Scrape wikipedia-science: 795 new, 35 updated, 854 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace_centenary-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alfred Russel Wallace centenary"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace_centenary"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:21.378199+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The centenary of the death of the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace on 7 November 1913 was marked in 2013 with events around the world to celebrate his life and work. The commemorations was co-ordinated by the Natural History Museum, London.
+Events between October 2013 and June 2014 were planned by the Natural History Museum and other organisations including the Zoological Society of London, Cardiff University, the University of Alberta, Dorset County Museum, Swansea Museum, Dorset Wildlife Trust, Ness Botanical Gardens (South Wirral), the Royal Society, the Linnean Society, the Harvard Museum of Natural History, the American Museum of Natural History, Hertford Museum and the National Museum of Wales.
+
+
+== Context ==
+The naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist Alfred Russel Wallace (born 8 January 1823) died on 7 November 1913. He is principally remembered now for having independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection, which prompted Charles Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species. Some of his books such as The Malay Archipelago remain in print; it is considered one of the best accounts of scientific exploration published during the 19th century. Wallace is also remembered for recognizing the presence of a biogeographical boundary, now known as the Wallace Line, that divides the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are almost entirely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect the influence of Australasia.
+
+
+== Events ==
+
+The South Kensington Natural History Museum, London, co-ordinating commemorative events for the Wallace centenary worldwide in the 'Wallace100' project, created a website to celebrate Wallace's centenary. The museum holds the Wallace Collection of memorabilia including letters, Wallace's notebooks and other documents, and 28 drawers of insects and other specimens that he collected on his expeditions to the Malay Archipelago and to South America. The museum describes Wallace as "Father of biogeography", as a committed socialist, and as a spiritualist.
+The Royal Society planned a two-day discussion meeting in October 2013 for researchers on "Alfred Russel Wallace and his legacy", with speakers including George Beccaloni, Steve Jones, Lynne Parenti, Tim Caro and Martin Rees. Cardiff University's School of Earth & Ocean Sciences had a lecture series in 2013-2014 as part of the centenary commemoration of Wallace.
+Hertford Museum held several events including an evening of illustrated talks on 15 January 2014 at Hertford Theatre. Errol Fuller discussed Wallace and the curious 19th-century social phenomenon that guided his life; Sandra Knapp talked about Wallace's life and explorations in the Amazon.
+The Linnean Society held a two-day celebration of Wallace's centenary in Bournemouth on 7 and 8 June 2013, together with the Society for the History of Natural History, Bournemouth University and Bournemouth Natural Science Society. The event included talks about Wallace, his thoughts on natural selection, his evolutionary insights, and his notebooks and letters. A theatrical performance, You Should Ask Wallace, was put on by Theatre na n'Og. On the second day the group visited Wallace's grave and went on a nature walk in Wallace's memory.
+The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ran a display of Wallace memorabilia including letters, photographs, artefacts made from plants, and herbarium specimens in 2013. Kew magazine likewise published an article "The Wallace Connection" to mark the centenary.
+The American Museum of Natural History, New York City, planned a talk by naturalist and broadcaster David Attenborough for 12 November 2013, entitled 'Alfred Russel Wallace and the Birds of Paradise'. Birute Galdikas, one of Louis Leakey's 'ape women', spoke about her orangutans at the museum's Wallace conference.
+In 2013 the BBC broadcast a two-part television series, Bill Bailey's Jungle Hero: Alfred Russel Wallace, in which the musician and comedian Bill Bailey travelled in the footsteps of Wallace in Indonesia to show what the naturalist achieved.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Natural History Museum: Wallace100
+Wallace Fund: Wallace100
+DarwinLive: Alfred Russel Wallace Centennial 2013: Celebration of a Naturalist's Quest

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_expedition-0.md

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+---
+title: "Botanical expedition"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_expedition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:22.541125+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A botanical expedition (sometimes called "Plant hunting") is a scientific voyage designed to explore the flora of a particular region, either as a specific design or part of a larger expedition. A naturalist or botanist would be responsible for identification, description and collection of specimens. In some cases the plants might be collected by the person in the field, but described and named by a government sponsored scientist at a botanical garden or university. For example, species collected on the Lewis and Clark Expedition were described and named by Frederick Traugott Pursh.
+While accounts of plant collection occur in antiquity, a scientific basis occurred during the Renaissance and was associated with the establishment of botanical gardens and the teaching of botany as a discipline. The practice of botanical expeditions reached a peak in the late 18th and during the 19th century with the systematic organisation of plants into taxonomic classifications. Plant collection has attracted a number of criticisms of exploitation and colonialism leading to the establishment of international regulations and safeguards. 
+
+
+== Description ==
+
+Botanical expeditions have often been referred to as "plant hunting" (or less commonly "botanomania"). They are mainly scientific journeys or voyages designed to explore the flora of a particular region. In some cases such an expedition could be specifically designed for exploring the flora, or be part of studying the overall natural history or geography of the region. A naturalist or botanist with the expedition would be responsible for identifying, describing and drawing or photographing the plants, collecting specimens using equipment such as a plant press or Wardian case, and identifying those of potential economic importantance. On botanical expeditions funded by governments, the plants were often collected by the person in the field, but described and named by government sponsored scientists at botanical gardens and universities. For example, many of the species collected on the Lewis and Clark Expedition were described and named by Frederick Traugott Pursh.
+Botanical expeditions have been driven by a number of motives, such as scientific discovery, economic incentives in terms of resources or for the horticultural trade, such as the Veitch enterprise in the late 19th century. Collection in the field and transportation provided considerable challenges. Initially, dried specimens together with descriptions and drawings were the main way of adding to the knowledge of the flora. Examples include the drawings by local artists described by Wallich at the botanical gardens in Calcutta in the early 19th century. These initial descriptions then became the “type”, or reference, for subsequent descriptions of the taxon. Transportation of live specimens was initially fraught with hazard, as described by John Lindley of the London Horticultural Society in 1824, with one estimate of survival in 1819, being one in a thousand. This problem was considerably improved by the development of the Wardian case in 1829.
+
+The plant collector’s job is to uncover the hidden beauties of the world, so that others may share his joy.Frank Kingdon-Ward, From China to Hkamti Long, 1924.
