would symbolize man's bad side and "study human nature's difficulties." Artists sought to show how evil, rather than virtue, consumes people, and how individual acts lead to self-destruction. + +== 18th-/19th-century movements in national literatures == +Elements of Dark Romanticism were a perennial possibility within the broader international movement of Romanticism, in both literature and art. + +=== Germany === +Dark Romanticism arguably began in Germany, with writers such as E. T. A. Hoffmann, and Ludwig Tieck, and also pre-Romantic figure of Christian Heinrich Spiess, — though their emphasis on existential alienation, the demonic in sex, and the uncanny, was offset at the same time by the more homely cult of Biedermeier. +Like the Gothic novel, Schwarze Romantik is a genre based on the terrifying side of the Middle Ages, and frequently feature the same elements (castles, ghost, monster, etc.). However, Schauerroman's key elements are necromancy and secret societies, and it is remarkably more pessimistic than the English Gothic novel. All those elements are the basis for Friedrich Schiller's unfinished novel The Ghost-Seer (1786–1789). The motive of secret societies is also present in Karl Grosse's Horrid Mysteries (1791–1794) and Christian August Vulpius' The History of Rinaldo Rinaldini (1798). Benedikte Naubert's novel Hermann of Unna (1788) is seen as being very close to the Schauerroman genre. +Other early authors and works included Christian Heinrich Spiess, with his works Das Petermännchen (1793), Der alte Überall und Nirgends (1792), Die Löwenritter (1794), and Hans Heiling, vierter und letzter Regent der Erd- Luft- Feuer- und Wasser-Geister (1798); Heinrich von Kleist's short story "Das Bettelweib von Locarno" (1797); and Ludwig Tieck's Der blonde Eckbert (1797) and Der Runenberg (1804). + +==== Jüngere Romantik ==== +For two decades, the most famous author of Gothic literature in Germany was the polymath E. T. A. Hoffmann. His novel The Devil's Elixirs (1815) was influenced by Lewis's The Monk and even mentions it. The novel also explores the motive of Doppelgänger, the term coined by another German author and supporter of Hoffmann, Jean Paul, in his humorous novel Siebenkäs (1796–1797). Aside from Hoffmann and de la Motte Fouqué, three other important authors from the era were Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (The Marble Statue, 1818), Ludwig Achim von Arnim (Die Majoratsherren, 1819), and Adelbert von Chamisso (Peter Schlemihls wundersame Geschichte, 1814). After them, Wilhelm Meinhold wrote The Amber Witch (1838) and Sidonia von Bork (1847). The last work from the German writer Theodor Storm, The Rider on the White Horse (1888), uses Gothic motives and themes. + +=== Britain === +British authors such as Lord Byron, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Mary Shelley, and John William Polidori, who are frequently linked to Gothic fiction, are also sometimes referred to as Dark Romantics. Dark Romanticism is characterized by stories of personal torment, social outcasts, and usually offers commentary on whether the nature of man will save or destroy him. Some authors of English and Irish horror fiction, such as Bram Stoker and Daphne du Maurier, follow in this lineage. + +=== American === +The American form of this sensibility centered on the writers Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville, with Charles Brockden Brown being a predecessor. As opposed to the perfectionist beliefs of Transcendentalism, these darker contemporaries emphasized human fallibility and proneness to sin and self-destruction, as well as the difficulties inherent in attempts at social reform. + +=== France === + +The 19th-century fantastique literature after 1830 was dominated by the influence of E. T. A. Hoffmann, and then by that of Edgar Allan Poe. French authors such as Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly, Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud echoed the dark themes found in the German and English literature. Baudelaire was one of the first French writers to admire Edgar Allan Poe, but this admiration or even adulation of Poe became widespread in French literary circles in the late 19th century. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Galens, David, ed. (2002) Literary Movements for Students Vol. 1. +Levin, Harry. The Power of Blackness (1958) +Praz, Mario. The Romantic Agony (1933) +Mullane, Janet and Robert T. Wilson, eds. (1989) Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism Vols. 1, 16, 24. + +== External links == + +Poe Studies/Dark Romanticism Journal +The Gothic as an Aspect of American Romanticism \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioptra-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioptra-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4bfd8e171 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioptra-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Dioptra" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioptra" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:48.449658+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A dioptra (sometimes also named dioptre or diopter, from Greek: διόπτρα) is a classical astronomical and surveying instrument, dating from the 3rd century BC. The dioptra was a sighting tube or, alternatively, a rod with a sight at both ends, attached to a stand. If fitted with protractors, it could be used to measure angles. + + +== Use == +Greek astronomers used the dioptra to measure the positions of stars; both Euclid and Geminus refer to the dioptra in their astronomical works. +It continued in use as an effective surveying tool. Adapted to surveying, the dioptra is similar to the theodolite, or surveyor's transit, which dates to the sixteenth century. It is a more accurate version of the groma. +There is some speculation that it may have been used to build the Eupalinian aqueduct. Called "one of the greatest engineering achievements of ancient times," it is a tunnel 1,036 metres (3,399 ft) long, excavated through a mountain on the Greek island of Samos during the reign of Polycrates in the sixth century BC. Scholars disagree, however, whether the dioptra was available that early. +An entire book about the construction and surveying usage of the dioptra is credited to Hero of Alexandria (also known as Heron; a brief description of the book is available online; see Lahanas link, below). Hero was "one of history’s most ingenious engineers and applied mathematicians." +The dioptra was used extensively on aqueduct building projects. Screw turns on several different parts of the instrument made it easy to calibrate for very precise measurements. +The dioptra was replaced as a surveying instrument by the theodolite. + + +== How it works == +The dioptra consists of a sighting tube or rod fitted with sights at both ends and mounted on a stable stand. The stand usually includes adjustable screw turns that allow the instrument to be precisely calibrated. When used for astronomical purposes, the user would align the sights with a specific star or celestial object, and then measure the angle using protractors attached to the instrument. In surveying, the dioptra was used to measure angles and distances by sighting along the rod and taking readings from graduated scales. + + +== Advantages and disadvantages == +The dioptra offered several advantages over other contemporary instruments. Its ability to measure both vertical and horizontal angles with high precision made it a versatile tool for both astronomy and surveying. The screw turns allowed for fine adjustments, improving accuracy. The instrument's simplicity and robustness made it reliable and easy to use in the field. +However, the dioptra also had its limitations. The accuracy of measurements depended on the user's skill and the quality of the instrument's construction. The sighting tube or rod could be affected by environmental factors such as wind or temperature changes, which could introduce errors. Additionally, the dioptra required careful calibration before each use, which could be time-consuming. +Compared to later instruments like the theodolite, the dioptra was less advanced and lacked some of the refinements and improvements that made theodolites more accurate and easier to use. The theodolite eventually replaced the dioptra as the primary instrument for surveying due to its superior performance and reliability. + + +== History and development == +The dioptra's origins trace back to the Hellenistic period when Greek scientists and engineers sought to improve observational accuracy in astronomy and surveying. Over time, the instrument underwent several modifications, incorporating advancements in material science and geometric principles. Notably, Hero of Alexandria's detailed work on the dioptra exemplifies the pinnacle of Hellenistic engineering prowess, showcasing the instrument's versatility and precision. + + +== Applications in ancient engineering == +Beyond its use in astronomy, the dioptra played a crucial role in various engineering projects in ancient Greece and Rome. It was instrumental in constructing aqueducts, roads, and buildings. The instrument's ability to measure angles with high precision allowed engineers to plan and execute large-scale infrastructure projects with greater accuracy and efficiency. For example, its use in the Eupalinian aqueduct's construction demonstrated the dioptra's significance in solving complex engineering challenges of the time. + + +== Comparison with other instruments == +The dioptra's design and functionality can be compared to other contemporary instruments such as the groma, the alidade, and the later theodolite. While the groma was primarily used for laying out straight lines and right angles, the dioptra offered greater versatility in measuring angles in both vertical and horizontal planes. The alidade, another important surveying instrument, was used to measure angles and determine directions. It typically consisted of a straightedge with sights at either end. The alidade was often mounted on a plane table, which allowed for direct plotting of survey data. The theodolite, which emerged in the sixteenth century, eventually surpassed the dioptra in accuracy and ease of use due to technological advancements and refinements in optical and mechanical components. + + +== See also == +Alidade +Groma +Theodolite + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Isaac Moreno Gallo (2006) The Dioptra Tesis and reconstruction of the Dioptra. +Michael Jonathan Taunton Lewis (2001), Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-79297-5 +Lucio Russo (2004), The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn, Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3-540-20396-6. +Evans, J., (1998) The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, pages 34–35. Oxford University Press. + + +== External links == +Michael Lahanas, Heron of Alexandria, Inventions, Biography, Science +Nathan Sidoli (2005), Heron's Dioptra 35 and Analemma Methods: An Astronomical Determination of the Distance between Two Cities, Centaurus, 47(3), 236-258 +Bamber Gascoigne, History of Measurement, historyworld.net +Tom M. Apostol (2004), The Tunnel of Samos, Engineering and Science, 64(4), 30-40 +Olshausen, Eckart and Sauer, Werner (2002), "Dioptra", in: Brill’s New Pauly, Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, English Edition by: Christine F. Salazar, Classical Tradition volumes edited by: Manfred Landfester, English Edition by: Francis G. Gentry. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dividing_engine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dividing_engine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..065126f92 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dividing_engine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Dividing engine" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dividing_engine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:49.621289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A dividing engine is a device employed to mark graduations on measuring instruments. + + +== History == + +There has always been a need for accurate measuring instruments. Whether it is a linear device such as a ruler or vernier or a circular device such as a protractor, astrolabe, sextant, theodolite, or setting circles for astronomical telescopes, the desire for ever greater precision has always existed. For every improvement in the measuring instruments, such as better alidades or the introduction of telescopic sights, the need for more exact graduations immediately followed. +In early instruments, graduations were typically etched or scribed lines in wood, ivory or brass. Instrument makers devised various devices to perform such tasks. Early Islamic instrument makers must have had techniques for the fine division of their instruments, as this accuracy is reflected in the accuracy of the readings they made. This skill and knowledge seems to have been lost, given that small quadrants and astrolabes in the 15th and 16th centuries did not show fine graduations and were relatively roughly made. +In the 16th century, European instrument makers were hampered by the materials available. Brass was in hammered sheets with rough surfaces and iron graving tools were poor quality. There were not enough makers to have created a long tradition of practice and few were trained by masters. +Transversals set a standard in the early 14th century. Tycho Brahe used transversals on his instruments and made the method better known. Transversals based on straight lines do not provide correct subdivisions on an arc, so other methods, such as those based on the use of circular arcs as developed by Philippe de La Hire, were also used. +Another system was created in the 16th century by Pedro Nunes and was called nonius after him. It consisted of tracing a certain number of concentric circles on an instrument and dividing each successive one with one fewer divisions than the adjacent outer circle. Thus the outermost quadrant would have 90° in 90 equal divisions, the next inner would have 89 divisions, the next 88 and so on. When an angle was measured, the circle and the division on which the alidade fell was noted. A table was then consulted to provide the exact measure. However, this system was difficult to construct and used by few. Tycho Brahe was one exception. +Some improvements to Nunes' system were developed by Christopher Clavius and Jacob Curtius. Curtius' work led directly to that of Pierre Vernier, published in 1631. Vernier refined this process and gave us the vernier scale. However, though these various techniques improved the reading of graduations, they did not contribute directly to the accuracy of their construction. Further improvements came slowly, and a new development was required: the dividing engine. +Prior work on the development of gear cutting machines had prepared the way. Such devices were required to cut a circular plate with uniform gear teeth. Clockmakers were familiar with these methods and they were important in developing dividing engines. George Graham devised a process of using geometric methods to divide the limb of an instrument. He developed a sophisticated beam compass to aid marking of the graduations. John Bird and Jeremiah Sisson followed on with these techniques. These beam compass techniques were used into the 19th century, as the dividing engines that followed did not scale up to the largest instruments being constructed. + +The first true circular dividing engine was probably constructed by Henry Hindley, a clockmaker, around 1739. This was reported to the Royal Society by John Smeaton in 1785. It was based directly on a gear cutting machine for clockworks. It used a toothed index plate and a worm gear to advance the mechanism. Duc de Chaulnes created two dividing engines between 1765 and 1768 for dividing circular arcs and linear scales. He desired to improve on the graduation of instruments by removing the skill of the maker from the technique where possible. While beam compass use was critically dependent on the skill of the user, his machine produced more regular divisions by virtue of its design. His machines were also inspired by the prior work of the clockmakers. +Jesse Ramsden followed duc de Chaulnes by five years in the production of his dividing engine. As with the prior inventions, Ramsden's used a tangent screw mechanism to advance the machine from one position to another. However, he had developed a screw-cutting lathe that was particularly advanced and produced a superior product. This engine was developed with funding from the Board of Longitude on condition that it be described in detail (along with the related screw-cutting lathe) and not be protected by patent. This allowed others to freely copy the device and improve on it. In fact, the Board required that he teach others to construct their own copies and make his dividing engine available to graduate instruments made by others. + + +== Refinements == +Edward Troughton was the first to build a copy of the Ramsden design. He enhanced the design and produced his own version. This permitted an improvement in the accuracy of the dividing engine. +Samuel Rhee developed his own endless screw cutting machine and was able to sell machines to others. His screws were considered the finest available at the time. +In France, Étienne Lenoir created a dividing engine of greater accuracy than the English version. Mégnié, Richer, Fortin and Jecker had also built dividing engines of considerable quality. +By the beginning of the 19th century, it was possible to make instruments such as the sextant that remained fully serviceable and of sufficient accuracy to be in use for a half century or more. +The dividing engine was unique among developments in the manufacture of scientific instruments, as it was immediately accepted by all makers. There was no uncertainty in the value of this development. +Bryan Donkin designed and built a screw cutting and dividing engine lathe in 1826, which set new standards of precision for the creation of accurate leadscrews, a necessary precursor to the development of precision machining in the Industrial Revolution. + + +== See also == +Henry Joseph Grayson - an Australian inventor who developed an engine (~1900) for making diffraction gratings that ruled 120,000 lines to the inch (approximately 4,700 per mm). + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Palmer, Christopher (2020). Diffraction Grating Handbook (8th ed.). MKS Newport. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eise_Eisinga_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eise_Eisinga_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1077bf877 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eise_Eisinga_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Eise Eisinga Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eise_Eisinga_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:50.802517+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Royal Eise Eisinga Planetarium (Dutch: Koninklijk Eise Eisinga Planetarium) is an 18th-century orrery in Franeker, Friesland, Netherlands. It is currently a museum and open to the public. The orrery has been on the top 100 Dutch heritage sites list since 1990. In September 2023, it received the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is the oldest working orrery in the world. + + +== History == +The orrery was built from 1774 to 1781 by Eise Eisinga, a wool carder and amateur astronomer. +Eise Eisinga’s mechanical planetarium is built into the timber roof of the living room ceiling of his historic canal house. William I, Prince of Orange and the first King of the Netherlands, was so impressed with the planetarium, he purchased the house and it became a royal planetarium. +The museum consists of the planetarium room, a screening room where documentaries are shown, and special exhibits based on modern astronomy. Other parts on permanent display are Eisinga’s former wool combing establishments and a collection of historical astronomical instruments. Those instruments in the collection include Georgian telescopes, 18th century octants and a tellurium, an educational model of the Sun, Earth and Moon. +The museum has a Planetarium Café and Brasserie De Stadstuin located in the former Van Balen coffee-roasting house. +In 2018, the Planetarium celebrated the 250th anniversary of Eisinga’s move to the city of Franeker in 1768, six years before he began work on his Planetarium. +It is listed as a Rijksmonument, number 15668. +The orrery was nominated on 12 December 2011 by the Dutch government for UNESCO World Heritage status, based on its long history as a working planetarium open to the public and its continued efforts to preserve its heritage. In December 2018, it was announced that the Dutch minister of Education, Culture and Science will be sending an application to UNESCO to request a formal nomination of the orrery, bringing heritage status one step closer. + + +== Orrery == + +An orrery is a planetarium, a working model of the Solar System. The orrery is painted with royal blue glimmer and outlined in shiny gold paint. The Sun is painted at the center of the ceiling. The Earth is represented by a golden orb dangling on a wire. The zodiac is also depicted. The clockwork-like mechanical planetarium moves as it does in reality at a reduced scale. The planetarium is very exact, but is not perfect. The pendulum, for instance, is made of a single type of metal so it is influenced by temperature fluctuations. +The "face" of the model looks down from the ceiling of what used to be his living room, with most of the mechanical works in the space above the ceiling. It is driven by a pendulum clock, which has 9 weights or ponds. The planets move around the model in real time, automatically. (A slight "re-setting" must be done by hand every four years to compensate for the February 29th of a leap year.) The planetarium includes a display for the current time and date. The plank that has the year numbers written on it has to be replaced every 22 years. +The Eise Eisinga Planetarium is the oldest still working planetarium in the world. +To create the gears for the model, 10,000 handmade nails were used. +In addition to the basic orrery, there are displays of the phase of the moon and other astronomical phenomena. +The orrery was constructed to a scale of 1:1,000,000,000,000 (1 millimetre: 1 million kilometres). + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Official website +Eisinga Planetarium at Atlas Obscura +Eise Eisinga Planetarium Archived 2011-07-24 at the Wayback Machine at Jusonline.nl +UNESCO inscription at UNESCO \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bath_(electrotherapy)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bath_(electrotherapy)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..62ea4c87e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bath_(electrotherapy)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Electric bath (electrotherapy)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bath_(electrotherapy)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:52.142335+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An electric bath is a 19th-century medical treatment in which high-voltage electrical apparatus was used for electrifying patients by causing an electric charge to build up on their bodies. In the US this process was known as Franklinization after Benjamin Franklin. The process became widely known after Franklin described it in the mid-18th century, but after that it was mostly practiced by quacks. Golding Bird brought it into the mainstream at Guy's Hospital in the mid-19th century and it fell into disuse in the early 20th century. + + +== Description == + +The source of electricity for an electric bath was usually a frictional electrical machine. The patient was seated on a wooden stool, and both the patient and the stool insulated from ground by a platform on glass legs or some other insulator. In some arrangements, the patient was lying down rather than seated. The patient was then charged with static electricity either by direct connection to one electrode of the generator (usually the positive), or else through electrostatic induction by holding a large electrode close to the patient's body. The electric tension applied was around 30–50 kV. Treatment could take several hours. Following charging the patient was "bathed" in electricity, hence the name of the procedure. This can be observed in a darkened room as a luminous discharge around the patient, especially at the hair and extremeties. +The electric bath treatment was painless, but it caused the patient to warm and sweat, and the heart rate to increase. It also caused the hair to stand on end. The electric bath could form a treatment in itself. It could also be the first stage in further treatment. A common procedure was to draw sparks from the patient after charging, especially from the spine. + + +== History == +Electricity had been in use for medical treatment since the mid-18th century. However, this was mainly at the hands of quacks and charlatans, often promoting the treatment as a universal panacea. One notorious fringe practitioner using the electric bath was James Graham. It was brought into the mainstream by Golding Bird at Guy's Hospital who ran the "electrifying room" there from 1836. This was not the first time electricity had been used as a treatment in a hospital, but Bird was the first to study its efficacy with scientific rigour. According to Thomas Addison, past hospital use had been "vague and indiscriminate". Bird was well aware of the need to overcome this bad reputation and convince his colleagues. In a series of Guy's Hospital Reports, Bird identified specific treatments for specific conditions based on case studies. He was quick to highlight conditions that could not be treated so that his work was distinguished from the charlatans. Nevertheless, electrotherapy was usually considered a treatment of last resort when all else had failed. +Bird's most common use of the electric bath was to use the electric charge on the patient to draw off sparks by placing another electrode near the point of treatment. He used this method on the spine of chorea sufferers with some success. Another condition for which Bird used this treatment was wrist drop caused by lead poisoning. Bird found that there were some conditions for which this treatment did not work, mostly conditions where the brain or nervous system had been damaged such as epilepsy. +The process of charging up a patient with static electricity was called Franklinization after Benjamin Franklin briefly experimented in this field. He attempted to treat a number of paralytics, first with electric shocks, and then with static charging, but without much success. He described these procedures in a letter of 1757. Franklinization could also be applied locally to a wound or specific patch of skin with a hand-held array of needle electrodes. The intention was often to generate a "static breeze", a wind of ionized air over the skin. Alternatively, the intention could be to breathe in the ionized air as a form of ozone therapy. +Electric bath apparatus for medical use were still for sale as late as 1908. + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Bird, Golding (1841). "Report on the value of electricity, as a remedial agent in the treatment of diseases". Guy's Hospital Reports. Vol. 6. Guy's Hospital. pp. 84–120. +Chalovich, Joseph (January 23, 2012). "Franklinization: Early Therapeutic Use of Static Electricity". The ScholarShip, East Carolina University. Retrieved May 28, 2024. +Coley, N. G. (October 1969). "The collateral sciences in the work of Golding Bird (1814–1854)". Medical History. 13 (4): 363–376. doi:10.1017/S0025727300014794. ISSN 2048-8343. PMC 1033981. PMID 4899816. +Knight, James (1874). Orthopædia. New York: GP Putnam's Sons. British Library 018207409 +Morus, Iwan Rhys (1998). Frankenstein's Children: Electricity, Exhibition, and Experiment in Early-nineteenth-century London. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05952-5. +Pinchuk, LS; Nikolaev, VI; Tsetkova, EA; Goldade, VA (2005-12-02). Tribology and Biophysics of Artificial Joints. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-045808-3. +Schiffer, Michael Brian (2001). "The explanation of long-term technological change". Anthropological Perspectives on Technology. UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-2369-9. +Schiffer, Michael Brian (2006-03-02). Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24829-8. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophorus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophorus-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2a9a9dda1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophorus-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Electrophorus" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophorus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:53.319583+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In electromagnetism, an electrophorus or electrophore is a simple, manual, capacitive, electrostatic generator used to produce charge via the process of electrostatic induction. A first version of it was invented in 1762 by Swedish professor Johan Carl Wilcke. Italian scientist Alessandro Volta improved and popularized the device in 1775, and is sometimes erroneously credited with its invention. The word electrophorus was coined by Volta from the Greek ήλεκτρον, elektron, and φορεύς, phoreus, meaning 'electricity bearer'. + + +== Description and operation == + +The electrophorus consists of a dielectric plate (originally a 'cake' of resinous material such as pitch or wax, but in modern versions plastic is used) and a metal plate with an insulating handle. The dielectric plate is first charged through the triboelectric effect by rubbing it with fur or cloth. For this discussion, imagine the dielectric gains negative charge by rubbing, as in the illustration below. The metal plate is then placed onto the dielectric plate. The dielectric does not transfer a significant fraction of its surface charge to the metal because the microscopic contact is poor. Instead the electrostatic field of the charged dielectric causes the charges in the metal plate to separate. It develops two regions of charge – the positive charges in the plate are attracted to the side facing down toward the dielectric, charging it positively, while the negative charges are repelled to the side facing up, charging it negatively, with the plate remaining electrically neutral as a whole. Then, the side facing up is momentarily grounded (which can be done by touching it with a finger), draining off the negative charge. Finally, the metal plate, now carrying only one sign of charge (positive in our example), is lifted. +Since the charge on the dielectric is not depleted in this process, the charge on the metal plate can be used for experiments, for example by touching it to metal conductors allowing the charge to drain away, and the uncharged metal plate can be placed back on the dielectric and the process repeated to get another charge. This can be repeated as often as desired, so in principle an unlimited amount of induced charge can be obtained from a single charge on the dielectric. For this reason Volta called it elettroforo perpetuo (the perpetual electricity bearer). In actual use the charge on the dielectric will eventually (within a few days at most) leak through the surface of the cake or the atmosphere to recombine with opposite charges around to restore neutrality. +One of the largest examples of an electrophorus was built in 1777 by German scientist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg. It was 6 feet (approximately 183 centimeters) in diameter, with the metal plate raised and lowered using a pulley system. It could reportedly produce 15-inch (38 cm) sparks. Lichtenberg used its discharges to create the strange treelike marks known as Lichtenberg figures. + + +== The source of the charge == + +Charge in the universe is conserved. The electrophorus simply separates positive and negative charges. A positive or negative charge ends up on the metal plate (or other storage conductor), and the opposite charge is stored in another object after grounding (in the earth or the person touching the metal plate). This separation takes work since the lowest energy state implies uncharged objects. Work is done by raising the charged metal plate away from the oppositely charged resinous plate. This additional energy put into the system is converted to potential energy in the form of charge separation (opposite charges that were originally on the plate), so raising the metal plate actually increases its voltage relative to the dielectric plate. +The electrophorus is thus actually a manually operated electrostatic generator, using the same principle of electrostatic induction as electrostatic machines such as the Wimshurst machine and the Van de Graaff generator. + + +== See also == +Electret + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Pancaldi, Giuliano (2003). Volta, Science and Culture in the Age of Enlightenment. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12226-1., pp. 73–105 Volta's 'invention' of the electrophorus +Jones, Thomas B. (July 2007). "Electrophorus and accessories". Thomas B. Jones website. University of Rochester. Archived from the original on 16 December 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2007. +Schiffer, Michael Brian (2003). Draw the Lightning Down:Benjamin Franklin and electrical technology in the Age of Enlightenment. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23802-8. pp. 55–57. Place of electrophorus in history of electrostatics, although the author does not mention Wilcke's contribution. +Fleming, John Ambrose (1911). "Electrophorus" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 09 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 237. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..93be93f59 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Electroscope" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:54.498121+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The electroscope is an early scientific instrument used to detect the presence of electric charge on a body. It detects this by the movement of a test charge due to the Coulomb electrostatic force on it. The amount of charge on an object is proportional to its voltage. The accumulation of enough charge to detect with an electroscope requires hundreds or thousands of volts, so electroscopes are used with high voltage sources such as static electricity and electrostatic machines. An electroscope can only give a rough indication of the quantity of charge; an instrument that measures electric charge quantitatively is called an electrometer. +The electroscope was the first electrical measuring instrument. The first electroscope was a pivoted needle (called the versorium), invented by British physician William Gilbert around 1600. The pith-ball electroscope and the gold-leaf electroscope are two classical types of electroscope that are still used in physics education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics. A type of electroscope is also used in the quartz fiber radiation dosimeter. Electroscopes were used by the Austrian scientist +Victor Hess in the discovery of cosmic rays. + +== Pith-ball electroscope == + +In 1731, Stephen Gray used a simple hanging thread, which would be attracted to any nearby charged object. This was the first improvement on Gilbert's versorium from 1600. +The pith-ball electroscope, invented by British schoolmaster and physicist John Canton in 1754, consists of one or two small balls of a lightweight nonconductive substance, originally a spongy plant material called pith, suspended by silk or linen thread from the hook of an insulated stand. Tiberius Cavallo made an electroscope in 1770 with pith balls at the end of silver wires. Modern electroscopes usually use balls made of plastic. In order to test the presence of a charge on an object, the object is brought near to the uncharged pith ball. If the object is charged, the ball will be attracted to it and move toward it. +The attraction occurs because of induced polarization of the atoms inside the pith ball. All matter consists of electrically charged particles located close together; each atom consists of a positively charged nucleus with a cloud of negatively charged electrons surrounding it. The pith is an insulator, so the electrons in the ball are bound to atoms of the pith and are not free to leave the atoms and move about in the ball, but they can move a little within the atoms. See diagram. If, for example, a positively charged object (B) is brought near the pith ball (A), the negative electrons (blue minus signs) in each atom (yellow ovals) will be attracted and move slightly toward the side of the atom nearer the object. The positively charged nuclei (red plus signs) will be repelled and will move slightly away. Since the negative charges in the pith ball are now nearer to the object than the positive charges (C), their attraction is greater than the repulsion of the positive charges, resulting in a net attractive force. This separation of charge is microscopic, but since there are so many atoms, the tiny forces add up to a large enough force to move a light pith ball. +If the external object (B) instead has a negative charge, the positive nuclei of each atom will be attracted toward it while the electrons will be repelled away from it. Again, this causes opposite charges to be closer to the external object than charges of the same polarity, resulting in a net attractive force. +The pith ball can be charged by touching it to a charged object, so some of the charges on the surface of the charged object move to the surface of the ball. Then the ball can be used to distinguish the polarity of charge on other objects because it will be repelled by objects charged with the same polarity or sign it has, but attracted to charges of the opposite polarity. +Often the electroscope will have a pair of suspended pith balls. This allows one to tell at a glance whether the pith balls are charged. If one of the pith balls is touched to a charged object, charging it, the second one will be attracted and touch it, communicating some of the charge to the surface of the second ball. Now both balls have the same polarity charge, so they repel each other. They hang in an inverted 'V' shape with the balls spread apart. The distance between the balls will give a rough idea of the magnitude of the charge. + +== Gold-leaf electroscope == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..747506a06 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Electroscope" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:54.498121+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The gold-leaf electroscope was developed in 1787 by British clergyman and physicist Abraham Bennet, as a more sensitive instrument than pith ball or straw blade electroscopes then in use. It consists of a vertical metal rod, usually brass, from the end of which hang two parallel strips of thin flexible gold leaf. A disk or ball terminal is attached to the top of the rod, where the charge to be tested is applied. To protect the gold leaves from drafts of air they are enclosed in a glass bottle, usually open at the bottom and mounted over a conductive base. Often there are grounded metal plates or foil strips in the bottle flanking the gold leaves on either side. These are a safety measure; if an excessive charge is applied to the delicate gold leaves, they will touch the grounding plates and discharge before tearing. They also capture charge leaking through the air that accumulates on the glass walls, increasing the sensitivity of the instrument. In the precision instruments the inside of the bottle was occasionally evacuated, to prevent the charge on the terminal from leaking off through the ionization of the air. +When the metal terminal is touched with a charged object, the gold leaves spread apart in an inverted 'V'. This is because some of the charge from the object is conducted through the terminal and metal rod to the leaves. Since the leaves receive the same sign charge they repel each other and thus diverge. If the terminal is grounded by touching it with a finger, the charge is transferred through the human body into the earth and the gold leaves close together. +The electroscope leaves can also be charged without touching a charged object to the terminal, by electrostatic induction. As the charged object is brought near the electroscope terminal, the leaves spread apart, because the electric field from the object induces a charge in the conductive electroscope rod and leaves, and the charged leaves repel each other. The opposite-sign charge is attracted to the nearby object and collects on the terminal disk, while the same-sign charge is repelled from the object and collects on the leaves (but only as much as left the terminal), so the leaves repel each other. If the electroscope is grounded while the charged object is nearby, by touching it momentarily with a finger, the repelled same-sign charges travel through the contact to ground, leaving the electroscope with a net charge having the opposite sign as the object. The leaves initially hang down free because the net charge is concentrated at the terminal end. When the charged object is moved away, the charge at the terminal spreads into the leaves, causing them to spread apart again. + +The Bohnenberger electroscope was developed in the early 19th century by the German physicist Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger as an improvement on earlier gold-leaf electroscopes. The instrument employed a single gold leaf suspended between two oppositely charge plates, increasing sensitivity and allowing clearer detection of both the presence and sign of an electric charge. +Bohnenberger electroscopes were widely used in 19th-century experimental physics and appear in university laboratories, teaching collections, and scientific manuals throughout Europe. The design influenced later high-sensitivity electroscopic instruments. +Eberbach & Son electroscope instruments were designed primarily for educational and laboratory use, following classical electroscope principles while emphasizing robustness and standardized construction for teaching environments. + +While they did not introduce new electroscopic principles, they played a role in the standardization of electrostatics instruction in North America. + +== See also == + +== Footnotes == + +== External links == +"Pith-ball electroscope". Physics demonstration resource. St. Mary's University. Retrieved 2015-05-28. +"Computer simulation of electroscopes". Molecular Workbench. Concord Consortium. Archived from the original on 2022-07-03. Retrieved 2008-02-03. +"Pith Ball and Charged Rod Video". St. Mary's Physics YouTube Channel. St. Mary's Physics Online. Archived from the original on 2021-12-22. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5934bb975 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Electrostatic generator" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:55.653201+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an electrical generator that produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current. The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its behavior and often confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. +Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform mechanical work into electric energy, or using electric currents. Manual electrostatic generators develop electrostatic charges of opposite signs rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates, drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potential electrode. + +== Description == +Electrostatic machines are typically used in science classrooms to safely demonstrate electrical forces and high voltage phenomena. The elevated potential differences achieved have also been used for a variety of practical applications, such as operating X-ray tubes, particle accelerators, spectroscopy, medical applications, sterilization of food, and nuclear physics experiments. Electrostatic generators such as the Van de Graaff generator, and variations as the Pelletron, also find use in physics research. +Electrostatic generators can be divided into categories depending on how the charge is generated: + +Friction machines use the triboelectric effect (electricity generated by contact or friction) +Influence machines use electrostatic induction +Others + +=== Friction machines === + +==== History ==== + +The first electrostatic generators are called friction machines because of the friction in the generation process. A primitive form of frictional machine was invented around 1663 by Otto von Guericke, using a sulphur globe that could be rotated and rubbed by hand. It may not actually have been rotated during use and was not intended to produce electricity (rather cosmic virtues), but inspired many later machines that used rotating globes. Isaac Newton constructed his own primitive electrostatic generator, being the first to use a glass globe instead of a sulphur one. In about 1706 Francis Hauksbee improved the basic design, with his frictional electrical machine that enabled a glass sphere to be rotated rapidly against a woollen cloth. +Generators were further advanced when, about 1730, Prof. Georg Matthias Bose of Wittenberg added a collecting conductor (an insulated tube or cylinder supported on silk strings). Bose was the first to employ the "prime conductor" in such machines, this consisting of an iron rod held in the hand of a person whose body was insulated by standing on a block of resin. +In 1746, William Watson's machine had a large wheel turning several glass globes, with a sword and a gun barrel suspended from silk cords for its prime conductors. Johann Heinrich Winckler, professor of physics at Leipzig, substituted a leather cushion for the hand. During 1746, Jan Ingenhousz invented electric machines made of plate glass. Experiments with the electric machine were largely aided by the invention of the Leyden Jar. This early form of the capacitor, with conductive coatings on either side of the glass, can accumulate a charge of electricity when connected with a source of electromotive force. +The electric machine was soon further improved by Andrew (Andreas) Gordon, a Scotsman and professor at Erfurt, who substituted a glass cylinder in place of a glass globe; and by Giessing of Leipzig who added a "rubber" consisting of a cushion of woollen material. The collector, consisting of a series of metal points, was added to the machine by Benjamin Wilson about 1746, and in 1762, John Canton of England (also the inventor of the first pith-ball electroscope) improved the efficiency of electric machines by sprinkling an amalgam of tin over the surface of the rubber. In 1768, Jesse Ramsden constructed a widely used version of a plate electrical generator. +In 1783, Dutch scientist Martin van Marum of Haarlem designed a large electrostatic machine of high quality with glass disks 1.65 meters in diameter for his experiments. Capable of producing voltage with either polarity, it was built under his supervision by John Cuthbertson of Amsterdam the following year. The generator is currently on display at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem. +In 1785, N. Rouland constructed a silk-belted machine that rubbed two grounded tubes covered with hare fur. Edward Nairne developed an electrostatic generator for medical purposes in 1787 that had the ability to generate either positive or negative electricity, the first of these being collected from the prime conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from another prime conductor carrying the friction pad. The Winter machine possessed higher efficiency than earlier friction machines. +In the 1830s, Georg Ohm possessed a machine similar to the Van Marum machine for his research (which is now at the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany). In 1840, the Woodward machine was developed by improving the 1768 Ramsden machine, placing the prime conductor above the disk(s). Also in 1840, the Armstrong hydroelectric machine was developed, using steam as a charge carrier. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..918b50c82 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Electrostatic generator" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:55.653201+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Friction operation ==== +The presence of surface charge imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which leads to static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomenon of the triboelectric effect. Rubbing two non-conductive objects can generate a great amount of static electricity. This is not the result of friction; two non-conductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually insulators, e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge. Some examples of these substances are rubber, plastic, glass, and pith. Conductive objects in contact generate charge imbalance too, but retain the charges only if insulated. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Note that the presence of electric current does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the corona discharge, or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultaneously in the same system. + +=== Influence machines === + +==== History ==== +Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely, influence machines. These operate by electrostatic induction and convert mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished and reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of Volta's electrophorus. The electrophorus is a single-plate capacitor used to produce imbalances of electric charge via the process of electrostatic induction. +The next step was when Abraham Bennet, the inventor of the gold leaf electroscope, described a "doubler of electricity" (Phil. Trans., 1787), as a device similar to the electrophorus, but that could amplify a small charge by means of repeated manual operations with three insulated plates, in order to make it observable in an electroscope. In 1788, William Nicholson proposed his rotating doubler, which can be considered as the first rotating influence machine. His instrument was described as "an instrument which by turning a winch produces the two states of electricity without friction or communication with the earth". (Phil. Trans., 1788, p. 403) Nicholson later described a "spinning condenser" apparatus, as a better instrument for measurements. +Erasmus Darwin, W. Wilson, G. C. Bohnenberger, and (later, 1841) J. C. E. Péclet developed various modifications of Bennet's 1787 device. Francis Ronalds automated the generation process in 1816 by adapting a pendulum bob as one of the plates, driven by clockwork or a steam engine – he created the device to power his electric telegraph. +Others, including T. Cavallo (who developed the "Cavallo multiplier", a charge multiplier using simple addition, in 1795), John Read, Charles Bernard Desormes, and Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette, developed further various forms of rotating doublers. In 1798, The German scientist and preacher Gottlieb Christoph Bohnenberger, described the Bohnenberger machine, along with several other doublers of Bennet and Nicholson types in a book. The most interesting of these were described in the "Annalen der Physik" (1801). Giuseppe Belli, in 1831, developed a simple symmetrical doubler which consisted of two curved metal plates between which revolved a pair of plates carried on an insulating stem. It was the first symmetrical influence machine, with identical structures for both terminals. This apparatus was reinvented several times, by C. F. Varley, that patented a high power version in 1860, by Lord Kelvin (the "replenisher") 1868, and by A. D. Moore (the "dirod"), more recently. Lord Kelvin also devised a combined influence machine and electromagnetic machine, commonly called a mouse mill, for electrifying the ink in connection with his siphon recorder, and a water-drop electrostatic generator (1867), which he called the "water-dropping condenser". + +===== Holtz machine ===== + +Between 1864 and 1880, W. T. B. Holtz constructed and described a large number of influence machines which were considered the most advanced developments of the time. In one form, the Holtz machine consisted of a glass disk mounted on a horizontal axis which could be made to rotate at a considerable speed by a multiplying gear, interacting with induction plates mounted in a fixed disk close to it. In 1865, August J. I. Toepler developed an influence machine that consisted of two disks fixed on the same shaft and rotating in the same direction. In 1868, the Schwedoff machine had a curious structure to increase the output current. Also in 1868, several mixed friction-influence machine were developed, including the Kundt machine and the Carré machine. In 1866, the Piche machine (or Bertsch machine) was developed. In 1869, H. Julius Smith received the American patent for a portable and airtight device that was designed to ignite powder. Also in 1869, sectorless machines in Germany were investigated by Poggendorff. +The action and efficiency of influence machines were further investigated by F. Rossetti, A. Righi, and Friedrich Kohlrausch. E. E. N. Mascart, A. Roiti, and E. Bouchotte also examined the efficiency and current producing power of influence machines. In 1871, sectorless machines were investigated by Musaeus. In 1872, Righi's electrometer was developed and was one of the first antecedents of the Van de Graaff generator. In 1873, Leyser developed the Leyser machine, a variation of the Holtz machine. In 1880, Robert Voss (a Berlin instrument maker) devised a form of machine in which he claimed that the principles of Toepler and Holtz were combined. The same structure become also known as the Toepler–Holtz machine. + +===== Wimshurst machine ===== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e3f65c0da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Electrostatic generator" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:55.653201+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 1878, the British inventor James Wimshurst started his studies about electrostatic generators, improving the Holtz machine, in a powerful version with multiple disks. The classical Wimshurst machine, that became the most popular form of influence machine, was reported to the scientific community by 1883, although previous machines with very similar structures were previously described by Holtz and Musaeus. In 1885, one of the largest-ever Wimshurst machines was built in England (it is now at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry). The Wimshurst machine is a considerably simple machine; it works, as all influence machines, with electrostatic induction of charges, which means that it uses even the slightest existing charge to create and accumulate more charges, and repeats this process for as long as the machine is in action. Wimshurst machines are composed of: two insulated disks attached to pulleys of opposite rotation, the disks have small conductive (usually metal) plates on their outward-facing sides; two double-ended brushes that serve as charge stabilizers and are also the place where induction happens, creating the new charges to be collected; two pairs of collecting combs, which are, as the name implies, the collectors of electrical charge produced by the machine; two Leyden Jars, the capacitors of the machine; a pair of electrodes, for the transfer of charges once they have been sufficiently accumulated. The simple structure and components of the Wimshurst Machine make it a common choice for a homemade electrostatic experiment or demonstration, these characteristics were factors that contributed to its popularity, as previously mentioned. +In 1887, Weinhold modified the Leyser machine with a system of vertical metal bar inductors with wooden cylinders close to the disk for avoiding polarity reversals. M. L. Lebiez described the Lebiez machine, that was essentially a simplified Voss machine (L'Électricien, April 1895, pp. 225–227). In 1893, Louis Bonetti patented a machine with the structure of the Wimshurst machine, but without metal sectors in the disks. This machine is significantly more powerful than the sectored version, but it must usually be started with an externally applied charge. + +===== Pidgeon machine ===== +In 1898, the Pidgeon machine was developed with a unique setup by W. R. Pidgeon. On October 28 that year, Pidgeon presented this machine to the Physical Society after several years of investigation into influence machines (beginning at the start of the decade). The device was later reported in the Philosophical Magazine (December 1898, pg. 564) and the Electrical Review (Vol. XLV, pg. 748). A Pidgeon machine possesses fixed electrostatic inductors arranged in a manner that increases the electrostatic induction effect (and its electrical output is at least double that of typical machines of this type [except when it is overtaxed]). The essential features of the Pidgeon machine are, one, the combination of the rotating support and the fixed support for inducing charge, and, two, the improved insulation of all parts of the machine (but more especially of the generator's carriers). Pidgeon machines are a combination of a Wimshurst Machine and Voss Machine, with special features adapted to reduce the amount of charge leakage. Pidgeon machines excite themselves more readily than the best of these types of machines. In addition, Pidgeon investigated higher current "triplex" section machines (or "double machines with a single central disk") with enclosed sectors (and went on to receive British Patent 22517 (1899) for this type of machine). +Multiple disk machines and "triplex" electrostatic machines (generators with three disks) were also developed extensively around the turn of the 20th century. In 1900, F. Tudsbury discovered that enclosing a generator in a metallic chamber containing compressed air, or better, carbon dioxide, the insulating properties of compressed gases enabled a greatly improved effect to be obtained owing to the increase in the breakdown voltage of the compressed gas, and reduction of the leakage across the plates and insulating supports. In 1903, Alfred Wehrsen patented an ebonite rotating disk possessing embedded sectors with button contacts at the disk surface. In 1907, Heinrich Wommelsdorf reported a variation of the Holtz machine using this disk and inductors embedded in celluloid plates (DE154175; "Wehrsen machine"). Wommelsdorf also developed several high-performance electrostatic generators, of which the best known were his "Condenser machines" (1920). These were single disk machines, using disks with embedded sectors that were accessed at the edges. + +==== Van de Graaff ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f330b8b73 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Electrostatic generator" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:55.653201+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Van de Graaff generator was invented by American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929 at MIT as a particle accelerator. The first model was demonstrated in October 1929. In the Van de Graaff machine, an insulating belt transports electric charge to the interior of an insulated hollow metal high voltage terminal, where it is transferred to the terminal by a "comb" of metal points. The advantage of the design was that since there was no electric field in the interior of the terminal, the charge on the belt could continue to be discharged onto the terminal regardless of how high the voltage on the terminal was. Thus the only limit to the voltage on the machine is ionization of the air next to the terminal. This occurs when the electric field at the terminal exceeds the dielectric strength of air, about 30 kV per centimeter. Since the highest electric field is produced at sharp points and edges, the terminal is made in the form of a smooth hollow sphere; the larger the diameter the higher the voltage attained. The first machine used a silk ribbon bought at a five and dime store as the charge transport belt. In 1931 a version able to produce 1,000,000 volts was described in a patent disclosure. +The Van de Graaff generator was a successful particle accelerator, producing the highest energies until the late 1930s when the cyclotron superseded it. The voltage on open air Van de Graaff machines is limited to a few million volts by air breakdown. Higher voltages, up to about 25 megavolts, were achieved by enclosing the generator inside a tank of pressurized insulating gas. This type of Van de Graaff particle accelerator is still used in medicine and research. Other variations were also invented for physics research, such as the Pelletron, that uses a chain with alternating insulating and conducting links for charge transport. +Small Van de Graaff generators are commonly used in science museums and science education to demonstrate the principles of static electricity. A popular demonstration is to have a person touch the high voltage terminal while standing on an insulated support; the high voltage charges the person's hair, causing the strands to stand out from the head. + +=== Others === + +Not all electrostatic generators use the triboelectric effect or electrostatic induction. Electric charges can be generated by electric currents directly. Examples are ionizers and ESD guns. + +== Applications == + +=== Gridded ion thruster === + +=== EWICON === +An electrostatic vaneless ion wind generator, the EWICON, has been developed by The School of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science at Delft University of Technology (TU Delft). Its stands near Mecanoo, an architecture firm. The main developers were Johan Smit and Dhiradj Djairam. Other than the wind, it has no moving parts. It is powered by the wind carrying away charged particles from its collector. The design suffers from poor efficiency. + +=== Dutch Windwheel === +The technology developed for EWICON has been reused in the Dutch Windwheel. + +=== Air ioniser === + +== Fringe science and devices == +These generators have been used, sometimes inappropriately and with some controversy, to support various fringe science investigations. In 1911, George Samuel Piggott received a patent for a compact double machine enclosed within a pressurized box for his experiments concerning radiotelegraphy and "antigravity". Much later (in the 1960s), a machine known as "Testatika" was built by German engineer, Paul Suisse Bauman, and promoted by a Swiss community, the Methernithans. Testatika is an electromagnetic generator based on the 1898 Pidgeon electrostatic machine, said to produce "free energy" available directly from the environment. + +== See also == +Electrostatic motor +Electrometer (also known as the "electroscope") +Electret +Static electricity + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d0267d57 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Electrostatic generator" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:55.653201+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Further reading == +Gottlieb Christoph Bohnenberger: Beschreibung unterschiedlicher Elektrizitätsverdoppler von einer neuen Einrichtung nebst einer Anzahl von Versuchen üb. verschiedene Gegenstände d. Elektrizitätslehre [Description of different electricity-doubler of a new device, along with a number of experiments on various subjects of electricity] Tübingen 1798. +Holtz, W. (1865). "Ueber eine neue Elektrisirmaschine" [On a new electrical machine]. Annalen der Physik und Chemie (in German). 202 (9). Wiley: 157–171. Bibcode:1865AnP...202..157H. doi:10.1002/andp.18652020911. ISSN 0003-3804. +Wilhelm Holtz: the higher charge on insulating surfaces by side pull and the transfer of this principle to the construction of induction machines .. In: Johann Poggendorff, CG Barth (eds): Annals of physics and chemistry. 130, Leipzig 1867, pp. 128–136 +Wilhelm Holtz: The influence machine. In: F. Poske (Eds.): Annals of physics and chemistry. Julius Springer, Berlin 1904 (seventeenth year, the fourth issue). +O. Lehmann: Dr. J. Frick's physical technique. 2, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig 1909, p. 797 (Section 2). +F. Poske: New forms of influence machines. In: F. Poske (eds) for the physical and chemical education. journal Julius Springer, Berlin 1893 (seventh year, second issue). +C. L. Stong, "Electrostatic motors are powered by electric field of the Earth". October, 1974. (PDF) +Oleg D. Jefimenko, "Electrostatic Motors: Their History, Types, and Principles of Operation". Electret Scientific, Star City, 1973. +G. W. Francis (author) and Oleg D. Jefimenko (editor), "Electrostatic Experiments: An Encyclopedia of Early Electrostatic Experiments, Demonstrations, Devices, and Apparatus". Electret Scientific, Star City, 2005. +V. E. Johnson, "Modern High-Speed Influence Machines; Their principles, construction and applications to radiography, radio-telegraphy, spark photography, electro-culture, electro-therapeutics, high-tension gas ignition, and the testing of materials". ISBN B0000EFPCO +Simon, Alfred W. (1 November 1924). "Quantitative Theory of the Influence Electrostatic Generator". Physical Review. 24 (6). American Physical Society (APS): 690–696. Bibcode:1924PhRv...24..690S. doi:10.1103/physrev.24.690. ISSN 0031-899X. PMC 1085669. PMID 16576822. +J. Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (2nd ed., Oxford, 1881), vol. i. p. 294 +Joseph David Everett, Electricity (expansion of part iii. of Augustin Privat-Deschanel's "Natural Philosophy") (London, 1901), ch. iv. p. 20 +A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik (Breslau, 1905), vol. iv. pp. 50–58 (contains a large number of references to original papers) +J. Gray, "Electrical Influence Machines, Their Historical Development and Modern Forms [with instruction on making them]" (London, I903). (J. A. F.) +Silvanus P. Thompson, The Influence Machine from Nicholson – 1788 to 1888, Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng., 1888, 17, p. 569 +John Munro, The Story Of Electricity (The Project Gutenberg Etext) +A. D. Moore (Editor), "Electrostatics and its Applications". Wiley, New York, 1973. +Oleg D. Jefimenko (with D. K. Walker), "Electrostatic motors". Phys. Teach. 9, 121–129 (1971). +Pidgeon, W R (1892). "An Influence-Machine". Proceedings of the Physical Society of London. 12 (1). IOP Publishing: 406–411. Bibcode:1892PPSL...12..406P. doi:10.1088/1478-7814/12/1/327. ISSN 1478-7814. +Pidgeon, W R (1897). "An Influence-Machine". Proceedings of the Physical Society of London. 16 (1). IOP Publishing: 253–257. Bibcode:1897PPSL...16..253P. doi:10.1088/1478-7814/16/1/330. ISSN 1478-7814. + +== External links == + +Electrostatic Generator – Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory +Fleming, John Ambrose (1911). "Electrical Machine" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 176–179. +"How it works : Electricity". triquartz.co.uk. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton's_quadrant-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton's_quadrant-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f3b4807b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton's_quadrant-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Elton's quadrant" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton's_quadrant" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:56.867994+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An Elton's quadrant is a derivative of the Davis quadrant. It adds an index arm and artificial horizon to the instrument, and was invented by English sea captain John Elton, who patented his design in 1728 and published details of the instrument in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1732. + + +== Construction == + +This instrument clearly reflects the shape and features of the Davis quadrant. The significant differences are the change in the upper arc to a simple triangular frame and the addition of an index arm. The triangular frame at the top spans 60° as did the arc on the backstaff. The main graduated arc subtends 30° as in the backstaff. The 30° arc is graduated in degrees and sixths of a degree, that is, at ten-minute intervals. +The sighting vane of the backstaff is replaced with a sight (called an eye vane) mounted on the end of the index arm. +The index arm includes a nonius to allow reading the large scale with ten divisions between the graduations on the scale. This provides the navigator with the ability to read the scale to the nearest minute of arc. The index arm has a spirit level to allow the navigator to ensure that the index is horizontal even when he cannot see the horizon. +The instrument has a horizon vane like a Davis quadrant, but Elton refers to it as the shield or ray vane. The shield is attached to the label. The label is an arm that extends from the centre of the arc to the outside of the upper triangle and can be set to one of the three positions in the triangle (in the diagram, it appears to bisect the triangle as it is set to the centre or 30° position). At the upper end of the label is a Flamsteed glass or lens. +The three set positions allow the instrument to read 0° to 30°, 30° to 60° or 60° to 90°. The lens projects an image of the Sun rather than a shadow of the Sun on the shield. This provides an image even when the sky is hazy or lightly overcast. In addition, at the mid-span of the label there is a mounting point for a lantern to be used during nocturnal observations. +There are two spirit levels on the shield. One, called the azimuth tube, ensures that the plane of the instrument is vertical. The other is perpendicular to the shield and will indicate when the plane of the shield is vertical and the label is horizontal. + + +== Usage == + + +=== Solar altitude by backsight === +For measuring the altitude of the Sun, the Elton's quadrant can be used in the same manner as a Davis quadrant. However, with the artificial horizon, the eye vane is not required to be used. +Hold the instrument in a comfortable manner with the arc towards the Sun. Set the label so that the Sun's image is projected on the shield at the hole with the index arm roughly horizontal. Move the index arm so that the index's spirit level shows the arm is precisely horizontal. This sets the instrument and the angle can be read with the scale and nonius. + + +=== Stellar altitude by foresight === +This is a means of measuring altitude of a celestial object that is very different from what can be done with a Davis quadrant. It reveals one of the significant improvements of the Elton's quadrant over the former instrument. +Set the label to a position that will put the object to be measured within the range of the instrument. Observe the object through the eye vane so that the object touches the upper edge of the shield while using the azimuth tube to ensure that the frame is vertical. Move the index arm so that the shield's horizontal tube indicates that the shield is precisely vertical. This sets the instrument and the angle can be read on the arc. + + +== Significance to navigation == +The Elton's quadrant is not very well known as a navigation instrument. It was used, though to what degree is not known. Elton had the misfortune to invent his instrument in the same period of time as the octant. In fact, John Hadley published details on his octant prior to Elton's article in the same volume of the Philosophical Transactions (article 37 vs 48). +Given that Elton's quadrant was roughly as complex as an octant in construction, there would not likely be a significant advantage in price. The octant was an easier instrument to use and Hadley had supported the use of artificial horizons on the octant in the form of spirit levels. This would have given no advantage to Elton's instrument. In addition, there were many other instruments competing for the attention of navigators in this period. In the end, the Hadley octant and later sextant took precedence as instruments for navigators. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Maritime Art Greenwich, at the National Maritime Museum, London Painting of a captain holding an Elton's Quadrant. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_ring-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_ring-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d355c6bcc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_ring-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Equatorial ring" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_ring" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:58.041980+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An equatorial ring was an astronomical instrument used in the Hellenistic world to determine the exact moment of the spring and autumn equinoxes. Equatorial rings were placed before the temples in Alexandria, in Rhodes, and perhaps in other places, for calendar purposes. +The easiest way to understand the use of an equatorial ring is to imagine a ring placed vertically in the east-west plane at the Earth's equator. At the time of the equinoxes, the Sun will rise precisely in the east, move across the zenith, and set precisely in the west. Throughout the day, the bottom half of the ring will be in the shadow cast by the top half of the ring. On other days of the year, the Sun passes to the north or south of the ring, and will illuminate the bottom half. For latitudes away from the equator, the ring merely needs to be placed at the correct angle to the equatorial plane. At the Earth's poles, the ring would be horizontal. +The equatorial ring was about one to two cubits (45cm–90cm) in diameter. Because the Sun is not a point source of light, the width of the shadow on the bottom half of the ring is slightly less than the width of the ring. By waiting until the shadow was centered on the ring, the time of the equinox could be fixed to within an hour or so. If the equinox happened at night, or if the sky was cloudy, an interpolation could be made between two days' measurements. +The main disadvantage with the equatorial ring is that it needed to be aligned very precisely or false measurements could occur. Ptolemy mentions in the Almagest that one of the equatorial rings in use in Alexandria had shifted slightly, which meant that the instrument showed the equinox occurring twice on the same day. False readings can also be produced by atmospheric refraction of the Sun when it is close to the horizon. +Equatorial rings can also be found on armillary spheres and equatorial sundials. + + +== References == +Anton Pannekoek, (1989), A History of Astronomy, page 124. Courier Dover Publications +James Evans, (1998), The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, pages 206-7. Oxford University Press. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8a6de1536 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Equatorium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:59.223473+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An equatorium (plural, equatoria) is an astronomical calculating instrument. It can be used for finding the positions of the Moon, Sun, and planets without arithmetic operations, using a geometrical model to represent the position of a given celestial body. + + +== History == +In his comment on Ptolemy's Handy Tables, 4th century mathematician Theon of Alexandria introduced some diagrams to geometrically compute the position of the planets based on Ptolemy's epicyclical theory. The first description of the construction of a solar equatorium (as opposed to planetary) is contained in Proclus's fifth-century work Hypotyposis, where he gives instructions on how to construct one in wood or bronze. +The earliest known descriptions of planetary equatoria are in the Latin translation of an early eleventh century text by Ibn al‐Samḥ and a 1080/1081 treatise by al-Zarqālī, contained in the Libros del saber de astronomia (Books of the knowledge of astronomy), a Castilian compilation of astronomical works collected under the patronage of Alfonso X of Castile in the thirteenth century. +The Theorica Planetarum (c. 1261–1264) by Campanus of Novara is the earliest extant description of the construction of an equatorium in Latin Europe. Campanus' instrument resembled an astrolabe, with several interchangeable plates within a mater. The best manuscripts of Campanus' treatise contain paper and parchment equatoria with moveable parts. +Early in 1393, the English Benedictine monk John Westwyk completed his Equatorie de Planetis, a manuscript containing original designs for a large equatorium, along with directions for its construction and a long series of astronomical tables calibrated for use with the device. If built according to his instructions, Westwyk's equatorium would have measured 6 feet in diameter, allowing astronomers a much greater degree of precision in their calculations, but a full-scale model made to Westwyk's ideal specifications would have been prohibitively expensive during his lifetime, making it unlikely that his ideal iteration of the device was ever constructed. + + +== Variations == + +The history of the equatorium does not just end after the 11th century, but it inspired a more diverse invention called “The Albion”. The Albion is an astronomical instrument invented by Richard of Wallingford at the beginning of the 14th century. It has various functional uses such as that of the equatorium for planetary and conjunction computations. It can calculate when eclipses will occur. The Albion is made up of 18 different scales which makes it extremely complex in comparison to the equatorium. The history of this instrument is still disputed to this day, as the only Albion from the past is both unnamed and unmarked. + + +== Astrolabe compared with equatorium == +The roots of the equatorium lie in the astrolabe. The history of the astrolabe dates back to roughly 220 BC in the works of Hipparchus. The difference between the two instruments is that the astrolabe measures the time and position of the sun and stars at a specific location in time. In contrast, the equatorium is used to calculate the past or future positions of the planets and celestial bodies according to the planetary theory of Ptolemy. + + +== Uses == +The equatorium can further be specialized depending on the epicycle. There are three possible epicycles that can be adjusted to serve for planetary positions in three groups: the Moon, the stars, and the Sun. The Sun was considered a planet in the Ptolemaic system, hence why the equatorium could be used to determine its position. Through the use of Ptolemy's model, astronomers were able to make a single instrument with various capabilities that catered to the belief that the Solar System had the Earth at the center. In fact, specialized equatoriums had astrological aspects of medicine, as the orientation of planets gave insight to zodiac signs which helped some doctors cater medical treatments to patients. +At least 15 minutes was needed to calculate the planetary position with the use of a table for each celestial body. A horoscope of that era would have required the positions of seven astronomical objects, requiring nearly two hours of manual calculation time. + + +== See also == + +Antikythera mechanism +Armillary sphere +Astrarium +Astrolabe +Astronomical clock +Orrery +Planetarium +The Equatorie of the Planetis +Torquetum + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Seb Falk's blog: making a planetary equatorium \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2daea7081 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,273 @@ +--- +title: "F. J. Duarte" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:50.108359+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Francisco Javier "Frank" Duarte (born c. 1954) is a laser physicist and author/editor of several books on tunable lasers. +His research on physical optics and laser development has won several awards, including an Engineering Excellence Award in 1995 for the invention of the N-slit laser interferometer. + +== Research == + +=== Laser oscillators === +Duarte and Piper introduced multiple-prism near-grazing-incidence grating cavities which originally were disclosed as copper-laser-pumped narrow-linewidth tunable laser oscillators. Subsequently, he developed narrow-linewidth multiple-prism grating configurations for high-power CO2 laser oscillators and solid-state tunable organic laser oscillators. + +=== Intracavity dispersion theory === +Duarte also conceived the multiple-prism dispersion theories for tunable narrow-linewidth laser oscillators, and multiple-prism laser pulse compression, which are summarized in several of his books. The introduction to this theory is the generalized multiple-prism dispersion equation + + + + + + ∇ + + λ + + + + ϕ + + 2 + , + m + + + = + + H + + 2 + , + m + + + + ∇ + + λ + + + + n + + m + + + + + ( + + k + + 1 + , + m + + + + k + + 2 + , + m + + + + ) + + − + 1 + + + + + ( + + + + H + + 1 + , + m + + + + ∇ + + λ + + + + n + + m + + + ± + + ∇ + + λ + + + + ϕ + + 2 + , + ( + m + − + 1 + ) + + + + + ) + + + + + {\displaystyle \nabla _{\lambda }\phi _{2,m}=H_{2,m}\nabla _{\lambda }n_{m}+(k_{1,m}k_{2,m})^{-1}{\bigg (}H_{1,m}\nabla _{\lambda }n_{m}\pm \nabla _{\lambda }\phi _{2,(m-1)}{\bigg )}} + + +which has found a variety of applications. + +=== Tunable lasers for isotope separation === +His tunable narrow-linewidth laser oscillator configurations have been adopted by various research groups working on uranium atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS). This work was supported by the Australian Atomic Energy Commission. During the course of this research, Duarte writes that he did approach the then federal minister for energy, Sir John Carrick, to advocate for the introduction of an AVLIS facility in Australia. In 2002, he participated in research that led to the isotope separation of lithium using narrow-linewidth tunable diode lasers. + +=== Solid state organic dye lasers === +From the mid-1980s to early 1990s Duarte and scientists from the US +Army Missile Command developed ruggedized narrow-linewidth laser oscillators tunable directly in the visible spectrum. This constituted the first disclosure, in the open literature, of a tunable narrow-linewidth laser tested on a rugged terrain. This research led to experimentation with polymer gain media and in 1994 Duarte reported on the first narrow-linewidth tunable solid state dye laser oscillators. These dispersive oscillator architectures were then refined to yield single-longitudinal-mode emission limited only by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. + +=== Organic gain media === +Joint research, with R. O. James, on solid-state organic-inorganic materials, led to the discovery of polymer-nanoparticle gain media and to the emission of tunable low-divergence homogeneous laser beams from this class of media. In 2005, Duarte and colleagues were the first to demonstrate directional coherent emission from an electrically excited organic semiconductor. These experiments utilized a tandem OLED within an integrated interferometric configuration. +Duarte's work in this area began with the demonstration of narrow-linewidth laser emission using coumarin-tetramethyl dyes which offer high conversion efficiency and wide tunability in the green region of the electromagnetic spectrum. + +=== Interferometry and quantum optics === + +In the late 1980s, he invented the digital N-slit laser interferometer for applications in imaging and microscopy. Concurrently, he applied Dirac's notation to describe quantum mechanically its interferometric and propagation characteristics. A further innovation in this interferometer was the use of extremely elongated Gaussian beams, width to height ratios of up to 2000:1, for +sample illumination. +This research also led to the generalized N-slit interferometric equation that was then applied to describe classical optics phenomena such as interference, diffraction, refraction, and reflection, in a generalized and unified quantum approach that includes positive and negative refraction. He also derived the cavity linewidth equation, for dispersive laser oscillators, using quantum mechanical principles. +Further developments include very large N-slit laser interferometers to generate and propagate interferometric characters for secure free-space optical communications. Interferometric characters is a term coined in 2002 to link interefometric signals to alphanumerical characters (see figure's legend). +These experiments provided the first observation of diffraction patterns superimposed over propagating interference signals, thus demonstrating non-destructive (or soft) interception of propagating interferograms. +A spin-off of this research, with applications to the aviation industry, resulted from the discovery that N-slit laser interferometers are very sensitive detectors of clear air turbulence. +Duarte provides a description of quantum optics, almost entirely via Dirac's notation, in his book Quantum Optics for Engineers. In this book he derives the probability amplitude for quantum entanglement, + + + + + + | + ψ + ⟩ + + = + + + 1 + + + 2 + + + + + ( + + + | + x + ⟩ + + + 1 + + + + + | + y + ⟩ + + + 2 + + + − + + + | + y + ⟩ + + + 1 + + + + + | + x + ⟩ + + + 2 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle \left|\psi \right\rangle ={1 \over {\sqrt {2}}}(\left|x\right\rangle _{1}\left|y\right\rangle _{2}-\left|y\right\rangle _{1}\left|x\right\rangle _{2})} + + +which he calls the Pryce-Ward probability amplitude, from an N-slit interferometric perspective. It is this + + + + + | + ψ + ⟩ + + + + {\displaystyle \left|\psi \right\rangle } + + that becomes the probability + + + + + | + ψ + ⟩ + + + + | + ψ + ⟩ + + + ∗ + + + + + {\displaystyle \left|\psi \right\rangle \left|\psi \right\rangle ^{*}} + + disclosed by Pryce and Ward. Duarte also emphasizes a pragmatic non-interpretational approach to quantum mechanics. + +== Career == + +=== Macquarie University === +At Macquarie University, Duarte studied quantum physics under John Clive Ward and semiconductor physics under Ronald Ernest Aitchison. His PhD research was on laser physics and his supervisor was James A. Piper. +In the area of university politics, he established and led the Macquarie science reform movement, that transformed the degree structure of the university. Macquarie's science reform, was widely supported by local scientists including physicists R. E. Aitchison, R. E. B. Makinson, A. W. Pryor, and J. C. Ward. +In 1980, Duarte was elected as one of the Macquarie representatives to the Australian Union of Students from where he was expelled, and then reinstated, for "running over the tables." +Following completion of his PhD work, Duarte did post doctoral research, with B. J. Orr at the University of New South Wales, and then back at Macquarie University. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..26f4cad25 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "F. J. Duarte" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:50.108359+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== American phase === +In 1983, Duarte traveled to the United States to assume a physics professorship at the University of Alabama. In 1985 he joined the Imaging Research Laboratories, at the Eastman Kodak Company, where he remained until 2006. While at Kodak he was chairman of Lasers '87 and subsequent conferences in this series. Duarte has had a long association with the US Army Missile Command and the US Army Aviation and Missile Command, where he has participated (with R. W. Conrad and T. S. Taylor) in directed energy research. +He was elected Fellow of the Australian Institute of Physics in 1987) and a Fellow of the Optical Society of America in 1993. +In 1995, he received the Engineering Excellence Award for "the invention of an electrooptic coherent interferometer for direct applications to imaging diagnostics of transparent surfaces, such as photographic film and film substrates. and in 2016, he was awarded the David Richardson Medal for "seminal contributions to the physics and technology of multiple-prism arrays for narrow-linewidth tunable laser oscillators and laser pulse compression," from the Optical Society. + +=== Personal === + +Duarte was born in Santiago, Chile, and traveled to Sydney, Australia, as a teenager. There, he lived first in Strathfield and then in the northern small town of Cowan. In the United States he resided for a brief period in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and then moved to Western New York. + +=== Books === +Dye Laser Principles (1990) +Tunable Laser Optics, 2nd Ed. (2015, Second edition) +Tunable Laser Applications, 3rd Ed (1996, 2009, 2016) +Fundamentals of Quantum Entanglement (2019) +Quantum Entanglement Engineering and Applications (2021) + +== See also == +Heat equation +Laser space communications +Multiple-prism beam expanders +Organic laser +Polarization rotator + +== References == + +== External links == + +Duarte's home page +United States Patents by F. J. Duarte, at Patent Genius \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer-0.md index 2da7fa79e..d5198d2b8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:25:27.943620+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:01.632726+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0286db72d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Franklin's electrostatic machine" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:04.008946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Franklin's electrostatic machine is a high-voltage static electricity-generating device used by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-18th century for research into electrical phenomena. Its key components are a glass globe which turned on an axis via a crank, a cloth pad in contact with the spinning globe, a set of metal needles to conduct away the charge developed on the globe by its friction with the pad, and a Leyden jar – a high-voltage capacitor – to accumulate the charge. Franklin's experiments with the machine eventually led to new theories about electricity and inventing the lightning rod. + +== Background == + +Franklin was not the first to build an electrostatic generator. European scientists developed machines to generate static electricity decades earlier. In 1663, Otto von Guericke generated static electricity with a device that used a sphere of sulfur. Francis Hauksbee developed a more advanced electrostatic generator around 1704 using a glass bulb that had a vacuum. He later replaced the globe with a glass tube of about 2.5 feet (0.76 m) emptied of air. The glass tube was a less effective static generator than the globe, but it became more popular because it was easier to use. +Machines that generated static electricity with a glass disc were popular and widespread in Europe by 1740. In 1745, German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist and Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek discovered independently that the electric charge from these machines could be stored in a Leyden jar, named after the city of Leiden in the Netherlands. +In 1745, Peter Collinson, a businessman from London who corresponded with American and European scientists, donated a German "glass tube" along with instructions how to make static electricity, to Franklin's Library Company of Philadelphia. Collinson was the library's London agent and provided the latest technology news from Europe. Franklin wrote a letter to Collinson on March 28, 1747, thanking him, and saying the tube and instructions had motivated several colleagues and him to begin serious experiments with electricity. + +In 1746, Franklin began working on electrical experiments with Ebenezer Kinnersley after he bought all of Archibald Spencer's electrical equipment that he used in his lectures. Later, he was also associated with Thomas Hopkinson and Philip Syng in experimentation with electricity. In the summer of 1747 they had received an electrical system from Thomas Penn. While no records exists to tell exactly what parts were included in the system, historian J. A. Leo LeMay believes it was a combination of an electricity generating machine, a Leyden jar, a glass tube, and a stool that was electrically insulated from the ground. This gave Franklin a complete system to experiment with generating and storing electricity. +When amber, sulfur, or glass are rubbed with certain materials, they produce electrical effects. Franklin theorized this "electrical fire" was collected from this other material somehow, and not produced by the friction on the object. He decided to retire early from his printing business, still in his early forties, to spend more time studying electricity. In 1748, Franklin turned over his entire printing business to his partner David Hall. He moved into a new Philadelphia home with his wife, where he built a laboratory to conduct experiments and research new electrical theories. Franklin experimented not only with the electrostatic machine with the glass globe, but also with the Leyden jar. He kept a detailed journal of his research in a diary called "Electrical Minutes" that has since been lost. Franklin's machine was given to Library Company of Philadelphia by Franklin's grandson in 1792, and is currently on display at the Franklin Institute. + +== Description == +Franklin's machine used a belt and pulley system that could be operated by one person turning a crank. A large pulley was attached to the crank handle, and a much smaller pulley was attached to a large glass globe. An iron axle passed through the globe. This allowed the globe to be rotated at high speed. When the crank was turned, the glass globe rubbed against a leather pad, which generated a large static charge, similar to the electrical charge that could be created by rubbing a glass tube with wool cloth by hand. The machine was unique improvement over others made in Europe at the time, as the glass globe could be spun faster with much less labor. A few revolutions of the handle were all that were needed to charge a Leyden jar. +The electricity produced by the machine, in the form of sparks, passed through a set of metal needles positioned close to the spinning globe. The electric charge continued passing through a beaded iron chain, which acted as a conductor, to a Leyden jar that received the electricity. Franklin called the sparks produced by the machine "electrical fire". +The glass globes, known as "electerizing globes", were made of glass that was scientifically designed to produce static electricity effectively. Franklin specified the materials to be used in the glass formula, and the globes were manufactured by Caspar Wistar, a close associate of Franklin. Wistarburgh Glass Works also made scientific glass for the Leyden jars Franklin used in the 1750s. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0db856664 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Franklin's electrostatic machine" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:04.008946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Electrical principles == +Franklin's experiments with Leyden jars progressed to connecting several Leyden jars together in a series, with "one hanging on the tail of the other". All of the jars in the series could be charged simultaneously, which multiplied the electrical effect. A similar apparatus had been created earlier by Daniel Gralath. Franklin called this device an "electrical battery", but that term later came to have a different meaning, referring instead to a set of one or more galvanic cells. At that time, the word "battery" was a military term for a group of cannons. Franklin was the first to apply the terms "positive" and "negative" to electricity. +Through his research, Franklin was among first to prove the electrical principal of conservation of charge in 1747: a similar discovery was made independently in 1746 by William Watson. Franklin wrote detailed letters and documents about his experiments with the electrostatic machine and Leyden jars. In 1749, Franklin made a list of several ways in which lightning was similar to electricity. He concluded that lightning was essentially nothing more than giant electric sparks, similar to the sparks from the static charges produced by his electrostatic machine. He referred to static electricity as "electric fire", "electric matter", or "electric fluid". The term "electric fluid" was based on the idea that a jar could be filled and refilled when it became empty. That led to the revolutionary idea of "electrical fire" as a type of motion or current flow rather than a type of explosion. +Several 18th-century electric terms were derived from his name. For example, static electricity was known as "Franklin current", and "Franklinization" is a form of electrotherapy where Franklin shocked patients with strong static charges, to treat patients with various illnesses. + +== Lightning rod invention == + +Franklin invented the lightning rod based on what he learned from experiments with his electrostatic machine. Franklin and his associates observed that pointed objects were more effective than blunt objects at "drawing off" and "throwing off" sparks from static electricity. This discovery was first reported by Hopkinson. Franklin wondered if this discovery could be used in a practical invention. He thought something could be made to attract the electricity out of storm clouds, but first he had to verify that lightning bolts really are giant electric sparks. He wrote Collinson and Cadwallader Colden letters about this theory, and he described the kite experiment in the October 19, 1752 issue of the Pennsylvania Gazette. (Tom Tucker of the Isothermal Community College doubts the account, however, because of ambiguities in the account and points that out in his book Bolt of Fate: Benjamin Franklin and his Electric Kite Hoax. Others disagree with this view, arguing that Franklin would not make up such a fake story because he valued the integrity of the scientific community.) + +To test his theory, Franklin proposed a potentially deadly experiment, to be performed during an electrical storm, where a person would stand on an insulated stool inside a sentry box, and hold out a long, pointed iron rod to attract a lightning bolt. A similar but less dangerous version of this experiment was first performed successfully in France On May 10, 1752, and later repeated several more times throughout Europe, though after a fatality in 1753 it was less frequently tried. Franklin declared that this "sentry-box experiment" showed that lightning and electricity were one and the same. +Franklin realized that wooden buildings could be protected from lightning strikes, and the deadly fires that often resulted, by placing a pointed iron on a rooftop, with the other end of the rod placed deep into the ground. The sharp point of the lightning rod would attract the electrical discharge from the cloud, and the lightning bolt would hit the iron rod instead of the wooden building. The electric charge from the lightning would flow through the rod directly into the earth, bypassing the structure, and preventing a fire. +Franklin's friend Kinnersley traveled throughout the eastern United States in the 1750s demonstrating man-made "lightning" on model thunder houses to show a how an iron rod placed into the ground would protect a wooden structure. He explained that lightning followed the same principles as the sparks from Franklin's electrostatic machine. These lectures by Kinnersley were widely advertised, and were one of the ways Franklin's lightning rod was demonstrated to the general public. + +== Legacy == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..81fd1e151 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Franklin's electrostatic machine" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin's_electrostatic_machine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:04.008946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Franklin distributed copies of the electrostatic machine to many of his close associates to encourage them to study electricity. Between 1747 and 1750, Franklin sent many letters to his friend Collinson in London about his experiments with the electrostatic machine and the Leyden jar, including his observations and theories on the principles of electricity. These letters were collected and published in 1751 in a book entitled Experiments and Observations on Electricity. +While Joseph Priestley was writing about the history of electricity, Franklin encouraged him to use an electrostatic machine to perform the experiments he was writing about. Priestly designed and used his own variations of Franklin's machine. While replicating the electrical experiments, some unanswered questions prompted Priestly to design additional experiments, leading to additional discoveries. In 1767, he published a 700-page book on his findings called The History and Present State of Electricity. +Eighteenth-century scientific laboratories usually contained some form of hand-operated electrostatic machine. Italian scientist Luigi Galvani had an electrostatic generator in his laboratory, where experiments with frog legs led him to conclude that animals generated a vital force, an animal electricity. Another Italian scientist, Alessandro Volta, disagreed with Galvani's claim that the electrical effects were due to something peculiar to living matter, and he demonstrated that electricity can be generated merely by placing wet, salty material in between two different metals. This led directly to the invention of the first practical electric battery, the voltaic pile. +After Franklin's death, two iconic artifacts from his research, the original "battery" of Leyden jars, and the "glass tube" that was a gift from Collinson in 1747, were given to the Royal Society in 1836 by Thomas Hopkinson's grandson Joseph Hopkinson, in accordance with Franklin's will. + +== See also == +Wistarburgh Glass Works +Corbett's electrostatic machine +Van de Graaff generator + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Sources === +Avery, John Scales (2016). Science and Society. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-3147-73-7. +Boese, Alex (2015). "The Electric Kite Hoax". The Museum of Hoaxes. Retrieved February 6, 2017. +Bridenbaugh, Carl (2012). The Colonial Craftsman. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-14473-3. +Cohen, I. Bernard (1956). Franklin and Newton: An Inquiry Into Speculative Newtonian Experimental Science and Franklin's Work in Electricity as an Example Thereof. Harvard University Press. +Cohen, I. Bernard (1990). Benjamin Franklin's Science. Harvard University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-674-06659-5. Peter Collinson glass tube Franklin gift. +Coulson, Thomas (1950). Joseph Henry: His Life and Work. Princeton University Press. The atmosphere of Philadelphia gave him and his associates exceptional opportunity to exercise their skill with the electrostatic machine. As a result, many of their experiments were of an original character. The famous kite experiment enabled the Philadelphia group to established what had been surmised by others, that lightning was identical to the mild charge of electricity produced by the friction of the electrostatic machine. Franklin invented the lightning rod, which goes down in history as the first practical electrical invention. +Crane, Verner Winslow (1954). Benjamin Franklin and a Rising People. Little, Brown and Company. +Finger, Stanley (2012). Doctor Franklin's Medicine. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0191-8. +Franklin, Benjamin (1751). "Experiments and Observations on Electricity". E. Cave. Retrieved 28 October 2016 – via Smithsonian Libraries. +Garche, Jürgen (2013). Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources. Newnes. ISBN 978-0-444-52745-5. +Gregory, George (1822). A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Collins and Company. +Grimnes, Sverre (2014). Bioimpedance and Bioelectricity Basics. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-411533-0. +Isaacson, Walter (2004). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5807-4. +Jackson, Joe (2005). World on Fire. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03434-5. +LeMay, J. A. Leo (1987). Benjamin Franklin: Writings. Penguin Group USA. ISBN 978-0-940450-29-5. +Lemay, J. A. Leo (2009). The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 3: Soldier, Scientist, and Politician, 1748–1757. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4121-1. +Lynn, Barry C. (2009). Cornered: The New Monopoly Capitalism and the Economics of Destruction. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-55703-7. +Maclean, John (1877). History of the College of New Jersey: From Its Origin in 1746 to the Commencement of 1854. Lippincott. +Matthews, Robert (June 1, 2003). "Benjamin Franklin 'faked kite experiment'". The Telegraph. Retrieved February 6, 2017. +McGrath, Kimberley A. (2001). The Gale Encyclopedia of Science: Catastrophism-Eukaryotae. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-7876-4372-0. +McNichol, Tom (2006). AC/DC: The Savage Tale of the First Standards War. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-04702-6. +Morgan, Edmund Sears (2003). Benjamin Franklin. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10162-1. +Malmivuo, Jaakko; Plonsey, Robert (1995). Bioelectromagnetism: Principles and Applications of Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Fields. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505823-9. +Pasles, Paul C. (2008). Benjamin Franklin's Numbers: An Unsung Mathematical Odyssey. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12956-3. +Pyenson, Lewis; Gauvin, Jean-François (2002). Art of Teaching Physics. Les Éditions du Septentrion. ISBN 978-2-89448-320-6. +Schafer, Larry E. (1992). Taking Charge: An Introduction to Electricity. NSTA Press. ISBN 978-0-87355-110-6. +Schiffer, Michael B. (2003). Draw the Lightning Down. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23802-8. +Schiffer, Michael B. (2004). "Bolt of Fate: Benjamin Franklin and His Electric Kite Hoax (review)". Technology and Culture. 45 (4): 839–840. doi:10.1353/tech.2004.0202. S2CID 109344397. +Schofield, Robert E. (1997). Enlightenment of Joseph Priestley. Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-04083-1. +Secor, Robert (1975). Pennsylvania: 1776. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01217-9. +Talbott, Page (2005). Search of a Better World. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-1-4379-6732-6. +Tucker, Tom (2005). Bolt of Fate. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-0-7867-3942-4. +Waldstreicher, David (2005). Runaway America. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-8090-8315-2. + +== External links == +Benjamin Franklin's electrical apparatus (electrostatic machine) at Smithsonian National Museum of American History +The Amazing Adventures of Ben Franklin – Scientist & Inventor / Opposites Attract with picture of glass globe on top +Franklin's Electrostatic Generator information and picture from University of Maryland Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept. Archived 2016-12-06 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_bells-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_bells-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aff128c91 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_bells-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Franklin bells" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_bells" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:02.808625+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Franklin bells (also known as lightning bells) are an early demonstration of electric charge designed to work with a Leyden jar or a lightning rod. Franklin bells are only a qualitative indicator of electric charge and were used for simple demonstrations rather than research. The bells are an adaptation to the first device that converted electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of continuous mechanical motion: in this case, the moving of a bell clapper back and forth between two oppositely charged bells. + + +== History == +Scientific investigation of the phenomena of lightning originates with Benjamin Franklin. He accumulated analogical evidence favoring the supposition that lightning must be an electrical discharge on a large scale. In the mid-18th century, lightning strikes were a serious problem for buildings and structures, causing damage and sometimes even fires. Franklin set out to understand the nature of lightning and to find ways to protect buildings from its destructive effects. He began his investigations by observing how lightning strikes affected various types of buildings. He noticed that some buildings were more vulnerable to lightning strikes than others and that buildings with sharp pointed roofs were more likely to be struck than those with flat roofs. He also observed that lightning seemed to follow conductive paths, such as metal rods or wires, and that these paths could be used to divert lightning strikes away from buildings. +Based on these observations, Franklin developed the idea of the lightning rod. The lightning rod consists of a metal rod or conductor, typically made of copper or aluminum, that is mounted on the roof of a building and connected to the ground by means of a conductive wire. When lightning strikes, the rod provides a path of least resistance for the electrical charge, allowing it to be safely conducted to the ground rather than passing through the building and causing damage. The invention of the lightning rod was a significant breakthrough in the field of electrical engineering, and has saved countless buildings and lives from the destructive effects of lightning strikes. +The Franklin bells were named for Benjamin Franklin, an early adopter who used it during his experimentation with electricity. Its predecessor was invented by the Scottish inventor Andrew Gordon, Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Erfurt, Germany. In 1742 he invented a device known as the "electric chimes", which was widely described in textbooks of electricity. Franklin made use of Gordon's idea by connecting one bell to his pointed lightning rod, attached to a chimney, and a second bell to the ground. One of his papers contains the following description: + +In September 1752, I erected an iron rod to draw the lightning down into my house, in order to make some experiments on it, with two bells to give notice when the rod should be electrified. +I found the bells rang sometimes when there was no lightning or thunder, but only a dark cloud over the rod; that sometimes after a flash of lightning they would suddenly stop; and at other times, when they had not rang before, they would, after a flash, suddenly begin to ring; that the electricity was sometimes very faint, so that when a small spark was obtained, another could not be got for sometime after; at other times the sparks would follow extremely quick, and once I had a continual stream from bell to bell, the size of a crow-quill. Even during the same gust there were considerable variations. +Through this experiment, Franklin was able to demonstrate that electricity behaves like a fluid, flowing through conductive materials and causing effects along the way. Franklin's experiment with the bells and the lightning rod was groundbreaking in its time, as it provided a clear demonstration of the nature of electricity and its properties and provided a foundation for further experiments and discoveries in the field. +Franklin's experimentation with the bell setup was pivotal to discovering that electricity exists outside of lightning and thunderstorms. The bells' odd properties intrigued Franklin and fueled further hypotheses. + + +== Design and operation == +The bells consist of a metal stand with a crossbar, from which hang three bells. The outer two bells hang from conductive metal chains, while the central bell hangs from a nonconductive thread. In the spaces between these bells hang two metal clappers, small pendulums, on nonconductive threads. A short metal chain hangs from the central bell. + +The system of operation of the Franklin clock considers that the electrostatic force generated by an electric field is used to move the pendulums that strike two metal bells. The Franklin bells uses a metal rod as a lightning rod to attract current. One bell is connected to the lightning rod and the other bell is connected to the ground. A metal battering ram is suspended between the two bells by an insulated wire. The negatively charged clouds before the thunderstorm make the lightning rod negatively charged, and also make the bell connected to it negatively charged. The metal ball is attracted and crashes into the fully charged bell. When the ball hits the first bell, it will be charged with the same potential and will therefore be repelled again. Since the opposite bell is reversely charged, this will also attract the ball to it. When the ball hits the second bell, the charge is transferred and the process is repeated until the charges are balanced again. Before the storm, the device would ring to remind Franklin, who had been obsessed with the study of lightning, urging him to chase the lightning. + + +== Modern Impact == +Benjamin Franklin's experiment with bells and a lightning rod has remained a popular example of electric phenomena in modern times. The experiment has been adapted and updated, and is now commonly used in classrooms and demonstrations to illustrate a variety of concepts related to electricity. +For instance, the experiment can be used to demonstrate the concept of electric current and how it flows through a conductor. By connecting the bells with metal wires and charging the lightning rod, students can see the flow of electric charges through the wires and observe the resulting electromagnetic effects that cause the bells to ring. +The experiment can also be used to illustrate the properties of static electricity, and how it can be conducted through metal wires to create an electric current. By rubbing a balloon or other object to create a static charge, and then using the charge to activate the bells, students can see the effects of static electricity and learn how it can be harnessed and utilized. The Franklin Bell is now a common electrical experiment demonstration in high school and introductory college physics courses. + + +== See also == +Oxford Electric Bell, a set of electrostatic bells in the University of Oxford, has been ringing continuously since 1840. +Lightning-prediction system + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Ben Franklin's Lightning Bells(Franklin Institute) +Franklin’s Bells (Gordon’s Bells) Archived 2013-08-09 at the Wayback Machine (PV Scientific Instruments) +"Franklin’s Bells" and charge transport as an undergraduate lab (American Journal of Physics) +Franklin's Bells (Research Media & Cybernetics) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/François-Antoine_Jecker-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/François-Antoine_Jecker-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ef97801e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/François-Antoine_Jecker-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "François-Antoine Jecker" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/François-Antoine_Jecker" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:59.288765+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +François-Antoine Jecker (November 14, 1765 – September 30, 1834) was a French scientific-instrument maker. Trained in London under Jesse Ramsden, he established a workshop in Paris that produced astronomical, optical, and measuring instruments. + + +== Life and work == +Jecker was born in Hirtzfelden near Colmar, Haut-Rhin, the son of a farmer. His brother Laurenz Jecker (1769–1834) became a needle manufacturer. He apprenticed with a watchmaker in Besançon where two uncles worked as musicians. He went to London in 1786 and trained with Jesse Ramsden and returned to Paris in 1792 where he started a workshop to manufacture astronomical instruments and precision measuring instruments. He was joined by his brothers Gervais and Protais and by 1800 he had nearly 40 employees. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Jecker Museum in Hirtzfelden +Drum microscopes made by Jecker \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Adolph_Nobert-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Adolph_Nobert-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..042c799db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Adolph_Nobert-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Friedrich Adolph Nobert" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Adolph_Nobert" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:05.169864+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Friedrich Adolph Nobert (17 January 1806 – 21 February 1881) was a Pomeranian microscope designer who pioneered the use of diamond-ruled microscope slide gratings for accurate measurements. This extended further to diffraction gratings for use in spectrometers and the measurement of the solar spectrum by Anders Jonas Ångström which was published in 1868 made use of gratings made by Nobert. The finest lines were found to be at a distance of 0.1128 μm. + + +== Biography == + +Nobert was born in Barth on the Baltic coast, where his father Johann Friedrich Nobert was a clockmaker. He was known as Fritz, and being the eldest son, he was expected to receive a technical education and continue as a clockmaker. A younger brother studied theology and became a pastor. He found his schooling insufficient for the clockmaking work and tried to study arithmetic, geometry and trigonometry on his own. He made a watch that could measure seconds, and corrected for temperature and sent it for an exhibition in Berlin in 1827. This was examined by astronomer Johann Franz Encke who wrote to Nobert and encouraged him to check its accuracy with astronomical measurements. This required a telescope and not able to purchase one, he began to construct one on his own. In 1829 he measure several star positions using a 2 foot quadrant and was able to tell that the accuracy of his chronometer was close to those made by Breguet in Paris and Kessels in Altona. He then applied for a bursary to support his education and received 300 Thalers to join the Technical Institute in Berlin from October 1833 after which he would receive the post of technician at the University of Greifswald. Nobert maintained a diary of his studies and it included lessons in astronomy and the circle-dividing engine. Nobert was appointed to Universitatsmechaniker at Greifswald in 1835, and married the same year. One of his first works was in determining the resolution of a microscope. He began to develop methods to create fine ruling on glass. Nobert's ultra-fine micrometric standards created by Nobert began in 1840 with ten lines cut between a specific distance which then extended to 20 division in 1851 and thirty in 1855. These test gratings were sold along with microscopes or separately for about 5 Thalers in 1846. Nobert also made microscopes, although he made them alone and took as long as a year to deliver one. These had a micrometer stage holding the grating measurement slide and a mechanism for slow and controlled movement. After the death of his father, Nobert returned to Barth in 1846 and worked there until his death. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8a486e7a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Galvanometer" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:05.190184+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring instrument for electric current. Early galvanometers were uncalibrated, but improved versions, called ammeters, were calibrated and could measure the flow of current more precisely. Galvanometers work by deflecting a pointer in response to an electric current flowing through a coil in a constant magnetic field. The mechanism is also used as an actuator in applications such as hard disks. +Galvanometers came from the observation, first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, that a magnetic compass's needle deflects when near a wire having electric current. They were the first instruments used to detect and measure small amounts of current. André-Marie Ampère, who gave mathematical expression to Ørsted's discovery, named the instrument after the Italian electricity researcher Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered the principle of the frog galvanoscope – that electric current would make the legs of a dead frog jerk. +Galvanometers have been essential for the development of science and technology in many fields. For example, in the 1800s they enabled long-range communication through submarine cables, such as the earliest transatlantic telegraph cables, and were essential to discovering the electrical activity of the heart and brain, by their fine measurements of current. +Galvanometers have also been used as the display components of other kinds of analog meters (e.g., light meters and VU meters), capturing the outputs of these meters' sensors. Today, the main type of galvanometer still in use is the D'Arsonval/Weston type. + +== Operation == + +Modern galvanometers, of the D'Arsonval/Weston type, are constructed with a small pivoting coil of wire, called a spindle, in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a thin pointer that traverses a calibrated scale. A tiny torsion spring pulls the coil and pointer to the zero position. + +When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a magnetic field. This field acts against the permanent magnet. The coil twists, pushing against the spring, and moves the pointer. The hand points at a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole pieces ensures that the magnetic field is uniform so that the angular deflection of the pointer is proportional to the current. A useful meter generally contains a provision for damping the mechanical resonance of the moving coil and pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its position without oscillation. +The basic sensitivity of a meter might be, for instance, 100 microamperes full scale (with a voltage drop of, say, 50 millivolts at full current). Such meters are often calibrated to read some other quantity that can be converted to a current of that magnitude. The use of current dividers, often called shunts, allows a meter to be calibrated to measure larger currents. A meter can be calibrated as a DC voltmeter if the resistance of the coil is known by calculating the voltage required to generate a full-scale current. A meter can be configured to read other voltages by putting it in a voltage divider circuit. This is generally done by placing a resistor in series with the meter coil. A meter can be used to read resistance by placing it in series with a known voltage (a battery) and an adjustable resistor. In a preparatory step, the circuit is completed and the resistor adjusted to produce full-scale deflection. When an unknown resistor is placed in series in the circuit the current will be less than full scale and an appropriately calibrated scale can display the value of the previously unknown resistor. +These capabilities to translate different kinds of electric quantities into pointer movements make the galvanometer ideal for turning the output of other sensors that output electricity (in some form or another), into something that can be read by a human. +Because the pointer of the meter is usually a small distance above the scale of the meter, parallax error can occur when the operator attempts to read the scale line that "lines up" with the pointer. To counter this, some meters include a mirror along with the markings of the principal scale. The accuracy of the reading from a mirrored scale is improved by positioning one's head while reading the scale so that the pointer and the reflection of the pointer are aligned; at this point, the operator's eye must be directly above the pointer and any parallax error has been minimized. + +== Uses == + +Probably the largest use of galvanometers was of the D'Arsonval/Weston type used in analog meters in electronic equipment. Since the 1980s, galvanometer-type analog meter movements have been displaced by analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) for many uses. A digital panel meter (DPM) contains an ADC and numeric display. The advantages of a digital instrument are higher precision and accuracy, but factors such as power consumption or cost may still favor the application of analog meter movements. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d308d050 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Galvanometer" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:05.190184+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Modern uses === +Most modern uses for the galvanometer mechanism are in positioning and control systems. Galvanometer mechanisms are divided into moving magnet and moving coil galvanometers; in addition, they are divided into closed-loop and open-loop - or resonant - types. +Mirror galvanometer systems are used as beam positioning or beam steering elements in laser scanning systems. For example, for material processing with high-power lasers, closed loop mirror galvanometer mechanisms are used with servo control systems. These are typically high power galvanometers and the newest galvanometers designed for beam steering applications can have frequency responses over 10 kHz with appropriate servo technology. Closed-loop mirror galvanometers are also used in similar ways in stereolithography, laser sintering, laser engraving, laser beam welding, laser TVs, laser displays and in imaging applications such as retinal scanning with Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (SLO). Almost all of these galvanometers are of the moving magnet type. The closed loop is obtained measuring the position of the rotating axis with an infrared emitter and 2 photodiodes. This feedback is an analog signal. +Open loop, or resonant mirror galvanometers, are mainly used in some types of laser-based bar-code scanners, printing machines, imaging applications, military applications and space systems. Their non-lubricated bearings are especially of interest in applications that require functioning in a high vacuum. + +Moving coil type galvanometer mechanisms (called 'voice coils' by hard disk manufacturers) are used for controlling the head positioning servos in hard disk drives and CD/DVD players, in order to keep mass (and thus access times), as low as possible. + +=== Past uses === +A major early use for galvanometers was for finding faults in telecommunications cables. They were superseded in this application late in the 20th century by time-domain reflectometers. +Galvanometer mechanisms were also used to get readings from photoresistors in the metering mechanisms of film cameras (as seen in the adjacent image). +In analog strip chart recorders such as used in electrocardiographs, electroencephalographs and polygraphs, galvanometer mechanisms were used to position the pen. Strip chart recorders with galvanometer driven pens may have a full-scale frequency response of 100 Hz and several centimeters of deflection. + +== History == + +=== Hans Christian Ørsted === +The deflection of a magnetic compass needle by the current in a wire was first described by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820. The phenomenon was studied both for its own sake and as a means of measuring electric current. + +=== Schweigger and Ampère === +The earliest galvanometer was reported by Johann Schweigger at the University of Halle on 16 September 1820. André-Marie Ampère also contributed to its development. Early designs increased the effect of the magnetic field generated by the current by using multiple turns of wire. The instruments were at first called "multipliers" due to this common design feature. The term "galvanometer," in common use by 1836, was derived from the surname of Italian electricity researcher Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered that electric current would make a dead frog's leg jerk. + +=== Poggendorff and Thomson === + +Originally, the instruments relied on the Earth's magnetic field to provide the restoring force for the compass needle. These were called "tangent" galvanometers and had to be oriented before use. Later instruments of the "astatic" type used opposing magnets to become independent of the Earth's field and would operate in any orientation. +An early mirror galvanometer was invented in 1826 by Johann Christian Poggendorff. An astatic galvanometer was invented by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1849; a more sensitive version of that device, the Thomson mirror galvanometer, was patented in 1858 by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Thomson's design was able to detect very rapid current changes by using small magnets attached to a lightweight mirror, suspended by a thread, instead of a compass needle. The deflection of a light beam on the mirror greatly magnified the deflection induced by small currents. Alternatively, the deflection of the suspended magnets could be observed directly through a microscope. + +=== Georg Ohm === +The ability to measure voltage and current quantitatively allowed Georg Ohm, in 1827, to formulate Ohm's law – that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current through it. + +=== D'Arsonval and Deprez === + +The early moving-magnet form of galvanometer had the disadvantage that it was affected by any magnets or iron masses near it, and its deflection was not linearly proportional to the current. In 1882 Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval and Marcel Deprez developed a form with a stationary permanent magnet and a moving coil of wire, suspended by fine wires which provided both an electrical connection to the coil and the restoring torque to return to the zero position. An iron tube between the magnet's pole pieces defined a circular gap through which the coil rotated. This gap produced a consistent, radial magnetic field across the coil, giving a linear response throughout the instrument's range. A mirror attached to the coil deflected a beam of light to indicate the coil position. The concentrated magnetic field and delicate suspension made these instruments sensitive; d'Arsonval's initial instrument could detect ten microamperes. + +=== Edward Weston === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..328ba72ff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,172 @@ +--- +title: "Galvanometer" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:05.190184+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Edward Weston extensively improved the design of the galvanometer. He substituted the fine wire suspension with a pivot and provided restoring torque and electrical connections through spiral springs rather than through the traditional wristwatch balance wheel hairspring. He developed a method of stabilizing the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, so the instrument would have consistent accuracy over time. He replaced the light beam and mirror with a knife-edge pointer that could be read directly. A mirror under the pointer, in the same plane as the scale, eliminated parallax observation error. To maintain the field strength, Weston's design used a very narrow circumferential slot through which the coil moved, with a minimal air-gap. This improved linearity of pointer deflection with respect to coil current. Finally, the coil was wound on a lightweight form made of conductive metal, which acted as a damper. By 1888, Edward Weston had patented and brought out a commercial form of this instrument, which became a standard electrical equipment component. It was known as a "portable" instrument because it was affected very little by mounting position or by transporting it from place to place. This design is almost universally used in moving-coil meters today. +Initially, laboratory instruments relying on the Earth's own magnetic field to provide restoring force for the pointer, galvanometers were developed into compact, rugged, sensitive portable instruments essential to the development of electro-technology. + +=== Taut-band movement === +The taut-band movement is a modern development of the D'Arsonval-Weston movement. The jewel pivots and hairsprings are replaced by tiny strips of metal under tension. Such a meter is more rugged for field use. + +== Types == +There are broadly two types of galvanometers. Some galvanometers use a solid pointer on a scale to show measurements; other very sensitive types use a miniature mirror and a beam of light to provide mechanical amplification of low-level signals. + +=== Tangent galvanometer === +A tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument used for the measurement of electric current. It works by using a compass needle to compare a magnetic field generated by the unknown current to the magnetic field of the Earth. It gets its name from its operating principle, the tangent law of magnetism, which states that the tangent of the angle a compass needle makes is proportional to the ratio of the strengths of the two perpendicular magnetic fields. It was first described by Johan Jakob Nervander in 1834. +A tangent galvanometer consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. The frame is mounted vertically on a horizontal base provided with levelling screws. The coil can be rotated on a vertical axis passing through its centre. A compass box is mounted horizontally at the centre of a circular scale. It consists of a tiny, powerful magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of the coil. The magnetic needle is free to rotate in the horizontal plane. The circular scale is divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0° to 90°. A long thin aluminium pointer is attached to the needle at its centre and at right angle to it. To avoid errors due to parallax, a plane mirror is mounted below the compass needle. +In operation, the instrument is first rotated until the magnetic field of the Earth, indicated by the compass needle, is parallel with the plane of the coil. Then the unknown current is applied to the coil. This creates a second magnetic field on the axis of the coil, perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic field. The compass needle responds to the vector sum of the two fields and deflects to an angle equal to the tangent of the ratio of the two fields. From the angle read from the compass's scale, the current could be found from a table. The current supply wires have to be wound in a small helix, like a pig's tail, otherwise the field due to the wire will affect the compass needle and an incorrect reading will be obtained. + +==== Theory ==== +The galvanometer is oriented so that the plane of the coil is vertical and aligned along parallel to the horizontal component BH of the Earth's magnetic field (i.e. parallel to the local "magnetic meridian"). When an electric current flows through the galvanometer coil, a second magnetic field B is created. At the center of the coil, where the compass needle is located, the coil's field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The magnitude of the coil's field is: + + + + + B + = + + + + + μ + + 0 + + + n + I + + + 2 + r + + + + + + + {\displaystyle B={\mu _{0}nI \over 2r}\,} + + +where I is the current in amperes, n is the number of turns of the coil and r is the radius of the coil. These two perpendicular magnetic fields add vectorially, and the compass needle points along the direction of their resultant BH+B. The current in the coil causes the compass needle to rotate by an angle θ: + + + + + θ + = + + tan + + − + 1 + + + ⁡ + + + B + + B + + H + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle \theta =\tan ^{-1}{\frac {B}{B_{H}}}\,} + + +From tangent law, B = BH tan θ, i.e. + + + + + + + + + μ + + 0 + + + n + I + + + 2 + r + + + + = + + B + + H + + + tan + ⁡ + θ + + + + {\displaystyle {\mu _{0}nI \over 2r}=B_{H}\tan \theta \,} + + +or + + + + + I + = + + ( + + + + 2 + r + + B + + H + + + + + + μ + + 0 + + + n + + + + ) + + tan + ⁡ + θ + + + + {\displaystyle I=\left({\frac {2rB_{H}}{\mu _{0}n}}\right)\tan \theta \,} + + +or I = K tan θ, where K is called the Reduction Factor of the tangent galvanometer. +One problem with the tangent galvanometer is that its resolution degrades at both high currents and low currents. The maximum resolution is obtained when the value of θ is 45°. When the value of θ is close to 0° or 90°, a large percentage change in the current will only move the needle a few degrees. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f6c6a1d2c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Galvanometer" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:05.190184+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Geomagnetic field measurement ==== +A tangent galvanometer can also be used to measure the magnitude of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. When used in this way, a low-voltage power source, such as a battery, is connected in series with a rheostat, the galvanometer, and an ammeter. The galvanometer is first aligned so that the coil is parallel to the geomagnetic field, whose direction is indicated by the compass when there is no current through the coils. The battery is then connected and the rheostat is adjusted until the compass needle deflects 45 degrees from the geomagnetic field, indicating that the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the coil is the same as that of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. This field strength can be calculated from the current as measured by the ammeter, the number of turns of the coil, and the radius of the coils. + +=== Astatic galvanometer === +Unlike the tangent galvanometer, the astatic galvanometer does not use the Earth's magnetic field for measurement, so it does not need to be oriented with respect to the Earth's field, making it easier to use. Developed by Leopoldo Nobili in 1825, it consists of two magnetized needles parallel to each other but with the magnetic poles reversed. These needles are suspended by a single silk thread. The lower needle is inside a vertical current sensing coil of wire and is deflected by the magnetic field created by the passing current, as in the tangent galvanometer above. The purpose of the second needle is to cancel the dipole moment of the first needle, so the suspended armature has no net magnetic dipole moment, and thus is not affected by the earth's magnetic field. The needle's rotation is opposed by the torsional elasticity of the suspension thread, which is proportional to the angle. + +=== Mirror galvanometer === + +To achieve higher sensitivity to detect extremely small currents, the mirror galvanometer substitutes a lightweight mirror for the pointer. It consists of horizontal magnets suspended from a fine fiber, inside a vertical coil of wire, with a mirror attached to the magnets. A beam of light reflected from the mirror falls on a graduated scale across the room, acting as a long mass-less pointer. The mirror galvanometer was used as the receiver in the first trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cables in the 1850s, to detect the extremely faint pulses of current after their thousand-mile journey under the Atlantic. In a device called an oscillograph, the moving beam of light is used, to produce graphs of current versus time, by recording measurements on photographic film. The string galvanometer is a type of mirror galvanometer so sensitive that it was used to make the first electrocardiogram of the electrical activity of the human heart. + +=== Ballistic galvanometer === + +A ballistic galvanometer is a type of sensitive galvanometer for measuring the quantity of charge discharged through it. It is an integrator, by virtue of the long time constant of its response, unlike a current-measuring galvanometer. The moving part has a large moment of inertia that gives it an oscillation period long enough to make the integrated measurement. It can be either of the moving coil or moving magnet type; commonly it is a mirror galvanometer. + +== See also == +Vibration galvanometer +Thermo galvanometer +String galvanometer +History of electrochemistry + +== References == + +== External links == + +Galvanometer - Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory +Selection of historic galvanometer in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science +The History Corner: The Galvanometer by Nick Joyce and David Baker, April 1, 2008, Ass. of Physological Science. Retrieved February 26, 2022. +Moving Coil Galvanometer \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_of_Matelica-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_of_Matelica-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01d32383c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_of_Matelica-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Globe of Matelica" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_of_Matelica" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:06.372345+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Globe of Matelica (Globo of Matelica) is an Ancient Greek sundial sculpted on a marble ball. The artifact was found during the 1985 reconstruction of the medieval Palazzo Pretorio, presently Museo Civico Archeologico, of Matelica in the Marches, region of Italy. + + +== Description == +The globe measures nearly 29 cm in diameter and appears to be sculpted from a crystalline marble originating near Ephesus in present-day Turkey. It is thought to date from the first two centuries CE. There is one similar item, identified in 1939 by Carl William Blegen in a Museum in Nafplio, Greece. +All that remains is the stone component, which is engraved with a variety of inscribed lines and letters. The sphere is bisected by a center line, while on its top are three concentric circles of various diameters, intersected by an arc of a circle and on which words in ancient Greek alphabet are still visible. Additionally it features 13 holes, each marked by a Greek letter. In these holes there were - probably - metallic insertions that delineated the hour. +In the lower part there is a large conical depression which ends with a big rectangular hole, likely made to secure the base. Other theories for the sphere are that it was used for astronomical calculations, thus as an armillary sphere or for use in spherical astronomy. + + +== See also == +Farnese Atlas + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-0.md index ec5c28587..cbd522f0c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:20.907485+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:20.813797+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-1.md index c817fe9c0..a4c122306 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:20.907485+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:20.813797+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-2.md index ceb67efcd..03bbc86cc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:20.907485+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:20.813797+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-3.md index 14c9612e9..88eabc0f6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:20.907485+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:20.813797+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groma_(surveying)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groma_(surveying)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..65da21afd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groma_(surveying)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Groma (surveying)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groma_(surveying)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:08.672050+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The groma (as standardized in the imperial Latin, sometimes croma, or gruma in the literature of the republican times) was a surveying instrument used in the Roman Empire. The groma allowed projecting right angles and straight lines and thus enabling the centuriation (setting up of a rectangular grid). It is the only Roman surveying tool with examples that survive to the present day. + + +== History == +The name "groma" came to Latin from the Greek gnoma via the Etruscan language. It is unclear which of the many meanings of the Ancient Greek: γνώμων gnomon (cf. Liddell & Scott, "gnoma" is a form) was used, although in multiple sources the Greek term is used to designate the central point of a camp or town. +Dividing the land into rectangular plots was used by the Ancient Greeks, Egyptians and even Mesopotamians. However, the sheer scale of Roman centuriation from the 2nd century BC, when the new colonies were formed mostly to provide for veterans and landless citizens, was unprecedented, so it is not clear to what extent Greek practices influenced the Roman surveyors. The peculiarities of the Roman surveying methods and terminology suggest independence of Roman measurement tradition. +The groma may have originated in Mesopotamia or Greece before the 4th century BC. Subsequently, it was brought to Rome by the Etruscans and named cranema. There were apparently no improvements to groma introduced in Roman times: all writers on the subject clearly assumed the perfect familiarity of a reader with the tool. + + +== Construction == + +The tool utilizes a rotating horizontal cross with plumb bobs hanging down from all four ends. The center of the cross represents the umbilicus soli (reference point). The cross is mounted on a vertical Jacob's staff, or ferramentum. The umbilicus is offset with respect to the ferramentum by using a bracket pivoting on the top of the staff (frequently ferramentum is used to describe the whole tool). The purpose of offsetting the reference point from the Jacob's staff (vertical pole) is twofold: it enables sighting of lines on the ground through a pair of strings (used to suspend an opposite pair of plumbs from the cross) without the staff obscuring the view and allows placing the reference point over a sturdy object (like a boundary stone), where the staff cannot be inserted. +The pivoting bracket on the top of the staff was suggested in the 1912 reconstruction by Adolf Schulten and confirmed by Matteo Della Corte soon afterwards. However, as asserted by Thorkild Schiöler in 1994, the 5-kilogram cross found in Pompeii is too heavy to be supported in this way, thus the bracket had never existed. Furthermore, there is no archeological evidence of the bracket, and the images of gromas on tombstones do not show it. The archeologists rejecting the bracket suggest that the staff was slightly angled to permit sighting without the pole obscuring the view. + + +== Use == + +Despite a great deal of surviving information about the groma (and the simplicity of the tool itself), the details of its operation are not entirely clear. The general idea is straightforward: the staff was inserted into the ground a bracket length away from the marker, and the bracket was then swung so that the umbilicus soli was directly on top of the center of the marker. The cross was then turned to align with the desired directions and the surveyor's assistant would step back and place a pole as directed by the surveyor (a gromaticus). The surveyor could then view the pole through two strings on the opposite ends of the cross. +The distances were measured using rods. The setup works on the level ground or gentle slopes; the details of a survey crossing a steep-sided valley are not clear. +The alignment of the plumb-lines of the groma is quite susceptible to wind. This compares unfavorably with dioptra. Also, the far plumb-line on the cross is optically thinner than the closer one, introducing the angle error calculated by the archeologists to be about 1.5 promille (linear error of about 1 meter per the side of centuria, 710 meters). + + +== Notes == + + +== Sources == +Lewis, M. J. T. (2001-04-23). "The groma". Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge University Press. pp. 120–133. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511483035.008. ISBN 978-0-521-79297-4. +Stone, Edward Noble (1928). "Roman Surveying Instruments". A Bibliography of Chaucer 1908–1924. University of Washington Publications: Language and Literature. Vol. 4. University of Washington Press. pp. 215–242. Retrieved 2023-09-27. +Russo, Flavio; Rossi, Cesare; Ceccarelli, Marco; Russo, Ferruccio (2009). "Devices for Distance and Time Measurement at the Time of the Roman Empire". International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM 2008. History of Mechanism and Machine Science. Springer Netherlands. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4020-9485-9. Retrieved 2023-09-30. +Kelsey, Francis W. (July 1926). "Groma by Matteo della Corte". Classical Philology. 21 (3). The University of Chicago Press: 259–262. doi:10.1086/360795. JSTOR 263160. +Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1889). "γνώμων". An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. + + +== External links == + Media related to Groma at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gualterus_Arsenius-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gualterus_Arsenius-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4b74bb023 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gualterus_Arsenius-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Gualterus Arsenius" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gualterus_Arsenius" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:53.579060+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Gualterus Arsenius (c. 1530 – c. 1580), also known as Gualterius Arsenius, Gautier Arsens, and Walter Arsenius, was a Flemish scientific instrument maker. +He was the nephew of the mathematician and cosmographer Gemma Frisius (1508–1555), and he worked in Louvain from 1555 to about 1570 (his presence there is still documented in 1579). The most prominent member of a family of scientific instrument makers, Arsenius produced exquisitely crafted and highly accurate devices such as armillary spheres, astrolabes, astronomical annuli (rings) and sundials, whose designs reveal the influence of his uncle and Gerard Mercator (1512–1594). + + +== References == + + +== External links == +"Museo Galileo - object description". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3771f07b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hipparchus (; Greek: Ἵππαρχος, Hípparkhos; c. 190 – c. 120 BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the equinoxes. Hipparchus was born in Nicaea, Bithynia, and probably died on the island of Rhodes, Greece. He is known to have been a working astronomer between 162 and 127 BC. +Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the Babylonians and by Meton of Athens (fifth century BC), Timocharis, Aristyllus, Aristarchus of Samos, and Eratosthenes, among others. +He developed trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he solved several problems of spherical trigonometry. His other reputed achievements include the discovery and measurement of Earth's precession, the compilation of the first known comprehensive star catalog from the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, as well as of the armillary sphere that he may have used in creating the star catalogue. He contributed to optics, developing an atomist theory of light. He is often called the "father of astronomy", a title conferred on him by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre in 1817. + +== Life and work == +Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (Ancient Greek: Νίκαια), in Bithynia. The exact dates of his life are not known, but Ptolemy attributes astronomical observations to him in the period from 147 to 127 BC, and some of these are stated as made in Rhodes; earlier observations since 162 BC might also have been made by him. His birth date (c. 190 BC) was calculated by Delambre based on clues in his work. Hipparchus must have lived some time after 127 BC because he analyzed and published his observations from that year. Hipparchus obtained information from Alexandria as well as Babylon, but it is not known when or if he visited these places. He is believed to have died on the island of Rhodes, where he seems to have spent most of his later life. +In the second and third centuries, coins were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a globe. +Relatively little of Hipparchus's direct work survives into modern times. Although he wrote at least fourteen books, only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by Aratus was preserved by later copyists. Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from Strabo's Geography and Pliny's Natural History in the first century; Ptolemy's second-century Almagest; and additional references to him in the fourth century by Pappus and Theon of Alexandria in their commentaries on the Almagest. +Hipparchus's only preserved work is Commentary on the Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus (Ancient Greek: Τῶν Ἀράτου καὶ Εὐδόξου φαινομένων ἐξήγησις). This is a highly critical commentary in the form of two books on a popular poem by Aratus based on the work by Eudoxus. Hipparchus also made a list of his major works that apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors. His famous star catalog was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy and may be almost perfectly reconstructed by subtraction of two and two-thirds degrees from the longitudes of Ptolemy's stars . The first trigonometric table was apparently compiled by Hipparchus, who is consequently now known as "the father of trigonometry". + +== Babylonian sources == + +Earlier Greek astronomers and mathematicians were influenced by Babylonian astronomy to some extent, for instance the period relations of the Metonic cycle and Saros cycle may have come from Babylonian sources (see "Babylonian astronomical diaries"). Hipparchus seems to have been the first to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Eudoxus in the 4th century BC and Timocharis and Aristillus in the 3rd century BC already divided the ecliptic in 360 parts (our degrees, Greek: moira) of 60 arcminutes and Hipparchus continued this tradition. It was only in Hipparchus's time (2nd century BC) when this division was introduced (probably by Hipparchus's contemporary Hypsicles) for all circles in mathematics. Eratosthenes (3rd century BC), in contrast, used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Hipparchus also adopted the Babylonian astronomical cubit unit (Akkadian ammatu, Greek πῆχυς pēchys) that was equivalent to 2° or 2.5° ('large cubit'). +Hipparchus probably compiled a list of Babylonian astronomical observations; Gerald J. Toomer, a historian of astronomy, has suggested that Ptolemy's knowledge of eclipse records and other Babylonian observations in the Almagest came from a list made by Hipparchus. Hipparchus's use of Babylonian sources has always been known in a general way, because of Ptolemy's statements, but the only text by Hipparchus that survives does not provide sufficient information to decide whether Hipparchus's knowledge (such as his usage of the units cubit and finger, degrees and minutes, or the concept of hour stars) was based on Babylonian practice. However, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that the synodic and anomalistic periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "System B" (sometimes attributed to Kidinnu). +Hipparchus's long draconitic lunar period (5,458 months = 5,923 lunar nodal periods) also appears a few times in Babylonian records. But the only such tablet explicitly dated is post-Hipparchus, so the direction of transmission is not settled by the tablets. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a0eb3599c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Geometry, trigonometry and other mathematical techniques == +Hipparchus was recognized as the first mathematician known to have possessed a trigonometric table, which he needed when computing the eccentricity of the orbits of the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for the chord function, which for a central angle in a circle gives the length of the straight line segment between the points where the angle intersects the circle. He may have computed this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 units and a radius (rounded) of 3,438 units; this circle has a unit length for each arcminute along its perimeter. (This was “proven” by Toomer, but he later “cast doubt“ upon his earlier affirmation. Other authors have argued that a circle of radius 3,600 units may instead have been used by Hipparchus.) He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. In modern terms, the chord subtended by a central angle in a circle of given radius R equals R times twice the sine of half of the angle, i.e.: + + + + + chord + ⁡ + θ + = + 2 + R + ⋅ + sin + ⁡ + + + + 1 + 2 + + + + θ + + + {\displaystyle \operatorname {chord} \theta =2R\cdot \sin {\tfrac {1}{2}}\theta } + + +The now-lost work in which Hipparchus is said to have developed his chord table, is called Tōn en kuklōi eutheiōn (Of Lines Inside a Circle) in Theon of Alexandria's fourth-century commentary on section I.10 of the Almagest. Some claim the table of Hipparchus may have survived in astronomical treatises in India, such as the Surya Siddhanta. Trigonometry was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques. +Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for π than the one given by Archimedes of between 3+10⁄71 (≈ 3.1408) and 3+1⁄7 (≈ 3.1429). Perhaps he had the approximation later used by Ptolemy, sexagesimal 3;08,30 (≈ 3.1417) (Almagest VI.7). +Hipparchus could have constructed his chord table using the Pythagorean theorem and a theorem known to Archimedes. He also might have used the relationship between sides and diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral, today called Ptolemy's theorem because its earliest extant source is a proof in the Almagest (I.10). +The stereographic projection was ambiguously attributed to Hipparchus by Synesius (c. 400 AD), and on that basis Hipparchus is often credited with inventing it or at least knowing of it. However, some scholars believe this conclusion to be unjustified by available evidence. The oldest extant description of the stereographic projection is found in Ptolemy's Planisphere (2nd century AD). +Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used arithmetic techniques developed by the Chaldeans. He was one of the first Greek mathematicians to do this and, in this way, expanded the techniques available to astronomers and geographers. +There are several indications that Hipparchus knew spherical trigonometry, but the first surviving text discussing it is by Menelaus of Alexandria in the first century, who now, on that basis, commonly is credited with its discovery. (Previous to the finding of the proofs of Menelaus a century ago, Ptolemy was credited with the invention of spherical trigonometry.) Ptolemy later used spherical trigonometry to compute things such as the rising and setting points of the ecliptic, or to take account of the lunar parallax. If he did not use spherical trigonometry, Hipparchus may have used a globe for these tasks, reading values off coordinate grids drawn on it, or he may have made approximations from planar geometry, or perhaps used arithmetical approximations developed by the Chaldeans. + +== Lunar and solar theory == + +=== Motion of the Moon === + +Hipparchus also studied the motion of the Moon and confirmed the accurate values for two periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers are widely presumed to have possessed before him. The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean synodic month is 29 days; 31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... days. Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours + ⁠793/1080⁠ hours this value has been used later in the Hebrew calendar. The Chaldeans also knew that 251 synodic months ≈ 269 anomalistic months. Hipparchus used the multiple of this period by a factor of 17, because that interval is also an eclipse period, and is also close to an integer number of years (4,267 moons : 4,573 anomalistic periods : 4,630.53 nodal periods : 4,611.98 lunar orbits : 344.996 years : 344.982 solar orbits : 126,007.003 days : 126,351.985 rotations). What was so exceptional and useful about the cycle was that all 345-year-interval eclipse pairs occur slightly more than 126,007 days apart within a tight range of only approximately ±1⁄2 hour, guaranteeing (after division by 4,267) an estimate of the synodic month correct to one part in order of magnitude 10 million. +Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably 27 January 141 BC and 26 November 139 BC according to Toomer) with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years earlier (Almagest IV.2). +Later al-Biruni (Qanun VII.2.II) and Copernicus (de revolutionibus IV.4) noted that the period of 4,267 moons is approximately five minutes longer than the value for the eclipse period that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus. However, the timing methods of the Babylonians had an error of no fewer than eight minutes. Modern scholars agree that Hipparchus rounded the eclipse period to the nearest hour, and used it to confirm the validity of the traditional values, rather than to try to derive an improved value from his own observations. From modern ephemerides and taking account of the change in the length of the day (see ΔT) we estimate that the error in the assumed length of the synodic month was less than 0.2 second in the fourth century BC and less than 0.1 second in Hipparchus's time. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a8c84a079 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Orbit of the Moon === +It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies. This is called its anomaly and it repeats with its own period; the anomalistic month. The Chaldeans took account of this arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period. However, the Greeks preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky. At the end of the third century BC, Apollonius of Perga had proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion: + +In the first, the Moon would move uniformly along a circle, but the Earth would be eccentric, i.e., at some distance of the center of the circle. So the apparent angular speed of the Moon (and its distance) would vary. +The Moon would move uniformly (with some mean motion in anomaly) on a secondary circular orbit, called an epicycle that would move uniformly (with some mean motion in longitude) over the main circular orbit around the Earth, called deferent; see deferent and epicycle. +Apollonius demonstrated that these two models were in fact mathematically equivalent. However, all this was theory and had not been put to practice. Hipparchus is the first astronomer known to attempt to determine the relative proportions and actual sizes of these orbits. Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon at particular phases of its anomaly. In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model. Ptolemy describes the details in the Almagest IV.11. Hipparchus used two sets of three lunar eclipse observations that he carefully selected to satisfy the requirements. The eccentric model he fitted to these eclipses from his Babylonian eclipse list: 22/23 December 383 BC, 18/19 June 382 BC, and 12/13 December 382 BC. The epicycle model he fitted to lunar eclipse observations made in Alexandria at 22 September 201 BC, 19 March 200 BC, and 11 September 200 BC. + +For the eccentric model, Hipparchus found for the ratio between the radius of the eccenter and the distance between the center of the eccenter and the center of the ecliptic (i.e., the observer on Earth): 3144 : 327+2⁄3; +and for the epicycle model, the ratio between the radius of the deferent and the epicycle: 3122+1⁄2 : 247+1⁄2 . +These figures are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table and may partly be due to some sloppy rounding and calculation errors by Hipparchus, for which Ptolemy criticised him while also making rounding errors. A simpler alternate reconstruction agrees with all four numbers. Hipparchus found inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model (3122+1⁄2 : 247+1⁄2), which is too small (60 : 4;45 sexagesimal). Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : 5+1⁄4. (The maximum angular deviation producible by this geometry is the arcsin of 5+1⁄4 divided by 60, or approximately 5° 1′, five degrees and one arc minute, a figure that is sometimes therefore quoted as the equivalent of the Moon's equation of the center in the Hipparchan model.) + +=== Apparent motion of the Sun === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e6f28d7d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and their pupils at Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer solstice) on 27 June 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar). Aristarchus of Samos is said to have done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes. He observed the summer solstices in 146 and 135 BC both accurately to a few hours, but observations of the moment of equinox were simpler, and he made twenty during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus's work on the length of the year in the Almagest III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning 162–128 BC, including an equinox timing by Hipparchus (at 24 March 146 BC at dawn) that differs by 5 hours from the observation made on Alexandria's large public equatorial ring that same day (at 1 hour before noon). Ptolemy claims his solar observations were on a transit instrument set in the meridian. +At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book entitled Peri eniausíou megéthous ("On the Length of the Year") regarding his results. The established value for the tropical year, introduced by Callippus in or before 330 BC was 365+1⁄4 days. Speculating a Babylonian origin for the Callippic year is difficult to defend, since Babylon did not observe solstices thus the only extant System B year length was based on Greek solstices (see below). Hipparchus's equinox observations gave varying results, but he points out (quoted in Almagest III.1(H195)) that the observation errors by him and his predecessors may have been as large as 1⁄4 day. He used old solstice observations and determined a difference of approximately one day in approximately 300 years. So he set the length of the tropical year to 365+1⁄4 − 1⁄300 days (= 365.24666... days = 365 days 5 hours 55 min, which differs from the modern estimate of the value (including earth spin acceleration), in his time of approximately 365.2425 days, an error of approximately 6 min per year, an hour per decade, and ten hours per century. +Between the solstice observation of Meton and his own, there were 297 years spanning 108,478 days; this implies a tropical year of 365.24579... days = 365 days;14,44,51 (sexagesimal; = 365 days + ⁠14/60⁠ + ⁠44/602⁠ + ⁠51/603⁠), a year length found on one of the few Babylonian clay tablets which explicitly specifies the System B month. Whether Babylonians knew of Hipparchus's work or the other way around is debatable. +Hipparchus also gave the value for the sidereal year to be 365 + ⁠1/4⁠ + ⁠1/144⁠ days (= 365.25694... days = 365 days 6 hours 10 min). Another value for the sidereal year that is attributed to Hipparchus (by the physician Galen in the second century AD) is 365 + ⁠1/4⁠ + ⁠1/288⁠ days (= 365.25347... days = 365 days 6 hours 5 min), but this may be a corruption of another value attributed to a Babylonian source: 365 + ⁠1/4⁠ + ⁠1/144⁠ days (= 365.25694... days = 365 days 6 hours 10 min). It is not clear whether Hipparchus got the value from Babylonian astronomers or calculated by himself. + +=== Orbit of the Sun === +Before Hipparchus, astronomers knew that the lengths of the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus made observations of equinox and solstice, and according to Ptolemy (Almagest III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 941⁄2 days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92+1⁄2 days. This is inconsistent with a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed. Hipparchus's solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well. It is known today that the planets, including the Earth, move in approximate ellipses around the Sun, but this was not discovered until Johannes Kepler published his first two laws of planetary motion in 1609. The value for the eccentricity attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy is that the offset is 1⁄24 of the radius of the orbit (which is a little too large), and the direction of the apogee would be at longitude 65.5° from the vernal equinox. Hipparchus may also have used other sets of observations, which would lead to different values. One of his two eclipse trios' solar longitudes are consistent with his having initially adopted inaccurate lengths for spring and summer of 95+3⁄4 and 91+1⁄4 days. His other triplet of solar positions is consistent with 94+1⁄4 and 92+1⁄2 days, an improvement on the results (94+1⁄2 and 92+1⁄2 days) attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy. Ptolemy made no change three centuries later, and expressed lengths for the autumn and winter seasons which were already implicit (as shown, e.g., by A. Aaboe). + +=== Distance, parallax, size of the Moon and the Sun === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a560103ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon, in the now-lost work On Sizes and Distances (Ancient Greek: Περὶ μεγεθῶν καὶ ἀποστημάτων Peri megethon kai apostematon). His work is mentioned in Ptolemy's Almagest V.11, and in a commentary thereon by Pappus; Theon of Smyrna (2nd century) also mentions the work, under the title On Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon. +Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his diopter. Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the mean distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent diameters are 360⁄650 = 0°33′14″. +Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable parallax, i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or stars), and the difference is greater when closer to the horizon. He knew that this is because in the then-current models the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but the observer is at the surface—the Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the time. From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth radii can be determined. For the Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8″, eight point eight arc seconds, several times smaller than the resolution of the unaided eye). +In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance. He then analyzed a solar eclipse, which Toomer presumes to be the eclipse of 14 March 190 BC. It was total in the region of the Hellespont (and in his birthplace, Nicaea); at the time Toomer proposes the Romans were preparing for war with Antiochus III in the area, and the eclipse is mentioned by Livy in his Ab Urbe Condita Libri VIII.2. It was also observed in Alexandria, where the Sun was reported to be obscured 4/5ths by the Moon. Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian. Alexandria is at about 31° North, and the region of the Hellespont about 40° North. (It has been contended that authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had fairly decent values for these geographical positions, so Hipparchus must have known them too. However, Strabo's Hipparchus dependent latitudes for this region are at least 1° too high, and Ptolemy appears to copy them, placing Byzantium 2° high in latitude.) Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii. Because the eclipse occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the meridian, and it has been proposed that as a consequence the distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 83 Earth radii. +In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to the Sun of 490 Earth radii. This would correspond to a parallax of 7′, which is apparently the greatest parallax that Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about 2′; Tycho Brahe made naked eye observation with an accuracy down to 1′). In this case, the shadow of the Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder as under the first assumption. Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone is 2+1⁄2 lunar diameters. That apparent diameter is, as he had observed, 360⁄650 degrees. With these values and simple geometry, Hipparchus could determine the mean distance; because it was computed for a minimum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum mean distance possible for the Moon. With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of the Moon too. According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of 67+1⁄3, and consequently a greatest distance of 72+2⁄3 Earth radii. With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii—exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy later derived. +Hipparchus thus had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his maximum mean distance (from book 2). He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters. (In fact, modern calculations show that the size of the 14.03.190 BC solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to 9⁄10ths and not the reported 4⁄5ths, a fraction more closely matched by the degree of totality at Alexandria of eclipses occurring on 15.08.310 and 20.11.129 BC which were also nearly total in the Hellespont and are thought by many to be more likely possibilities for the eclipse Hipparchus used for his computations.) +Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly (Almagest V.13), and used the second method of Hipparchus with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun (Almagest V.15). He criticizes Hipparchus for making contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results (Almagest V.11): but apparently he failed to understand Hipparchus's strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for the distance. His results were the best so far: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his limits from Hipparchus's second book. +Theon of Smyrna wrote that according to Hipparchus, the Sun is 1,880 times the size of the Earth, and the Earth twenty-seven times the size of the Moon; apparently this refers to volumes, not diameters. From the geometry of book 2 it follows that the Sun is at 2,550 Earth radii, and the mean distance of the Moon is 60+1⁄2 radii. Similarly, Cleomedes quotes Hipparchus for the sizes of the Sun and Earth as 1050:1; this leads to a mean lunar distance of 61 radii. Apparently Hipparchus later refined his computations, and derived accurate single values that he could use for predictions of solar eclipses. +See Toomer (1974) for a more detailed discussion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..75ae3fa0a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Eclipses === +Pliny (Naturalis Historia II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in Almagest VI.6. The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in Almagest VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the Northern Hemisphere and the other on the Southern Hemisphere—as Pliny indicates—and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek. +Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this. A rigorous treatment requires spherical trigonometry, thus those who remain certain that Hipparchus lacked it must speculate that he may have made do with planar approximations. He may have discussed these things in Perí tēs katá plátos mēniaías tēs selēnēs kinēseōs ("On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude"), a work mentioned in the Suda. +Pliny also remarks that "he also discovered for what exact reason, although the shadow causing the eclipse must from sunrise onward be below the earth, it happened once in the past that the Moon was eclipsed in the west while both luminaries were visible above the earth" (translation H. Rackham (1938), Loeb Classical Library 330 p. 207). Toomer argued that this must refer to the large total lunar eclipse of 26 November 139 BC, when over a clean sea horizon as seen from Rhodes, the Moon was eclipsed in the northwest just after the Sun rose in the southeast. This would be the second eclipse of the 345-year interval that Hipparchus used to verify the traditional Babylonian periods: this puts a late date to the development of Hipparchus's lunar theory. It is not known what "exact reason" Hipparchus found for seeing the Moon eclipsed while apparently it was not in exact opposition to the Sun. Parallax lowers the altitude of the luminaries; refraction raises them, and from a high point of view the horizon is lowered. + +== Astronomical instruments and astrometry == +Hipparchus and his predecessors used various instruments for astronomical calculations and observations, such as the gnomon, the astrolabe, and the armillary sphere. +Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for naked-eye observations. According to Synesius of Ptolemais (4th century) he made the first astrolabion: this may have been an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in Almagest V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called astrolabe (also mentioned by Theon of Alexandria). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by observing fixed stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, by recording the length of the longest day of the year or with the portable instrument known as a scaphe. + +Ptolemy mentions (Almagest V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called dioptra, to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it (in his commentary on the Almagest of that chapter), as did Proclus (Hypotyposis IV). It was a four-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon. +Hipparchus also observed solar equinoxes, which may be done with an equatorial ring: its shadow falls on itself when the Sun is on the equator (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls above or below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in Almagest III.1 (H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such instruments present in Alexandria in his own time. +Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface. Before him a grid system had been used by Dicaearchus of Messana, but Hipparchus was the first to apply mathematical rigor to the determination of the latitude and longitude of places on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a critique in three books on the work of the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (3rd century BC), called Pròs tèn Eratosthénous geographían ("Against the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own Geographia. Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It seems he did not introduce many improvements in methods, but he did propose a means to determine the geographical longitudes of different cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo Geographia 1 January 2012). A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is observed. His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical. + +== Star catalog == +Late in his career (possibly about 135 BC) Hipparchus compiled his star catalog. Scholars have been searching for it for centuries. In 2022, it was announced that a part of it was discovered in a medieval parchment manuscript, Codex Climaci Rescriptus, from Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt as hidden text (palimpsest). This finding was questioned in 2024, with a rebuttal by the discoverers in 2025. There is ongoing scholarly debate about the interpretation of the discovery. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5d0f42005 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hipparchus also constructed a celestial globe depicting the constellations, based on his observations. His interest in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of a supernova (according to Pliny), or by his discovery of precession, according to Ptolemy, who says that Hipparchus could not reconcile his data with earlier observations made by Timocharis and Aristillus. For more information see Discovery of precession. In Raphael's painting The School of Athens, Hipparchus may be depicted holding his celestial globe, as the representative figure for astronomy. It is not certain that the figure is meant to represent him. +Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the fourth century BC had described the stars and constellations in two books called Phaenomena and Entropon. Aratus wrote a poem called Phaenomena or Arateia based on Eudoxus's work. Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the Arateia—his only preserved work—which contains many stellar positions and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations, and these are likely to have been based on his own measurements. + +According to Roman sources, Hipparchus made his measurements with a scientific instrument and he obtained the positions of roughly 850 stars. Pliny the Elder writes in book II, 24–26 of his Natural History: + +This same Hipparchus, who can never be sufficiently commended, ... discovered a new star that was produced in his own age, and, by observing its motions on the day in which it shone, he was led to doubt whether it does not often happen, that those stars have motion which we suppose to be fixed. And the same individual attempted, what might seem presumptuous even in a deity, viz. to number the stars for posterity and to express their relations by appropriate names; having previously devised instruments, by which he might mark the places and the magnitudes of each individual star. In this way it might be easily discovered, not only whether they were destroyed or produced, but whether they changed their relative positions, and likewise, whether they were increased or diminished; the heavens being thus left as an inheritance to any one, who might be found competent to complete his plan. +This passage reports that + +Hipparchus was inspired by a newly emerging star +he doubts on the stability of stellar brightnesses +he observed with appropriate instruments (plural—it is not said that he observed everything with the same instrument) +he made a catalogue of stars +It is unknown what instrument he used. The armillary sphere was probably invented only later—maybe by Ptolemy 265 years after Hipparchus. The historian of science S. Hoffmann found clues that Hipparchus may have observed the longitudes and latitudes in different coordinate systems and, thus, with different instrumentation. Right ascensions, for instance, could have been observed with a clock, while angular separations could have been measured with another device. + +=== Stellar magnitude === +Hipparchus is conjectured to have ranked the apparent magnitudes of stars on a numerical scale from 1, the brightest, to 6, the faintest. This hypothesis is based on the vague statement by Pliny the Elder but cannot be proven by the data in Hipparchus's commentary on Aratus's poem. In this only work by his hand that has survived until today, he does not use the magnitude scale but estimates brightnesses unsystematically. However, this does not prove or disprove anything because the commentary might be an early work while the magnitude scale could have been introduced later. Yet, it was proven that the error bars of magnitudes in ancient star catalogue is 1.5 mag which suggests that these numbers are not based on measurements. There were several suggestions on measurement methodologies and feasibility studies. In all cases, the error bars would be smaller. Hence, Hoffmann (2022) suggested that the magnitudes were not measured at all but mere estimates for globe makers to improve pattern recognition on globes as astronomer's computing machines. +Nevertheless, this system certainly precedes Ptolemy, who used it extensively about AD 150. This system was made more precise and extended by N. R. Pogson in 1856, who placed the magnitudes on a logarithmic scale, making magnitude 1 stars 100 times brighter than magnitude 6 stars, thus each magnitude is 5√100 or 2.512 times brighter than the next faintest magnitude. + +=== Coordinate system === +It is disputed which coordinate system(s) he used. Ptolemy's catalog in the Almagest, which is derived from Hipparchus's catalog, is given in ecliptic coordinates. Although Hipparchus strictly distinguishes between "signs" (30° section of the zodiac) and "constellations" in the zodiac, it is highly questionable whether or not he had an instrument to directly observe / measure units on the ecliptic. He probably marked them as a unit on his celestial globe but the instrumentation for his observations is unknown. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3833bd30f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Delambre in his Histoire de l'Astronomie Ancienne (1817) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used the equatorial coordinate system, a conclusion challenged by Otto Neugebauer in his History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy (1975). Hipparchus seems to have used a mix of ecliptic coordinates and equatorial coordinates: in his commentary on Eudoxus he provides stars' polar distance (equivalent to the declination in the equatorial system), right ascension (equatorial), longitude (ecliptic), polar longitude (hybrid), but not celestial latitude. This opinion was confirmed by the careful investigation of Hoffmann who independently studied the material, potential sources, techniques and results of Hipparchus and reconstructed his celestial globe and its making. +As with most of his work, Hipparchus's star catalog was adopted and perhaps expanded by Ptolemy, who has (since Brahe in 1598) been accused by some of fraud for stating (Syntaxis, book 7, chapter 4) that he observed all 1025 stars—critics claim that, for almost every star, he used Hipparchus's data and precessed it to his own epoch 2+2⁄3 centuries later by adding 2°40′ to the longitude, using an erroneously small precession constant of 1° per century. This claim is highly exaggerated because it applies modern standards of citation to an ancient author. True is only that "the ancient star catalogue" that was initiated by Hipparchus in the second century BC, was reworked and improved multiple times in the 265 years to the Almagest (which is good scientific practise even today). Although the Almagest star catalogue is based upon Hipparchus's, it is not only a blind copy but enriched, enhanced, and thus (at least partially) re-observed. + +=== Celestial globe === + +Hipparchus's celestial globe was an instrument similar to modern electronic computers. He used it to determine risings, settings and culminations (cf. also Almagest, book VIII, chapter 3). Therefore, his globe was mounted in a horizontal plane and had a meridian ring with a scale. In combination with a grid that divided the celestial equator into 24 hour lines (longitudes equalling our right ascension hours) the instrument allowed him to determine the hours. The ecliptic was marked and divided in 12 sections of equal length (the "signs", which he called zodion or dodekatemoria in order to distinguish them from constellations (astron). The globe was virtually reconstructed by a historian of science. + +=== Arguments for and against Hipparchus's star catalog in the Almagest === +For: + +common errors in the reconstructed Hipparchian star catalogue and the Almagest suggest a direct transfer without re-observation within 265 years. There are 18 stars with common errors - for the other ~800 stars, the errors are not extant or within the error ellipse. That means, no further statement is allowed on these hundreds of stars. +further statistical arguments +Against: + +Unlike Ptolemy, Hipparchus did not use ecliptic coordinates to describe stellar positions. +Hipparchus's catalogue is reported in Roman times to have enlisted about 850 stars but Ptolemy's catalogue has 1025 stars. Thus, somebody has added further entries. +There are stars cited in the Almagest from Hipparchus that are missing in the Almagest star catalogue. Thus, by all the reworking within scientific progress in 265 years, not all of Hipparchus's stars made it into the Almagest version of the star catalogue. +Conclusion: Hipparchus's star catalogue is one of the sources of the Almagest star catalogue but not the only source. + +== Precession of the equinoxes (146–127 BC) == + +Hipparchus is generally recognized as discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes in 127 BC. His two books on precession, On the Displacement of the Solstitial and Equinoctial Points and On the Length of the Year, are both mentioned in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy. According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and Regulus and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis and Aristillus, he concluded that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox. He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba4e745f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Geography == +Hipparchus's treatise Against the Geography of Eratosthenes in three books is not preserved. +Most of our knowledge of it comes from Strabo, according to whom Hipparchus thoroughly and often unfairly criticized Eratosthenes, mainly for internal contradictions and inaccuracy in determining positions of geographical localities. Hipparchus insists that a geographic map must be based only on astronomical measurements of latitudes and longitudes and triangulation for finding unknown distances. +In geographic theory and methods Hipparchus introduced three main innovations. +He was the first to use the grade grid, to determine geographic latitude from star observations, and not only from the Sun's altitude, a method known long before him, and to suggest that geographic longitude could be determined by means of simultaneous observations of lunar eclipses in distant places. In the practical part of his work, the so-called "table of climata", Hipparchus listed latitudes for several tens of localities. In particular, he improved Eratosthenes's values for the latitudes of Athens, Sicily, and southern extremity of India. In calculating latitudes of climata (latitudes correlated with the length of the longest solstitial day), Hipparchus used an unexpectedly accurate value for the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23°40′ (the actual value in the second half of the second century BC was approximately 23°43'), whereas all other ancient authors knew only a roughly rounded value 24°, and even Ptolemy used a less accurate value, 23°51′. +Hipparchus opposed the view generally accepted in the Hellenistic period that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and the Caspian Sea are parts of a single ocean. At the same time he extends the limits of the oikoumene, i.e. the inhabited part of the land, up to the equator and the Arctic Circle. Hipparchus's ideas found their reflection in the Geography of Ptolemy. In essence, Ptolemy's work is an extended attempt to realize Hipparchus's vision of what geography ought to be. + +== Other work == +Hipparchus wrote on combinatorial arithmetic and on the motion of falling bodies, though these works are now lost. In his treatment of motion he departed from Aristotelian physics and followed Strato of Lampsacus in explaining falling bodies through an early form of impetus theory rather than natural-place mechanics. Hipparchus also wrote lost works on optics, in which he developed an atomist theory of light, though this theory was not universally accepted. + +== Modern speculation == +Hipparchus was in the international news in 2005, when it was again proposed (as in 1898) that the data on the celestial globe of Hipparchus or in his star catalog may have been preserved in the only surviving large ancient celestial globe which depicts the constellations with moderate accuracy, the globe carried by the Farnese Atlas. Evidence suggests that the Farnese globe may show constellations in the Aratean tradition and deviate from the constellations used by Hipparchus. +A line in Plutarch's Table Talk states that Hipparchus counted 103,049 compound propositions that can be formed from ten simple propositions. 103,049 is the tenth Schröder–Hipparchus number, which counts the number of ways of adding one or more pairs of parentheses around consecutive subsequences of two or more items in any sequence of ten symbols. This has led to speculation that Hipparchus knew about enumerative combinatorics, a field of mathematics that developed independently in modern mathematics. +Hipparchus was suggested in a 2013 paper to have accidentally observed the planet Uranus in 128 BC and catalogued it as a star, over a millennium and a half before its formal discovery in 1781. + +== Legacy == + +Hipparchus may be depicted opposite Ptolemy in Raphael's 1509–1511 painting The School of Athens, although this figure is usually identified as Zoroaster. +The formal name for the ESA's Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission is High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite, making a backronym, HiPParCoS, that echoes and commemorates the name of Hipparchus. +The lunar crater Hipparchus, the Martian crater Hipparchus, and the asteroid 4000 Hipparchus are named after him. +He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 2004. +Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, historian of astronomy, mathematical astronomer and director of the Paris Observatory, in his history of astronomy in the 18th century (1821), considered Hipparchus along with Johannes Kepler and James Bradley the greatest astronomers of all time. +The Astronomers Monument at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California, United States features a relief of Hipparchus as one of six of the greatest astronomers of all time and the only one from Antiquity. +Johannes Kepler had great respect for Tycho Brahe's methods and the accuracy of his observations, and considered him to be the new Hipparchus, who would provide the foundation for a restoration of the science of astronomy. + +== Translations == +Berger, Ernst Hugo, ed. (1869). Die geographischen Fragmente des Hipparch [The Geographical Fragments of Hipparchus] (in German). Leipzig: Teubner. OCLC 981902787. +Dicks, D. R., ed. (1960). The Geographical Fragments of Hipparchus. University of London classical studies. London: Athlone Press. OCLC 490381. +Manitius, Karl, ed. (1894). Hipparchou Tōn Aratou kai Eudoxou Phainomenōn exēgēseōs vivlia tria = Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena commentariorum libri tres [Hipparchus' Commentaries on the Phenomena of Aratus and Eudoxus in three books] (in Ancient Greek and Latin). Leipzig: Teubner. OCLC 1127047584. +Cusinato, Bruna; Vanin, Gabriele, eds. (2022) [2013]. Commentari di Ipparco ai Fenomeni di Arato ed Eudosso [Hipparchus' Commentaries on the Phenomena of Aratus and Eudoxus] (in Italian). Translation by Bruna Cusinato; Introduction and astronomical commentary by Gabriele Vanin (3rd ed.). arXiv:2206.08243. Originally published in Vanin, Gabriele (2013). Catasterismi. Feltre: Rheticus-DBS Zanetti. pp. 85–166. + +== See also == +Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310 – c. 230 BC), a Greek mathematician who calculated the distance from the Earth to the Sun. +Eratosthenes (c. 276 – c. 194/195 BC), a Greek mathematician who calculated the circumference of the Earth and also the distance from the Earth to the Sun. +Greek mathematics +On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) +On the Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) +Posidonius (c. 135 – c. 51 BC), a Greek astronomer and mathematician who calculated the circumference of the Earth. + +== Notes == + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fa42718f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Hipparchus" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:58.068622+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== References == + + +== Works cited == +Berger, Ernst Hugo, ed. (1869). Die geographischen Fragmente des Hipparch [The Geographical Fragments of Hipparchus] (in German). Leipzig: Teubner. OCLC 981902787. +Cusinato, Bruna; Vanin, Gabriele, eds. (2022) [2013]. Commentari di Ipparco ai Fenomeni di Arato ed Eudosso [Hipparchus' Commentaries on the Phenomena of Aratus and Eudoxus] (in Italian). Translation by Bruna Cusinato; Introduction and astronomical commentary by Gabriele Vanin (3rd ed.). arXiv:2206.08243. +Dicks, D. R., ed. (1960). The Geographical Fragments of Hipparchus. University of London classical studies. London: Athlone Press. OCLC 490381. +Hoffmann, Susanne M. (2017). Hipparchs Himmelsglobus: Ein Bindeglied in der babylonisch-griechischen Astrometrie? [Hipparchus' Celestial Globe: A Link in Babylonian-Greek Astrometry?] (in German). Wiesbaden: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8. ISBN 978-3-658-18683-8. +Jones, Alexander (2001). "Hipparchus". In Murdin, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Bristol: Institute of Physics Pub. ISBN 978-0-333-75088-9. OCLC 1193410336. +Manitius, Karl, ed. (1894). Hipparchou Tōn Aratou kai Eudoxou Phainomenōn exēgēseōs vivlia tria = Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena commentariorum libri tres [Hipparchus' Commentaries on the Phenomena of Aratus and Eudoxus in three books] (in Ancient Greek and Latin). Leipzig: Teubner. OCLC 1127047584. +Neugebauer, Otto E. (1975). A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. Berlin: Springer. Part 1, Part 2, Part 3. +Ptolemy (1984). Toomer, Gerald J. (ed.). Ptolemy's Almagest. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-387-91220-2. Revised edn. Univ. Pr., Princeton, 1998, ISBN 978-0-691-00260-6 +Shcheglov, Dmitry A. (2007). "Hipparchus' Table of Climata and Ptolemy's Geography". Orbis Terrarum. 9: 159–192. ISSN 1385-285X. OCLC 34941672. Academia 214134 214134. +Thurston, Hugh (2002). "Greek Mathematical Astronomy Reconsidered". Isis. 93 (1): 58–69. doi:10.1086/343242. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 10.1086/343242. OCLC 907786460. S2CID 145527182. +Toomer, Gerald J. (1978). "Hipparchus". In Gillispie, C. C. (ed.). Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 15 (Supplement I, Adams–Sejszner). Scribner. pp. 207–224. + +== Further reading == +Clerke, Agnes Mary (1911). "Hipparchus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). p. 516. +Dreyer, John L.E. (1953). A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. New York: Dover. +Heath, Thomas (1921). A History of Greek Mathematics. Oxford: Clarendon. Vol. 1, Vol. 2. +Lloyd, G.E.R. (1973). Greek science after Aristotle. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04371-6. +Neugebauer, Otto E. (1956). "Notes on Hipparchus". In Weinberg, Saul S (ed.). The Aegean and the Near East: Studies Presented to Hetty Goldman. Locust Valley, NY: J.J. Augustin. +O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Hipparchus", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews +Thomson, J. Oliver (1948). History of Ancient Geography. Cambridge University Press. + +== External links == + +David Ulansey about Hipparchus's understanding of the precession +A brief view by Carmen Rush on Hipparchus' stellar catalog \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_Society-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c07893960 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_Society-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +--- +title: "History of Science Society" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_Society" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:57.012726+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The History of Science Society (HSS), founded in 1924, is the primary professional society for the academic study of the history of science. The society has over 3,000 members worldwide. It publishes the quarterly journal Isis and the yearly journal Osiris, sponsors the IsisCB: History of Science Index, and holds an annual conference. +As of January 2024, the current president of the HSS is Evelynn M. Hammonds. + + +== History == +The History of Science Society was founded in 1924 by George Sarton, David Eugene Smith, and Lawrence Joseph Henderson, primarily to support the publication of Isis, a journal of the history of science Sarton had started in 1912 in Belgium. +George Sarton edited the journal Isis from 1913 until 1952, when he retired. Bernard Cohen served as managing editor of Isis from 1947 to 1952 and took over as editor from 1952 to 1958. +Subsequent editors of Isis include Harry Woolf, 1959–1963; Robert P. Multhauf, 1964–1978; Arnold Thackray (1979–1985); Charles E. Rosenberg, 1986–1988; Ronald Numbers, 1989–1993; +Margaret W. Rossiter, 1994–2003; Bernard Lightman, 2004–2014; H. Floris Cohen, 2014–2019; co-editors Alexandra Hui and Matthew Lavine, 2019–2024; and Projit Bihari Mukharji and Elise K. Burton 2024–present. +Thackray also served as editor of Osiris from 1984 to 1994 and was responsible to returning it to activity. +During its early years in America, the journal was published by the Harvard Printing Office. +It has since been edited from the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Chicago, the University of Wisconsin, Cornell, Toronto, Utrecht, and Mississippi State University. +Papers from the Society are held by The Smithsonian Institution Archives. The History of Science Society's "Forum for the History of the Human Sciences", in 1989, is considered to mark the inclusion of psychology and other social sciences in the history of science. +As of June 16, 2022, the University of Pennsylvania and the Science History Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, announced that they would become co-hosts of the History of Science Society, which had been located at Notre Dame University since 2010. + + +== Awards and recognition == +HSS sponsors two special lectures annually: + +The George Sarton Memorial Lecture, delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 1960 (with a break from 1973 to 1975) +The History of Science Society Distinguished Lecture (formerly the History of Science Society Lecture), delivered at a plenary session of the annual meeting of the HSS since 1981 +In addition, the HSS awards a number of prizes: + +The Suzanne J. Levinson Prize, established in 2006, is awarded biennially for a book in the history of the life sciences and natural history +The Nathan Reingold Prize (formerly the Henry and Ida Schuman Prize), established in 1955, for an outstanding essay in the history of science written by a graduate student +The Derek Price/Rod Webster Prize (formerly the Zeitlin-Ver Brugge Prize), established in 1978, for an outstanding article in Isis +The Margaret W. Rossiter History of Women in Science Prize, first awarded in 1987, for an outstanding work on the subject of women in science (the prize alternates annually between books and journals) +The Joseph H. Hazen Education Prize, established in 1998, for outstanding contributions to teaching history of science +The Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize, established in 1985, for a textbook or popular book on the history of science +The Pfizer Award, established in 1958, for an outstanding book in the history of science (a medal accompanies this award) +The George Sarton Medal, first awarded in 1955, for lifetime achievement in the history of science + + +== Presidents == +1924-1925 Lawrence Joseph Henderson +1926 James Henry Breasted +1927 David Eugene Smith +1928 Edgar Fahs Smith +1929 Lynn Thorndike +1930 Henry Crew +1931 William H. Welch +1932 Berthold Laufer +1933 J. Playfair McMurrich +1934 Harvey Williams Cushing +1935-1936 Charles Albert Browne Jr. +1937-1938 Chauncey D. Leake +1939 Henry E. Sigerist +1941-1942 Richard Harrison Shryock +1943-1944 Louis Charles Karpinski +1944 Isaiah Bowman +1945-1946 Vilhjalmur Stefansson +1947-1950 John Farquhar Fulton +1951-1952 fr:Harcourt Brown +1953-1956 Dorothy Stimson +1957-1960 Henry Guerlac +1961-1962 I. Bernard Cohen +1963-1964 Marshall Clagett + + +== See also == +International Academy of the History of Science + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +IsisCB Explore: History of Science Index An open access discovery service for the history of science +History of Science Society, Publications, 1989–1999 from the Smithsonian Institution Archives \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honcheonsigye-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honcheonsigye-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b6414b5f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honcheonsigye-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Honcheonsigye" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honcheonsigye" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:09.833489+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Honcheonsigye (Korean: 혼천시계; Hanja: 渾天時計; lit. 'armillary clock') is an astronomical clock made by Song Yi-Yeong (송이영; 宋以潁), a professor of Gwansanggam (관상감; 觀象監) (one of the scientific institution of Joseon) in 1669. It was designated as South Korean national treasure number 230 in August 9, 1985. +The clock used the alarm clock technology created by Christiaan Huygens in 1657. This relic shows that Huygens' technology was spread to East Asia in just 12 years. Also, It demonstrates the astronomy and mechanical engineering technology of the Joseon Dynasty. +The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40 cm. The sphere is activated by a clockwork mechanism, designed to display the position of the heavens at any given time, as well as displaying the hours and marking their passage with a chiming bell. The device is no longer in working order. +The clock is owned by Korea University Museum. It is the only remaining astronomical clock from the Joseon period. +The clock was purchased from an antiques dealer some time before WWII by Mr Kim Seong-su 김성수 金性洙, the rich businessman and politician who founded Korea University. The historian of science Jeon Sang-Woon 전상운 全相運, who examined the device in 1962, assumed that it was the clockwork driven sphere known to have been made by Song Yiyeong 송이영 宋以穎 in 1669 for King Hyeonjong of Joseon 현종 顯宗, and the British historian of science Joseph Needham adopted this view, giving a detailed citation of the relevant Korean texts from that period, and a detailed description of the mechanism. +However, the historian of Korean cartography, Gary Ledyard, argued that this device could not have been made as early as 1669, since the names given on the map of the earth on the terrestrial globe at the centre of the object shows a name for part of the southern continent that could not have been known in Korea at that period. +More recently, O Sanghag 오상학 has argued that the object may date from as late as the beginning of the 19th century, in the time of Crown Prince Ikjong 익종 翼宗 (1809–1830), before the prince became regent in 1827. +An image of the clock's sphere is shown on the reverse of the 2007 issued 10,000 won banknotes. + + +== See also == +History of astronomy +National treasures of South Korea + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Cultural Heritage Administration: Astronomical instrument and clock +[1] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f2d2f313 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Horace Bénédict de Saussure" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:12.944546+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Horace Bénédict de Saussure (French: [ɔʁas benedikt də sosyʁ]; 17 February 1740 – 22 January 1799) was a Genevan geologist, meteorologist, physicist, mountaineer and Alpine explorer (specifically the Mont Blanc massif), often called the founder of alpinism and modern meteorology, and considered to be the first person to build a successful solar oven. + +== Early life and education == + +Horace Bénédict de Saussure was born 17 February 1740, in Conches, near Geneva, in the Republic of Geneva. Saussure's family were Genevan patricians. His father, Nicolas de Saussure, was an agriculturist, agronomist and author. Because his mother was "sickly", Saussure was brought up by his mother's sister and her husband the Genevan naturalist Charles Bonnet, who sparked Horace-Bénédict's early interest in botany. After attending the "Collège" of his hometown, he completed his studies at the Geneva Academy in 1759 with a dissertation on heat (Dissertatio physica de igne). + +== Career == +In 1760, Saussure made the first of numerous trips to Chamonix valley, to collect plant specimens for the noted Swiss anatomist, physiologist and botanist Albrecht von Haller. In 1760, Saussure offered a reward to the first man to reach the summit of Mont Blanc. Inspired by his uncle, Charles Bonnet, the young Saussure researched the physiology of plants which he published as Observations sur l'écorce des feuilles et des pétales in 1762. +The same year, at 22, he was elected professor of philosophy at the "Academy of Geneva", where he lectured on physics one year, and on logic and metaphysics the next. He taught there until 1786, occasionally also lecturing on geography, geology, chemistry, and even astronomy. +Saussure's early interest in botanical studies and glaciers soon led him to undertake other journeys across the Alps. In 1767, he completed his first tour of Mont Blanc, a trip that did much to reveal the topography of the snowy portions of the Alps of Savoy. He also carried out experiments on heat and cold, on the weight of the atmosphere and on electricity and magnetism. For this, he devised what became one of the first electrometers. From 1772 to 1773 trips led him to Italy, where he studied Mount Etna and other volcanoes (1772–73), and to the extinct volcanoes of the Auvergne, in France. +Although a patrician, Saussure held liberal views, which induced him to present in 1774 a plan for the development of scientific education in the Geneva College, which would be open to all citizens, but this attempt failed. He was more successful in advocating the creation of the "Société des Arts" (1776), inspired by the London Society for the Improvement of Arts. +Beginning in 1774, Saussure sought to reach the summit of Mont Blanc on the side of Val Veny (now Italy) accompanied by the Courmayeur alpine guide Jean-Laurent Jordaney on the Miage Glacier and on Mont Crammont. In 1776, he ascended the Buet (3,096 m). He climbed the Crammont in 1774 and again in 1778, in which year he also explored the Valsorey glacier, near the Great St Bernard. In 1780, he climbed the Roche Michel, above the Mont Cenis Pass. In 1785, he made an unsuccessful attempt on Mont Blanc by the Aiguille du Goûter route. Two Chamonix men, Michel Paccard and Jacques Balmat, attained the summit in 1786, by way of the Grands Mulets, and in 1787 Saussure himself made the third ascent of the mountain. His achievements did much to attract tourists to places such as Chamonix. +In 1788, Saussure spent 17 days making meteorological observations and physical measurements on the Col du Géant (3,371 m). +In 1789, Saussure climbed the Pizzo Bianco near Macugnaga, to observe the east wall of Monte Rosa, and crossed the Theodulpass (3,322 m) to Zermatt, as the first traveler to visit. On that occasion he climbed from the pass up the Klein Matterhorn (3,883 m). In 1792, he spent three days making observations on the same pass without descending to Zermatt and then visited the Theodulhorn (3,472 m). + +=== Inventions === + +Obsessed by the measurement of meteorological phenomena, Saussure invented and improved many kinds of apparatus, including the magnetometer, +He invented the cyanometer for estimating the blueness of the sky, the diaphanometer for judging the clarity of the atmosphere, the anemometer and the mountain eudiometer. +Of particular importance was a hair hygrometer that he devised and used for a series of investigations on atmospheric humidity, evaporation, clouds, fogs and rain (Essais sur l'Hygrométrie, 1783). This instrument sparked a bitter controversy with Jean-André Deluc, who had invented a whalebone hygrometer. +In 1767, Saussure constructed the first known Western solar oven, trying several designs before determining that a well-insulated box with three layers of glass to trap outgoing thermal radiation produced the most heat. The highest temperature he reached was 230 °F (110 °C), which he found did not vary significantly when the box was carried from the top of Mont Crammont in the Swiss Alps down to the Plains of Cournier, 4,852 feet lower in altitude and 34 °F (19 °C) warmer in temperature, thereby establishing that the external air temperature played no significant role in this solar heating effect. + +=== Work === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af3821254 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Horace Bénédict de Saussure" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:12.944546+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +All of Saussure's observations and experiments from seven Alpine journeys were summed up and published in four quarto volumes, under the general title of Voyages dans les Alpes (1779 – 1796) (There was an octavo issue in eight volumes, issued from 1780 to 1796). The non-scientific portions of the work were first published in 1834, and often since, as Partie pittoresque des ouvrages de M. de Saussure. +The Alps were the focus of Saussure's investigations. He saw them as the grand key to the true theory of the earth, and they gave him the opportunity to study geology in a manner never previously attempted. Saussure closely examined the inclination of the strata, the nature of the rocks, the fossils and the minerals. +Saussure had a thorough knowledge of the chemistry of the day and applied it to the study of minerals, water and air. His geological observations made him a firm believer in the Neptunian theory: He regarded all rocks and minerals as deposited from aqueous solution or suspension, and attached much importance to the study of meteorological conditions. His work with rocks, erosion, and fossils also led him to believe that the earth was much older than generally thought and formed part of the basis of Darwin's Theory of Evolution. +Saussure carried barometers and boiling-point thermometers to the summits of the highest mountains, and estimated the relative humidity of the atmosphere at different heights, its temperature, the strength of solar radiation, the composition of air and its transparency. Then, he investigated the temperature of the earth at all depths to which he could drive his thermometer staves, and the course, conditions and temperature of streams, rivers, glaciers and lakes, even of the sea. +Saussure adapted the thermometer to many purposes: for ascertaining the temperature of the air he used one with a fine bulb hung in the shade or whirled by a string, the latter form being converted into an evaporimeter by inserting its bulb into a piece of wet sponge and making it revolve in a circle of known radius, at a known rate; for experiments on the earth and in deep water he employed large thermometers wrapped in non-conducting coatings so as to render them extremely sluggish, and capable of long retaining the temperature once they had attained it. +With these instruments Saussure showed that the bottom water of deep lakes is uniformly cold at all seasons, and that seasonal changes in temperature take six months to penetrate to a depth of 30 ft. in the earth. He recognized the immense advantages to meteorology of high-level observation stations, and whenever it was practicable he arranged for simultaneous observations to be made at different altitudes for as long periods as possible. +Saussure was particularly influential as a geologist, and although his ideas on the underlying principles were often erroneous, he was instrumental in greatly advancing that science. He was an early user of the term "geology"—see the "Discours préliminaire" to volume I of his Voyages, published in 1779—though by no means its inventor as some have claimed, the English word having been used in the 1680s and its Latin counterpart "geologia" during the previous several centuries. + +== Awards == +In 1784, Saussure was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; in 1788, a foreign member of the Royal Society of London; in 1791, an associate foreign member of l'Académie des sciences de Paris. + +== Personal life and death == +Saussure was married to Albertine Amelie Boissier and had three children: Albertine Necker de Saussure who was a pioneer in the education of women, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure who became a noted specialist in plant chemistry and an early pioneer in photosynthesis research and Alphonse Jean François de Saussure. +Saussure's health began to fail in 1791, at the same time that he suffered financial losses. Saussure died in Geneva 22 January 1799. +His great-grandson Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 – 1913) was an important linguist and semiotician. + +== Recognition == + +The genus of plants Saussurea, some adapted to growing in extreme high-alpine climates, is named after him and his plant-physiologist son Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure. +The Alpine Botanical Garden Saussurea, located at Pavillon du Mont Fréty, first station for the Skyway Monte Bianco cable car, in Courmayeur, Aosta Valley, is named after him. +His work as a mineralogist was also recognized in that Saussurite is named after him. +The lunar crater Saussure is named after him. +Saussure was honoured by being depicted on the 20 Swiss franc banknote of the sixth issue of Swiss National Bank notes (1979 to 1995, when replaced by the eighth issue; the notes were recalled in 2000 and became valueless on 1 May 2020). + +== Trivia == +In his On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, while discussing how reason affects our perception of distance, Arthur Schopenhauer includes an anecdote that Saussure, "when on the Mont Blanc,... saw so enormous a moon rise, that, not recognizing what it was, he fainted with terror". + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b777a6b1a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Horace Bénédict de Saussure" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Bénédict_de_Saussure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:12.944546+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== References == +Lives by J Senebier (Geneva, 1801), by Cuvier in the Biographie universelle, and by A. P. de Candolle in Décade philosophique +DeCandolle, A.P. (1799). "XVII. Biographical memoirs of M. de Saussure". Philosophical Magazine. Series 1. 