+
+
+== History ==
+The systematic collection of plants dates from the Renaissance although accounts of organised collection date back as far as the Pharaohs of 2000 BCE who illustrated plants and trees they found on their military campaigns abroad, while Queen Hatsheput (c. 1507–1458 BCE) dispatched an expedition to bring back frankincense from Punt (probably modern day Somalia). Later, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) would bring back plants from his expeditions, increasing the level of botanical knowledge of his time, and establishing the Silk Roads between the Far East and Europe. Following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the emphasis shifted to maritime routes of exploration. The Renaissance brought a new understanding of plants from study of ancient texts, in particular those of Aristotle and Theophrastus, leading to not only collection, but also the establishment of botanical gardens (such as those of Pisa and Padua in the 1540s and Bologna in 1568), the publication of herbals that described the plants and the teaching of botany in the universities. In addition to the collection and growing of live plants in the gardens, came the establishment of the hortus siccus (dry garden) for dried specimens and the physic garden for medicinal plants. The first professional hunters were probably the 17th century Tradescants. Many of the most important expeditions took part in the late 18th and 19th centuries with the systematic organisation of plants into taxonomic classifications. There were many dangers involved in plant collecting expeditions, and some ended tragically.
+
+
+== Criticism ==
+Plant hunting has been the subject of criticism, for its Eurocentric and colonialist past and also attracted description as piracy and theft. This in turn has led to the creation of the Convention on Biologiocal Diversity and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) to ensure that those countries from which the plants originated also benefit. also the wealth that created the opportunities for European nations to mount major expeditions came partly from slavery, while a number of early plant collectors were missionaries, such as Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit priest who arrived in China in 1582. Other collectors were diplomats and merchants who supplied the great European gardens. Plant hunting was not necessarily entirely exploitative, as many used the opportunities to also explore, understand and learn from local cultures, such as Maria Sibylla (1647 – 1717), a German naturalist who worked in the Dutch colonies of South America, and David Douglas (1799 – 1834), perhaps best known for following up on Lewis and Clark's discoveries and for the Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Other criticisms relate to failure to acknowledge the considerable contribution of local collaborators. Again, there were exceptions such as Sherriff and Ludlow who worked in the Himalayas in the 1930s and 1940s.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Plant collecting
+Stanley Field British Guiana Expedition of 1922
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens-0.md

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+---
+title: "Conservation and restoration of insect specimens"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:23.772860+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The conservation and restoration of insect specimens is the process of caring for and preserving insects as a part of a collection. Conservation concerns begin at collection and continue through preparation, storage, examination, documentation, research and treatment when restoration is needed.
+
+== Collection ==
+
+Insect collecting can be done in many different ways depending on the kind of insects being collected and from which habitats. Both hobbyists and professional entomologist have found particular ways to collect with minimal damage to their specimens. Following established techniques helps begin the conservation of insect specimens from the beginning by eliminating as much potential damage as possible. It must be done delicately to ensure that neither the collector nor the live insect itself will cause harm to the distinctive features such as wings, legs and antennae that give purpose to the collection. Special collection nets, traps and techniques must be utilized in consideration of how easily breakage can happen. A kill jar is often used to immediately immobilize the insect before it can damage itself.
+
+== Preparation ==
+The way an insect specimen is prepared is often the first step in their conservation. They have to be carefully prepared with the appropriate methods depending on their size, anatomy, and potentially delicate features to ensure they will not break before they begin their role as a specimen available for study, research and display. Some specimens must be prepared using a dry method and others with liquid to preserve. The choice made will preserve key features necessary for identification and represent the insect's living form as closely as possible.
+
+=== Pinning ===
+
+The process of pinning insect specimens is a dry method to preserve and display collections and requires special entomological equipment to accomplish effectively. It is used primarily for hard-bodied, medium to large specimens and is beneficial for easier study and color preservation. Flies and butterflies, though they are partially soft-bodied, are also best preserved through pinning because when preserved in fluid their hairs and/or scales will either clot or fall off. Some smaller specimens may still be pinned use minuten pins, which are much thinner, to avoid breakage. Insects are pinned on foam block or specialized pinning blocks that provide support for the limbs while drying and may be moved to another specialized, protected display case after they have dried completely, at which point they will be more brittle. The pin is most often driven through the thorax of the insect just to the right of the mid-line to preserve the appearance of at least one side should any damage occur from pinning. The exception is butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies, which are pinned through the middle of the thorax. Enough of the pin must be left both above and below the specimen to allow for labeling below and handling.
+
+=== Carding ===
+Carding is used when pinning would destroy too much of the specimen because its size is quite small. A triangular point is cut from acid free card to ensure best conservation practice because it comes in direct contact with the specimen. A pin is then driven through the broad side of the point for mounting. A soluble glue that can be removed with solvents when necessary is used to adhere the right side of the thorax of the specimen to the point opposite the pinned side. The point is sometimes bent to allow the specimen to present in the same position as normally pinned specimens.
+
+=== Wet specimen ===
+A wet specimen is a specimen preserved in fluid, often 70% alcohol. Specimens that would receive this preservation technique are usually soft-bodied, such as caterpillars, larva, and spiders because of their soft abdomens. This is done to minimize shriveling allowing the identifying characteristics to be preserved as true to life as possible. Hard-bodied insects may also be preserved temporarily in alcohol before pinning.
+
+=== Slides ===
+Slides of very small insects are also kept as part of insect collections.
+
+== Core aspects of conservation ==
+The American Institute for Conservation (AIC) describes in their Code of Ethics the aspects of conservation to include: preventive conservation, examination, documentation, treatment, research and education. Each of these areas also apply to the conservation and restoration of insect specimens.
+
+=== Preventive conservation ===
+Insect collections may suffer multiple types of degradation including fading colors from light exposure, mold growth from improper humidity and temperature levels, and infestations from pests that feed on dried insect, but much of this is avoidable when proper preventive conservation practices are followed.
+
+==== Routine cleaning ====
+In addition to maintaining a clean storage environment for specimens, it is sometimes necessary to clean the specimens themselves. Cleaning incredibly delicate and brittle dry insect specimens is done carefully and methodically. The conservator chooses the appropriate method based on the kind of insect that needs cleaning and how robust it is. Cleaning tools vary widely, but generally clean watercolor brushes are used to gently dust the specimens, sometimes with a stereo microscope for very small specimens, warm water and/or alcohol baths used with or without an ultrasonic cleaner, and lens blowers to gently blow away dust, or dry the specimen after a cleansing bath.
+
+==== Proper storage ====
+A common way to prevent damage from pests intent to feed on insect specimens and dust accumulation in a collection is to keep them in sealed boxes or cabinets. When properly sealed, they can also aid in preventing damages cause by relative humidity (RH) and temperature fluctuations. Wet specimens are kept in separate vials or jars and in a secure cabinet, tray or shelf. Fluid levels are regularly monitored to ensure specimens are completely immersed in fluid, though a well-sealed jar or vial will prevent excessive evaporation.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens-1.md

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+---
+title: "Conservation and restoration of insect specimens"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:23.772860+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Safe handling ====
+Proper handling for insect specimens prevents the excessive breaking of legs, antennae and other body parts that could then easily be lost. Curved forceps may be used to allow more precision and less chance of the brittle specimen coming in contact with the handler. The handler picks up the specimen by the pin, which is placed with enough space below the specimen for the handler to put in the pinning block and enough space above to grip without touching the specimen.
+
+==== Integrated pest management ====
+Integrated pest management (IPM) is a specialized modern pest control used in museums. All IPM systems begin with regular sanitation and monitoring of collections to detect castings from various pests, and checking insect traps laid out to capture and identify which pests are present. Some pests, such as carpet beetles and flour beetles, feed on dried insects. When an infestation is present, treatment may be necessary. Freezing is commonly used to rid insect collections of pests. Alternatively, inert gases may be used for an anoxic fumigation – depriving the pests of oxygen to exterminate, and in extreme cases chemical fumigation proven to be safe for collections and people may be used.
+
+=== Examination ===
+
+Assessing the condition of an insect collection is done regularly and the results are recorded accordingly. The conservator observes the specimens in high detail remarking all areas of damage, or altered states of the specimen. Tools used during this process may include a strong light source, magnifying glass and handling tools that allow the conservator to pick up the specimen from the pin without touching it. The observations made during the examination process result in the conclusions drawn for a treatment plan if necessary. The conservator is knowledgeable of the kinds of deterioration to look for specific to insect specimens.
+
+==== Common agents of deterioration ====
+Pests – Evidence of pests are recognized in castings of insects, their droppings or the damages they have caused from chewing on specimens.
+Mold – Mold is most likely to grow when humidity is high.
+Verdigris – A blue-green hair-like crystallization caused by reaction to copper and brass entomological pins and the fats from the insects internal organs.
+
+=== Documentation ===
+The documentation of insect specimens is carried out in many different aspects of a specimen's existence. Documented information begins with the capture of an insect. The collector records information about capture method, place and date of capture and any relevant habitat information in field notes. This information is then transferred to labels and collection records. The documentation path then continues with every recorded observation or treatment the specimen receives. Killing agents, preservation agents, rehydrating agents, and fumigants are all important to record. This then informs any future decisions for conservation actions.
+
+==== Labeling ====
+As a minimum, labels contain the place and date of collection, and the identification of genus and species. On pinned insects, the labels are likewise pinned with the space left under the specimen on the same pin. There are various ways to write the information on labels, but an ink that will not fade or come off in liquid is generally used. The paper is ideally 100% cotton or linen rag to avoid yellowing or embrittlement of the paper as it ages.
+
+==== Photographing and digitization ====
+With improvements in digital photography and web resources, many natural history museums have begun a new kind of documentation through digitization, bringing high quality images and associated information to anyone with access to the Internet. Large databases can hold vast amounts of information improving research efforts.
+
+==== Illustrating ====
+Scientific illustration of insects is an older technique used to preserve information about collected insects. It visually documents insects, and unlike photography, can add intellectual ideas about anatomy and behavior of the insect through artists' renditions. Scientifically informed observation of specimens combined with technical and aesthetic skill yields the highly detailed illustrations necessary for the documentation of each species that is illustrated.
+
+==== Description of the state of the specimen and treatments ====
+This area of insect specimen documentation comes after the close examination of specimens by conservators. The conservator records all of the visual information about the specimen that can be gleaned from detailed inspection. Conclusions are drawn from inspection and potential treatments are also documented to inform researchers and future conservators. 
+
+=== Research ===
+Researching the collections of insects provides important information that develops knowledge about ecology, human health and crops. Well-kept records aid the researcher in identifying whether there are differences in an observed specimen because of damages, treatments or deterioration. Research of the insect collections in museums can lead to new discoveries of species, and provide an important historical resource.
+
+=== Treatment ===
+Once a close observation reveals what issues are present in insect collections, the conservator makes a decision on actions to be taken. It is highly preferable that any treatment applied be reversible or done with little risk to the specimen. For example, broken limbs may be glued back on, which has traditionally been done with white glue. The advantage to white glue being that it is removable in warm water. Another common problem is pest infestation. When dried insect collections have suffered an infestation, the affected specimens can be frozen or sealed with inert gases to kill the pests without harming the specimens. Other treatments might include simply refilling wet specimens' jars with alcohol to ensure the specimens are completely submerged, cleaning specimens of dust and debris, or repositioning specimens for display or research. In the case that a specimen needs to be repositioned, the conservator will "relax" the specimen in a jar with a rehydrating substrate to move the limbs without breaking them. The technique used will vary among conservators. Some use a relaxing jar that the specimen is left in for days with the substrate of choice, others may choose to use a warm water bath with a drop of detergent. Whatever treatments are used are diligently documented.
+
+=== Education ===
+Conservation of insect specimens is done in large part to preserve the information for the public. The display of collections in museums and their interpretation offer one avenue that accomplishes this effort. However, websites offer a unique opportunity to disseminate information to a broad audience with layers of information to give general information or to provide depth where desired. These websites are often also provided by museums and their collections. Below is a list of some major educational endeavors with interests in insect specimens.
+
+==== Large-scale insect specimen digital preservation efforts ====
+ZooSphere
+Encyclopedia of Life
+Atlas of Living Australia
+California Terrestrial Arthropod Database
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymdeithas_Edward_Llwyd-0.md

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+---
+title: "Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymdeithas_Edward_Llwyd"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:24.997260+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd (Welsh for 'Edward Llwyd Society') is a Welsh natural history organisation whose name commemorates the great Welsh natural historian, geographer and linguist Edward Llwyd (1660–1709).