4 (13): 96–102. doi:10.1080/14786449908677038. +articles by E. Naville in the Bibliothèque universelle (March, April, May 1883) +chaps. v.-viii. of Ch. Durier's Le Mont-Blanc (Paris, various editions between 1877 and 1897). +This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Saussure, Horace Bénédict de". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 238. +René Sigrist, Le capteur solaire de Horace-Bénédict de Saussure. Genèse d'une science empirique. Geneva, Passé-Présent / Jullien, 1993. +Albert V. Carozzi & Gerda Bouvier, The scientific library of Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1797): annotated catalog of an 18th-century bibliographic and historic treasure, Geneva, 1994 (Mémoires de la SPHN, t. 46). +René Sigrist (ed.), H.-B. de Saussure (1740–1799): un regard sur la terre. Geneva, Georg, 2001. + +== External links == + +Pictures and texts of "Les Voyages dans les Alpes" by H. B. de Saussure can be found in the database VIATIMAGES (archived from www3.unil.ch) +Horace-Benedict de Saussure and his Hot Boxes of the 1700s solarcooking.org +Horace-Bénédict de Saussure works available online +(1796–1808) Voyages dans les Alpes, précédés d'un essai sur l'histoire naturelle des environs le Genève, 4 vol. – Linda Hall Library +(1796) "Agenda, Ou tableau général des observations et des recherches dont les résultats doivent servir de base à la théorie de la terre." Journal des mines, no. 20. Paris, an. 4 (1796); p. 1–70. – Linda Hall Library \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_History_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_History_Society-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c61bf4db5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_History_Society-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "IT History Society" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_History_Society" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:05.249053+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The IT History Society (ITHS) is an organization that supports the history and scholarship of information technology by encouraging, fostering, and facilitating archival and historical research. Formerly known as the Charles Babbage Foundation, it advises historians, promotes collaboration among academic organizations and museums, and assists IT corporations in preparing and archiving their histories for future studies. + + +== Activities == +The IT History Society provides background information to those with an interest in the history of Information Technology, including papers that provide advice on how to perform historical work and how historical activities can benefit private sector organizations. It tracks historical projects seeking funding as well as projects underway and completed. It maintains online, publicly available, lists of events pertaining to IT history, IT history resources, an IT Honor Roll acknowledging more than 700 individuals who have made a noteworthy contribution to the information technology industry, and a database of notable technology quotes. +A continuing project is one of aggregating the locations and content of IT history archival information around the world to facilitate and encourage IT history research and scholarship. This International Database of Historical and Archival Sites currently consists of 1,663 international information technology historical and archival collections encompassing over 49.8 million documents. An IT Hardware database has been added consisting of 12,187 entries, an IT Honor Roll with 1,031 entries, and a Technical Quotes database with over 1,000 entries. These databases are being added to on a regular basis an IT Software and IT Companies databases will debut soon. ITHS holds an annual meeting and conference. + + +== History == +The International Charles Babbage Society was founded in 1978 and operated out of Palo Alto, California. The following year the American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) became a principal sponsor of the society, which was renamed the Charles Babbage Institute. In 1980, the institute moved to the University of Minnesota, which contracted with the principals of the Charles Babbage Institute to sponsor and house the institute. A new entity, the Charles Babbage Foundation, was created to help support and govern the institute, in partnership with the university. In 1989, CBI became an organized research unit of the university. +Around 2000, CBF broadened its mission to support the history of information technology through other organizations, collaborating, for example, with the Sloan Foundation, Software History Center, and the Computer History Museum in experimenting with Internet-based archival and historical research. In 2002, the Charles Babbage Foundation broadened its mission to support the entire IT history community. In 2007, CBF changed its name to the IT History Society and reworked its programs to better support the IT history community. + + +=== Charles Babbage Institute === +The Charles Babbage Institute is a research center at the University of Minnesota specializing in the history of information technology, particularly the history of digital computing, programming/software, and computer networking since 1935. The institute is named for Charles Babbage, the nineteenth-century English inventor of the programmable computer. The institute is located in Elmer L. Andersen Library at the University of Minnesota Libraries in Minneapolis, Minnesota. + + +==== Babbage Activities ==== +In addition to holding important historical archives, in paper and electronic form, its staff of historians and archivists conduct and publish historical and archival research that promotes the study of the history of information technology internationally. CBI also encourages research in the area and related topics (such as archival methods); to do this, it offers graduate fellowships and travel grants, organizes conferences and workshops, and participates in public programming. It also serves as an international clearinghouse of resources for the history of information technology. +Also valuable for researchers are its extensive collection of oral history interviews, more than 400 in total. Oral histories with important early figures in the field have been conducted by CBI staff and collaborating colleagues. Owing to the poorly documented state of many early computer developments, these oral histories are immensely valuable documents. One author called the set of CBI oral histories "a priceless resource for any historian of computing." Most of CBI's oral histories are transcribed and available online. +The archival collection also contains manuscripts; records of professional associations; corporate records (including the Burroughs corporate records and the Control Data corporate records, among many others); trade publications; periodicals; manuals and product literature for older systems, photographic material (stills and moving), and a variety of other rare reference materials. +It is now a center at the University of Minnesota, and is located on its Twin Cities, Minneapolis campus, where it is housed in the Elmer L. Andersen Library on the West Bank. + + +==== Archival papers and oral histories ==== +The CBI has collections of archival papers and oral histories from many notable figures in computing including: + + +==== CBI History ==== +CBI was founded in 1978 by Erwin Tomash and associates as the International Charles Babbage Society, and initially operated in Palo Alto, California. +In 1979, the American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) became a principal sponsor of the Society, which was renamed the Charles Babbage Institute. +In 1980, the institute moved to the University of Minnesota, which contracted with the principals of the Charles Babbage Institute to sponsor and house the institute. In 1989, CBI became an organized research unit of the university. + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +CBI website +History of CBI and CBF \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_of_the_Polish_Academy_of_Sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_of_the_Polish_Academy_of_Sciences-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a3089db68 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_of_the_Polish_Academy_of_Sciences-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Institute for the History of Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_of_the_Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:58.167608+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Institute for the History of Science was established in 1954 as an institution of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Poland. + + +== Overview == +The Institute is located in the Staszic Palace in the center of Warsaw, near the Copernicus monument. Among its founders were professors: Bogdan Suchodolski and Aleksander Birkenmajer. In the mid 1970s, it was renamed to the Institute for the History of Science, Education and Technology. Since 1994, the name has been shortened to the Institute for the History of Science, but with its previous research scope. The head of its present Academic Council is Leszek Zasztowt. +Since 2011 the Institute has taken the official name of Ludwik Birkenmajer and Aleksander Birkenmajer: L & A Birkenmajer Institute for the History of Science (Polish: Instytut Historii Nauki PAN imienia Ludwika i Aleksandra Birkenmajerów). + + +== Structure == +The Institute consists of two departments: the Department of the History of Social Sciences, History of Education and Scholarly Institutions (Sections: History of Social Sciences, History of Education, History of Scientific Organizations), and the Department of the History of Exact Sciences, Natural Sciences and Technology (Sections: History of Exact Sciences and Technology, History of Medicine, History of Chemistry and Pharmacy, History of Mathematics). + + +== Field of interest == +The Institute conducts research focused on the history of science, both humanities and social sciences as well as natural and exact sciences, and the history of technology. The history of culture and history of education and pedagogical thought are also main research fields, equally with the history of ideas and its philosophical milieu. + + +== Notable academics == +Aleksander Birkenmajer +Paweł Czartoryski +Tadeusz Kowalik +Jerzy Michalski +Jerzy Osiatyński +Bolesław Skarżyński +Ryszard Terlecki +Bogdan Suchodolski +Leszek Zasztowt + + +== Series editions == +Nicolaus Copernicus, Opera omnia, Vol. I–IV, 1973–2007; editor Aleksander Birkenmajer and Paweł Czartoryski, and successors. +History of Polish Science (Historia nauki polskiej, in Polish, Vol. I–X, 1970–2015; and continuation, editor Bogdan Suchodolski and successors. +Studia Copernicana, Vol. I–XLI, 1970–2009; and continuation, editor Paweł Czartoryski and successors. +Monographs on the History of Science and Technology. +Monographs on the History of Education, editor Leszek Zasztowt. +Fontes Rerum ad Historiam Scientiae Spectantium (Sources to the History of Science). +History of Education Archives, Vol. I–XIII and continuation. + + +== Journals == +Analecta. Studies and Materials for the History of Science ("Analecta. Studia i Materiały z Dziejów Nauki", semi-annual journal published in Polish with English summaries). +Quarterly Journal for the History of Science and Technology ("Kwartalnik Historii Nauki i Techniki"). +Dissertations on the History of Education ("Rozprawy z Dziejów Oświaty", annual journal publishing articles in Polish, English and Russian). +Organon, annual journal founded in 1936 and published in English, French, German, Italian and Spanish. + + +== Bibliography == +Instytut Historii Nauki Polskiej Akademii Nauk w latach 1953–2003. Księga jubileuszowa z okazji pięćdziesięciolecia działalności, edited by Joanna Schiller and Leszek Zasztowt, Warszawa 2004. + + +== External links == +Official website (in English and Polish) +Electronic catalog of the Library of the Institute for the History of Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences (in English and Polish) +Institute for the History of Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences in the Polish Science database (in English and Polish) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_Wood_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_Wood_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..12012db79 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_Wood_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +--- +title: "International Academy of Wood Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_Wood_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:00.521885+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Academy of Wood Science (IAWS) is an international academy and a non-profit assembly of wood scientists, recognizing all fields of wood science with their associated technological domains and securing a worldwide representation. +Since June 2023, the academy is represented by Dr. Stavros Avramidis, a Greek-Canadian professor and wood scientist who serves as the 19th President of the IAWS, and, also by Dr. Ingo Burgert, a German-Swiss wood scientist, who is presently the elected vice-president for the period 2023–2026. + + +== History == +The academy was first established on June 2, 1966, at the Centre Technique du Bois in Paris. +The development and establishment of the International Academy of Wood Science involved many people, but the individual who decided to found a wood academy was Professor Franz Gustav Kollmann, who had studied in the Wood Research (German: Holzforschung) department at the Technical University of Munich, Germany, and was then working in industry. He was also the first elected President of the academy in the years 1966–1972. +Since 1967, the official scientific journal of the IAWS is the journal of Wood Science and Technology. + + +== Objectives == +The Academy aims to advance the field of wood science globally by fostering coordinated progress and enhancing its reputation. One of the primary ways it does this is by selecting and honoring exceptional wood scientists as Fellows. This recognition celebrates significant contributions to wood science and encourages excellence in research and scholarly publishing. Additionally, the Academy organizes yearly plenary gatherings, which include administrative sessions and scientific presentations, typically held as international conferences. +Fellows of the International Academy of Wood Science (FIAWS) are experts actively involved in wood-related research across a wide spectrum. Their election is a mark of outstanding scientific achievement and integrity. Current Fellows nominate and assess candidates, and the executive committee decides how many new members are accepted each year based on these evaluations. +Fellows of the IAWS are expected to: + +Support and advance cutting-edge wood science and technology. +Share and present their research at both IAWS-hosted and other international or national scientific forums. +Advocate for the relevance and impact of wood science to policymakers, industry leaders, media, and the public. +Encourage the publication of member research in the Quarterly Bulletins. + + +== Executive committee == +The executive committee of the IAWS consists of the following officers: + +President: Dr. Stavros Avramidis, Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Canada +Vice President: Dr. Ingo Burgert, Institute for Building Materials, ETH Zurich, Switzerland +Secretary: Dr. Rupert Wimmer, Natural Materials Technology, BOKU University, Vienna, Austria +Treasurer: Dr. Robert Ross, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, USA +Past President: Dr. Yoon Soo Kim, Wood Science & Engineering, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea +Chair of the Academy Board: Dr. Katarina Čufar, Department of Wood Science and Technology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia + + +== Distinguished members == +Alfred J. Stamm (1897–1985), member +Erich Adler (1905–1985), member and recipient of Anselme Payen Award +Josef Gierer (1919–), member and recipient of Anselme Payen Award +Peter Koch (1920–1998), member +Kyosti Vilho Sarkanen (1921–1990), member and recipient of Anselme Payen Award +John F. Siau (1921–1996), member +Walter Liese (1926–2023), member +Chung-Yun Hse (1935–1921), member +Edmone Roffael (1939–2021), member +Roger M. Rowell (1939–), member +Pieter Baas (1944–2024), member +Raymond A. Young (1945–), member +Gerd Wegener (1945–), member +Antonio Pizzi (1946–), member +Peter Niemz (1950–), member +Alfred Teischinger (1954–), member +John Ralph (1954–), member and recipient of: Anselme Payen Award, Marcus Wallenberg Prize +Akira Isogai (1954–), member and recipient of: Anselme Payen Award, Honda Prize, Marcus Wallenberg Prize +Geoffrey Daniel (1957–), member +Callum A.S. Hill (1957–), member +Philip D. Evans (1958–), member +Rupert Wimmer (1960–), member +Holger Militz (1960–), member, and recipient of: Schweighofer Prize, Marcus Wallenberg Prize +Krishna K. Pandey (1962–), member +Thomas Rosenau (1963–), member and recipient of Anselme Payen Award + + +== Publications == +Wood Science and Technology +IAWS Bulletin + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_the_History_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_the_History_of_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..604309ac9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_the_History_of_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "International Academy of the History of Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_the_History_of_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:59.356839+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Academy of the History of Science (French: Académie Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences) is a membership organization for historians of science. +The Academy was founded on 17 August 1928 at the Congress of Historical Science by Aldo Mieli, Abel Rey, George Sarton, Henry E. Sigerist, Charles Singer, Karl Sudhoff, and Lynn Thorndike. + + +== Publications == +Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, formerly Archivio di storia della scienza and then Archeion, is an international academic journal of the history of science now published by the International Academy of the History of Science. +The journal is published twice yearly and its chief editor, since 2018, is Michela Malpangotto. The content is published in six languages: English, French, Italian, German, Russian, and Spanish. Issues are distributed in print and online by Brepols. +The journal was founded as Archivio di storia della scienza by Aldo Mieli in 1919, renamed Archeion in 1927, and edited by Mieli from its founding in 1919 until its closure, due to wartime political pressures on Mieli, in 1943. The journal was revived in 1947 as Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences. Its early history was notable for its commitment to political internationalism and for its role in the establishment of the history of science as an academic discipline. + + +== Prizes == +The Academy issues two biennial prizes in odd-numbered years, the Koyré Medal and the Young Historian Prize. The prizes were first awarded in 1968 and were established in their current biennial pattern in 1991. The Koyré Medal, named for the French philosopher and historian of science Alexandre Koyré, is awarded for lifetime career contributions. The first winner of the Koyré Medal was British historian of mathematics Derek T. Whiteside in 1968, honoring his work on Isaac Newton's mathematical papers. The Young Historian Prize is awarded for a scholar's first work in the history of science. The first winner, in 1968, was Russian historian of mathematics Serge Demidov. +The list of prize winners for both prizes is maintained at AIHS-IAHS: Academy prizes. + + +== See also == +History of Science Society +International Congress of Historical Sciences +International Committee of Historical Sciences +International Commission on the History of Mathematics + + +== References == + + +== External links == +International Academy of the History of Science website Archived 2012-03-22 at the Wayback Machine +Online issues of the journal Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences since 2004 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Geological_Sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Geological_Sciences-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..39569eb44 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Geological_Sciences-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Geological_Sciences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:01.716172+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences (INHIGEO) promotes ongoing research into the history of the earth sciences, particularly the history of geology. It has 20 Honorary Senior Members and 301 members (2018) worldwide. + + +== History == +INHIGEO has been established by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) and is also affiliated with the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS). The suggestion for the establishment of INHIGEO in 1967 was chiefly due to the ideas and efforts of the distinguished Russian geologist Vladimir Tikhomirov (1915–1994) from the Geological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. + + +=== Board of Management === +President: + +Secretary-General: + + +== Objective == +The primary objective of the Commission on the History of Geological Sciences involves promoting studies in the history of geological disciplines. In so doing, the Commission +endeavours to stimulate and coordinate the activities of regional, national, and international organizations having shared purposes. The Commission also works to foster the publication of individual and collective works that illuminate the history of the geological sciences. +INHIGEO achieves its objective by sponsoring a major annual symposium with associated field activities. It also promotes publication of individual and collective works on the history of geology and issues a substantial "Annual Record" that details historical research into earth sciences worldwide, publicises other pertinent historical activities and provides scholarly reviews of recent literature on the subject. + + +== Affiliated associations == + + +== Publications == +Celebrating 50 Years of INHIGEO / Editors W. Mayer, R. M. Clary, L. F. Azuela, N. S. Mots, S. Wolkowicz. London: GSL, 2017. 456 p. (GSL Special Publication; 442). +Program and guidebook. INHIGEO, 2017. Armenia. +Physis: Rivista Internazionale di Storia della Scienza. 2021. Vol. 56. Fasc. 1/2. (The History of Geological Sciences as a disciplinary crossing point: the Proceedings of the INHIGEO 2019 Symposium) + + +== See also == +Vladimir V. Tikhomirov History of Geology Award + + +== References == + + +== External links == +http://www.inhigeo.org — Official website +INHIGEO Symposiums official sites: 2019, 2017, 2015, 2014. + +University of New Hampshire.edu: "History of Geology on the International Scene" +'Episodes' — Journal of International Union of Geological Sciences. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Mathematics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Mathematics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..99e77bd52 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Mathematics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "International Commission on the History of Mathematics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_the_History_of_Mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:02.900984+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Commission on the History of Mathematics was established in 1971 to promote the study of history of mathematics. Kenneth O. May provided its initial impetus. In 1974, its official journal Historia Mathematica began publishing. Every four years the Commission bestows the Kenneth O. May Medal upon a deserving historian of mathematics. +In 1981, in Bucharest, the first in a series of symposia was held in conjunction with the International Congress of History of Science. In 1985, the ICHM became an inter-union commission of both the International Mathematical Union and the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science. In 1989 the first Kenneth O. May Prize was awarded to Dirk Struik and Adolf P. Yushkevich. +Joseph Dauben became chair of the executive committee of the ICHM in 1985 and proceeded to assemble the global contributions from 40 historians for the 2002 publication Writing the History of Mathematics: Its Historical Development, published by Birkhäuser. In his review, Donald Cook noted, "Because the book is not designed to completely explore issues, it may raise questions for readers." +The ICHM began awarding the Montucla Prize, for the best article by an early career scholar in Historia Mathematica, in 2009. The award is given every four years. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +ICHM official website +A Brief History of the International Commission on the History of Mathematics from International Mathematical Union. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_of_History_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_of_History_of_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1a5dde4b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_of_History_of_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "International Committee of History of Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_of_History_of_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:04.071337+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Committee of History of Science (French: Comité International des Sciences Historiques), abbreviated as CISH, is an is a non-governmental, non-profit organisation, created to promote the historical sciences through international co-operation. It was founded in May 14, 1926, and is based in Geneva. The Committee consists of historical research committees at the national level, and international-affiliated organisations focusing on the same. +The Committee holds a general assembly biannually. They organised the First International Congress of History of Science in Paris in 1929. They held the Second International Congress of the History of Science in London in 1931, where they transformed themselves into the International Academy of the History of Science, which was based on individual membership. + + +== External links == +Official website +CISH Constitution (last amended in 2024) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Coronelli_Society_for_the_Study_of_Globes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Coronelli_Society_for_the_Study_of_Globes-0.md index 0b20578d4..cca57dabf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Coronelli_Society_for_the_Study_of_Globes-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Coronelli_Society_for_the_Study_of_Globes-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Coronelli_Society_for_the_Study_of_Globes" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:10:40.838685+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:12.099450+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Puluj-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Puluj-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..28b9b0810 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Puluj-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Ivan Puluj" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Puluj" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:09.885912+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ivan Pavlovych Puluj (Ukrainian: Іван Павлович Пулюй, pronounced [iˈwɑn pʊˈlʲuj]; German: Johann Puluj; 2 February 1845 – 31 January 1918) was a Ukrainian physicist and inventor known for his early research into X-rays. His contributions were largely neglected until the end of the 20th century. + + +== Biography == +Puluj was born on 2 February 1845 in Hrymailiv, which was then part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria in the Austrian Empire. He was the son of Pavlo Puluj and Xenia née Burshtynska (Ukrainian: син Павла́ Пулю́я i Ксенiї ур. Бурштинської). The family's original surname was Pulguy until 1861. His father, Pavlo, was a landowner who served as burgomaster of Hrymayliv from 1861 to 1865. Ivan grew up in Hrymayliv, and attended primary school in the village. He then attended the gymnasium at Ternopil, where he became a co-founder and active member of the Ukrainian student society Hromada. +He graduated with honors from Theological Faculty of the University of Vienna (1869), later also from the Department of Philosophy (1872). During his time there, he was the co-founder and later head of the Sich movement. After graduating, he worked as an assistant to the University of Vienna's experimental physics department. In 1876 Pului finished his doctorate on internal friction in gases at the University of Strasbourg under supervision of August Kundt. He studied in Strasbourg as a stipend recipient from the Austrian Ministry of Education. Puluj taught at the Imperial and Royal Naval Academy in Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia) (1874–1876), the University of Vienna (1874–1884) and the Imperial-Royal German Technical University in Prague (1884–1916). He served as the rector of the Imperial-Royal German Technical University (German: Kaiserlich-Königlich Deutsche Technische Hochschule) in 1888–1889. Puluj also worked as a state adviser on electrical engineering for Bohemian and Moravian local governments. +In addition, he completed a translation of the Bible into the Ukrainian language. + + +== Personal life == +4 October 1884, he married Kateřina née Stožicky (1863–1945) in Vienna. They had six children: Natalia (wife of the composer Vasyl Barvinsky), Olga, Maria Xenia Margareta (died in Vienna in 1974), Alexander Hans (1901–1984), Pavlo (died in 1986) and Georg (1906–1987). + + +== Scientific contribution == + +Puluj did heavy research into cathode rays, publishing several papers about those rays between 1880 and 1882. In 1881 as a result of experiments into what he called cold light Prof. Puluj developed the Puluj lamp. Puluj experimented with his new device and published his results in a scientific paper, Luminous Electrical Matter and the Fourth State of Matter in the Notes of the Austrian Imperial Academy of Sciences (1880–1883), but expressed his ideas in an obscure manner using obsolete terminology. Puluj did gain some recognition when the work was translated and published as a book by the Royal Society in the UK. +Puluj's findings were essentially X-rays, which he reported 6 weeks after Röntgen reported his. +Puluj made many other discoveries as well. He is particularly noted for inventing a device for determining the mechanical equivalent of heat that was exhibited at the Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1878. Puluj also participated in opening of several power plants in Austria-Hungary. + + +=== Quotes about Puluj === +"World history has never been just to certain individuals or certain nations. Small nations and their achievements are often neglected, while the accomplishments of large nations are at times exaggerated." +Slavko Bokshan, a Serbian scientist who worked in the same department as Puluj and Röntgen + + +=== Honours === +Ukraine's Ternopil Ivan Pul'uj National Technical University is named after him. +A stamp published on the occasion of Puluj's 150th Birth Anniversary in 1995. +Streets in Kyiv, Lviv and other Ukrainian cities have the name of Ivan Puluj. +On 14 May 2021, asteroid 226858 Ivanpuluj, discovered by astronomers at the Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory in 2004, was named by the Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature in his memory. + + +=== Pulyui's publications and first images (1895) === +Strahlende Elektrodenmaterie //Wiener Berichte I. – 1880. – 81. – pp. 864–923; II. – 1881. – 83. – pp. 402–420; III. 1881. – 83. – pp. 693–708; IV. – 1882. – 85. – pp. 871–881. +Strahlende Elektrodenmaterie und der sogenannte vierte Aggregatzustand' – Wien; Verlag Carl Gerold Sohn, 1883. +Radiant Elektrode Matter and the so Called Fourth State. -London: Physical Memoirs, 1889. – Vol. l, Pt.2. – pp. 233–331. +Über die Entstehung der Röntgenstrahlen und ihre photographische Wirkung// Wiener Berichte II Abt. 1896. – 105. – pp. 228–238. + + +=== Select works === +Puluj, H. J. (1875). On a lecture-room apparatus for the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. Taylor and Francis. +Puluj, J., Pulyui, I., Пулюй, И. П., & Пулюй, І. П. (1876). Über die Abhängigkeit der Reibung der Gase von der Temperatur. (About the dependence of the friction of the gases on the temperature). +Puluj, J. (1876). Ueber einen Schulapparat zur Bestimmung des mechanischen Wärmeaequivalentes. Annalen der Physik. 233(3): 437–446. (Over a school apparatus for determining the mechanical Wärmeaequivalentes). +Puluj, J. (1876). Beitrag zur Bestimmung des mechanischen Wärmeaequivalentes. Annalen der Physik. 233(4): 649–656. (Contribution to the determination of the mechanical Wärmeaequivalentes). +Puluj, J. (1877). Ueber die Abhängigkeit der Reibung der Gase von der Temperatur. Annalen der Physik. 237(6): 296–310. +Puluj, J. (1877). On the diffusion of vapours through clay cells. Taylor and Francis. +Puluj, J. (1878). On the friction of vapours. Taylor and Francis. +Puluj, J. (1879). On the radiometer. Taylor and Francis. +Crookes, W., & Puluj, J. (1880). Annalen der Physik. Phil. Trans. 1: 152–3879. (Annals of Physics). +Puluj, J., & Glaser, G. (1880). The Fourth State of Matter. A Refutation. Science. 58–59. +Puluj, J. (1880). Strahlende Elektrodenmaterie. ©Akademie d. Wissenschaften Wien, 864–923. http://www.zobodat.at/pdf/SBAWW_81_2_0864-0923.pdf +Puluj, J. (1883). Strahlende Elektroden-Materie und der sogenannte vierte Aggregatzustand. (Radiant electrode material and the so-called fourth state). +Puluj, J. (1887). Objective Darstellung der wahren Gestalt einer schwingenden Saite. Annalen der Physik: 267(8): 1033–1035. (Objective presentation of the true form of a vibrating string). +Puluj, J. (1888). Apparatus for illustrating the fall of bodies in a vacuum. Taylor and Francis. +Puluj, J. (1888). Fallapparat. Annalen der Physik. 269(3): 575–576. +Puluj, J. (1890). On a telethermometer. Taylor and Francis. +Puluj, H. (1895). On Kathode Rays. Proceedings of the Physical Society of London. 14(1): 178. + + +== Support of Ukrainian culture == +Puluj is also known for his contribution in promoting Ukrainian culture. He actively supported opening of a Ukrainian university in Lviv and published articles to support Ukrainian language. Together with P. Kulish and I. Nechuy-Levytsky he translated Gospels and Psalter into Ukrainian. Being a professor, Puluj organized scholarships for Ukrainian students in Austria-Hungary. +The World Association of Roentgenologists was created in 2018 in Lviv city in honor of Ivan Puluj (citation needed). + + +== References == + + +== Literature == +R. Gajda, R. Plazko: Johann Puluj: Rätsel des universalen Talents. EuroWelt-Verlag, Lwiw 2001, ISBN 966-7343-04-9 +S. Nahorniak, M. Medyukh: Physical-technical ideas of Ivan Pul'uj. Dschura, Ternopil 1999, ISBN 966-7497-34-8 +Юрiй Головач, Роман Пляцко, Галина Сварник (2020). Петер Пулюй i архiв Iвана Пулюя (PDF) (in Ukrainian). Львів: Нацiональна академiя наук України.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) + + +== External links == + +Ternopil Ivan Puluj National Technical University +The Discovery or X-Rays +Puluj-Roehrer lamp +The Cathode Ray Tube site \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..651540dc7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Jacob's staff" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:13.264277+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Jacob's staff is a measuring tool with several variations. It is also known as cross-staff, a ballastella, a fore-staff, a ballestilla, or a balestilha. In its most basic form, a Jacob's staff is a stick or pole with length markings, often with a smaller segment attached perpendicularly. The simplest use of a Jacob's staff is to make qualitative judgements of the height and angle of an object relative to the user of the staff. +Most staffs are much more complicated than that, and usually contain a number of measurement and stabilization features. The two most frequent uses are: + +in astronomy and navigation for a simple device to measure angles, later replaced by the more precise sextants; +in surveying (and scientific fields that use surveying techniques, such as geology and ecology) for a vertical rod that penetrates or sits on the ground and supports a compass or other instrument. + +== Etymology == +The origin of the name of the instrument is not certain. Some refer to the Biblical patriarch Jacob, specifically in the Book of Genesis (Gen 32:11). It may also take its name after its resemblance to Orion, referred to by the name of Jacob on some medieval star charts. Another possible source is the Pilgrim's staff, the symbol of St James (Jacobus in Latin). The name cross staff simply comes from its cruciform shape. + +== In astronomy and navigation == +In navigation the instrument is also called a cross-staff and was used to determine angles, for instance the angle between the horizon and Polaris or the sun to determine a vessel's latitude, or the angle between the top and bottom of an object to determine the distance to said object if its height is known, or the height of the object if its distance is known, or the horizontal angle between two visible locations to determine one's point on a map. +The Jacob's staff, when used for astronomical observations, was also referred to as a radius astronomicus. With the demise of the cross-staff, in the modern era the name "Jacob's staff" is applied primarily to the device used to provide support for surveyor's instruments. + +=== History === +The original Jacob's staff was developed as a single pole device, in the 14th century, that was used in making astronomical measurements. It was first described by the French-Jewish mathematician Levi ben Gerson of Provence, in his "Book of the Wars of the Lord" (translated in Latin as well as Hebrew). He used a Hebrew name for the staff that translates to "Revealer of Profundities", while the term "Jacob's staff" was used by his Christian contemporaries. Its invention was likely due to fellow French-Jewish astronomer Jacob ben Makir, who also lived in Provence in the same period. Attribution to 15th century Austrian astronomer Georg Purbach is less likely, because Purbach was not born until 1423. (Such attributions may refer to a different instrument with the same name.) Its origins may be traced to the Chaldeans around 400 BCE. +Although it has become quite accepted that ben Gerson first described Jacob's staff, the British Sinologist Joseph Needham theorizes that the Song dynasty Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095), in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, described a Jacob's staff. Shen was an antiquarian interested in ancient objects; after he unearthed an ancient crossbow-like device from a home's garden in Jiangsu, he realized it had a sight with a graduated scale that could be used to measure the heights of distant mountains, likening it to how mathematicians measure heights by using right-angle triangles. He wrote that when one viewed the whole breadth of a mountain with it, the distance on the instrument was long; when viewing a small part of the mountainside, the distance was short; this, he wrote, was due to the cross piece that had to be pushed further away from the eye, while the graduation started from the further end. Needham does not mention any practical application of this observation. +During the medieval European Renaissance, the Dutch mathematician and surveyor Adriaan Metius developed his own Jacob's staff; Dutch mathematician Gemma Frisius made improvements to this instrument. In the 15th century, the German mathematician Johannes Müller (called Regiomontanus) made the instrument popular in geodesic and astronomical measurements. + +=== Construction === + +In the original form of the cross-staff, the pole or main staff was marked with graduations for length. The cross-piece (BC in the drawing to the right), also called the transom or transversal, slides up and down on the main staff. On older instruments, the ends of the transom were cut straight across. Newer instruments had brass fittings on the ends, with holes in the brass for observation. (In marine archaeology, these fittings are often the only components of a cross-staff that survive.) +It was common to provide several transoms, each with a different range of angles it would measure; three transoms were common. In later instruments, separate transoms were switched in favour of just one with pegs to indicate the ends. These pegs were mounted in one of several pairs of holes symmetrically located on either side of the transom. This provided the same capability with fewer parts. The transom on Frisius' version had a sliding vane on the transom as an end point. + +=== Usage === +The user places one end of the main staff against their cheek, just below the eye. By sighting the horizon at the end of the lower part of the transom (or through the hole in the brass fitting) [B], then adjusting the cross arm on the main arm until the sun is at the other end of the transom [C], the altitude can be determined by reading the position of the cross arm on the scale on the main staff. This value was converted to an angular measurement by looking up the value in a table. + +=== Cross-staff for navigation === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f5decaf0b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Jacob's staff" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob's_staff" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:13.264277+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The original version was not reported to be used at sea, until the Age of Discoveries. Its use was reported by João de Lisboa in his Treatise on the Nautical Needle of 1514. Johannes Werner suggested the cross-staff be used at sea in 1514 and improved instruments were introduced for use in navigation. John Dee introduced it to England in the 1550s. In the improved versions, the rod was graduated directly in degrees. This variant of the instrument is not correctly termed a Jacob's staff but is a cross-staff. +The cross-staff was difficult to use. In order to get consistent results, the observer had to position the end of the pole precisely against his cheek. He had to observe the horizon and a star in two different directions while not moving the instrument when he shifted his gaze from one to the other. In addition, observations of the sun required the navigator to look directly at the sun. This could be a uncomfortable exercise and made it difficult to obtain an accurate altitude for the sun. Mariners took to mounting smoked-glass to the ends of the transoms to reduce the glare of the sun. + +As a navigational tool, this instrument was eventually replaced, first by the backstaff or quadrant, neither of which required the user to stare directly into the sun, and later by the octant and the sextant. Perhaps influenced by the backstaff, some navigators modified the cross-staff to operate more like the former. Vanes were added to the ends of the longest cross-piece and another to the end of the main staff. The instrument was reversed so that the shadow of the upper vane on the cross piece fell on the vane at the end of the staff. The navigator held the instrument so that he would view the horizon lined up with the lower vane and the vane at the end of the staff. By aligning the horizon with the shadow of the sun on the vane at the end of the staff, the elevation of the sun could be determined. This actually increased the accuracy of the instrument, as the navigator no longer had to position the end of the staff precisely on his cheek. +Another variant of the cross-staff was a spiegelboog, invented in 1660 by the Dutchman, Joost van Breen. +Ultimately, the cross-staff could not compete with the backstaff in many countries. In terms of handling, the backstaff was found to be easier to use. However, it has been proven by several authors that in terms of accuracy, the cross-staff was superior to the backstaff. Backstaves were no longer allowed on board Dutch East India Company vessels as per 1731, with octants not permitted until 1748. + +== In surveying == +In surveying, the term jacob staff refers to a monopod, a single straight rod or staff made of nonferrous material, pointed and metal-clad at the bottom for penetrating the ground. It also has a screw base and occasionally a ball joint on the mount, and is used for supporting a compass, transit, or other instrument. +The term cross-staff may also have a different meaning in the history of surveying. While the astronomical cross-staff was used in surveying for measuring angles, two other devices referred to as a cross-staff were also employed. + +Cross-head, cross-sight, surveyor's cross or cross - a drum or box shaped device mounted on a pole. It had two sets of mutually perpendicular sights. This device was used by surveyors to measure offsets. Sophisticated versions had a compass and spirit levels on the top. The French versions were frequently eight-sided rather than round. +Optical square - an improved version of the cross-head, the optical square used two silvered mirrors at 45° to each other. This permitted the surveyor to see along both axes of the instrument at once. +In the past, many surveyor's instruments were used on a Jacob's staff. These include: + +Cross-head, cross-sight, surveyor's cross or cross +Graphometer +Circumferentor +Holland circle +Miner's dial +Optical square +Surveyor's sextant +Surveyor's target +Abney level +Some devices, such as the modern optical targets for laser-based surveying, are still in common use on a Jacob's staff, called nowadays a surveying pole. + +=== In geology === +In geology, the Jacob's staff is mainly used to measure stratigraphic thicknesses in the field, especially when bedding is not visible or unclear (e.g., covered outcrop) and when due to the configuration of an outcrop, the apparent and real thicknesses of beds diverge therefore making the use of a tape measure difficult. There is a certain level of error to be expected when using this tool, due to the lack of an exact reference mean for measuring stratigraphic thickness. High-precision designs include a laser able to slide vertically along the staff and to rotate on a plane parallel to bedding. + +== See also == +Backstaff +Cross of St James +Pilgrim's staff +Tacheometry +As a symbol in Scouting: 5th World Scout Jamboree + +== References == + +== Further reading == + +Levi ben Gerson and the Cross Staff Revisited, Bernard R Goldstein Archived 2020-01-10 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Michael_Ekling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Michael_Ekling-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5dd23a46c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Michael_Ekling-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Johann Michael Ekling" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Michael_Ekling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:51.261055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Johann Michael Ekling (also spelt Eckling) (8 August 1795, Vienna – 30 March 1876, Vienna) was an Austrian mechanic and inventor of scientific apparatuses and instruments. + + +== Life == +Johann Michael Ekling was the posthumous son of the army surgeon Joseph Ekling. His mother was Anna Maria Euphrosina Ekling née Spitzbarth. He was born in the suburb of Wieden (then a part of Vienna). At the age of 32 he married Theresia Schwarz, with whom he had five sons and a daughter. In the years to follow, he cooperated closely with mathematics and physics professors Andreas von Baumgartner (German Wikipedia) and Andreas von Ettingshausen of the University of Vienna. He produced artificial magnets on behalf of Baumgartner and one of the first photographic apparatuses in Austria (1839) following instructions by Ettingshausen, who had worked with Daguerre. By 1844 he is referred to as a "university mechanic". An announcement in a paper describes his range of products as follows: "[Ekling] makes all sorts of mathematical and physical instruments and apparatuses, air pumps with glass barrel chambers, travel barometers, goniometers, chemical and mineralogical apparatuses". His multiplicator was used for the analysis of mineral waters among other things and praised for its sensitivity. Ekling was granted patents for induction machines, cameras and improvements to the Bain telegraph, which were taken over by the Austrian railway. Ekling's last invention was a "Galvanic Induction Machine for Medical Purposes". + +His reputation as a mechanic is documented in the Austrian Law Gazette for 1850: "The most recommendable mechanic in Vienna, and as regards more sophisticated optical equipment, the only one to be recommended, is Eckling." Among these instruments, we find the heliostat in the picture alongside. Young mechanics from Germany like Rudolph Carl Adolph Dolberg (1817–1863) and Adolph Hermann Friedrich Petri (1819–1895) were apprenticed to Ekling. Johann Leopolder, who later ran his own large Telegraph and Telephone Company was also one of his apprentices and later his foreman, until he started his own establishment in 1850. +In 1860 Ekling sold his premises at 25 Erdbergstraße to his neighbour Rudolf Ditmar who owned a rapidly expanding kerosine lamp factory. He died a gentleman of independent means in the suburb of Landstraße in Vienna in 1876. + + +== Literature == +Franz Pichler, Die Einführung der Morse-Telegraphie in Deutschland und Österreich. e&i elektrotechnik und informationstechnik, issue 9, 2006, p. 402–408 +Franz Pichler, Elektrisches Schreiben in die Ferne: die Telegraphie in Österreich: technische Entwicklung, 1846–1906., Linz 2007 +Baron Charles von Reichenbach, Physico-physiological Researches on the Dynamics of Magnetism, Electricity, Heat, Light, Chrystallization and Chemism, London 1850 + + +== External links == +Instruments and apparatuses made by Ekling are in various physics collections in Austria (Innsbruck, Kremsmünster Observatory For a list of acquisitions see: Linz and + +Vienna, Czech Republic (Prague), Germany (Augsburg and Munich), Italy (Venice) and the USA (Kenyon College, OH). +Telegraph by Ekling (1855) +[1] Collection of historical instruments of the University of Innsbruck with numerous items by Ekling (Part 1) +[2] (Part 2) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01975598e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Johannes Hevelius" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:56.877752+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Johannes Hevelius (in German also known as Hevel; Polish: Jan Heweliusz; (1611-01-28)28 January 1611 – 28 January 1687) was a councillor and chairman of the city council of the Old Town, Gdańsk (in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). As an astronomer, he gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers. + +== Etymology == +According to the Polish Academy of Sciences (1975) the origin of the name goes back to the surname Hawke, a historical alternative spelling for the English word hawk, which changed into Hawelke or Hawelecke. +In Poland he is known as Jan Heweliusz. Other versions of the name include Hewel, Hevel, Hevelke or Hoefel, Höwelcke, Höfelcke. +According to Feliks Bentkowski (1814), during his early years he also signed as Hoefelius. Along with the Latinized version of his name, Ludwig Günther-Fürstenwalde (1903) also reports Hevelius's signature as Johannes Höffelius Dantiscanus in 1631 and Hans Höwelcke in 1639. + +== Early life == +Hevelius's father was Abraham Hewelke (1576–1649), his mother Kordula Hecker (1576–1655). They were German-speaking Lutherans, wealthy brewing merchants of Bohemian origin. As a young boy, Hevelius was sent to Gądecz (Gondecz) where he studied the Polish language. +Hevelius brewed the famous Jopen beer, which also gave its name to the "Jopengasse"/"Jopejska" Street, after 1945 renamed as Piwna Street (Beer Street), where St. Mary's Church is located. + +After gymnasium (secondary school), where he was taught by Peter Crüger, Hevelius in 1630 studied jurisprudence at Leiden, then travelled in England and France, meeting Pierre Gassendi, Marin Mersenne and Athanasius Kircher. In 1634 he settled in his native town, and on 21 March 1635 married Katharine Rebeschke, a neighbour two years younger who owned two adjacent houses. The following year, Hevelius became a member of the beer-brewing guild, which he led from 1643 onwards. + +== Astronomy == +Throughout his life, Hevelius took a leading part in municipal administration, becoming town councillor in 1651; but from 1639 on, his chief interest was astronomy. In 1641 he built an observatory on the roofs of his three connected houses, equipping it with splendid instruments, ultimately including a large Keplerian telescope of 46 m (150 ft) focal length, with a wood and wire tube he constructed himself. This may have been the longest "tubed" telescope before the advent of the tubeless aerial telescope. + +The observatory was known by the name Sternenburg (Latin: Stellaeburgum; Polish: Gwiezdny Zamek) or "Star Castle". +Polish Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga visited this private observatory on 29 January 1660. +As a subject of the Polish kings, Hevelius enjoyed the patronage of four consecutive kings of Poland, and his family was raised to the position of nobility by the King of Poland John II Casimir in 1660, who previously visited his observatory in 1659. While the noble status was not ratified by the Polish Sejm Hevelius's coat of arms includes the distinctive Polish royal crown. +The Polish King John III Sobieski who regularly visited Hevelius numerous times in years 1677–1683 released him from paying taxes connected to brewing and allowed his beer to be sold freely outside the city limits. In May 1679 the young Englishman Edmond Halley visited him as emissary of the Royal Society, whose fellow Hevelius had been since 1664. The Royal Society considers him one of the first German fellows. Małgorzata Czerniakowska (2005) writes that "Jan Heweliusz was the first Pole to be inducted into the Royal Society in London. This important event took place on 19th March 1664". Hevelius considered himself as being citizen of the Polish world (civis Orbis Poloniae) and stated in a letter dated from 9 January 1681 that he was Civis orbis Poloni, qui in honorem patriae suae rei Literariae bono tot labores molestiasque, absit gloria, cum maximo facultatum suarum dispendio perduravit, i.e. "citizen of Polish world who, for glory of his country and for the good of science, worked so much, and while not boasting much, executed his work with most effort per his abilities". + +Halley had been instructed by Robert Hooke and John Flamsteed to persuade Hevelius to use telescopes for his measurements, yet Hevelius demonstrated that he could do well with only quadrant and alidade. He is thus considered the last astronomer to do major work without the use of a telescope. +Hevelius made observations of sunspots, 1642–1645, devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered the Moon's libration in longitude, and published his results in Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio (1647), a work which entitles him to be called "the founder of lunar topography". +He discovered four comets, in 1652, 1661 (probably Ikeya-Zhang), 1672 and 1677. These discoveries led to his thesis that such bodies revolve around the Sun in parabolic paths. +A complex halo phenomenon was observed by many in the city on 20 February 1661, and was described by Hevelius in his Mercurius in Sole visus Gedani the following year. +Katharine, his first wife, died in 1662, and a year later Hevelius married Elisabeth Koopmann, the young daughter of a merchant family. The couple had four children. Elisabeth supported him, published two of his works after his death, and is considered the first female astronomer. + +His observatory, instruments and books were destroyed by fire on 26 September 1679. The catastrophe is described in the preface to his Annus climactericus (1685). He promptly repaired the damage enough to enable him to observe the great comet of December 1680. He named the constellation Sextans in memory of this lost instrument. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f53ce405b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Johannes Hevelius" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:56.877752+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In late 1683, in commemoration of the victory of Christian forces led by Polish King John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna, he invented and named the constellation Scutum Sobiescianum (Sobieski's Shield), now called Scutum. This constellation first occurred publicly in his star atlas Firmamentum Sobiescianum, which was printed in his own house at lavish expense, and he himself engraved many of the printing plates. +His health had suffered from the shock of the 1679 fire and he died on his 76th birthday, 28 January 1687. Hevelius was buried in St. Catherine's Church in his hometown. +Descendants of Hevelius live in Urzędów in Poland where they support local astronomy enthusiasts. + +== Works == + +Selenographia (1647) + De nativa Saturni facie ejusque varis Phasibus (1656) +Historiola Mirae (1662), in which he named the periodic variable star Omicron Ceti "Mira", or "the Wonderful" +Mercurius in Sole visus Gedani (1662), principally on the transit of Mercury, but containing chapters on many other observations +Prodromus cometicus (1665) +Cometographia (1668) +Machina coelestis (first part, 1673), containing a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the conflagration of 1679. Hevelius's description of his "naked eye" observation method in the first part of this work led to a dispute with Robert Hooke who claimed observations without telescopic sights were of little value. +Annus climactericus, sive rerum uranicarum observationum annus quadragesimus nonus at Google Books (1685), describes the fire of 1679, and includes observations made by Hevelius on the variable star Mira +Prodromus Astronomiae (c. 1690) an unfinished work posthumously published by Johannes wife Catherina Elisabetha Koopman Hevelius in three books including: +Prodromus, preface and unpublished observations +Catalogus Stellarum Fixarum (dated 1687), catalog of 1564 stars +Firmamentum Sobiescianum sive Uranographia (dated 1687), an atlas of constellations, 56 sheets, corresponding to his catalog, contains seven new constellations delineated by him which are still in use (plus some now considered obsolete): +Canes Venatici, Lacerta, Leo Minor, Lynx, Scutum, Sextans, and Vulpecula. +Obsolete: Cerberus, Mons Maenalus, and Triangulum Minus. + +== See also == +Polish Navy Ship ORP Heweliusz +Polish ferry MS Jan Heweliusz, which sank in 1993 +Hevelius (crater), Moon crater +5703 Hevelius, asteroid +List of largest optical telescopes historically +List of Poles +1H. Cassiopeiae, a star designation used with some frequency, from his star map +Heweliusz, a Polish optical astronomy satellite launched in 2014 as part of the Bright-star Target Explorer (BRITE) programme + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Galileo Project on Hevelius +Project to publish the correspondence of Hevelius at the International Academy of the History of Science +Electronic facsimile-editions of the rare book collection at the Vienna Institute of Astronomy +(in Polish) Jan Heweliusz - Gdańszczanin Tysiąclecia Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine +Prodromus astronomiae - in digital facsimile: +Digital Collection of the National Library of Poland : Prodromus Astronomiæ +Prodromus astronomiae, 1690, scanned book, at Linda Hall Library. +Johann Hevelius - Forgotten Pioneer of the Pendulum Clock +Uranographia, Danzica 1690 da www.atlascoelestis.com +Hevelius's new constellations +Johannes Hevelius letter to Johann Philipp von Wurtzelbau, MSS 494 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University +Johannes Hevelius's correspondence on the Paris Observatory digital library +Works by Johannes Hevelius in digital library Polona +Tautschnig, Irina (2022). "Constructing Authority in the Paratext: The Poems to Johannes Hevelius' Selenographia". Perspectives on Science. 30 (6): 1005–1041. doi:10.1162/posc_a_00569. S2CID 250537021. Project MUSE 872578. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lala_Bulhomal_Lahori-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lala_Bulhomal_Lahori-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c82fe2f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lala_Bulhomal_Lahori-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Lala Bulhomal Lahori" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lala_Bulhomal_Lahori" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:01.561097+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lāla Bulhomal (also Balhumal) Lāhorī was an Indian metallurgist and instrument maker from the city of Lahore in modern Pakistan. He was famous for crafting ornate astrolabes and celestial globes made in the tradition of Indo-Persian instruments. The toponymic surname Lāhorī indicates that he came from Lahore, while the prefix Lāla is an honorific indicating social status. His instruments, likely made between 1839 and 1851, were constructed mainly of brass, with inscriptions in Sanskrit, Devanagari, Arabic, and Persian. He is known to have produced at least twenty-eight such instruments. Forty-five instruments produced by Bulhomal and his associates are known to exist in museums and collections around the world; an 1849 astrolabe crafted for Sir Henry Miers Elliot, an officer of the East India Company, is now in the Science Museum, London. Bulhomal's patron was Nihal Singh Ahluwalia, the Raja of Kapurthala (1837–1852), and his apprentices included Ghulām Qādir Kapūrthalī and Ustād Pīr Bakhsh Lāhorī. He may also have been associated with contemporary instrument maker Joshi Dharam Chand. Bulhomal's celestial globes were made both for decorative and instructive uses. The stars and constellations on these globes are labeled based on Arabic and Persian versions from Ptolemaic traditions. These seamless and hollow globes were constructed in the Lahore tradition by casting using the lost wax technique. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_electrostatic_generator_(Teylers)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_electrostatic_generator_(Teylers)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7763d9df9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_electrostatic_generator_(Teylers)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Large electrostatic generator (Teylers)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_electrostatic_generator_(Teylers)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:14.441217+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The large electrostatic generator (Dutch: Van Marum electriseermachine) is a large handcrafted electromechanical instrument designed by Martin van Marum and built by John Cuthbertson in 1784 for the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, where it forms the centerpiece of the instrument room. The concept of an electrostatic generator was new, and the battery (array) of leiden jars was the largest ever built (only one of the 4 sets of leiden jars is on display to conserve space). The two glass disks of the triboelectric generator (friction generator) are 1.65 meters in diameter, and the machine is capable of generating a potential of 330,000 volts. + + +== History == + +The device is a larger version of a similar model built in Groningen by Gerhard Kuyper in 1774 for physics student Martin van Marum, who used it to make a name for himself in the study of electricity with his lectures and demonstrations. +It was Van Marum's dream to create a larger version, and he applied to the Teylers Stichting in 1783 for funding to create such a large instrument in the hope that it would add a valuable contribution to the science of electricity. On April 11 of that year his request was granted, and on May 7 Cuthbertson was employed who finished the device a year later and it was proudly installed on Christmas Eve. The machine performed above expectations and was only modified a few times to prevent leaks of the static charge. The study of electricity leakage led to many insights in the study of electricity. The machine was last modified in 1791. For the friction, cushions were used as an improvement over the mercury bath used in the earlier model. For a complete description of the electrostatic generator, an explanation was produced in 1868 by the Parisian author Adolphe Ganot (1804–1887). +Van Marum himself became curator of the physics cabinet at Teylers in the same year the instrument was ordered to be made. He used it again and again in laboratory lectures to the public and continued to make excursions with his smaller model, which he finally sold to the museum for 120 guilders in 1790. + + +== References == + +"Tot de vonken eraf vliegen : statische elektriciteit in beweging van Teyler toen tot TNO nu", G.A. van de Schootbrugge, TNO, 1985, ISBN 9789067430692 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_William-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_William-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f2842275e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_William-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Les William" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_William" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:17.760881+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +J. L. (Les) William (18 January 1915 – 4 June 1994) was an Australian builder of scientific instruments. Born in Melbourne, Australia he was known for his beautiful and precision craftsmanship and was known as one of the best scientific instrument makers in Australia. His equipment can be found in Australian laboratories that existed from the 1930s through to the 1980s. He founded a company situated in the Melbourne suburb of Hughesdale called J.L. William Scientific Instruments. William attended Caulfield Technical School and worked at his brother's firm during the Second World War. Soon after he set up his own instrumentation company. He never married and in his later years suffered from motor neurone disease. +Les William liked to recall Lord Kelvin's dictum that one did not truly understand a scientific quantity until one could measure it and provide an accurate numerical value. William's career was closely linked to that of his older brother Austin (1913 - 1985). During the Second World War the two brothers worked together producing electrical meters. After the war, Austin continued on in the manufacture of electrical meters while Les established his own company producing high accuracy standard resistors. He died in Melbourne on 4 June 1994. In his will, William made a substantial bequest to Monash University Department of Physics. +A portrait of J. L. (Les) William was commissioned by Monash University's School of Physics. The portrait was painted by the Adelaide artist Ms Avril Thomas. The J. L. William Bequest to the School of Physics specifically mentions "quantum measurements", and the portrait will be displayed in the Monash University's New Horizons Centre; a multi-disciplinary building which encompasses energy research, low-dimensional and nano-material physics research, atom optics, laser trapping and cooling, and Bose-Einstein condensates. + + +== J L William Scholarships == +As a result of William's bequest Monash University's School of Physics now offers students scholarships on his behalf. + + +== Awards == +In 1970, William was awarded an honorary Master of Science by Monash University. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cd90c567f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Leyden jar" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:15.662578+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A Leyden jar (or Leiden jar, or archaically, Kleistian jar) is an electrical component that stores a high-voltage electric charge (from an external source) between electrical conductors on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It typically comprises a glass jar with metal foil cemented to the inside and the outside surfaces, and a metal terminal projecting vertically through the jar lid to make contact with the inner foil. It was the original form of the capacitor (also called a condenser). +Its invention was a discovery made independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1745 and by Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden), Netherlands, in 1745–1746. +The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electrostatics. It was the first means of accumulating and preserving electric charge in large quantities that could be discharged at the experimenter's will, thus overcoming a significant limit to early research into electrical conduction. Leyden jars are still used in education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics. + +== Previous work == +The Ancient Greeks already knew that pieces of amber could attract lightweight particles after being rubbed. The amber becomes electrified by the triboelectric effect, mechanical separation of charge in a dielectric material. The Greek word for amber is ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron) and is the origin of the word "electricity". Thales of Miletus, a pre-Socratic philosopher, is thought to have accidentally commented on the phenomenon of electrostatic charging, due to his belief that even lifeless things have a soul in them, hence the popular analogy of the spark. Around 1650, Otto von Guericke built a crude electrostatic generator: a sulphur ball that rotated on a shaft. When Guericke held his hand against the ball and turned the shaft quickly, a static electric charge built up. This experiment inspired the development of several forms of "friction machines", which greatly helped in the study of electricity. +Georg Matthias Bose (22 September 1710 – 17 September 1761) was a famous electrical experimenter in the early days of the development of electrostatics. He is credited with being the first to develop a way of temporarily storing static charges by using an insulated conductor (called a prime conductor). His demonstrations and experiments raised the interests of the German scientific community and the public in the development of electrical research. + +== Discovery == + +The Leyden jar was effectively discovered independently by two parties: German dean Ewald Georg von Kleist, who made the first discovery, and Dutch scientists Pieter van Musschenbroek and Andreas Cunaeus, who figured out why it only worked when held in the hand. + +=== Von Kleist === + +Ewald Georg von Kleist was the dean at the cathedral of Cammin in Pomerania, a region now divided between Germany and Poland. Von Kleist is credited with first using the fluid analogy for electricity and demonstrated this to Bose by drawing sparks from water with his finger. He discovered the immense storage capability of the Leyden jar while attempting to demonstrate that a glass jar filled with alcohol would "capture" this fluid. +In October 1745, von Kleist tried to accumulate electricity in a small medicine bottle filled with alcohol with a nail inserted in the cork. He was following up on an experiment developed by Georg Matthias Bose where electricity had been sent through water to set alcoholic spirits alight. He attempted to charge the bottle from a large prime conductor (invented by Bose) suspended above his friction machine. +Von Kleist knew that the glass would provide an obstacle to the escape of the "fluid" and so was convinced that a substantial electric charge could be collected and held within it. He received a significant shock from the device when he accidentally touched the nail through the cork while still cradling the bottle in his other hand. He communicated his results to at least five different electrical experimenters, in several letters from November 1745 to March 1746, but did not receive any confirmation that they had repeated his results, until April 1746. Polish-Lithuanian physicist Daniel Gralath learned about von Kleist's experiment from seeing von Kleist's letter to Paul Swietlicki, written in November 1745. After Gralath's failed first attempt to reproduce the experiment in December 1745, he wrote to von Kleist for more information (and was told that the experiment would work better if the tube half-filled with alcohol was used). Gralath (in collaboration with Gottfried Reyger) succeeded in getting the intended effect on 5 March 1746, holding a small glass medicine bottle with a nail inside in one hand, moving it close to an electrostatic generator, and then moving the other hand close to the nail. Von Kleist didn't understand the significance of his conducting hand holding the bottle—and both he and his correspondents were loath to hold the device when told that the shock could throw them across the room. It took some time before von Kleist's student associates at Leyden worked out that the hand provided an essential element. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f7ba4cc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Leyden jar" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:15.662578+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Musschenbroek and Cunaeus === +The Leyden jar's invention was long credited to Pieter van Musschenbroek, the physics professor at Leiden University, who also ran a family foundry which cast brass cannonettes, and a small business (De Oosterse Lamp – "The Eastern Lamp") which made scientific and medical instruments for the new university courses in physics and for scientific gentlemen keen to establish their own 'cabinets' of curiosities and instruments. +Like von Kleist, Musschenbroek was also interested in, and attempting to repeat, Bose's experiment. During this time, Andreas Cunaeus, a lawyer, learned about this experiment from Musschenbroek, and attempted to duplicate the experiment at home with household items. Unaware of the "Rule of Dufay", that the experimental apparatus should be insulated, Cunaeus held his jar in his hand while charging it, and was thus the first to discover that such an experimental setup could deliver a severe shock. He reported his procedure and experience to Swiss-Dutch natural philosopher Jean-Nicolas-Sebastian Allamand, Musschenbroek's colleague. Allamand and Musschenbroek also received severe shocks. Musschenbroek communicated the experiment in a letter from 20 January 1746 to French entomologist René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, who was Musschenbroek's appointed correspondent at the Paris Academy. Abbé Jean-Antoine Nollet read this report, confirmed the experiment, and then read Musschenbroek's letter in a public meeting of the Paris Academy in April 1746 (translating from Latin to French). +Musschenbroek's outlet in France for the sale of his company's 'cabinet' devices was the Abbé Nollet (who started building and selling duplicate instruments in 1735). Nollet then gave the electrical storage device the name "Leyden jar" and promoted it as a special type of flask to his market of wealthy men with scientific curiosity. The "Kleistian jar" was therefore promoted as the Leyden jar, and as having been discovered by Pieter van Musschenbroek and his acquaintance Andreas Cunaeus. Musschenbroek, however, never claimed that he had invented it, and some think that Cunaeus was mentioned only to diminish credit to him. + +== Further developments == +Within months after Musschenbroek's report about how to reliably create a Leyden jar, other electrical researchers were making and experimenting with their own Leyden jars. One of his expressed original interests was to see if the total possible charge could be increased. +Johann Heinrich Winckler, whose first experience with a single Leyden jar was reported in a letter to the Royal Society on 29 May 1746, had connected three Leyden jars together in a kind of electrostatic battery on 28 July 1746. In 1746, Abbé Nollet performed two experiments for the edification of King Louis XV of France, in the first of which he discharged a Leyden jar through 180 royal guardsmen, and in the second through a larger number of Carthusian monks; all of whom sprang into the air more or less simultaneously. The opinions of neither the king nor the experimental subjects have been recorded. +Daniel Gralath reported in 1747 that in 1746 he had conducted experiments with connecting two or three jars, probably in series. +In 1746–1748, Benjamin Franklin experimented with charging Leyden jars in series, and developed a system involving 11 panes of glass with thin lead plates glued on each side, and then connected together. He used the term "electrical battery" to describe his electrostatic battery in a 1749 letter about his electrical research in 1748. It is possible that Franklin's choice of the word battery was inspired by the humorous wordplay at the conclusion of his letter, where he wrote, among other things, about a salute to electrical researchers from a battery of guns. This is the first recorded use of the term electrical battery. The multiple and rapid developments for connecting Leyden jars during the period 1746–1748 resulted in a variety of divergent accounts in secondary literature about who made the first "battery" by connecting Leyden jars, whether they were in series or parallel, and who first used the term "battery". The term was later used for combinations of multiple electrochemical cells, the modern meaning of the term "battery". +The Swedish physicist, chemist, and meteorologist Torbern Bergman translated much of Benjamin Franklin's writings on electricity into German and continued to study electrostatic properties. +Starting in late 1756, Franz Aepinus, in a complicated combination of independent work and collaboration with Johan Wilcke, developed an "air condenser", a variation on the Leyden jar, by using air rather than glass as the dielectric. This functioning apparatus, without glass, created a problem for Benjamin Franklin's explanation of the Leyden jar, which maintained that the charge was located in the glass. + +== Design == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9156f0bf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Leyden jar" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:15.662578+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A typical design consists of a glass jar with conducting tin foil coating the inner and outer surfaces. The foil coatings stop short of the mouth of the jar, to prevent the charge from arcing between the foils. A metal rod electrode projects through the nonconductive stopper at the mouth of the jar, electrically connected by some means (usually a hanging chain) to the inner foil, to allow it to be charged. The jar is charged by an electrostatic generator, or other source of electric charge, connected to the inner electrode while the outer foil is grounded. The inner and outer surfaces of the jar store equal but opposite charges. +The original form of the device is just a glass bottle partially filled with water, with a metal wire passing through a cork closing it. The role of the outer plate is provided by the hand of the experimenter. Soon John Bevis found (in 1747) that it was possible to coat the exterior of the jar with metal foil, and he also found that he could achieve the same effect by using a plate of glass with metal foil on both sides. These developments inspired William Watson in the same year to have a jar made with a metal foil lining both inside and outside, dropping the use of water. +Early experimenters (such as Benjamin Wilson in 1746) reported that the thinner the dielectric and the greater the surface, the greater the charge that could be accumulated. +Further developments in electrostatics revealed that the dielectric material was not essential, but increased the storage capability (capacitance) and prevented arcing between the plates. Two plates separated by a small distance also act as a capacitor, even in a vacuum. + +== Storage of the charge == + +It was initially believed that the charge was stored in the water in early Leyden jars. In the 1700s American statesman and scientist Benjamin Franklin performed extensive investigations of both water-filled and foil Leyden jars, which led him to conclude that the charge was stored in the glass, not in the water. A popular experiment, due to Franklin, which seems to demonstrate this involves taking a jar apart after it has been charged and showing that little charge can be found on the metal plates, and therefore it must be in the dielectric. The first documented instance of this demonstration is in a 1749 letter by Franklin. Franklin designed a "dissectible" Leyden jar (right), which was widely used in demonstrations. The jar is constructed out of a glass cup nested between two fairly snugly fitting metal cups. When the jar is charged with a high voltage and carefully dismantled, it is discovered that all the parts may be freely handled without discharging the jar. If the pieces are re-assembled, a large spark may still be obtained from it. +This demonstration appears to suggest that capacitors store their charge inside their dielectric. This theory was taught throughout the 1800s. However, this phenomenon is a special effect caused by the high voltage on the Leyden jar. In the dissectible Leyden jar, charge is transferred to the surface of the glass cup by corona discharge when the jar is disassembled; this is the source of the residual charge after the jar is reassembled. Handling the cup while disassembled does not provide enough contact to remove all the surface charge. Soda glass is hygroscopic and forms a partially conductive coating on its surface, which holds the charge. Addenbrooke (1922) found that in a dissectible jar made of paraffin wax, or glass baked to remove moisture, the charge remained on the metal plates. Zeleny (1944) confirmed these results and observed the corona charge transfer. +If a charged Leyden jar is discharged by shorting the inner and outer coatings and left to sit for a few minutes, the jar will recover some of its previous charge, and a second spark can be obtained from it. Often this can be repeated, and a series of 4 or 5 sparks, decreasing in length, can be obtained at intervals. This effect is caused by dielectric absorption. + +== Capacity == +The Leyden jar is a high-voltage device; it is estimated that at a maximum the early Leyden jars could be charged to 20,000 to 60,000 volts. The center rod electrode has a metal ball on the end to prevent leakage of the charge into the air by corona discharge. It was first used in electrostatics experiments, and later in high-voltage equipment such as spark-gap radio transmitters and electrotherapy machines. +Originally, the amount of capacitance was measured in number of 'jars' of a given size, or through the total coated area, assuming reasonably standard thickness and composition of the glass. A typical Leyden jar of one pint size has a capacitance of about 1 nF. + +== Uses == +Beginning in the late 18th century it was used in the medical field of electrotherapy to treat a variety of diseases by electric shock. By the middle of the 19th century, the Leyden jar had become common enough for writers to assume their readers knew of and understood its basic operation. Around the turn of the century it began to be widely used in spark-gap transmitters and medical electrotherapy equipment. +The development of the new technology of radio in the early 20th century encouraged the reduction in the size of Leyden jars as well as the reduction of undesired inductance and resistance. These improvements along with improved dielectrics caused the Leyden jar to evolve into the modern compact form of capacitor. + +== See also == + +Franklin bells +Van de Graaff generator +LeydenJar Technologies + +== References == + +== External links == + +Leyden Jar – Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory +Schechner, Sara J.“The Art of Making Leyden Jars and Batteries according to Benjamin Franklin.” Archived 2020-10-20 at the Wayback Machine eRittenhouse 26 (2015). +Michelle Maranowski (19 February 2015). "Where There Is Charge, There Can Be Sparks!". Science Buddies. Archived from the original on 19 June 2017. Retrieved 8 September 2016. Science fair project idea. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md index a4142c534..d0fedd3d0 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:30.296501+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:28.781458+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md index 0464066bf..2d0ca6ebb 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:30:37.128449+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:07.567295+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lunar_eclipses_in_the_21st_century-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lunar_eclipses_in_the_21st_century-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ada78e73a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lunar_eclipses_in_the_21st_century-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "List of lunar eclipses in the 21st century" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lunar_eclipses_in_the_21st_century" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:26.098144+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +During the 21st century, there will be 228 lunar eclipses of which 86 will be penumbral, 57 will be partial and 85 will be total. Of the total eclipses, 24 will be central, in the sense that the Moon will pass through the very center (axis) of the Earth's shadow (for more information see gamma). In the 21st century, the greatest number of eclipses in one year is four, in 2009, 2020, 2038, 2056, 2085, and 2096. The predictions given here are by Fred Espenak of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. +The longest measured duration in which the Earth completely covered the Moon, known as totality, was during the lunar eclipse of July 27, 2018. This total lunar eclipse had a maximum duration of 1 hour, 42 minutes, and 57 seconds. The longest possible duration of a total lunar eclipse is 1 hour and 47 minutes.[a] + +The table contains the date and time of the greatest eclipse (in dynamical time, which in this case is the time when the axis of the Earth's shadow passes over the Moon; this is in (Ephemeris Time). The number of the saros series that the eclipse belongs to is given, followed by the type of the eclipse (either total, partial or penumbral), the gamma of the eclipse (how centrally the Moon passed through the Earth's shadow), and both the penumbral and umbral magnitude of the eclipse (the fraction of the Moon's diameter obscured by the Earth). For each eclipse, the duration of the eclipse is given, as well as the eclipse's contacts (the points at which the Moon reaches and exits the Earth's penumbra and umbra). +Eclipses are listed in sets by lunar years, repeating every 12 months for each node. Ascending node eclipses are given a red background highlight, and descending node eclipses are given a blue background highlight. + + +== Eclipses == + + +== See also == + + +== References == +This list was compiled with data calculated by Fred Espenak of NASA's GSFC. + + +== Bibliography == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_surveying_instruments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_surveying_instruments-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..35317a788 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_surveying_instruments-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "List of surveying instruments" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_surveying_instruments" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:16.824358+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Instruments used in surveying include: + +Alidade +Alidade table +Cosmolabe +Dioptra +Dumpy level +Engineer's chain +Geodimeter +Graphometer +Groma (surveying) +Laser scanning +Level +Level staff +Measuring tape +Plane table +Pole (surveying) +Prism (surveying) (corner cube retroreflector) +Prismatic compass (angle measurement) +Ramsden surveying instruments +Ranging rod +Surveyor's chain +Surveyor's compass +Tachymeter (surveying) +Tape (surveying) +Tellurometer +Theodolite +Half theodolite +Plain theodolite +Simple theodolite +Great theodolite +Non-transit theodolite +Transit theodolite +Seconds theodolite +Electronic theodolite +Mining theodolite +Suspension theodolite +Traveling theodolite +Pibal theodolite +Registering theodolite +Gyro-theodolite +Construction theodolite +Photo-theodolite +Robotic theodolite +Vernier theodolite +Total station +Transit (surveying) +Tripod (surveying) +Universal instrument (surveying) + + +== See also == + +Astronomical instrument +Measurement instrument + + +== Further reading == +Lewis, M. J. T. (2001-04-23). Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511483035. ISBN 978-0-521-79297-4. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b9d5f8cb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "List of years in science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:24.712768+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following entries cover events related to science or technology which occurred in the listed year. + + +== Before 1500s == +0s: 1st century in science +100s: 2nd century in science +200s: 3rd century in science +300s: 4th century in science +400s: 5th century in science +500s: 6th century in science +600s: 7th century in science +700s: 8th century in science +800s: 9th century in science +900s: 10th century in science +1000s: 11th century in science +1100s: 12th century in science +1200s: 13th century in science +1300s: 14th century in science +1400s: 15th century in science + + +== 1500s == +1500s: 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 +1510s: 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 +1520s: 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 +1530s: 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 +1540s: 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 +1550s: 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 +1560s: 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 +1570s: 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 +1580s: 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 +1590s: 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 + + +== 1600s == + +1600s: 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 +1610s: 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 +1620s: 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 +1630s: 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 +1640s: 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 +1650s: 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 +1660s: 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 +1670s: 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 +1680s: 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1688 1689 +1690s: 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 + + +== 1700s == + +1700s: 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 1709 +1710s: 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 +1720s: 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1728 1729 +1730s: 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 +1740s: 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 +1750s: 1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 +1760s: 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 +1770s: 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 +1780s: 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 +1790s: 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 + + +== 1800s == + +1800s: 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 +1810s: 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 +1820s: 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 +1830s: 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 +1840s: 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 +1850s: 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 +1860s: 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 +1870s: 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 +1880s: 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 +1890s: 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 + + +== 1900s == + +1900s: 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 +1910s: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 +1920s: 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 +1930s: 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 +1940s: 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 +1950s: 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 +1960s: 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 +1970s: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 +1980s: 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 +1990s: 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 + + +== 2000s == + +2000s: 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 +2010s: 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 +2020s: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 +2030s: 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 +2040s: 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 +2050s: 2050 2051 2052 2053 2054 2055 2056 2057 2058 2059 +2060s: 2060 2061 2062 2063 2064 2065 2066 2067 2068 2069 +2070s: 2070 2071 2072 2073 2074 2075 2076 2077 2078 2079 +2080s: 2080 2081 2082 2083 2084 2085 2086 2087 2088 2089 +2090s: 2090 2091 2092 2093 2094 2095 2096 2097 2098 2099 + + +== See also == +List of years in literature +List of years in philosophy +Timeline of scientific discoveries +Timeline of sociology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg_hemispheres-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg_hemispheres-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..84460f2ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg_hemispheres-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Magdeburg hemispheres" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg_hemispheres" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:18.037607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Magdeburg hemispheres are a pair of large copper hemispheres with mating rims that were used in a famous 1654 experiment to demonstrate the power of atmospheric pressure. When the rims were sealed with grease and the air was pumped out, the sphere contained a vacuum and could not be pulled apart by teams of horses. Once the valve was opened, air rushed in and the hemispheres were easily separated. The Magdeburg hemispheres were invented by German scientist and mayor of Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke, to demonstrate the air pump that he had invented and the concept of atmospheric pressure. +Speculation varied about the contents of the sphere. Many thought it was simply empty, while others argued the vacuum contained air or some finer aerial substance. Sound did not transmit through the sphere, indicating that sound needed a medium in order to travel and/or be sensed, while light did not. +The first artificial vacuum had been produced a few years earlier by Evangelista Torricelli and inspired Guericke to design the world's first vacuum pump, which consisted of a piston and cylinder with one-way flap valves. The hemispheres became popular in physics lectures as an illustration of the strength of air pressure, and are still used in education. The original hemispheres are on display in the Deutsches Museum in Munich. +Aside from its scientific importance, the experiment served to prove the recovery of the city of Magdeburg, which only two decades earlier had undergone the Sack of Magdeburg - considered the worst atrocity of the Thirty Years' War - when 20,000 of its inhabitants were massacred, and only 4,000 remained at the end of the war in 1648. Von Guericke was concerned with both aspects of the experiment, in his double capacity as a leading scientist and as the mayor who worked tirelessly to restore the city's wealth. + + +== Overview == + +The Magdeburg hemispheres, around 50 cm (20 inches) in diameter, were designed to demonstrate the vacuum pump that Guericke had invented. One of them had a tube connection to attach the pump, with a valve to close it off. When the air was sucked out from inside the hemispheres, and the valve was closed, the hose from the pump could be detached, and they were held firmly together by the air pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. +The force holding the hemispheres together was equal to the area bounded by the joint between the hemispheres, a circle with a diameter of 50 cm, multiplied by the difference in air pressure between the inside and the outside. It is unclear how strong a vacuum Guericke's pump was able to achieve, but if it was able to evacuate all of the air from the inside, the hemispheres would have been held together with a force of around 20 kilonewtons (4,500 lbf; 2.2 short tons-force), equivalent to lifting a car or small elephant; a dramatic demonstration of the pressure of the atmosphere. + + +== Demonstrations == + Guericke's demonstration was performed on 8 May 1654 in front of the Imperial Diet, and the Emperor Ferdinand III in Regensburg. Thirty horses, in two teams of fifteen, could not separate the hemispheres until the valve was opened to equalize the air pressure. In 1656 he repeated the demonstration with sixteen horses (two teams of eight) in his hometown of Magdeburg, where he was mayor. He also took the two spheres, hung the two hemispheres with a support, and removed the air from within. He then strapped weights to the spheres, but the spheres would not budge. Gaspar Schott was the first to describe the experiment in print in his Mechanica Hydraulico-Pneumatica (1657). In 1663 (or, according to some sources, in 1661) the same demonstration was given in Berlin before Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg with twenty-four horses. +The experiment became a popular way to illustrate the principles of air pressure, and many smaller copies of the hemispheres were made, and are used to this day in science classes. Reenactments of von Guericke's experiment of 1654 are performed in locations around the world by the Otto von Guericke Society. On 18 March 2000, a demonstration using sixteen horses was conducted in Great Torrington by Barometer World. +A small pair of hemispheres is shown in the painting "An Experiment on a bird in the Airpump" by Joseph Wright of Derby, currently on display in the National Gallery in London. +The experiment has been commemorated on three German stamps. +After learning about Guericke's pump through Schott's book, Robert Boyle worked with Robert Hooke to design and build an improved air pump. From this, through various experiments, they formulated what is called Boyle's law, which states that the volume of a body of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. Much later the ideal gas law was formulated in 1834. + + +== See also == +Horror vacui (physics) + + +== References == + +"The Magdeburg hemispheres". Masterpieces from the Deutsches Museum. Archived from the original on November 12, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2005. +"The Magdeburg hemispheres". The Draft Horse Journal. Archived from the original on November 28, 2007. Retrieved October 31, 2006. published in print Summer 2004. + + +== External links == + +Magdeburg Hemispheres Archived 2021-02-27 at the Wayback Machine +Magdeburg Notgeld (emergency banknote) depicting two teams of horses attempting to separate the halves of a Magdeburg Hemisphere. http://webgerman.com/Notgeld/Directory/M/Magdeburg3.htm \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner's_astrolabe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner's_astrolabe-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fcad7702f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner's_astrolabe-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Mariner's astrolabe" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner's_astrolabe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:19.216761+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The mariner's astrolabe, also called sea astrolabe, was an inclinometer used to determine the latitude of a ship at sea by measuring the sun's noon altitude (declination) or the meridian altitude of a star of known declination. Not an astrolabe proper, the mariner's astrolabe was rather a graduated circle with an alidade used to measure vertical angles. They were designed to allow for their use on boats in rough water and/or in heavy winds, which astrolabes are ill-equipped to handle. It's notable for its role during the Age of Exploration where Portuguese and Spanish navigators used it to great success. In the sixteenth century, the instrument was also called a ring. + + +== History == + +Many dates can be found for the appearance of the first Mariner's astrolabes. The earliest date, 1295, is offered by the Majorcan astronomer Ramon Llull. Later dates center around the late 15th century, with Samuel Purchas claiming that it was adapted for marine navigation by Martin Behaim, a mariner not considered a trustworthy source by some historians. In any event, the instrument was certainly known by the end of the 15th century. Nevertheless, the creation and perfecting of the mariner's astrolabe is attributed to Portuguese navigators during the beginning of Portuguese discoveries. The earliest known description of how to make and use a sea astrolabe comes from Martín Cortés de Albacar’s Arte de Navegar published in 1551, although the basic principle is the same as that of the archipendulum used in constructing the Egyptian pyramids. +There is strong evidence that the mariner's astrolabe was derived directly from the planispheric astrolabe, as the earliest examples retain some of the markings (e.g. umbra recta and umbra versa) of the prior device without having the same components. +The mariner's astrolabe would have replaced or complemented instruments such as the cross staff or quadrant as a navigator's instrument. The mariner's astrolabe was used until the middle or, at the latest, the end of the 17th century. It was replaced by more accurate and easier-to-use instruments such as the Davis quadrant. By the late 18th century, mariners began using the sextant and then LORAN C, SatNav/Transit, and then global positioning systems (GPS) starting in the 1980s. + +Although their heavy brass construction permits their longevity in marine environments, mariner's astrolabes are very rare today. In 2017, only 108 were known to exist. The biggest collection remains in museums in Portugal. The Corpus Christi Museum of Science and History in Texas, United States, contains a mariner's astrolabe with a confirmed date of 1554, salvaged from the wreck of the San Esteban. +A disk-type astrolabe dated between 1496 and 1501, now the world's oldest, was discovered in 2014 by the marine scientist David L. Mearns on the wreck site of a Portuguese nau Esmeralda, which sank off the coast of Oman in 1503. The astrolabe was confirmed by laser scanning, which revealed a series of 18 gradations marking 5-degree intervals, and has been named the Sodré astrolabe. It has been proposed that the Sodré astrolabe is a transitional instrument between the classic planispheric astrolabe from which the first mariner's astrolabes made of brass were adapted and the open‐wheel type astrolabe that came into use sometime before 1517. + + +== Construction == +Mariner's astrolabes were made of brass. Since weight was advantageous when using the instrument on the heaving deck of a ship or in high winds, other materials, such as wood or ivory, were not desirable though some wood sea astrolabes were made. Early sea astrolabes were made from sheets of brass. Due to their light weight, they tended to perform poorly at sea. Heavier cast brass frames began to be made in the mid-sixteenth century and were considerably better. As the accuracy of the instrument is related to the radius of the divided circle, these were made as large as practical. +Since the large plate form of the planispheric astrolabe makes it sensitive to the wind, the mariner's astrolabe is made with a frame form. The openings in the frame allow wind to pass through, inducing less motion in the instrument. +The essential function of the device was to measure angles. Thus the instrument featured a ring graduated in degrees. Early instruments were only graduated for 90°; later instruments were graduated for the full 360° circle around the limb. The sole purpose of the spokes was to support the pivot point for the alidade. In order to lower the centre of gravity of the device and thus increase its period of motion as a means of stabilizing it, extra brass was usually added to the bottom of the instrument inside the ring. This is clearly evident in the lower left instrument seen in the photograph above. +The alidade was free to rotate about a pin through the centre of the instrument. The vanes of the alidade were either slotted or pierced with a hole to allow the user to align the alidade. +The astrolabe had a ring attached to the top of the instrument to allow it to hang vertically. + + +== Usage == + +In order to use the astrolabe, the navigator would hold the instrument by the ring at the top. This caused the instrument to remain in a vertical plane. The navigator would then align the plane of the astrolabe to the direction of the object of interest. The alidade was aligned to point at the object and the altitude was read. +If observing a dim object such as a star, the navigator would observe the object directly through the alidade. If observing the Sun, it was both safer and easier to allow the shadow of one of the alidade's vanes to be cast onto the opposite vane. +It played a key part of the Age of Discovery, which Portugal initiated. Portuguese sailors trained British and other sailors – one of the most famous was Christopher Columbus – in how to use this instrument, which became the key to the maritime growth and conquest of the other European Colonial Empires. + + +== Limitations == +The mariner's astrolabe needed to be suspended vertically in order to measure the altitude of the celestial object. This meant it could not be used easily on the deck in windy conditions. It could not easily be used to measure the angle between two objects, which was necessary for longitude calculations by the lunar distance method (though that technique was not used when the instrument was developed). Another limitation was that the instrument's angular accuracy was directly proportional to the length of the alidade, which was not very long. + + +== See also == +Octant (instrument) +Exploration + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Make your own mariner's astrolabe (archived 20 August 2007) +Champlain's astrolabe at the Canadian Museum of History – believed to be Samuel de Champlain's lost astrolabe. +The Mariners' Museum Navigational and Scientific Instrument Collection (archived 11 December 2012) +The Mariner's Astrolabe Catalogue \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dc95345c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Max Planck Institute for the History of Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:06.418095+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (German: Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte) is a scientific research institute founded in March 1994. The Institute is one of the more than 80 research institutes of the Max Planck Society. Since its inception, the Institute has continually expanded the boundaries of the field of the history of science—critically interrogating basic concepts, bringing multiple disciplines into dialog, and experimenting with novel research methods.. + + +== Organization and Research == +The MPIWG comprises three departments and several independent research groups. As of August 2024, two departments are filled: + +"Knowledge Systems and Collective Life," directed by Etienne Benson +"Artifacts, Action, Knowledge," directed by Dagmar Schäfer +Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, who headed Department III from 1995 to 2014, and Lorraine Daston, who headed Department II from 1995 to 2019, remain at the MPIWG as emerita. +Jürgen Renn headed the department "Structural Changes in Systems of Knowledge" from 1994 to 2023. +The Research Groups are: + +"Astral Sciences in Trans-Regional Asia (ASTRA)," led by Anuj Misra. +"China in the Global System of Science," led by Anna L. Ahlers +"Experience in the Premodern Sciences of Soul & Body ca. 800–1650," led by Katja Krause +The Institute also hosts an International Max Planck Research School "Knowledge and Its Resources: Historical Reciprocities." +In addition the Institute structure includes a: + +Library +Digital Humanities Team +Research Communications and Management Team +Administration and IT Support +The institute also comprises doctoral students, and research and teaching cooperations with other institutions worldwide. + + +== Journalists in Residence == +The institute has a Journalist-in-Residence program. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_thermodynamic_surface-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_thermodynamic_surface-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5166961ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_thermodynamic_surface-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Maxwell's thermodynamic surface" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_thermodynamic_surface" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:20.383670+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Maxwell's thermodynamic surface is an 1874 sculpture made by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879). This model provides a three-dimensional space of the various states of a fictitious substance with water-like properties. This plot has coordinates volume (x), entropy (y), and energy (z). It was based on the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs’ graphical thermodynamics papers of 1873. In Maxwell's words, the model allowed "the principal features of known substances [to] be represented on a convenient scale." + + +== Construction of the model == +Gibbs' papers defined what Gibbs called the "thermodynamic surface," which expressed the relationship between the volume, entropy, and energy of a substance at different temperatures and pressures. However, Gibbs did not include any diagrams of this surface. After receiving reprints of Gibbs' papers, Maxwell recognized the insight afforded by Gibbs' new point of view and set about constructing physical three-dimensional models of the surface. This reflected Maxwell's talent as a strong visual thinker and prefigured modern scientific visualization techniques. +Maxwell sculpted the original model in clay and made several plaster casts of the clay model, sending one to Gibbs as a gift, keeping two in his laboratory at Cambridge University. Maxwell's copy is on display at the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University, while Gibbs' copy is on display at the Sloane Physics Laboratory of Yale University, where Gibbs held a professorship. Two copies reside at the National Museum of Scotland, one via Peter Tait and the other via George Chrystal. Another was sent to Thomas Andrews. A number of historic photographs were taken of these plaster casts during the middle of the twentieth century – including one by James Pickands II, published in 1942 – and these photographs exposed a wider range of people to Maxwell's visualization approach. + + +== Uses of the model == + +As explained by Gibbs and appreciated by Maxwell, the advantage of a U-V-S (energy-volume-entropy) surface over the usual P-V-T (pressure-volume-temperature) surface was that it allowed to geometrically explain sharp, discontinuous phase transitions as emerging from a purely continuous and smooth state function + + + + U + ( + V + , + S + ) + + + {\displaystyle U(V,S)} + +; Maxwell's surface demonstrated the generic behaviour for a substance that can exist in solid, liquid, and gaseous phases. The basic geometrical operation involved simply placing a tangent plane (such as a flat sheet of glass) on the surface and rolling it around, observing where it touches the surface. Using this operation, it was possible to explain phase coexistence, the triple point, to identify the boundary between absolutely stable and metastable phases (e.g., superheating and supercooling), the spinodal boundary between metastable and unstable phases, and to illustrate the critical point. +Maxwell drew lines of equal pressure (isopiestics) and of equal temperature (isothermals) on his plaster cast by placing it in the sunlight, and "tracing the curve when the rays just grazed the surface." He sent sketches of these lines to a number of colleagues. For example, his letter to Thomas Andrews of 15 July 1875 included sketches of these lines. Maxwell provided a more detailed explanation and a clearer drawing of the lines (pictured) in the revised version of his book Theory of Heat, and a version of this drawing appeared on a 2005 US postage stamp in honour of Gibbs. +As well as being on display in two countries, Maxwell's model lives on in the literature of thermodynamics, and books on the subject often mention it, though not always with complete historical accuracy. For example, the thermodynamic surface represented by the sculpture is often reported to be that of water, contrary to Maxwell's own statement. + + +== Related models == +Maxwell's model was not the first plaster model of a thermodynamic surface: in 1871, even before Gibbs' papers, James Thomson had constructed a plaster pressure-volume-temperature plot, based on data for carbon dioxide collected by Thomas Andrews. +Around 1900, the Dutch scientist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, together with his student Johannes Petrus Kuenen and his assistant Zaalberg van Zelst, continued Maxwell's work by constructing their own plaster thermodynamic surface models. These models were based on accurate experimental data obtained in their laboratory, and were accompanied by specialised tools for drawing the lines of equal pressure. + + +== See also == +History of thermodynamics + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Photograph of one of the two Cambridge copies in the Museum at the Cavendish Laboratory; for better readable legends to go with the axes, see here +Thermodynamic Case Study: Gibbs' Thermodynamic Graphical Method at Virginia Tech's Laboratory for Scientific Visual Analysis +Maxwell’s thermodynamic surface at the "Encyclopedia of Human Thermodynamics" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-0.md index 3bce260e5..51ca5b84d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:33:12.811579+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:29.920491+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-1.md index 099dd9979..9eff5f9f6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:33:12.811579+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:29.920491+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-2.md index d6cdf9f98..4bd048348 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:33:12.811579+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:29.920491+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier_vitalism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier_vitalism-0.md index aab96c239..d97379ada 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier_vitalism-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier_vitalism-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier_vitalism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:22:59.950300+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:31.114545+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural_instrument-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural_instrument-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..45fc14def --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural_instrument-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Mural instrument" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural_instrument" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:21.553584+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A mural instrument is an angle measuring instrument mounted on or built into a wall. For astronomical purposes, these walls were oriented so they lie precisely on the meridian. A mural instrument that measured angles from 0 to 90 degrees was called a mural quadrant. They were utilized as astronomical devices in ancient Egypt and ancient Greece. Edmond Halley, due to the lack of an assistant and only one vertical wire in his transit, confined himself to the use of a mural quadrant built by George Graham after its erection in 1725 at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Bradley's first observation with that quadrant was made on 15 June 1742. +The mural quadrant has been called the "quintessential instrument" of 18th century (i.e. 1700s) observatories. It rose to prominence in the field of positional astronomy at this time. + + +== Construction == + +Many older mural quadrants have been constructed by marking directly on the wall surfaces. More recent instruments were made with a frame that was constructed with precision and mounted permanently on the wall. +The arc is marked with divisions, almost always in degrees and fractions of a degree. In the oldest instruments, an indicator is placed at the centre of the arc. An observer can move a device with a second indicator along the arc until the line of sight from the movable device's indicator through the indicator at the centre of the arc aligns with the astronomical object. The angle is then read, yielding the elevation or altitude of the object. In smaller instruments, an alidade could be used. More modern mural instruments would use a telescope with a reticle eyepiece to observe the object. +Many mural quadrants were constructed, giving the observer the ability to measure a 90° range of elevation. There were also mural sextants that read 60°. +Mural quadrants of the 17th century were noted for their expense, with Flamsteed's 1689 quadrant costing £120 (equivalent to £26,377 in 2025), and Edmund Halley's 1725 quadrant which cost over £200 (equivalent to £35,630 in 2025). The large fixed quadrants were more expensive than a typical portable quadrant, with a Bird 2-foot quadrant costing 70 guineas or £73.50 (equivalent to £13,094 in 2025). + + +== Usage == +In order to measure the position of, for example, a star, the observer needs a sidereal clock in addition to the mural instrument. With the clock measuring time, a star of interest is observed with the instrument until it crosses an indicator showing that it is transiting the meridian. At this instant, the time on the clock is recorded as well as the angular elevation of the star. This yields the position in the coordinates of the instrument. If the instrument's arc is not marked relative to the celestial equator, then the elevation is corrected for the difference, resulting in the star's declination. If the sidereal clock is precisely synchronized with the stars, the time yields the right ascension directly. + + +== Famous mural instruments == + +A mural sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. +Ulugh Beg constructed the "Fakhri Sextant" in Samarkand that had a radius of 40 meters. Seen in the image on the right, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements. +Tycho Brahe's mural quadrant in Uraniborg at Hven (now Ven in Sweden). +The mural quadrant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in east London. +Ptolemy's mural quadrant at Alexandria. This instrument is also referred to as a plinth. +The obsolete constellation Quadrans Muralis represents a mural quadrant. +The mural quadrant at the Mannheim Observatory in Germany. This is another of John Bird's instruments. + + +== See also == +List of astronomical instruments + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Mural instrument at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..43a17367d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Musurgia Universalis" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:32.322353+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Musurgia Universalis, sive Ars Magna Consoni et Dissoni ("The Universal Musical Art, or the Great Art of Consonance and Dissonance") is a 1650 work by the Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher. It was printed in Rome by Ludovico Grignani and dedicated to Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria. It was a compendium of ancient and contemporary thinking about music, its production and its effects. It explored, in particular, the relationship between the mathematical properties of music (e.g. harmony and dissonance) with health and rhetoric. +The work complements two of Kircher's other books: Magnes sive de Arte Magnetica had set out the secret underlying coherence of the universe and Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae had explored the ways of knowledge and enlightenment. What Musurgia Universalis contained, through its exploration of dissonance within harmony, was an explanation of the presence of evil in the world. + +== Composition and publication == + +Kircher compiled all the musical knowledge available in his day, making this the first encyclopedia of music. Since its publication it has been a valuable source of information to musicologists about baroque concepts of style and composition. It provides the earliest account of the doctrine of the affections in music. As well as including a three-part fantasy of his own and a composition by Emperor Ferdinand III, Kircher reproduced many musical pieces to illustrate the styles he described, thereby preserving pieces by Frescobaldi, Froberger, and others. Kircher had a number of collaborators who assisted his research with their expertise, and by providing him with examples of different types of music. These included Antonio Maria Abbatini, Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger and Giacomo Carissimi. +Musurgia Universalis was one of Kircher's largest books. The work was published in two volumes with a total of 1,112 pages and many illustrations. It was one of the most influential books on music theory in the seventeenth century, and of the 1,500 copies known to have been published, 266 are still recorded in various collections. Three hundred copies of the first edition were distributed to Jesuit missionaries who gathered in Rome in 1650 for the election of the new Superior General and carried back to many different lands. In 1656 a Jesuit mission to China took two dozen copies with it when it departed. A second edition was published in Amsterdam in 1662. + +== Concepts == + +The concepts presented in Musurgia Universalis overlap with Kircher's other works - they include musical cryptography (Polygraphia Nova) and tarantism (Magnes sive de Arte Magnetica). There was a detailed discussion of the phenomenon of the echo and its similarity to the reflection of light (Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae). His account of speaking tubes and amplification was developed in his later work Historia Eustachio Mariana, concerning his installation of trumpets that broadcast a call to prayer at the shrine of Mentorella. +Book eight explained a method for composition and writing harmony that Kircher maintained any person could use, whether they knew anything about music or not. He had invented this system while teaching mathematics at Würzburg University many years previously. This method had great appeal for Jesuits working as missionaries, who sought to use the power of music to draw converts to the Catholic faith by composing hymns in the languages of the people where they were working. Accompanying this method was a description of the arca musurgia, a kind of calculating machine that allowed users to apply Kircher's rules on composition and actually create music. A number of these machines were built and distributed to distinguished patrons together with the book. +After providing the reader with many explanations of physical phenomena and their explanation, as in many of his other works Kircher used the final book to expound the spiritual dimension of everything he has revealed. In Musurgia Universalis he likens the creation of the world to the building of a great organ with six registers corresponding to the six days of creation on which God plays, creating harmony. The illustration shows the elaborately decorated organ with small circular panels illustrating each of the days of creation. + +== Structure == + +Book one: on physiology, dealing with the structure of the ear, anatomy of the vocal organs, and the sounds made by animals, birds and insects, including the death-song of the swan +Book two: on philology, the origin of sound, the music of the Hebrews, and the ancient Greeks +Book three: on arithmetic, with the theory of harmonics, proportion, the ratios of intervals, the Greek scales, the Scale of Guido d'Arezzo, the system of Boethius, and the ancient Greek modes +Book four: on geometry, discussion of the monochord, and its divisions +Book five: on organology, based book xii of the Harmonicorum by Marin Mersenne, containing a dissertation on instrumental music +Book six: on composition, musical notation, counterpoint, and other branches of composition, containing a canon that can be sung by twelve million two hundred thousand voices +Book seven: on discernment, covering the difference between ancient and modern music +Books eight: on wonders, including a mathematical method (‘musarithmica’) that allows the most inexperienced to compose with perfection +Book nine: on the magic of consonance and dissonance and their effects on the mind and body including tarantism +Book ten: on analogy, discusses the harmony of the spheres, and of the four elements, the principles of harmony exemplified in the proportions of the human body and the affections of the mind, together with practical description of the aeolian harp, which Kircher claimed to have invented. + +== Illustrations == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8496039a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Musurgia Universalis" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:32.322353+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An engraved portrait of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm faces the frontispiece of volume one, was designed by Johann Paul Schor and engraved by Paulus Pontius, a student of Rubens. It is dated 'Antwerp 1649'. +Each of the work's two volumes had its own frontispiece. For volume one this followed the design common to many of Kircher's works, depicting a threefold universe with the divine at the top, the celestial in the middle and the earthly below. At the top the eye of God overlooks all from within a triangle which bathes choirs of angels in divine light. Two angels hold aloft a banner proclaiming the sanctus as a 'Canon angelicus 36 vocum... in 9 choros distributus' ('a 36-voice canon of angels, divided into nine choirs'). Beneath this sits Apollo on the celestial sphere, holding the lyre that symbolises harmony and pushing away the panpipes associated with his rival Marsyas. Together with the signs of the zodiac, the sphere carries a quotation from the Book of Job (38:37): 'Quis concentum coeli dormire faciet?' ('Who shall make the concert of heaven to sleep?'). At the bottom left of the image Pythagoras sits, with one arm resting on this theorem and the other pointing towards a group of smiths, the sound of whose Pythagorean hammers striking metal is said to have first given him the notion of the mathematical basis of harmony. In the centre are a ring of dancing pans on land, and to their right, a triton dancing in the water with mermaids. On the right there is an illustration of an echo, a topic discussed in the work, with a shepherd reciting a line from Virgil ("pascite, ut ante, boves") and a listener mishearing only the last part of the final word. The echo rebounds from the side of Mount Helicon, where Pegasus strikes the rock with his hoof, bringing forth the stream of Hippocrene that flows down to the figure of Muses surrounded by musical instruments. +The frontispiece for volume two was designed by Pierre Miotte. It depicts Orpheus with his lyre and the three-headed guardian of the underworld, Cerberus. The motto around his pedestal reads 'Apollo's right hand holds the lyre of the world, his left fits high to low; thus good things are mingled with ill.' + +== References == + +== External links == + Media related to Musurgia Universalis at Wikimedia Commons +Scan of Musurgia Universalis Volume 1 Volume 2 +German translation of Musurgia Universalis +translation of the section on musical instruments +Jim Bumgardner, "Kircher’s Mechanical Composer: A Software Implementation"Kircher’s Mechanical Composer: A Software Implementation 2009. https://jbum.com/papers/kircher_paper.pdf \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Historical_Advisory_Committee-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Historical_Advisory_Committee-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aa8be2101 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Historical_Advisory_Committee-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "NASA Historical Advisory Committee" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Historical_Advisory_Committee" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:07.580393+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Historical Advisory Committee was a committee of historians that was established in 1964. + + +== History == +The NASA Historical Office was established under its first chief historian, Dr. Eugene Emme in 1960. The committee was first made up of a wide variety of members, who initially sought to find support and prestige for the new historical program. From 1969 to 1970, the committee began to be increasingly composed of professional historians from universities, who made known their dissatisfaction with the NASA historical program. As a result, the Historical Advisory Committee was reduced in size and reorganized to be composed of only university-based professional historians to oversee the work of the NASA Historical Office. + + +== Chairmen == +Wood Gray, 1964-1966 +Melvin Kranzeberg, 1966-1970 +Louis Morton, 1970- +Walter Rundell + + +== Members == +Daniel J. Boorstin +David Bushnell +James L. Cate, 1964- +A. Hunter Dupree +I. B. Holley +Thomas P. Hughes +Elting E. Morison, 1972- +Robert P. Multhauf +Rodman W. Paul +Robert L. Perry +John B. Rae + + +== Sources == +Rodman W. Paul, "Historical Advisory Committees: NASA and the National Archives," Pacific Historical Review, vol. 44, no. 3 (August 1975), pp. 385–394. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastulus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastulus-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af8eaded7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastulus-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Nastulus" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastulus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:04.021468+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh Nasṭūlus (Arabic: محمد بن عبد الله نسطولس; known as Nasṭūlus, but also referred to as Basṭūlus) was a 10th-century astronomer. He is known for making one of the oldest surviving astrolabes, dated 927/928, as well as of another partially preserved astrolabe that bears his signature, "Made by Nasṭūlus in the year 315" of hijra (925). +Very little is known about Nasṭūlus. His full name, based on a testimony given by a contemporary astronomer, Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi, indicates that he was a Muslim, but some modern historians have suggested that his foreign last name may indicate that he was Greek or Nestorian. + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +Dodge, Bayard (1970). The Fihrist of Al-Nadīm: A Tenth-century Survey of Muslim Culture. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-02925-4. +Rius, Mònica (2007). "Nasṭūlus: Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 822–3. ISBN 9780387310220. (PDF version) +King, David A. (1999). World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance of Mecca: Examples of Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-11367-1. + + +== Further reading == +Websites +"A remarkable mathematical and astronomical brass instrument signed by Nastulus, one of the leading astronomer-craftsmen of late-9th and early 10th-century Baghdad". London: Sotheby's. Archived from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2023. +"History of the Astrolabe". History of Science Museum. University of Oxford. Retrieved 31 January 2023. +"Nastulus - Planispheric Astrolabe Made by Nastulus (or Bastilus)". Fine Arts Library Image Collection Search Collection. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 31 January 2023. +Journals +King, David A. (2008). "An Instrument of Mass Calculation made by NasÐūlus in Baghdad ca. 900" (PDF). Suhayl. 8: 93–119. ISSN 1576-9372. + + +== External links == +Image of one of the two astrolabes made by Nasṭūlus from the Al-Sabah Collection website +Description of a manuscript dated Jumadi II 625 AH (May 1228) from the exhibition Scanning the Skies: A Virtual Exhibit of Astronomy Manuscripts at the University of Pennsylvania, showing a description of one of Nasṭūlus's astrolabes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neeff's_wheel-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neeff's_wheel-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5075ac8ab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neeff's_wheel-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Neeff's wheel" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neeff's_wheel" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:22.748713+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Neeff's wheel, also known as the Blitzrad (German: "lightning wheel" or "spark wheel") is a historical electrical apparatus. It is a kind of contact breaker, designed to interrupt an electrical circuit at periodic intervals, producing visible sparks. It was first presented in the 1830s by the German scientist Christian Ernst Neeff (1782–1849). +The arrangement consists of a toothed wheel against which a conductive wire is pressed (by a spring something like that of a mousetrap). Electrical current flows through the wheel into the wire. When the gear wheel is turned, each tooth of the gear causes the wire to ride up and then briefly drop down, losing contact with the wheel and generating a spark. The gear wheel can be driven by a hand crank. +Instead of air, the gaps between the teeth of the gear wheel may be filled with a solid electrical insulator such as ebony wood. Neeff credited this innovation to his colleague Johann Philipp Wagner. +Neeff's wheel was a forerunner of the modern contact breaker. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcomen_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcomen_Society-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..64bfdf6df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcomen_Society-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Newcomen Society" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcomen_Society" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:08.743857+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Newcomen Society is an international learned society that promotes and celebrates the history of engineering and technology. It was founded in London in 1920, and takes its name from Thomas Newcomen, one of the inventors associated with the early development of the steam engine and who is widely considered the "father of the Industrial Revolution". An early president was Loughnan St. L. Pendred. +The society is concerned with all branches of engineering: civil, mechanical, electrical, electronic, structural, aeronautical, marine, chemical and manufacturing as well as biography and invention. +The Newcomen Society is based at the Science Museum in London. There are regional branches in England: Midlands (Birmingham), North West (Manchester), North East (Newcastle), Western (Bristol) and Southern (Portsmouth), South Yorkshire (Sheffield) and one in Scotland (Glasgow and Edinburgh). +It publishes the International Journal for the History of Engineering and Technology (formerly the Transactions of the Newcomen Society) and Newcomen Links, a quarterly newsletter. An online archive of previous Transactions is available to members. The society also has a YouTube Channel with videos of meetings, conferences and online lectures. +The motto of the Society is the Latin actorum memores simul affectamus agenda, meaning "mindful of things that have taken place, at the same time we strive after things yet to be done". The choice of a griffin regardant for the logo was to symbolise vigilance and looking backward while going forward. +The Newcomen Society is a registered charity and a limited company. +An American branch was established in 1923, but the Newcomen Society of the United States was entirely separate from its UK counterpart. The American group disbanded in 2007. + + +== Notable members == +Henry Winram Dickinson (1870–1952) (co-founder, president 1932–34, editor of Transactions) +L. T. C. Rolt +Alec Skempton +Hugh Pembroke Vowles +Rex Wailes +Paul Wilson, Baron Wilson of High Wray (president, 1973–1975) + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +F. S. Marvin (1924). The History of Technology. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 113, pages 40–41 doi:10.1038/113040a0 + + +== External links == +The Newcomen Society +International Journal for the History of Engineering and Technology archive +Newcomen Links +Society YouTube channel \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_(instrument)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_(instrument)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d888f78a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_(instrument)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Nocturnal (instrument)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_(instrument)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:23.952358+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A nocturnal is an instrument used to determine the local time based on the position of a star in the night sky relative to the pole star. As a result of the Earth's rotation, any fixed star makes a full revolution around the pole star in 23 hours and 56 minutes and therefore can be used as an hour hand. The 4-minute difference between the solar day and sidereal day requires a correction of this giant clock based on the date of observation, and nocturnal helps to apply this correction. +Sometimes called a horologium nocturnum (time instrument for night) or nocturlabe (in French and occasionally used by English writers), it is related to the astrolabe and sundial. Knowing the time is important in piloting for calculating tides and some nocturnals incorporate tide charts for important ports. + + +== History == +The actual horologium nocturnum, a precursor for the later nocturnal instruments, was invented in the 9th century by Pacificus of Verona. +Even if the nightly course of the stars has been known since antiquity, mentions of a dedicated instrument for its measurement are not found before the Middle Ages. The earliest image presenting the use of a nocturnal is in a manuscript dated from the 12th century. Raymond Lull repeatedly described the use of a sphaera horarum noctis or astrolabium nocturnum. +With Martín Cortés de Albacar's book Arte de Navegar, published in 1551 the name and the instrument gained a larger popularity. +It was described also c. 1530 by Petrus Apianus in his Cosmographicus Liber, republished later by Gemma Frisius with a widely circulated illustration of the instrument while being used by an observer. + + +== Construction == + +Nocturnals have been most commonly constructed of wood or brass. +A nocturnal will have an outer disc marked with the months of the year, and an inner disc marked with hours (and perhaps half hours, or quarter hours on the largest instruments) as well as locations for one or more reference stars. It will also have a pointer rotating on the same axis as the discs, sometimes extended beyond the rim. The axis, or pivot point, must be such that a star can be sighted through it; usually a hollow rivet is used. Since the instrument is used at night, markings may be exaggerated or raised. Often the inner disc has a diagram of the necessary constellations and stars, to aid in locating them. + + +== Usage == + +A nocturnal is a simple analog computer, made of two or more dials, that will provide the local time based on the time of year and a sighting of Polaris, the North Star, and one or more other stars. In the Northern Hemisphere, all stars will appear to rotate about the North Star during the night, and their positions, like the progress of the Sun, can be used to determine the time. The positions of the stars will change based on the time of year. +The most commonly used reference stars are the pointer stars from the Big Dipper (Ursa Major) or Kochab from the Little Dipper (Ursa Minor). The star Schedar in Cassiopeia may also be used, since it is on the opposite side of the sky from Ursa Major. +The inner disc is rotated so that the mark for the chosen reference star points to the current date on the outer disc. The north star is sighted through the center of the device, and the pointer arm is rotated to point at the chosen reference star. The intersection of the pointer arm with the hour markings on the inner disc indicates the time. The instrument must be held upright, and should have a handle or similar hint as to which direction is down. +It is not possible to convert the local time to a standard time such as UTC without accurate knowledge of the observer's longitude. Similarly, it is not possible to determine longitude unless the observer also knows the standard time from a chronometer. + + +== See also == +List of astronomical instruments +Sidereal time + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +Oestmann, Günther (2001). "On the History of the Nocturnal" (PDF). Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society. 69: 5–9. + + +== External links == +British Museum – Nocturnal from an astrological compendium +Simulation – Video and description, also, many devices +A working nocturnal in coin form \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonius_(device)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonius_(device)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b7ec15254 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonius_(device)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Nonius (device)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonius_(device)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:25.100904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Nonius is a measuring tool used in navigation and astronomy named in honour of its inventor, Pedro Nunes (Latin: Petrus Nonius), a Portuguese author, mathematician and navigator. The nonius was created in 1542 as a system for taking finer measurements on circular instruments such as the astrolabe. The system was eventually adapted into the Vernier scale in 1631 by the French mathematician Pierre Vernier. + + +== Technical features == + +The nonius was used to improve the astrolabe's accuracy. This consisted of a number of concentric circles traced on an instrument and dividing each successive one with one fewer divisions than the adjacent outer circle. On a standard scale of 90 degrees, there are an additional 44–45 concentric circles, with each divided into a specific unit size such that a scale unit on position + + + + n + + + {\displaystyle n} + + had an arc of + + + + 90 + + / + + n + + + {\displaystyle 90/n} + + degrees. Thus, the outermost quadrant would comprise 90° in 90 equal divisions, the next inner would have 89 divisions, the next 88 and so on. When an angle was measured, the circle and the division on which the alidade fell was noted. A table was then consulted to provide the exact measure. + + +== Applications == +The astronomer Tycho Brahe applied the nonius to the astronomic quadrant. +In numerically controlled machines, the nonius is part of several absolute encoders, that measure linear or rotational displacements. + + +== See also == +Transversal (instrument making) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_detector-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_detector-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ae3a32a0f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_detector-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Null detector" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_detector" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:26.301969+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A null detectors is an electrical measurement instrument used to measure minute voltages. High precision null detectors can resolve voltage differences in the nanovolt range. Null detectors are typically designed to have high input impedance to minimize loading the circuit under test. +Null detectors have historically used in calibration laboratories in conjunction with Kelvin–Varley dividers and bridge measurement circuits. Because of their sensitivity and specialized operating range, null detectors were more commonly used in laboratory than in routine field measurements. They were used as part of measurement chains that established traceability to national electrical standards, such as those maintained by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). + + +== History of Null Detectors == +The development of null detectors is closely tied to the use of balance and comparison methods in electrical measurement, where the detector serves only to indicate the presence of an imbalance rather than to measure an absolute quantity. + + +=== Key stages === +Galvanometers as null detectors: Early galvanometers, were commonly used as indicators of current or imbalance in circuits. In early balance and comparison arrangements, they were used to detect when two points reached equal potential, without providing calibrated measurements. +Bridge circuits: The adoption of bridge circuits, such as the Wheatstone bridge, clarified the role of the detector as a balance indicator. Measurement accuracy depended primarily on achieving a balance, while sensitivity was limited by the galvanometer's electromechanical design. +Vacuum tube null detectors: Electronic amplification enabled galvanometers to be replaced by vacuum-tube-based null detectors with higher sensitivity and without mechanical limitations of galvanometers. Null detectors utilizing vacuum tubes amplifiers were produced commercially and used in conjunction with bridge measurement circuits. +Solid state null detectors: The introduction of transistor-based amplifiers enabled the development of electronic null detectors with substantially improved sensitivity. By the mid-20th century, solid-state null detectors were produced commercially for laboratory and calibration use, combining electronic amplification with stable DC performance. + + +== Applications == +Null detectors are designed to resolve very small voltage differences, rather than to measure voltage accurately over a wide range. In null measurements, the detector sense only the small residual difference between an adjustable reference and the quantity under test, so measurement accuracy depends on achieving balance rather than on the detector's absolute calibration. In this mode of operation, the detector is used to indicate balance, and the node potential difference is typically reduced to microvolt-level or below by adjusment of external circuits. Under these conditions, the current drawn by the detector remains small even if its input resistance is modest compared with that of a general purpose voltmeter. For example, solid state null detectors typically has an input impedance of 1 MΩ on its most sensitive ranges, whereas digital multimeters typically has an input resistance of >10 GΩ on similar ranges. +Null detectors are commonly used with known reference components, such as standard resistors or capacitors, to determine unknown values using bridge circuits including the Kelvin-Varley divider, the Wheatstone bridge, and related configurations. Variants such as the Kelvin Double Bridge allow accurate measurement of low resistance by reducing the influence of lead and contact resistance. +Although many modern digital instruments can perform similar measurements directly, bridge methods employing null detectors continue to be used in electrical metrology for high-accuracy comparison of voltages, resistances, and other electrical quantities. + + +== External links == +Conrad Hoffman, “Building a Mini Metrology Lab” - hobbyist demonstrations of classical resistance and voltage measurement techniques +Paul’s DIY Blogs, “Null Detector Amplifier” - DIY construction of a null detector for educational and experimental use + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsolete_models_of_DNA_structure-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsolete_models_of_DNA_structure-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..06dc395e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsolete_models_of_DNA_structure-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Obsolete models of DNA structure" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsolete_models_of_DNA_structure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:33.536077+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In addition to the variety of verified DNA structures, there have been a range of proposed DNA models that have either been disproven, or lack sufficient evidence. + +Some of these structures were proposed during the 1950s before the structure of the double helix was solved, most famously by Linus Pauling. Non-helical or "side-by-side" models of DNA were proposed in the 1970s to address what appeared at the time to be problems with the topology of circular DNA chromosomes during replication (subsequently resolved via the discovery of enzymes that modify DNA topology). These were also rejected due to accumulating experimental evidence from X-ray crystallography, solution NMR, and atomic force microscopy (of both DNA alone, and bound to DNA-binding proteins). Although localised or transient non-duplex helical structures exist, non-helical models are not currently accepted by the mainstream scientific community. Finally, there exists a persistent set of contemporary fringe theories proposing a range of unsupported models. + + +== Prior to Watson–Crick structure == + +The DNA double helix was discovered in 1953 (with further details in 1954) based on X-ray diffraction images of DNA (most notably photo 51, taken by Raymond Gosling and Rosalind Franklin) as well as base-pairing chemical and biochemical information. Prior to this, X-ray data being gathered in the 1950s indicated that DNA formed some sort of helix, but it had not yet been discovered what the exact structure of that helix was. There were therefore several proposed structures that were later overturned by the data supporting a DNA duplex. The most famous of these early models was by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in 1953 in which they proposed a triple helix with the phosphate backbone on the inside, and the nucleotide bases pointing outwards. A broadly similar, but detailed structure was also proposed by Bruce Fraser that same year. However, Watson and Crick soon identified several problems with these models: + +Negatively charged phosphates near the axis repel each other, leaving the question of how the three-chain structure stays together. +In a triple-helix model (specifically Pauling and Corey's model), some of the van der Waals distances appear to be too small. +The initial double helix model discovered, now termed B-form DNA is by far the most common conformation in cells. Two additional rarer helical conformations that also naturally occur were identified in the 1970s: A-form DNA, and Z-form DNA. + + +== Non-helical structure proposals == + + +=== Before the discovery of topoisomerases === +Even once the DNA duplex structure was solved, it was initially an open question whether additional DNA structures were needed to explain its overall topology. there were initially questions about how it might affect DNA replication. In 1963, autoradiographs of the E. coli chromosome demonstrated that it was a single circular molecule that is replicated at a pair of replication forks at which both new DNA strands are being synthesized. The two daughter chromosomes after replication would therefore be topologically linked. The separation of the two linked daughter DNA strands during replication either required DNA to have a net-zero helical twist, or for the strands to be cut, crossed, and rejoined. It was this apparent contradictions that early non-helical models attempted to address until the discovery of topoisomerases in 1970 resolved the problem. +In the 1960s and 1970s, a number of structures were hypothesised that would give a net-zero helical twist over the length of the DNA, either by being fully straight throughout or by alternating right-handed and left-handed helical twists. For example, in 1969, a linear tetramer structure was hypothesised, and in 1976, a structure with alternating sections of right-handed and left-handed helix was independently proposed by two different groups. The alternating twists model was initially presented with the helicity changing every half turn, but later long stretches of each helical direction were later proposed. However, these models suffered from a lack of experimental support. Under torsional stress, a Z-DNA structure can form with opposite twist to B-form DNA, but this is rare within the cellular environment. The discovery of topoisomerases and gyrases, enzymes that can change the linking number of circular nucleic acids and thus "unwind" and "rewind" the replicating bacterial chromosome, solved the topological objections to the B-form DNA helical structure. Indeed, in the absence of these topology-altering enzymes, small circular viral and plasmid DNA are inseparable supporting structure whose strands are topologically locked together. + +Non-helical DNA proposals have therefore dropped from mainstream science. + + +=== Confirmation of helical structure === +Initially, there had been questions of whether the solved DNA structures were artefacts of the X-ray crystallography techniques used. However, the structure of DNA was subsequently confirmed in solution via gel electrophoretic methods and later via solution NMR and AFM indicating that the crystallography process did not distort it. The structure of DNA in complex with nucleosomes, helicases, and numerous other DNA binding proteins also supported its biological relevance in vivo. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Polar_Sea-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Polar_Sea-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d1bc63287 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Polar_Sea-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Open Polar Sea" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Polar_Sea" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:34.688578+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Open Polar Sea was a conjectured ice-free body of water that was believed to encircle the North Pole. Although this theory was widely accepted and served as a basis for many exploratory expeditions aimed at reaching the North Pole by sea or discovering a navigable route between Europe and the Pacific via the North Pole, it was ultimately proven to be untrue. + + +== History == +The theory that the North Pole region might be a practical sea route goes back to at least the 16th century, when it was suggested by English cartographer Robert Thorne (1492-1532). The explorers William Barents and Henry Hudson also believed in the Open Polar Sea. For a time, the theory was put aside because of the practical experience of navigators who encountered impenetrable ice as they went north. +However, the idea was revived again in the mid-19th century by theoretical geographers, such as Matthew F. Maury and August Petermann. At the time, interest in polar exploration was high because of the search for John Franklin's missing expedition, and many would-be polar explorers took up the theory, including Elisha Kent Kane, Dr. Isaac Israel Hayes, and George Washington De Long. +It was believed that once a ship broke through the regions of thick ice that had stopped previous explorers, a temperate sea would be found beyond it. + + +== Support == +Although it is now known that the North Pole was covered with thick ice for much of the period, the Open Polar Sea was a popular theory in the 16th to the 19th centuries, and many arguments were made to justify its existence: + +Since sea ice was erroneously believed to form only near land, if there were no land near the North Pole, there would be no ice. +Since there is perpetual sun during the Arctic summer, it would melt all the ice. +Russian explorers had found large polynyas (areas of open water) north of Svalbard and so there were surely other areas of open water elsewhere. +Maury, Petermann, and other scientists who studied ocean currents in the 19th century hypothesized that warm northward currents such as the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio Current must rise to the surface and result in an ice-free sea near the pole. +Extrapolation of temperature readings taken in subpolar regions indicated that the region of greatest cold would be at about 80°N, instead of at the North Pole. +Migration patterns of certain animals seemed to suggest that the polar region was a hospitable place for them to live. + + +== Disproof and re-emergence == + +The Open Polar Sea was debunked gradually by the failure of the expeditions in the 1810s to the 1880s to navigate the polar sea. Reports of open water by earlier explorers, such as Elisha Kent Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes, fueled optimism in the theory in the 1850s and 1860s. Support faded when George W. De Long sailed USS Jeannette into the Bering Strait in the hope of finding an open gateway to the North Pole and was met by a sea of ice. After a long drift, pack ice crushed the Jeannette, and her survivors returned home with first hand accounts of an ice-covered polar sea. Other explorers such as British explorer George Nares confirmed it. +When Fridtjof Nansen and Otto Sverdrup drifted through the polar ice pack in Fram in 1893 to 1895, the Open Polar Sea was a defunct theory. +Nevertheless, scientific studies of global warming in the 2000s project that by the end of the 21st century, the annual summer withdrawal of the polar ice cap could expose large areas of the Arctic Ocean as open water, and an ice-free Arctic is possible in the future because of Arctic shrinkage. Although the North Pole itself could potentially remain ice-covered in winter, a navigable seasonal sea passage from Europe to the Pacific could develop along the north coast of Asia. + + +== See also == +Northwest Passage +Superseded theories in science + + +== References == + + +=== General references === +Potter, R. (2004). "The Open Polar Sea". Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Routledge. +Robinson, M. (2006). The Coldest Crucible: Arctic Exploration and American Culture. Chicago. +Robinson, M. (2006). "Reconsidering the Theory of the Open Polar Sea". Extremes: Oceanography's Adventures at the Poles. +Sides, H. (2014). In the Kingdom of Ice: The Grand and Terrible Polar Voyage of the U.S.S. Jeannette. New York: Doubleday. +Wright, J. K. (1966). The Open Polar Sea, Human Nature in Geography. Cambridge. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_square-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_square-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38ef281b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_square-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Optical square" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_square" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:27.471188+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The optical square uses a pentaprism to reflect and refract a beam or sighting 90 degrees, it is used in pairs in surveying and in a singular block in metrology. +In optical square +A Horizon glass is placed at an angle of 120° with the horizon sight. +The Index glass is placed at an angle of 105° with the Index sight. +Angle between Index glass and Horizon glass is 45°. + + +== Metrology == +Used with an autocollimator or angle dekkor and mirror it can be used for machine tool axis squareness checking and for measuring the squareness of surfaces. It has two mirrors at 45 degree to each other. One is half-silvered, called horizon glass, and other is fully silvered, called index glass. It measures angle by double reflection. Two prisms can be used as an optical square. + + +== Optical square in surveying == + +In surveying it is used both as a hand held tool for sighting between two poles (often with a plumb bob hung from the handle) and also mounted on a Jacob's staff. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..360487cdd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "Orrery" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:28.640506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An orrery ( ) is a mechanical model of the Solar System that illustrates or predicts the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons, usually according to the heliocentric model. It may also represent the relative sizes of these bodies; however, since accurate scaling is often not practical due to the actual large ratio differences, it may use a scaled-down approximation. Mechanical planetary models are known to have existed since the Ancient Greeks, and are known by various names, but the term orrery is derived from a device produced c. 1712 by John Rowley and named for his patron Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery. +Orreries are typically driven by a clockwork mechanism with a globe representing the Sun at the centre, and with a planet at the end of each of a series of arms. + +== History == + +=== Ancient === + +Discovered in 1901 in a shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera in the Mediterranean Sea, the Antikythera mechanism has been reconstructed as exhibiting the diurnal motions of the Sun, Moon, and the five planets known to the ancient Greeks. The geocentric mechanism has been dated between 205 and 87 BC and is considered one of the first orreries, likely used as a mechanical calculator to calculate astronomical positions. +Cicero, the Roman philosopher and politician writing in the first century BC, made reference to planetary mechanical models in his writings. According to Cicero, the Greek polymaths Thales and Posidonius each constructed a device modelling the motion of celestial bodies. + +=== Medieval === + +In 1348, Giovanni Dondi built the first known clock driven mechanism of the system. It displays the ecliptic position of the Moon, Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn according to the complicated geocentric Ptolemaic planetary theories. The clock itself is lost, but Dondi left a complete description of its astronomic gear trains. + +=== Early Modern === +At the court of William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel two complicated astronomic clocks were built in 1561 and 1563–1568. These use four sides to show the ecliptical positions of the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Moon, Sun and Dragon (Nodes of the Moon) according to Ptolemy, a calendar, the sunrise and sunset, and an automated celestial sphere with an animated Sun symbol which, for the first time on a celestial globe, shows the real position of the Sun, including the equation of time. The clocks are now on display in Kassel at the Astronomisch-Physikalisches Kabinett and in Dresden at the Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon. +In De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, published in Nuremberg in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the Western teaching of a geocentric universe in which the Sun revolved daily around the Earth. He observed that some Greek philosophers such as Aristarchus of Samos had proposed a heliocentric universe. This simplified the apparent epicyclic motions of the planets, making it feasible to represent the planets' paths as simple circles. This could be modeled by the use of gears. Tycho Brahe's improved instruments made precise observations of the skies (1576–1601), and from these Johannes Kepler (1621) deduced that planets orbited the Sun in ellipses. In 1687 Isaac Newton explained the cause of elliptic motion in his theory of gravitation. +As late as 1650, P. Schirleus built a geocentric planetarium with the Sun as a planet, and with Mercury and Venus revolving around the Sun as its moons. + +==== The eponymous orrery ==== +There is an orrery built by clock makers George Graham and Thomas Tompion dated c. 1710 in the History of Science Museum, Oxford. Graham gave the first model, or its design, to the celebrated instrument maker John Rowley of London to make a copy for Prince Eugene of Savoy. Rowley was commissioned to make another copy for his patron Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery (in County Cork, Ireland), from which the device took its name in English. The name orrery may be a pun on the term horary, a term related to timekeeping. It was produced c. 1712 by John Rowley. The plaque on it reads: + +Orrery invented by Graham 1700 +Improved by Rowley, and presented by him to John [sic] Earl of Orrery, after whom it was named at the suggestion of Richard Steele. +The attribution of the naming to Richard Steele is spurious, as Steele himself attributes the naming to Rowley in his 1713 article popularizing the orrery. This oft-repeated attribution error ultimately derives from a minor error in the writings of the lecturer John T. Desaguliers. +The device is a tellurion. + +==== Other orreries ==== + +Independently, Christiaan Huygens published in 1703 details of a heliocentric planetary machine which he had built while living in Paris between 1665 and 1681. He calculated the gear trains needed to represent a year of 365.242 days, and used that to produce the cycles of the principal planets. +Joseph Wright's painting A Philosopher giving a Lecture on the Orrery (c. 1766), which hangs in the Derby Museum and Art Gallery, depicts a group listening to a lecture by a natural philosopher. The Sun in a brass orrery provides the only light in the room. The orrery depicted in the painting has rings, which give it an appearance similar to that of an armillary sphere. The demonstration was thereby able to depict eclipses. +To put this in chronological context, in 1762 John Harrison's marine chronometer first enabled accurate measurement of longitude. In 1766, astronomer Johann Daniel Titius first demonstrated that the mean distance of each planet from the Sun could be represented by the following progression: + + + + + + + + 4 + + + 0 + + 10 + + + , + + + + 4 + + + 3 + + 10 + + + , + + + + 4 + + + 6 + + 10 + + + , + + + + 4 + + + 12 + + 10 + + + , + + + + 4 + + + 24 + + 10 + + + , + . + . + . + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {4+0}{10}},{\frac {4+3}{10}},{\frac {4+6}{10}},{\frac {4+12}{10}},{\frac {4+24}{10}},...} + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c648b2b6b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Orrery" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:28.640506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +That is, 0.4, 0.7, 1.0, 1.6, 2.8, ... The numbers refer to astronomical units, the mean distance between Sun and Earth, which is 1.496 × 108 km (93 × 106 miles). The Derby Orrery does not show mean distance, but demonstrated the relative planetary movements. +The Eisinga Planetarium was built from 1774 to 1781 by Eise Eisinga in his home in Franeker, in the Netherlands. It displays the planets across the width of a room's ceiling, and has been in operation almost continually since it was created. This orrery is a planetarium in both senses of the word: a complex machine showing planetary orbits, and a theatre for depicting the planets' movement. Eisinga house was bought by the Dutch Royal family who gave him a pension. + +In 1764, Benjamin Martin devised a new type of planetary model, in which the planets were carried on brass arms leading from a series of concentric or coaxial tubes. With this construction it was difficult to make the planets revolve, and to get the moons to turn around the planets. Martin suggested that the conventional orrery should consist of three parts: the planetarium where the planets revolved around the Sun, the tellurion (also tellurian or tellurium) which showed the inclined axis of the Earth and how it revolved around the Sun, and the lunarium which showed the eccentric rotations of the Moon around the Earth. In one orrery, these three motions could be mounted on a common table, separately using the central spindle as a prime mover. + +== Workings == +All orreries are planetariums, in the sense of planetary mechanical models. (That sense of planetarium was the common one historically. The word planetarium has shifted meaning, and now usually refers to hemispherical theatres in which images of the night sky are projected onto an overhead surface.) The term orrery has only existed since 1714. A grand orrery is one that includes the outer planets known at the time of its construction. Orreries can range widely in size from hand-held to room-sized. An orrery is used to demonstrate the motion of the planets, while a mechanical device used to predict eclipses and transits is called an astrarium. +An orrery should properly include the Sun, the Earth and the Moon (plus optionally other planets). A model that only includes the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun is called a tellurion or tellurium, and one which only includes the Earth and the Moon is a lunarium. A jovilabe is a model of Jupiter and its moons. + +A planetarium will show the orbital period of each planet and the rotation rate, as shown in the table above. A tellurion will show the Earth with the Moon revolving around the Sun. It will use the angle of inclination of the equator from the table above to show how it rotates around its own axis. It will show the Earth's Moon, rotating around the Earth. A lunarium is designed to show the complex motions of the Moon as it revolves around the Earth. +Orreries are usually not built to scale. Human orreries, where humans move about as the planets, have also been constructed, but most are temporary. There is a permanent human orrery at Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland, which has the six ancient planets, Ceres, and comets Halley and Encke. Uranus and beyond are also shown, but in a fairly limited way. Another is at Sky's the Limit Observatory and Nature Center in Twentynine Palms, California; it is a true to scale (20 billion to one), true to position (accurate to within four days) human orrery. The first four planets are relatively close to one another, but the next four require a certain amount of hiking in order to visit them. A census of all permanent human orreries has been initiated by the French group F-HOU with a new effort to study their impact for education in schools. A map of known human orreries is available. +A normal mechanical clock could be used to produce an extremely simple orrery to demonstrate the principle, with the Sun in the centre, Earth on the minute hand and Jupiter on the hour hand; Earth would make 12 revolutions around the Sun for every 1 revolution of Jupiter. As Jupiter's actual year is 11.86 Earth years long, the model would lose accuracy rapidly. + +=== Projection === +Many planetariums have a projection orrery, which projects onto the dome of the planetarium a Sun with either dots or small images of the planets. These usually are limited to the planets from Mercury to Saturn, although some include Uranus. The light sources for the planets are projected onto mirrors which are geared to a motor which drives the images on the dome. Typically the Earth will circle the Sun in one minute, while the other planets will complete an orbit in time periods proportional to their actual motion. Thus Venus, which takes 224.7 days to orbit the Sun, will take 37 seconds to complete an orbit on an orrery, and Jupiter will take 11 minutes, 52 seconds. +Some planetariums have taken advantage of this to use orreries to simulate planets and their moons. Thus Mercury orbits the Sun in 0.24 of an Earth year, while Phobos and Deimos orbit Mars in a similar 4:1 time ratio. Planetarium operators wishing to show this have placed a red cap on the Sun (to make it resemble Mars) and turned off all the planets but Mercury and Earth. Similar approximations can be used to show Pluto and its five moons. + +== Notable examples == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b3164474 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Orrery" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrery" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:28.640506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Shoemaker John Fulton of Fenwick, Ayrshire, built three between 1823 and 1833. The last is in Glasgow's Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum. +The Eisinga Planetarium built by a wool carder named Eise Eisinga in his own living room, in the small city of Franeker in Friesland, is in fact an orrery. It was constructed between 1774 and 1781. The base of the model faces down from the ceiling of the room, with most of the mechanical works in the space above the ceiling. It is driven by a pendulum clock, which has 9 weights or ponds. The planets move around the model in real time. +An innovative concept is to have people play the role of the moving planets and other Solar System objects. Such a model, called a human orrery, has been laid out at the Armagh Observatory. +In 2024, the LEGO Group commercially produced an orrery of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. The model is assembled exclusively from LEGO elements and reproduces solar and lunar orbits, as well Earth's rotation about a tilted axis. + +== In popular culture == +The construction system Meccano is a popular tool for constructing highly accurate orreries. Model 391, the first Meccano Orrery, was described in the June 1918 Meccano Manual. + +== See also == + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Buick, Tony (2020). Orreries, Clocks, and London Society: The Evolution of Astronomical Instruments and Their Makers, 2nd Ed. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-61776-9. + +== External links == + +The 'Grand' Orrery, Whipple Museum of the History of Science, University of Cambridge, England +JPL Solar System Simulator +Long Now Foundation Orrery +University of Pennsylvania Orrery +Electric Orrery - The Schools' Observatory - an interactive web-paged orrery simulation hosted by Liverpool John Moore University, Liverpool, England +NASA Eyes on the Solar System - an interactive web-based orrery simulation hosted by NASA \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panbabylonism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panbabylonism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..743c01e4b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panbabylonism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Panbabylonism" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panbabylonism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:35.884640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Panbabylonism (also known as Panbabylonianism) was the school of thought that considered the cultures and religions of the Middle East and civilization in general to be ultimately derived from Babylonian myths which in turn they viewed as being based on Babylonian astronomy, often in hidden ways. + + +== Overview == +A related school of thought is the Bible-Babel school, which regarded the Hebrew Bible and Judaism to be directly derived from Mesopotamian (Babylonian) mythology; both are forms of hyperdiffusionism in archaeology. +Both theories were popular in Germany, and Panbabylonism remained popular from the late 19th century to World War I. Prominent advocates included Friedrich Delitzsch, Peter Jensen, Alfred Jeremias and Hugo Winckler. +Panbabylonist thought largely disappeared from legitimate scholarship after the death of one of its greatest proponents, Hugo Winckler. The claims of the school were largely discredited by astronomical and chronological arguments of Franz Xaver Kugler (a Jesuit priest). + + +== See also == + +Ancient near eastern cosmology +Ancient Semitic religion +Christianity and Paganism +Comparative mythology +Comparative religion +Mesopotamian religion +The Two Babylons +Worship of heavenly bodies + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Anonymous. (1912). Some Recent Books on Panbabylonism. Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 1 (3): 563–578. +G. H. Richardson. (1916). The Abuse of Biblical Archaeology. The Biblical World 47 (2): 94–99. +Bill T. Arnold and David B. Weisberg. (2002). "A Centennial Review of Friedrich Delitzsch's "Babel und Bibel" Lectures." Journal of Biblical Literature 121/3: 441–57. + + +== External links == +Panbabylonism. New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2003. +The Development, Heyday, and Demise of Panbabylonism by Gary D. Thompson. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passemant_astronomical_clock-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passemant_astronomical_clock-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..48d4683eb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passemant_astronomical_clock-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Passemant astronomical clock" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passemant_astronomical_clock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:29.815736+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Passemant astronomical clock is an astronomical clock designed by Claude-Simeon Passemant in the eighteenth century. It is displayed in the Salon de la pendule in the petit appartement du roi on the first floor of Versailles, France. The clock set the official time in France for the first time in the kingdom's history. + + +== Description == +The clock is an exceptional rococo work over 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in height, crowned with a moving celestial sphere. It shows the date, time, real time average phases of the moon and Copernican planetary motion. The large astronomical dials mark the rising and setting of the sun and moon every day. Earth is represented by a bronze globe on which all countries are engraved with the main cities. This globe is placed among the rocks and waterfalls, which serve as a universal horizon. +The mechanism is designed to be able to display the date until the end of the year 9999. + + +== Creators == +The clock mechanism was designed by engineer Claude-Siméon Passemant (1702–1769) and executed by the clockmaker Louis Dauthiau (1730–1809). The rococo-style gilt-bronze box protecting the mechanism was made in 1753 by sculptor Jean-Jacques Caffieri (1735–1792) and bronze-founder Philippe Caffieri. + + +== History == +After being reviewed and approved by the French Academy of Sciences in August 1749, the clock was presented to Louis XV in Choisy by the duc de Chaulnes on 7 September 1750. The King acquired it the same year. In January 1754, the clock took its place among the astronomical clocks of Versailles. The fact that it was placed in the Salon de la pendule demonstrates the interest that Louis XV had in the mechanical arts through clockmaking. Indeed, the room was so named because the dials of clocks were set into the wall panelling. + + +== See also == +Gnomon of Saint-Sulpice + + +== References == + + +== External links == +(in English) Astronomical clock (sciences.chateauversailles.fr) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Marmet-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Marmet-0.md index 49d2ccf21..249c2aae1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Marmet-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Marmet-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Marmet" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:21:24.088731+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:02.820714+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ff2aa578a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Pedro Nunes" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:06.341524+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pedro Nunes (Portuguese: [ˈpeðɾu ˈnunɨʃ]; Latin: Petrus Nonius; 1502 – 11 August 1578) was a Portuguese mathematician, cosmographer, and professor, probably from a New Christian (of Jewish origin) family. +Considered one of the greatest mathematicians of his time, Nunes is best known for being the first to approach navigation and cartography with mathematical tools. Among other accomplishments, he was the first to propose the idea of a loxodrome (a rhumb line), and was the inventor of several measuring devices, including the nonius (from which the Vernier scale was derived), named after his Latin surname. + +== Life == +Little is known about Nunes' early education, life or family background, only that he was born in Alcácer do Sal in Portugal, his origins are possibly Jewish and that his grandchildren spent a few years behind bars after they were accused by the Portuguese Inquisition of professing and secretly practicing Judaism. He studied at the University of Salamanca, maybe from 1517 until 1522. He returned to Lisbon c. 1529 and started teaching at the university. +He continued his medical studies but held various teaching posts within the University of Lisbon, including Moral, Philosophy, Logic and Metaphysics. He obtained his doctorate in medicine in 1532. When, in 1537, the Portuguese University located in Lisbon returned to Coimbra, he moved to the re-founded University of Coimbra to teach mathematics, a post he held until 1562. This was a new post in the University of Coimbra and it may have been established to provide instruction in the technical requirements for navigation: clearly a topic of great importance in Portugal at this period, when the control of sea trade was the primary source of Portuguese wealth. Mathematics became an independent post in 1544. +In addition to teaching he was appointed Royal Cosmographer in 1529 and Chief Royal Cosmographer in 1547: a post which he held until his death. +In 1531, King John III of Portugal charged Nunes with the education of his younger brothers Luís and Henry. Years later Nunes was also charged with the education of the king's grandson, and future king, Sebastian. +It is possible that, while at the University of Coimbra, future astronomer Christopher Clavius attended Pedro Nunes' classes, and was influenced by his works. Clavius, proponent of the Gregorian Calendar, the greatest figure of the Collegio Romano, the great center of Roman Catholic knowledge of that period, classified Nunes as “supreme mathematical genius". Nunes died in Coimbra. + +== Work == +Pedro Nunes lived in a transition period, during which science was changing from valuing theoretical knowledge (which defined the main role of a scientist/mathematician as commenting on previous authors), to providing experimental data, both as a source of information and as a method of confirming theories. Nunes was, above all, one of the last great commentators, as is shown by his first published work “Tratado da Esfera”, enriched with comments and additions that denote a profound knowledge of the difficult cosmography of the period. He also acknowledged the value of experimentation. +In his Tratado da sphera he argued for a common and universal diffusion of knowledge. Accordingly, he not only published works in Latin, at that time science's lingua franca, aiming for an audience of European scholars, but also in Portuguese, and Spanish (Livro de Algebra). + +=== Navigation === + +Much of Nunes' work related to navigation. He was the first to understand why a ship maintaining a steady course would not travel along a great circle, the shortest path between two points on Earth, but would instead follow a spiral course, called a loxodrome. These lines —also called rhumb lines— maintain a fixed angle with the meridians. In other words, loxodromic curves are directly related to the construction of the Nunes connection —also called navigator connection. +In his Treaty defending the sea chart, Nunes argued that a nautical chart should have its parallels and meridians shown as straight lines. Yet he was unsure how to solve the problems that this caused: a situation that lasted until Mercator developed the projection bearing his name. The Mercator Projection is the system which is still used. + +=== Geometry === +Nunes also solved the problem of finding the day with the shortest twilight duration, for any given position, and its duration. This problem per se is not greatly important, yet it shows the geometric genius of Nunes as it was a problem which was independently tackled by Johann and Jakob Bernoulli more than a century later with less success. They could find a solution to the problem of the shortest day, but failed to determine its duration, possibly because they got lost in the details of differential calculus which, at that time, had only recently been developed. The achievement also shows that Nunes was a pioneer in solving maxima and minima problems, which became a common requirement only in the next century using differential calculus. + +=== Cosmology === +He was probably the last major mathematician to make relevant improvements to the ptolemaic system (a geocentric model describing the relative motion of the Earth and Sun). With time, in a slow and complex process, the geocentric model was replaced by the heliocentric system proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus. Nunes knew Copernicus' work but referred only briefly to it in his published works, with the purpose of correcting some mathematical errors. +Most of Nunes' achievements were possible because of his profound understanding of spherical trigonometry and his ability to transpose Ptolemy's adaptations of Euclidean geometry to it. + +=== Inventions === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f15335b59 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Pedro Nunes" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Nunes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:06.341524+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Nunes worked on several practical nautical problems concerning course correction as well as attempting to develop more accurate devices to determine a ship's position. +He created the nonius to improve the accuracy of instruments (such as the quadrant). This device consisted of a number of concentric circles traced on the instrument, with each successive circle divided into one fewer division than the adjacent outer circle.Thus, the outermost quadrant would comprise 90° divided into 90 equal parts; the next inner quadrant would have 89 divisions, the next 88, and so on. When an angle was measured, the circle and the division on which the alidade fell was noted. A table was then consulted to provide the exact measure. +The nonius was used by Tycho Brahe, who considered it too complex. The method inspired improved systems by Christopher Clavius and Jacob Curtius. These were eventually improved further by Pierre Vernier in 1631, which reduced the nonius to the Vernier scale that includes two scales, one of them fixed and the other movable. Vernier himself used to say that his invention was a perfected nonius and for a long time it was known as the “nonius”, even in France. In some languages, the Vernier scale is still named after Nunes, for example nonieskala in Swedish. +Pedro Nunes also worked on some mechanics problems, from a mathematical point of view. + +== Influence == +Nunes was very influential internationally, e.g. on the work of John Dee and Edward Wright. + +== Honours == +One of the best known Lisbon public Secondary/High Schools is named after Pedro Nunes, Escola Secundária de Pedro Nunes (teaching 7th to 12th grade). It was founded, in 1906, as Lyceu Central da 3ª Zona Escolar de Lisboa (Central Liceum of the 3rd School Area of Lisbon). Over the years had known several designations: Lyceu Central de Pedro Nunes (1911–1930), Liceu Normal de Lisboa (1930–1937), Liceu Pedro Nunes (1937–1956), Liceu Normal de Pedro Nunes (1956–1978) and Escola Secundária de Pedro Nunes (1978–present), but is still known as Liceu Pedro Nunes. Multiple Portuguese personalities have studied in Pedro Nunes. The current headquarters commemorated its centenary in 2011, after being refurbished and modernized between 2008 and 2010. +He was featured on 100 escudos coins. +The Instituto Pedro Nunes in Coimbra, a business incubator and a center of innovation and technology transfer founded by the University of Coimbra, is named after Pedro Nunes. +Asteroid 5313 Nunes is named after him +TAP Air Portugal has named an Airbus A330-202 airplane after him, registered CS-TOP. + +== Works == + +Pedro Nunes translated, commented and expanded some of the major works in his field, and he also published original research. +Printed work: + +Tratado da sphera com a Theorica do Sol e da Lua (Treatise on the Sphere with the theory of the Sun and the Moon), (1537). From Tractatus de Sphæra by Johannes de Sacrobosco, Theoricae novæ planetarum by Georg Purbach and the Geography by Claudius Ptolemaeus. Included original texts: Tratado em defensam da carta de marear (Treatise in defense of the nautical chart), (1537); Tratado sobre certas dúvidas da navegação (Treatise about some doubts of navigation), (1537) +De crepusculis (About the Twilight), (1542). +De crepusculis (in Latin). Lisboa: Luiz Rodrigues. 1542. +De erratis Orontii Finæi (About the errors of Oronce Fine), (1546). +Petri Nonii Salaciensis Opera, (1566). Expanded, corrected and reedited as De arte adque ratione navigandi in 1573. +Livro de algebra en arithmetica y geometria (Book of Algebra in Arithmetics and Geometry), (1567). +Manuscripts: + +[Manuscrito de Florença] (Florence manuscript), (written in the period 1537-1540) +Some modern reprints: + +Obras (4 vol.), Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Lisboa, 1940-1960 (No ISBN at the books' record at the Portuguese National Library) +Obras (6 vol.), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa, 2002–2011, ISBN 972-31-0985-9 and ISBN 972-31-1084-9 (two more volumes are likely to be published) + +== Notes == + +== References == +Mourão, Ronaldo Rogério de Freitas, Dicionário das Descobertas, Pergaminho, Lisboa, 2001, ISBN 972-711-402-4 +Dias, J. S. da Silva, Os descobrimentos e a problemática cultural do século XVI (3rd ed.), Presença, Lisboa, 1988 +Calafate, Pedro, Pedro Nunes, at Instituto Camões' site (in Portuguese) +Printed works of Pedro Nunes in the 16th century, at Portuguese National Library (in Portuguese) + +== External links == +Pedro Nunes page (FCUL) Archived 2020-10-23 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Louis_Guinand-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Louis_Guinand-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f1ed5618 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Louis_Guinand-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Pierre-Louis Guinand" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Louis_Guinand" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:55.695857+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pierre-Louis Guinand (1748–1824) was a Swiss lens maker. who in the late 1700s came up with a breakthrough for making better quality and larger glass, and in time went on to teach a young Fraunhofer at Joseph von Utzschneider's (1763-1840) glassworks, and eventually started his own optical glass works. Guinand would supply glass for the Paris Observatory telescopes and also Cauchoix. He was a pioneer in the manufacture of optical glass for microscopes, telescopes, glasses and other optical instruments. + + +== See also == +Markree Observatory#Pierre-Louis Guinand + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +King, Henry C. (1979). The History of the Telescope. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 176–9, 188–9, 191–2, 196, 204, 252. ISBN 978-0-486-23893-7. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Vernier-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Vernier-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..21c762d61 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Vernier-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Pierre Vernier" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Vernier" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:16.630856+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pierre Vernier (French pronunciation: [pjɛʁ vɛʁnje]; 19 August 1580 at Ornans, Franche-Comté (at that time ruled by the Spanish Habsburgs, now part of France) – 14 September 1637, same location) was a mathematician and instrument inventor. He was the inventor and eponym of the vernier scale used in measuring devices. + + +== Life == +He was born in Ornans, France, in 1580. He was taught science by his father. He became captain and castellan of the castle at Ornans, for the King of Spain. He was also later councillor and director general of economy in the County of Burgundy. +In Brussels, in the year 1631, Vernier published his treatise La construction, l'usage, et les propriétés du quadrant nouveau de mathématique, and dedicated it to the Infanta. In it, he described the ingenious device which now bears his name, the vernier scale. +To a quadrant with a primary scale in half degrees Vernier proposed to attach a movable sector, thirty-one half degrees in length but divided into thirty equal parts (each part therefore consisting of a half-degree plus one minute). In measuring an angle, minutes could be easily reckoned by noticing which division line of the sector coincided with a division line of the quadrant. +Christopher Clavius had earlier mentioned this idea but had not proposed to attach the scale permanently to the instrument. +The name vernier is now applied to the small movable scale attached to a caliper, sextant, barometer, or other graduated instrument and was given by Jérôme Lalande. Lalande showed that the previous name, nonius after Pedro Nunes, belonged more properly to a different contrivance. The name nonius continued to be applied to the vernier until the beginning of the 19th century. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vernier, Pierre" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. +Linehan, Paul Henry (1912). "Pierre Vernier" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. + + +== External links == +O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Pierre Vernier", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_table-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_table-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7144d85db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_table-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Plane table" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_table" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:32.218499+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A plane table (plain table prior to 1830) is a device used in surveying, site mapping, exploration mapping, coastal navigation mapping, and related disciplines to provide a solid and level surface on which to make field drawings, charts and maps. The early use of the name plain table reflected its simplicity and plainness rather than its flatness. +"Plane" refers to the table being both flat and levelled (horizontal). + + +== History == + +The earliest mention of a plane table dates to 1551 in Abel Foullon's "Usage et description de l'holomètre", published in Paris. However, since Foullon's description was of a complete, fully developed instrument, it must have been invented earlier. +A brief description was also added to the 1591 edition of Digge's Pantometria. The first mention of the device in English was by Cyprian Lucar in 1590. +The Swiss instrument maker Leonhard Zubler published an account of the plane table in Novum instrumentum geometricum, 1607. He used the term Instrumentum Chorographicum crediting its invention to Philipp Eberhard, a fellow Swiss instrument maker based in Zurich. + +Some have credited Johann Richter, also known as Johannes Praetorius, a Nuremberg mathematician, in 1610 with the first plane table, but this appears to be incorrect. +The plane table became a popular instrument for surveying. Its use was widely taught. Some considered it a substandard instrument compared to other devices such as the theodolite, since it was relatively easy to use. By allowing the use of graphical methods rather than mathematical calculations, it could be used by those with less education than other instruments. The addition of a camera to the plane table, as was done from 1890 by Sebastian Finsterwalder in conjunction with a phototheodolite, established photogrammetry in spatial and temporal surveying. + + +== Construction == +A plane table consists of a smooth table surface mounted on a sturdy base. The connection between the table top and the base permits one to level the table precisely, using bubble levels, in a horizontal plane. The base, a tripod, is designed to support the table over a specific point on land. By adjusting the length of the legs, one can bring the table level regardless of the roughness of the terrain. + + +== Usage == +In use, a plane table is set over a point and brought to precise horizontal level. A drawing sheet is attached to the surface and an alidade is used to sight objects of interest. The alidade, in modern examples of the instrument a rule with a telescopic sight, can then be used to construct a line on the drawing that is in the direction of the object of interest. +By using the alidade as a surveying level, information on the topography of the site can be directly recorded on the drawing as elevations. Distances to the objects can be measured directly or by the use of stadia marks in the telescope of the alidade. + + +== References == + +Raymond Davis, Francis Foote, Joe Kelly, Surveying, Theory and Practice, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966 LC 64-66263 + + +== External links == +Telescopic Plane Table Alidade in the collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. This image shows the bubble levels on the base. +http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/surveying/1933-7.aspx \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)-0.md index ef669df58..b840d5ab9 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:25:49.328815+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:34.501965+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..117639a39 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Quadrant (instrument)" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:35.683233+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A quadrant is an instrument used to measure angles up to 90°. Different versions of this instrument could be used to calculate various readings, such as longitude, latitude, and time of day. It was first proposed by Ptolemy as a better kind of astrolabe. Several different variations of the instrument were later produced by medieval Muslim astronomers. Mural quadrants were important astronomical instruments in 18th-century European observatories, establishing a use for positional astronomy. + +== Etymology == +The term quadrant, meaning one fourth, refers to the fact that early versions of the instrument were derived from astrolabes. The quadrant condensed the workings of the astrolabe into an area one fourth the size of the astrolabe face; it was essentially a quarter of an astrolabe. + +== History == + +During Rigvedic times in ancient India, quadrants called 'Tureeyam's were used to measure the extent of a great solar eclipse. The use of a Tureeyam for observing a solar eclipse by Rishi Atri is described in the fifth mandala of the Rigveda, most likely between c. 1500 and 1000 BC. +Early accounts of a quadrant also come from Ptolemy's Almagest around AD 150. He described a "plinth" that could measure the altitude of the noon sun by projecting the shadow of a peg on a graduated arc of 90 degrees. This quadrant was unlike later versions of the instrument; it was larger and consisted of several moving parts. Ptolemy's version was a derivative of the astrolabe and the purpose of this rudimentary device was to measure the meridian angle of the sun. +Islamic astronomers in the Middle Ages improved upon these ideas and constructed quadrants throughout the Middle East, in observatories such as Marageh, Rey and Samarkand. At first these quadrants were usually very large and stationary, and could be rotated to any bearing to give both the altitude and azimuth for any celestial body. As Islamic astronomers made advancements in astronomical theory and observational accuracy they are credited with developing four different types of quadrants during the Middle Ages and beyond. The first of these, the sine quadrant, was invented by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi in the 9th century at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. The other types were the universal quadrant, the horary quadrant and the astrolabe quadrant. +During the Middle Ages the knowledge of these instruments spread to Europe. In the 13th century Jewish astronomer Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon was crucial in further developing the quadrant. He was a skilled astronomer and wrote several volumes on the topic, including an influential book detailing how to build and use an improved version of the quadrant. The quadrant that he invented came to be known as the novus quadrans, or new quadrant. This device was revolutionary because it was the first quadrant to be built that did not involve several moving parts and thus could be much smaller and more portable. +Tibbon's Hebrew manuscripts were translated into Latin and improved upon by Danish scholar Peter Nightingale several years later. Because of the translation, Tibbon, or Prophatius Judaeus as he was known in Latin, became an influential name in astronomy. His new quadrant was based upon the idea that the stereographic projection that defines a planispheric astrolabe can still work if the astrolabe parts are folded into a single quadrant. The result was a device that was far cheaper, easier to use and more portable than a standard astrolabe. Tibbon's work had a far reach and influenced Copernicus, Christopher Clavius and Erasmus Reinhold; and his manuscript was referenced in Dante's Divine Comedy. +As the quadrant became smaller and thus more portable, its value for navigation was soon realized. The first documented use of the quadrant to navigate at sea is in 1461, by Diogo Gomes. Sailors began by measuring the height of Polaris to ascertain their latitude. This application of quadrants is generally attributed to Arab sailors who traded along the east coast of Africa and often travelled out of sight of land. It soon became more common to take the height of the sun at a given time due to the fact that Polaris is not visible south of the equator. +In 1618, the English mathematician Edmund Gunter further adapted the quadrant with an invention that came to be known as the Gunter quadrant. This pocket-sized quadrant was revolutionary because it was inscribed with projections of the tropics, the equator, the horizon and the ecliptic. With the correct tables one could use the quadrant to find the time, the date, the length of the day or night, the time of sunrise and sunset and the meridian. The Gunter quadrant was extremely useful but it had its drawbacks; the scales only applied to a certain latitude so the instrument's use was limited at sea. + +== Types == + +There are several types of quadrants: + +Mural quadrants, used for determining the time by measuring the altitudes of astronomical objects. Tycho Brahe created one of the largest mural quadrants. In order to tell time he would place two clocks next to the quadrant so that he could identify the minutes and seconds in relation to the measurements on the side of the instrument. +Large frame-based instruments used for measuring angular distances between astronomical objects. +Geometric quadrant used by surveyors and navigators. +Davis quadrant a compact, framed instrument used by navigators for measuring the altitude of an astronomical object. +They can also be classified as: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f138ef773 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Quadrant (instrument)" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:35.683233+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Altitude – The plain quadrant with plumb line, used to take the altitude of an object. +Gunner's – A type of clinometer used by an artillerist to measure the elevation or depression angle of a gun barrel of a cannon or mortar, both to verify proper firing elevation, and to verify the correct alignment of the weapon-mounted fire control devices. +Gunter's – A quadrant used for time determination as well as the length of day, when the sun had risen and set, the date, and the meridian using scales and curves of the quadrant along with related tables. It was invented by Edmund Gunter in 1623. Gunter's quadrant was fairly simple which allowed for its widespread and long-lasting use in the 17th and 18th centuries. Gunter expanded the basic features of other quadrants to create a convenient and comprehensive instrument. Its distinguishable feature included projections of the tropics, equator, ecliptic, and the horizon. +Islamic – King identified four types of quadrants that were produced by Muslim astronomers. +The sine quadrant (Arabic: Rubul Mujayyab) – also known as the Sinecal Quadrant – was used for solving trigonometric problems and taking astronomical observations. It was developed by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad and prevalent until the nineteenth century. Its defining feature is a graph-paper like grid on one side that is divided into sixty equal intervals on each axis and is also bounded by a 90 degree graduated arc. A cord was attached to the apex of the quadrant with a bead, for calculation, and a plumb bob. They were also sometimes drawn on the back of astrolabes. +The universal (shakkāzīya) quadrant – used for solving astronomical problems for any latitude: These quadrants had either one or two sets of shakkāzīya grids and were developed in the fourteenth century in Syria. Some astrolabes are also printed on the back with the universal quadrant like an astrolabe created by Ibn al-Sarrāj. +The horary quadrant – used for finding the time with the sun: The horary quadrant could be used to find the time either in equal or unequal (length of the day divided by twelve) hours. Different sets of markings were created for either equal or unequal hours. For measuring the time in equal hours, the horary quadrant could only be used for one specific latitude while a quadrant for unequal hours could be used anywhere based on an approximate formula. One edge of the quadrant had to be aligned with the sun, and once aligned, a bead on the plumbline attached to the centre of the quadrant showed the time of the day. A British version dated 1311 was listed by Christie's in December 2023, with the claim of being "the earliest dated English scientific instrument" without showing any provenance. A further example exists dated 1396, from European sources (Richard II of England). The oldest horary quadrant was found during an excavation in 2013 in the Hanseatic town of Zutphen (Netherlands), is dated ca. 1300, and is in the local Stedelijk Museum in Zutphen. +The astrolabe/almucantar quadrant – a quadrant developed from the astrolabe: This quadrant was marked with one half of a typical astrolabe plate as astrolabe plates are symmetrical. A cord attached from the centre of the quadrant with a bead at the other end was moved to represent the position of a celestial body (sun or a star). The ecliptic and star positions were marked on the quadrant for the above. It is not known where and when the astrolabe quadrant was invented, existent astrolabe quadrants are either of Ottoman or Mamluk origin, while there have been discovered twelfth century Egyptian and fourteenth century Syrian treatises on the astrolabe quadrant. These quadrants proved to be very popular alternatives to astrolabes. + +== Geometric quadrant == + +The geometric quadrant is a quarter-circle panel usually of wood or brass. Markings on the surface might be printed on paper and pasted to the wood or painted directly on the surface. Brass instruments had their markings scribed directly into the brass. +For marine navigation, the earliest examples were found around 1460. They were not graduated in degrees but rather had the latitudes of the most common destinations directly scribed on the limb. When in use, the navigator would sail north or south until the quadrant indicated he was at the destination's latitude, turn in the direction of the destination and sail to the destination maintaining a course of constant latitude. After 1480, more of the instruments were made with limbs graduated in degrees. +Along one edge there were two sights forming an alidade. A plumb bob was suspended by a line from the centre of the arc at the top. +In order to measure the altitude of a star, the observer would view the star through the sights and hold the quadrant so that the plane of the instrument was vertical. The plumb bob was allowed to hang vertical and the line indicated the reading on the arc's graduations. It was not uncommon for a second person to take the reading while the first concentrated on observing and holding the instrument in proper position. +The accuracy of the instrument was limited by its size and by the effect the wind or observer's motion would have on the plumb bob. For navigators on the deck of a moving ship, these limitations could be difficult to overcome. + +=== Solar observations === + +In order to avoid staring into the sun to measure its altitude, navigators could hold the instrument in front of them with the sun to their side. By having the sunward sighting vane cast its shadow on the lower sighting vane, it was possible to align the instrument to the sun. Care would have to be taken to ensure that the altitude of the centre of the sun was determined. This could be done by averaging the elevations of the upper and lower umbra in the shadow. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb49efad1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Quadrant (instrument)" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:35.683233+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Back observation quadrant === +In order to perform measurements of the altitude of the sun, a back observation quadrant was developed. +With such a quadrant, the observer viewed the horizon from a sight vane (C in the figure on the right) through a slit in the horizon vane (B). This ensured the instrument was level. The observer moved the shadow vane (A) to a position on the graduated scale so as to cause its shadow to appear coincident with the level of the horizon on the horizon vane. This angle was the elevation of the sun. + +== Framed quadrant == +Large-frame quadrants were used for astronomical measurements, notably determining the altitude of celestial objects. They could be permanent installations, such as mural quadrants. Smaller quadrants could be moved. Like the similar astronomical sextants, they could be used in a vertical plane or made adjustable for any plane. +When set on a pedestal or other mount, they could be used to measure the angular distance between any two celestial objects. +The details on their construction and use are essentially the same as those of the astronomical sextants; refer to that article for details. +Navy: Used to gauge elevation on ships cannon, the quadrant had to be placed on each gun's trunnion in order to judge range, after the loading. The reading was taken at the top of the ship's roll, the gun adjusted, and checked, again at the top of the roll, and he went to the next gun, until all that were going to be fired were ready. The ship's Gunner was informed, who in turn informed the captain...You may fire when ready...at the next high roll, the cannon would be fired. +In more modern applications, the quadrant is attached to the trunnion ring or of a large naval gun to align it to benchmarks welded to the ship's deck. This is done to ensure firing of the gun hasn't "warped the deck." A flat surface on the mount gunhouse or turret is also checked against benchmarks, also, to ensure large bearings and/or bearing races haven't changed... to "calibrate" the gun. + +== Customization == +During the Middle Ages, makers often added customization to impress the person for whom the quadrant was intended. In large, unused spaces on the instrument, a sigil or badge would often be added to denote the ownership by an important person or the allegiance of the owner. + +== See also == +Davis quadrant +List of astronomical instruments +Mural instrument + +== References == + +Maurice Daumas, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, Portman Books, London 1989 ISBN 978-0-7134-0727-3 + +== External links == + +Gunter's Quadrant Article on the Gunter's Quadrant (PDF) +Gunter's Quadrant Simulation of Gunter's Quadrant (requires Java) +A working quadrant in coin form +Richard II (1396) era equal hour horary quadrant (pictures): +back, with tables +front, with watch angles \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2405487f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "RYB color model" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:38.376563+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +RYB (an abbreviation of red–yellow–blue) is a subtractive color model used in art and applied design in which red, yellow, and blue pigments are considered primary colors. Under traditional color theory, this set of primary colors was advocated by Moses Harris, Michel Eugène Chevreul, Johannes Itten and Josef Albers, and applied by countless artists and designers. The RYB color model underpinned the color curriculum of the Bauhaus, Ulm School of Design and numerous art and design schools that were influenced by the Bauhaus, including the IIT Institute of Design (founded as the New Bauhaus), Black Mountain College, Design Department Yale University, the Shillito Design School, Sydney, and Parsons School of Design, New York. +In this context, the term primary color refers to three exemplar colors (red, yellow, and blue) as opposed to specific pigments. As illustrated, in the RYB color model, red, yellow, and blue are intermixed to create secondary color segments of orange, green, and purple. This set of primary colors emerged at a time when access to a large range of pigments was limited by availability and cost, and it encouraged artists and designers to explore the many diverse colors through mixing and intermixing a limited range of pigment colors. In art and design education, gray, red, yellow, and blue pigments were usually augmented with white and black pigments, enabling the creation of a larger gamut of colors and details including tints and shades. +Although scientifically obsolete because it does not meet the definition of a complementary color in which a neutral or black color must be mixed, it is still a model used in artistic environments, causing confusion about primary and complementary colors. It can be considered an approximation of the CMY color model. +The RYB color model relates specifically to color in the form of paint and pigment application in art and design. Other common color models include the light model (RGB) and the paint, pigment and ink CMY color model, which is much more accurate in terms of color gamut and intensity compared to the traditional RYB color model, the latter emerging in conjunction with the CMYK color model in the printing industry. + +== History == +The first scholars to propose that there are three primary colors for painters were Scarmiglioni (1601), Savot (1609), de Boodt (1609) and Aguilonius (1613). From these, the most influential was the work of Franciscus Aguilonius (1567–1617), although he did not arrange the colors in a wheel. +Jacob Christoph Le Blon was the first to apply the RYB color model to printing, specifically mezzotint printing, and he used separate plates for each color: yellow, red and blue plus black to add shades and contrast. In 'Coloritto', Le Blon asserted that “the art of mixing colours…(in) painting can represent all visible objects with three colours: yellow, red and blue; for all colours can be composed of these three, which I call Primitive”. Le Blon added that red and yellow make orange; red and blue, make purple; and blue and yellow make green (Le Blon, 1725, p6). +In the 18th century, Moses Harris advocated that a multitude of colors can be created from three "primitive" colors – red, yellow, and blue. +Mérimée referred to "three simple colours (yellow, red, and blue)" that can produce a large gamut of colors and details. "United in pairs, these three primitive colours give birth to three other colours as distinct and brilliant as their originals; thus, yellow mixed with red, gives orange; red and blue, violet; and green is obtained by mixing blue and yellow" (Mérimée, 1839, p245). Mérimée illustrated these color relationships with a simple diagram located between pages 244 and 245: Chromatic Scale (Echelle Chromatique).De la peinture à l’huile : ou, Des procédés matériels employés dans ce genre de peinture, depuis Hubert et Jean Van-Eyck jusqu’à nos jours was published in 1830 and an English translation by W. B. Sarsfield Taylor was published in London in 1839. +Similar ideas about the creation of color using red, yellow, and blue were discussed in Theory of Colours (1810) by the German poet, color theorist and government minister Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. +In The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul discussed the creation of numerous color nuances and his color theories were underpinned by the RYB color model. +Separate to the RYB color model, cyan, magenta, and yellow primary colors are associated with CMYK commonly used in the printing industry. Cyan, magenta, and yellow are often referred to as "process blue", "process red", and "process yellow". + +=== Old model of coloration with four primaries === +The ancient Greeks, under the influence of Aristotle, Democritus and Plato, considered that there were four basic colors that coincided with the four elements: earth (ochre), sky (blue), water (green) and fire (red), while black and white represented the light of day and the darkness of night. The four-color system is formed by the primaries yellow, green, blue and red, and was supported by Alberti in his "De Pictura" (1436), using the rectangle, rhombus, and color wheel to represent them. + +Leonardo da Vinci endorsed this model in 1510, although he hesitated to include green, noting that green could be obtained by mixing blue and yellow. Also Richard Waller, in his "Catalogue of Simple and Mixed Colors" (1686), graphed these four colors in a square. These four colors have often been referred to as "the primary psychological colors". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e650edcef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "RYB color model" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYB_color_model" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:38.376563+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Traditional coloring with three primaries === +The first known case of trichromacy coloration (of 3 primaries) can be found in a work on optics by the Belgian thinker Franciscus Aguilonius in 1613, who in his "Opticorum libri sex, philosophis iuxtà ac mathematicis utiles" in Latin (Roughly, Six books of optics: useful to philosophers as well as to mathematicians), graphed the colors flavvus, rvbevs and cærvlevs (yellow, red and blue) giving rise to the intermediate colors avrevs, viridis and pvrpvrevs (orange, green and purple) and their relationship with the extremes albvs and niger (white and black). However, the idea of three primary colors is older, as Aguilonius supported the view known since the Middle Ages that the colors yellow, red, and blue were the basic or "noble" colors from which all others are derived. +This model was used for printing by Jacob Christoph Le Blon in 1725 and called it Coloritto or harmony of colouring, stating that the primitive (primary) colors are yellow, red and blue, while the secondary are orange, green and purple, or violet. +In 1766, Moses Harris developed an 18-color color wheel based on this model, including a wider range of colors by adding light and dark derivatives. During the 18th and 19th centuries, this color model was endorsed by many authors who have left illustrations that can still be appreciated today, such as Louis-Bertrand Castel (1740), the Tobias's color system Mayer (1758), Moses Harris (1770–76), Ignaz Schiffermuller (1772), Baumgartner and Muller (1803), Sowerby (1809), Runge (1809), the popular "Theory of Colors" (1810) by Goethe, Gregoire (1810–20), Mérimée (1815-30-39), Klotz (1816), G. Field (1817-41-50), Hayter (1826 ), the "Law of Simultaneous Contrast of Colours" (1839) by Chevreul and many others. + +By the 20th century, natural pigments gave way to synthetic ones. The invention of phthalocyanine and derivatives of quinacridone, expanded the range of primary blues and reds, getting closer to the ideal subtractive colors and the CMY and CMYK models. + +== See also == +Color +Color solid +Color theory +List of colors +Primary colors + +== References == + +== External links == +a web RYB to RGB converter \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiguet_et_Fils-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiguet_et_Fils-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..77982d1ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiguet_et_Fils-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Radiguet et Fils" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiguet_et_Fils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:11.718314+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Radiguet et Fils (stylized Radiguet & Fils; English: "Radiguet and Son") was a French manufacturer of precision scientific instruments, established in 1805. +According to a history of the firm published in L'Industrie parisienne in 1888, the company was founded in 1805 by a Madame Collot. Ownership then passed to Louis Chevalier (c.1778-1848), younger brother of Vincent Chevalier. In 1830, Chevalier left the company to Honoré-Marie Radiguet (1791-1867), who had once worked as Chevalier's apprentice, and who had made a name for himself in the production of optical equipment, especially parallel mirrors [glaces parallèles] for astronomy and maritime navigation. + +Under the management of Honoré-Marie's son, Antoine-Honoré Radiguet (1824-1887), the company's purview expanded to include barometers, thermometers, and other scientific equipment. Antoine-Honoré was president of the Trade Association of Precision Instruments [chambre syndicale des instruments de précision]. Antoine-Honoré's financial investment in the application of parallel mirrors to daguerreotype photography lost the company significant sums, as the problem of image reversal which the introduction of his mirrors was supposed to solve was solved by other means. +Antoine-Honoré and his son Arthur (1850-1905) marketed their company to a broader public through engineering and photography workshops, as well as through a line of scientific toys called La Petite Mécanique. In his book on their toys, Frédéric Marchand credits the Radiguet family with "inventing the concept of the scientific and educational toy [which], developed in accordance with the latest scientific discoveries, became emblematic of the industrial France of an enlightened, modern 19th century." The company was located at 13 and 15, boulevard des Filles-du-Calvaire, Paris, an address inscribed on many of their instruments. Radiguet & Fils was the first to produce the Oudin coil. After Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays, the company became involved in the production of equipment for radiology, especially induction coils. +In 1899, Arthur Radiguet went into business with his son-in-law, Georges Massiot (1875–1962), and from then on the firm went by "Radiguet & Massiot." Radiguet & Massiot absorbed the Molteni company shortly after, and moved to the Molteni workshop at 44, rue du Chateau-d'Eau. Arthur also invented a "Radiguet battery," and was an expert on radiology, creating a filing system for global research on the subject; some of his other inventions included an electric lighter-extinguisher [allumeur-extincteur], which would turn the lights in rooms on and off with the opening and closing of doors, and a siphon for gasoline that worked by blowing rather than sucking. He was a cunning promoter of these innovations. + +Arthur Radiguet died in 1905 from one of the first cases of radiodermatitis seen in France; a molding of his radiation-burned hands is preserved at the wax museum of the Hôpital Saint-Louis. +In 1910 the firm, now named Massiot & Cie ["Massiot and Co."], moved from Paris to Courbevoie. During the first half of the 20th century, the firm played an important role in the development of radiology. In 1902, Radiguet & Massiot collaborated with Dr. Hyacinthe Guilleminot to produce a bed design that resolved prior issues with radiographic imaging of a horizontal patient. During World War I, Massiot & Cie worked with Guilleminot on an automobile radiology device, which never saw use. In 1936, Massiot & Cie produced the first commercial tomography machine, and in 1951 they manufactured the first production model for the polytome. Georges Massiot retired at the end of World War II, leaving management of the firm to his sons Jean and Marcel, the latter of whom died soon after in 1946. +The Didot-Bodin trade directory for 1900 lists the company as selling "special devices for science, medicine, schools and industry," giving for examples Leclanché cells, the Radiguet battery, compasses, galvanometers, and radiography equipment. They also sold polarimeters, microscopes, and projection lanterns, and they published a catalogue of educational projection slides. They received gold medals at several World's Fairs, including 1878 and 1900, and were awarded a Grand Prize at the 1905 Liège International Exposition. Massiot & Cie persisted under that name until 1960, when Philips Medical Systems acquired a stake in the firm; the name was changed to Massiot Philips before it was absorbed into the Philips Company in 1988. +Many models of the company's devices, some made by Georges Massiot, others dating from after his death, are conserved at the Centre Antoine Béclère. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_latino-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_latino-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..06254f79d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_latino-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Radio latino" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_latino" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:36.860302+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A radio latino is a measuring instrument used in surveying and military engineering starting in the 16th century. It gets its name from the inventor, Latino Orsini. The radio latino can be considered a kind of geometric square. +It was a general purpose instrument that could be used for a variety of angular measurements as well as depth and inside dimension measures. + + +== Usage == + +The slider (blue in the adjacent diagram) could move along the central rod, causing the deltoid formed by four other rods to change shape symmetrically. The end points of the rods had sights on them, allowing various sight lines to be defined. The central rod was graduated with various scales. These scales allowed the angles between the end rods (represented by the red lines in the diagram) to be determined as well as the angle with its vertex at one end of the main rod and sides (represented by the green lines in the diagram) through the outer joints of the rods. +With different graduations, one could determine or lay out: + +angles between sight lines with a degree scale. +internal angles of regular polygons with polygon scales. +internal diameters and dimensions (such as the inside bore of a cannon) using the distance between the outer joints (represented by the grey dimension lines in the diagram) using a length scale. +gun elevations for cannon. +heights of objects by measuring angles. +shadow square calculations. +depths from the free end of the main rod to the slider. +When folded, the radio latino would resemble a sword and was stored in a sheath or scabbard. + + +== Construction == +The radio latino was usually constructed of brass. The central, main rod was graduated with multiple scales. The free end of the main rod had a handle attached. Within the handle, a small compass was mounted. +The two end-most side rods were shorter than the two attached to the slider. This permitted the end rods to be set to any angle up to 180°. The slider could move along the main rod and was used as an index for reading the engraved scales. +Each hinged vertex had a sighting vane. This permitted the instrument to be used to measure or lay out angles or other dimensions visually. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Institute and Museum of the History of Science web page on the radio latino. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_follows_the_plow-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_follows_the_plow-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d41bac886 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_follows_the_plow-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Rain follows the plow" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_follows_the_plow" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:37.055430+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Rain follows the plow is the conventional name for a now-discredited theory of climatology that was popular throughout the American West and Australia during the late 19th century. The phrase was employed as a summation of the theory by Charles Dana Wilber: +God speed the plow. ... By this wonderful provision, which is only man's mastery over nature, the clouds are dispensing copious rains ... [the plow] is the instrument which separates civilization from savagery; and converts a desert into a farm or garden. ... To be more concise, Rain follows the plow. + +The basic premise of the theory was that human habitation and agriculture through homesteading caused permanent change in the climate of arid and semi-arid regions, making these regions more humid. The theory was widely promoted in the 1870s as a justification for the settlement of the Great Plains, a region previously known as the "Great American Desert". It was also used to justify the expansion of wheat growing on marginal land in South Australia during the same period. +According to the theory, increased human settlement in the region and cultivation of soil would result in an increased rainfall over time, rendering the land more fertile and lush as the population increased. As later historical records of rainfall indicated, the theory was based on faulty evidence arising from brief climatological fluctuations that happened to coincide with settlement, an example of the logical fallacy that correlation means causation. The theory was later refuted by climatologists and is now definitively regarded as false. + + +== North America == +The theory arose in the late 1860s and 1870s as American settlement expanded west of the Missouri River and across the 100th meridian west. This was the traditional boundary line between the humid and semi-arid portions of central North America. Specifically, in the early part of the decade, white settlement had spread into central and western Nebraska along the Platte River. Emigrants on the Oregon Trail began reporting that the land in western Nebraska, previously known for its yellowed, dry vegetation during the summer, had seemingly become green. +Out of this evidence, some scientists concluded that the apparent increase in rain was due to the settlement and the effects of cultivation. One of the most prominent exponents of the theory in the United States was Cyrus Thomas, who was a noted ethnologist and entomologist but only an amateur climatologist at best. After studying the recent history of Colorado, he concluded that the increase in moisture was permanent, and that it coincided exactly with the first settlers' cultivating of the land. Other prominent advocates of the theory were Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden, the noted geographer who had explored and surveyed parts of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado; Samuel Aughey, a professor at the University of Nebraska; and Charles Dana Wilber, an amateur scientist and author. +Thomas and other climatologists offered a variety of explanations for the theory. A common idea was that the plowing of the soil for cultivation exposed the soil's moisture to the sky. In addition, newly planted trees and shrubs increased rainfall as well, as did smoke from trains, or even the metal in the rails or the telegraph wires. Another hypothesis stated that the increased vibrations in the atmosphere due to human activity created additional clouds, from which rain fell. This idea led to the widespread dynamiting of the air across the Great Plains in the 1870s. + +The theory was widely embraced in its day, not only by scientists, but land speculators and emigrants. Some historians have argued that the theory was embraced readily as an outgrowth of Manifest Destiny, the idea that the United States had a mission to expand, spreading its form of democracy and freedom. The theory is regarded as partially responsible for the rapid settlement of the Great Plains in the later 19th century. In The Great Valleys and Prairies of Nebraska and the Northwest, published in 1881, Charles Dana Wilber wrote: +In this miracle of progress, the plow was the unerring prophet, the procuring cause, not by any magic or enchantment, not by incantations or offerings, but instead by the sweat of his face toiling with his hands, man can persuade the heavens to yield their treasures of dew and rain upon the land he has chosen for his dwelling... ...The raindrop never fails to fall and answer to the imploring power or prayer of labor. + +William Gilpin, the first territorial governor of Colorado and an aide to President Abraham Lincoln, was a proponent of this theory. Gilpin was a strong believer in the idea of Manifest Destiny. One of his books was called The Mission of the North American People. He strongly promoted western settlement and invoked this theory as one of his reasons for people to migrate west. +Climatologists now understand that increased vegetation and urbanization can result in increased precipitation. The effect, however, is local in scope, with increased rainfall typically coming at the expense of rainfall in nearby areas. It cannot result in a climatological change for an entire region. They also understand that the Great Plains had had a wetter-than-usual few seasons while this theory was developed and increasing settlement were both taking place. When normal arid conditions returned, homesteaders suffered. +In 2007, Richard Raddatz, a climatologist at the University of Winnipeg, published results of his studies on the conversion of Canadian grasslands to cropland. His theory is that, because corn crops transpire moisture into the atmosphere at a faster rate than the grass they have replaced, crops can generate storms and intensify the season during which water can cycle through the atmosphere. +Observed trends of Midwest summertime cooling and increased rainfall over the last third of the 20th century have been linked to agricultural practices in the arid Great Plains, in an inversion of the Dust Bowl scenario. Increased precipitation and humidity may cause the downward trend in Midwestern average daytime highs, since humid air takes more energy to heat to a given temperature than dry air. In turn, the increase in Midwestern rainfall may be driven by the large increase in land under irrigation in the Plains over the 20th century. Irrigation water enters the atmosphere through evaporation and plant transpiration, and then falls as rain over the downwind Midwest. + + +== Australia == + +At the same time that the theory existed in North America, it also existed on the farming frontier in South Australia. There was a spread of farming from the area near Adelaide northwards to areas of much lower rainfall. In South Australia, George Goyder warned as early as 1865, in his famous report on farming in the state, that rain would not follow the plow. +Despite this, until further droughts in the 1880s, farmers talked of cultivating cereal crops up to the Northern Territory border, which follows the 26th parallel south. Today, however, grain crops still do not grow further north than Quorn (near the 32nd parallel south), as advised by Goyder's original report. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..92cd0cbb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Ramsden surveying instruments" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:38.027690+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Ramsden surveying instruments are those constructed by Jesse Ramsden and used in high precision geodetic surveys carried out in the period 1784 to 1853. This includes the five great theodolites—great in name, great in size and great in accuracy—used in surveys of Britain and other parts of the world. Ramsden also provided the equipment used in the measurement of the many base lines of these surveys and also the zenith telescope used in latitude determinations. + +== The great theodolites == +A total of eight such instruments were manufactured by Ramsden and others for use in Britain, India and Switzerland. +Ramsden himself constructed three theodolites and a further two were completed to his design by Mathew Berge, his son-in-law and business successor, after Ramsden's death in 1805. Of the other instruments one was constructed by William Cary and the other two by the firm of Troughton & Simms. + +=== The Royal Society theodolite === +In 1783 the Royal Society of London reacted to (unfounded) French criticism of Greenwich Observatory by seeking Royal assent to undertake a high precision geodetic survey, the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), between Greenwich and the established French survey stations on the other side of the English Channel. Approval having been granted, General William Roy agreed to undertake the work and he immediately approached Ramsden to commission new instruments. Three years later the "great" theodolite was delivered after a delay attributable to Ramsden's tardiness, workshop accidents and his predilection for continuous refinement—"this won't do, we must have at it again". The instrument was paid for by the Crown and the King immediately presented it to the Royal Society; for this reason the theodolite is designated as the Royal Society theodolite, or Ramsden RS in short. +There is a complete description of this theodolite in the final report of the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790). The instrument was large, 36 inches (910 mm) across and it was normally mounted on a stand which placed the sighting telescope between 5 and 6 ft. high. It weighed about 200 pounds (91 kg) and the accessories and cases weighed as much again. It travelled around Britain for over sixty years, in its own sprung carriage, to locations where it was hauled up mountains, church towers and even scaffolded steeples. + +The horizontal circular scale was divided very accurately with divisions at 15 minute (of arc) intervals using one of Ramden's own dividing engines; the marks on the 36-inch (910 mm) diameter scale would be about 1⁄6 inch (4.2 mm) apart. The position of the telescope could therefore be read to the nearest quarter of a degree by eye but the exact position between the divisions was read with the aid of micrometer microscopes fitted with adjustable cross wires in the focal plane, as shown. The threads of the screws were such that fifteen full turns moved from one scale mark to the next, i.e. 15 minutes, and since the scale on the adjusting knob allowed one sixtieth of a turn to be measured the resulting accuracy was within one arc second. +The instrument is also fitted with a vertical semi-circular scale to measure the elevations of distant stations and therefore a height difference. Cross wires similar to those used in the microscopes are fitted into the eyepiece; they are adjustable by a screw thread which allowed angles to be measured to within five arc seconds. +Typical distances in the Anglo-French Survey were less than 20 miles (32 km): at that distance one second of arc corresponds to lateral or vertical displacements at the target station of approximately 7 in (18 cm). No other theodolite could match this precision at that time. It was the first instrument to be able to measure the spherical excess of large survey triangles. +After completion of the Anglo-French Survey this instrument was stored at the Royal Society, but in 1799 the Board of Ordnance requested its use for the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain. On completion of the Survey the theodolite was stored in the headquarters of the Ordnance Survey at Southampton where it was destroyed in the bombing raids of 1941. + +=== The Board of Ordnance theodolite === + In his report to the Royal Society in 1775 William Roy had noted the suitability of India as a location for both meridian arc and parallel arc measurements. To his delight the East India Company were willing to undertake such a venture and ordered a second great theodolite from Ramsden. It was ready in 1791 but Ramsden felt obliged to increase the price because of problems in its manufacture. To his surprise the company rejected his price and refused to purchase the instrument. It was bought by the Duke of Richmond who, as Master of the Board of Ordnance, had provided most of the finance for Roy's Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790). The theodolite is designated as the Board of Ordnance theodolite, or Ramsden BO in short. Richmond's intention was to use the new theodolite on the extension of Roy's survey to the southern counties of Britain. The instrument was basically the same as the first with added refinements, mainly to the number and placement of the microscopes with their precision micrometer stages. It was in use until the completion of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain in 1853 and it is now in the Science Museum in London. +There is a description of the improvements made to this theodolite in the account of the Trigonometrical Survey for the years 1791–1794 by Mudge, Williams and Dalby. + +=== Other Ramsden theodolites === +Ramsden made at least one other 3-foot (0.91 m) theodolite of which parts were discovered in Switzerland. After his death his firm was inherited by Mathew Berge who is known to have constructed two more large instruments to Ramsden's design. Ramsden made many theodolites including an eighteen-inch instrument of the same general design as the great theodolites. This instrument and his two great theodolites are described in the account of the Principal Triangulation by Clarke & James (1858). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..634fa0695 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Ramsden surveying instruments" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsden_surveying_instruments" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:38.027690+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Great theodolites by other builders === +Although the East India Company turned down Ramsden's second theodolite, they commissioned a similar design from another London instrument maker, William Cary. This theodolite was in use in India from 1802 although there was a slight hiatus in 1808 when it was damaged when being hauled to the top of a building. It was repaired and in use for sixty years. A new theodolite to an improved design was made for the Indian Survey by Troughton and Simms in 1830 and the two together saw service until 1874 when the Cary instrument was replaced by another by Troughton and Sims. This last instrument was a monster weighing 1,455 lb (660 kg) when in its travelling cases: it was no surprise that it was deemed too heavy for transport up mountains and it passed to South Africa in 1882. No more great instruments were made after 1874 for continuing advances in precision instruments eclipsed their performance: by the end of the nineteenth century an accuracy of 1 arc second could be obtained with a 12-inch (300 mm) instrument. + +== Chains and rods == +Eighteenth-century surveyors used Gunter's chains which were 22 yards long (one chain with 100 links of 7.92 inches). Their accuracy was adequate for cadastral surveying but they were deemed insufficiently accurate for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), Britain's first high-precision survey. Roy asked Ramsden to prepare a new chain of 100 links, each one foot in length. He also asked Ramsden to prepare three precisely-calibrated wooden rods 20 feet long. These proved to be a failure because of fluctuations in length due to varying humidity; instead three calibrated glass tubes were used. The chain proved to be as accurate as the glass tubes, and it was in use for baseline surveys over the next thirty years. Later, even more precise measurements showed that the accuracy of Ramsden's 100-foot (30 m) chain was within about 3 inches in 5 miles. In actual use the chain was supported throughout its length by wooden trestles, and tensioned with a known constant weight. Its coefficient of thermal expansion was carefully measured so that temperature fluctuations could be taken into account. Full details (with plates) are given in Roy's account of the measurement of the Hounslow Heath baseline. +American surveyors sometimes also used a chain of 100 feet, also with 100 links, known as the engineer's chain. The term chain in both cases usually refers to the measuring instrument rather than a unit of length, and distances measured are normally given in feet and decimal fractions of a foot (not inches). +Despite Ramsden's chain originating in the UK, Gunter's predominated there: "When a chain is spoken of without qualification, Gunter's chain is meant", noted Macquorn Rankine's mid-Victorian A Manual of Civil Engineering. + +== The zenith telescope == + +The zenith telescope constructed by Jesse Ramsden in 1802 was used to determine the latitude of many stations of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain. This portable instrument was designed to bring observatory precision to fieldwork. The outer frame stood about 12 ft (3.7 m) tall and the telescope mounted on an inner frame was 8 ft (2.4 m) long. The telescope was restricted to observations within a few degrees of the zenith in order to prevent errors due to refraction. A complete description of the instrument is given by Pearson. + +== See also == +Repeating circle + +== References == + +== Bibliography == + +== External links == +Photograph of a section of Ramsden's chain, at Science & Society Picture Library \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangulus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangulus-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e99db8807 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangulus-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Rectangulus" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangulus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:39.220993+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The rectangulus was an astronomical instrument made by Richard of Wallingford around 1326. Dissatisfied with the limitations of existing astrolabes, Richard developed the rectangulus as an instrument for spherical trigonometry and to measure the angles between planets and other astronomical bodies. This was one of a number of instruments he created, including the Albion, a form of equatorium, and a famously complicated and expensive horologium (astronomical clock). +His Tractus Rectanguli, describing the rectangulus, was an influential text in medieval astronomy and at least thirty copies were known to survive. His Quadripartitum was the first text on spherical trigonometry to be published in Western Europe. +The rectangulus was a form of skeleton torquetum. This was a series of nested angular scales, so that measurements in azimuth and elevation could be made directly in polar coordinates, relative to the ecliptic. Conversion from these coordinates though was difficult, involving what was the leading mathematics of the day. The rectangulus was an analogue computing device to simplify this: instead of measuring in angular measurements it could resolve the angles to Cartesian components directly. This then simplified the further calculations. +The rectangulus was constructed as a brass pillar with a number of linear scales hinged above it. Pinhole sights on the upper arm allowed it to be pointed accurately at the astronomical target. Plumb bob lines descended from the scales above and intersected with linear scales marked on the horizontal scales below. These allowed measures to be read, not as angles, but as trigonometric ratios. +To celebrate the 600th anniversary of the Rectangulus in 1926 a replica was constructed. This is now in the History of Science Museum, Oxford. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4f6e0db55 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Romantic medicine is part of the broader movement known as Romanticism, most predominant in the period 1800–1840, and involved both the cultural (humanities) and natural sciences, not to mention efforts to better understand man within a spiritual context ('spiritual science'). Romanticism in medicine was an integral part of Romanticism in science. Richard Sha of American University wrote in Romanticism on the Net: + +Romantic writers were far better read in medicine than we tend to remember: Byron consulted popular health manuals by Adair and Solomon; Coleridge read deeply in his physician, James Gillman's, library; Percy Shelley ordered Spallanzani's complete works and immersed himself in the vitalist controversy, while Mary Shelley read Gall and Spurzheim; Blake engraved plates for medical literature published by Joseph Johnson; and Keats, of course, was trained as a physician. +The impetus for Romantic ideas in medicine came from the Great Britain, and more specifically Scotland - John Hunter (1728–93) - and the idea of life as a principle not reducible to material constructs, and John Brown (1735–88), founder of the Brunonian system of medicine (see also, Romanticism in Scotland#Science). The nexus for Romantic Medicine was Germany, largely nurtured and guided by German natural scientific inquiries regarding the vital aspects of nature, such as that of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840) and his influential ideas regarding a life principle (Bildungstrieb), a formative drive (nisus formatives) as well as a philosophical tradition that emphasized the dynamic aspects of man and nature, and their essential relationship as part of a unity - German idealism and Naturphilosophie - all guided by Immanuel Kant's (1724–1804) challenge calling for critical inquiry as the basis for science. +The essence of romantic medicine was to overcome the deep crisis that Western medicine found itself in during the latter half of the 1700s by means of a science of life (pathology and physiology grounded in history) that went beyond the simple application of the method of the inertial sciences (physics and chemistry, grounded in mathematics) that had worked so well for inert nature, but was found wanting when applied to vital nature, but also a science of life that went beyond the idea of medicine as a subjective art largely to be left to individual practice. The Zeitgeist of Romantic medicine sought to unite the uneasy partnership of material natural science and subjective clinical practice to create a true scientific foundation for Western medicine (see also Romanticism and epistemology) + +== The question of life == +The issue of life – what is life? – or the scientific inquiry and quest (questio) regarding vital nature was one that increasingly drew the attention of philosophers and scientists in the 1700s, following the great advances concerning the laws and principles of inert nature - the Copernican, Galilean and Newtonian revolutions in celestial and earthly mechanics - astronomy and physics. With great confidence and optimism, philosophy and science turned to the mystery of life, or rather, that of health - how to restore and maintain it. Those most immediately drawn to this field were those who had some concern with health issues, physicians in particular. Thus, a natural alliance formed between natural philosophy and science on the one hand and medicine on the other. What they had in common was to advance the discipline of the study of living functions or physiology. + +== Irritability == +Because of the influence of the inertial sciences and the success of the method used to gain knowledge of the laws and principles applying to inert nature, the initial approach was to apply the same method to vital nature. What emerged from this was the extensive study in the first part of the 1700s of ‘irritability’, this being based on the central nervous system and involving physical forces such as electricity and magnetism. However, the mechanico-material explanation was not fruitful when it came to actually dealing with life in the case of healthcare practitioners. Albrecht Von Haller's (1708–77) 'irritability' hypothesis and its failure adequately to explain the phenomenon of life, as well as the waning capacity of the Western mentality to participate living nature that lay at the root of the Hippocratic system of humours (or noetic capacities), led to a split between those who clung to the ancient tradition, but in name only (becoming routinists or empiricists), and those, largely in the universities, who sought a (material-mechanical) scientific basis regarding life and medicine. This split led to a widely acknowledged crisis in Western ‘medicine’ in the latter half of the 1700s. + +That medicine c. 1800 was caught in the throes of a foundational crisis is testified to by numerous sources and above all by the documented collective striving of all leading European countries to totally reform medicine. No later than the 1780s – as the sources clearly show – were the leading doctors aware of the critical situation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c2188a72a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Romantic medicine and dynamics == +The attempt on the part of philosophers and scientists to come to grips with the question of life led to an emphasis away from mechanics or statics, to dynamics. Life was action, living movement, a manifestation of an underlying polarity in nature and the universe. Instead of seeing nature from a ‘one-eyed, color blind’ spectator perspective, what was needed was a perspective that was binocular and participative. Inertial science had advanced in man's understanding of inert nature, her outer form or shell, what Francis Bacon termed natura naturata (outer form or appearance). However, it was not capable of going beyond this to a more dynamic discernment or apperception of the living inner content of nature, the domain of life – life in general, not just life biological as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, at the philosophic core of the scientific effort to penetrate to natura naturans, put it, asking further “what is not life?” based on the understanding of life as a dynamic polarity between powers, forces and energies. As one observer wrote "Die eigentliche Lebenslehre der Romantik aber war: Polarität." But as he promptly adds: "Sie klingt uns überall entgegen, nicht nur in der Naturphilosophie." + +=== The foundations === + +==== Bacon's Novum Organum ==== +The groundwork for this intensive search to understand life was laid down by Francis Bacon, who sought to sweep clean the Augean stables of late medieval Scholasticism, with its increasingly obtuse and confused attempts to approach natura naturans (nature becoming or 'naturing') using the old Greek noetic capacity, already long lost to the Western mind and having gone underground into the arts, but also the nominalist straying into abstractions and refractions in their study of natura naturata via secondary phenomena as in Newton's study of color (cf. Goethe's Farbenlehre or Study of Color). Neither the Realists nor the Nominalists of late medieval scholasticism could handle the task before them, and Bacon sought, at the start of the Age of Science, to provide a method to approach nature's outer form rationally, but by means of a conscious use of man's higher faculty in the form of the ‘forethoughtful inquiry’ (‘lux siccum’), that is, an inquiry that brought a particular idea, itself evinced through the mind and the domain of true philosophy, namely, the "mind’s self-experience in the act of thinking" (Coleridge's Biographia Literaria), or epistemology. The Baconian approach was further developed by C.S. Peirce who made a distinction between induction and abduction: the latter being the method of discovering hypotheses, the former that of testing them. + +==== Coleridge and the role of philosophy ==== +Bacon's work provided what Coleridge termed ‘method’ – the derivation of laws or ideas to guide the mind (mens) in its observation of nature, out of which emerges understanding (concepts) and principles (reason). It is also the task of philosophy, as Coleridge emphasized, to "settle the nomenclature," as the key to science is terminology where one term is not synonymous with something else, as is the case in demotic language, but instead the term discloses its meaning and increases understanding and knowledge. This was further developed by Heidegger and phenomenology (such as with the term Veranlassung). +Greek philosophy (love of wisdom or sophia) later emerged as philology (love of the Logos) to interpret philosophical works. It is this penetration of nature using both the eductive (as opposed to the projective) arts (innate wisdom) and (Logos-backed) sciences to achieve a rational, conscious understanding of nature, both outer form and inner essence that those who became part of the Romantic movement in England and Germany in particular, were seeking. It is not surprising that Romanticism, a scientific endeavor and quest, involved the cultural sciences or humanities (epistemology, philology, literature, poetry, arts, etc.), as well as the natural sciences. + +=== Search for method for vital nature === +Romanticism rejected the application of the method that had worked so well for inert nature to the realm of living nature, or life biological. While living organisms contained a degree of a mineral, material nature amenable to being approached via the laws of material physics and chemistry, life itself could not thereby be satisfactorily explained. On the one side, the material scientists sought a solution in reducing the non-material or metaphysical to ‘just’ a manifestation of the material, essentially thereby ignoring that this did not at all account for life. On the other side, a part of the ‘Old School’, drawing from the Hippocratic humoral theory (involving non-mechanical, etheric concepts), sought to emphasize the non-physical or vital aspect of nature, which somehow existed above and outside of nature and directed its activities. The Romantic scientists and philosophers rejected both reductionist mechano-materialism (material natural science) and conflationist mystical-idealism (vitalism). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ac5e19b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Locke, Fichte and German Idealism === +Romanticism also involved a fundamental understanding of functional polarities as the basis for and essence of life as Idea, Law and Principle. One of these polarities in cultural history involved the seminal influence of the English genius and the germinal or gestational genius of German-language culture. Coleridge mentions this in his Essays on Method, and the theme is explored in D.E. Faulkner-Jones' The English Spirit. +The seminal ideas came from Francis Bacon regarding scientific method and from John Locke regarding the ideas of self-consciousness and mind. Locke set up a relationship between mind (subject) and outer world (object) wherein the mind is set in motion by objects producing sensations but also has an internal activity of its own (reflection) that acts on the sensations to create perception and conceptions. For Locke, the activity of mind is paramount, as for Bacon, and it is only through the activity of mind (consciousness) that the outer world can be ‘realized’ as causative and as actual. Identity for Locke lay in the capacity for the ‘I’ (consciousness) to unite disparate ‘deeds’ or actions of nature (as cognized by the mind), into a meaningful unity. For Locke, identity of self exists in nothing other than participation in life (the etheric) by means of fluctuating particles of matter rendered meaningful and real by acts of the mind and consciousness. The Romantics, as Locke, refused to accept the view that life is a product of “the chance whirlings of unproductive particles” (Coleridge). +Locke's ideas were taken up by Johann Fichte in Germany and developed into a philosophy of nature and natural science based on mind and consciousness, which he termed Wissenschaftslehre. Fichte, as so many of that time, was also inspired to challenge Kant's views on human freedom (constraints by material forces) and the limits to cognition, and sought this in Locke's emphasis on the mind and consciousness as the pivotal actor and creator of reality. For Fichte, selfhood (Ichheit) is an act not a thing or a substance, and being or identity consists in the acts of mind and self-consciousness, such that being and identity are co-operant. Fichte's work heavily influenced German philosophy and science, leading to a general system of thought known as German Idealism (including Schelling and Hegel), though this idealism would either end paradoxically in accepting the methods of material science for natural science (Naturphilosophie – Schelling), or in academic and lifeless dialectics (Hegel) that negate life rather than support it and used for political ends (Marxism). + +=== The Idea of the living principle === +Prior to Fichte's writings, the idea of life as a power and principle independent of and not reducible to matter or substance had been put forward in England and Scotland in the mid-1700s, by the philosopher, Thomas Reid and John Hunter (surgeon), a highly influential anatomist and surgeon as well as an observational scientist in the true Baconian tradition. Hunter rested the idea of the life principle on solid observation of nature. For him, anatomy and structure, matter and form were simply outer expressions of a vital dynamics. +This idea found a receptive soil in German philosophy and eclectic medicine, as represented by Christoph Hufeland (1762–1836), which had developed the concept of a life force or energy (Lebenskraft) as well, but one that had remained largely speculative or metaphorical. In 1781, Johan Friedrich Blumenbach, a natural philosopher and researcher published his thoughts regarding the Bildungstrieb, a dynamic power that was evolutive, progressive, and creative. Blumenbach's work provided for the later important distinction (by Samuel Hahnemann) between a sustaining power (homeostasis) and a generative power (Erzeugungskraft), not just for procreation in all its myriad forms, but also creative acts of the mind, which Coleridge said involved the imagination (as opposed to fancy), both primary (unconscious figuration) involving perception, and secondary, the latter leading to apperceptive concepts as a result of conscious acts of the mind (ideas applied to perceptions). +All of this set up a climate for ideas and concepts that went beyond the mechanistic method of inertial science, one that allowed a role for creative actions of the mind (works of art) as well as reactions to sensations involving objects. Equally, the climate was conducive to considering a dynamic between subject (self and mind/consciousness) and object, one in which the mind is both receptive and pro-active, and also one in which the mind is critical to determining the meaning and reality of any given stimulation from the world outside. + +=== Crisis in medicine === +By the end of the 1700s, medicine, not only in Germany, but throughout Europe, was in a deep crisis. This widely acknowledged crisis was brought into stark relief in 1795 in a famous critical essay by a German physician and philosopher, Johann Benjamin Erhard (1766–1827), in the ‘shot’ that was heard around the medical world. "Erhard's attack focused on what he called the "uncertainty" of medical knowledge and its failure to measure up to the criteria of a philosophical Wissenschaft. He located the central problem in doctors' lack of a clear idea either of illness in general or of particular diseases." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..404d325bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== The ‘elements’ of a new system == +Johann B. Erhard’s essay, coupled with the earlier introduction of the Brunonian system into German medical circles, almost immediately triggered a remarkable surge of writings by a graduating medical student, Andreas Röschlaub. Röschlaub wrote his doctoral dissertation on the work of a rather obscure and then little known Scottish physician, John Brown, Elementa Medicinae. Almost at the same time, in 1796, a German physician., Samuel Friedrich Hahnemann, who had been highly critical of the medical practices of his day, published a remarkable essay on the treatment of disease that became the foundation for the homeopathic approach to medicine, as part of a more comprehensive scientific approach for therapeutics he termed Heilkunde, and then later Heilkunst. (Lesser Writings, p. 251) +While Brown’s work had been available in Germany for almost 15 years, since its publication in 1780, it had been mostly ignored or rejected, as in England itself, because the method outlined by Brown was seen as a mechanical approach, which hardly endeared it to the German philosophical tradition and mindset seeking a more dynamic, vital approach. However, Röschlaub grasped, where no one else had been able, even Schelling with his Naturphilosophie, that Brown had provided the very elements of an approach to health and sickness that were dynamic in nature and by means of a synthetic concept – ‘excitation’ – that was the practical application of a Lockean and Fichtean approach to the problem of cognition due to subject/object or observer/observed, to the problem of the relationship between qualitative and quantitative, and also to the very problem of life itself. "Brunonian doctrine therefore fulfilled Erhard's call for a medical practice based on the "real" causes of disease rather than on divination of the meaning of symptoms. ... where Erhard had offered only criticism, Brunonianism offered an alternative. Brunonianism now stood ready to complete what Erhard had begun, and to inaugurate a revolution in German medicine." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..62b48570d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Röschlaub and the general theory of disturbance and disorder === +Through Röschlaub’s writings, mainly between 1795 and 1806, Brown’s conception of life was brought out: as a potential in us that is brought into action and reality as a result of the workings of the actual (excitants or stimulants) on us, and of the living principle as a receptive potentiality (‘excitability’, or the capacity to be impinged upon) and pro-active (‘excitement’, or the capacity to respond to impingements), that is, as a dynamic power. +Brown's use in the original Latin of ‘incitability’ (rather than the more restricted term used in the English – ‘excitability) contained the germ of a distinction between the sustentive (Lebenskraft) and generative (Bildungstrieb) powers, as Coleridge astutely noted: “Brown has not proved that the Incitability itself cannot be altered – not merely thro’ incitement – but unmittlebar [unmediated]– Says the Jena recensent, Feb. 1799, No. 48 (Notebooks 1:38). He might have been thinking of Brown's discussion of contagious diseases wherein we see this interplay between the general action (‘affection’) of the sustentive power (excitability/excitement) and the more specific and different action of ‘contagions’ (e.g., LXXVI: “Contagious diseases are] not an exception...because...no general affection follows the application of contagion, if no undue excess or defect of excitement is the consequence..."), or his reference to a pro-creative as well as sustaining power as in CCCXXVI (“every living system lives in that which it procreates…that the system of nature remains and maintains an eternal vigour”). +When added to his distinction between beneficial (‘agreeable’) and harmful (malignities) ‘excitants’, Brown provided the basis for understanding how the level of excitability/incitability (potential) can be shifted upwards (potentiated). Finally, Brown introduced the powerful idea that pathology (unhealthy function) was simply physiology (healthy function) extended beyond a certain range of sustainable variability or pulsation (a function of the polarities that constitute life). +Röschlaub worked initially with Fichtean insights and then Schelling and his Naturphilosophie, establishing a dynamic philosophical basis in natural science for medicine. However, he realized that medicine could not be restricted to natural science, even a dynamic science grounded in physiology (the germ of which was provided by Dr. Richard Saumarez in England in 1798, A New System of Physiology), but had an artistic/aesthetic side. In this regard, he made a distinction first between Wissenschaftslehre (natural science) and Heilkunde (the practical, clinical side of therapeutics), in which latter work he established the first teaching clinic, in concert with Dr. Markus, in Bamberg, Germany. +Röschlaub made a further distinction between biophysical (Heilkunde) and biomedical (Heilkunst). The second took him into the very dimension of life itself, the etheric, that is, beyond the physical, a dimension that required an entirely different organ of knowledge from the intellect or Sinn (mens) that was the foundation of both WissenschaftsHeillehre and Heilkunde, as the construction of a protocol entails arte. Unbeknownst to him, one of his countrymen had been working on the development and understanding of this new cognitive capacity, called the Gemüt. As a result, Goethe was able to ‘see’ (anschauende Erkenntnis) into the dynamic realm of nature (natura naturans) and comprehend the very movement behind the forms, and the very functions that determined a given form, including the dynamic archetype (Kraftwesen) out of which all forms of a given Idea (such as ‘plant’ or ‘animal’) emanated. It was Goethe who founded the science of morphology. Although Goethe termed this study Metamorphosenlehre, it was, more accurately stated, a pleomorphic process. +This new cognitive capacity is what was needed for the physician or Leibarts to go beyond the inner symptomatics and outer semiotics of a case as a basis for assessment and evaluation used by the Old School, and to avoid the pitfalls of the merely empirical approach. It was the task of the physician to draw out (‘educe’), and allow ‘to come forth’ (Heidegger's Veranlassung and Hervorbringung), the natural state of health of the individual so as to enable him to undertake his individualized higher purpose in life. +Heilkunst was not simply another projective art form such as painting, music, sculpture or poetry, but an educative art, in which the artist, the Heilkünstler (Hahnemann), seeks to bring forth out of the tangle of illness and disease at all levels, the true physiological selfhood, the fully liberated (at liberty to follow his higher purpose or aspiration) and conscious (a super-conscious mind higher than ordinary or waking consciousness) man or mensch. +Röschlaub also realized that Brown had only provided the basic ‘elements’ of a method for the science of life, and that what was still needed was the overarching or archetypal function from which all other functions were derivable and given meaning and direction, and which would also then provide the very goal and purpose of medicine and health, the ‘positive’ as well as the ‘negative’ (removal of suffering) sides of healthcare. However, this overarching, archetypal function would have to wait until the 20th century for its discovery and elucidation by Dr. Wilhelm Reich (Super-imposition or Überlagerung) and Rudolf Steiner's Metamorphosis, the exponents of the underlying Kraftwesen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca9e31956 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Hahnemann and the special theory of disease === +At the same time that Röschlaub embarked on his quest for a true science of life and health, a compatriot, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, who had quit his medical practice earlier in protest against the lack of science and efficacy of the Old School and the empty ‘metaschematisms’ of the academic ‘doctors’, had also begun a similar quest for a true system of medicine. Hahnemann's essay of 1796 and subsequent writings, all part of an extended Organon der Heilkunst, laid down the basic foundation for a distinction between the sustentive (Lebenserhaltungskraft) [Aphorism 63, 205 fn., 262] and generative (Erzeugungskraft) [Aphorism 21-22] sides of the living principle, between physic, operating under the natural healing law of opposites (contraria contrarius), and medicine proper, operating under the natural curative law of similars (similia similibus), and between disease, a dynamica impingement on the generative power (degeneration), a derangement of the sustentive power, or disturbance of homeostasis. +Hahnemann further established various principles for the application of the law of similars, including a crucial distinction between diseases of a fixed nature (tonic diseases), and those of a variable nature, the basis for the later discovery by some of his followers of a dual remedy prescribing, each remedy addressing one ‘side’ of disease, the tonic and pathic sides. Hahnemann set out a comprehensive approach to the diagnosis and treatment of disease, including a nosology. + +==== Details of Heilkunst ==== +Hahnemann argued, logically, that the material effects of disease could not be their own cause (causa morbii). Disease was instead a dynamic affection of the generative power occasioned by a spirit-like morbid entity (Krankheitswesen) [Aphorisms 22, 28] that had the power to impinge upon the generative power of a human (Menschenkraftwesen) [Aphorism 289 fn.], acting as malignant ‘excitants’ in the Brunonian sense. However, this power depended on a susceptibility or receptivity (negative resonance) caused by weakening of the life force from various malignities (Brown's underlying diathesis). +The disease process consists of a dual action: the initial action (Eerstwirkung) [Aphorisms 70,62,64,65] of the disease agent, which impinges upon the generative power, which is generally imperceptible (such as the initial infection by the measles microbe), and the counter or after-action (Gegenwirkung [Aph. 63,112, 115], Nachwirkung) [Aph. 62,70, 71] of the sustentive power, which produces the various sufferings the patient complains about. +While the fixed nature of tonic diseases could be identified by discerning the underlying causal state of mind, along with a curative medicine based on fixed principles, the variable or pathic diseases could only be identified, along with their curative medicine, through the symptoms (suffering or pathos) produced by the disease in the patient. However, such an approach was problematic as a person could have more than one disease at a time (Aph. 40–44). This then required a principle to organize the symptoms into an identifiable complex (Inbegriff) correspondent to a given disease state. Just as each tonic disease has a unique state of mind disturbance, so does each pathic disease contain a unique disturbance of the thermal organization in man. This approach to pathic diseases Hahnemann termed homeopathy (from the Greek homoios and pathos, or similar suffering). This approach expanded empiricism from its limitation within the bounds of Erfahrung (experience of outer forms or natura naturata) to Erlebnis provings (experience via the life body of natura naturans). +The tonic diseases were to be found in various jurisdictions: homotoxic (toxins), homogenic (physical and emotional traumas), pathogenic, iatrogenic and ideogenic (spiritual diseases engendered by false belief, which he termed the "highest diseases" - as compared to the ‘deepest’ pathic diseases). The pathic diseases are found in reversible layers (‘layers prescribing’). +Because the pathic diseases generally arise out of the more primary constant (tonic) diseases, such as the chronic diseases that arise out of the chronic miasms, Hahnemann also laid down the principle that the tonic diseases should be treated first, and second any remaining pathic diseases. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7f02c92c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In order to treat successfully the other cases of disease occurring in man, and which, be they acute or chronic, differ so vastly among each other [pathic], if they cannot be referred to some primary disease which is constant in its character [tonic], they must each be regarded as peculiar diseases, and a medicine which in its pure effects on the healthy body shows symptoms similar to those of the case before us, must be administered. (Lesser Writings, p. 693) +While the curative medicines for the tonic diseases could be largely determined by the principle linking disease and medicinal agent for the relevant jurisdiction, pathic disease treatment required a corresponding image of derangement of the Lebenskraft or Leib (executive organ of the Kraftwesen) so that this could be matched to the image presented by the patient. The problem lay in that a patient could present with more than one disease, each with a particular grouping of symptoms, but how could the practitioner link which symptoms manifest disorder(s) and of those ascribable to disease, and to which disease of the several possible at a given time in the patient, and finally, how could one trace any symptoms so identified to their origins? Here Hahnemann's genius adduced a living experience (Erlebnis) of the essence of a natural substance (Naturwesen) by way of a human prover, and in doing so, also provided the very practical scientific basis for removing the barrier set up by Kantian intellect between observer and observed, by invoking the cognitive capacity of Goethe's Gemüt (Aphorism 253 of the Organon der Heilkunst). Goethe himself, later in his life, recognized that Hahnemann had found a way to apply to and through human nature what he was doing with Mother Nature. +In the light of difficulties treating more complex cases, Hahnemann undertook further research and developed a theory of chronic miasms, which are fixed nature diseases of the pathogenic type (originally infectious, but also inherited) which give rise to all the (secondary) chronic diseases, which are pathic in nature (cf. Röschlaub's Pathogenesis). Hahnemann also gave indications as to when the practitioner could tell that the disease had been cured by the similar medicine and healing was underway (the complete process termed "heilen" or remediation). Constantine Hering, often called the Father of Homeopathy in the US, further developed these guidelines, which are often referred to as "Hering's Law or Principles" : + +from less vital to more vital organs +in the case of pain, from above down +in the same direction as the natural disease process. +This was later expanded in the latter half of the 19th century by Dr. James Tyler Kent who noticed that when disease was suppressed or several groups of symptoms (diseases) developed in a patient over time, that the remedial process proceeded in the reverse order of their emergence. This provides the basis for a sequential treatment of diseases. If some symptoms become worse some time after the similar medicine or there is even a return of old symptoms, essentially in chronic, complex cases, this Hahnemann identified as part of the healing process, which involves the counteraction of the sustentive power of the Kraftwesen against the medicine (similar ‘disease’).[Aph. 63-64] +While medicine had historically recognized, even into Hahnemann's time, the law of similars (similia similibus), it was also wary of its use because of risk of harm with the improper dose, and had largely abandoned it in favor of the other approach set out by Hippocrates involving the law of opposites, that is, acting to support the physis or sustentive power. Dr. Hahnemann discovered a way to attenuate the dose so that it could be rendered harmless but remain therapeutically active, what is often referred to as ‘dynamization’. Later he also discovered a way in which to sublimate, or the increase in dynamic power, of medicines (cf. Brown's sthenic enhancement). +Because of the use of these two laws, we have two great realms of therapeutics: medicine proper, (medic-al) which is the application of the law of similars, and physic-al, which is the application of the law of opposites. This gives us the mutually interactive and supportive jurisdictions of the true Heilkundiger and Heilkünstler – physician and medician, involving respectively a "physic" approach based on the law of opposites and a "medic" approach based on the law of similars. + +=== Compeers, not rivals === +Dr. Brown provided the essential elements for a new, functional (actions of powers, forces and energies) approach to understanding life and health, which insights were elaborated by Drs. Röschlaub and Hahnemann. Through their work, a fundamental set of dynamic polarities emerged with which to understand the essential polaric nature of life itself: + +sustentive and generative sides of the living power +disturbances that lead first to disorders which can render one susceptible to contracting disease +physical and medical interventions – physician and medician +regimen and remedial agents for physic +tonic and pathic diseases/chronic miasms and chronic diseases +Erfahrung/Erlebnis +Healing and curing +Disease process: direct action of disease wesen and counteraction of human wesen +Remedial process: curative action and healing reaction +At the same time, Goethe's scientific work on the underlying living functions in nature and Dr. Saumarez's new physiology of functions provided the necessary basis for understanding health and life. Underneath it all lay the elements of the Brunonian system, with its dynamic interplay of impression and response, positive or negative in terms of health (physiology) and divergences therefrom (pathology). + +=== Goethe and Hahnemann === +Goethe's approach to Mother Nature provided the theoretical foundation for and found a practical application in human nature in the works of Samuel Hahnemann. Goethe was aware of Hahnemann and his new approach to disease, and was treated using Hahnemann's system of medicine, Heilkunst. On one occasion Goethe wrote: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..15c4e0c8d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +...Dr. Samuel Hahnemann...certainly a world-famous physician...I believe more than ever in this wonderful doctor’s theory as I have experienced...and continue to experience so clearly the efficacy of a very small administration.” And in another letter he strongly proclaimed himself a “Hahnemannian disciple”... +In his famous play, Faust, Goethe has the lead character, Mephistopheles, assert the homeopathic principle of similars: “To like things like, whatever one may ail; there’s certain help.” + +In his later life and in his writing and diaries, Goethe writes in Faust: ‘Similia Similibus applies to all disorders‘, identifying the central theme of homeopathy and elaborating his sympathy and understanding of homeopathy, as illustrated in Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship and his Tower Society which ‘adopts the homeopathic approach to its own psychological methods by using the irrational beliefs of its patients to cure them‘, portraying the ‘mistaken ideas as illness’, and using sickness to combat sickness. [also Werthe] +Goethe wrote several letters in 1820 mentioning and supporting ‘Hahnemann’s method’, ‘Hahnemann’s terminology’, and declaring his ‘confession of faith of a Hahnemannian disciple’, and indicating that he had read his works and looked forward to reflecting on ‘the wonder physician’. +Goethe was also aware of and followed Hahnemann's dietary rules. In 1826, he wrote to the Grand Duke Karl August that his diet was ‘almost Hahnemannian in its strictness’. +Hahnemann grasped and worked directly with Goethe's key contribution to Romantic epistemology, the Gemüt, or emotional mind and resonance organ, as well as its polarity to the Geist or spiritual mind, the directive organ: Geistes oder Gemüths Zustandes des Kranken; Geistes- oder Gemüths-Krankheiten; gemüthlicher und geistiger Charakter; Gemüthsart; Gemüths- und Denkungs- Art; Geistes- und Gemüths-Organe, Gemüths-Verstimmung. +Hahnemann undertook in the human realm what Goethe had explored in the plant realm with his morphology, that 'adventure of reason' Kant had stated was not possible, and observed first hand, through a living experience (Erlebnis) the impact of a natural Wesen (dynamic, living essential power) on a human Wesen (initially himself, and later other volunteers), producing a systematic image of the disturbance it produced in terms of pathology (alterations in feelings, functions and sensations) and semiology (outwardly perceptible signs), both over time in the one person, and then over time in a number of people giving an image (Bild) of the disturbance through its various expressions and manifestations, a Goethean approach. +Indeed, the entire series and progression of provings or living experiences of medicinal substances by overtly healthy people constitutes an example of what Goethe was promoting as true scientific research: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0cb283524 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The only way for a scientist to establish connections between seemingly isolated Erfahrungen or phenomena is through the "Vermannigfaltigung eines jeden einzelnen Versuches." [cf. Hahnemann's Materia Medica derived from a plurality of provers for each medicament and the plurality of provings comprising the whole] The scientist must work "indefatigably" through the manifold permutations and forms of a particular experiment (Naturlehre 35). The scientist must first conduct a series [Reihe] of experiments and, second, serialize them, i.e. consider them as one continuous and complete series of experiments. Studied in this manner—a method that I laid out above as the first step in the practice of morphology—these serialized experiments can represent "einen Versuch, nur eine Erfahrung" (Naturlehre 34) [cf. Hahnemnn's Arzneiversuche]. The serialization and subsequent reflection [meditation] on singular experiments and Erfahrungen, writes Goethe, produces an "Erfahrung [Phenomenon] von einer höhern Art." +In his approach to disease diagnoses and treatment, Hahnemann avoided what Goethe considered the ‘greatest failure’ (Unheil) and fault of material science, namely the separation of experimenter from nature, producing abstract hypotheses (notions) and artificial (künstlich) approaches/treatments based on an accumulation of disparate facts, rather than seeing nature as a complex web of associations, and understanding, as did Hahnemann and Goethe that "scientific knowledge emerges out of relationships and historical contexts." +Hahemann also sought to understand disease in its historical progression, as in the case of his Wesensgeschichte of Psora, the archetype (tonic) of inherited chronic disease, as well as its pleomorphic unfolding via numerous (gradated) levels of secondary (pathic) diseases, which then required a sequential (scalar) approach to treatment. Goethe's morphological insights provide the theoretical basis for Hahnemann's empirical discoveries and living experiments ('provings' or Erlbenisse). In these provings, Hahnemann sought to contemplate the movement, the flow and transformation of a disease state (Gestalt), not just an abstract image. Hahnemann also had a Goethean understanding of the sequential nature or unfolding of a disease phenomenon. +In Hahnemann's distinction between the two sides of the Lebenskraft – the sustentive or Erhaltungskraft and the generative or Erzeugungskraft (Bildungstrieb), we find the polar logic identified in Goethe's Chromatology – ‘the sufferings and deeds of light’ via a turbid medium, in the struggle between light energy (Licht) and the now identified 'dark' energy (Finsternis). We also find this polarity, as well as Goethe's distinction between the spectrum of dark and of light, in the distinction Hahnemann made between primary or tonic disease (based on a super-sensible knowing of psychic states involving alterations in circumstances, occurrents and behaviors via the Goethean Gemüt or super-sensible cognitive organ) and secondary or pathic disease (based on the sensible manifestation of life energy at the somatic level in terms of feelings, functions and sensations, as well as signs). For Goethe the turbid medium is the atmosphere (airy realm), for Hahnemann it is the living organism (fluid or etheric realm). Goethe's interplay of Licht and Finsternis can also be seen in Hahnemann's polarity between Geist (Spirit) and Wesen (Dynamis). +The objections that Goethe leveled against the taxonomy of Linnaeus in botany can be found in the medical sphere in Hahnemann's criticism of the blindly empirical or abstractly intellectual nosology of his time that took a few outer elements, arbitrarily conflated them, then confounded similarity of appearance here with identity of cause and origin. Hahnemann's criticism also was based on an historical study of the morphology of this medical state of mind or Kurwesen, much as Goethe considered the study of history of a phenomenon as a form of knowledge (as did the Greeks). +Equally, Hahnemann was critical of a static approach to disease nosology, which was constantly shape-shifting as the interaction between Krankheitwesen and Menschenwesen expressed different aspects of the same underlying disease (these being considered different diseases in the static Linnean nosology of materialistic medicine). Hahnemann also understood that there was an element of fixity and variability to disease (found in his distinction (1796) between primary (tonic) and secondary (pathic) diseases, just as Goethe accepted a degree of form and structure at the physical level whilst pointing to the underlying dynamics leading to new forms over time (Darwin's adaptation). + +=== Lutze and Schönlein === +The works of Hahnemann and Röschlaub were continued and furthered by Drs. Arthur Lutze and Johan Schönlein (1793–1864) respectively. Lutze (1813–1870) took the foundations of Hahnemann's approach to disease and placed it on a solid romantic footing in consciously and consistently applying dual remedy prescribing (tonic and pathic disease associations in a given patient). +Where Hahnemann had hesitated and eventually withdrew his public support in the 5th edition of his Organon der Heilkunst for dual remedy prescribing, having been unable yet to establish a principle upon which to ground it rationally (what is known as the ‘dual remedy affair’), Lutze later re-issued the 5th edition with the withdrawn dual remedy section and clinically practiced based on such an approach. His contribution is recognized in the monument to both Hahnemann and Lutze in Köthen, Germany. +Röschlaub's innovative work in establishing a teaching clinic based on the Brunonian system, in conjunction with Dr. Albert Marcus, was developed further by J. L. Schönlein (1793–1864), who is recognized explicitly even in allopathic historiography for having established the scientific foundation for the modern teaching and practice clinic. This foundation is one based on natural science, but also on the arte (Pascal's spirit of finesse) of the practitioner, which is something objective and reproducible though based on a different logic and involving more fugitive causes (allopathic ‘medicine’ accepting only the first and then only natural inertial science, not a true physiology of functions, both physical and etheric) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..616ac323a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Romantic medicine" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:23.165435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== The schism == +Up until the middle of the 19th century, following the pioneering work of Brown, Hahnemann, Röschlaub, Lutze and Schönlein, to mention only the main figures, the scientific approach to the question of life, particularly as reflected in the development of Healthcare, seemed conducive to the development of a method that was based on a cognitive capacity going beyond mere mentation (Sinn or mens) and a true physiology involving living functions rather than simply mechanics and chemistry. However, it seemed that the Zeitgeist (Spirit of the Times) could not yet accept such an approach, most minds being still fully ensconced in the intellectual phase (Coleridge's "epoch of the intellect and the senses") of human consciousness. It was only the extraordinary mind of genius that was able at this stage to meet the challenge of a true science of life and mind, what Colerdige termed the “Dynamic System of Thought.” +As a result, the analytical approach favored by the French, schooled in the Cartesian system of mind-body duality, and with their significant advances in surgery (albeit based on access to and development of original Greek medical writings and more modern Greek surgical practice), came to dominate Western science. In Germany, the work of Rudolf Virchow, while drawing from the advances made by Romantic science, effectively reduced and simplified them more in line with what the intellect was able to grasp. The achievements of Romantic Science and Medicine could not be denied, but neither could they be accepted; instead, the followers of the Romantic tradition were either denigrated as considered misguided, occult, and ultimately dreamers rather than serious scientists. The following historiographic assessment is the one that has generally prevailed until recently. + +Around the middle of the 1800s, medicine makes a gigantic surge into a critical, empirical-analytical research project: Virchow's demand for a strict, natural [inertial] scientific method then enabled medical thinking to disentangle itself from the flowery and thorny fields of romantic Naturphilosophie and to transplant itself into the earth of natural scientific-analytic procedure. (Schrenk 1973) +Virchow's cellular theory provided the supposed basis for life, without explaining it, and superseded the ancient, and by now denigrated humoral theory (because the noetic capacity to diagnose at this etheric level had waned). As such, chemistry and physics could become the basis for medicine, all the more in that medicine effectively had been reduced to surgery and chemistry, the latter due to Pasteur's ‘germ theory’ of disease (really an unproven hypothesis and where proven according to strict requirements of Koch's postulates, still not fully explanatory in terms of the concepts and reality of ‘susceptibility’ and ‘immunity’, which contemporaries of Pasteur, such as Béchamp and Claude Bernard, sought to address). +The problem of life was to be ‘solved’ by Virchow's cellular hypothesis as the basis of life, which conveniently posited life within medicine without having to explain it. +Thus, as N. Tsouyopoulos points out, Western ‘medicine’ was effectively reduced to surgery and emergency drug treatments, possessing no basis to deal with chronic, complex disorders or diseases having rejected the dynamic approaches developed by the Brunonian orientation, as developed in general terms (physic and physiology) by Röschlaub/Schönlein and Saumarez, and in particular regarding disease (medicine and pathology) by Hahnemann/Lutze. As one reviewer of Tsouyopoulos' major work on romantic medicine summarized: "Romantic medicine was to fall into disfavour as the positivist approach from France gained ground, to the point where Karl August Wunderlich in 1859 dismissed it as mere hollow theory divorced from all empiricism, a myth that survived for nearly a century." +To the extent that human physiology contains a physical/chemical aspect (broken bones, impinging tumours on vital nerves, severed arteries, or severe tissue damage, significant hormonal or chemical imbalances, severe microbial invasion, and the like), a mechanic-material approach will produce effective results, witness the ‘miracles’ of Western emergency medicine, but in the realm of internal ‘medicine’, there are no cures, only the suppression of symptoms or long-term disease and disorder management using chemical means, mostly synthetic, the intellect seeing no difference between a natural ‘chemical’ and a synthesized one. As one writer summarizes: "Alongside of English and French medicine of that time, whose significance was never under-appreciated, German Romantic Medicine comes off in no way as inferior or reactionary. Its contribution to overcoming the foundational crisis in medical history and for founding a scientific clinic is substantial and decisive for the whole of later developments...today, in our searching for new models and alternatives in medicine, Romantic Medicine lies closer to home than the so-called natural +scientific medicine of the later 1800s and early 1900s." + +== Contemporary use == +In 2017, Kamiar-K. Rueckert introduced the term "Romantic Patient" in reference to Romantic medicine and romantic relationships to describe a patient group, which uses the defence mechanism of splitting to divide medicine into good spiritual alternative medicine and bad scientific-based medicine. In his view, these patients are on the one hand aware of their longing for an intuitively understood healing relationship, while on the other hand deny their underlying reason for this longing. + +== See also == +Romantic psychology +Romantic science + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c77fc5497 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Romanticism in evolution theory" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:19.585670+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Romanticism was an intellectual movement that arose in the late eighteenth century and continued through the nineteenth century. The movement had roots in the arts, literature, and science. Largely conceived as a reaction towards the extreme rationalism of the Enlightenment, it championed expressing emotions through aesthetic and emphasizing the transcendent allure of the natural world. +There has been significant work done by historians about how romanticism played a significant role in the development of modern theories of evolution. Most notable is the work done by Robert J. Richards, a professor at the University of Chicago. Richards, and others, have contributed significantly to the conversation about how Romanticism plays a significant role in evolution theory, especially regarding German Romanticism. + +== Alexander von Humboldt == + +=== Romantic contributions to Darwin's theory of evolution === +Charles Darwin became acquainted with Humboldt's exploration and science while studying at Cambridge. Here, Darwin was taken under the direction of John Stevens Henslow (1796–1861), Professor of Botany, who strongly encouraged Darwin to travel and study nature. Henslow also encouraged Darwin to read Alexander von Humboldt's manuscripts on exploring nature, and it was, at least in part, Humboldt's work that inspired Darwin's romantic notion of travel and discovery. +Prior to Darwin's departure on the H.M.S. Beagle, Henslow bestowed to Darwin the English translation of Humboldt's Relation historique du voyage aux regions equinoxiales du nouveau continent, which the translator (Helen Maria Williams) called Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America. Darwin read Humboldt's Personal Narrative thoroughly while on his own journey of scientific exploration on board the Beagle. + +==== Interactions through letters ==== +Darwin and Humboldt spent their later years exchanging letters and manuscripts. After reading Darwin's writings from the Beagle, Humboldt wrote to Darwin: “You told me in your kind letter that, when you were young, the manner in which I studied and depicted nature in the torrid zones contributed toward exciting in you the ardor and desire to travel in distant lands. Considering the importance of your work, Sir, this may be the greatest success that my humble work could bring. Works are of value only if they give rise to better ones. +The two men finally met in person in 1842. Humboldt died in 1859, sixth months before the first edition of On the Origin of Species was published. In letters to his close friend Joseph Dalton Hooker, Darwin reflected that his "whole course of life" was due to having read Humboldt's Personal Narrative and conclusively praised Humboldt as the "Greatest scientific traveller who ever lived." + +=== Romantic style in evolution theory === +Historians have noted that Humboldt's vision of aesthetic appraisal and science was incredibly comprehensive and modern for his time: consequently, his work contributed to advancing observation in geography, geophysics, and natural history. It has also been noted that Darwin's aesthetic approach to the natural world through his explorations and consequent observations was influenced by Humboldt's excursions and literature. + +== Johann Wolfgang von Goethe == + +Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German Romantic poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, artist, and statesman whose works contributed significantly to natural history. + +=== Romantic contributions to evolutionary science === + +==== Morphology ==== +In 1790, Goethe wrote Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären (Metamorphosis of Plants) and Zur Morphologie, creating the scientific field of morphology, the branch of study in biology that deals with the structural forms of organisms. In his texts, Goethe used morphology to describe homology between parts of different organisms (for example, comparing the arm of a human to the fin of a whale). Goethe further suggested that adaptive modifications in an organism's parts were all relative to a Bauplan, an idealized, common archetype. Robert J. Richards suggests that Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären transformed biological sciences during this time period. Historian Joan Steigerwald suggests that Goethe's morphology was inherently Romantic, as they were idealistic. She also argues that Goethe's experiences with nature and aesthetics were the driving factors in his postulation of an "ideal" form (the Bauplan). + +==== Legacy ==== +Later evolutionists, including Carl Gegenbaur and Ernst Haeckel, used phenotypic variation first described by Goethe in his texts about morphology to advance the understanding of evolution. As a Romantic, Goethe also paved the way for equally influential Romantic-scientists, including Alexander von Humboldt and Friedrich Schelling. Professor Robert J. Richards of the University of Chicago argues that it was both the Romantic perspectives of Schelling and Goethe which paved the way for a nature-centric understanding of evolution. + +== Erasmus Darwin == + +=== Brief biography === + +Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin, was born in Nottinghamshire on 12 December 1731 and died on 18 April 1802. He was a successful physician, botanist, and poet who contributed heavily to evolution theory through his works as a writer-naturalist. Though he is most often linked to the Age of Enlightenment and was an enthusiastic proponent of Materialism, Erasmus Darwin's literary contributions popularized interest in the natural world, connecting him to the Romantic movement as well. + +=== Naturalistic Poetry === +In the late 1770s, Erasmus Darwin diverged from his work as a well-known physician due to his interest in botany. In 1789, he composed "The Love of Plants" which was a collection of poetic verses concerning Carolus Linnaeus's taxonomic system, which he revered deeply. This book was so successful that Erasmus Darwin later included it in The Botanic Garden (1791), which was composed of two poems, "The Economy of Vegetation" and "The Loves of Plants." "The Economy of Vegetation" is focused on the evolution of mankind through technology and innovation and argues that industrialization was part of a single evolutionary process. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..018cfb311 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Romanticism in evolution theory" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:19.585670+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Conversely, "The Loves of Plants" was focused on uniting nature with man through the appreciation of botany. In it, Darwin encourages humans to study botany because plants are a part of the same natural world as man. He also argues that sexual reproduction gives rise to phenotypic change (which his grandson would later incorporate into his own theory of evolution put forth in On the Origin of Species).In 1794, Erasmus Darwin also wrote Zoonomia, another book of verse, this time dealing with human physiology. In this volume, Erasmus Darwin presents himself as a Lamarckian evolutionist, advocating the "inheritance of acquired characteristics" theory. He also suggests a theory of pangenesis in the third volume of Zoonomia, a hypothesis Charles Darwin later propelled. The theories posited in Zoonomia are some of the first formal theories on evolution. + +=== Erasmus Darwin's direct contributions to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution === +Although Erasmus Darwin died seven years before Charles Darwin was born, the younger Darwin was not without his grandfather's teachings and works. Charles Darwin read Zoonomia when he was 18 years old and found it inspirational. +However, as Charles Darwin got older, he began to resent Erasmus Darwin's work. In the "short historical preface" of his 1860 publication of Origin, Darwin denounced Lamarck's belief in "a law of progressive development," followed by a footnote: “It is curious how largely my grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of Lamarck in his Zoonomia'”. Erasmus Darwin, a proponent of Atheism, Materialism, and also provocative Romanticism, faced many obstacles in popularizing his views on evolution despite his success as a popular poet. Lamarck had faced similar dissent. Darwin wished to avoid this association, which could impede on his own popularity among the public and the scientific community. In 1879, Charles Darwin had become so polarized in his opinions about his grandfather that when wrote a biography on his grandfather titled The Life of Erasmus Darwin, it contained so much crudeness that Charles Darwin's daughter, Henriette Darwin, supposedly edited out 16% of the biography. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-0.md index 504138073..5d488523e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:24:28.348926+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:16.120569+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-1.md index 9a4941112..b7ed87bcc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:24:28.348926+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:16.120569+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-2.md index 38f2e99d5..2825c0417 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:24:28.348926+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:16.120569+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotophobin-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotophobin-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23dd84f49 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotophobin-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Scotophobin" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotophobin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:39.574142+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Scotophobin (from Ancient Greek σκότος (skótos) 'darkness' and φόβος (phóbos) 'fear') is a peptide discovered by neuroscientist Georges Ungar in 1965 and reported in 1968. The results of Ungar and his collaborators seemed to show that scotophobin induces fear of the dark in various mammals and fish. It was discovered in the brain of laboratory rats conditioned to have a fear of darkness. Moreover, it was claimed that its injection could transfer fear to unconditioned rats. It was the core argument for the hypothesis about memory transfer: that memories are molecularly stored in the brain. Chemical memory transfer was a subject of conferences and books. According to the current knowledge, scotophobin cannot have the effect attributed to it. +The history of scotophobin is covered in the 2006 book Scotophobin: Darkness at the Dawn of the Search for Memory Molecules, a personal account of Louis Neal Irwin, who participated in this research. + + +== Experimental setup == +In his main work Ungar made rats choose to enter either a lighted box or a dark box. Normally nocturnal animals, upon entering the dark, rats were given an electric shock, and the rats were quickly trained to enter the lighted box. After a prolonged training, an extract was prepared from their brains, which was injected into mice which were tested in the same lighted/dark setup. By measuring time spent by the mice in the boxes, it was found that the mice injected with an extract from the treated rats could be distinguished from the ones injected with the extract from the untreated rats. + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +B. Setlow, "Georges Ungar and memory transfer", 2009, doi:10.1080/09647049709525701 +"This paper reviews Ungar's work on memory transfer (and in particular on the scotophobin molecule), with an analysis of its successes and failures." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrutinium_Physico-Medicum-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrutinium_Physico-Medicum-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd03d483b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrutinium_Physico-Medicum-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Scrutinium Physico-Medicum" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrutinium_Physico-Medicum" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:40.758985+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Scrutinium Physico-Medicum Contagiosae Luis, Quae Pestis Dicitur (A Physico-Medical Examination of the Contagious Pestilence Called the Plague) is a 1658 work by the Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher, containing his observations and theories about the bubonic plague that struck Rome in the summer of 1656. Kircher was the first person to view infected blood through a microscope, and his observations are described in the book. The work was printed on the presses of Vitale Mascardi and dedicated to Pope Alexander VII. +Kircher attributed the plague to microscopic 'worms' which appeared due to spontaneous generation, and which infected various organisms through the food chain process. Already infected plants would infect the animals that ate them, and the infected animals would infect the humans who ate them. Kircher explained his findings through a series of experiments, but Francesco Redi later concluded that there was no reproducibility in these experiments. Redi had attempted to reproduce the experiments which Kircher described, and noted that there was no actual evidence for spontaneous generation in the results. On the other hand, Kircher popularized the idea "that contagion was the method of disease transmission". Kircher's work was discussed by the Royal Society, and the concept of contagion was soon adopted by several English thinkers. + + +== Background == +The plague outbreak in Rome in 1656 killed around 15,000 people in four months. During this period Kircher undertook experiments to try and understand the disease better although there is no evidence that he was directly involved in the medical treatment of the sick. Kircher's previous work, Itinerarium exstaticum had caused trouble with the Jesuit censors and stirred up controversy. Writing about the plague gave him an opportunity to compliment the new pope, Alexander VII, and move attention away from a work that had caused him difficulties. +The Jesuit Order had a long-established practice of not writing about medical topics. For this reason, the Jesuit censors who reviewed the book - François Duneau, François le Roy and Celidonio Arvizio - originally refused to authorise it for publication. Eventually, after the opinions of a number of medical authorities had been sought, Superior General Goschwin Nickel permitted its printing. The published work included testimonials from the distinguished medical scholars Ioannes Benedictus Sinibaldus, Paulus Zachias and Hieronymous Bardi. + + +== Kircher's theories == + +Kircher summarised three possible explanations for the plague. The first was the hermetic approaches of Paracelsus and Cornelius Agrippa, the second was the moral explanation for disease, and the third was medical. Kircher agreed that God did send tribulations to afflict mankind, but was most interested in medical research. In Scrutinium Physico-Medicum Kircher discussed spontaneous generation as the source of the 'worms' which caused the plague, describing experiments he did with rotting meat and with a mixture of soil and water, which produced microscopic creatures. His conclusion was that "plague in general is a living thing" and that it was transmitted by contact from one person to another. +Kircher theorised that when the ground was opened by caves and fissures, myriads of tiny creatures escaped that carried putrefaction and infected first plants, then the animals that ate them, and eventually, people. Once these creatures infected the human body, they drove out its natural heat. Once the body was chilled, the four humours were overwhelmed with putrefaction, and the victim began spreading disease in their breath. +Kircher recommended the wearing of a dead toad around the neck as a prophylactic against the plague, because he maintained that toads were a scientifically proven magnet attracting the unpleasant vapours that spread the disease. + + +== Significance and Reception == + +Kircher was the first person to view infected blood through a microscope (which he called a 'smicroscopus'). Reporting that “the putrid blood of those affected by fevers... [is] so crowded with worms as to well nigh dumbfound me” he concluded that “Plague is in general a living thing”. It is not clear exactly what Kircher saw through his microscope, but it was certainly not the plague bacillus, which was not discovered until 1894. +There were critics of Kircher's ideas, such as Flaminius Gaston, who wrote that Kircher's ideas were such that few people of sound mind embraced them. Francesco Redi, a member of the Accademia del Cimento, published Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti (Experiments on the Generation of Insects) in 1668. In this work he attempted to reproduce the experiments Kircher claimed to have undertaken in Scrutinium physico-medicum and found some to be unrepeatable - indeed, Redi questioned whether Kircher had ever even done them himself. Sprinking basil water on powdered scorpion did not generate baby scorpions as Kircher claimed, and he doubted that Kircher had ever successfully generated frogs by mixing ditch dust with water. +Nevertheless, Kircher's ideas were taken up by Christian Lange (1619–62), a Leipzig professor, who republished his book with his own preface. A school of medical thinking grew up around Lange and is work in Germany and elsewhere, convinced that contagion was the method of disease transmission as Kircher had argued. Kircher's work was discussed by the Royal Society, and English thinkers persuaded by his views included Frederick Slare, Sir Charles Ent and Walter Charleton. Scrutinium Physico-Medicum also influenced the thinking of Leibniz, who believed in contagion theory. + + +== Later editions == +Later editions of the work were published in Leipzig by Johannes Baverus in 1659, 1671 and 1674. A Dutch translation was published in Amsterdam by Johannes van Waesbergen in 1669, and a German translation by J.C. Brandan in Augsburg in 1680. The Waesbergern translation carried a frontispiece depicting a woman covered in buboes. Above her hangs a portrait of Kircher. The wolf next to her may be a reference to the Romulus and Remus myth, symbolising Rome. She is stepping on a toad, mentioned in the book both as the product of spontaneous generation and as a protective against the plague. + + +== External links == +digital copy of Scrutinium physico-medicum + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_earths-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_earths-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4cd17f78 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_earths-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Seven earths" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_earths" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:41.919441+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Seven earths is a cosmological doctrine attested in ancient Near Eastern, Jewish, and Islamic traditions, according to which the cosmos is structured into multiple, specifically seven, terrestrial realms, often arranged in parallel with or in symmetry to a corresponding scheme of seven heavens. In some cases, the seven earths may refer to seven layers of the Underworld or Hell. +The seven earths belief first appears in Sumerian literature, likely as a magical or symbolic way to speak about the totality of the cosmos. The doctrine of a real, cosmologically structured seven heavens and seven earths, evolves out of Jewish and Late Antique literature where a growing interest in the depiction of Hell can be found. The earliest traces of the idea are found in texts like the Babylonian Talmud, where the underworld is given seven names. A second layer of texts interprets these seven names, as seven distinct regions of the underworld. Finally, texts such as Leviticus Rabbah, Seder Rabbah di-Bereshit, and more, begin to speak of the idea of seven real and distinct earths. Around this time, the seven earths also appear in the Quran (65:12). + + +== By genre of literature == + + +=== Ancient Near Eastern literature === +The idea of the seven earths as a counterpart to the seven heavens appears first in Sumerian literature, especially in incantation texts, which had a propensity to speak about the structure of the cosmos. However, within the Mesopotamian context, the seven heavens and earth are likely to refer to a totality of the cosmos with some sort of magical or numerological significance, as opposed to a description of the structural number of heavens and Earth. +Israelite texts do not mention the notion of seven heavens or earths. + + +=== Seder Rabbah di-Bereshit === +The Seder Rabbah di-Bereshit, among other Late Antique Jewish cosmological tracts, is unique in its presentation of a doctrine of the seven earths, which mirrors its better-known scheme of seven heavens and extends cosmological multiplicity downward as well as upward. The text presents these earths as distinct, vertically ordered realms, each with specific functions and inhabitants, rather than as poetic synonyms for the terrestrial world. One of the intermediate earths houses Gehinnom, itself subdivided into multiple compartments for the punishment of sinners, while its corresponding heaven contains the reward of the righteous, including the heavenly Jerusalem and Temple. Most strikingly, the lowest earth is not the most degraded but one of the most exalted: it contains the Throne of Glory, the angelic chariot beings, and the Shekhinah (divine presence), thereby collapsing the distinction between heaven and earth at the lowest level of the cosmos. Within the work as a whole, the seven-earths cosmology serves to articulate a radically symmetrical universe in which divine presence frames creation from both above and below, reflecting the text's self-presentation as revealed maʿaseh bereshit rather than exegetical midrash. + + +=== The Quran and Islamic literature === +The seven heavens are a mainstay of Quranic cosmology, mentioned throughout the Quran (2:29; 17:44; 23:86; 65:12; 67:3; 71:15), the holy scripture of Islam. In one of these verses, the Quran lays out a vision of cosmological symmetry, by providing a correspondence between the seven heavens and the seven earths. Quran 65:12:Allah is the One Who created seven heavens in layers, and likewise for the earth. The divine command descends between them so you may know that Allah is Most Capable of everything and that Allah certainly encompasses all things in His knowledge.According to Julien Decharneux, while acceptance of the seven earths is the common way to read this passage, it is also possible to read the verse as stating that the earth individually, and not in seven, is used as a counterpart to the seven heavens. In any case, the doctrine of the seven earths was widely transmitted in Islamic literature, including in hadith literature like Sahih al-Bukhari. + + +== See also == +Cosmic ocean +Firmament +Separation of heaven and earth + + +== References == + + +=== Citations === + + +=== Sources === +Decharneux, Julien (2023). Creation and Contemplation The Cosmology of the Qur'ān and Its Late Antique Background. De Gruyter. +Schafer, Peter (2004). "In Heaven as It Is in Hell: The Cosmology of Seder Rabba di-Bereshit". In Boustan, Ra’anan S.; Reed, Annette Yoshiko (eds.). Heavenly Realms and Earthly Realities in Late Antique Religions. Cambridge University Press. pp. 233–274. +Wright, Edward J. (2000). The Early History of Heaven. Oxford University Press. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant_(astronomy)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant_(astronomy)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4d92cebd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant_(astronomy)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Sextant (astronomy)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant_(astronomy)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:42.520007+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In astronomy, sextants are devices depicting a sixth of a circle, used primarily for measuring the position of stars. There are two types of astronomical sextants, mural instruments and frame-based instruments. +They are of significant historical importance, but have been replaced over time by transit telescopes, other astrometry techniques, and satellites such as Hipparcos. + + +== Mural sextants == + +The first known mural sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. To measure the obliquity of the ecliptic, al-Khujandī invented a device that he called al-Fakhri sextant (al-suds al Fakhrī), a reference to his patron, Buwayhid ruler, Fakhr al Dawla (976–997). This instrument was a sixty-degree arc on a wall aligned along a meridian (north–south) line. Al Khujandi's instrument was larger than previous instruments; it had a radius of about twenty meters. The main improvement incorporated in al-Fakhri sextants over earlier instruments was bringing the precision of reading to seconds while older instruments could only be read in degrees and minutes. This was confirmed by al-Birūni, al-Marrākushī and al-Kāshī. Al-Khujandī used his device to measure the sun's angle above the horizon at the summer and winter solstices; these two measurements allow computation of the latitude of the sextant's location and the obliquity of the ecliptic. +Ulugh Beg constructed a Fakhri Sextant that had a radius of 40.4 meters, the largest instrument of its type in the 15th century. Housed in the Ulugh Beg Observatory, the sextant had a finely constructed arc with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements. + + +== Framed sextants == + +A sextant based on a large metal frame had an advantage over a mural instrument in that it could be used at any orientation. This allows the measure of angular distances between astronomical bodies. +These instruments differ substantially from a navigator's sextant in that the latter is a reflecting instrument. The navigator's sextant uses mirrors to bring the image of the sun, moon or a star to the horizon and measure the altitude of the object. Due to the use of the mirrors, the angle measured is twice the length of the instrument's arc. Hence, the navigator's sextant measures 120° on an arc with an included angle of 60°. By comparison, the astronomical sextants are large and measure angles directly — a 60° arc will measure at most 60°. + + +=== Construction === +These large sextants are made primarily of wood, brass or a combination of both materials. The frame is heavy enough to be stiff and provide reliable measures without flexural changes in the instrument compromising the quality of the observation. The frame is mounted on a support structure that holds it in position while in use. In some cases, the position of the sextant can be adjusted to allow measurements to be made with any instrument orientation. Owing to the size and weight of the instrument, attention was paid to balancing it so that it could be moved with ease. +Observations were typically made with an alidade, though newer versions could use a telescope. In some cases, a system of counter-weights and pulleys were used to allow the observer to manipulate the instrument in spite of its size. + + +=== Usage === + +These instruments were used in much the same way as smaller instruments, with effort possibly scaled due to the size. Some of the instruments might have needed more than one person to operate. +If the sextant is permanently fixed in position, only the position of the alidade or similar index need be determined. In that case, the observer moved the alidade until the object of interest is centered in the sights and then reads the graduations marked on the arc. +For instruments that could be moved, the process was more complex. It was necessary to sight the object with two lines. The edge of the instrument would typically be supplied with sights and the instrument was aligned with one of the two objects of interest. The alidade was then aligned with the second object as well. Once each object was centred in one set of sights, the reading could be taken. This could be a challenge for a moving star observed with a very large instrument as a single person might not be able to confirm both sights with ease; an assistant was a great benefit. The illustration of the Hevelius instrument to the right shows how two persons would use such a sextant: his wife Elisabetha is aligning the instrument while Johannes sets the alidade. + + +=== Well-known framed sextants === +Taqi al-Din used a sextant for the determination of the equinoxes. +Tycho Brahe used a sextant for many of his stellar position measurements. +Johannes Hevelius used a sextant with a particularly ingenious alidade to provide stellar position measurements of great accuracy. +John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal, used a sextant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. + + +== See also == +List of astronomical instruments + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_square-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_square-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2eb2d0d50 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_square-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Shadow square" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_square" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:43.709972+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The shadow square, also known as an altitude scale, was an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the alidade, for angular observations. An early example was described in an Arabic treatise likely dating to 9th or 10th-century Baghdad. Shadow squares are often found on the backs of astrolabes. + + +== Uses == +The main use of a shadow square is to measure the linear height of an object using its shadow. It does so by simulating the ratio between an object, generally a gnomon, and its shadow. If the Sun's ray is between 0 degrees and 45 degrees the umbra versa (Vertical axis) is used, between 45 degrees and 90 degrees the umbra recta (Horizontal axis) is used and when the Sun's ray is at 45 degrees its shadow falls exactly on the umbra media (y=x) It was used during the time of medieval astronomy to determine the height of, and to track the movement of celestial bodies such as the Sun when more advanced measurement methods were not available. These methods can still be used today to determine the altitude, with reference to the horizon, of any visible celestial body. + + +== Gnomon == +A gnomon is used along with a shadow box commonly. A gnomon is a stick placed vertically in a sunny place so that it casts a shadow that can be measured. Studying the shadow of the gnomon provides information about the motion of the Sun. Gnomons were most likely independently discovered by many ancient civilizations, but it is known that they were used in the 5th century BC in Greece. Most likely for the measurement of the winter and summer solstices.Herodotus says in his Histories written around 450 B.C., that the Greeks learned the use of the gnomon from the Babylonians. + + +== Examples == +If a shadow of a human being is 4 feet long then what is the altitude of the sun? This problem can be solved through the use of the shadow box. The shadow box is divided in half, one half is calibrated by sixes the other by tens. Because it is a shadow cast by the human body the sixes are more convenient. By moving the alidade to the four (the same as the shadows length) and then reading the altitude scale shows the Sun is at an altitude of 56.3 degrees. +The Shadow box can also be used with long shadows using a slightly modified method. If a human's shadow is 18 feet long, then what is the altitude of the Sun? Using the sixes side of the shadow box (using a human body as measurement) the longest shadow marked on a shadow box is six feet. This creates a problem any time the shadow is longer than the gnomon that casts it. By performing a simple calculation, by figuring out how tall a gnomon would be if it cast a six-foot shadow in the same situation, in this situation the gnomon would be only two feet tall in order to cast a six-foot shadow. If the shadow is longer than the gnomon, first turn the astrolabe upside down then set the alidade at two, the height of the projected gnomon, then read off the altitude from the altitude scale. It should read that the Sun is at 19 degrees above the horizon. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Plössl-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Plössl-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d924519e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Plössl-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Simon Plössl" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Plössl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:08.713363+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Simon Plössl (September 19, 1794, Vienna – January 29, 1868, Vienna) was an Austrian optical instrument maker. Initially trained at the Voigtländer company, he set up his own workshop in 1823. His major achievement at the time was the improvement of the achromatic microscope objective. Today he is best known for the eponymous Plössl telescope eyepiece, which follows his 1860 design and has been used extensively by amateur astronomers since the 1980s. + + +== External links == + +Instruments by Simon Georg Plössl +10 Plössl, Georg Simon +A short biography and some instruments from the Hellenic Archives of Scientific Instruments +Early large microscope by Simon Plössl, made in 1840 +Early travel microscope by Simon Plössl, made in 1845 +Plössl Non-inclining Large Microscope, c. 1845 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1147a385d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,202 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:44.876699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A slide rule is a hand-operated mechanical calculator consisting of slidable rulers for conducting mathematical operations such as multiplication, division, exponents, roots, logarithms, and trigonometry. It is one of the simplest analog computers. +Slide rules exist in a diverse range of styles and generally appear in a linear, circular or cylindrical form. Slide rules manufactured for specialized fields such as aviation or finance typically feature additional scales that aid in specialized calculations particular to those fields. The slide rule is closely related to nomograms used for application-specific computations. Though similar in name and appearance to a standard ruler, the slide rule is not meant to be used for measuring length or drawing straight lines. Maximum accuracy for standard linear slide rules is about three decimal significant digits, while scientific notation is used to keep track of the order of magnitude of results. +English mathematician and clergyman Reverend William Oughtred and others developed the slide rule in the 17th century based on the emerging work on logarithms by John Napier. It made calculations faster and less error-prone than evaluating on paper. Before the advent of the scientific pocket calculator, it was the most commonly used calculation tool in science and engineering. The slide rule's ease of use, ready availability, and low cost caused its use to continue to grow through the 1950s and 1960s even with the introduction of mainframe digital electronic computers. But after the handheld HP-35 scientific calculator was introduced in 1972 and became inexpensive in the mid-1970s, slide rules became largely obsolete and no longer were in use by the advent of personal desktop computers in the 1980s. +In the United States, the slide rule is colloquially called a slipstick. + +== Basic concepts == +Each ruler's scale has graduations labeled with precomputed outputs of various mathematical functions, acting as a lookup table that maps from position on the ruler as each function's input. Calculations that can be reduced to simple addition or subtraction using those precomputed functions can be solved by aligning the two rulers and reading the approximate result. +For example, a number to be multiplied on one logarithmic-scale ruler can be aligned with the start of another such ruler to sum their logarithms. Then by applying the law of the logarithm of a product, the product of the two numbers can be read. More elaborate slide rules can perform other calculations, such as square roots, exponentials, and trigonometric functions. +The user may estimate the location of the decimal point in the result by mentally interpolating between labeled graduations. Scientific notation is used to track the decimal point for more precise calculations. Addition and subtraction steps in a calculation are generally done mentally or on paper, not on the slide rule. + +=== Components === + +Most slide rules consist of three parts: + +Frame or base – two strips of the same length held parallel to form a frame. +Slide – a center strip that can move lengthwise relative to the frame. +Cursor, runner or glass – an exterior sliding piece with a hairline for accurately reading and aligning numbers. +Some slide rules ("duplex" models) have scales on both sides of the rule and slide strip, others on one side of the outer strips and both sides of the slide strip (which can usually be pulled out, flipped over and reinserted for convenience), still others on one side only ("simplex" rules). A sliding cursor with a vertical alignment line is used to find corresponding points on scales that are not adjacent to each other or, in duplex models, are on the other side of the rule. The cursor can also record an intermediate result on any of the scales. + +=== Decades === +Scales may be grouped in decades, where each decade corresponds to a range of numbers that spans a ratio of 10 (i.e. a range from 10n to 10n+1). For example, the range 1 to 10 is a single decade, and the range from 10 to 100 is another decade. Thus, single-decade scales (named C and D) range from 1 to 10 across the entire length of the slide rule, while double-decade scales (named A and B) range from 1 to 100 over the length of the slide rule. + +== Operation == + +=== Logarithmic scales === +The following logarithmic identities transform the operations of multiplication and division to addition and subtraction, respectively: + + + + + log + ⁡ + ( + x + × + y + ) + = + log + ⁡ + ( + x + ) + + + log + ⁡ + ( + y + ) + + , + + + {\displaystyle \log(x\times y)=\log(x)+\log(y)\,,} + + + + + + log + ⁡ + ( + x + + / + + y + ) + = + log + ⁡ + ( + x + ) + − + log + ⁡ + ( + y + ) + + . + + + {\displaystyle \log(x/y)=\log(x)-\log(y)\,.} + + +==== Multiplication ==== +With two logarithmic scales, the act of positioning the top scale to start at the bottom scale's label for + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + + corresponds to shifting the top logarithmic scale by a distance of + + + + log + ⁡ + ( + x + ) + + + {\displaystyle \log(x)} + +. This aligns each top scale's number + + + + y + + + {\displaystyle y} + + at offset + + + + log + ⁡ + ( + y + ) + + + {\displaystyle \log(y)} + + with the bottom scale's number at position + + + + log + ⁡ + ( + x + ) + + + log + ⁡ + ( + y + ) + + + {\displaystyle \log(x)+\log(y)} + +. Because + + + + log + ⁡ + ( + x + ) + + + log + ⁡ + ( + y + ) + = + log + ⁡ + ( + x + × + y + ) + + + {\displaystyle \log(x)+\log(y)=\log(x\times y)} + +, the mark on the bottom scale at that position corresponds to + + + + x + × + y + + + {\displaystyle x\times y} + +. With x=2 and y=3 for example, by positioning the top scale to start at the bottom scale's 2, the result of the multiplication 3×2=6 can then be read on the bottom scale under the top scale's 3: + +While the above example lies within one decade, users must mentally account for additional zeroes when dealing with multiple decades. For example, the answer to 7×2=14 is found by first positioning the top scale to start above the 2 of the bottom scale, and then reading the marking 1.4 off the bottom two-decade scale where 7 is on the top scale: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d5ba7823 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:44.876699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +But since the 7 is above the second set of numbers that number must be multiplied by 10. Thus, even though the answer directly reads 1.4, the correct answer is 1.4×10 = 14. +For an example with even larger numbers, to multiply 88×20, the top scale is again positioned to start at the 2 on the bottom scale. Since 2 represents 20, all numbers in that scale are multiplied by 10. Thus, any answer in the second set of numbers is multiplied by 100. Since 8.8 in the top scale represents 88, the answer must additionally be multiplied by 10. The answer directly reads 1.76. Multiply by 100 and then by 10 to get the actual answer: 1,760. +In general, the 1 on the top is moved to a factor on the bottom, and the answer is read off the bottom where the other factor is on the top. This works because the distances from the 1 mark are proportional to the logarithms of the marked values. + +==== Division ==== +The illustration below demonstrates the computation of ⁠5.5/2⁠. The 2 on the top scale is placed over the 5.5 on the bottom scale. The resulting quotient, 2.75, can then be read below the top scale's 1: + +There is more than one method for doing division, and the method presented here has the advantage that the final result cannot be off-scale, because one has a choice of using the 1 at either end. +With more complex calculations involving multiple factors in the numerator and denominator of an expression, movement of the scales can be minimized by alternating divisions and multiplications. Thus ⁠5.5×3/2⁠ would be computed as ⁠5.5/2⁠×3 and the result, 8.25, can be read beneath the 3 in the top scale in the figure above, without the need to register the intermediate result for ⁠5.5/2⁠. + +==== Solving proportions ==== +Because pairs of numbers that are aligned on the logarithmic scales form constant ratios, no matter how the scales are offset, slide rules can be used to generate equivalent fractions that solve proportion and percent problems. +For example, setting 7.5 on one scale over 10 on the other scale, the user can see that at the same time 1.5 is over 2, 2.25 is over 3, 3 is over 4, 3.75 is over 5, 4.5 is over 6, and 6 is over 8, among other pairs. For a real-life situation where 750 represents a whole 100%, these readings could be interpreted to suggest that 150 is 20%, 225 is 30%, 300 is 40%, 375 is 50%, 450 is 60%, and 600 is 80%. + +=== Other scales === + +In addition to the logarithmic scales, some slide rules have other mathematical functions encoded on other auxiliary scales. The most popular are trigonometric, usually sine and tangent, common logarithm (log10) (for taking the log of a value on a multiplier scale), natural logarithm (ln) and exponential (ex) scales. Others feature scales for calculating hyperbolic functions. On linear rules, the scales and their labeling are highly standardized, with variation usually occurring only in terms of which scales are included and in what order. + +==== Roots and powers ==== +There are single-decade (C and D), double-decade (A and B), and triple-decade (K) scales. To compute + + + + + x + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle x^{2}} + +, for example, locate x on the D scale and read its square on the A scale. Inverting this process allows square roots to be found, and similarly for the powers 3, 1/3, 2/3, and 3/2. Care must be taken when the base, x, is found in more than one place on its scale. For instance, there are two nines on the A scale; to find the square root of nine, use the first one; the second one gives the square root of 90. +For + + + + + x + + y + + + + + {\displaystyle x^{y}} + + problems, use the LL scales. When several LL scales are present, use the one with x on it. First, align the leftmost 1 on the C scale with x on the LL scale. Then, find y on the C scale and go down to the LL scale with x on it. That scale will indicate the answer. If y is "off the scale", locate + + + + + x + + y + + / + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle x^{y/2}} + + and square it using the A and B scales as described above. Alternatively, use the rightmost 1 on the C scale, and read the answer off the next higher LL scale. For example, aligning the rightmost 1 on the C scale with 2 on the LL2 scale, 3 on the C scale lines up with 8 on the LL3 scale. +To extract a cube root using a slide rule with only C/D and A/B scales, align 1 on the B cursor with the base number on the A scale (taking care as always to distinguish between the lower and upper halves of the A scale). Slide the slide until the number on the D scale which is against 1 on the C cursor is the same as the number on the B cursor which is against the base number on the A scale. (Examples: A 8, B 2, C 1, D 2; A 27, B 3, C 1, D 3.) + +==== Roots of quadratic equations ==== +Quadratic equations of the form + + + + a + + x + + 2 + + + + + b + x + + + c + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle ax^{2}+bx+c=0} + + can be solved by first reducing the equation to the form + + + + + x + + 2 + + + − + p + x + + + q + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle x^{2}-px+q=0} + + (where + + + + p + = + − + b + + / + + a + + + {\displaystyle p=-b/a} + + and + + + + q + = + c + + / + + a + + + {\displaystyle q=c/a} + +), and then aligning the index ("1") of the C scale to the value + + + + q + + + {\displaystyle q} + + on the D scale. The cursor is then moved along the rule until a position is found where the numbers on the CI and D scales add up to + + + + p + + + {\displaystyle p} + +. These two values are the roots of the equation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..79a0c8c76 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,188 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:44.876699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Future value of money ==== +The LLN scales can be used to compute and compare the cost or return on a fixed rate loan or investment. +The simplest case is for continuously compounded interest. Example: Taking D as the interest rate in percent, +slide the index (the "1" at the right or left end of the scale) of C to the percent on D. The corresponding value on LL2 directly below the index will be the multiplier for 10 cycles of interest (typically years). The value on LL2 below 2 on the C scale will be the multiplier after 20 cycles, and so on. + +==== Trigonometry ==== +The S, T, and ST scales are used for trig functions and multiples of trig functions, for angles in degrees. +For angles from around 5.7 up to 90 degrees, sines are found by comparing the S scale with C (or D) scale. (On many closed-body rules the S scale relates to the A and B scales instead and covers angles from around 0.57 up to 90 degrees; what follows must be adjusted appropriately.) The S scale has a second set of angles (sometimes in a different color), which run in the opposite direction, and are used for cosines. Tangents are found by comparing the T scale with the C (or D) scale for angles less than 45 degrees. For angles greater than 45 degrees the CI scale is used. Common forms such as + + + + k + sin + ⁡ + x + + + {\displaystyle k\sin x} + + can be read directly from x on the S scale to the result on the D scale, when the C scale index is set at k. For angles below 5.7 degrees, sines, tangents, and radians are approximately equal, and are found on the ST or SRT (sines, radians, and tangents) scale, or simply divided by 57.3 degrees/radian. Inverse trigonometric functions are found by reversing the process. +Many slide rules have S, T, and ST scales marked with degrees and minutes (e.g. some Keuffel and Esser models (Doric duplex 5" models, for example), late-model Teledyne-Post Mannheim-type rules). So-called decitrig models use decimal fractions of degrees instead. + +==== Logarithms and exponentials ==== +Base-10 logarithms and exponentials are found using the L scale, which is linear. Some slide rules have a Ln scale, which is for base e. Logarithms to any other base can be calculated by reversing the procedure for calculating powers of a number. For example, log2 values can be determined by lining up either leftmost or rightmost 1 on the C scale with 2 on the LL2 scale, finding the number whose logarithm is to be calculated on the corresponding LL scale, and reading the log2 value on the C scale. + +==== Addition and subtraction ==== +Addition and subtraction are not typically performed on slide rules, but is possible using either of the following two techniques: + +Converting addition and subtraction to division (required for the C and D or comparable scales): +Exploits the identity that the quotient of two variables plus (or minus) one times the divisor equals their sum (or difference): + + + + + + + + + ( + + + + x + y + + + + + 1 + + ) + + y + + + + = + x + + + y + + + (addition) + + , + + + + + + ( + + + + x + y + + + − + 1 + + ) + + y + + + + = + x + − + y + + + (subtraction) + + . + + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left({\frac {x}{y}}+1\right)y&=x+y\,{\text{ (addition)}},\\\left({\frac {x}{y}}-1\right)y&=x-y\,{\text{ (subtraction)}}.\end{aligned}}} + + +This is similar to the addition/subtraction technique used for high-speed electronic circuits with a logarithmic number system in specialized computer applications like the Gravity Pipe (GRAPE) supercomputer and hidden Markov models. +Using a linear L scale (available on some models): +After sliding the cursor right (for addition) or left (for subtraction) and returning the slide to 0, the result can be read. + +=== Generalizations === + +Using (almost) any strictly monotonic scales, other calculations can also be made with one movement. For example, quadratic scales can be used to solve + + + + + x + + 2 + + + + + + y + + 2 + + + = + + z + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}} + +, used for instance by the Pythagorean theorem. Reciprocal scales can be used for the equality: + + + + + + 1 + x + + + + + + + 1 + y + + + = + + + 1 + z + + + , + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{x}}+{\frac {1}{y}}={\frac {1}{z}},} + +which is useful for calculating parallel resistances, optical power, harmonic mean, etc. + +== Designs == + +=== Standard linear rules === + +The width of the slide rule is quoted in terms of the nominal width of the scales. Scales on the most common "10-inch" models are actually 25 cm, as they were made to metric standards, though some rules offer slightly extended scales to simplify manipulation when a result overflows. Pocket rules are typically 5 inches (12 cm). Models a couple of metres (yards) wide were made to be hung in classrooms for teaching purposes. +Typically the divisions mark a scale to a precision of two significant figures, and the user estimates the third figure. Some high-end slide rules have magnifier cursors that make the markings easier to see. Such cursors can effectively double the accuracy of readings, permitting a 10-inch slide rule to serve as well as a 20-inch model. +Various other conveniences have been developed. Trigonometric scales are sometimes dual-labeled, in black and red, with complementary angles, the so-called "Darmstadt" style. Duplex slide rules often duplicate some of the scales on the back. Scales are often "split" to get higher accuracy. For example, instead of reading from an A scale to a D scale to find a square root, it may be possible to read from a D scale to an R1 scale running from 1 to square root of 10 or to an R2 scale running from square root of 10 to 10, where having more subdivisions marked can result in being able to read an answer with one more significant digit. + +=== Circular slide rules === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b107f9ac7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:44.876699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Circular slide rules come in two basic types, one with two cursors, and another with a free dish and one cursor. The dual cursor versions perform multiplication and division by holding a constant angle between the cursors as they are rotated around the dial. The onefold cursor version operates more like the standard slide rule through the appropriate alignment of the scales. +The basic advantage of a circular slide rule is that the widest dimension of the tool was reduced by a factor of about 3 (i.e. by π). For example, a 10 cm (3.9 in) circular would have a maximum precision approximately equal to a 31.4 cm (12.4 in) ordinary slide rule. Circular slide rules also eliminate "off-scale" calculations, because the scales were designed to "wrap around"; they never have to be reoriented when results are near 1.0—the rule is always on scale. However, for non-cyclical non-spiral scales such as S, T, and LL's, the scale width is narrowed to make room for end margins. +Circular slide rules are mechanically more rugged with smoother motion, but their scale alignment precision is sensitive to the centering of a central pivot; a minute 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) off-centre of the pivot can result in a 0.2 mm (0.0079 in) worst case alignment error. The pivot does prevent scratching of the face and cursors. The highest accuracy scales are placed on the outer rings. Rather than "split" scales, high-end circular rules use spiral scales for more complex operations like log-of-log scales. One eight-inch premium circular rule had a 50-inch spiral log-log scale. Around 1970, an inexpensive model from B. C. Boykin (Model 510) featured 20 scales, including 50-inch C-D (multiplication) and log scales. The RotaRule featured a friction brake for the cursor. +The main disadvantages of circular slide rules are the difficulty in locating figures along a dish, and limited number of scales. Another drawback of circular slide rules is that less-important scales are closer to the center, and have lower precisions. Most students learned first on linear slide rules. +One slide rule remaining in daily use around the world is the E6-B. This is a circular slide rule created in the 1930s for aircraft pilots to help with dead reckoning. With the aid of scales printed on the frame it also helps with such miscellaneous tasks as converting time, distance, speed, and temperature values, compass errors, and calculating fuel use. The so-called "prayer wheel" is still available in flight shops, and remains widely used. While GPS has reduced the use of dead reckoning for aerial navigation, and handheld calculators have taken over many of its functions, the E6-B remains widely used as a primary or backup device and the majority of flight schools demand that their students have some degree of proficiency in its use. +Proportion wheels are simple circular slide rules used in graphic design to calculate aspect ratios. Lining up the original and desired size values on the inner and outer wheels will display their ratio as a percentage in a small window. Though not as common since the advent of computerized layout, they are still made and used. +In 1952, Swiss watch company Breitling introduced a pilot's wristwatch with an integrated circular slide rule specialized for flight calculations: the Breitling Navitimer. The Navitimer circular rule, referred to by Breitling as a "navigation computer", featured airspeed, rate/time of climb/descent, flight time, distance, and fuel consumption functions, as well as kilometer—nautical mile and gallon—liter fuel amount conversion functions. + +=== Cylindrical slide rules === +Cylindrical slide rules are made in two styles: those with helical scales such as the Fuller calculator, the Otis King and the Bygrave slide rule, and those with bars, such as the Thacher and some Loga models. In either case, the advantage is a much longer scale, and hence potentially greater precision, than afforded by a straight or circular rule. + +=== Materials === +Traditionally slide rules were made out of a relatively dense, stable hardwood such as mahogany or boxwood with cursors of glass and metal. Aluminum was used, and at least one high precision instrument was made of steel. +In 1895, a Japanese firm, Hemmi, started to make slide rules from celluloid-clad bamboo, which had the advantages of being dimensionally stable, strong, and naturally self-lubricating. These bamboo slide rules were introduced in Sweden in September, 1933, and probably only a little earlier in Germany. +Scales were also made of celluloid or other polymers, or printed on aluminium. Later cursors were molded from acrylics or polycarbonate, sometimes with Teflon bearing surfaces. +All premium slide rules had numbers and scales deeply engraved, and then filled with paint or other resin. Painted or imprinted slide rules were viewed as inferior, because the markings could wear off or be chemically damaged. Nevertheless, Pickett & Eckel, an American slide rule company, made only printed scale rules. Premium slide rules included clever mechanical catches so the rule would not fall apart by accident, and bumpers to protect the scales and cursor from rubbing on tabletops. + +== History == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..80f10fc90 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:44.876699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after John Napier's publication of the concept of the logarithm. In 1620 Edmund Gunter of Oxford developed a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale; with additional measuring tools it could be used to multiply and divide. In c. 1622, William Oughtred of Cambridge combined two handheld Gunter rules to make a device that is recognizably the modern slide rule. Oughtred became involved in a vitriolic controversy over priority, with his one-time student Richard Delamain and the prior claims of Edmund Wingate. Oughtred's ideas were only made public in publications of his student William Forster in 1632 and 1653. +In 1677, Henry Coggeshall created a two-foot folding rule for timber measure, called the Coggeshall slide rule, expanding the slide rule's use beyond mathematical inquiry. +In 1722, Warner introduced the two- and three-decade scales, and in 1755 Everard included an inverted scale; a slide rule containing all of these scales is usually known as a "polyphase" rule. +In 1815, Peter Mark Roget invented the log log slide rule, which included a scale displaying the logarithm of the logarithm. This allowed the user to directly perform calculations involving roots and exponents. This was especially useful for fractional powers. +In 1821, Nathaniel Bowditch, described in the American Practical Navigator a "sliding rule" that contained scaled trigonometric functions on the fixed part and a line of log-sines and log-tans on the slider used to solve navigation problems. +In 1845, Paul Cameron of Glasgow introduced a nautical slide rule capable of answering navigation questions, including right ascension and declination of the sun and principal stars. + +=== Modern form === + +A more modern form of slide rule was created in 1859 by French artillery lieutenant Amédée Mannheim, who was fortunate both in having his rule made by a firm of national reputation, and its adoption by the French Artillery. Mannheim's rule had two major modifications that made it easier to use than previous general-purpose slide rules. Such rules had four basic scales, A, B, C, and D, and D was the only single-decade logarithmic scale; C had two decades, like A and B. Most operations were done on the A and B scales; D was only used for finding squares and square roots. +Mannheim changed the C scale to a single-decade scale and performed most operations with C and D instead of A and B. Because the C and D scales were single-decade, they could be read more precisely, so the rule's results could be more accurate. The change also made it easier to include squares and square roots as part of a larger calculation. Mannheim's rule also had a cursor, unlike almost all preceding rules, so any of the scales could be easily and accurately compared across the rule width. The "Mannheim rule" became the standard slide rule arrangement for the later 19th century and remained a common standard throughout the slide-rule era. +The growth of the engineering profession during the later 19th century drove widespread slide-rule use, beginning in Europe and eventually taking hold in the United States as well. The duplex rule was invented by William Cox in 1891 and was produced by Keuffel and Esser Co. of New York. +In 1881, the American inventor Edwin Thacher introduced his cylindrical rule, which had a much longer scale than standard linear rules and thus could calculate to higher precision, about four to five significant digits. However, the Thacher rule was quite expensive, as well as being non-portable, so it was used in far more limited numbers than conventional slide rules. +Astronomical work also required precise computations, and, in 19th-century Germany, a steel slide rule about two meters long was used at one observatory. It had a microscope attached, giving it accuracy to six decimal places. + +=== 20th century === + +In the 1920s, the novelist and engineer Nevil Shute Norway (he called his autobiography Slide Rule) was Chief Calculator on the design of the British R100 airship for Vickers Ltd. from 1924. The stress calculations for each transverse frame required computations by a pair of calculators (people) using Fuller's cylindrical slide rules for two or three months. The simultaneous equation contained up to seven unknown quantities, took about a week to solve, and had to be repeated with a different selection of slack wires if the guess on which of the eight radial wires were slack was wrong and one of the wires guessed to be slack was not slack. After months of labour filling perhaps fifty foolscap sheets with calculations "the truth stood revealed (and) produced a satisfaction almost amounting to a religious experience". +In 1937, physicist Lucy Hayner designed and constructed a circular slide rule in Braille. +Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the slide rule was the symbol of the engineer's profession in the same way the stethoscope is that of the medical profession. +Aluminium Pickett-brand slide rules were carried on Project Apollo space missions. The model N600-ES owned by Buzz Aldrin that flew with him to the Moon on Apollo 11 was sold at auction in 2007. The model N600-ES taken along on Apollo 13 in 1970 is owned by the National Air and Space Museum. +Some engineering students and engineers carried ten-inch slide rules in belt holsters, a common sight on campuses even into the mid-1970s. Until the advent of the pocket digital calculator, students also might keep a ten- or twenty-inch rule for precision work at home or the office while carrying a five-inch pocket slide rule around with them. +In 2004, education researchers David B. Sher and Dean C. Nataro conceived a new type of slide rule based on prosthaphaeresis, an algorithm for rapidly computing products that predates logarithms. However, there has been little practical interest in constructing one beyond the initial prototype. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8b60b4690 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:44.876699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Specialized calculators === +Slide rules have often been specialized to varying degrees for their field of use, such as excise, proof calculation, engineering, navigation, etc., and some slide rules are extremely specialized for very narrow applications. For example, the John Rabone & Sons 1892 catalog lists a "Measuring Tape and Cattle Gauge", a device to estimate the weight of a cow from its measurements. +There were many specialized slide rules for photographic applications. For example, the actinograph of Hurter and Driffield was a two-slide boxwood, brass, and cardboard device for estimating exposure from time of day, time of year, and latitude. +Specialized slide rules were invented for various forms of engineering, business and banking. These often had common calculations directly expressed as special scales, for example loan calculations, optimal purchase quantities, or particular engineering equations. For example, the Fisher Controls company distributed a customized slide rule adapted to solving the equations used for selecting the proper size of industrial flow control valves. +Pilot balloon slide rules were used by meteorologists in weather services to determine the upper wind velocities from an ascending hydrogen or helium-filled pilot balloon. +The E6-B is a circular slide rule used by pilots and navigators. +Circular slide rules to estimate ovulation dates and fertility are known as wheel calculators. +A Department of Defense publication from 1962 infamously included a special-purpose circular slide rule for calculating blast effects, overpressure, and radiation exposure from a given yield of an atomic bomb. + +=== Decline === + +The importance of the slide rule began to diminish as electronic computers, a new but rare resource in the 1950s, became more widely available to technical workers during the 1960s. +The first step away from slide rules was the introduction of relatively inexpensive electronic desktop scientific calculators. These included the Wang Laboratories LOCI-2, introduced in 1965, which used logarithms for multiplication and division; and the Hewlett-Packard HP 9100A, introduced in 1968. Both of these were programmable and provided exponential and logarithmic functions; the HP had trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and tangent) and hyperbolic trigonometric functions as well. The HP used the CORDIC (coordinate rotation digital computer) algorithm, which allows for calculation of trigonometric functions using only shift and add operations. This method facilitated the development of ever smaller scientific calculators. +As with mainframe computing, the availability of these desktop machines did not significantly affect the ubiquitous use of the slide rule, until cheap hand-held scientific electronic calculators became available in the mid-1970s, at which point it rapidly declined. The pocket-sized Hewlett-Packard HP-35 scientific calculator was the first handheld device of its type, but it cost US$395 in 1972 (equivalent to $3,040 in 2025). This was justifiable for some engineering professionals, but too expensive for most students. +Around 1974, lower-cost handheld electronic scientific calculators started to make slide rules largely obsolete. By 1975, basic four-function electronic calculators could be purchased for less than $50 (equivalent to $299 in 2025), and by 1976 the TI-30 scientific calculator was sold for less than $25 (equivalent to $141 in 2025). +1980 was the final year of the University Interscholastic League (UIL) competition in Texas to use slide rules. The UIL had been originally been organized in 1910 to administer literary events, but had become the governing body of school sports events as well. + +== Comparison to electronic digital calculators == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38881fc76 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:44.876699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Even during their heyday, slide rules never caught on with the general public. Addition and subtraction are not well-supported operations on slide rules and doing a calculation on a slide rule tends to be slower than on a calculator. This led engineers to use mathematical equations that favored operations that were easy on a slide rule over more accurate but complex functions; these approximations could lead to inaccuracies and mistakes. On the other hand, the spatial, manual operation of slide rules cultivates in the user an intuition for numerical relationships and scale that people who have used only digital calculators often lack. A slide rule will also display all the terms of a calculation along with the result, thus eliminating uncertainty about what calculation was actually performed. It has thus been compared with reverse Polish notation (RPN) implemented in electronic calculators. +A slide rule requires the user to separately compute the order of magnitude of the answer to position the decimal point in the results. For example, 1.5 × 30 (which equals 45) will show the same result as 1500000 × 0.03 (which equals 45000). This separate calculation forces the user to keep track of magnitude in short-term memory (which is error-prone), keep notes (which is cumbersome) or reason about it in every step (which distracts from the other calculation requirements). +The typical arithmetic precision of a slide rule is about three significant digits, compared to many digits on digital calculators. As order of magnitude gets the greatest prominence when using a slide rule, users are less likely to make errors of false precision. +When performing a sequence of multiplications or divisions by the same number, the answer can often be determined by merely glancing at the slide rule without any manipulation. This can be especially useful when calculating percentages (e.g. for test scores) or when comparing prices (e.g. in dollars per kilogram). Multiple speed-time-distance calculations can be performed hands-free at a glance with a slide rule. Other useful linear conversions such as pounds to kilograms can be easily marked on the rule and used directly in calculations. +Being entirely mechanical, a slide rule does not depend on grid electricity or batteries. Mechanical imprecision in slide rules that were poorly constructed or warped by heat or use will lead to errors. +Many sailors keep slide rules as backups for navigation in case of electric failure or battery depletion on long route segments. Slide rules are still commonly used in aviation, particularly for smaller planes. They are being replaced only by integrated, special purpose and expensive flight computers, and not general-purpose calculators. The E6-B circular slide rule used by pilots has been in continuous production and remains available in a variety of models. Some wrist watches designed for aviation use still feature slide rule scales to permit quick calculations. The Citizen Skyhawk AT and the Seiko Flightmaster SNA411 are two notable examples. + +== Contemporary use == + +Even in the 21st century, some people prefer a slide rule over an electronic calculator as a practical computing device. Others keep their old slide rules out of a sense of nostalgia, or collect them as a hobby. +There are still a handful of sources for brand new slide rules. The Concise Company of Tokyo, which began as a manufacturer of circular slide rules in July 1954, continues to make and sell them today. In September 2009, on-line retailer ThinkGeek introduced its own brand of straight slide rules, described as "faithful replica[s]" that were "individually hand tooled". These were no longer available in 2012. In addition, Faber-Castell had a number of slide rules in inventory, available for international purchase through their web store, until mid 2018. + +== Collections == + +The MIT Museum in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has a collection of hundreds of slide rules, nomograms, and mechanical calculators. The Keuffel and Esser Company collection, from the slide rule manufacturer formerly located in Hoboken, New Jersey, was donated to MIT around 2005, substantially expanding existing holdings. Selected items from the collection are usually on display at the museum. +The International Slide Rule Museum is claimed to be "[the world's] most extensive resource for all things concerning slide rules and logarithmic calculators". The museum's Web page includes extensive literature relative to slide rules in its "Slide Rule Library" section. + +== See also == +Abacus – Calculating tool +Computer (occupation) – Person performing mathematical calculations, before electronic calculators +Curta – Mechanical pocket calculator +Flight computer – Circular slide rule used in aviation +Floating point – Computer approximation for real numbersPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Hans Peter Luhn – American computer scientist +Nomogram – Analog graphical calculator +Sector (instrument) – Mathematical instrument consisting of two hinged rulers +Slide calculator – Mechanical calculator +Slide chart – Hand-held device for reference or calculation +Soroban – Japanese abacus +Suanpan – Chinese abacus +Timeline of computing +Vernier scale – Auxiliary scale of a measurement device, used to increase precision +Volvelle – Paper construct with rotating parts + +== References == + +== External links == + +International Slide Rule Museum +The history, theory and use of the engineering slide rule — By Dr James B. Calvert, University of Denver +United Kingdom Slide Rule Circle Home Page Archived 2015-09-28 at the Wayback Machine +Oughtred Society Slide Rule Home Page — Dedicated to the preservation and history of slide rules +Rod Lovett's Slide Rules – Comprehensive Aristo site with many search facilities +Derek's virtual slide rule gallery — JavaScript simulations of historical slide rules +"Slide rule" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. +"Slide-rule" . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. +Reglas de Cálculo — A very big Faber Castell collection +Collection of slide rules — French Slide Rules (Graphoplex, Tavernier-Gravet and others) +Eric's Slide Rule Site — History and use +Slide Rules — Information from The Museum of HP Calculators +Descriptions, alphabetical by brandname, with images (Vintage Tech. Assoc.) + + On the History of Gunter's Scale and the Slide Rule During the Seventeenth Century at Project Gutenberg + + The Slide Rule: a Practical Manual at Project Gutenberg \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule_scale-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule_scale-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..809507bff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule_scale-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Slide rule scale" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule_scale" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:37:46.082245+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A slide rule scale is a line with graduated markings inscribed along the length of a slide rule used for mathematical calculations. The earliest such device had a single logarithmic scale for performing multiplication and division, but soon an improved technique was developed which involved two such scales sliding alongside each other. Later, multiple scales were provided with the most basic being logarithmic but with others graduated according to the mathematical function required. +Few slide rules have been designed for addition and subtraction, rather the main scales are used for multiplication and division and the other scales are for mathematical calculations involving trigonometric, exponential and, generally, transcendental functions. Before they were superseded by electronic calculators in the 1970s, slide rules were an important type of portable calculating instrument. + + +== Slide rule design == + +A slide rule consists of a body and a slider that can be slid along within the body and both of these have numerical scales inscribed on them. On duplex rules the body and/or the slider have scales on the back as well as the front. The slider's scales may be visible from the back or the slider may need to be slid right out and replaced facing the other way round. A cursor (also called runner or glass) containing one (or more) hairlines may be slid along the whole rule so that corresponding readings, front and back, can be taken from the various scales on the body and slider. + + +=== History === +In about 1620, Edmund Gunter introduced what is now known as Gunter's line as one element of the Gunter's sector he invented for mariners. The line, inscribed on wood, was a single logarithmic scale going from 1 to 100. It had no sliding parts but by using a pair of dividers it was possible to multiply and divide numbers. The form with a single logarithmic scale eventually developed into such instruments as Fuller's cylindrical slide rule. In about 1622, but not published until 1632, William Oughtred invented linear and circular slide rules which had two logarithmic scales that slid beside each other to perform calculations. In 1654 the linear design was developed into a wooden body within which a slider could be fitted and adjusted. + + +== Scales == + +Simple slide rules will have a C and D scale for multiplication and division, most likely an A and B for squares and square roots, and possibly CI and K for reciprocals and cubes. In the early days of slide rules few scales were provided and no labelling was necessary. However, gradually the number of scales tended to increase. Amédée Mannheim introduced the A, B, C and D labels in 1859 and, after that, manufacturers began to adopt a somewhat standardised, though idiosyncratic, system of labels so the various scales could be quickly identified. +Advanced slide rules have many scales and they are often designed with particular types of user in mind, for example electrical engineers or surveyors. +There are rarely scales for addition and subtraction but a workaround is possible. +The rule illustrated is an Aristo 0972 HyperLog, which has 31 scales. The scales in the table below are those appropriate for general mathematical use rather than for specific professions. + + +=== Notes about table === +Some scales have high values at the left and low on the right. These are marked as "decrease" in the table above. On slide rules these are often inscribed in red rather than black or they may have arrows pointing left along the scale. See P and DI scales in detail image. +In slide rule terminology, "folded" means a scale that starts and finishes at values offset from a power of 10. Often folded scales start at π but may be extended lengthways to, say, 3.0 and 35.0. Folded scales with the code subscripted with "M" start and finish at log10 e to simplify conversion between base-10 and natural logarithms. When subscripted "/M", they fold at ln(10). +For mathematical reasons some scales either stop short of or extend beyond the D = 1 and 10 points. For example, arctanh(x) approaches ∞ (infinity) as x approaches 1, so the scale stops short. +In slide rule terminology "log-log" means the scale is logarithmic applied over an inherently logarithmic scale. +Slide rule annotation generally ignores powers of 10. However, for some scales, such as log-log, decimal points are relevant and are likely to be marked. + + +== Gauge marks == + +Gauge marks are often added to the scales either marking important constants (e.g. π at 3.14159) or useful conversion coefficients (e.g. ρ" at 180*60*60/π or 206.3×103 to find sine and tan of small angles). A cursor may have subsidiary hairlines beside the main one. For example, when one is over kilowatts the other indicates horsepower. See π on the A and B scales and ρ" on the C scale in the detail image. The Aristo 0972 has multiple cursor hairlines on its reverse side, as shown in the image above. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +=== Citations === + + +=== Works cited === + + +== Further reading == +Alfeld, Peter. "What Can You Do With A Slide Rule?". www.math.utah.edu. University of Utah. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021. +Davis, Richard; Hume, Ted; Koppany, Bob, eds. (2012). Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual (PDF). Oughtred Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2021. +Harris, Charles Overton (1972). Slide Rule Simplified. Chicago: American Technical Society. ISBN 978-0-8269-2342-4. +Young, Neville W. (1972). A Complete Slide Rule Manual. David M. Peterson. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Social_Studies_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Social_Studies_of_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a009c29c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Social_Studies_of_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Society for Social Studies of Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Social_Studies_of_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:09.949299+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Society for Social Studies of Science (4S) is a non-profit scholarly association devoted to the social studies of science and technology (STS). It was founded in 1975 and it has grown considerably over the years. In 2024, over 3,000 people attended the society's annual meeting in Amsterdam, co-hosted by the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST). +Its charter was drafted in 1975, and its first President was the American sociologist Robert K. Merton. 4S is governed by a nine-person council as well as its president. +4S publishes the quarterly academic journal Science, Technology, & Human Values as well as the diamond open access journal Engaging STS, and it organizes an annual conference attended by thousands of scholars from a range of fields including science and technology studies, sociology of science, science studies, history of science, philosophy of science, anthropology of science, economics, political science, and psychology, as well as science educators and scientists. +It gives out the Ludwik Fleck Prize annually for "best book in the area of science and technology studies", the Rachel Carson Prize for "a work of social or political relevance", the John Desmond Bernal Prize for an individual who made "a distinguished contribution to the field", and the Nicholas C. Mullins Award for "outstanding scholarship in science and technology studies" by a graduate student. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Astronomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Astronomy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab88d429f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Astronomy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Society for the History of Astronomy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:11.126432+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Society for the History of Astronomy is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that promotes research into the history of astronomy. It publishes a research journal called The Antiquarian Astronomer and a regular Bulletin. + + +== The society == +The Society for the History of Astronomy was founded in 2002 to promote the study of the history of astronomy by hosting talks by members and publishing new research into the field. One main objective was to encourage research into past astronomers who have previously been neglected within the history of science. Some of its members are professional historians of science but most are amateur historians. +The honorary president is Dr Allan Chapman of Wadham College, Oxford. The honorary vice-presidents are Emily Winterburn (who was chair at the time of foundation) and Prof. Mike Edmunds. Previous vice-presidents have included Sir Patrick Moore, Sir Arnold Wolfendale, FRS, and Dr Michael Hoskin. +The society hosts several one-day conferences at venues across the United Kingdom each year. A Bulletin is published twice yearly containing articles and news items about astronomical history. The Bulletin includes short reports of original research by members. +The society maintains a library of publications of importance to the history of the science. The reference section is named for Sir Robert Ball and the lending section is named for Sir Patrick Moore. The library is located at the Birmingham and Midland Institute in central Birmingham. The archives of the society are preserved at the library of the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge. + + +== Survey of Astronomical History == +One of the society's major activities is organising a Survey of Astronomical History in the form of lists of historical astronomers and observatories in each of the old counties of Britain and Ireland. This has been motivated by a desire to promote research into local astronomical activities that have previously been neglected. + + +== The Antiquarian Astronomer == +The society publishes annually a refereed journal called The Antiquarian Astronomer containing new research into the history of astronomy, particularly articles written by members. Published papers have discussed activities in major observatories, scientific research by individuals of particular note, scientific instrument makers, and the activities of prominent amateur astronomers. +The first issue appeared in 2004. Back issues are available through the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS). Its current editor is Ian Ridpath. + + +== Society for the History of Astronomy Bulletin == +The society publishes an bi-annual Bulletin containing news relating to the study of the history of astronomy and the organisation's activities. The Bulletin also includes short research articles and notes by members. It was previously called News (editions 1–4, 2002–2004) and Newsletter (editions 5–17, 2004–2008). Articles are indexed in the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System but scans are not currently available. Digital versions are available online. + + +== Chairs == + + +== Picnics == +One feature of this society is an annual summer picnic. Past picnics have been held at:- +5 July 2003 Wadham College, Oxford +3 July 2004 Woolsthorpe Manor +6 August 2005 Wadham College, Oxford +8 July 2006 ‘Farthings’, Selsey +16 June 2007 Pendrell Hall, Staffordshire +2 August 2008 Marlborough College, Wiltshire +4 July 2009 Hanwell Community Observatory +17 July 2010 Stonyhurst College +16 July 2011 Orwell Park, Suffolk +9 June 2012 Carr House, Much Hoole +29 June 2013 Mill Hill Observatory +12 July 2014 National Maritime Museum, Greenwich +4 July 2015 Woolsthorpe Manor +2 July 2016 Hanwell Community Observatory +1 July 2017 Liverpool City Centre +30 June 2018 Seething Observatory, Norwich +29 June 2019 Norman Lockyer Observatory, Sidmouth, Devon +2020 and 2021 no picnic held +25 June 2022 19 New King Street, Bath (to coincide with the bi-centenary of the death of William Herschel) +1 July 2023 Jeremiah Horrocks Observatory, Moor Park, Preston +21 June 2024 Rugby School +27 June 2025 Jodrell Bank Observatory + + +== See also == +List of astronomical societies + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Society for the History of Astronomy – Official Website +Survey of Astronomical History of Britain and Ireland +Astrophysics Data System index to The Antiquarian Astronomer with scans +Astrophysics Data System index to the Newsletter and Bulletin +Digital archive of the Newsletter and Bulletin \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..49a21d49d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Society for the History of Natural History" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:12.320124+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Society for the History of Natural History (SHNH) is an international society for everyone who is interested in natural history in the broadest sense. This includes botany, zoology and geology as well as natural history collections, exploration, art and bibliography. Everyone with an interest in these subjects – professional or amateur – is welcome to join. The Society's Patron is Sir David Attenborough OM CH FRS. +Originally named the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History, SHNH was founded in 1936 by a small group of distinguished scientists, librarians and bibliographers whose appreciation and love of books inspired the formation of the Society in London. The Society's first President was Charles Davies Sherborn (1861–1942), who compiled the Index Animalium single-handedly over 43 years (1758–1850). This 11 volume, 9,000 page work, that catalogued 444,000 names of every living and extinct animal discovered between 1758 and 1850 is considered to be the bibliographic foundation for zoological nomenclature. +The Society's main publication is Archives of Natural History which is published for the Society by Edinburgh University Press. Archives of Natural History provides an avenue for the publication of papers on the history and bibliography of natural history in its broadest sense, and in all periods and all cultures. This includes botany, geology, palaeontology and zoology, the lives of naturalists, their publications, correspondence and collections, and the institutions and societies that have promoted the study and documentation of the natural world. Bibliographical papers concerned with the study of rare books, manuscripts and illustrative material, and analytical and enumerative bibliographies are also published. From time to time, the Society also publishes other works of interest, the most recent being Darwin in the Archives. An informal Newsletter is also circulated to all members where news, information about Society events or other meetings of interest, and notes and queries from members can be found. +The Society holds a regular series of meetings on all aspects of the history of natural history. These range from short evening meetings to international conferences taking place over several days with associated visits. It holds an annual "Spring Meeting" incorporating the Annual General Meeting at which Council members of the Society are elected, accounts presented, and medals and awards are announced. Its meetings are seen as an important contribution to forging links between all those working in the history of natural history, leading to lasting collaborations and friendships across national and international boundaries. +The Society is a registered charity under English law. Registered charity no. 210355. + + +== Medals and prizes == +The Society seeks to promote the objectives for which it was founded by making awards for excellence in the fields of the history and bibliography of natural history. Full details of these awards can be found in Schedule 2 associated with the Society's Byelaws. +The following medals and prizes are awarded by the Society for the History of Natural History: + +The SHNH Founders' Medal is awarded to persons who have made a substantial contribution to the study of the history or bibliography of natural history. More than one medal can be awarded in any given year. +The SHNH Book Prize and John Thackray Medal was instituted in 2000 to commemorate the life and work of John Thackray, Past President of the Society. This prize is awarded for the best book published on the history or bibliography of natural history in the preceding two years. +The SHNH President's Award was instituted in 2021.The award recognises an individual or team’s contribution and impact in promoting and improving accessibility, inclusivity and diversity to the study of the history of natural history. +The SHNH Patron's Prize was instituted in 2011, whereby an outstanding young scholar, nominated by Council, is invited by the Society’s Patron to write a review that advances the Society's objects, namely “the historical and bibliographical study of the growth of all branches of natural history in all periods and cultures”. The current patron of SHNH is Sir David Attenborough OM CH FRS. +The SHNH William T. Stearn Student Essay Prize was instituted in 2007 to commemorate the work of late William T. Stearn, a scholar whose work contributed much to the field of botany and to the Society. The prize is awarded to the best original, unpublished essay in the history of natural history. The competition is open to undergraduate and postgraduate students in full- or part-time education, or within 3 years of completing their degree. The essay is usually published as a paper in the Society's peer-reviewed journal Archives of Natural History, the winner also receives a cash prize and free membership of the Society for a year. + + +== Presidents == +Gina Douglas 2021-present +Peter Davis 2018-2021 +Arthur MacGregor 2015–2018 +Hugh Torrens 2012–2015 +P. Geoffrey Moore 2009–2012 +Arthur Lucas (academic) 2006–2009 +J. Cain 2003–2006 +John Edwards 2000–2003 +John C. Thackray-1999 +W. D. Ian. Rolfe 1996–1999 +David Mabberley 1993–1996 +Rex E. R. Banks 1990–1993 +A. C. Wheeler 1987–1990 +Sir Eric Smith 1984–1987 +H. W. Ball 1981–1984 +D. E. Allen 1978–1981 +R. G. C. Desmond 1975–1978 +C. K. Swann 1972–1975 +John Ramsbottom 1943–1972 +Charles Davies Sherborn 1936–1942 + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == + + +== External links == +Society for the History of Natural History +Archives of Natural History +Home page of Archives of Natural History at Edinburgh University Press +Medals and Prizes of the Society for the History of Natural History +Publications of the Society for the History of Natural History \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Technology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Technology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b36572d2e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Technology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Society for the History of Technology" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:13.497382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) is the primary professional society for historians of technology. SHOT was founded in 1958 in the United States, and it has since become an international society with members "from some thirty-five countries throughout the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Africa." SHOT owes its existence largely to the efforts of Professor Melvin Kranzberg (1917–1995) and an active network of engineering educators. SHOT co-founders include John B. Rae, Carl W. Condit, Thomas P. Hughes, and Eugene S. Ferguson. +SHOT's flagship publication is the journal Technology and Culture, published by the Johns Hopkins University Press. Kranzberg served as editor of Technology and Culture until 1981, and was succeeded as editor by Robert C. Post until 1995, and John M. Staudenmaier from 1996 until 2010. Suzanne Moon then took over, from 2010 to 2020. The current editor of Technology and Culture is Ruth Oldenziel at the Eindhoven University of Technology. SHOT is an affiliate of the American Council of Learned Societies and the American Historical Association and publishes a book series with the Johns Hopkins University Press entitled "Historical Perspectives on Technology, Society, and Culture," under the co-editorship of Pamela O. Long and Asif Azam Siddiqi. Pamela O. Long is the recipient of a MacArthur Foundation "Genius Grant" for 2014. +The history of technology was traditionally linked to economic history and history of science, but its interactions are now equally strong with environmental history, gender history, business history, and labor history. SHOT annually awards two book prizes, the Edelstein Prize and the Sally Hacker Prize, as well as the Kranzberg Dissertation Fellowship and the Brooke Hindle Postdoctoral Fellowship. Its highest award is the Leonardo da Vinci Medal. Recipients of the medal include Kranzberg, Ferguson, Post, Staudenmaier, Bart Hacker, and Brooke Hindle. In 1968 Kranzberg was also instrumental in the founding of a sister society, the International Committee for the History of Technology (ICOHTEC). The two societies complement each other. +The Society for the History of Technology is dedicated to the historical study of technology and its relations with politics, economic, labor, business, the environment, public policy, science, and the arts. The society now numbers around 1500 members, and regularly holds annual meetings at non-North-American venues. SHOT also sponsors smaller conferences focused on specialized topics, often jointly with other scholarly societies and organizations. + + +== Special Interest Groups == +The Albatrosses (technology of flight) +SIGCIS: Computers, Information and Society +Early Career Interest Group (ECIG) +EDITH: Exploring Diversity in Technology's History +Envirotech (technology and the natural environment) +The Jovians (electrical technology) +The Lynn White Jr. Society: Prior to the "Industrial Revolution" +The Mercurians (communications technology) +SMiTInG (military technology) +The Pelicans (chemical technology) +The Prometheans (engineering) +SHOT Asia Network +TEMSIG: Technology Museums Special Interest Group +WITH: Women in Technological History + + +== Annual meetings == +2007 − Washington, D.C. − October 17–21 +2008 − Lisbon, Portugal − October 11–14 +2009 − Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania − October 15–19 +2010 − Tacoma, Washington − September 29 - October 4 +2011 − Cleveland, Ohio − November 2–6 +2012 − Copenhagen, Denmark − October 4–7 +2013 − Portland, Maine - October 10–13 +2014 − Dearborn, Michigan - November 6–9 +2015 − Albuquerque, New Mexico - October 7–11 +2016 − Singapore - June 22–26 +2017 − Philadelphia, Pennsylvania - October 26–29 +2018 − St. Louis, Missouri - October 10–14 +2019 − Milan, Italy - October 24–27 +2020 − New Orleans, Louisiana - originally scheduled October 7–11. First time SHOT Virtual Meeting +2021 − New Orleans, Louisiana - due to COVID-19, this meeting was held virtually. https://www.historyoftechnology.org/annual-meeting/2021-shot-annual-meeting-virtual/ +2022 − New Orleans, Louisiana - originally scheduled November, 7–13 + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Hounshell, David A. (2004). "Eugene S. Ferguson, 1916-2004". Technology and Culture. 45 (4): 911–921. doi:10.1353/tech.2004.0176. S2CID 110589698. +Post, Robert C. (2010). "Back at the Start: History and Technology and Culture". Technology and Culture. 51 (4): 961–994. doi:10.1353/tech.2010.0078. S2CID 141901691. Project MUSE 403274. +Robert c. Post (2009). "Chance and Contingency: Putting Mel Kranzberg in Context". Technology and Culture. 50 (4): 839–872. doi:10.1353/tech.0.0380. S2CID 109011167. +Post, Robert C. (2001). "'A Very Special Relationship': SHOT and the Smithsonian's Museum of History and Technology". Technology and Culture. 42 (3): 401–435. doi:10.1353/tech.2001.0134. S2CID 109341813. + + +== External links == +Official website +Sally Hacker Prize +Edelstein Prize \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md index 6074d55c9..a7c83dabc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:25:47.035637+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:43.156548+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md index d064dc013..30c4c3dd1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:25:47.035637+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:43.156548+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md index 183a6f4e6..274b29710 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:25:47.035637+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:43.156548+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md index 33b8888c8..ffebbf9d4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:25:47.035637+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:43.156548+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md index 08324f0de..c077acb95 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:25:47.035637+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:43.156548+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c89de80ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:14.178868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf ash-Shami al-Asadi (Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي; Ottoman Turkish: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي; Turkish: Takiyüddin‎ 1526–1585) was an Ottoman polymath active in Cairo and Istanbul. He was the author of more than ninety books on a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, clocks, engineering, mathematics, mechanics, optics, and natural philosophy. +In 1574 the Ottoman Sultan Murad III invited Taqi ad-Din to build an observatory in the Ottoman capital, Istanbul. Taqi ad-Din constructed instruments such as an armillary sphere and mechanical clocks that he used to observe the Great Comet of 1577. He also used European celestial and terrestrial globes that were delivered to Istanbul in gift exchanges. +His major work from the use of his observatory is titled "The tree of ultimate knowledge [in the end of time or the world] in the Kingdom of the Revolving Spheres: The astronomical tables of the King of Kings [Murad III]" (Sidrat al-muntah al-afkar fi malkūt al-falak al-dawār– al-zij al-Shāhinshāhi). The work was prepared according to the results of the observations carried out in Egypt and Istanbul in order to correct and complete Ulugh Beg's 15th century work, the Zij-i Sultani. The first 40 pages of the work dealt with calculations, followed by discussions of astronomical clocks, heavenly circles, and information on three eclipses which he observed in Cairo and Istanbul. +As a polymath, Taqi al-Din wrote numerous books on astronomy, mathematics, mechanics, and theology. His method of finding coordinates of stars were reportedly so precise that he got better measurements than his contemporaries, Tycho Brahe and Nicolas Copernicus. Brahe is also thought to have been aware of Taqi al-Din's work. +Taqi ad-Din also described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit in 1551. He worked on and created astronomical clocks for his observatory. Taqi ad-Din also wrote a book on optics, in which he determined the light emitted from objects, proved the Law of Reflection observationally, and worked on refraction. + +== Biography == + +Taqī al-Dīn was born in Damascus in 1526 according to most sources. His ethnicity has been described as Arab, Kurdish, Syrian, and Turkish. In his treatise, titled "Rayḥānat al-rūḥ", Taqī al-Dīn himself claimed descent from the Ayyubids tracing his lineage back to the Ayyubid prince Nasir al-Din Mankarus ibn Nasih al-Din Khumartekin who ruled Abu Qubays in Syria during the 12th century. The Encyclopaedia of Islam makes no mention of his ethnicity, simply calling him, "...the most important astronomer of Ottoman Turkey". +Taqi ad-Din's education started in theology and as he went on he would gain an interest in the rational sciences. Following his interest, he would begin to study the rational sciences in Damascus and Cairo. During that time he studied alongside his father Maʿruf Efendi. Al-Dīn went on to teach at various madaris and served as a qadi, or judge, in Palestine, Damascus, and Cairo. He stayed in Egypt and Damascus for some time and while he was there he created work in astronomy and mathematics. His work in these categories would eventually become important. He became a chief astronomer to the Sultan in 1571 a year after he came to Istanbul, replacing Mustafa ibn Ali al-Muwaqqit. +Taqī al-Dīn maintained a strong bond with the people from the Ulama and statesmen. He would pass on information to Sultan Murad III who had an interest in astronomy but also in astrology. The information stated that Ulugh Beg Zij had particular observational errors. Al-Dīn made a suggestions that those errors could be fixed if there were new observations made. He also suggested that an observatory should be created in Istanbul to make that situation easier. Murad III would become a patron of the first observatory in Istanbul. He preferred that construction for the new observatory begin immediately. Since Murad III was the patron he would assist with finances for the project. +Taqī al-Dīn continued his studies at the Galata Tower while this was going on. His studies would continue until 1577 at the nearly complete observatory, which was called Dar al-Rasad al-Jadid. This new observatory contained a library that held books which covered astronomy and mathematics. The observatory, built in the higher part of Tophane in Istanbul, was made of two separate buildings. One building was big and the other one was small. Al-Dīn possessed some of the instruments used in the old Islamic observatories. He had those instruments reproduced and also created new instruments which would be used for observational purposes. The staff at the new observatory consisted of sixteen people. Eight of them were observers or rasids, four of them were clerks, and the last four were assistants. +Taqī al-Dīn approached his observations in a creative way and created new answers to astronomical problems due to the new strategies he created along with the new equipment he created as well. He would go on to create trigonometric tables based on decimal fractions. These tables placed the ecliptic at 23° 28' 40". The current value was 23° 27' showing that al-Dīn's instruments and methods were more precise. Al-Dīn used a new method to calculate solar parameters and to determine the magnitude of the annual movement of the sun's apogee as 63 seconds. The known value today is 61 seconds. Copernicus came up with 24 seconds and Tycho Brahe had 45 seconds but al-Dīn was more accurate than both. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7c7559462 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:14.178868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The main purpose behind the observatory was to cater to the needs of the astronomers and provide a library and workshop so they could design and produce instruments. This observatory would become one of the largest ones in the Islamic world. It was complete in 1579. It would go on to run until January 22, 1580 which is when it was destroyed. Some say religious arguments was the reason why it was destroyed, but it really came down to political problems. A report by the grand vizier Sinan Pasha to Sultan Murad III goes into how the Sultan and the vizier attempted to keep Taqī Ad-Dīn away from the ulama because it seemed like they wanted to take him to trial for heresy. The vizier informs the sultan that Taqī Ad-Dīn wanted to go to Syria regardless of the sultan's orders. The vizier also warned the sultan that if Taqī Ad-Dīn went there, there is a possibility that he would be noticed by the ulama who would take him to trial. +Despite Taqī al-Dīn's originality, his influence seemed to be limited. There are only a small number of surviving copies of his works so they were not able to reach a wide variety of people. His commentaries that are known are very few. However, one of his works and a piece of a library that he owned reached western Europe pretty quickly. This was due to the manuscript collecting efforts of Jacob Golius, a Dutch professor of Arabic and mathematics at Leiden University. Golius traveled to Istanbul in the early seventeenth century. In 1629 he wrote a letter to Constantijn Huygens that talks about seeing Taqī Ad-Dīn's work on optics in Istanbul. He argued that he was not able to get ahold of it from his friends even after all his efforts. He must have succeeded in acquiring it later since Taqī al-Dīn's work on optics would eventually make it to the Bodleian Library as Marsh 119. It was originally in the Golius collection so it is clear that Golius eventually succeeded at acquiring it. +According to Salomon Schweigger, the chaplain of Habsburg ambassador Johann Joachim von Sinzendorf, Taqi al-Din was a charlatan who deceived Sultan Murad III and had him spent enormous resources. +At the age of 59, after authoring more than ninety books, Taqī al-Dīn died in 1585. + +== The Constantinople Observatory == +Taqī al-Dīn was both the founder and director of the Constantinople Observatory, which is also known as the Istanbul Observatory. This observatory is frequently said to be one of Taqī al-Dīn's most important contributions to sixteenth-century Islamic and Ottoman astronomy. In fact, it is known as one of the largest observatories in Islamic history. It is often compared to Tycho Brahe's Uraniborg Observatory, which was said to have been the home to the best instruments of its time in Europe. As a matter of fact, Brahe and Taqī al-Dīn have frequently been compared for their work in sixteenth-century astronomy. The founding of the Constantinople Observatory began when Taqī al-Dīn returned to Istanbul in 1570, after spending 20 years in Egypt developing his astronomy and mathematical knowledge. Shortly after his return, Sultan Selīm II appointed Taqī al-Dīn as the head astronomer (Müneccimbaşı), following the death of the previous head astronomer Muṣṭafā ibn ҁAlī al-Muwaqqit in 1571. +During the early years of his position as head astronomer, Taqī al-Dīn worked in both the Galata Tower and a building overlooking Tophane. While working in these buildings, he began to gain the support and trust of many important Turkish officials. These newfound relationships lead to an imperial edict in 1569 from Sultan Murad III, which called for the construction of the Constantinople Observatory. This observatory became home to many important books and instruments, it had sixteen assistants who helped with the making of scientific instruments, as well as many renowned scholars of the time. While there is not much known of the architectural characteristics of the building, there are many depictions of the scholars and astronomical instruments present in the observatory. It was from this observatory that Taqī al-Dīn discovered the Great Comet of 1577, Murad III taught of the comet as a bad omen on the war with the Safavids (he also blamed Taqī al-Dīn for the plague that was occurring at the time). Due to political conflict, this observatory was short lived. It was closed in 1579 and, was demolished entirely by the state on 22 January 1580, only 11 short years after the imperial edict which called for its construction. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b29656b5b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:14.178868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Politics === +The rise and fall of Taqī al-Dīn and his observatory depended on political issues that surrounded him. Due to his father's occupation as a professor at the Damascene College of law Taqī al-Dīn spent much of his life in Syria and Egypt. During his trips to Istanbul he was able to make connections with many scholar-jurists. He was also able to use the private library of the Grand Vizier of the time, Semiz Ali Pasha. He then began working under Sultan Murad III's new Grand Vizier's, private mentor Sokollu. Continuing his research on observations of the heavens while in Egypt Taqī al-Dīn used the Galata tower and Sokollu's private residence. Although Murad III was the one who commanded an observatory to be built it was actually Sokollu who brought the idea to him knowing about his interest in science. The Sultan ultimately would provide Taqī al-Dīn with everything he needed from financial assistance for the physical buildings, to intellectual assistance making sure he had easy access to many types of books he would need. When the Sultan decided to create the observatory he saw it as a way to show off the power his monarchy had besides just financially backing it. Murad III showed his power by bringing Taqī al-Dīn and some of the most accomplished men in the field of astronomy together to work towards one goal and not only have them work well together but also make progress in the field. Murad III made sure that there was proof of his accomplishments by having his court historiographer Seyyid Lokman keep very detailed records of the work going on at the observatory. Seyyid Lokman wrote that his sultan's monarchy was much more powerful than others in Iraq, Persia, and Anatolia. He also claimed that Murad III was above other monarchs because the results of the observatory were new to the world and replaced many others. + +=== Instruments used at the Observatory === +Taqī al-Dīn used a variety of instruments to aid in his work at the observatory. Some were instruments that were already in use from European Astronomers while others he invented himself. While working in this observatory, Taqī al-Dīn not only operated many previously created instruments and techniques, but he also developed numerous new ones. Of these novel inventions, the automatic-mechanical clock is regarded as one of the most important developed in the Constantinople Observatory. + +Each of these instruments were first described by Ptolemy. +An Armillary Sphere- A model of celestial bodies with rings that represent longitude and latitude. +A Paralactic Ruler- also known as a Triquetrum was used to calculate the altitudes of celestial bodies. +An Astrolabe- Measures the inclined position of celestial bodies. +These instruments were created by Muslim astronomers. +A Mural quadrant, a type of mural Instrument for measuring angles from 0 to 90 degrees. +An Azimuthally Quadrant +Each of the instruments were created by Taqi al-Din to use for his own work.A Parallel rulerA Ruler Quadrant or Wooden Quadrant an instrument with two holes for the measurement of apparent diameters and eclipses.A mechanical clock with a train of cogwheels which helped measure the true ascension of the stars.Muşabbaha bi'l-menatık, an instrument with chords to determine the equinoxes, invented to replace the equinoctial armillary. +A Sunaydi Ruler which was apparently a special type of instrument of an auxiliary nature, the function of which was explained by Alaeddin el-Mansur + +== Contributions == + +=== Clock mechanics === + +==== Rise of clock use in the Ottoman Empire ==== +Before the sixteenth century European mechanical clocks were not in high demand. This lack of demand was brought on by the extremely high prices and the lack of preciseness needed by the population who had to calculate when they would have to have the prayer. The use of hourglasses, water clocks, and sundials was more than enough to meet their needs. +It was not until around 1547 that the Ottomans started creating a high demand for them. Initially, it was started by the gifts brought by the Austrians but this would end up starting a market for the clocks. European clockmakers began to create clocks designed to the tastes and needs of the Ottoman people. They did this by showing both the phases of the moon and by utilizing Ottoman numbers. + +==== Taqī al-Dīn's work ==== +Due to this high demand for mechanical clocks, Taqī al-Dīn was asked by the Grand Vizier to create a clock that would show exactly when the call to prayer was. This would lead him to write his first book on the construction of mechanical clocks called, "al-Kawakib al-Durriya fi Bengamat al-Dawriyya" (The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks) in 1563 A.D. which he used throughout his research at the short-lived observatory. He believed that it would be advantageous to bring a "true hermetic and distilled perception of the motion of the heavenly bodies." In order to get a better understanding of how clocks ran Taqī al-Dīn took the time to gain knowledge from many European clock makers as well as going into the treasury of Semiz Ali Pasha and learning anything he could from the many clocks he owned. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..91cc5b3ba --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:14.178868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Types of clocks examined ==== +Of the clocks in the Grand Vizier's treasury Taqī al-Dīn examined three different types. Those three were weight-driven, spring-driven, and driven by lever escapement. He wrote of these three types of watches but also made comments on pocket watches and astronomical ones. As Chief Astronomer, Taqī al-Dīn created a mechanical astronomical clock. This clock was made to permit more precise measurements at the Constantinople observatory. As stated above the creation of this clock was thought to be one of the most important astronomical discoveries of the sixteenth century. Taqī al-Dīn constructed a mechanical clock with three dials which show the hours, minutes, and seconds, with each minute consisting of five seconds. After this clock it is not known whether Taqī al-Dīn's work in mechanical clocks was ever continued, given that much of the clockmaking after that time in the Ottoman Empire was taken over by Europeans. + +=== Steam === +In 1551 Taqī al-Dīn described a self-rotating spit that is important in the history of the steam turbine. In Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines) al-Dīn describes this machine as well as some practical applications for it. The spit is rotated by directing steam into the vanes which then turns the wheel at the end of the axle. Al-Dīn also described four water-raising machines. The first two are animal driven water pumps. The third and fourth are both driven by a paddle wheel. The third is a slot-rod pump while the fourth is a six-cylinder pump. The vertical pistons of the final machine are operated by cams and trip-hammers, run by the paddle wheel. The descriptions of these machines predates many of the more modern engines. The screw pump, for example, that al-Dīn describes predates Agricola, whose description of the rag and chain pump was published in 1556. The two pump engine, which was first described by al-Jazarī, was also the basis of the steam engine. + +== Important works == + +=== Astronomy === +Sidrat muntahā al-afkār fī malakūt al-falak al-dawwār (al-Zīj al-Shāhinshāhī): this is said to be one of Taqī al-Dīn's most important works in astronomy. He completed this book on the basis of his observations in both Egypt and Istanbul. The purpose of this work was to improve, correct, and ultimately complete Zīj-i Ulugh Beg, which was a project devised in Samarkand and furthered in the Constantinople Observatory. The first 40 pages of his writing focus on trigonometric calculations, with emphasis on trigonometric functions such sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent. +Jarīdat al-durar wa kharīdat al-fikar is a zīj that is said to be Taqī al-Dīn's second most important work in astronomy. This work contains the first recorded use of decimal fractions in trigonometric functions. He also gives the parts of degree of curves and angles in decimal fractions with precise calculations. +Dustūr al-tarjīḥ li-qawā ҁ id al-tasṭīḥ is another important work by Taqī al-Dīn, which focuses on the projection of a sphere into a plane, among other geometric topics. +Taqī al-Din is also accredited as the author of Rayḥānat al-rūḥ fī rasm al-sā ҁ āt ҁ alā mustawī al-suṭūḥ, which discusses sundials and their characteristics drawn on a marble surface. + +=== Clocks and mechanics === +al-Kawākib al-durriyya fī waḍ ҁ al-bankāmāt al-dawriyya was written by Taqī al-Dīn in 1559 and addressed mechanical-automatic clocks. This work is considered the first written work on mechanical-automatic clocks in the Islamic and Ottoman world. In this book, he accredits Alī Pasha as a contributor for allowing him to use and study his private library and collection of European mechanical clocks.al-Ṭuruq al-saniyya fī al-ālāt al-rūḥāniyya is a second book on mechanics by Taqī al-Dīn that emphasizes the geometrical-mechanical structure of clocks, which was a topic previously observed and studied by Banū Mūsā and Ismail al-Jazari (Abū al-ҁIzz al-Jazarī). + +=== Physics and optics === +Nawr ḥadīqat al-abṣar wa-nūr ḥaqīqat al-Anẓar was a work of Taqī al-Dīn that discussed physics and optics. This book discussed the structure of light, the relationship between light and color, as well as diffusion and global refraction. + +== See also == +Inventions in the Muslim world +Islamic astronomy +Islamic science + +== Notes == + +== Further reading == +Ben-Zaken, Avner. "The Revolving Planets and the Revolving Clocks: Circulating Mechanical Objects in the Mediterranean", History of Science, xlix (2010), pp. 125-148. +Ben-Zaken, Avner. Cross-Cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean 1560-1660 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), pp. 8-47. +King, David A. (2000). "Taḳī al-Dīn". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume X: T–U. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-90-04-11211-7. +King, David A. (1986). A Survey of the Scientific manuscripts in the Egyptian National Library. Vol. 5. Winona Lake, IN, USA: American Research Center in Egypt. pp. 171–2. +Hassan, Ahmad Y (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, Aleppo University. +Gautier, Antoine (December 2005). "L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane". L'Astronomie. 119. +Tekeli, Sevim. (2002). 16'ıncı yüzyılda Osmanlılarda saat ve Takiyüddin'in "mekanik saat konstrüksüyonuna dair en parlak yıldızlar = The clocks in Ottoman Empire in 16th century and Taqi al Din's the brightest stars for the construction of the mechanical clocks. Second edition, Ankara: T. C. Kültür Bakanlıgi. +Unat, Yavuz, "Time in The Sky of Istanbul, Taqî al Dîn al-Râsid's Observatory", Art and Culture Magazine, Time in Art, Winter 2004/Issue 11, pp. 86–103. + +== External links == +Fazlıoğlu, İhsan (2007). "Taqī al-Dīn Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zayn al-Dīn Maʿrūf al-Dimashqī al-Ḥanafī". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 1122–3. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetranucleotide_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetranucleotide_hypothesis-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..32f7fd365 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetranucleotide_hypothesis-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Tetranucleotide hypothesis" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetranucleotide_hypothesis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:44.333299+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The tetranucleotide hypothesis of Phoebus Levene proposed that DNA was composed of repeating sequences of four nucleotides. It was very influential for three decades, and was developed by Levene at least into the 1910, and the diagram at the right illustrates the view of Levene and Tipson. In 1940, at the time of Levene's death, Bass wrote in his obituary + +As a result of Levene’s work we have an exact concept of the structures of these huge molecules, probably the most complex biological materials whose architectural picture has been reconstructed. +In that form there is an implication that the four bases are present in equal amounts in DNA, and small variations in the experimental values were assumed to be the result of experimental error. +However, Erwin Chargaff showed that the four frequencies were not equal, with variations consistent between different studies. Specifically, according to his rules the correct relationship is G = C ≠ A = T. The equalities G = C and A = T suggested that these bases were paired, this pairing being the basis of the DNA structure that is now known to be correct. Conversely the inequalities G ≠ A etc. meant that DNA could not have a systematic repetition of a fundamental unit, as required by the tetranucleotide hypothesis. Thus there was no reason why the sequence could not store information. +In later years some authorities considered the tetranucleotide hypothesis to have been harmful to the development of molecular biology. Bentley Glass, for example, called it a "scientific catastrophe". More recently, Hargittai saw it in a more positive light, and Frixione and Ruiz-Zamarripa wrote as follows: + + [Levene's] work was to culminate in Levene and Tipson’s 1935 report showing accurately for the first time the actual molecular structure of DNA, as well as a nearly correct depiction of the RNA structure. This achievement merits the distinction of this paper as a Classic in molecular biology literature. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_on_immigration_to_Norway-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_on_immigration_to_Norway-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0909da255 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_on_immigration_to_Norway-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Theory on immigration to Norway" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_on_immigration_to_Norway" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:45.494843+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The theory on immigration to Norway (Norwegian: innvandringsteorien) refers to an outdated theory on the origin of the Norwegian people. The theory is mainly associated with Rudolf Keyser, and developed by Peter Andreas Munch. The theory posited that Norway and northern Sweden had been populated by indigenous Norse people from the north, whereas Denmark and southern Sweden had been populated by Gothic peoples from the south. The theory was generally rejected by historians. + + +== Theory == +Following studies in Iceland from 1825 to 1827, Rudolf Keyser was appointed as a docent at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania, Norway in 1828. From the same year he worked with, and held lectures on, his theory on immigration to Norway. This theory was inspired by the works of Gerhard Schøning, who had released Afhandling om de Norskes og endeel andre Nordiske Folkes Oprindelse in 1769, and was first published in 1839 under the name Om Nordmændenes Herkomst og Folke-Slægtskab. In short, his theory stated that Norway as well as northern Sweden had been populated by indigenous people from the north, whereas Denmark and southern Sweden (south of Götaland) had been populated from the south. In other words, Norway was especially influenced by "Norse" people and culture, whereas parts of Sweden and particularly Denmark were influenced by "Gothic" peoples and culture. Norse people had, according to Keyser, drifted south towards Denmark as well, but here they had been mixed with Goths. He later supplemented the theory with a series of lectures in literary studies, printed posthumously, under the name Nordmændenes Videnskabelighed og Literatur i Middelalderen. Here, he stated that Norse literature was not Nordic but Norwegian. Both the Norse and Gothic groups were taken to be Germanic peoples, having migrated from somewhere in the region of Ural and the Volga River. +Peter Andreas Munch was a student of Keyser, and fellow proponent of the theory. He remarked that Gothic people inhabited some of South Norway as well. He too based the theory partly on linguistic traits, and also stated that the two groups had different approaches to liberty versus hierarchy. + + +== Reaction == +The theory was ill-received by many historians, especially those who did not subscribe to any form of Norwegian nationalistic agenda. The Danish historian Christian Molbech dubbed Keyser and Munch's viewpoint as "The Norwegian Historical School". +The theory was also denounced by Norwegian historians. A lecture held by Ludvig Kristensen Daa on a Scandinavian conference in 1868 has been called "the graveside speech for the immigration theory". He released the work Have Germanerne indvandret til Skandinavien fra nord eller syd? in 1869. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomsen–Berthelot_principle-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomsen–Berthelot_principle-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f5d9c9bf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomsen–Berthelot_principle-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Thomsen–Berthelot principle" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomsen–Berthelot_principle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:46.661203+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In thermochemistry, the Thomsen–Berthelot principle is a hypothesis in the history of chemistry which argued that all chemical changes are accompanied by the production of heat and that processes which occur will be ones in which the most heat is produced. This principle was formulated in slightly different versions by the Danish chemist Julius Thomsen in 1854 and by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot in 1864. This early postulate in classical thermochemistry became the controversial foundation of a research program that would last three decades. +This principle came to be associated with what was called the thermal theory of affinity, which postulated that the heat evolved in a chemical reaction was the true measure of its affinity. + + +== Limitations == +The experimental objections to the Thomsen–Berthelot principle include incomplete dissociation, reversibility, and spontaneous endothermic processes. Such cases were dismissed by orthodox thermochemist as outliers not covered by the principle, or the experiments were manipulated to fit it through with somewhat contrived justifications was later disproved. In 1873, Thomsen acknowledged that his theory might not have universal or definitive credibility. Later, under newly created chemical thermodynamics framework, the principle was explained to only be valid as an idealization under extreme conditions (i.e., absolute zero). Thomsen openly admitted that his initial understanding was merely a close estimate of the reality, emphasizing that while chemical reactions typically release heat, this heat isn't always a trustworthy indicator of the strength of the bonds formed. On the other hand, Berthelot, was more resistant and continued to assert the validity of the principle until 1894. In 1882 the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz proved that affinity was not given by the heat evolved in a chemical reaction but rather by the maximum work, or free energy, produced when the reaction was carried out reversibly. + + +== References == + + +== See also == +Principle of maximum work. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Earth_estimates-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Earth_estimates-0.md index dcb890567..c90377662 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Earth_estimates-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Earth_estimates-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Earth_estimates" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:33:35.314917+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:29.742433+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47ea254d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Education has been of prime interest to Poland's rulers since the early 12th century. The catalog of the library of the Cathedral Chapter in Kraków dating from 1110 shows that Polish scholars already then had access to western European literature. In 1364, King Casimir III the Great founded the Cracow Academy, which would become one of the great universities of Europe. The Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics. The list of famous scientists in Poland begins in earnest with the polymath, astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus, who formulated the heliocentric theory and sparked the European Scientific Revolution. +In 1773, King Stanisław August Poniatowski established the Commission of National Education (Polish: Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, KEN), the world's first ministry of education. +After the third partition of Poland, in 1795, no Polish state existed. The 19th and 20th centuries saw many Polish scientists working abroad. One of them was Maria Skłodowska-Curie, a physicist and chemist living in France. Another noteworthy one was Ignacy Domeyko, a geologist and mineralogist who worked in Chile. +In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing center of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathematicians formed the Lwów School of Mathematics (with Stefan Banach, Hugo Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam) and Warsaw School of Mathematics (with Alfred Tarski, Kazimierz Kuratowski, Wacław Sierpiński). The events of World War II pushed many of them into exile. Such was the case of Benoît Mandelbrot, whose family left Poland when he was still a child. An alumnus of the Warsaw School of Mathematics was Antoni Zygmund, one of the shapers of 20th-century mathematical analysis. According to NASA, Polish scientists were among the pioneers of rocketry. + +Today Poland has over 100 institutions of post-secondary education—technical, medical, economic, as well as 500 universities—which are located in most major cities such as Gdańsk, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Poznań, Rzeszów, Toruń, Warsaw and Wrocław. They employ over 61,000 scientists and scholars. Another 300 research and development institutes are home to some 10,000 researchers. There are, in addition, a number of smaller laboratories. All together, these institutions support some 91,000 scientists and scholars. + +== Timeline == + +=== From 2001 === + +Monika Mościbrodzka, Polish astrophysicist known for pioneering the development of numerical astrophysics, which can be used in combination with experimental observations to test general relativity. These studies contributed to the first ever direct image of a black hole, specifically, the supermassive black hole at the centre of Messier 87. +Olga Malinkiewicz, Polish physicist and inventor of a method of producing solar cells based on perovskites using inkjet printing. +Lidia Morawska, Polish-Australian physicist whose work focuses on fundamental and applied research in the interdisciplinary field of air quality and its impact on human health, with a specific focus on atmospheric fine, ultrafine and nanoparticles. In 2020, she contributed to the area of airborne infection transmission of viruses, including COVID-19. +Jarosław Duda, a graduate and employee of Jagiellonian University and inventor of asymmetric numeral systems (ANS), a family of entropy encoding methods widely used in data compression, to encode data e.g. by Facebook Zstandard, Apple LZFSE, CRAM or JPEG XL. +Poland joins the European Southern Observatory ESO (2014), 16-nation intergovernmental research organisation for astronomy. +Poland becomes a member the European Space Agency (2012). +PW-Sat, the first Polish satellite was launched into space (2012); other Polish satellites include Lem and Heweliusz. +Piorun (missile), a man-portable air-defense system designed to destroy low-flying aircraft, airplanes, helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicles. +AHS Krab, a 155 mm NATO-compatible self-propelled tracked gun-howitzer designed in Poland by Huta Stalowa Wola. +Polish Artificial Heart Program launched by the Foundation for Cardiac Surgery Development in Zabrze. +Graphene acquisition, in 2011 the Institute of Electronic Materials Technology and Department of Physics, Warsaw University announced a joint development of acquisition technology of large pieces of graphene with the best quality so far. In April the same year, Polish scientists with support from the Polish Ministry of Economy began the procedure for granting a patent to their discovery around the world. +Maximal entropy random walk (MERW) is a popular type of biased random walk on a graph, used e.g. in complex network analysis, image analysis, tractography, physics, which was started by article from Jagiellonian University. +Sylwester Porowski, Polish physicist specializing in solid-state and high pressure physics. In 2001, he led a team of Polish scientists who built a blue semiconductor laser, first blue laser in Poland and third in the world. +Wojciech H. Zurek, Polish-American theoretical physicist and a leading authority on quantum theory, especially decoherence and non-equilibrium dynamics of symmetry breaking and resulting defect generation; Kibble–Zurek mechanism, Kibble–Zurek scaling laws, quantum discord, einselection, quantum Darwinism, no-cloning theorem. + +=== 1951–2000 === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..31aac2ee9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Krzysztof Matyjaszewski, Polish-American chemist, discoverer of atom-transfer radical polymerization (1995), a novel method of polymer synthesis that has revolutionized the way macromolecules are made. +Bohdan Paczyński, Polish astronomer, credited with the development of a new method of detecting space objects and establishing their mass using the gravitational lenses effect; he is acknowledged for coining the term microlensing. +Artur Ekert, Polish physicist; one of the pioneers of quantum cryptography known for quantum entanglement swapping and E91 protocol. +Janusz Pawliszyn, Polish chemist, inventor of solid-phase microextraction (SPME). +Andrzej Tarkowski, Polish embryologist and Professor of Warsaw University, known for his pioneering research on embryos and blastomeres, which have created theoretical and practical basis for achievements of biology and medicine of the twentieth century – in vitro fertilization, cloning and stem cell discovery. +Janusz Brzozowski, Polish-Canadian computer scientist known for developing the Brzozowski derivative and Brzozowski's algorithm. +Aleksander Wolszczan, Polish astronomer who, in 1992, co-discovered the first ever extrasolar planet – PSR 1257+12, a pulsar located 2,630 light years from Earth. It is believed to be orbited by at least four planets. +Tadeusz Reichstein, Polish-Swiss chemist and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate (1950), who was awarded for his work on the isolation of cortisone. +Władysław Świątecki, Polish physicist noted for pioneering research in nuclear physics including the nuclear shell model and for independently predicting the existence of the so-called island of stability. +Jack Tramiel, Polish American businessman, best known for founding Commodore International; Commodore PET, VIC-20 and Commodore 64 are some home computers produced while he was running the company. +Foundation For Polish Science – a non-governmental organisation aiming at supporting academics with high potential – since (1991) +Stanisław Kamiński, Polish aeronautical engineer, designer of PZL W-3 Sokół, a helicopter, FAA certificate in (1989) +Paul Baran, Polish-American engineer who was a pioneer in the development of computer networks; he was one of the two independent inventors of packet switching, which is today the dominant basis for data communications in computer networks worldwide. +Henryk Magnuski, Polish telecommunications engineer who worked for Motorola in Chicago. He was the inventor of the first Walkie-Talkies and one of the authors of his company success in the fields of radio communication. + +Benoit Mandelbrot, mathematician of Polish descent; known for developing a theory of "roughness and self-similarity" and significant contributions to fractal geometry and chaos theory; Mandelbrot set. +Flaris LAR01, Polish five-seat single-engined very light jet, currently under development by Metal-Master of Jelenia Góra. +Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid, a low-floor articulated hybrid buses from the Solaris Urbino series for city communication services manufactured by Solaris Bus & Coach in Bolechowo near Poznań in Poland. +PZL Kania, a helicopter, first prototype (1979), FAR-29 certificate (early 1980s). +Odra (computer), a line of computers manufactured in Wrocław (1959/1960) +FB MSBS, an assault rifle developed by FB "Łucznik" Radom +FB Beryl, an assault rifle designed and produced by the Łucznik Arms Factory in the city of Radom +Polish Polar Station, Hornsund was established in 1957. +PZL SW-4 Puszczyk, Polish light single-engine multipurpose helicopter manufactured by PZL Swidnik +EP-09, 'B0B0' Polish electric locomotive class + +PT-91, Polish main battle tank. Designed at the Research and Development Centre of Mechanical Systems OBRUM (Ośrodek Badawczo-Rozwojowy Urządzeń Mechanicznych) in Gliwice +PZR Grom, an anti-aircraft missile +206FM, class minesweeper (NATO: "Krogulec") +Meteor (rocket), a series of sounding rockets (1963) +PZL TS-11 Iskra, a jet trainer aircraft, used by the air forces of Poland and India (1960) +Lim-6, attack aircraft (1955) +Andrzej Trybulec, Polish mathematician who designed the Mizar system in 1973. The system consists of a formal language for writing mathematical definitions and proofs, a proof assistant, which is able to mechanically check proofs written in this language, and a library of formalized mathematics, which can be used in the proof of new theorems; it was designed by +Mieczysław G. Bekker, Polish engineer and scientist, co-authored the general idea and contributed significantly to the design and construction of the Lunar Roving Vehicle used by missions Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17 on the Moon. +The Polish Academy of Sciences, headquartered in Warsaw, was founded in 1951. +Hilary Koprowski, Polish virologist and immunologist, inventor of the world's first effective live polio vaccine (1950). + +Andrzej Udalski, initiator of the OGLE project, which led to the such significant discoveries as the detection of the first merger of a binary star, first Cepheid pulsating stars in the eclipsing binary systems, unique nova systems, quasars and galaxies. +Stefania Jabłońska, Polish physician; in 1972 Jabłońska proposed the association of the human papilloma viruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis; in 1978 Jabłońska and Gerard Orth at the Pasteur Institute discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer; Jabłońska was awarded the 1985 Robert Koch Prize. +Andrew Schally, Polish-American endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate (1977). His research contributed to the discovery that the hypothalamus controls hormone production and release by the pituitary gland, which controls the regulation of other hormones in the body. +Tomasz Dietl, Polish physicist; known for developing the theory, confirmed in recent years, of diluted ferromagnetic semiconductors, and for demonstrating new methods in controlling magnetization. +Ryszard Horodecki, Polish physicist; he contributed largely to the field of quantum informatics and theoretical physics; Peres–Horodecki criterion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..800c7306e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Stephanie Kwolek, American chemist of Polish origin, who in 1965 created the first of a family of synthetic fibers of exceptional strength and stiffness. The best-known member is Kevlar, a material used in protective vests as well as in boats, airplanes, ropes, cables, and much more—in total about 200 applications. +Andrzej Szczeklik, Polish immunologist; credited with discovering the anti-thrombotic properties of aspirin, and studies on the pathogenesis and treatment of aspirin-induced bronchial asthma. +Antoni Zygmund, Polish mathematician, considered one of the greatest analysts of the 20th century. +Leonid Hurwicz, Polish economist and mathematician; he originated incentive compatibility and mechanism design, which show how desired outcomes are achieved in economics, social science and political science. In 2007, he shared the Nobel Prize in Economics. +Jacek Pałkiewicz, Polish journalist, traveler and explorer; fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, discoverer of the sources of the Amazon River (1996). +Kazimierz Kuratowski, Polish mathematician, a leading representatives of the Warsaw School of Mathematics; Kuratowski's theorem, Kuratowski-Zorn lemma; Kuratowski closure axioms. +Tadek Marek, Polish automobile engineer, known for his Aston Martin engines. +Otto Marcin Nikodym, Polish mathematician; Radon–Nikodym theorem, Nikodym set, Radon–Nikodym property. +Zygmunt Bauman, Polish sociologist and philosopher; one of the world's most eminent social theorists writing on issues as diverse as modernity and the Holocaust, postmodern consumerism as well as the concept of liquid modernity which he introduced. +Kazimierz Dąbrowski, Polish psychologist; he developed the theory of positive disintegration, which describes how a person's development grows as a result of accumulated experiences (1929). +Jerzy Pniewski and Marian Danysz, Polish physicists discovered hypernucleus in 1952. +Anna Wierzbicka, Polish linguist; known for her work in semantics, pragmatics and cross-cultural linguistics; she's credited with formulating the theory of natural semantic metalanguage and the concept of semantic primes. +Michał Misiurewicz, Polish mathematician known for his contributions to chaotic dynamical systems and fractal geometry, notably the Misiurewicz point. +Andrzej Grzegorczyk, Polish mathematician; he introduced the Grzegorczyk hierarchy – a subrecursive hierarchy that foreshadowed computational complexity theory. + +Stanisław Jaśkowski, Polish mathematician; he is regarded as one of the founders of natural deduction, which he discovered independently of Gerhard Gentzen in the 1930s; he was among the first to propose a formal calculus of inconsistency-tolerant (or paraconsistent) logic; furthermore, Jaśkowski was a pioneer in the investigation of both intuitionistic logic and free logic. +Karol Borsuk, Polish mathematician; his main area of interest was topology; he introduced the theory of absolute retracts (ARs) and absolute neighborhood retracts (ANRs), and the cohomotopy groups, later called Borsuk–Spanier cohomotopy groups; he also founded shape theory; Borsuk's conjecture, Borsuk-Ulam theorem. +Jerzy Konorski, Polish neurophysiologist; he discovered secondary conditioned reflexes and operant conditioning and proposed the idea of gnostic neurons – a concept similar to the grandmother cell; he also coined the term neural plasticity, and he developed theoretical ideas regarding it. +Antoni Kępiński, Polish psychiatrist; he developed the psychological theory of information metabolism which explores human social interactions based on information processing which significantly influenced the development of socionics. +Zbigniew Religa, Polish cardiac surgeon; a pioneer in human heart transplantation; in 1987 he performed the first successful heart transplant in Poland; in 1995 he was the first surgeon to graft an artificial valve created from materials taken from human corpses; in 2004 Religa and his team developed an implantable pump for a pneumatic heart assistance system. +Maria Siemionow, a renowned Polish transplantation surgeon and scientist who gained world recognition when she led a team of eight surgeons through the world's first near-total face transplant at the Cleveland Clinic in 2008. +Tadeusz Krwawicz, Polish ophthalmologist; he pioneered the use of cryosurgery in ophthalmology; he was the first to describe a method of cataract extraction by cryoadhesion in 1961, and to develop a probe by means of which cataracts can be grasped and extracted. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..15f83cd4d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Albert Sabin, Polish-American medical researcher, best known for developing the oral polio vaccine which has played a key role in nearly eradicating the disease. +Jacek Karpiński, Polish pioneer in computer engineering and computer science. He became a developer of one of the first machine learning algorithms, techniques for character and image recognition. In 1971, he designed one of the first minicomputers, the K-202. +Stefan Kudelski, Polish audio engineer known for creating the Nagra series of professional audio recorders. +Zdzisław Pawlak, Polish mathematician and computer scientist; known for his contribution to many branches of theoretical computer science; he is credited with introducing the rough set theory and also known for his fundamental works on it; he had also introduced the Pawlak flow graphs, a graphical framework for reasoning from data. +Samuel Eilenberg, Polish-American mathematician, Eilenberg–MacLane space, Eilenberg–Mazur swindle, Eilenberg–Maclane spectrum, Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms. +Jan Czekanowski, Polish anthropologist, ethnographer, statistician and linguist; one of the founders of computational linguistics, he introduced the Czekanowski binary index. +Henryk Iwaniec, mathematician, he is noted for his outstanding contributions to analytic number theory and sieve theory; Friedlander-Iwaniec theorem. +Andrzej Piotr Ruszczyński, Polish-American applied mathematician, noted for his contributions to mathematical optimization, in particular, stochastic programming and risk-averse optimization. He developed the theory of stochastic dominance constraints and created the theory of Markov risk measures. +Kazimierz Kordylewski, Polish astronomer credited for the discovery of the Kordylewski clouds, large transient concentrations of dust at the Trojan points of the Earth–Moon system, which were reported to have been confirmed to exist in October 2018. +Andrzej Trautman, Polish mathematical physicist who has made contributions to classical gravitation in general and to general relativity in particular. The "Trautman-Bondi mass" is named after him. Trautman and Ivor Robinson also discovered a family of exact solutions of the Einstein field equation, the Robinson-Trautman gravitational waves. +Osman Achmatowicz Jr., Polish chemist. He is credited with discovering the Achmatowicz reaction (1971). +Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska, Polish paleobiologist. In the mid-1960s, she led a series of Polish-Mongolian paleontological expeditions to the Gobi Desert. She discovered such dinosaur species as Deinocheirus and Gallimimus. +Jerzy Vetulani, Polish neuroscientist and biochemist. He is known for his early hypothesis of the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs, suggesting in 1975 together with Fridolin Sulser that downregulation of beta-adrenergic receptors is responsible for their effects. +Zbyszek Darzynkiewicz, Polish-American cell biologist active in cancer research and in developing new methods in histochemistry for flow cytometry. +Ludwik Gross, Polish-American virologist. He discovered two different tumor viruses—murine leukemia virus and mouse polyomavirus—capable of causing cancers in laboratory mice. +Ryszard Gryglewski, Polish physician and pharmacologist. He co-discovered prostacyclin (1976), which set off many further scientific discoveries. +Wacław Szybalski, Polish-American medical researcher, geneticist and oncologist. He conducted research on drug resistance and molecular genetics and is known for the Szybalski's rule. +Bogdan Baranowski, Polish chemist who made notable contributions to the study of non-equilibrium thermodynamics and solid state physical chemistry. He discovered nickel hydride in 1958. + +=== 1901–1950 === + +Józef Kosacki, a Polish Lieutenant who developed the Polish mine detector during World War II (1941–42), a metal detector used for detecting land mines. It contributed substantially to British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's 1942 victory over German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel at El Alamein. +Marian Rejewski, Polish mathematician who was among the team of Polish cryptologists who broke the Enigma machine in the 1930s. In 1938, he designed the Cryptologic bomb, a special-purpose machine to speed the breaking of the Enigma machine ciphers that would be used by Nazi Germany in World War II. It was a forerunner of the "Bombes" that would be used by the British at Bletchley Park, and which would be a major element in the Allied Ultra program that may have decided the outcome of World War II. +Biuro Szyfrów (Cipher Bureau) was the Polish military intelligence agency that made the first break (1932, just as Adolf Hitler was about to take power in Germany) into the German Enigma machine cipher that would be used by Nazi Germany through World War II, and kept reading Enigma ciphers at least until France's capitulation in June 1940. +Jan Czochralski, Polish chemist credited with inventing the Czochralski method, a technique of crystal growth used to obtain single crystals of semiconductors (e.g. silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide), metals (e.g. palladium, platinum, silver, gold) and salts (1916). The method is still used in over 90 percent of all electronics in the world that use semiconductors. +Joseph Rotblat, Polish physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project, Nobel laureate. + +Stanisław Ulam, Polish-American mathematician who participated in Manhattan Project, originated the Teller–Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons, discovered the concept of cellular automaton, invented the Monte Carlo methods of computation, and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion. +Wacław Struszyński, a Polish electronics engineer who made a vital contribution to the defeat of U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, he designed a radio antenna which enabled effective high frequency (HF) radio direction finding systems to be installed on Royal Navy convoy escort ships. Such direction finding systems were referred to as HF/DF or Huff-Duff, and enabled the bearings of U-boats to be determined when the U-boats made high frequency radio transmissions. +Rudolf Gundlach, Polish engineer who designed the Vickers Tank Periscope MK.IV, the first device to allow the tank commander to have a 360-degree view from his turret (1936). +Jan Łukasiewicz, Polish mathematician and logician who invented the Polish notation, also known as prefix notation, is a method of mathematical expression (1920). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34266d640 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Reverse Polish notation, (RPN), also known as postfix notation (1920) +Henryk Zygalski, Polish mathematician who in 1938 invented the Zygalski sheets, also known as "perforated sheets", one of a number of devices created by the Polish Cipher Bureau to facilitate the breaking of German Enigma ciphers. +Stefan Banach, Polish mathematician who is considered the founder of modern functional analysis. He is known for Banach space, Banach–Tarski paradox, Banach algebra, Functional analysis, Banach fixed-point theorem, uniform boundedness principle, Banach–Alaoglu theorem and Banach measure. +Lwów School of Mathematics was a group of eminent Polish mathematicians that included Hugo Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam, Mark Kac and many more. +Stefan Kaczmarz, Polish mathematician known for the Kaczmarz method, which provided the basis for many modern imaging technologies, including the CAT scan. +Tadeusz Banachiewicz, Polish astronomer, inventor of the chronocinematograph (1927). +7TP, light tank of the Second World War (1935). +Piotr Wilniewczyc, Polish engineer and arms designer. He designed FB Vis, a 9×19mm caliber, single-action, semi-automatic pistol. +PZL.23 Karaś, light bomber and reconnaissance aircraft designed in the PZL (1934) +Zygmunt Pulawski, Polish aircraft designer. He designed in the early 1930s PZL P.11, Polish fighter aircraft. It was briefly the most advanced fighter aircraft of its kind in the world. + +Jerzy Dąbrowski, Polish aeronautical engineer. He designed in the mid-1930s PZL.37 Łoś, twin-engine medium bomber. +Zbysław Ciołkosz, Polish aircraft designer who designed LWS-6 Żubr, initially a passenger plane. Since the Polish airline LOT bought Douglas DC-2 planes instead, the project was converted to a bomber aircraft (early-1930s). +SS Sołdek, the first ship built in Poland after World War II (1948) + +Alfred Korzybski, Polish philosopher and mathematician who developed the field of general semantics and is known for the map–territory relation. +Mieczysław Wolfke, Polish physicist considered "one of precursors in the development of holography" (a quote from Dennis Gabor). +Hugo Steinhaus, Polish mathematician; one of the founders of the Lwów School of Mathematics, he is regarded as one of the early founders of game theory and probability theory which led to later development of more comprehensive approaches by other scholars; Banach-Steinhaus theorem, three-gap theorem. +LWS, an abbreviation name used by Polish aircraft manufacturer Lubelska Wytwórnia Samolotów (1936–1939) +PZL, an abbreviation name used by Polish aerospace manufacturers (1928–present) +RWD, an abbreviation name used by Polish aircraft manufacturer (1920–1940) +TKS, a tankette (1931) +Stefan Tyszkiewicz, Polish engineer and inventor. He founded automobile manufacturing company Stetysz (1929). +RWD-1, sports plane of 1928, constructed by the RWD +Józef Maroszek, Polish arms designer. He designed Wz. 35 anti-tank rifle, Polish 7.9 mm anti-tank rifle used by the Polish Army during the Invasion of Poland of 1939. +Marian Smoluchowski, Polish scientist, pioneer of statistical physics – Einstein–Smoluchowski relation, Smoluchowski coagulation equation, Feynman-Smoluchowski ratchet. + +Kazimierz Fajans, Polish physical chemist, the co-discoverer of chemical element protactinium (1913). He is also known for the Fajans' rules, Fajan's and Soddy's law, Fajans–Paneth–Hahn Law and Fajans method. +Kazimierz Funk, Polish biochemist, credited with formulating the concept of vitamines. + +Alfred Tarski, a renowned Polish logician, mathematician and philosopher; Banach–Tarski paradox, Tarski's axioms, Tarski's undefinability theorem, semantic theory of truth, Tarski monster group, Jónsson–Tarski duality. +Wacław Sierpiński, known for outstanding contributions to set theory (research on the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis), number theory, theory of functions and topology; Sierpiński triangle, Sierpiński carpet, Sierpiński curve, Sierpiński number. +Wiktor Kemula, Polish chemist. He developed the hanging mercury drop electrode (HMDE). +Aleksander Jabłoński, Polish physicist, known for Jablonski diagram. +Maksymilian Faktorowicz, also known as Max Factor Sr., Polish-American businessman, beautician, entrepreneur and inventor. As a founder of the cosmetics giant Max Factor & Company, he largely developed the modern cosmetics industry in the United States. +Franciszek Mertens, mathematician known for Mertens function, Mertens conjecture, Mertens's theorems. +Josef Hofmann, designer of first windscreen wipers. +Rudolf Weigl, Polish biologist and inventor of the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus. +Ludwik Hirszfeld, Polish microbiologist and serologist. He is considered a co-discoverer of the inheritance of ABO blood types. +Michał Kalecki, Polish economist; he has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century", he made major theoretical and practical contributions in the areas of the business cycle, growth, full employment, income distribution, the political boom cycle, the oligopolistic economy, and risk; he offered a synthesis that integrated Marxist class analysis and the then-new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both the Neo-Marxian and Post-Keynesian schools of economic thought; he was also one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions. +Stefan Bryła, Polish construction engineer and welding pioneer; he designed and built the first welded road bridge in the world as well as the Prudential building in Warsaw, one of the first European skyscrapers. +Kazimierz Zarankiewicz, Polish mathematician who was primarily interested in topology and graph theory known for Zarankiewicz problem and Zarankiewicz crossing number conjecture. +Juliusz Schauder, Polish mathematician known for Schauder basis, Schauder fixed-point theorem, Schauder estimates, Banach–Schauder theorem and Faber-Schauder system. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..467629b5b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ralph Modjeski, Polish civil engineer who achieved prominence as a pre-eminent bridge designer in the United States. +Wojciech Świętosławski, Polish chemist and physicist, considered the father of thermochemistry +Józef Tykociński, Polish engineer and a pioneer of sound-on-film technology +Mieczysław Mąkosza, Polish chemist specializing in organic synthesis and investigation of organic mechanisms; he is credited for the discovery of the aromatic vicarious nucleophilic substitution, VNS; he also contributed to the discovery of phase transfer catalysis reactions. +Bronisław Malinowski, Polish anthropologist, often considered one of the most important 20th-century anthropologists. His writings on ethnography, social theory, and field research have exerted a profound influence on the discipline of anthropology. +Mirosław Hermaszewski, Polish Air Force officer and cosmonaut; the first Polish person in space. +Henryk Arctowski, Polish scientist, explorer and an internationally renowned meteorologist; a pioneer in the exploration of Antarctica. +Stefan Drzewiecki, Polish engineer and inventor who constructed the world's first electric submarine in 1884. He developed several models of propeller-driven submarines that evolved from single-person vessels to a four-man model; he developed the blade element theory (1885), the theory of gliding flight, developed a method for the manufacture of ship and plane propellers (1892), and presented a general theory for screw-propeller thrust (1920); he also developed several models of early submarines for the Russian Navy, and devised a torpedo-launching system for ships and submarines that bears his name, the Drzewiecki drop collar; he also made an instrument that drew the precise routes of ships onto a nautical chart; his work Theorie générale de l'hélice (1920), was honored by the French Academy of Sciences as fundamental in the development of modern propellers. +Tadeusz Tański, Polish automobile engineer and the designer of, among others, the first Polish serially-built automobile, the CWS T-1 +Leonard Danilewicz, Polish engineer, he came up with a concept for a frequency-hopping spread spectrum. +Florian Znaniecki, Polish sociologist and philosopher; he made significant contributions to sociological theory and introduced such concepts as humanistic coefficient and culturalism; he is the co-author of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, which is considered the foundation of modern empirical sociology. +Adolf Beck, Polish physiologist, a pioneer of electroencephalography (EEG); in 1890 he published an investigation of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs that included rhythmic oscillations altered by light; Beck started experiments on the electrical brain activity of animals; his observation of fluctuating brain activity led to the conclusion of brain waves. +Andrzej Schinzel, Polish mathematician, studying mainly number theory; Schinzel's hypothesis H, Davenport–Schinzel sequence +Władysław Starewicz, Polish-Russian pioneering film director and stop-motion animator, he is notable as the author of the first puppet-animated film i.e. The Beautiful Lukanida (1912). +Witold Hurewicz, Polish mathematician; Hurewicz space, Hurewicz theorem. +Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, Polish physicist, discoverer of the phenomenon of progressive phosphorescence. +Henryk Derczyński, Polish photographer. He developed the isohelia technology, a technique that sharpens contrasts and defines three-dimensional images. +Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Russian and Soviet rocket scientist of Polish descent. He pioneered astronautics and is considered one of the pioneers of space flight and the founding father of modern rocketry and astronautics. +Tadeusz Sendzimir, Polish engineer and inventor with 120 patents in mining and metallurgy. He developed revolutionary methods of processing steel and metals and is known for the Sendzimir mill and Sendzimir process. +Jerzy Rudlicki, Polish aerospace engineer and pilot. He is best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail in 1930, which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system. +Leopold Infeld, Polish physicist known for Born–Infeld model, Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations and Infeld–Van der Waerden symbols. +Eugène Minkowski, Polish psychiatrist and emigrant to France, known for his incorporation of phenomenology into psychopathology. +Frank Piasecki, American engineer of Polish descent known as a helicopter aviation pioneer. He pioneered tandem rotor helicopter designs and created the compound helicopter concept of vectored thrust using a ducted propeller. +Władysław Świątecki, Polish airman and inventor known for the Swiatecki bomb slip. +Jakub Karol Parnas, Polish-Soviet biochemist. He co-discovered the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway, the most common type of glycolysis, and phosphorolysis. +Joseph Szydlowski, Polish-Israeli aircraft engine designer who founded Turbomeca in France. +Józef Lubański, Polish theoretical physicist. He developed the Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector in relativistic quantum mechanics. + +=== 1851–1900 === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d9a2b7679 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Maria Skłodowska-Curie, Polish chemist and physicist, a pioneer in the field of radioactivity, co-discoverer of the chemical elements radium and polonium. +Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski, the first to liquefy oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in a stable state (not, as had been the case up to then, in a dynamic state in the transitional form as vapour) (1833). +Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski discovers carbon dioxide clathrate (1882). +Ignacy Łukasiewicz, Polish pharmacist and petroleum industry pioneer who in 1856 built the world's first oil refinery; his achievements included the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seep oil, the invention of the modern kerosene lamp, the introduction of the first modern street lamp in Europe, and the construction one of the world's first modern oil well. +The Polish Academy of Learning, an academy of sciences, was founded in Kraków in 1872. +Casimir Zeglen, inventor of one of the first bulletproof vests. +Józef Paczoski, Polish botanist; he coined the term of phytosociology and was one of the founders of this branch of botany (1896). +Jan Szczepanik, Polish inventor, with several hundred patents and over 50 discoveries to his name, many of which are still applied today, especially in the motion picture industry, as well as in photography and television, which include telectroscope and colorimeter. +Edmund Biernacki, Polish pathologist, known for the Biernacki reaction used worldwide to assess erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), which is one of the major blood tests. +Ludwik Gumplowicz, Polish sociologist, "one of the forerunners of scientific sociology". +Antoni Leśniowski, Polish surgeon, discoverer of Leśniowski-Crohn's disease. +Edward Flatau, Polish neurologist and psychiatrist, his name in medicine is linked to Redlich-Flatau syndrome, Flatau-Sterling torsion dystonia, Flatau-Schidler disease and Flatau's law. He published a human brain atlas (1894), wrote a fundamental book on migraine (1912), established the localization principle of long fibers in the spinal cord (1893), and with Sterling published an early paper (1911) on progressive torsion spasm in children and suggested that the disease has a genetic component. +Kazimierz Prószyński, Polish inventor active in the field of cinema; he patented his first film camera, called Pleograph, before the Lumière brothers, and later went on to improve the cinema projector for the Gaumont company, as well as invent the widely used hand-held Aeroscope camera. +Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Polish-Russian engineer and electrician; inventor of the three-phase electric power system. In 1891, he also created a three-phase transformer and short-circuited (squirrel-cage) induction motor. +Joseph Babinski, a neurologist best known for his 1896 description of the Babinski sign, a pathological plantar reflex indicative of corticospinal tract damage. +Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, a Polish linguist, he formulated the theory of the phoneme and phonetic alternations. +Ernest Malinowski, Polish engineer, he constructed at that time the world's highest railway Ferrocarril Central Andino in the Peruvian Andes in 1871–1876. +Bruno Abakanowicz, Polish mathematician and electrical engineer, inventor of the integraph, spirograph, parabolagraph and an electric arc lamp of his own design. +Stanisław Kierbedź, Polish-Russian engineer, and military officer; he constructed the first permanent iron bridge over the Vistula River in Warsaw known as the Kierbedź Bridge; he designed and supervised the construction of dozens of bridges, railway lines, ports and other objects in Central and Eastern Europe. +Felicjan Sypniewski, Polish naturalist, botanist, entomologist and philosopher; his ground-breaking studies and scientific publications laid down the foundations of malacology +L.L. Zamenhof, Polish medical doctor, inventor and writer; creator of Esperanto, the most successful constructed language in the world. +Napoleon Cybulski, Polish physiologist and a pioneer of endocrinology and electroencephalography; discoverer of adrenaline (1895). +Wacław Mayzel, Polish histologist; he described for the first time the process of mitosis in animal cells. +Antoni Patek, Polish pioneer in watchmaking and a creator of Patek Philippe & Co., one of the most famous watchmaker companies in the world. +Ludwik Rydygier, Polish surgeon; in 1880, as the first in Poland and second in the world he succeeded in surgical removal of the pylorus in a patient suffering from stomach cancer, he was also the first to document this procedure; in 1881, as the first in the world, he carried out a peptic ulcer resection; in 1884 he introduced a new method of surgical peptic ulcer treatment using Gastroenterostomy; Rydygier proposed (1900) original concepts for removing prostatic adenoma and introduced many other surgical techniques that are successfully used to date. +Jan Dzierżoń, a pioneering Polish apiarist who discovered the phenomenon of parthenogenesis in bees and designed the first successful movable-frame beehive (1838); his discoveries and innovations made him world-famous in scientific and bee-keeping circles; he has been described as "the father of apiculture". +Stanisław Leśniewski, philosopher and logician, known for coining the term mereology. +Stanisław Kostanecki, Polish chemist known for the Kostanecki acylation. +Marceli Nencki, Polish chemist. He demonstrated that urea is formed in the organism from amino acids rather than being preformed on a protein molecule and that it is accompanied by binding of carbon dioxide. He also discovered rhodanine in 1877. +Bohdan Szyszkowski, Polish chemist and member of Polish Academy of Learning. He published important papers on electrochemistry and surface chemistry and is known for the Szyszkowski equation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a8561776 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Jan Mikulicz-Radecki, Polish-German pioneering surgeon. He was the inventor of new operating techniques and tools, and is one of the pioneers of antiseptics and aseptic techniques. He created a surgical mask and was the first to use medical gloves during surgery. He is known for Mikulicz' disease, Heineke–Mikulicz strictureplasty, Mikulicz's drain. +Aleksander Możajski, Polish-Russian aviation pioneer, researcher and designer of Mozhaysky's airplane. +Stanisław Olszewski, Polish engineer and inventor. He is best known as the co-creator of the technology of arc welding (along with Nikolay Benardos). +Karol Adamiecki, Polish engineer and management theorist. He invented a novel means of displaying interdependent processes so as to enhance the visibility of production schedules (1896). With minor modifications, Adamiecki's chart is now more commonly referred to in English as the Gantt chart. +Walery Jaworski, one of the pioneers of gastroenterology in Poland; he described bacteria living in the human stomach and speculated that they were responsible for stomach ulcers, gastric cancer and achylia. It was one of the first observations of Helicobacter pylori. He published those findings in 1899 in a book titled "Podręcznik chorób żołądka" ("Handbook of Gastric Diseases"). His findings were independently confirmed by Robin Warren and Barry Marshall, who received the Nobel Prize in 2005. +Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz, Polish pathologist. His research of the variable vascularity of the spinal cord was an important contribution to the development of modern clinical vascular surgery. He is known for Artery of Adamkiewicz and Adamkiewicz reaction. +Justyn Karliński, physician and epidemiologist, who discovered over 20 bacteria in Bosnian waters. The discovery enabled the development of vaccines for numerous infectious diseases of humans and animals. +Adam Bruno Wikszemski, inventor of a device for phonographic recording of sound vibrations (1889) +Ivan Yarkovsky, Polish-Russian civil engineer. He is credited with the discovery of the Yarkovsky effect and the co-discovery the YORP effect. + +=== 1801–1850 === +Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, Polish philosopher, mathematician, physicist, inventor, lawyer, occultist and economist. In mathematics, he is known for introducing a novel series expansion for a function in response to Joseph Louis Lagrange's use of infinite series. The coefficients in Wroński's new series form the Wronskian. He is also known for designing continuous track. +Felix Wierzbicki, physician and geographer, author of California as It Is and as It May Be, or A Guide to the Gold Region, the first English-language geographic overview and guide to California (1849) +Ignacy Domeyko – geologist and mineralogist, a geological map of Chile, describing the Jurassic rock formations, and discovered deposits of a rare mineral (1846). +Paweł Strzelecki, Polish explorer and geologist; in 1840 he climbed the highest peak on mainland Australia and named it Mount Kosciuszko; he made a geological and mineralogical survey of the Gippsland region in present-day eastern Victoria and from 1840 to 1842 he explored nearly every part of Tasmania; author of Physical Description of New South Wales (1845). +Jędrzej Śniadecki, Polish writer, physician, chemist, biologist and philosopher. He became the first person who linked rickets to lack of sunlight (1822). He also created modern Polish terminology in the field of chemistry. +Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Polish scholar, poet, and statesman +Ignacy Prądzyński, Polish military commander and general; principal engineer and designer of the Augustów Canal +Wojciech Jastrzębowski, Polish scientist, naturalist and inventor, professor of botany, physics, zoology and horticulture; considered as one of the fathers of ergonomics +Alexander I established the University of Warsaw (1816) on the initiative of Stanisław Potocki and Stanisław Staszic. + +=== 1701–1800 === +Commission of National Education (Polish: Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), founded in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. +Stanisław Staszic was an outstanding Polish philosopher, statesman, Catholic priest, geologist, translator, poet and writer—almost a one-man academy of sciences. The Polish Academy of Sciences' Staszic Palace, in Warsaw, is named after him; one of the founding fathers of the Constitution of May 3, 1791—the world's second and Europe's first written constitution and a crowning achievement of the Polish Enlightenment +Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, Polish Messianist philosopher, mathematician, physicist, inventor, lawyer, and economist; he is credited with formulating the Wronskian and developing the system of continuous track. + +=== 1601–1700 === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f2a396110 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of Polish science and technology" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:36.902705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Adam Adamandy Kochański, Polish mathematician, physicist and clockmaker found an approximation of π today called the Kochański's Approximation (1685). He also suggested replacing the clock's pendulum with a spring (1659), constructed a clock with a magnetic pendulum (1667), and was the author of the world's first systematic paper on the construction of clocks. +Johannes Hevelius was an astronomer who published the earliest exact maps of the moon and the most complete star catalog of his time, containing 1,564 stars. In 1641 he built an observatory in his house; he is known as "the founder of lunar topography". +Jan Brożek (Ioannes Broscius) was the most prominent 17th-century Polish mathematician. Following his death, his collection of Nicolaus Copernicus' letters and documents, which he had borrowed 40 years earlier with the intent of writing a biography of Copernicus, was lost. +Kazimierz Siemienowicz, Polish–Lithuanian general of artillery, gunsmith, military engineer, and pioneer of rocketry who developed the concept of a multistage rocket. +King of Poland, John II Casimir, founded the University of Lviv (1661). +Michał Boym, Polish Jesuit missionary to China, scientist and explorer; he is notable as one of the first westerners to travel within the Chinese mainland, and the author of numerous works on Asian fauna, flora and geography. He was the first in Europe to describe Korea as a peninsula, as until then it was believed to be an island, and the first in Europe to establish the factual location of a number of Chinese cities and the Great Wall of China. +Adam Freytag, mathematician and military engineer, wrote Architectura militaris nova et aucta, the first manual of bastion fortifications of the so-called Old Dutch system (1631). +Krzysztof Arciszewski, Polish–Lithuanian nobleman, military officer, engineer, and ethnographer. Arciszewski also served as a general of artillery for the Netherlands and Poland +Adam Wybe, Dutch-born inventor, constructed the world's first aerial lift in Gdańsk in 1644. +Jan Jonston, Polish scholar and physician of Scottish descent; author of Thautomatographia naturalis (1632) and Idea universae medicinae practicae (1642) + +Michał Sędziwój, Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor; a pioneer of chemistry, he developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds; he discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance-later called oxygen 170 years before similar discoveries by Scheele and Priestley; he correctly identified this 'food of life' with the gas (also oxygen) given off by heating nitre (saltpetre); this substance, the 'central nitre', had a central position in Sendivogius' schema of the universe. + +=== 1501–1600 === +Bartholomäus Keckermann, A Short Commentary on Navigation (the first one written in Poland) +Josephus Struthius, he published in 1555 Sphygmicae artis iam mille ducentos perditae et desideratae libri V. in which he described five types of pulse, the diagnostic meaning of those types, and the influence of body temperature and nervous system on pulse. This was one of books used by William Harvey in his works +Sebastian Petrycy, Polish philosopher and physician who lectured and published notable works in the field of medicine. + +Nicolaus Copernicus, Renaissance polymath—an astronomer, mathematician, physician, lawyer, clergyman, governor, diplomat, military leader, classics scholar and economist, who developed the heliocentric theory in a form detailed enough to make it scientifically useful. His De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres) was published in 1543. He also described "Gresham's law" the year (1519) that Thomas Gresham was born. +King of Poland, Stephen Báthory founded the Vilnius University in 1579, which became the easternmost university in Europe. +Marcin of Urzędów, Polish Roman Catholic priest, physician, pharmacist and botanist known especially for his Herbarz polski ("Polish Herbal") +Adam of Łowicz, Polish physician, philosopher, and humanist; author of Fundamentum scienciae nobilissimae secretorum naturae. +Albert Brudzewski, Polish astronomer, mathematician, philosopher and diplomat. He was the author of Commentum planetarium in theoricas Georgii Purbachii and was the first to state that the Moon moves in an ellipse and always shows its same side to the Earth. +Bishop Jan Lubrański founded the university college known as the Lubrański Academy in 1518. + +=== Middle Ages === + +Kraków Academy (Akademia Krakowska) was founded in 1364 by King Casimir III the Great. +Witelo (ca. 1230 – ca. 1314), was a philosopher and a scientist who specialized in optics. His famous optical treatise, Perspectiva, which drew on the Arabic Book of Optics by Alhazen, was unique in Latin literature and helped give rise to Roger Bacon's best work. In 1284, he described the reflection and refraction of light. In addition to optics, Witelo's treatise made important contributions to the psychology of visual perception. + +== See also == +List of Poles +List of Polish Nobel laureates +List of Polish inventors and discoverers + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Judycki, Zbigniew Andrzej (2020). Lekarze polskiego pochodzenia w świecie (in Polish). Kielce. ISBN 978-83-936896-5-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) + +== External links == +Science in Poland, 2001-05 +8 Ways We've Made Your Life Better \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b69490b6e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of information theory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_information_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:32.131422+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A timeline of events related to information theory, quantum information theory and statistical physics, data compression, error correcting codes and related subjects. + +1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann presents his H-theorem, and with it the formula Σpi log pi for the entropy of a single gas particle +1878 – J. Willard Gibbs defines the Gibbs entropy: the probabilities in the entropy formula are now taken as probabilities of the state of the whole system +1924 – Harry Nyquist discusses quantifying "intelligence" and the speed at which it can be transmitted by a communication system +1927 – John von Neumann defines the von Neumann entropy, extending the Gibbs entropy to quantum mechanics +1928 – Ralph Hartley introduces Hartley information as the logarithm of the number of possible messages, with information being communicated when the receiver can distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other (regardless of any associated meaning) +1929 – Leó Szilárd analyses Maxwell's demon, showing how a Szilard engine can sometimes transform information into the extraction of useful work +1940 – Alan Turing introduces the deciban as a measure of information inferred about the German Enigma machine cypher settings by the Banburismus process +1944 – Claude Shannon's theory of information is substantially complete +1947 – Richard W. Hamming invents Hamming codes for error detection and correction (to protect patent rights, the result is not published until 1950) +1948 – Claude E. Shannon publishes A Mathematical Theory of Communication +1949 – Claude E. Shannon publishes Communication in the Presence of Noise – Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem and Shannon–Hartley law +1949 – Claude E. Shannon's Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems is declassified +1949 – Robert M. Fano publishes Transmission of Information. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts – Shannon–Fano coding +1949 – Leon G. Kraft discovers Kraft's inequality, which shows the limits of prefix codes +1949 – Marcel J. E. Golay introduces Golay codes for forward error correction +1950 – Richard Hamming publishes Hamming code paper, creates a new field of study Coding theory +1951 – Solomon Kullback and Richard Leibler introduce the Kullback–Leibler divergence +1951 – David A. Huffman invents Huffman encoding, a method of finding optimal prefix codes for lossless data compression +1953 – August Albert Sardinas and George W. Patterson devise the Sardinas–Patterson algorithm, a procedure to decide whether a given variable-length code is uniquely decodable +1954 – Irving S. Reed and David E. Muller propose Reed–Muller codes +1955 – Peter Elias introduces convolutional codes +1957 – Eugene Prange first discusses cyclic codes +1959 – Alexis Hocquenghem, and independently the next year Raj Chandra Bose and Dwijendra Kumar Ray-Chaudhuri, discover BCH codes +1960 – Irving S. Reed and Gustave Solomon propose Reed–Solomon codes +1962 – Robert G. Gallager proposes low-density parity-check codes; they are unused for 30 years due to technical limitations +1965 – Dave Forney discusses concatenated codes +1966 – Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) develop linear predictive coding (LPC), a form of speech coding +1967 – Andrew Viterbi reveals the Viterbi algorithm, making decoding of convolutional codes practicable +1968 – Elwyn Berlekamp invents the Berlekamp–Massey algorithm; its application to decoding BCH and Reed–Solomon codes is pointed out by James L. Massey the following year +1968 – Chris Wallace and David M. Boulton publish the first of many papers on Minimum Message Length (MML) statistical and inductive inference +1970 – Valerii Denisovich Goppa introduces Goppa codes +1972 – Jørn Justesen proposes Justesen codes, an improvement of Reed–Solomon codes +1972 – Nasir Ahmed proposes the discrete cosine transform (DCT), which he develops with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973; the DCT later became the most widely used lossy compression algorithm, the basis for multimedia formats such as JPEG, MPEG and MP3 +1973 – David Slepian and Jack Wolf discover and prove the Slepian–Wolf coding limits for distributed source coding +1976 – Gottfried Ungerboeck gives the first paper on trellis modulation; a more detailed exposition in 1982 leads to a raising of analogue modem POTS speeds from 9.6 kbit/s to 33.6 kbit/s +1976 – Richard Pasco and Jorma J. Rissanen develop effective arithmetic coding techniques +1977 – Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv develop Lempel–Ziv compression (LZ77) +1982 – Valerii Denisovich Goppa introduces algebraic geometry codes +1989 – Phil Katz publishes the .zip format including DEFLATE (LZ77 + Huffman coding); later to become the most widely used archive container +1993 – Claude Berrou, Alain Glavieux and Punya Thitimajshima introduce Turbo codes +1994 – Michael Burrows and David Wheeler publish the Burrows–Wheeler transform, later to find use in bzip2 +1995 – Benjamin Schumacher coins the term qubit and proves the quantum noiseless coding theorem +2003 – David J. C. MacKay shows the connection between information theory, inference and machine learning in his book. +2006 – Jarosław Duda introduces first Asymmetric numeral systems entropy coding: since 2014 popular replacement of Huffman and arithmetic coding in compressors like Facebook Zstandard, Apple LZFSE, CRAM or JPEG XL +2008 – Erdal Arıkan introduces polar codes, the first practical construction of codes that achieves capacity for a wide array of channels + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4902e8caa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The timeline of meteorology contains events of scientific and technological advancements in the area of atmospheric sciences. The most notable advancements in observational meteorology, weather forecasting, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics are listed chronologically. Some historical weather events are included that mark time periods where advancements were made, or even that sparked policy change. + +== Antiquity == +3000 BC – Meteorology in India can be traced back to around 3000 BC, with writings such as the Upanishads, containing discussions about the processes of cloud formation and rain and the seasonal cycles caused by the movement of the Earth around the Sun. +600 BC – Thales may qualify as the first Greek meteorologist. He reputedly issues the first seasonal crop forecast. +400 BC – There is some evidence that Democritus predicted changes in the weather, and that he used this ability to convince people that he could predict other future events. +400 BC – Hippocrates writes a treatise called Airs, Waters and Places, the earliest known work to include a discussion of weather. More generally, he wrote about common diseases that occur in particular locations, seasons, winds and air. +350 BC – The Greek philosopher Aristotle writes Meteorology, a work which represents the sum of knowledge of the time about Earth sciences, including weather and climate. It is the first known work that attempts to treat a broad range of meteorological topics. For the first time, precipitation and the clouds from which precipitation falls are called meteors, which originate from the Greek word meteoros, meaning 'high in the sky'. From that word comes the modern term meteorology, the study of clouds and weather. +Although the term meteorology is used today to describe a subdiscipline of the atmospheric sciences, Aristotle's work is more general. Meteorologica is based on intuition and simple observation, but not on what is now considered the scientific method. In his own words: +...all the affections we may call common to air and water, and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts. +The magazine De Mundo (attributed to Pseudo-Aristotle) notes: +Cloud is a vaporous mass, concentrated and producing water. Rain is produced from the compression of a closely condensed cloud, varying according to the pressure exerted on the cloud; when the pressure is slight it scatters gentle drops; when it is great it produces a more violent fall, and we call this a shower, being heavier than ordinary rain, and forming continuous masses of water falling over earth. Snow is produced by the breaking up of condensed clouds, the cleavage taking place before the change into water; it is the process of cleavage which causes its resemblance to foam and its intense whiteness, while the cause of its coldness is the congelation of the moisture in it before it is dispersed or rarefied. When snow is violent and falls heavily we call it a blizzard. Hail is produced when snow becomes densified and acquires impetus for a swifter fall from its close mass; the weight becomes greater and the fall more violent in proportion to the size of the broken fragments of cloud. Such then are the phenomena which occur as the result of moist exhalation. +One of the most impressive achievements in Meteorology is his description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle: +Now the sun, moving as it does, sets up processes of change and becoming and decay, and by its agency the finest and sweetest water is every day carried up and is dissolved into vapour and rises to the upper region, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth. + +Several years after Aristotle's book, his pupil Theophrastus puts together a book on weather forecasting called The Book of Signs. Various indicators such as solar and lunar halos formed by high clouds are presented as ways to forecast the weather. The combined works of Aristotle and Theophrastus have such authority they become the main influence in the study of clouds, weather and weather forecasting for nearly 2000 years. +250 BC – Archimedes studies the concepts of buoyancy and the hydrostatic principle. Positive buoyancy is necessary for the formation of convective clouds (cumulus, cumulus congestus and cumulonimbus). +25 AD – Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalizes the climatic zone system. +c. 80 AD – In his Lunheng (論衡; Critical Essays), the Han dynasty Chinese philosopher Wang Chong (27–97 AD) dispels the Chinese myth of rain coming from the heavens, and states that rain is evaporated from water on the earth into the air and forms clouds, stating that clouds condense into rain and also form dew, and says when the clothes of people in high mountains are moistened, this is because of the air-suspended rain water. However, Wang Chong supports his theory by quoting a similar one of Gongyang Gao's, the latter's commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Gongyang Zhuan, compiled in the 2nd century BC, showing that the Chinese conception of rain evaporating and rising to form clouds goes back much farther than Wang Chong. Wang Chong wrote: +As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which condense into rain, or still further into dew. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c598e7953 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Middle Ages == +500 AD – In around 500 AD, the Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer: Varāhamihira published his work Brihat-Samhita's, which provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed in the Indian region. +7th century – The poet Kalidasa in his epic Meghaduta, mentions the date of onset of the south-west Monsoon over central India and traces the path of the monsoon clouds. +7th century – St. Isidore of Seville, in his work De Rerum Natura, writes about astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. In the chapter dedicated to Meteorology, he discusses the thunder, clouds, rainbows and wind. +9th century – Al-Kindi (Alkindus), an Arab naturalist, writes a treatise on meteorology entitled Risala fi l-Illa al-Failali l-Madd wa l-Fazr (Treatise on the Efficient Cause of the Flow and Ebb), in which he presents an argument on tides which "depends on the changes which take place in bodies owing to the rise and fall of temperature." +9th century – Al-Dinawari, a Kurdish naturalist, writes the Kitab al-Nabat (Book of Plants), in which he deals with the application of meteorology to agriculture during the Muslim Agricultural Revolution. He describes the meteorological character of the sky, the planets and constellations, the Sun and Moon, the lunar phases indicating seasons and rain, the anwa (heavenly bodies of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes, wells and other sources of water. +10th century – Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture discusses the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases, nature of thunder and lightning, direction of sunrise, behaviour of certain plants and animals, and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds; pollenized air and winds; and formation of winds and vapours. +1021 – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) writes on the atmospheric refraction of light, the cause of morning and evening twilight. He endeavored by use of hyperbola and geometric optics to chart and formulate basic laws on atmospheric refraction. He provides the first correct definition of the twilight, discusses atmospheric refraction, shows that the twilight is due to atmospheric refraction and only begins when the Sun is 19 degrees below the horizon, and uses a complex geometric demonstration to measure the height of the Earth's atmosphere as 52,000 passuum (49 miles), which is very close to the modern measurement of 50 miles. +1020s – Ibn al-Haytham publishes his Risala fi l-Daw’ (Treatise on Light) as a supplement to his Book of Optics. He discusses the meteorology of the rainbow, the density of the atmosphere, and various celestial phenomena, including the eclipse, twilight and moonlight. +1027 – Avicenna publishes The Book of Healing, in which Part 2, Section 5, contains his essay on mineralogy and meteorology in six chapters: formation of mountains; the advantages of mountains in the formation of clouds; sources of water; origin of earthquakes; formation of minerals; and the diversity of earth's terrain. He also describes the structure of a meteor, and his theory on the formation of metals combined the alchemical sulfur-mercury theory of metals (although he was critical of alchemy) with the mineralogical theories of Aristotle and Theophrastus. His scientific methodology of field observation was also original in the Earth sciences. +Late 11th century – Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ma'udh, who lived in Al-Andalus, wrote a work on optics later translated into Latin as Liber de crepisculis, which was mistakenly attributed to Alhazen. This was a short work containing an estimation of the angle of depression of the sun at the beginning of the morning twilight and at the end of the evening twilight, and an attempt to calculate on the basis of this and other data the height of the atmospheric moisture responsible for the refraction of the sun's rays. Through his experiments, he obtained the accurate value of 18°, which comes close to the modern value. +1088 – In his Dream Pool Essays (夢溪筆談), the Chinese scientist Shen Kuo wrote vivid descriptions of tornadoes, that rainbows were formed by the shadow of the sun in rain, occurring when the sun would shine upon it, and the curious common phenomena of the effect of lightning that, when striking a house, would merely scorch the walls a bit but completely melt to liquid all metal objects inside. +1121 – Al-Khazini, a Muslim scientist of Byzantine Greek descent, publishes The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, the first study on the hydrostatic balance. +13th century – St. Albert the Great is the first to propose that each drop of falling rain had the form of a small sphere, and that this form meant that the rainbow was produced by light interacting with each raindrop. +1267 – Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that the rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon. +1337 – William Merle, rector of Driby, starts recording his weather diary, the oldest existing in print. The endeavour ended 1344. +Late 13th century – Theodoric of Freiberg and Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī give the first accurate explanations of the primary rainbow, simultaneously but independently. Theoderic also gives the explanation for the secondary rainbow. +1441 – King Sejong's son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge. These were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8f820b1ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1450 – Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and is known as the first anemometer. +– Nicolas Cryfts, (Nicolas of Cusa), described the first hair hygrometer to measure humidity. The design was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci, referencing Cryfts design in da Vinci's Codex Atlanticus. +1483 − Yuriy Drohobych publishes Prognostic Estimation of the year 1483 in Rome, where he reflects upon weather forecasting and that climatic conditions depended on the latitude. +1488 – Johannes Lichtenberger publishes the first version of his Prognosticatio linking weather forecasting with astrology. The paradigm was only challenged centuries later. +1494 – During his second voyage Christopher Columbus experiences a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean, which leads to the first written European account of a hurricane. +1510 – Leonhard Reynmann, astronomer of Nuremberg, publishes ″Wetterbüchlein Von warer erkanntnus des wetters″, a collection of weather lore. +1547 − Antonio Mizauld publishes "Le miroueer du temps, autrement dit, éphémérides perpétuelles de l'air par lesquelles sont tous les jours donez vrais signes de touts changements de temps, seulement par choses qui à tous apparoissent au cien, en l'air, sur terre & en l'eau. Le tout par petits aphorismes, & breves sentences diligemment compris" in Paris, with detail on forecasting weather, comets and earthquakes. + +== 17th century == + +1607 – Galileo Galilei constructs a thermoscope. Not only did this device measure temperature, but it represented a paradigm shift. Up to this point, heat and cold were believed to be qualities of Aristotle's elements (fire, water, air, and earth). Note: There is some controversy about who actually built this first thermoscope. There is some evidence for this device being independently built at several different times. This is the era of the first recorded meteorological observations. As there was no standard measurement, they were of little use until the work of Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit and Anders Celsius in the 18th century. + +1611 – Johannes Kepler writes the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow)". +1620 – Francis Bacon (philosopher) analyzes the scientific method in his philosophical work; Novum Organum. +1643 – Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer. + +1648 – Blaise Pascal rediscovers that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduces that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere. +1654 – Ferdinando II de Medici sponsors the first weather observing network, that consisted of meteorological stations in Florence, Cutigliano, Vallombrosa, Bologna, Parma, Milan, Innsbruck, Osnabrück, Paris and Warsaw. Collected data was centrally sent to Accademia del Cimento in Florence at regular time intervals. +1662 – Sir Christopher Wren invented the mechanical, self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge. +1667 – Robert Hooke builds another type of anemometer, called a pressure-plate anemometer. +1686 – Edmund Halley presents a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identifies solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. +– Edmund Halley establishes the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level. + +== 18th century == +1716 – Edmund Halley suggests that aurorae are caused by "magnetic effluvia" moving along the Earth's magnetic field lines. + +1724 – Gabriel Fahrenheit creates reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer. +1735 – The first ideal explanation of global circulation was the study of the Trade winds by George Hadley. +1738 – Daniel Bernoulli publishes Hydrodynamics, initiating the kinetic theory of gases. He gave a poorly detailed equation of state, but also the basic laws for the theory of gases. +1742 – Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, proposed the Celsius temperature scale which led to the current Celsius scale. +1743 – Benjamin Franklin is prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane; he decides that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery. +1761 – Joseph Black discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting. +1772 – Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovers nitrogen, which he calls phlogisticated air, and together they explain the results in terms of the phlogiston theory. +1774 – Louis Cotte is put in charge of a "medico-meteorological" network of French veterinarians and country doctors to investigate the relationship between plague and weather. The project continued until 1794. +- Royal Society begins twice daily observations compiled by Samuel Horsley testing for the influence of winds and of the Moon on the barometer readings. +1777 – Antoine Lavoisier discovers oxygen and develops an explanation for combustion. +1780 – Charles Theodor charters the first international network of meteorological observers known as "Societas Meteorologica Palatina". The project collapses in 1795. +1780 – James Six invents the Six's thermometer, a thermometer that records minimum and maximum temperatures. See (Six's thermometer) +1783 – In Lavoisier's article "Reflexions sur le phlogistique", he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory of heat. +– First hair hygrometer demonstrated. The inventor was Horace-Bénédict de Saussure. + +== 19th century == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3de77c2dd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1800 – The Voltaic pile was the first modern electric battery, invented by Alessandro Volta, which led to later inventions like the telegraph. +1802–1803 – Luke Howard writes On the Modification of Clouds in which he assigns cloud types Latin names. Howard's system establishes three physical categories or forms based on appearance and process of formation: cirriform (mainly detached and wispy), cumuliform or convective (mostly detached and heaped, rolled, or rippled), and non-convective stratiform (mainly continuous layers in sheets). These are cross-classified into lower and upper levels or étages. Cumuliform clouds forming in the lower level are given the genus name cumulus from the Latin word for heap, while low stratiform clouds are given the genus name stratus from the Latin word for a flattened or spread out sheet. Cirriform clouds are identified as always upper level and given the genus name cirrus from the Latin for hair. From this genus name, the prefix cirro- is derived and attached to the names of upper level cumulus and stratus, yielding the names cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus. In addition to these individual cloud types; Howard adds two names to designate cloud systems consisting of more than one form joined together or located in very close proximity. Cumulostratus describes large cumulus clouds blended with stratiform layers in the lower or upper levels. The term nimbus, taken from the Latin word for rain cloud, is given to complex systems of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation, and it comes to be identified as a distinct nimbiform physical category. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..406e26147 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1804 – Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation. 1806 – Francis Beaufort introduces his system for classifying wind speeds. 1808 – John Dalton defends caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and describes how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposes that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight. 1810 – Sir John Leslie freezes water to ice artificially. 1817 – Alexander von Humboldt publishes a global map of average temperature, the first global climate analysis. 1819 – Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit give the Dulong-Petit law for the specific heat capacity of a crystal. 1820 – Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes publishes the first synoptic weather maps. – John Herapath develops some ideas in the kinetic theory of gases but mistakenly associates temperature with molecular momentum rather than kinetic energy; his work receives little attention other than from Joule. 1822 – Joseph Fourier formally introduces the use of dimensions for physical quantities in his Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur. 1824 – Sadi Carnot analyzes the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he develops the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, lays the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics. 1827 – Robert Brown discovers the Brownian motion of pollen and dye particles in water. 1832 – An electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling. 1834 – Émile Clapeyron popularises Carnot's work through a graphical and analytic formulation. 1835 – Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis publishes theoretical discussions of machines with revolving parts and their efficiency, for example the efficiency of waterwheels. At the end of the 19th century, meteorologists recognized that the way the Earth's rotation is taken into account in meteorology is analogous to what Coriolis discussed: an example of Coriolis Effect. 1836 – An American scientist, Dr. David Alter, invented the first known American electric telegraph in Elderton, Pennsylvania, one year before the much more popular Morse telegraph was invented. 1837 – Samuel Morse independently developed an electrical telegraph, an alternative design that was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. His assistant, Alfred Vail, developed the Morse code signaling alphabet with Morse. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on May 24, 1844, from the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" in Baltimore and sent the message: +What hath God wrought +1839 – The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and entered use on the Great Western Railway. Cooke and Wheatstone patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system. 1840 – Elias Loomis becomes the first person known to attempt to devise a theory on frontal zones. The idea of fronts do not catch on until expanded upon by the Norwegians in the years following World War I. – German meteorologist Ludwig Kaemtz adds stratocumulus to Howard's canon as a mostly detached low-étage genus of limited convection. It is defined as having cumuliform and stratiform characteristics integrated into a single layer (in contrast to cumulostratus which is deemed to be composite in nature and can be structured into more than one layer). This eventually leads to the formal recognition of a stratocumuliform physical category that includes rolled and rippled clouds classified separately from the more freely convective heaped cumuliform clouds. 1843 – John James Waterston fully expounds the kinetic theory of gases, but is ridiculed and ignored. – James Prescott Joule experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat. 1844 – Lucien Vidi invented the aneroid, from Greek meaning without liquid, barometer. 1845 – Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera for continuous recording of the variations in meteorological parameters over time +1845 – Francis Ronalds invented and named the storm clock, used to monitor rapid changes in meteorological parameters during extreme events +1846 – Cup anemometer invented by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson. 1847 – Francis Ronalds and William Radcliffe Birt described a stable kite to make observations at altitude using self-recording instruments +1847 – Hermann von Helmholtz publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics. – The Manchester Examiner newspaper organises the first weather reports collected by electrical means. 1848 – William Thomson extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances. 1849 – Smithsonian Institution begins to establish an observation network across the United States, with 150 observers via telegraph, under the leadership of Joseph Henry. – William John Macquorn Rankine calculates the correct relationship between saturated vapour pressure and temperature using his hypothesis of molecular vortices. 1850 – Rankine uses his vortex theory to establish accurate relationships between the temperature, pressure, and density of gases, and expressions for the latent heat of evaporation of a liquid; he accurately predicts the surprising fact that the apparent specific heat of saturated steam will be negative. – Rudolf Clausius gives the first clear joint statement of the first and second law of thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot's principle. 1852 – Joule and Thomson demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule-Thomson effect. 1853 – The first International Meteorological Conference was held in Brussels at the initiative of Matthew Fontaine Maury, U.S. Navy, recommending standard observing times, methods of observation and logging format for weather reports from ships at sea. 1854 – The French astronomer Leverrier showed that a storm in the Black Sea could be followed across Europe and would have been predictable if the telegraph had been used. A service of storm forecasts was established a year later by the Paris Observatory. – Rankine introduces his thermodynamic function, later identified as entropy. Mid 1850s – Emilien Renou, director of the Parc Saint-Maur and Montsouris observatories, begins work on an elaboration of Howard's classifications that would lead to the introduction during the 1870s of a newly defined middle étage . Clouds in this altitude range are given the prefix alto- derived from the Latin word altum pertaining to height above the low-level clouds. This resultes in the genus name altocumulus for mid-level cumuliform and stratocumuliform types and altostratus for stratiform types in the same altitude range. 1856 – William Ferrel publishes his essay on the winds and the currents of the oceans. 1859 – James Clerk Maxwell discovers the distribution law of molecular velocities. 1860 – Robert FitzRoy uses the new telegraph system to gather daily observations from across England and produces the first synoptic charts. He also coined the term "weather forecast" and his were the first ever daily weather forecasts to be published in this year. – After establishment in 1849, 500 U.S. telegraph stations are now making weather observations and submitting them back to the Smithsonian Institution. The observations are later interrupted by the American Civil War. 1865 – Josef Loschmidt applies Maxwell's theory to estimate the number-density of molecules in gases, given observed gas viscosities. – Manila Observatory founded in the Philippines. 1869 – Joseph Lockyer starts the scientific journal Nature. 1869 – The New York Meteorological Observatory opens, and begins to record wind, precipitation and temperature data. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..863a8623f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1870 – The US Weather Bureau is founded. Data recorded in several Midwestern cities such as Chicago begins. 1870 – Benito Viñes becomes the head of the Meteorological Observatory at Belen in Havana, Cuba. He develops the first observing network in Cuba and creates some of the first hurricane-related forecasts. 1872 – The "Oficina Meteorológica Argentina" (today "Argentinean National Weather Service") is founded. 1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann states the Boltzmann equation for the temporal development of distribution functions in phase space, and publishes his H-theorem. 1873 – International Meteorological Organization formed in Vienna. – United States Army Signal Corp, forerunner of the National Weather Service, issues its first hurricane warning. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0632184db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1875 – The India Meteorological Department is established, after a tropical cyclone struck Calcutta in 1864 and monsoon failures during 1866 and 1871. +1876 – Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes the first of two papers (the second appears in 1878) which discuss phase equilibria, statistical ensembles, the free energy as the driving force behind chemical reactions, and chemical thermodynamics in general. +1880 – Philip Weilbach, secretary and librarian at the Art Academy in Copenhagen proposes and has accepted by the permanent committee of the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), a forerunner of the present-day World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the designation of a new free-convective vertical or multi-étage genus type, cumulonimbus (heaped rain cloud). It would be distinct from cumulus and nimbus and identifiable by its often very complex structure (frequently including a cirriform top and what are now recognized as multiple accessory clouds), and its ability to produce thunder. With this addition, a canon of ten tropospheric cloud genera is established that comes to be officially and universally accepted. Howard's cumulostratus is not included as a distinct type, having effectively been reclassified into its component cumuliform and stratiform genus types already included in the new canon. +1881 – Finnish Meteorological Central Office was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of Helsinki University. +1890 – US Weather Bureau is created as a civilian operation under the U.S. Department of Agriculture. +– Otto Jesse reveals the discovery and identification of the first clouds known to form above the troposphere. He proposes the name noctilucent which is Latin for night shining. Because of the extremely high altitudes of these clouds in what is now known to be the mesosphere, they can become illuminated by the sun's rays when the sky is nearly dark after sunset and before sunrise. +1892 – William Henry Dines invented another kind of anemometer, called the pressure-tube (Dines) anemometer. His device measured the difference in pressure arising from wind blowing in a tube versus that blowing across the tube. +– The first mention of the term "El Niño" to refer to climate occurs when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in Lima that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas. +1893 – Henrik Mohn reveals a discovery of nacreous clouds in what is now considered the stratosphere. +1896 – IMO publishes the first International cloud atlas. +– Svante Arrhenius proposes carbon dioxide as a key factor to explain the ice ages. +– H.H. Clayton proposes formalizing the division of clouds by their physical structures into cirriform, stratiform, "flocciform" (stratocumuliform) and cumuliform. With the later addition of cumulonimbiform, the idea eventually finds favor as an aid in the analysis of satellite cloud images. +1898 – US Weather Bureau established a hurricane warning network at Kingston, Jamaica. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8ad188dd5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== 20th century == +1902 – Richard Assmann and Léon Teisserenc de Bort, two European scientists, independently discovered the stratosphere. +- The Marconi Company issues the first routine weather forecast by means of radio to ships on sea. Weather reports from ships started 1905. +1903 – Max Margules publishes „Über die Energie der Stürme", an essay on the atmosphere as a three-dimensional thermodynamical machine. +1904 – Vilhelm Bjerknes presents the vision that forecasting the weather is feasible based on mathematical methods. +1905 – Australian Bureau of Meteorology established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services. +1919 – Norwegian cyclone model introduced for the first time in meteorological literature. Marks a revolution in the way the atmosphere is conceived and immediately starts leading to improved forecasts. +- Sakuhei Fujiwhara is the first to note that hurricanes move with the larger scale flow, and later publishes a paper on the Fujiwhara effect in 1921. +1920 – Milutin Milanković proposes that long term climatic cycles may be due to changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and changes in the Earth's obliquity. +1922 – Lewis Fry Richardson organises the first numerical weather prediction experiment. +1923 – The oscillation effects of ENSO were first erroneously described by Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker from whom the Walker circulation takes its name; now an important aspect of the Pacific ENSO phenomenon. +1924 – Gilbert Walker first coined the term "Southern Oscillation". +1930, January 30 – Pavel Molchanov invents and launches the first radiosonde. Named "271120", it was released 13:44 Moscow Time in Pavlovsk, USSR from the Main Geophysical Observatory, reached a height of 7.8 kilometers measuring temperature there (−40.7 °C) and sent the first aerological message to the Leningrad Weather Bureau and Moscow Central Forecast Institute. +1932 – A further modification of Luke Howard's cloud classification system comes when an IMC commission for the study of clouds puts forward a refined and more restricted definition of the genus nimbus which is effectively reclassified as a stratiform cloud type. It is renamed nimbostratus (flattened or spread out rain cloud) and published with the new name in the 1932 edition of the International Atlas of Clouds and of States of the Sky. This leaves cumulonimbus as the only nimbiform type as indicated by its root-name. +1933 – Victor Schauberger publishes his theories on the carbon cycle and its relationship to the weather in Our Senseless Toil +1935 – IMO decides on the 30 years normal period (1900–1930) to describe the climate. +1937 – The U.S. Army Air Forces Weather Service was established (redesignated in 1946 as AWS-Air Weather Service). +1938 – Guy Stewart Callendar first to propose global warming from carbon dioxide emissions. +1939 – Rossby waves were first identified in the atmosphere by Carl-Gustaf Arvid Rossby who explained their motion. Rossby waves are a subset of inertial waves. +1941 – Pulsed radar network is implemented in England during World War II. Generally during the war, operators started noticing echoes from weather elements such as rain and snow. +1943 – 10 years after flying into the Washington Hoover Airport on mainly instruments during the August 1933 Chesapeake-Potomac hurricane, J. B. Duckworth flies his airplane into a Gulf hurricane off the coast of Texas, proving to the military and meteorological community the utility of weather reconnaissance. +1944 – The Great Atlantic Hurricane is caught on radar near the Mid-Atlantic coast, the first such picture noted from the United States. +1947 – The Soviet Union launched its first Long Range Ballistic Rocket October 18, based on the German rocket A4 (V-2). The photographs demonstrated the immense potential of observing weather from space. +1948 – First correct tornado prediction by Robert C. Miller and E. J. Fawbush for tornado in Oklahoma. +– Erik Palmén publishes his findings that hurricanes require surface water temperatures of at least 26°C (80°F) in order to form. +1950 – First successful numerical weather prediction experiment. Princeton University, group of Jule Gregory Charney on ENIAC. +– Hurricanes begin to be named alphabetically with the radio alphabet. +– WMO World Meteorological Organization replaces IMO under the auspice of the United Nations. +1953 – National Hurricane Center (NOAA) creates a system for naming hurricanes using alphabetical lists of women's names. +1954 – First routine real-time numerical weather forecasting. The Royal Swedish Air Force Weather Service. +– A United States Navy rocket captures a picture of an inland tropical depression near the Texas/Mexico border, which leads to a surprise flood event in New Mexico. This convinces the government to set up a weather satellite program. +1955 – Norman Phillips at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, runs first Atmospheric General Circulation Model. +– NSSP National Severe Storms Project and NHRP National Hurricane Research Projects established. The Miami office of the United States Weather Bureau is designated the main hurricane warning center for the Atlantic Basin. +1957–1958 – International Geophysical Year coordinated research efforts in eleven sciences, focused on polar areas during the solar maximum. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5d75473dd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of meteorology" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:34.508535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1959 – The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, was launched on February 17. It was designed to measure cloud cover, but a poor axis of rotation kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data. +1960 – The first successful weather satellite, TIROS-1 (Television Infrared Observation Satellite), is launched on April 1 from Cape Canaveral, Florida by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with the participation of The US Army Signal Research and Development Lab, RCA, the US Weather Bureau, and the US Naval Photographic Center. During its 78-day mission, it relays thousands of pictures showing the structure of large-scale cloud regimes, and proves that satellites can provide useful surveillance of global weather conditions from space. TIROS paves the way for the Nimbus program, whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then. +1961 – Edward Lorenz accidentally discovers Chaos theory when working on numerical weather prediction. +1962 – Keith Browning and Frank Ludlam publish first detailed study of a supercell storm (over Wokingham, UK). Project STORMFURY begins its 10-year project of seeding hurricanes with silver iodide, attempting to weaken the cyclones. +1968 – A hurricane database for Atlantic hurricanes is created for NASA by Charlie Newmann and John Hope, named HURDAT. +1969 – Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale created, used to describe hurricane strength on a category range of 1 to 5. Popularized during Hurricane Gloria of 1985 by media. +– Jacob Bjerknes described ENSO by suggesting that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the Walker circulation and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west. +1970s Weather radars are becoming more standardized and organized into networks. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, which allowed studies of thunderstorms. Experiments with the Doppler effect begin. +1970 – NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration established. Weather Bureau is renamed the National Weather Service. +1971 – Ted Fujita introduces the Fujita scale for rating tornadoes. +1974 – AMeDAS network, developed by Japan Meteorological Agency used for gathering regional weather data and verifying forecast performance, begun operation on November 1, the system consists of about 1,300 stations with automatic observation equipment. These stations, of which more than 1,100 are unmanned, are located at an average interval of 17 km throughout Japan. +1975 – The first Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, GOES, was launched into orbit. Their role and design is to aid in hurricane tracking. Also this year, Vern Dvorak develops a scheme to estimate tropical cyclone intensity from satellite imagery. +– The first use of a General Circulation Model to study the effects of carbon dioxide doubling. Syukuro Manabe and Richard Wetherald at Princeton University. +1976 – The United Kingdom Department of Industry publishes a modification of the international cloud classification system adapted for satellite cloud observations. It is co-sponsored by NASA and showes a division of clouds into stratiform, cirriform, stratocumuliform, cumuliform, and cumulonimbiform. The last of these constitutes a change in name of the earlier nimbiform type, although this earlier name and original meaning pertaining to all rain clouds can still be found in some classifications. + +Major types shown here include the ten tropospheric genera that are detectable (but not always identifiable) by satellite, and several additional major types above the troposphere that were not included with the original modification. The cumulus genus includes four species that indicate vertical size and structure. + +1980s onwards, networks of weather radars are further expanded in the developed world. Doppler weather radar is becoming gradually more common, adds velocity information. +1982 – The first Synoptic Flow experiment is flown around Hurricane Debby to help define the large scale atmospheric winds that steer the storm. +1988 – WSR-88D type weather radar implemented in the United States. Weather surveillance radar that uses several modes to detect severe weather conditions. +1992 – Computers first used in the United States to draw surface analyses. +1997 – The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was discovered by a team studying salmon production patterns at the University of Washington. +1998 – Improving technology and software finally allows for the digital underlying of satellite imagery, radar imagery, model data, and surface observations improving the quality of United States Surface Analyses. +– CAMEX3, a NASA experiment run in conjunction with NOAA's Hurricane Field Program collects detailed data sets on Hurricanes Bonnie, Danielle, and Georges. +1999 – Hurricane Floyd induces fright factor in some coastal States and causes a massive evacuation from coastal zones from northern Florida to the Carolinas. It comes ashore in North Carolina and results in nearly 80 dead and $4.5 billion in damages mostly due to extensive flooding. + +== 21st century == + +2001 – National Weather Service begins to produce a Unified Surface Analysis, ending duplication of effort at the Tropical Prediction Center, Ocean Prediction Center, Hydrometeorological Prediction Center, as well as the National Weather Service offices in Anchorage, AK and Honolulu, HI. +2003 – NOAA hurricane experts issue first experimental Eastern Pacific Hurricane Outlook. +2004 – A record number of hurricanes strike Florida in one year, Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne. +2005 – A record 27 named storms occur in the Atlantic. National Hurricane Center runs out of names from its standard list and uses Greek alphabet for the first time. +2006 – Weather radar improved by adding common precipitation to it such as freezing rain, rain and snow mixed, and snow for the first time. +2007 – The Fujita scale is replaced with the Enhanced Fujita scale for National Weather Service tornado assessments. +2010s – Weather radar dramatically advances with more detailed options. +2018 — Multiple European government meteorological agencies along with the European Severe Storms Laboratory draft the International Fujita scale. +2023 — Elizabeth Leitman becomes the first woman to issue a convective watch from the Storm Prediction Center. + +== See also == +Meteorology +Glossary of meteorology +Outline of meteorology +Atlantic hurricane season +North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone +Pacific hurricane +Pacific typhoon climatology +Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology + +== References and notes == + +== External links == +Shaw, Napier. Manual of meteorology, vol. 1: "Meteorology in history" (1926) +An Outline of the History of meteorology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums-0.md index e5875dd02..ced14a0ac 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:51.803476+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:35.700518+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fe9c6d8a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of rocket and missile technology" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:38.147133+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article gives a concise timeline of rocket and missile technology. + +== 11th century – 13th century == + +11th century AD - The first documented record of what appears to be gunpowder and the fire arrow, an early form of rocketry, appears in the Chinese text Wujing Zongyao. +In Europe, around 1250 both Roger Bacon and the Liber Ignium gave instructions for constructing devices that appear to be rockets. + +== 17th century – 19th century == +1633 - Lagâri Hasan Çelebi launched a seven-winged rocket using 50 okka (140 lbs) of gunpowder from Sarayburnu, the point below Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. +1650 - Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima ("Great Art of Artillery, the First Part") is printed in Amsterdam, about a year before the death of its author, Kazimierz Siemienowicz. +1664 - A "space rocket" is imagined as a future technology to be studied in France and its drawing is ordered by French finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert; designed by Charles Le Brun on a Gobelins tapestry (see: French space program) +1696 - Robert Anderson suggests making rockets out of "a piece of a Gun Barrel" whose metal casing is much stronger than pasteboard or wood +1798 - Tipu Sultan, the King of the state of Mysore in India, develops and uses iron rockets against the British Army (see Mysorean rockets). +1801 - The British Army develops the Congreve rocket based on weapons used against them by Tipu Sultan. +1806 - Claude Ruggieri, an Italian living in France, launched animals on rockets and recovered them using parachutes. He was prevented from launching a child by police. +1813 - "A Treatise on the Motion of Rockets" by William Moore – first appearance of the rocket equation +1818 - Henry Trengrouse demonstrates his rocket apparatus for projecting a lifeline from a wrecked ship to the shore, later widely adopted +1844 - William Hale invents the spin-stabilized rocket +1861 - William Leitch publishes an essay "A Journey Through Space" (later published in his book God's Glory in the Heavens (1862)) in which he postulated the use of rockets for space travel because rockets would work more efficiently in a vacuum. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..242557c81 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of rocket and missile technology" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:38.147133+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== 20th century == +1902 - French cinema pioneer Georges Méliès directs A Trip to the Moon, the first film about space travel. +1903 - Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space, space suits, and colonization of the Solar System. Two key points discussed in his works are liquid fuels and staging. +1913 - Without knowing the work of Russian mathematician Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, French engineer Robert Esnault-Pelterie derived the equations for space flight, produced a paper that presented the rocket equation and calculated the energies required to reach the Moon and nearby planets. +1916 - first use of rockets (with the solid fuel Le Prieur rocket) for both air-to-air attacks, and air-to-ground. +1921 - Gas Dynamics Laboratory the first rocket research and development organization in the USSR established by N. I. Tikhomirov. +1922 - Hermann Oberth publishes his scientific work about rocketry and space exploration: Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("By Rocket into Planetary Space"). +1924 - Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel founded in Moscow by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Friedrich Zander and 200 other space and rocket experts +1926 - Robert Goddard launches the first liquid fuel rocket. This is considered by some to be the start of the Space Age. +1927 - Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR - "Spaceflight Society") founded in Germany. +1928 - In Germany public displays of rocket experiments, initiated by Max Valier and Fritz von Opel, via Opel RAK which achieved speed records for ground and rail vehicles in 1928 +1928 - first Soviet test-firing of a solid fuel rocket carried out by the Gas Dynamics Laboratory, which flew for about 1,300 meters +1929 - Woman in the Moon, considered to be one of the first "serious" science fiction films. +1931 - Friedrich Schmiedl attempts the first rocket mail service in Austria +1933 - Sergei Korolev and Mikhail Tikhonravov launch the first liquid-fueled rocket in the Soviet Union +1935 - Emilio Herrera Linares from Spain designed and made the first full-pressured astronaut suit, called the escafandra estratonáutica. The Russians then used a model of Herrera's suit when first flying into space which the Americans would then later adopt when creating their own space program +1936 - Research on rockets begins at the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology (GALCIT), the predecessor to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, under the direction of Frank Malina and Theodore von Kármán +1937 - Peenemünde Army Research Center founded in Germany +1938 - The Projectile Development Establishment founded at Fort Halstead for the United Kingdom's research into military solid-fuel rockets. +1939 - Katyusha multiple rocket launchers (Russian: Катюша) are a type of rocket artillery first built and fielded by the Soviet Union. +1941 - French rocket EA-41 is launched, being the first European liquid propellant working rocket (It was, however, preceded by the Peenemunde A5 and Soviet experiments.) +1941 - Jet Assisted Take Off JATO installed on US Army Air Corp Ercoupe aircraft occurred on 12 August in March Field, California. +1942 - Wernher von Braun and Walter Dornberger launch the first V-2 rocket at Peenemünde in northern Germany. +1942 - A V-2 rocket reaches an altitude of 85 km. +1944 - The V-2 rocket MW 18014 reaches an altitude of 176 km, becoming the first human-made object to reach space. +1945 - Lothar Sieber dies after the first vertical take-off crewed rocket flight in a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" +1945 - Operation Paperclip takes 1,600 German rocket scientists and technicians to the United States +1945 - Operation Osoaviakhim takes 2,000 German rocket scientists and technicians to the Soviet Union +1946 - First flight of the Nike missile, later the first operational surface-to-air guided missile +1947 - The first animals sent into space were fruit flies aboard a V-2 rocket launched from New Mexico, USA +1947 - Chuck Yeager achieves the first crewed supersonic flight in a Bell X-1 rocket-powered aircraft +1949 - Willy Ley publishes The Conquest of Space +1952 - 22 May, French Véronique 1 rocket is launched from the Algerian desert. +1952 - Wernher von Braun discusses the technical details of a crewed exploration of Mars in Das Marsprojekt. +1953 - Colliers magazine publishes a series of articles on humanity's future in space, igniting the interest of people around the world. The series includes numerous articles by Ley and von Braun, illustrated by Chesley Bonestell. +1956 - First launch of PGM-17 Thor, the first US ballistic missile and forerunner of the Delta space launch rockets +1957 - Launch of the first ICBM, the USSR's R-7 (8K71), known to NATO as the SS-6 Sapwood. +1957 - The USSR launches Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. +1958 - The U.S. launches Explorer 1, the first American artificial satellite, on a Jupiter-C rocket. +1958 - US launches their first ICBM, the Atlas-B (the Atlas-A was a test article only). +1961 - US launched the Mercury-Redstone 2 mission, which made the chimpanzee Ham to become the first Hominidae in space. +1961 - the USSR launches Vostok 1, Yuri Gagarin reached a height of 327 km above Earth and was the first person to orbit Earth. +1961 - US, a Mercury capsule named Freedom 7 with Alan B. Shepard, spacecraft was launched by a Redstone rocket on a ballistic trajectory suborbital flight. +1962 - The US launches Mercury MA-6 (Friendship 7) on an Atlas D booster, John Glenn puts America in orbit. +1962 - Pakistan launched Rehbar-I and was the first country in Islamic world to successfully launch a vessel in outer space. +1963 - The USSR launches Vostok 6, Valentina Tereshkova was the first woman (and first civilian) in space and to orbit Earth. She remained in space for nearly three days and orbited the Earth 48 times. +1963 - US X-15 rocket-plane, the first reusable crewed spacecraft (suborbital) reaches space, pioneering reusability, carried launch and glide landings. +1965 - USSR Proton rocket, highly successful launch vehicle with notable payloads, Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, Mir, and ISS components +1965 - Robert Salked investigates various single stage to orbit spaceplane concepts +1965 - FR Diamant, first French and European rocket to reach orbit, France became the third space nation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..92bd70168 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of rocket and missile technology" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:38.147133+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1966 - USSR Luna 9, the first soft landing on the Moon +1966 - USSR launches Soyuz spacecraft, the longest-running series of spacecraft, eventually serving Soviet, Russian and International space missions. +1968 - USSR Zond 5, two tortoises and smaller biological Earthlings circle the Moon and return safely to Earth. +1968 - US Apollo 8, the first crewed mission to reach and orbit the Moon. +1969 - US Apollo 11, first crewed landing on the Moon, first lunar surface extravehicular activity. +1975 - EU ESA, creation of the European Space Agency. +1979 - EU Ariane 1, first Ariane European rocket. +1980 - EU Arianespace, creation of Arianespace, world's first commercial space transportation company. +1981 - US Space Shuttle pioneers reusability and glide landings +1988 - EU Ariane 4, first launch of the Ariane 4 rocket. +1988 - USSR Energia delivers a Buran spaceplane to orbit. +1996 - EU Ariane 5, first flight of the Ariane 5 rocket, self-destructed in flight. After that, Ariane 5 will be the main European rocket for decades. +1998 - US Deep Space 1 is first deep space mission to use an ion thruster for propulsion. +1998 - Russia launches the Zarya module, the first part of the International Space Station. + +== 21st century == + +2001 - Russian Soyuz spacecraft sent the first space tourist Dennis Tito to International Space Station. +2004 - US-based, first privately developed, crewed (suborbital) spaceflight, SpaceShipOne demonstrates reusability. +2008 - SpaceX—with their Falcon 1 rocket—became the first private entity to successfully launch a rocket into orbit. +2012 - The SpaceX Dragon 1—launched aboard a Falcon 9 launch vehicle—was the first private spacecraft to successfully dock with another spacecraft, and was also the first private capsule to dock at the International Space Station. +2014 - First booster rocket returning from an orbital trajectory to achieve a zero-velocity-at-zero-altitude propulsive vertical landing. The first-stage booster of Falcon 9 Flight 9 made the first successful controlled ocean soft touchdown of a liquid-rocket-engine orbital booster on April 18, 2014. +2015 - SpaceX's Falcon 9 Flight 20 was the first time that the first stage of an orbital rocket made a successful return and vertical landing. +2017 - SpaceX's Falcon 9 SES-10 was the first time a used orbital rocket made a successful return +2018 - The Electron rocket was the first New Zealand rocket to achieve orbit. The rocket is also unique in using an electric-pump-fed engine. The rocket also carried an additional satellite payload called "Humanity Star", a 1-meter-wide (3.3-foot) carbon fiber sphere made up of 65 panels that reflect the Sun's light. +2023 - India launches Chandrayaan-3, the first spacecraft to land on the Moon's south pole. +2024 - SpaceX's Starship Flight Test 5 was the first time that the first stage of a rocket was successfully caught. + +== See also == +History of rockets +List of missiles +Lists of rockets +Timeline of heat engine technology + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8605ef5a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:33.325784+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world covers the time period from the eighth century AD to the introduction of European science to the Muslim world in the nineteenth century. All year dates are given according to the Gregorian calendar except where noted. + +== Eighth century == +Astronomers and astrologers +d 777 CE Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulayman ibn Samura ibn Jundab al-Fazari (Arabic: إبراهيم بن حبيب بن سليمان بن سمرة بن جندب الفزاري‎) (died 777 CE) was an 8th-century Muslim mathematician and astronomer at the Abbasid court of the Caliph Al-Mansur (r. 754–775). He should not be confused with his son Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī, also an astronomer. He composed various astronomical writings ("on the astrolabe", "on the armillary spheres", "on the calendar"). +d 796 Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulayman ibn Samra ibn Jundab al-Fazari (Arabic: إبراهيم بن حبيب بن سليمان بن سمرة بن جندب الفزاري‎) (died 796 or 806) was a Muslim philosopher, mathematician and astronomer. He is not to be confused with his father Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī, also an astronomer and mathematician. Some sources refer to him as an Arab, other sources state that he was a Persian. Al-Fazārī translated many scientific books into Arabic and Persian. He is credited to have built the first astrolabe in the Islamic world. Along with Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq and his father he helped translate the Indian astronomical text by Brahmagupta (fl. 7th century), the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta, into Arabic as Az-Zīj ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab., or the Sindhind. This translation was possibly the vehicle by means of which the Hindu numerals were transmitted from India to Islam. +Biologists, neuroscientists, and psychologists +(654–728) Ibn Sirin Muhammad Ibn Sirin (Arabic: محمد بن سيرين‎) (born in Basra) was a Muslim mystic and interpreter of dreams who lived in the 8th century. He was a contemporary of Anas ibn Malik. Once regarded as the same person as Achmet son of Seirim, this is no longer believed to be true, as shown by Maria Mavroudi. + +Mathematics +780 – 850: al-Khwarizmi Developed the "calculus of resolution and juxtaposition" (hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala), more briefly referred to as al-jabr, or algebra. + +== Ninth century == + +Chemistry +801 – 873: al-Kindi writes on the distillation of wine as that of rose water and gives 107 recipes for perfumes, in his book Kitab Kimia al-'otoor wa al-tas`eedat (Book of the Chemistry of Perfumes and Distillations.) +865 – 925: al-Razi wrote on Naft (naphta or petroleum) and its distillates in his book "Kitab sirr al-asrar" (book of the secret of secrets.) When choosing a site to build Baghdad's hospital, he hung pieces of fresh meat in different parts of the city. The location where the meat took the longest to rot was the one he chose for building the hospital. Advocated that patients not be told their real condition so that fear or despair do not affect the healing process. Wrote on alkali, caustic soda, soap and glycerine. Gave descriptions of equipment processes and methods in his book Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets). +Mathematics +826 – 901: Thabit ibn Qurra (Latinized, Thebit.) Studied at Baghdad's House of Wisdom under the Banu Musa brothers. Discovered a theorem that enables pairs of amicable numbers to be found. Later, al-Baghdadi (b. 980) developed a variant of the theorem. +Miscellaneous +c. 810: Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) set up in Baghdad. There Greek and Indian mathematical and astronomy works are translated into Arabic. +810 – 887: Abbas ibn Firnas. Planetarium, artificial crystals. According to one account that was written seven centuries after his death, Ibn Firnas was injured during an elevated winged trial flight. + +== Tenth century == +By this century, three systems of counting are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the sexagesimal system, a remnant originating with the Babylonians, with numerals denoted by letters of the arabic alphabet and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the Indian numeral system, which was used with various sets of symbols. Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because "the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded." + +Chemistry +957: Abul Hasan Ali Al-Masudi, wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj (vitriol) water giving sulfuric acid. +Mathematics +920: al-Uqlidisi. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Hitherto, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier. +940: Born Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani. Wrote several treatises using the finger-counting system of arithmetic and was also an expert on the Indian numerals system. About the Indian system, he wrote: "[It] did not find application in business circles and among the population of the Eastern Caliphate for a long time." Using the Indian numeral system, abu'l Wafa was able to extract roots. +980: al-Baghdadi Studied a slight variant of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem on amicable numbers. Al-Baghdadi also wrote about and compared the three systems of counting and arithmetic used in the region during this period. + +== Eleventh century == +Mathematics +1048 – 1131: Omar Khayyam. Persian mathematician and poet. "Gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections." Extracted roots using the decimal system (the Indian numeral system). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2cccd57ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:33.325784+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Twelfth century == +Cartography +1100–1165: Muhammad al-Idrisi, aka Idris al-Saqalli aka al-sharif al-idrissi of Andalusia and Sicily. Known for having drawn some of the most advanced ancient world maps. +Mathematics +1130–1180: Al-Samawal. An important member of al-Karaji's school of algebra. Gave this definition of algebra: "[it is concerned] with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known." +1135: Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi. Follows al-Khayyam's application of algebra of geometry, rather than follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra. Wrote a treatise on cubic equations which describes thus: "[the treatise] represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry." (quoted in ). + +== Thirteenth century == +Chemistry +Al-Jawbari describes the preparation of rose water in the work "Book of Selected Disclosure of Secrets" (Kitab kashf al-Asrar). +Materials; glassmaking: Arabic manuscript on the manufacture of false gemstones and diamonds. Also describes spirits of alum, spirits of saltpetre and spirits of salts (hydrochloric acid). +An Arabic manuscript written in Syriac script gives description of various chemical materials and their properties such as sulfuric acid, sal-ammoniac, saltpetre and zaj (vitriol). +Mathematics +1260: al-Farisi. Gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorization and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of amicable numbers 17296, 18416 which have also been joint attributed to Fermat as well as Thabit ibn Qurra. +Astronomy + +Jaghmini completed the al-Mulakhkhas fi al-Hay’ah ("Epitome of plain theoretical astronomy"), an astronomical textbook which spawned many commentaries and whose educational use lasted until the 18th century. +Miscellaneous +Mechanical engineering: Ismail al-Jazari described 100 mechanical devices, some 80 of which are trick vessels of various kinds, along with instructions on how to construct them. +Medicine; Scientific method: Ibn Al-Nafis (1213–1288) Damascene physician and anatomist. Discovered the lesser circulatory system (the cycle involving the ventricles of the heart and the lungs) and described the mechanism of breathing and its relation to the blood and how it nourishes on air in the lungs. Followed a "constructivist" path of the smaller circulatory system: "blood is purified in the lungs for the continuance of life and providing the body with the ability to work". During his time, the common view was that blood originates in the liver then travels to the right ventricle, then on to the organs of the body; another contemporary view was that blood is filtered through the diaphragm where it mixes with the air coming from the lungs. Ibn al-Nafis discredited all these views including ones by Galen and Avicenna (ibn Sina). At least an illustration of his manuscript is still extant. William Harvey explained the circulatory system without reference to ibn al-Nafis in 1628. Ibn al-Nafis extolled the study of comparative anatomy in his "Explaining the dissection of [Avicenna's] Al-Qanoon" which includes a preface, and citations of sources. Emphasized the rigours of verification by measurement, observation and experiment. Subjected conventional wisdom of his time to a critical review and verified it with experiment and observation, discarding errors. + +== Fourteenth century == +Astronomy +1393–1449: Ulugh Beg commissions an observatory at Samarqand in present-day Uzbekistan. +Mathematics +1380–1429: al-Kashi. According to, "contributed to the development of decimal fractions not only for approximating algebraic numbers, but also for real numbers such as pi. His contribution to decimal fractions is so major that for many years he was considered as their inventor. Although not the first to do so, al-Kashi gave an algorithm for calculating nth roots which is a special case of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner." + +== Fifteenth century == +Mathematics +Ibn al-Banna and al-Qalasadi used symbols for mathematics "and, although we do not know exactly when their use began, we know that symbols were used at least a century before this." + +== Seventeenth century == +Mathematics +The Persian mathematician Muhammad Baqir Yazdi discovered the pair of amicable numbers 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 for which he is jointly credited with Descartes. +A seventeenth-century celestial globe was made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1663 (now in Pakistan). It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland. It is encircled by a meridian ring and a horizon ring. The latitude angle of 32° indicates that the globe was made in the Lahore workshop. This specific 'workshop claims 21 signed globes—the largest number from a single shop’ making this globe a good example of Celestial Globe production at its peak. + +== Modern science == +Muslim scientists made significant contributions to modern science. These include the development of the electroweak unification theory by Abdus Salam, development of femtochemistry by Ahmed Zewail, invention of the graphite anode for lithium-ion battery by Rachid Yazami, invention of quantum dots by Moungi Bawendi, and development of fuzzy set theory by Lotfi A. Zadeh. Other major contributions include introduction of Kardar–Parisi–Zhang equation by Mehran Kardar, the development of Circuit topology by Alireza Mashaghi, and the first description of Behçet's disease by Hulusi Behçet. +Contributions of Muslim scientists have been recognized by 4 Nobel Prizes. Abdus Salam was the first Muslim to win a Nobel Prize in science. Rachid Yazami was the first Arab engineer to win the Draper Prize, considered the Nobel in engineering. + +== See also == +Arab Agricultural Revolution +Islamic Golden Age +Science in the medieval Islamic world +Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences +List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Sources === + +== External links == +Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously undigitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science +"How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs" by De Lacy O'Leary +St-Andrew's chronology of mathematics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e459afbd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of scientific computing" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:27.280600+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a timeline of scientific computing, also known as computational science. + +== Before modern computers == + +=== 18th century === +Simpson rediscovers Simpson's rule, a century after Johannes Kepler (who derived it in 1615 after seeing it used for wine barrels). +1733 – The French naturalist Comte de Buffon poses his needle problem. +Euler comes up with a simple numerical method for integrands. +c. 500 BCE - Urdhva Tiryakbhyam algorithm, a Vedic method for fast integer multiplication; foundational for Indian mathematics. +300 BCE - Babylonian root extraction method, Earliest documented numerical algorithm for square roots. +c. 250 BCE - Chinese Remainder Theorem Systematic solution to simultaneous congruences; used in cryptography. + +=== 19th century === +First formulation of Gram-Schmidt orthogonalisation by Laplace, to be further improved decades later. +Babbage in 1822, began work on a machine made to compute/calculate values of polynomial functions automatically by using the method of finite differences. This was eventually called the Difference engine. +Lovelace's note G on the Analytical Engine (1842) describes an algorithm for generating Bernoulli numbers. It is considered the first algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and thus the first-ever computer programme. The engine was never completed, however, so her code was never tested. +Adams-Bashforth method published. +In applied mathematics, Jacobi develops technique for solving numerical equations. +Gauss Seidel first published. +To help with computing tides, Harmonic Analyser is built in 1886. +850 CE: Al-Kindi's frequency analysis – First systematic cryptanalysis technique for breaking substitution ciphers. +1206: Al-Jazari's programmable orchestra – Mechanical automata using pegged cylinders for sequence control (early program storage). +1676: Leibniz's chain rule – Foundation for calculus-based optimization later used in backpropagation. +1738/1763: Bernoulli's utility theory & Bayes' theorem – Probabilistic frameworks for decision-making algorithms. + +=== 1900s (decade) === +1900 – Runge's work followed by Martin Kutta to invent the Runge-Kutta method for approximating integration for differential equations. + +=== 1910s (decade) === +1910 – A-M Cholesky creates a matrix decomposition scheme. +Richardson extrapolation introduced. + +=== 1920s === +1922 – Lewis Fry Richardson introduces numerical weather forecasting by manual calculation, using methods originally developed by Vilhelm Bjerknes as early as 1895. +1926 – Grete Hermann publishes foundational paper for computer algebra, which established the existence of algorithms (including complexity bounds) for many of the basic problems of abstract algebra, such as ideal membership for polynomial rings. +1926 Adams-Moulton method. +1927 – Douglas Hartree creates what is later known as the Hartree–Fock method, the first ab initio quantum chemistry methods. However, manual solutions of the Hartree–Fock equations for a medium-sized atom were laborious and small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950. +1928 – Leslie Comrie proposes using commercial tabulating machines to perform scientific calculations, and himself uses them to expand Ernest William Brown's lunar calculations. + +== 1930s == +This decade marks the first major strides to a modern computer, and hence the start of the modern era. + +Fermi's Rome physics research group (informal name I ragazzi di Via Panisperna) develop statistical algorithms based on Comte de Buffon's work, that would later become the foundation of the Monte Carlo method. See also FERMIAC. +Shannon explains how to use electric circuits to do Boolean algebra in "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits" +John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry create the first electronic non-programmable, digital computing device, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, from 1937-42. +Complex number calculator created by Stibitz. +At Columbia University's Rutherford Laboratory Wallace J. Eckert uses commercial tabulating machinery from IBM, some of it specially modified, for scientific computation. + +== 1940s == +1947 – Metropolis algorithm for Monte Carlo simulation (named one of the top-10 algorithms of the 20th century) invented at Los Alamos by von Neumann, Ulam and Metropolis. +George Dantzig introduces the simplex method (named one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) in 1947. +Ulam and von Neumann introduce the notion of cellular automata. +Turing formulated the LU decomposition method. +A. W. H. Phillips invents the MONIAC hydraulic computer at LSE, better known as "Phillips Hydraulic Computer". +First hydro simulations occurred at Los Alamos. + +== 1950s == +First successful weather predictions on a computer occurred. +Hestenes, Stiefel, and Lanczos, all from the Institute for Numerical Analysis at the National Bureau of Standards, initiate the development of Krylov subspace iteration methods. Named one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century. +Equations of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines introduces the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm. +Molecular dynamics invented by Bernie Alder and Wainwright +A S Householder invents his eponymous matrices and transformation method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century). +1953 – Enrico Fermi, John Pasta, Stanislaw Ulam, and Mary Tsingou discover the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem through computer simulations of a vibrating string. +A team led by John Backus develops the FORTRAN compiler and programming language at IBM's research centre in San Jose, California. This sped the adoption of scientific programming, and is one of the oldest extant programming languages, as well as one of the most popular in science and engineering. + +== 1960s == +1960 – First recorded use of the term "finite element method" by Ray Clough to describe the earlier methods of Richard Courant, Alexander Hrennikoff and Olgierd Zienkiewicz in structural analysis. +1961 – John G.F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya invent QR factorization (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century). +1963 – Edward Lorenz discovers the butterfly effect on a computer, attracting interest in chaos theory. +1961 – Using computational investigations of the 3-body problem, Michael Minovitch formulates the gravity assist method. +1964 – Molecular dynamics invented independently by Aneesur Rahman. +1965 – fast Fourier transform developed by James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey. +1964 – Walter Kohn, with Lu Jeu Sham and Pierre Hohenberg, instigates the development of density functional theory, for which he shares the 1998 Nobel Chemistry Prize with John Pople. This contribution is arguably the earliest work to which Nobels were given for a computer program or computational technique. +First regression calculations in economics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc1189202 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of scientific computing" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:27.280600+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== 1970s == +1975 – Benoit Mandelbrot coins the term "fractal" to describe the self-similarity found in the Fatou, Julia and Mandelbrot sets. Fractals become the first mathematical visualization tool extensively explored with computing. +1977 – Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken prove the four colour theorem, the first theorem to be proved by computer. + +== 1980s == +Fast multipole method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) invented by Vladimir Rokhlin and Leslie Greengard. +Car–Parrinello molecular dynamics developed by Roberto Car and Michele Parrinello + +== 1990s == +1990 – In computational genomics and sequence analysis, the Human Genome Project, an endeavour to sequence the entire human genome, begins. +1998 – Kepler conjecture is almost all but certainly proved algorithmically by Thomas Hales. +The appearance of the first research grids using volunteer computing – GIMPS (1996), distributed.net (1997) and Seti@Home (1999). + +== 2000s == +2000 – The Human Genome Project completes a rough draft of human genome. +2003 – The Human Genome Project completed. +2002 – The BOINC architecture is launched. + +== 2010s == +Foldit players solve virus structure, one of the first cases of a game solving a scientific question. + +== See also == +Computational science +History of computing +History of mathematics +Timeline of mathematics +Timeline of algorithms +Timeline of computational physics +Timeline of computational mathematics +Timeline of numerical analysis after 1945 +History of computing hardware + +== References == + +== External links == +SIAM (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics) News. Top 10 Algorithms of the 20th Century. +The History of Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computing @ SIAM (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics) +Ruttimann, Jacqueline (2006). "2020 computing: Milestones in scientific computing". Nature. 440 (7083): 399–405. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..399R. doi:10.1038/440399a. PMID 16554772. S2CID 21967804. +Anderson, H. L. (1986). "Scientific Uses of the MANIAC". Journal of Statistical Physics. 43 (5–6): 731–748. Bibcode:1986JSP....43..731A. doi:10.1007/BF02628301. S2CID 122676398. +IEEE Milestones \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md index 260b30b8a..c45823953 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/7 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:28.514390+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md index 7ef221db7..a7481ac93 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/7 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:28.514390+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md index 5655ebff4..1f60aa315 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/7 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:28.514390+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md index 166127e77..d26b46d0b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/7 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:28.514390+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md index 9848d1a9e..f2c538a67 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/7 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:28.514390+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md index 7cb58ac06..af536a5e0 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/7 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:28.514390+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md index 1cf063b01..adb356039 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/7 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:28.514390+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2ba1320de --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of scientific experiments" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:30.924586+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The timeline below shows the date of publication of major scientific experiments: + +== 5th century BC == +430 BC - Empedocles proves that air is a material substance by submerging a clepsydra into the ocean. + +== 2nd century BC == +240 BC - Archimedes devised a principle which he later used to solve the riddle of the suspect crown. +230 BC – Eratosthenes measures the Earth's circumference and diameter. + +== 10th century == +Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes) introduces controlled experiment into the field of medicine and carried out the first medical experiment in order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital. + +== 11th century == +1020 – Avicenna (Ibn Sina) introduces experimentation and quantification into the study of medicine and physiology, including the introduction of experimental medicine and clinical trials, in The Canon of Medicine. +1021 – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) pioneers the experimental scientific method and experimental physics in his Book of Optics, where he devises the first scientific experiments on optics, including the first use of the camera obscura to prove that light travels in straight lines and the first experimental proof that visual perception is caused by light rays travelling to the eyes, which also marks the beginning of experimental psychology and psychophysics. +1030 – Al-Biruni conducts the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and introduces the experimental method into mechanics. + +== 12th century == +1121 – Al-Khazini makes extensive use of the experimental method to prove his theories on mechanics in The Book of the Balance of Wisdom. +Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) is the first physician to carry out human postmortem dissections and autopsies. He proves that the skin disease scabies is caused by a parasite, a discovery which upsets the Hippocratic and Galenic theory of humorism. + +== 13th century == +1200 – Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi observes and examines a large number of skeletons, and he discovered that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum. +1242 – Ibn al-Nafis carries out autopsies which leads him to the discovery of pulmonary circulation and the circulatory system. +Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī provides the first correct explanation of the rainbow phenomenon and uses the experimental method to prove his theory. +Albertus Magnus documents that nitric acid can dissolve silver and the resulting silver nitrate solution will blacken skin. + +== 16th century == +1572 – Tycho Brahe observes the 1572 supernova, evidence against the Aristotelian notion of an immutable heavenly sphere. + +== 17th century == +1609 – Galileo Galilei observes moons of Jupiter in support of the heliocentric model. +1638 – Galileo Galilei uses rolling balls to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. +1665 – Robert Hooke, using a microscope, observes cells. +1672 – Isaac Newton publishes the results of his Prism experiments, demonstrating the existence in white light of a mixture of distinct coloured rays. +1676 – Ole Rømer measures the speed of light for the first time. +1687 – Isaac Newton publishes the thought experiment Newton's cannonball, hypothesizes that the force of gravity is universal and is the key force for planetary motion. + +== 18th century == +1747 – James Lind: Conducts one of the earliest European clinical trials, showing that scurvy was cured by consuming fresh oranges and lemons, but not other tested acids or drinks. +1774 – Charles Mason: Conducts an experiment near the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion that attempts to measure the mean density of the Earth for the first time. Known as the Schiehallion experiment. +1796 – Edward Jenner: tests the first vaccine. +1798 – Henry Cavendish: Torsion bar experiment to measure Newton's gravitational constant. + +== 19th century == +1801 – Thomas Young: double-slit experiment demonstrates the wave nature of light. +1820 – Hans Christian Ørsted discovers the connection between electricity and magnetism. +1843 – James Prescott Joule measures the equivalence between mechanical work and heat, resulting in the law of conservation of energy. +1845 – Christian Doppler demonstrates the Doppler shift. +1851 – Léon Foucault uses Foucault pendulum to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. +1859 – Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species showing that evolution occurs by natural selection. +1861 – Louis Pasteur disproves the theory of spontaneous generation. +1863 – Gregor Mendel's pea plant experiments (Mendel's laws of inheritance). +1887 – Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect. +1887 – Michelson and Morley: Michelson–Morley experiment, showing that the speed of light is invariant. +1896 – Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity. +1897 – J. J. Thomson discovers the electron. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db04151f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of scientific experiments" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:30.924586+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== 20th century == +1909 – Robert Millikan: oil-drop experiment which suggests that electric charge occurs as quanta (the electron). +1911 – Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment determines that atoms are mostly empty space, and that the core of each atom, which he named the atomic nucleus, is dense and positively charged +1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes: superconductivity. +1914 - James Franck and Gustav Ludwig Hertz conduct the Franck–Hertz experiment demonstrating quantization of atomic ionization energy. +1919 – Arthur Eddington: The Sun as gravitational lens, a proof of the theory of relativity. +1920 – Otto Stern and Walter Gerlach conduct the Stern–Gerlach experiment, which demonstrates particle spin. +1920 – John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduct the Little Albert experiment. +1928 – Griffith's experiment shows that living cells can be transformed via a transforming principle, later discovered to be DNA. +1934 – Enrico Fermi splits the atom. +1935 – Lady tasting tea experiment by Ronald A. Fisher, foundational in statistical hypothesis testing. +1940 – Karl von Frisch decodes the "dance" honeybees use to communicate the location of flowers. +1944 – Barbara McClintock breeds maize plants for color, which leads to the discovery of jumping genes. +1947 – John Bardeen and Walter Brattain fabricate the first working transistor. +1951 – Solomon Asch shows how group pressure can persuade an individual to conform to an obviously wrong opinion. +1952 – Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase: Hershey–Chase experiment proves that DNA is the hereditary material . +1953 – Stanley L. Miller & Harold C. Urey: Miller–Urey experiment demonstrates that organic compounds can arise spontaneously from inorganic ones. +1955 – Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines confirm the existence of the neutrino in the neutrino experiment. +1958 – Meselson–Stahl experiment proves that DNA replication is semiconservative. +1960 – B. F. Skinner's demonstrations of operant conditioning. +1961 – Francis Crick, Sydney Brenner, Leslie Barnett and R.J. Watts-Tobin prove the triplet nature of the genetic code. +1961 – Marshall W. Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei deciphered the first codon of the genetic code. +1964 – Marshall W. Nirenberg and Philip Leder deciphered the rest of the genetic code. +1965 – Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson find cosmic microwave background radiation, evidence of the Big Bang. +1967 – Kerim Kerimov launches the Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188 as experiments on automatic docking eventually leading to the development of space stations. +1970 – Allan and Beatrix Gardner teach American Sign Language to the chimpanzee Washoe. +1974 – Stanley Milgram conducts the Milgram experiment on obedience to authority. +1995 – Eric A. Cornell and Carl E. Wieman synthesize Bose–Einstein condensate. + +== See also == +List of timelines of science and technology +List of experiments +Timeline of the history of the scientific method +Timeline of scientific discoveries +Timeline of historic inventions + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_snowflake_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_snowflake_research-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c5564288 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_snowflake_research-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of snowflake research" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_snowflake_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:41.253572+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The hexagonal snowflake, a crystalline formation of ice, has intrigued people throughout history. This is a chronology of interest and research into snowflakes. Artists, philosophers, and scientists have wondered at their shape, recorded them by hand or in photographs, and attempted to recreate hexagonal snowflakes. +Wilson Alwyn Bentley (February 9, 1865 – December 23, 1931), also known as Snowflake Bentley, was an American meteorologist and photographer, who was the first known person to take detailed photographs of snowflakes and record their features.[1] He perfected a process of catching flakes on black velvet in such a way that their images could be captured before they either melted or sublimated. + + +== Chronological list == + + +=== BC to 1900 === +150 BCE or 135 BCE - Han Ying (韓嬰) compiled the anthology Han shi waizhuan, which includes a passage that contrasts the pentagonal symmetry of flowers with the hexagonal symmetry of snow. This is discussed further in the Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era. +1250 - Albertus Magnus offers what is believed to be the oldest detailed description of snow. +1555 - Olaus Magnus publishes the earliest snowflake diagrams in Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus. +1611 - Johannes Kepler, in Strenaseu De Nive Sexangula, attempts to explain why snow crystals are hexagonal. +1637 - René Descartes' Discourse on the Method includes hexagonal diagrams and a study for the crystallization process and conditions for snowflakes. +1660 - Erasmus Bartholinus, in his De figura nivis dissertatio, includes sketches of snow crystals. +1665 - Robert Hooke observes snow crystals under magnification in Micrographia. +1675 - Friedrich Martens, a German physician, catalogues 24 types of snow crystal. +1681 - Donato Rossetti categorizes snow crystals in La figura della neve. +1778 - Dutch theologian Johannes Florentius Martinet diagrams precise sketches of snow crystals. +1796 - Shiba Kōkan publishes sketches of ice crystals under a microscope. +1820 - William Scoresby's An account of the Arteic Regions includes snow crystals by type. +1832 - Doi Toshitsura describes and diagrams 86 types of snowflake (雪華図説). +1837 - Suzuki Bokushi (鈴木牧之) publishes Hokuetsu Seppu. +1840 - Doi Toshitsura expands his categories to include 97 types. +1855 - James Glaisher publishes detailed sketches of snow crystals under a microscope. +1864 - Frances E. Chickering publishes Cloud Crystals - a Snow-Flake Album. +1870 - Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld identifies "cryoconite holes." +1872 - John Tyndall publishes The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers. +1891 - Friedrich Umlauft publishes Das Luftmeer. +1893 - Richard Neuhauss photographs a snowflake under a microscope, titled Schneekrystalle. +1894 - A. A. Sigson photographs snowflakes under a microscope. + + +=== 1901 to 2000 === +1901 - Wilson Bentley publishes a series of photographs of individual snowflakes in the Monthly Weather Review. +1903 - Svante Arrhenius describes crystallization process in Lehrbuch der Kosmischen Physik. +1904 - Helge von Koch discover the fractal curves to be a mathematical description of snowflakes. +1931 - Wilson Bentley and William Jackson Humphreys publish Snow Crystals +1936 - Ukichiro Nakaya creates snow crystals and charts the relationship between temperature and water vapor saturation, later called the Nakaya Diagram. +1938 - Ukichiro Nakaya publishes Snow (雪) +1949 - Ukichiro Nakaya publishes Research of snow (雪の研究, Yuki no kenkyu) +1952 - Marcel R. de Quervain et al. define ten major types of snow crystals, including hail and graupel in IUGG for the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research. +1954 - Harvard University Press publishes Ukichiro Nakaya's Snow Crystals: Natural and Artificial. +1960 - Teisaku Kobayashi (小林禎作, Kobayashi Teisaku), verifies and improves the Nakaya Diagram with the Kobayashi Diagram. +1962 - Cyoji Magono (孫野長治, Magono Cyōji) describes meteorological sorting of snow crystal types in clouds. +1979 - Toshio Kuroda (黒田登志雄, Kuroda Toshio) and Rolf Lacmann, of the Braunschweig University of Technology, publish Growth Mechanism of Ice from Vapour Phase and its Growth Forms. +1983 August - Astronauts make snow crystals in orbit on the Space Shuttle Challenger during mission STS-8. +1988 - Norihiko Fukuta (福田矩彦, Fukuta Norihiko) et al. make artificial snow crystals in an updraft, confirming the Nakaya Diagram. + + +=== 2001 and after === +2002 - Kazuhiko Hiramatsu (平松和彦, Hiramatsu Kazuhiko) devises a simple snow crystal growth observatory apparatus using a PET bottle cooled by dry ice in an expanded polystyrene box. +2004 September - Akio Murai (村井昭夫, Murai Akio) invented the apparatus named lit. Murai-method Artificial Snow Crystal producer (Murai式人工雪結晶生成装置) which makes various shape of artificial snow crystals per pre-setting conditions meeting to Nakaya diagram by vapor generator and its cooling Peltier effect element. +2008 December - Yoshinori Furukawa (吉川義純, FurukawaYoshinori) demonstrates conditional snow crystal growth in space, in Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF) on the JEM (Kibō), remotely controlled from Tsukuba Space Center of JAXA. + + +== Notes and references == + + +== Sources cited == +Omolara Olowoyeye. "DUJS online, The history of the science of snowflakes" (PDF). Dartmouth College. Retrieved 2009-07-18. {{cite web}}: |archive-url= is malformed: timestamp (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link) +"雪：冬に咲く華(Yuki: Fuyu ni saku hana)" [Snow: Blooming flower in winter] (PDF) (in Japanese). National Diet Library. Retrieved 2009-07-18. +"今日も星日和(kyomo hoshi biyori)" [Goodya with Stars, today too] (in Japanese). Retrieved 2009-07-18. +"雪研究の歴史(Yuki kenkyu no rekishi)" [History of research for snow] (in Japanese). acha's bookshelf. Retrieved 2009-07-18. + + +== See also == +Snowflakes +Ice crystal +Snow science + + +== External links == +The history of the science of snowflakes +Movie: Snow Crystal growth in space by JAXA on 2 December 2008 (3 times fast replay) (in Japanese) +SnowCrystals.com \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47c683a45 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020 to the present" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:42.409530+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This timeline of sustainable energy research from 2020 to the present documents research and development in renewable energy, solar energy, and nuclear energy, particularly regarding energy production that is sustainable within the Earth system. + +Events currently not included in the timelines include: + +goal-codifying policy about, commercialization of, adoptions of, deployment-statistics of, announced developments of, announced funding for and dissemination of sustainable energy -technologies and -infrastructure/systems +research about related phase-outs in general – such as about the fossil fuel phase out +research about relevant alternative technologies – such as in transport, HVAC, refrigeration, passive cooling, heat pumps and district heating +research about related public awareness, media, policy-making and education +research about related geopolitics, policies, and integrated strategies + +== Grids == + +=== Smart grids === + +==== 2022 ==== +A study provides results of simulations and analysis of "transactive energy mechanisms to engage the large-scale deployment of flexible distributed energy resources (DERs), such as air conditioners, water heaters, batteries, and electric vehicles, in the operation of the electric power system". + +=== Super grids === + +==== 2022 ==== +Researchers describe a novel strategy to create a global sustainable interconnected energy system based on deep-ocean-compressed hydrogen transportation. + +=== Microgrids and off-the-grid === + +Researchers describe a way for "inherently robust, scalable method of integration using multiple energy storage systems and distributed energy resources, which does not require any means of dedicated communication improvised controls", which could make microgrids easy and low cost "where they are needed most" such as during a power outage or after a disaster. + +== Solar power == + +Research on solar energy since 2020 has focused on improving the efficiency, durability, and recyclability of photovoltaic technologies. Alongside steady industrial cost declines, laboratories and firms have reported world-record efficiencies in perovskite and tandem solar cells, new approaches to recycling end-of-life modules, and integration of PV in agrivoltaics and building materials. +A 2023 review by the International Energy Agency described continued declines in solar PV costs and noted that research into perovskite–silicon tandem cells and recycling of photovoltaic modules represents "the most active innovation area" in renewable energy. +Recent media analyses highlight how next-generation materials such as perovskites and quantum-dot photovoltaics are transitioning from laboratory prototypes to commercial lines. +This section summarizes major research advances in photovoltaic and solar-power technology from 2020 onward; for policy or deployment statistics, see Solar power and Timeline of solar cells. + +=== 2020 === +Solar cell efficiency of perovskite solar cells have increased from 3.8% in 2009 to 25.2% in 2020 in single-junction architectures, and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.1%, exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells. +6 March – Scientists show that adding a layer of perovskite crystals on top of textured or planar silicon to create a tandem solar cell enhances its performance up to a power conversion efficiency of 26%. This could be a low cost way to increase efficiency of solar cells. +13 July – The first global assessment into promising approaches of solar photovoltaic modules recycling is published. Scientists recommend "research and development to reduce recycling costs and environmental impacts compared to disposal while maximizing material recovery" as well as facilitation and use of techno–economic analyses. +3 July – Scientists show that adding an organic-based ionic solid into perovskites can result in substantial improvement in solar cell performance and stability. The study also reveals a complex degradation route that is responsible for failures in aged perovskite solar cells. The understanding could help the future development of photovoltaic technologies with industrially relevant longevity. + +=== 2021 === +12 April – Scientists develop a prototype and design rules for both-sides-contacted silicon solar cells with conversion efficiencies of 26% and above, Earth's highest for this type of solar cell. +7 May – Researchers address a key problem of perovskite solar cells by increasing their stability and long-term reliability with a form of "molecular glue". +21 May – The first industrial commercial production line of perovskite solar panels, using an inkjet printing procedure, is launched in Poland. +13 December – Researchers report the development of a database and analysis tool about perovskite solar cells which systematically integrates over 15,000 publications, in particular device-data about over 42,400 of such photovoltaic devices. +16 December – ML System from Jasionka, Poland, opens first quantum glass production line. The factory started the production of windows integrating a transparent quantum-dots layer that can produce electricity while also capable of cooling buildings. + +=== 2022 === +30 May - A team at Fraunhofer ISE led by Frank Dimroth developed a 4-junction solar cell with an efficiency of 47.6% - a new world record for solar energy conversion. +13 July – Researchers report the development of semitransparent solar cells that are as large as windows, after team members achieved record efficiency with high transparency in 2020. On 4 July, researchers report the fabrication of solar cells with a record average visible transparency of 79%, being nearly invisible. +9 December – Researchers report the development of 3D-printed flexible paper-thin organic photovoltaics. +19 December – A new world record solar cell efficiency for a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell is achieved, with a German team of scientists converting 32.5% of sunlight into electrical energy. + +=== 2024 === +12 March – Scientists demonstrate the first monolithically integrated tandem solar cell using selenium as the photoabsorbing layer in the top cell, and silicon as the photoabsorbing layer in the bottom cell. + +=== 2025 === +1 June - Quantum Dot Solar Cells: enhanced efficiency and lower production costs. + +=== High-altitude and space-based solar power === + +Ongoing research and development projects include SSPS-OMEGA, SPS-ALPHA, and the Solaris program. + +==== 2020 ==== +The US Naval Research Laboratory conducts its first test of solar power generation in a satellite, the PRAM experiment aboard the Boeing X-37. + +==== 2023 ==== + +Researchers demonstrate flexible organic solar cells on balloons in the 35 km stratosphere. +Caltech reports the first successful beaming of solar energy from space down to a receiver on the ground, via the MAPLE instrument on its SSPD-1 spacecraft, launched into orbit in January. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..547eda4fc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020 to the present" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:42.409530+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Floating solar === + +==== 2020 ==== +A study concludes that deploying floating solar panels on existing hydro reservoirs could generate 16%–40% (4,251 to 10,616 TWh/year) of global energy needs when not considering project-siting constraints, local development regulations, "economic or market potential" and potential future technology improvements. + +==== 2022 ==== +Researchers develop floating artificial leaves for light-driven hydrogen and syngas fuel production. The lightweight, flexible perovskite devices are scalable and can float on water similar to lotus leaves. + +==== 2023 ==== +An analysis concludes there is large potential (≈9,400 TWh/yr) for floating solar photovoltaics on reservoirs, at the upper range of the prior 2020 study (see above). + +=== Agrivoltaics === +2021 – An improved agrivoltaic system with a grooved glass plate is demonstrated. +2021 – A report reviews several studies about the potential of agrivoltaics, which partly suggest "high potential of agrivoltaics as a viable and efficient technology" and outline concerns for refinements to the technology. +2022 – Researchers report the development of greenhouses (or solar modules) by a startup that generate electricity from a portion of the spectrum of sunlight, allowing spectra that interior plants use to pass through. +2023 – Demonstration of another agrivoltaic greenhouse which outperforms a conventional glass-roof greenhouse. + +=== Solar-powered production === + +==== Water production ==== + +===== Early 2020s ===== +Hydrogels are used to develop system that capture moisture (e.g. at night in a desert) to cool solar panels or to produce fresh water – including for irrigating crops as demonstrated in solar panel integrated systems where these have been enclosed next to or beneath the panels within the system. + +== Wind power == + +=== 2021 === +A study using simulations finds that large scale vertical-axis wind turbines could outcompete conventional HAWTs (horizontal axis) wind farm turbines. +Scientists report that due to decreases in power generation efficiency of wind farms downwind of offshore wind farms, cross-national limits and potentials for optimization need to be considered in strategic decision-making. +Researchers report, based on simulations, how large wind-farm performance can be significantly improved using windbreaks. +The world's first fully autonomous commercial "airborne wind energy" system (an airborne wind turbine) is launched by a company. +An U.S. congressionally directed report concludes that "the resource potential of wind energy available to AWE systems is likely similar to that available to traditional wind energy systems" but that "AWE would need significant further development before it could deploy at meaningful scales at the national level". + +=== 2023 === +First kWh by a TLP floating airborne wind turbine system (X30) possibly as part of a "new wave of startups" in this area. +Completion of the first functional 105 meters tall more-modular Modvion wooden wind turbine is reported. + +=== 2024 === +Minesto's Dragon 12 underwater tidal kite turbines are demonstrated successfully, connected to the Faroe Island's power grid. + +== Hydrogen energy == + +=== 2022 === +Researchers increase water electrolysis performance of renewable hydrogen via capillary-fed electrolysis cells. +A novel energy-efficient strategy for hydrogen release from liquid hydrogen carriers with the potential to reduce costs of storage and transportation is reported. +Researchers report the development of a potential efficient, secure and convenient method to separate, purify, store and transport large amounts of hydrogen for energy storage in renewables-based energy systems as powder using ball milling. +A way method for hydrogen production from the air, useful for off-the-grid settings, is demonstrated. +A novel type of effective hydrogen storage using readily available salts is reported. +An electrolysis system for viable hydrogen production from seawater without requiring a pre-desalination process is reported, which could allow for more flexible and less costly hydrogen production. +Chemical engineers report a method to substantially increase conversion efficiency and reduce material costs of green hydrogen production by using sound waves during electrolysis. + +=== 2023 === +Separate teams of researchers report substantial improvements to green hydrogen production methods, enabling higher efficiencies and durable use of untreated seawater. +A DVGW report suggests gas pipeline infrastructures (in Germany) are suitable to be repurposed to transport hydrogen, showing limited corrosion. +A concentrated solar-to-hydrogen device approaching viability is demonstrated. +Record solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies, using photoelectrochemical cells, are reported. + +== Hydroelectricity and marine energy == + +=== 2021 === +Engineers report the development of a prototype wave energy converter that is twice as efficient as similar existing experimental technologies, which could be a major step towards practical viability of tapping into the sustainable energy source. +A study investigates how tidal energy could be best integrated into the Orkney energy system. A few days earlier, a review assesses the potential of tidal energy in the UK's energy systems, finding that it could, according to their considerations that include an economic cost-benefit analysis, deliver 34 TWh/y or 11% of its energy demand. + +== Energy storage == + +=== Electric batteries === + +==== 2022 ==== +In a paywalled article, scientists provide 3D imaging and model analysis to reveal main causes, mechanics, and potential mitigations of the prevalent lithium-ion battery degradation over charge cycles. + +==== 2023 ==== +In two studies, researchers report that substitution of PET adhesive tapes could nearly prevent self-discharge in the widely used lithium-ion batteries, extending battery life. Analysts describe 2020s battery-technology progress as pivotal for renewable integration, citing new chemistries, improved safety, and reduced critical-material use. + +=== Thermal energy storage === +2022 – Researchers report the development of a system that combines the MOST solar thermal energy storage system that can store energy for 18 years with a chip-sized thermoelectric generator to generate electricity from it. + +=== Novel and emerging types === + +2021 – A company generates its first power from a gravity battery at a site in Edinburgh. Other gravity batteries are also under construction by other companies. +2022 – A study describes using lifts and empty apartments in tall buildings to store energy, estimating global potential around 30 to 300 GWh. + +== Nuclear fusion == + +== Geothermal energy == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af31317d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020 to the present" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:42.409530+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== 2022 === +A study describes a way by which geothermal power plants could store their energy within their reservoirs for dispatch to (better) help manage intermittency of solar and wind. + +== Waste heat recovery == + +=== 2020 === +Reviews about WHR in the aluminium industry and cement industry are published. + +=== 2023 === +A report by the company Danfoss estimates EU's excess heat recovery potential, suggesting there is "huge, unharnessed potential" and that action could involve initial mapping of existing waste heat sources. + +== Bioenergy, chemical engineering and biotechnology == + +=== 2020 === +Scientists report the development of micro-droplets for algal cells or synergistic algal-bacterial multicellular spheroid microbial reactors capable of producing oxygen as well as hydrogen via photosynthesis in daylight under air. + +=== 2022 === +Researchers report the development of 3D-printed nano-"skyscraper" electrodes that house cyanobacteria for extracting substantially more sustainable bioenergy from their photosynthesis than before. +News outlets report about the development of algae biopanels by a company for sustainable energy generation with unclear viability after other researchers built the self-powered BIQ house prototype in 2013. + +==== 2023 ==== +A bacterial hydrogenase enzyme, Huc, for biohydrogen energy from the air is reported. + +== General == + +Research about sustainable energy in general or across different types. + +=== Other energy-need reductions === + +Research and development of (technical) means to substantially or systematically reduce need for energy beyond smart grids, education / educational technology (such as about differential environmental impacts of diets), transportation infrastructure (bicycles and rail transport) and conventional improvements of energy efficiency on the level of the energy system. + +==== 2020 ==== +A study shows a set of different scenarios of minimal energy requirements for providing decent living standards globally, finding that – according to their models, assessments and data – by 2050 global energy use could be reduced to 1960 levels despite 'sufficiency' still being materially relatively generous. + +==== 2022 ==== +A trial of estimated financial energy cost of refrigerators alongside EU energy-efficiency class (EEEC) labels online finds that the approach of labels involves a trade-off between financial considerations and higher cost requirements in effort or time for the product-selection from the many available options which are often unlabelled and don't have any EEEC-requirement for being bought, used or sold within the EU. + +=== Materials and recycling === + +==== 2020 ==== +Researchers report that mining for renewable energy production will increase threats to biodiversity and publish a map of areas that contain needed materials as well as estimations of their overlaps with "Key Biodiversity Areas", "Remaining Wilderness" and "Protected Areas". The authors assess that careful strategic planning is needed. + +==== 2021 ==== +Neodymium, an essential rare-earth element (REE), plays a key role in making permanent magnets for wind turbines. Demand for REEs is expected to double by 2035 due to renewable energy growth, posing environmental risks, including radioactive waste from their extraction. + +==== 2023 ==== +A study finds that the world has enough rare earths and other raw materials to switch from fossil fuels to renewable energy. +A new viable lithium-ion battery recycling method is reported. + +A study suggests incentives and regulations are needed for producers to design solar panels that can be more easily recycled. + +==== Seabed mining ==== + +===== 2020 ===== +Researchers assess to what extent international law and existing policy support the practice of a proactive knowledge management system that enables systematic addressing of uncertainties about the environmental effects of seabed mining via regulations that, for example, enable the International Seabed Authority to actively engage in generating and synthesizing information. + +===== 2021 ===== +A moratorium on deep-sea mining until rigorous and transparent impact assessments are carried out is adopted at the 2021 world congress of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The vote, however, has no legal implications given that deep-sea mining regulations continue to be governed by the International Seabed Authority as established by UNCLOS. Researchers have outlined why there is a need to avoid mining the deep sea. +Nauru requested the ISA to finalize rules so that The Metals Company be approved to begin work in 2023. +China's COMRA tested its polymetallic nodules collection system at 4,200 feet of depth in the East and South China Seas. The Dayang Yihao was exploring the Clarion–Clipperton zone (CCZ) for China Minmetals when it crossed into the U.S. exclusive economic zone near Hawaii, where for five days it looped south of Honolulu without having requested entry into US waters. +Belgian company Global Sea Mineral Resources (GSR) and the German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) conduct a test in the CCZ with a prototype mining vehicle named Patania II. This test was the first of its kind since the late 1970s. + +===== 2022 ===== +Impossible Metals announces its first underwater robotic vehicle, 'Eureka 1', has completed its first trial of selectively harvesting polymetallic nodule rocks from the seabed to help address the rising global need for metals for renewable energy system components, mainly batteries. + +===== 2023 ===== +Supporters of mining were led by Norway, Mexico, and the United Kingdom, and supported by The Metals Company. +Chinese prospecting ship Dayang Hao prospected in China-licensed areas in the Clarion Clipperton Zone. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..52dcfbe50 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020 to the present" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020_to_the_present" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:42.409530+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== 2024 ===== +Norway approved commercial deep-sea mining. 80% of Parliament voted to approve. +On February 7, 2024, the European Parliament voted in favor of a Motion for Resolution, expressing environmental concerns regarding Norway's decision to open vast areas in Arctic waters for deep-sea mining activities and reaffirming its support for a moratorium. +In July 2024, at the 29th General Assembly of the International Seabed Authority in Kingston, Jamaica, 32 countries united against the imminent start of mining for metallic nodules on the seafloor. In his address titled "Upholding the Common Heritage of Humankind", President Surangel S. Whipps Jr. of Palau spoke about exploitation and modern-day colonialism. +In November 2024, the People's Republic of China unveiled its first deep-sea drilling vehicle. +In December 2024 Norway suspended deep sea mining, after the Socialist Left (SV) party said that otherwise, it would not support the budget. + +===== 2025 ===== +On January 1st, 2025, Brazilian oceanographer Leticia Carvalho assumed the office of Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority, after being elected in August 2024 to succeed Michael Lodge in the position. +In April 2025, U.S. President Trump signed an Executive Order instructing the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to expedite permits for companies to mine in both international and U.S. territorial waters, which would undermine the authority of the International Seabed Authority. +Beginning in March and ending in July of 2025, the International Seabed Authority held their 30th session in Kingston, Jamaica, and again failed to agree on exploitative regulations for commercial deep sea mining in the Area. + +===== 2026 ===== +The International Seabed Authority will begin their 31st session on February 23rd, 2026, as part of "Part 1" of the gathering, where the Legal and Technical Commission will meet. On March 6th, the session will end, before transitioning to a meeting of the Council from the 9th to 20th of the month. On June 29th, "Part 2" will commence, and will last until July 31st. + +=== Maintenance === + +Maintenance of sustainable energy systems could be automated, standardized and simplified and the required resources and efforts for such get reduced via research relevant for their design and processes like waste management. + +==== 2022 ==== +Researchers demonstrate electrostatic dust removal from solar panels. + +=== Economics === + +==== 2021 ==== +A review finds that the pace of cost-decline of renewables has been underestimated and that an "open cost-database would greatly benefit the energy scenario community". A 2022 study comes to similar conclusions. + +==== 2022 ==== +A study investigates funding allocations for public investment in energy research, development and demonstration. It provides insights about potential past impacts of drivers, that may be relevant to adjusting (or facilitating) "investment in clean energy" "to come close to achieving meaningful global decarbonization", suggesting advancement of impactful "coopetition". + +=== Feasibility studies and energy system models === + +==== 2020 ==== +A study suggests that all sector defossilisation can be achieved worldwide even for nations with severe conditions. The study suggests that integration impacts depend on "demand profiles, flexibility and storage cost". + +==== 2021 ==== +Researchers develop an energy system model for 100% renewable energy, examining feasibility and grid stability in the U.S. + +==== 2022 ==== +A revised or updated version of a major worldwide 100% renewable energy proposed plan and model is published. +Researchers review the scientific literature on 100% renewable energy, addressing various issues, outlining open research questions, and concluding there to be growing consensus, research and empirical evidence concerning its feasibility worldwide. + +==== 2023 ==== + +A study indicates that in building heating in the EU, the feasibility of staying within planetary boundaries is possible only through electrification, with green hydrogen heating being 2–3 times more expensive than heat pump costs. A separate study indicates that replacing gas boilers with heat pumps is the fastest way to cut German gas consumption, despite "gas-industry lobbyists and [...] politicians" at the time making "the case for hydrogen" amid some heating transition policy changes, for which the former study revealed a need to "mitigate increased costs for [many of the] consumers". + +== See also == + +Climate change adaptation +Energy development +Energy policy +Funding of science +Energy transition +Green recovery +Public research and development +Policy studies +Energy system +Renewable energy#Emerging technologies +List of emerging technologies#Energy +Technology transfer +Outline of energy +Not yet included + +Standardization#Environmental protection such as for certifications and policies +Open energy system models +Open energy system databases +Power-to-X +Nanogeneration such as synthetic molecular motors for microbots and nanobots +Timelines of related areas + +Timeline of materials technology#20th century +Timeline of computing 2020–present +Timeline of transportation technology#21st century + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..131ac01f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of the history of the scientific method" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:39.373334+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This timeline of the history of the scientific method shows an overview of the development of the scientific method up to the present time. For a detailed account, see History of the scientific method. + +== BC == + +c.1600 BC – The Edwin Smith Papyrus, a unique ancient Egyptian text, contains practical and objective advice to physicians regarding the examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, of injuries and ailments. It provides evidence that medicine in Egypt was at this time practiced as a quantifiable science. +c. 600 – 700 BC – The earliest form of Charvaka practiced by philosopher Ajita Kesakambali. +c. 600 – 200 BC – The Vaisheshika school of Hindu philosophy, founded by the ancient Indian philosopher Kanada, accepted perception and inference as the only two reliable sources of knowledge. +c. 624 – 548 BC – Thales of Miletus raises the study of nature from the realm of the mythical to the level of empirical study. +c. 610 – 547 BC – The Greek philosopher Anaximander extends the idea of law from human society to the physical world, and is the first to use maps and models. +c.400 BC – In China, the philosopher Mozi founds the Mohist school of philosophy and introduces the 'three-prong method' for testing the truth or falsehood of statements. +c.400 BC – The Greek philosopher Democritus advocates inductive reasoning through a process of examining the causes of perceptions and drawing conclusions about the outside world. +c.400 BC – Plato provides the first detailed definitions of the concepts of idea, matter, form and appearance. +c.320 BC – Aristotle categorizes and subdivides knowledge into physics, poetry, zoology, logic, rhetoric, politics, and biology. His Posterior Analytics defended the ideal of science as originating from known axioms. Aristotle believed that the world was real and that we can learn the truth by experience. +c.341-270 BC – Epicurus and his followers develop an epistemology as a result of their rivalry with other philosophical schools. His treatise Κανών ('Rule'), now lost, explained his methods of investigation and theory of knowledge. +c.300 BC – Euclid's Euclid's Elements expounds geometry as a system of theorems following logically from axioms. +c.240 BC – The Greek polymath Eratosthenes calculates the circumference of the Earth to a remarkable degree of accuracy, using stadia, then a standard unit for measuring distances. +c.200 BC – The Great Library of Alexandria is built as part of a larger research institution called the Mouseion, with the intention that it becomes a collection of all Greek knowledge. +c.150 BC – The first chapter of the Book of Daniel describes an early (and flawed) version of a clinical trial proposed by the young Jewish noble Daniel, in which he and his three companions eat vegetables and water for ten days, rather than the royal food and wine. + +== 1st–12th centuries == + +c.90–168 – Ptolemy writes the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest. His writings reveal his understanding of the scientific method, his recognition of the importance of both systematically ordered observations and hypotheses. +c.480–540 – Indian Buddhist philosopher Dignāga of the Nyaya school writes the Pramāṇa-samuccaya stating that there are only two valid cognitions (pramāṇa); perception (pratyakṣa), and inference (anumāna). +c. 500–600 – Indian Philosopher Dharmakīrti in the Pramāṇavārttika states that perception is a non-conceptual knowing of particulars that is bound by causality, while inference is reasonable, linguistic, and conceptual. +c. 800–900 – Early Muslim scientists such al-Kindi (801–873) and the authors writing under the name of Jabir ibn Hayyan (died c. 806–816) started to put a greater emphasis on the use of experiment as a source of knowledge. +1021 – The astronomer, physicist and mathematician Ibn al-Haytham combines observations, experiments and rational arguments in his Book of Optics. +c. 1025 – The scholar al-Biruni develops experimental methods for mineralogy and mechanics, and conducts elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena. +1027 – In his treatise al-Burhân ('On Demonstration') in his book Kitāb al-Šifāʾ ('The Book of Healing'), the Persian polymath Ibn Sīnā (known in the Western world as Avicenna) censures Aristotelian method of induction. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..06d1756b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of the history of the scientific method" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:39.373334+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== 1200–1700 == +1220–1235 – Robert Grosseteste, an English scholastic philosopher, theologian and later the Bishop of Lincoln during 1253, publishes his Aristotelian commentaries, laying out the framework for the proper methods of science. +1265 – The English monk Roger Bacon, inspired by the writings of Robert Grosseteste, describes a scientific method based on a repeating cycle of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and the need for independent verification. He recorded the manner in which he conducted his experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results. +1327 – Ockham's razor appears, a principle which states that among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected. +1408 – The Yongle Encyclopedia (Chinese: 永樂大典), the largest encyclopedia in book form ever made, is completed. +1558 - Magia Naturalis, a work of popular science by Giambattista della Porta, is published. In the preface, the author wrote: "In our method I shall observe what our ancestors have said; then I shall show by my own experience, whether they be true or false... Many men have written what they never saw..." +1581 – The sceptic Francisco Sanches uses classical sceptical arguments to show that science, in the Aristotelian sense of giving necessary reasons or causes for the behavior of nature, cannot be attained. +1581 – The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe builds Uraniborg and Stjärneborg on the island of Ven. Research done in the fields of astronomy, alchemy, and meteorology by Tycho and his assistants produces high precision measurements of the planets. +1595 – The microscope is invented in the Netherlands. +1608 – Evidence of the earliest known telescope appears in the Netherlands, when a patent is submitted by Hans Lipperhey. +1609 – The first 'public chemical laboratory' is set up at the University of Marburg. +1620 – The Novum Organum, fully Novum Organum, sive indicia vera de Interpretatione Naturae ("New Organon, or true directions concerning the interpretation of nature"), a philosophical work by English philosopher and statesman Francis Bacon, is published. +1637 – The French philosopher, mathematician and scientist René Descartes publishes his Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One's Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences, an important work in the development of the natural sciences. +1638 – Galileo's Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze (commonly known as Two New Sciences), his scientific testament covering much of his work in physics over the preceding thirty years, is published. It contains two thought experiments, now referred to as his Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment and Galileo's ship, each invented to disprove a physical theory by showing that it has a contradictory consequence. + +1650 – The world's oldest national scientific institution, the Royal Society, is founded in London. It establishes experimental evidence as the arbiter of truth. +c.1665 – The British scientist Robert Boyle reveals his scientific methods in his writings, and commends that a subject be generally researched before detailed experiments are undertaken; that results that are inconsistent with current theories are reported; that experiments should be regarded as 'provisional' in nature; and that experiments are shown to be repeatable. +1665 – Academic journals are published for the first time, in France and Great Britain. +1675 – To encourage the publicising of new discoveries in science, the German-born Henry Oldenburg pioneers the practice now known as peer reviewing, by sending scientific manuscripts to experts to judge their quality. +1687 – Sir Isaac Newton's book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), is first published. It laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. + +== 1700–1900 == + +1739 – David Hume's Treatise of Human Nature argues that the problem of induction is unsolvable. +1753 – The first description of a controlled experiment using identical populations with only one variable is published, when James Lind, a Scottish doctor, undergoes research into scurvy among sailors. +1763 – Reverend Thomas Bayes' An Essay Towards Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances is published posthumously. The Essay laid the basis for Bayesian inference, used to update the probability estimate for a hypothesis as additional evidence is acquired. +1812 – Hans Christian Ørsted formulates the Latin-German mixed term Gedankenexperiment, meaning 'thought experiment', a method used since antiquity. +1815 – An optimal design for polynomial regression is published by the French logician Joseph Diaz Gergonne. +1833, 1840 – William Whewell invents the term scientist, previously 'natural philosopher' or 'man of science'. In his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences he coins the term "consilience" the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can 'converge' to strong conclusions. +1877–1878 – The American scientist Charles Sanders Peirce writes his Illustrations of the Logic of Science. The work popularises his trichotomy of abduction, deduction and induction. +1885 – Peirce and Joseph Jastrow first describe blinded, randomized experiments. +1897 – The American geologist Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin proposes the use of multiple hypotheses to assist in the design of experiments. + +== 1900–present == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c8c53deeb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of the history of the scientific method" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:39.373334+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1905 – The German-born theoretical physicist Albert Einstein proposes the theory of special relativity. +1926 – Randomized design is popularized and analyzed by the British statistician Ronald Fisher. +1934 – Falsifiability as a criterion for evaluating new hypotheses is popularized by Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery . +1937 – The first complete placebo trial is undertaken. The American pharmacologist Harry Gold, studying the effect of xanthines on cardiac pain, alternates them with a placebo and shows them to be ineffective. +1946 – Work begins on the first computer simulation in history, a digital flight simulator developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for training bomber crews. +1950 – Research based on the double blind test is published for the first time, by Greiner et al. +1962 – The American physicist Thomas S. Kuhn publishes his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, which controversially challenged powerful and entrenched philosophical assumptions about the progress of science through history. +1964 – Strong inference—a model of scientific inquiry that emphasizes the need for alternative hypotheses—is proposed by the American physicist John R. Platt. +1976 – The British-born, professor emeritus of statistics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison George E. P. Box publishes his Journal Article Science and Statistics, which sets a framework for statistical modeling of phenomena, and the need for only appropriate complexity in model. +2009 – Robot Scientist (also known as Adam) is created, the first machine in history to have discovered new scientific knowledge independently of its human creators. +2012 – Constructor theory, a proposal for a new mode of explanation in fundamental physics, is sketched out by the British physicist David Deutsch. + +== References == + +== Sources == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-0.md index 7d4112187..806ef2a36 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-1.md index ce0d646e4..40b8711e6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-10.md index 265853b85..e790ad228 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-10.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-10.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 11/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-11.md index ce3aa6159..a9a01b977 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-11.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-11.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 12/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-12.md index 731236a3e..fcb21295c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-12.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-12.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 13/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-13.md index b0f23467f..1a2c68077 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-13.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-13.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 14/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-14.md index a1c22894e..f85983b8a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-14.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-14.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 15/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-15.md index f5eb6ae4d..6b53b1979 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-15.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-15.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 16/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-2.md index 4b063284c..a3b2f7077 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-3.md index 6770465fe..c14f175a8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-4.md index 1dc6aa56d..e31893fdf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-5.md index 0a08e3409..2062eb43f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-6.md index 074241311..fa200d375 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-7.md index c150a7953..674e2abe7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-8.md index e6c4e94af..9de9b6f74 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-9.md index 3313da545..73e499773 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/16 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:43.747307+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..26dca70be --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of women in science in the United States" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:44.973581+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a timeline of women in science in the United States. + +== 19th Century == +1848: Maria Mitchell became the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; she had discovered a new comet the year before. +1850: Margaretta Morris and Maria Mitchell became the first women elected to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Morris was a renowned entomologist who specialized in agricultural pests and water beetles, the latter of which was cited by Charles Darwin in his novel On the Origin of Species. +1853: Jane Colden was the only female biologist mentioned by Carl Linnaeus in his masterwork Species Plantarum. +1889: Mary Emilie Holmes became the first female Fellow of the Geological Society of America. +1889: Susan La Flesche Picotte became the first Native American woman to become a physician in the United States. +1893: Florence Bascom became the second woman to earn her Ph.D. in geology in the United States, and the first woman to receive a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University. Geologists consider her to be the "first woman geologist in this country [America]." +1896: Florence Bascom became the first woman to work for the United States Geological Survey. + +== 20th Century == +1901: Florence Bascom became the first female geologist to present a paper before the Geological Survey of Washington. +1903: Marie Curie became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize, awarded in Physics, and went on to also win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. She performed pioneering research in radioactivity, and discovered two elements (polonium and radium). +1912: Henrietta Swan Leavitt studied the bright-dim cycle periods of Cepheid stars, then found a way to calculate the distance from such stars to Earth. +1924: Florence Bascom became the first woman elected to the Council of the Geological Society of America. +1925: Florence Sabin became the first woman elected to the National Academy of Sciences. +1928: Alice Evans became the first woman elected president of the Society of American Bacteriologists. +1936: Edith Patch became the first female president of the Entomological Society of America. + +=== 1940s === +1942: American geologist Marguerite Williams became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in geology in the United States. She completed her doctorate, entitled A History of Erosion in the Anacostia Drainage Basin, at Catholic University. +1947: Gerty Cori became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, which she received along with Carl Ferdinand Cori "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen", and Bernardo Alberto Houssay "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar". +1947: Marie Maynard Daly became the first Black woman in the United States to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry, and went on to perform research that would define how cholesterol clogged arteries, paving the way for a broad understanding that diet affects heart health. +1949: Dorothy Vaughan becomes the first African-American woman to supervise a group of staff at the Langely Research Center, a NASA field center. + +=== 1950s === +1950: Isabella Abbott became the first Native Hawaiian woman to receive a PhD in any science; hers was in botany. +1950: Esther Lederberg was the first to isolate lambda bacteriophage, a DNA virus, from Escherichia coli K-12. +1952: Grace Hopper completed what is considered to be the first compiler, a program that allows a computer user to use English-like words instead of numbers. It was known as the A-0 compiler. +1956: The Wu experiment was a nuclear physics experiment conducted in 1956 by the physicist Chien-Shiung Wu, born in China but having become an American citizen in 1954, in collaboration with the Low Temperature Group of the US National Bureau of Standards. That experiment showed that parity could be violated in weak interaction. + +=== 1960s === +1960: Rosalyn Yalow received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones" along with Roger Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally who received it "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain". +1962: Katherine Johnson performed the calculations for the NASA orbital mission, launching John Glenn as the first person into orbit and returning them safely. +1963: Maria Goeppert Mayer became the first American woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with J. Hans D. Jensen "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure” and Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles". She was born in Poland, but became a U.S. citizen in 1933. +1965: Sister Mary Kenneth Keller became the first American woman to earn a Ph.D. in Computer Science. Her thesis was titled "Inductive Inference on Computer Generated Patterns." + +=== 1970s === +1975: Chien-Shiung Wu, born in China but having become an American citizen in 1954, became the first female president of the American Physical Society. +1976: Margaret Burbidge, born in England, was named as the first female president of the American Astronomical Society. +1977: Rosalyn Yalow received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"; she shared it with Roger Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain." +1978: Anna Jane Harrison became the first female president of the American Chemical Society. +1978: Mildred Cohn served as the first female president of the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, then called the American Society of Biological Chemists. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fa19c1db0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of women in science in the United States" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:44.973581+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== 1980s === +1982: Nephrologist Leah Lowenstein became the first woman dean of a co-educational medical school in the United States. +1983: Barbara McClintock received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of genetic transposition; she was the first woman to receive that prize without sharing it, and the first American woman to receive any unshared Nobel Prize. +1984: Kathryn D. Sullivan becomes the first American woman to walk in space. +1988: Patricia Bath was the first African American woman to receive a medical patent, which was her invention of laser cataract treatment. +1988: Gertrude B. Elion received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with James W. Black and George H. Hitchings "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment". + +=== 1990s === +1990: Antonia Novello became the first woman, first person of color, and first Hispanic to serve as Surgeon General of the United States. +1991: Doris Malkin Curtis became the first woman president of the Geological Society of America. +1992: Edith M. Flanigen became the first woman awarded the Perkin Medal (widely considered the highest honor in American industrial chemistry) for her outstanding achievements in applied chemistry. The medal especially recognized her syntheses of aluminophosphate and silicoaluminophosphate molecular sieves as new classes of materials. +1992: Mae Jemison becomes the first Black woman to travel into space when she served as a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour. +1993: Ellen Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman to go to space when she served aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery. +1998: Nurse Fannie Gaston-Johansson became the first African-American woman tenured full professor at Johns Hopkins University. +1998: Rita R. Colwell became the first female director of the National Science Foundation. + +== 21st Century == + +=== 2000s === +2004: Linda B. Buck received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system". +2009: Carol W. Greider received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Elizabeth H. Blackburn (Blackburn was a native of Australia, but lived in the United States since 1975, and became a naturalized citizen in September 2003) and Jack W. Szostak "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase". + +=== 2010s === +2010: Marcia McNutt became the first female director of the United States Geological Survey. +2016: Marcia McNutt became the first woman president of the American National Academy of Sciences. +2018: Frances Arnold received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the directed evolution of enzymes"; she shared it with George Smith and Gregory Winter, who received it "for the phage display of peptides and antibodies". This made Frances the first American woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. +2019: Karen Uhlenbeck won the Abel Prize for "her pioneering achievements in geometric partial differential equations, gauge theory, and integrable systems, and for the fundamental impact of her work on analysis, geometry and mathematical physics." She is the first woman to win the prize. + +=== 2020s === +2020: Kathryn D. Sullivan, the first American woman to walk in space, descended 35,810 feet to the Challenger Deep, making her the first person to both walk in space and to reach the deepest known point in the ocean. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turris_Babel-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turris_Babel-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7488e5c2f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turris_Babel-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Turris Babel" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turris_Babel" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:48.371917+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Turris Babel (The Tower of Babel) was a 1679 work by the Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher. It was the last of his books published during his lifetime. Together with his earlier work Arca Noë (Noah's Ark), it represents Kircher's endeavour to show how modern science supported the Biblical narrative in the Book of Genesis. The work was also a broad synthesis of many of Kircher's ideas on architecture, language and religion. The book was dedicated to the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I and printed in Amsterdam by the cartographer and bookseller Johannes van Waesbergen. + + +== Book one: the generations between Noah and Nimrod == + +In Book One, Kircher resumed the account he had begun in Arca Noë of the generations that came after Noah. He addressed the question of how, just 275 years after the Flood, Noah's great-grandson Nimrod could command such a large number of people to build the Tower. He demonstrated that, assuming each of Noah's sons had a son and a daughter each year, and each of them in turn began procreating at the age of thirty, the world population would have been 24,328,000,000 by Nimrod's time. In fact, Kircher's mathematics were flawed, and by his own method of reckoning the correct total would have been 233,280,000. + + +== Book two: building the Tower of Babel == +In Book Two, Kircher devoted much care to demonstrating that Nimrod's building project to build a tower to touch the heavens was physically impossible to achieve, and would have been disastrous for the planet Earth if it had been achieved. Kircher explained that the distance from the Earth to the lowest celestial sphere, that of the Moon, was twenty-five earth diameters. There were not enough building materials in the world to construct a tower so high, and if it had been built it would have pulled the entire planet over out of its equilibrium at the centre of the universe, causing darkness and extreme climate change in many parts of the world. +In addition to this, Kircher offered an illustrated survey of the wonders of the ancient world, including the pyramids of Egypt, the labyrinth of Crete and the colossus of Rhodes. + + +== Book three: the evolution of language == + +The third book of Turris Babel dealt with linguistics. Kircher affirmed that before the Flood there had been no division of nations or languages. His theory of language was that the original human speech of the Garden of Eden was perfect, in that words corresponded exactly with the objects for which they stood. This he called the Lingua Humana, which he declared was a form of early Hebrew language. This had been spoken by Noah and his descendants up to the time of the Confusion of Tongues, when God punished the pride of mankind by dividing them into speakers of many languages. +Kircher did not support the view that God had punished each of the builders of the Tower of Babel by giving them their own language to speak. Rather, he argued that people were divided by family, with Shem and his descendants continuing to speak Hebrew, and his brothers adopting respectively the Greek language, the Latin language, the Teutonic language, and the Slavic language. As people dispersed from Babel, the five basic languages spoken by different branches of Noah's family continued to diversify, leading to the establishment of seventy-two mother languages, from which all languages in the modern world were descended. +As well as discussing spoken language, Kircher also considered writing systems, and showed how a common origin could be found for the Hebrew alphabet and the Latin alphabet. He argued however that the Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Chinese characters did not share this common origin. +Kircher saw the Confusion of Tongues as being the start of a lapse from the true religion into various forms of idolatry. He argued that the deities of different ancient religions were all derived from veneration of the Sun and Moon. He also maintained that variations in human skin colour arose from differences in climate in the places to which people dispersed. + + +== Illustrations == + +Like many of Kircher's other works, Turris Babel was lavishly illustrated. Some of the plates were created by Coenraet Decker. The most famous plate in the book was of the Tower of Babel itself, based on an earlier illustration by Lievin Cruyl. Kircher must have begun work on the project many years before the work was finally published, because several of the plates which illustrated it are dated to 1670. +The frontispiece, by Gérard de Lairesse, depicts Nimrod, dressed as a Roman soldier, studying the plan for the Tower of Babel while its architect, standing next to him, gestures towards the half-built structure some way off. Above them hovers God's all-seeing eye, and lightning strikes down from stormy clouds to show God's anger. + + +== External links == +high resolution image of Decker's illustration of the tower +digital copy of the full work + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-0.md index 73cc1c769..9858db891 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:46:29.863007+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:15.412895+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-1.md index dec12107e..5024e1025 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:46:29.863007+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:15.412895+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-2.md index 3f1562e57..e1aca7fcd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:46:29.863007+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:15.412895+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-3.md index 31c2ca10d..0bbfaaae1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:46:29.863007+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:36:15.412895+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_Hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_Hypothesis-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebbe05bbc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_Hypothesis-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Vicarious Hypothesis" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_Hypothesis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:49.506995+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Vicarious Hypothesis, or hypothesis vicaria, was a planetary hypothesis proposed by Johannes Kepler to describe the motion of Mars. The hypothesis adopted the circular orbit and equant of Ptolemy's planetary model as well as the heliocentrism of the Copernican model. Calculations using the Vicarious Hypothesis did not support a circular orbit for Mars, leading Kepler to propose elliptical orbits as one of three laws of planetary motion in Astronomia Nova. + + +== History == +In 1600, Johannes Kepler met and began working with Tycho Brahe at Benátky, a town north of Prague where Brahe's new observatory was being built. Brahe assigned Kepler the task of modeling the motion of Mars using only data that Brahe had collected himself. Upon the death of Brahe in 1601, all of Brahe's data was willed to Kepler. Brahe's observational data was among the most accurate of his time, which Kepler used in the construction of the Vicarious Hypothesis. + + +=== Predecessors === + + +==== Ptolemy ==== + +Claudius Ptolemy's planetary model consisted of a stationary earth surrounded by fixed circles, called deferents, which carried smaller, rotating circles called epicycles. Planets rotated on the epicycles as the epicycles traveled along the deferent. Ptolemy shifted the Earth away from the center of the deferent and introduced another point, the equant, equidistant to the deferent's center on the opposite side of the Earth. +The Vicarious Hypothesis uses a circular orbit for Mars and reintroduces a form of the equant to describe the motion of Mars with constant angular speed. + + +==== Copernicus ==== +Nicolaus Copernicus broke from the geocentric model of Ptolemy by placing the Sun at the center of his planetary model. However, Copernicus retained circular orbits for the planets and added an orbit for the Earth, insisting that the Earth revolved around the Sun. The Sun was positioned off-center of the orbits but was still contained within all orbits. +Kepler adopted Copernican heliocentrism in the construction of the Vicarious Hypothesis so that his measurements of the distances to Mars were taken relative to the Sun. + + +== Development == +Kepler's construction of the Vicarious Hypothesis was based on a circular orbit for Mars and a heliocentric model for the planets. After receiving longitudinal observation data from Tycho Brahe, Kepler had twelve observations, two being his own, in which Mars was at opposition to the Sun. From these twelve observations, Kepler chose four to form the basis of the Vicarious Hypothesis because they had a relatively uniform distribution across his proposed circular orbit for Mars. In this sense, the Vicarious Hypothesis functions as a fit to observational data. Kepler used these four observations to determine the eccentricities of the Sun and equant of his proposed orbit. Unlike the Ptolemaic System, in which the Earth and equant were assumed equidistant to the center of the orbit, the Vicarious Hypothesis placed the equant where the time and location of the observation would match. +Using the Vicarious Hypothesis, Kepler determined the eccentricities of the Sun and equant to be 11,332 and 7,232 arbitrary units, respectively, for the Martian orbital radius of 100,000 units. Using these positions for the Sun and equant, the model constructed using the Vicarious Hypothesis agreed with the twelve observations within 2' of arc, a level of accuracy better than any other previous model. While the heliocentric longitudes of this model proved to be accurate, distances from the Sun to Mars, or latitudes of Mars, challenged the model. In his book, Astronomia Nova, Kepler determined that the eccentricity of the Sun, based on latitudinal oppositions, should be between a range of 8,000 and 9,943, conflicting with the eccentricity of 11,332 determined by the Vicarious Hypothesis. To accommodate the latitudinal data, Kepler modified the Vicarious Hypothesis to include a bisected eccentricity, making the Sun and equant equidistant to the center of the orbit. This resolved the error in the latitudes of Mars but introduced a longitudinal error of 8' of arc in some parts of the Mars orbit. While an 8' error still had better accuracy than previous models, corresponding to approximately one-fourth the diameter of the Moon, Kepler rejected the Vicarious Hypothesis because he did not believe it was accurate enough to model the true orbit of Mars. + + +== Historical significance == +The errors in latitude and longitude of the Mars orbit made Kepler realize that false assumptions were made using the Vicarious Hypothesis. In particular, Kepler amended the hypothesis to exclude the circular orbit. Kepler realized that he could fix the error by reducing the spread of the central region of the circular orbit, creating an ellipse. He used calculations previously made with the Vicarious Hypothesis to confirm the elliptical orbit for Mars. Kepler published his results in Astronomia Nova, in which he introduces the elliptical orbit for planets as his first law of planetary motion. + + +== See also == +Kepler orbit +History of astronomy +Orbital elements + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-0.md index e48d85875..19eeb8a0b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:26:39.045077+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:50.752615+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-1.md index 6d3b84bbf..66da2fa04 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:26:39.045077+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:50.752615+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-2.md index 21311bfa4..10b136870 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:26:39.045077+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:50.752615+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-3.md index b17e4b6f2..2b2599e1d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:26:39.045077+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:50.752615+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-4.md index a259c78f0..7f746f934 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/5 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:26:39.045077+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:34:50.752615+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon-0.md index 12c3653a0..abab4f9a0 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:07:36.593645+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:35:46.247050+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" ---