+The Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd organises regular country walks throughout Wales in sites of interest of the Welsh environment, including SSSIs and post-industrial landscapes. These are Welsh-language walking groups, although learners are just as welcome.
+They also organise a variety of nature and environmental activities, including lectures, publications and conservation work. They have worked on collecting and documenting the names of natural species.
+In 2010, the society held a conference on Welsh toponymy, at which it was agreed to form the Welsh Place-Name Society.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official site

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_guide-0.md

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+---
+title: "Field guide"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_guide"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:26.186649+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna or funga) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the "field" or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects. Field guides are often designed to help users distinguish animals and plants that may be similar in appearance but are not necessarily closely related.
+It will typically include a description of the objects covered, together with paintings or photographs and an index. More serious and scientific field identification books, including those intended for students, will probably include identification keys to assist with identification, but the publicly accessible field guide is more often a browsable picture guide organized by family, colour, shape, location or other descriptors.
+
+
+== History ==
+Popular interests in identifying things in nature probably were strongest in bird and plant guides. Perhaps the first popular field guide to plants in the United States was the 1893 How to Know the Wildflowers by "Mrs. William Starr Dana" (Frances Theodora Parsons). In 1890, Florence Merriam published Birds Through an Opera-Glass, describing 70 common species.  Focused on living birds observed in the field, the book is considered the first in the tradition of modern, illustrated bird guides. In 1902, now writing as Florence Merriam Bailey (having married the zoologist Vernon Bailey), she published Handbook of Birds of the Western United States.  By contrast, the Handbook is designed as a comprehensive reference for the lab rather a portable book for the field. It was arranged by taxonomic order and had clear descriptions of species size, distribution, feeding, and nesting habits.
+From this point into the 1930s, features of field guides were introduced by Chester A. Reed and others such as changing the size of the book to fit the pocket, including colour plates, and producing guides in uniform editions that covered subjects such as garden and woodland flowers, mushrooms, insects, and dogs.
+In 1934, Roger Tory Peterson, using his fine skill as an artist, changed the way modern field guides approached identification. Using color plates with paintings of similar species together – and marked with arrows showing the differences – people could use his bird guide in the field to compare species quickly to make identification easier. This technique, the "Peterson Identification System", was used in most of Peterson's Field Guides from animal tracks to seashells and has been widely adopted by other publishers and authors as well.
+Today, each field guide has its own range, focus and organization.  Specialist publishers such as Croom Helm, along with organisations like the Audubon Society,  the RSPB, the Field Studies Council, National Geographic, HarperCollins, and many others all produce quality field guides.
+
+
+== Principles ==
+It is somewhat difficult to generalise about how field guides are intended to be used, because this varies from one guide to another, partly depending on how expert the targeted reader is expected to be.
+For general public use, the main function of a field guide is to help the reader identify a bird, plant, rock, butterfly or other natural object down to at least the popular naming level. To this end some field guides employ simple keys and other techniques: the reader is usually encouraged to scan illustrations looking for a match, and to compare similar-looking choices using information on their differences. Guides are often designed to first lead readers to the appropriate section of the book, where the choices are not so overwhelming in number.
+Guides for students often introduce the concept of identification keys. Plant field guides such as Newcomb's Wildflower Guide (which is limited in scope to the wildflowers of northeastern North America) frequently have an abbreviated key that helps limit the search. Insect guides tend to limit identification to Order or Family levels rather than individual species, due to their diversity.
+Many taxa show variability and it is often difficult to capture the constant features using a small number of photographs. Illustrations by artists or post processing of photographs help in emphasising specific features needed to for reliable identification. Peterson introduced the idea of lines to point to these key features. This passage was written by his wife, Virginia Marie Peterson, in the preface to one of his field guides:
+
+A drawing can do much more than a photograph to emphasize the field marks. A photograph is a record of a fleeting instant; a drawing is a composite of the artist's experience. The artist can edit out, show field marks to best advantage, and delete unnecessary clutter. He can choose position and stress basic color and pattern unmodified by transitory light and shade. ... The artist has more options and far more control ... Whereas a photograph can have a living immediacy a good drawing is really more instructive.
+Field guides aid in improving the state of knowledge of various taxa. By making the knowledge of experienced museum specialists available to amateurs, they increase the gathering of information by amateurs from a wider geographic area and increasing the communication of these findings to the specialists.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Field Guides from the Encyclopedia of Life.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-0.md

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 1/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by active flight, by passive gliding or, in rare occasions, by kiting/ballooning. Such animals typically have appendages that interact with air to generate lift in order to overcome the weight of their own body and any payload they are carrying (e.g. food/prey, nesting materials). Majority of flying and glide animals are terrestrial, while species from one extant taxon, i.e. the flying fish, are aquatic.
+The ability to fly or glide has appeared via convergent evolution many times throughout the history of life, and has evolved prominently in at least four terrestrial clades: insects, pterosaurs, birds and bats. Gliding and kiting, which are essentially controlled, prolonged free falls, have evolved on many more occasions, especially among arboreal species. Usually the aerial trait is to aid animals leaping directly across extended distances from one tree canopy to another without having to descend to the ground, which will otherwise expose them to risks from ground predators, although there are other reasons why aerial locomotions have developed. Gliding, in particular, has evolved among forest animals, especially in the rainforests in Asia (most especially Borneo) where the trees are tall (making it costly to descend and travel between trees) and groundcovers are dense (thus favoring ambush predators). Several species of amphibians (e.g. flying frogs) and reptiles (e.g. flying lizards and flying snakes) have also evolved gliding ability, typically as a means of escape behavior to evade predators, while kiting/ballooning (which resembles paragliding or kitesurfing) has developed among several species of silk-spinning invertebrates such as spiders, spider mites and some caterpillars as a means of airborne dispersal.
+
+== Types ==
+Animal aerial locomotion can be divided into two categories: powered and unpowered. In unpowered modes of locomotion, the animal uses aerodynamic forces exerted on the body due to wind or falling through the air. In powered flight, the animal uses muscular power to generate aerodynamic forces to climb or to maintain steady, level flight. Those who can find air that is rising faster than they are falling can gain altitude by soaring.
+
+=== Unpowered ===
+These modes of locomotion typically require an animal start from a raised location, converting that potential energy into kinetic energy and using aerodynamic forces to control trajectory and angle of descent. Energy is continually lost to drag without being replaced, thus these methods of locomotion have limited range and duration.
+
+Falling: decreasing altitude under the force of gravity, using no adaptations to increase drag or provide lift.
+Parachuting: falling at an angle greater than 45° from the horizontal with adaptations to increase drag forces. Very small animals may be carried up by the wind. Some gliding animals may use their gliding membranes for drag rather than lift, to safely descend.
+Gliding flight: falling at an angle less than 45° from the horizontal with lift from adapted aerofoil membranes. This allows slowly falling directed horizontal movement, with streamlining to decrease drag forces for aerofoil efficiency and often with some maneuverability in air. Gliding animals have a lower aspect ratio (wing length/breadth) than true flyers.
+
+=== Powered flight ===
+Powered flight has evolved at least four times: first in the insects, then in pterosaurs, next in birds, and last in bats. Studies on theropod dinosaurs do suggest multiple (at least 3) independent acquisitions of powered flight however, and a recent study proposes independent acquisitions amidst the different bat clades as well. Powered flight uses muscles to generate aerodynamic force, which allows the animal to produce lift and thrust. The animal may ascend without the aid of rising air.
+
+=== Externally powered ===
+Ballooning and soaring are not powered by muscle, but rather by external aerodynamic sources of energy: the wind and rising thermals, respectively. Both can continue as long as the source of external power is present. Soaring is typically only seen in species capable of powered flight, as it requires extremely large wings.
+
+Ballooning: being carried up into the air from the aerodynamic effect on long strands of silk in the wind. Certain silk-producing arthropods, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight gossamer silk for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude.
+Soaring: gliding in rising or otherwise moving air that requires specific physiological and morphological adaptations that can sustain the animal aloft without flapping its wings. The rising air is due to thermals, ridge lift or other meteorological features. Under the right conditions, soaring creates a gain of altitude without expending energy. Large wingspans are needed for efficient soaring.
+Many species will use multiple of these modes at various times; a hawk will use powered flight to rise, then soar on thermals, then descend via free-fall to catch its prey.
+
+== Evolution and ecology ==

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Gliding and parachuting ===
+While gliding occurs independently from powered flight, it has some ecological advantages of its own as it is the simplest form of flight. Gliding is a very energy-efficient way of travelling from tree to tree. Although moving through the canopy running along the branches may be less energetically demanding, the faster transition between trees allows for greater foraging rates in a particular patch. Glide ratios can be dependent on size and current behavior. Higher foraging rates are supported by low glide ratios as smaller foraging patches require less gliding time over shorter distances and greater amounts of food can be acquired in a shorter time period. Low ratios are not as energy efficient as the higher ratios, but an argument made is that many gliding animals eat low energy foods such as leaves and are restricted to gliding because of this, whereas flying animals eat more high energy foods such as fruits, nectar, and insects. Mammals tend to rely on lower glide ratios to increase the amount of time foraging for lower energy food. An equilibrium glide, achieving a constant airspeed and glide angle, is harder to obtain as animal size increases. Larger animals need to glide from much higher heights and longer distances to make it energetically beneficial. Gliding is also very suitable for predator avoidance, allowing for controlled targeted landings to safer areas. In contrast to flight, gliding has evolved independently many times (more than a dozen times among extant vertebrates); however these groups have not radiated nearly as much as have groups of flying animals.
+Worldwide, the distribution of gliding animals is uneven, as most inhabit rain forests in Southeast Asia. (Despite seemingly suitable rain forest habitats, few gliders are found in India or New Guinea and none in Madagascar.) Additionally, a variety of gliding vertebrates are found in Africa, a family of hylids (flying frogs) lives in South America and several species of gliding squirrels are found in the forests of northern Asia and North America. Various factors produce these disparities. In the forests of Southeast Asia, the dominant canopy trees (usually dipterocarps) are taller than the canopy trees of the other forests. Forest structure and distance between trees are influential in the development of gliding within varying species. A higher start provides a competitive advantage of further glides and farther travel. Gliding predators may more efficiently search for prey. The lower abundance of insect and small vertebrate prey for carnivorous animals (such as lizards) in Asian forests may be a factor. In Australia, many mammals (and all mammalian gliders) possess, to some extent, prehensile tails. Globally, smaller gliding species tend to have feather-like tails and larger species have fur covered round bushy tails, but smaller animals tend to rely on parachuting rather than developing gliding membranes. The gliding membranes, patagium, are classified in the 4 groups of propatagium, digipatagium, plagiopatagium and uropatagium. These membranes consist of two tightly bounded layers of skin connected by muscles and connective tissue between the fore and hind limbs.
+
+=== Powered flight evolution ===

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Powered flight has evolved unambiguously only four times—birds, bats, pterosaurs, and insects (though see above for possible independent acquisitions within bird and bat groups). In contrast to gliding, which has evolved more frequently but typically gives rise to only a handful of species, all three extant groups of powered flyers have a huge number of species, suggesting that flight is a very successful strategy once evolved. Bats, after rodents, have the most species of any mammalian order, about 20% of all mammalian species. Birds have the most species of any class of terrestrial vertebrates. Finally, insects (most of which fly at some point in their life cycle) have more species than all other animal groups combined.
+The evolution of flight is one of the most striking and demanding in animal evolution, and has attracted the attention of many prominent scientists and generated many theories. Additionally, because flying animals tend to be small and have a low mass (both of which increase the surface-area-to-mass ratio), they tend to fossilize infrequently and poorly compared to the larger, heavier-boned terrestrial species they share habitat with. Fossils of flying animals tend to be confined to exceptional fossil deposits formed under highly specific circumstances, resulting in a generally poor fossil record, and a particular lack of transitional forms. Furthermore, as fossils do not preserve behavior or muscle, it can be difficult to discriminate between a poor flyer and a good glider.
+Insects were the first to evolve flight, approximately 350 million years ago. The developmental origin of the insect wing remains in dispute, as does the purpose prior to true flight. One suggestion is that wings initially evolved from tracheal gill structures and were used to catch the wind for small insects that live on the surface of the water, while another is that they evolved from paranotal lobes or leg structures and gradually progressed from parachuting, to gliding, to flight for originally arboreal insects.
+Pterosaurs were the next to evolve flight, approximately 228 million years ago. These reptiles were close relatives of the dinosaurs, and reached enormous sizes, with some of the last forms being the largest flying animals ever to inhabit the Earth, having wingspans of over 9.1 m (30 ft). However, they spanned a large range of sizes, down to a 250 mm (10 in) wingspan in Nemicolopterus.
+Birds have an extensive fossil record, along with many forms documenting both their evolution from small theropod dinosaurs and the numerous bird-like forms of theropod which did not survive the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Indeed, Archaeopteryx is arguably the most famous transitional fossil in the world, both due to its mix of reptilian and avian anatomy and the luck of being discovered only two years after Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species. However, the ecology of this transition is considerably more contentious, with various scientists supporting either a "trees down" origin (in which an arboreal ancestor evolved gliding, then flight) or a "ground up" origin (in which a fast-running terrestrial ancestor used wings for a speed boost and to help catch prey). It may also have been a non-linear process, as several non-avian dinosaurs seem to have independently acquired powered flight.
+Bats are the most recent to evolve (about 60 million years ago), most likely from a fluttering ancestor, though their poor fossil record has hindered more detailed study.
+Only a few animals are known to have specialised in soaring: the larger of the extinct pterosaurs, and some large birds. Powered flight is very energetically expensive for large animals, but for soaring their size is an advantage, as it allows them a low wing loading, that is a large wing area relative to their weight, which maximizes lift. 
+
+== Biomechanics ==
+
+=== Gliding and parachuting ===
+During a free-fall with no aerodynamic forces, the object accelerates due to gravity, resulting in increasing velocity as the object descends. During parachuting, animals use the aerodynamic forces on their body to counteract the force of gravity. Any object moving through air experiences a drag force that is proportional to surface area and velocity squared; this force will partially counter the force of gravity, slowing the animal's descent to a safer speed. If this drag is oriented at an angle to the vertical, the animal's trajectory will gradually become more horizontal, and it will cover horizontal as well as vertical distance. Smaller adjustments can allow turning or other maneuvers. This can allow a parachuting animal to move from a high location on one tree to a lower location on another tree nearby. Specifically in gliding mammals, there are 3 types of gliding paths respectively: S glide, J glide, and "straight-shaped" glides where species either gain altitude post-launch then descend, rapidly decrease height before gliding, or maintain a constant angled descent.
+During gliding, lift plays an increased role. Like drag, lift is proportional to velocity squared. Gliding animals will typically leap or drop from high locations such as trees, just as in parachuting, and as gravitational acceleration increases their speed, the aerodynamic forces also increase. Because the animal can utilize lift and drag to generate greater aerodynamic force, it can glide at a shallower angle than parachuting animals, allowing it to cover greater horizontal distance in the same loss of altitude, and reach trees further away. Successful flights for gliding animals are achieved through 5 steps: preparation, launch, glide, braking, and landing. Gliding species are better able to control themselves mid-air, with the tail acting as a rudder, making it capable to pull off banking movements or U-turns during flight. During landing, arboreal mammals will extend their fore and hind limbs in front of itself to brace for landing and to trap air in order to maximize air resistance and lower impact speed.
+
+=== Powered flight ===

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 4/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Unlike most air vehicles, in which the objects that generate lift (wings) and thrust (engine or propeller) are separate and the wings remain fixed, flying animals use their wings to generate both lift and thrust by moving them relative to the body. This has made the flight of organisms considerably harder to understand than that of vehicles, as it involves varying speeds, angles, orientations, areas, and flow patterns over the wings.
+A bird or bat flying through the air at a constant speed moves its wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of its wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This will generate lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards. The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole. Pterosaur flight likely worked in a similar manner, though no living pterosaurs remain for study.
+Insect flight is considerably different, due to their small size, rigid wings, and other anatomical differences. Turbulence and vortices play a much larger role in insect flight, making it even more complex and difficult to study than the flight of vertebrates. There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect flight. Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling leading edge vortex. Some very small insects use the fling-and-clap or Weis-Fogh mechanism in which the wings clap together above the insect's body and then fling apart. As they fling open, the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing. This bound vortex then moves across the wing and, in the clap, acts as the starting vortex for the other wing. Circulation and lift are increased, at the price of wear and tear on the wings.
+
+== Limits and extremes ==
+
+=== Flying and soaring ===
+
+==== Largest ====
+The largest known flying animal was formerly thought to be Pteranodon, a pterosaur with a wingspan of up to 7.5 metres (25 ft). However, the more recently discovered azhdarchid pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus is much larger, with estimates of the wingspan ranging from 9 to 12 metres (30 to 39 ft). Some other recently discovered azhdarchid pterosaur species, such as Hatzegopteryx, may have also wingspans of a similar size or even slightly larger. Although it is widely thought that Quetzalcoatlus reached the size limit of a flying animal, the same was once said of Pteranodon. The heaviest living flying animals are the kori bustard and the great bustard with males reaching 21 kilograms (46 lb). The wandering albatross has the greatest wingspan of any living flying animal at 3.63 metres (11.9 ft). Among living animals which fly over land, the Andean condor and the marabou stork have the largest wingspan at 3.2 metres (10 ft). Studies have shown that it is physically possible for flying animals to reach 18-metre (59 ft) wingspans, but there is no firm evidence that any flying animal, not even the azhdarchid pterosaurs, got that large.
+
+==== Smallest ====
+There is no minimum size for getting airborne. Indeed, there are many bacteria floating in the atmosphere that constitute part of the aeroplankton. However, to move about under one's own power and not be overly affected by the wind requires a certain amount of size. The smallest flying vertebrates are the bee hummingbird and the bumblebee bat, both of which may weigh less than 2 grams (0.071 oz). They are thought to represent the lower size limit for endotherm flight. The smallest flying invertebrate is a fairyfly wasp species, Kikiki huna, at 0.15 mm (0.0059 in) (150 μm).
+
+==== Fastest ====
+The fastest of all known flying animals is the peregrine falcon, which when diving travels at 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph) or faster. The fastest animal in flapping horizontal flight may be the Mexican free-tailed bat, said to attain about 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) based on ground speed by an aircraft tracking device; that measurement does not separate any contribution from wind speed, so the observations could be caused by strong tailwinds.
+
+==== Slowest ====
+Most flying animals need to travel forward to stay aloft. However, some creatures can stay in the same spot, known as hovering, either by rapidly flapping the wings, as do hummingbirds, hoverflies, dragonflies, and some others, or carefully using thermals, as do some birds of prey. The slowest flying non-hovering bird recorded is the American woodcock, at 8 kilometres per hour (5.0 mph).
+
+==== Highest flying ====
+There are records of a Rüppell's vulture Gyps rueppelli, a large vulture, being sucked into a jet engine 11,550 metres (37,890 ft) above Côte d'Ivoire in West Africa. The animal that flies highest most regularly is the bar-headed goose Anser indicus, which migrates directly over the Himalayas between its nesting grounds in Tibet and its winter quarters in India. They are sometimes seen flying well above the peak of Mount Everest at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft).
+
+=== Gliding and parachuting ===
+
+==== Most efficient glider ====
+This can be taken as the animal that moves most horizontal distance per metre fallen. Flying squirrels are known to glide up to 200 metres (660 ft), but have measured glide ratio of about 2. Flying fish have been observed to glide for hundreds of metres on the drafts on the edge of waves with only their initial leap from the water to provide height, but may be obtaining additional lift from wave motion. On the other hand, albatrosses have measured lift–drag ratios of 20, and thus fall just 1 meter for every 20 in still air.

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 5/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Most maneuverable glider ====
+Many gliding animals have some ability to turn, but which is the most maneuverable is difficult to assess. Even paradise tree snakes, Chinese gliding frogs, and gliding ants have been observed as having considerable capacity to turn in the air.
+
+== Flying animals ==
+
+=== Extant ===
+
+==== Insects ====
+
+Pterygota: The first of all animals to evolve flight, they are also the only invertebrates that have evolved flight. As they comprise almost all insects, the species are too numerous to list here. Insect flight is an active research field.
+
+==== Birds ====
+
+Birds (flying, soaring) – Most of the approximately 10,000 living species can fly (flightless birds are the exception). Bird flight is one of the most studied forms of aerial locomotion in animals. See List of soaring birds for birds that can soar as well as fly.
+
+==== Mammals ====
+
+Bats. There are approximately 1,240 bat species, representing about 20% of all classified mammal species. Most bats are nocturnal and many feed on insects while flying at night, using echolocation to home in on their prey.
+
+=== Extinct ===
+
+==== Reptile: Pterosaurs ====
+Pterosaurs were the first flying vertebrates, and are generally agreed to have been sophisticated flyers. They had large wings formed by a patagium stretching from the torso to a dramatically lengthened fourth finger. There were hundreds of species, most of which are thought to have been intermittent flappers, and many soarers. The largest known flying animals are pterosaurs.
+
+==== Non-avian dinosaurs ====
+Theropods (gliding and flying). There were several species of theropod dinosaur thought to be capable of gliding or flying, that are not classified as birds (though they are closely related). Some species (Microraptor gui, Microraptor zhaoianus, and Changyuraptor) have been found that were fully feathered on all four limbs, giving them four 'wings' that they are believed to have used for gliding or flying. A recent study indicates that flight may have been acquired independently in various different lineages though it may have only evolved in theropods of the Avialae.
+
+== Gliding animals ==
+
+=== Extant ===
+
+==== Insects ====
+Gliding bristletails. Directed aerial gliding descent is found in some tropical arboreal bristletails, an ancestrally wingless sister taxa to the winged insects. The bristletails median caudal filament is important for the glide ratio and gliding control
+Gliding ants. The flightless workers of these insects have secondarily gained some capacity to move through the air. Gliding has evolved independently in a number of arboreal ant species from the groups Cephalotini, Pseudomyrmecinae, and Formicinae (mostly Camponotus). All arboreal dolichoderines and non-cephalotine myrmicines except Daceton armigerum do not glide. Living in the rainforest canopy like many other gliders, gliding ants use their gliding to return to the trunk of the tree they live on should they fall or be knocked off a branch. Gliding was first discovered for Cephalotes atratus in the Peruvian rainforest. Cephalotes atratus can make 180 degree turns, and locate the trunk using visual cues, succeeding in landing 80% of the time. Unique among gliding animals, Cephalotini and Pseudomyrmecinae ants glide abdomen first, the Forminicae however glide in the more conventional head first manner.
+Gliding immature insects. The wingless immature stages of some insect species that have wings as adults may also show a capacity to glide. These include some species of cockroach, mantis, katydid, stick insect and true bug.
+
+==== Spiders ====
+Ballooning spiders (parachuting). The young of some species of spiders travel through the air by using silk draglines to catch the wind, as may some smaller species of adult spider, such as the money spider family. This behavior is commonly known as "ballooning". Ballooning spiders make up part of the aeroplankton.
+
+Gliding Selenopid spiders. Directed aerial descent, analogous to that observed in bristletails and ants, has also been observed in arboreal Selenopid spiders in Panama and Peru. Kinematic measurements obtained using a vertical wind tunnel indicated that steering is controlled via the forelegs, while the six remaining legs are held in a fixed posture.
+
+==== Molluscs ====
+Flying squid. Several oceanic squids of the family Ommastrephidae, such as the Pacific flying squid, will leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids will fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 metres (160 ft). Small fins towards the back of the mantle do not produce much lift, but do help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The neon flying squid has been observed to glide for distances over 30 metres (100 ft), at speeds of up to 11.2 metres per second (37 ft/s; 40 km/h).

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 6/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Fish ====
+Flying fish. There are over 50 species of flying fish belonging to the family Exocoetidae. They are mostly marine fishes of small to medium size. The largest flying fish can reach lengths of 45 centimetres (18 in) but most species measure less than 30 cm (12 in) in length. They can be divided into two-winged varieties and four-winged varieties. Before the fish leaves the water it increases its speed to around 30 body lengths per second and as it breaks the surface and is freed from the drag of the water it can be traveling at around 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph). The glides are usually up to 30–50 metres (100–160 ft) in length, but some have been observed soaring for hundreds of metres using the updraft on the leading edges of waves. The fish can also make a series of glides, each time dipping the tail into the water to produce forward thrust. The longest recorded series of glides, with the fish only periodically dipping its tail in the water, was for 45 seconds (Video here). It has been suggested that the genus Exocoetus is on an evolutionary borderline between flight and gliding. It flaps its large pectoral fins while gliding, but does not use a power stroke like flying animals. It has been found that some flying fish can glide as effectively as some flying birds.
+live bearers
+Halfbeaks. A group related to the Exocoetidae, one or two hemirhamphid species possess enlarged pectoral fins and show true gliding flight rather than simple leaps. Marshall (1965) reports that Euleptorhamphus viridis can cover 50 metres (160 ft) in two separate hops.
+Trinidadian guppies have been observed exhibiting a gliding response to escape predator's 
+Freshwater butterflyfish (possibly gliding). Pantodon buchholzi has the ability to jump and possibly glide a short distance. It can move through the air several times the length of its body. While it does this, the fish flaps its large pectoral fins, giving it its common name. However, it is debated whether the freshwater butterfly fish can truly glide, Saidel et al. (2004) argue that it cannot.
+Freshwater hatchetfish. In the wild, they have been observed jumping out of the water and gliding (although reports of them achieving powered flight has been brought up many times).
+
+==== Amphibians ====
+Gliding has evolved independently in two families of tree frogs, the Old World Rhacophoridae and the New World Hylidae. Within each lineage there are a range of gliding abilities from non-gliding, to parachuting, to full gliding.
+
+Rhacophoridae flying frogs. A number of the Rhacophoridae, such as Wallace's flying frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus), have adaptations for gliding, the main feature being enlarged toe membranes. For example, the Malayan flying frog Rhacophorus prominanus glides using the membranes between the toes of its limbs, and small membranes located at the heel, the base of the leg, and the forearm. Some of the frogs are quite accomplished gliders, for example, the Chinese flying frog Rhacophorus dennysi can maneuver in the air, making two kinds of turn, either rolling into the turn (a banked turn) or yawing into the turn (a crabbed turn).
+Hylidae flying frogs. The other frog family that contains gliders.
+
+==== Reptiles ====
+Several lizards and snakes are capable of gliding:
+
+ Draco lizards. There are 28 species of lizard of the genus Draco, found in Sri Lanka, India, and Southeast Asia. They live in trees, feeding on tree ants, but nest on the forest floor. They can glide for up to 60 metres (200 ft) and over this distance they lose only 10 metres (30 ft) in height. Unusually, their patagium (gliding membrane) is supported on elongated ribs rather than the more common situation among gliding vertebrates of having the patagium attached to the limbs. When extended, the ribs form a semicircle on either side the lizard's body and can be folded to the body like a folding fan.
+Gliding lacertids. There are two species of gliding lacertid, of the genus Holaspis, found in Africa. They have fringed toes and tail sides and can flatten their bodies for gliding or parachuting.
+ Ptychozoon flying geckos. There are six species of gliding gecko, of the genus Ptychozoon, from Southeast Asia. These lizards have small flaps of skin along their limbs, torso, tail, and head that catch the air and enable them to glide.
+Lupersaurus flying geckos. A possible sister-taxon to Ptychozoon which has similar flaps and folds and also glides.
+Thecadactylus flying geckos. At least some species of Thecadactylus, such as T. rapicauda, are known to glide.
+Hemidactylus flying gecko. Similar adaptations to Ptychozoon are found in the two species of the gecko genus Hemidactylus.
+Chrysopelea snakes. Five species of snake from Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and India. The paradise tree snake of southern Thailand, Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines, and Sulawesi is the most capable glider of those snakes studied. It glides by stretching out its body sideways and opening its ribs so the belly is concave, and by making lateral slithering movements. It can remarkably glide up to 100 metres (330 ft) and make 90 degree turns.
+
+==== Mammals ====
+Bats are the only freely flying mammals. A few other mammals can glide or parachute; the best known are flying squirrels and flying lemurs.

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 7/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Flying squirrels (tribe pteromyini). There are more than 50 living species divided between 16 genera of flying squirrel. Flying squirrels are found in Asia (most species), North America (genus Glaucomys) and Europe (Siberian flying squirrel). They inhabit tropical, temperate, and Subarctic environments, with the Glaucomys preferring boreal and montane coniferous forests, specifically landing on red spruce (Picea rubens) trees as landing sites; they are known to rapidly climb trees, but take some time to locate a good landing spot. They tend to be nocturnal and are highly sensitive to light and noise. When a flying squirrel wishes to cross to a tree that is further away than the distance possible by jumping, it extends the cartilage spur on its elbow or wrist. This opens out the flap of furry skin (the patagium) that stretches from its wrist to its ankle. It glides spread-eagle and with its tail fluffed out like a parachute, and grips the tree with its claws when it lands. Flying squirrels have been reported to glide over 200 metres (660 ft).
+Anomalures or scaly-tailed flying squirrels (family Anomaluridae). These brightly coloured African rodents are not squirrels but have evolved to a resemble flying squirrels by convergent evolution. There are seven species, divided in three genera. All but one species have gliding membranes between their front and hind legs. The genus Idiurus contains two particularly small species known as flying mice, but similarly they are not true mice.
+Colugos or "flying lemurs" (order Dermoptera). There are two species of colugo. Despite their common name, colugos are not lemurs; true lemurs are primates. Molecular evidence suggests that colugos are a sister group to primates; however, some mammalogists suggest they are a sister group to bats. Found in Southeast Asia, the colugo is probably the mammal most adapted for gliding, with a patagium that is as large as geometrically possible. They can glide as far as 70 metres (230 ft) with minimal loss of height. They have the most developed propatagium out of any gliding mammal with a mean launch velocity of approximately 3.7 m/s; the Mayan Colugo has been known to initiate glides without jumping.
+Sifaka (Genus Propithecus) a type of lemur, and possibly some other primates (possible limited gliding or parachuting). A number of primates have been suggested to have adaptations that allow limited gliding or parachuting: sifakas, indris, galagos and saki monkeys. Most notably, the sifaka, a type of lemur, has thick hairs on its forearms that have been argued to provide drag, and a small membrane under its arms that has been suggested to provide lift by having aerofoil properties.
+Flying phalangers or wrist-winged gliders (genus Petaurus). Possums found in Australia, and New Guinea. The gliding membranes are hardly noticeable until they jump. On jumping, the animal extends all four legs and stretches the loose folds of skin. The subfamily contains seven species. Of the six species in the genus Petaurus, the sugar glider and the Biak glider are the most common species.
+Greater gliders (genus Petauroides). Are three species of the genus Petauroides of the subfamily hemibelideinae. These marsupials are found in Australia, and was originally classed with the flying phalangers, but is now recognised as separate. Its flying membrane only extends to the elbow, rather than to the wrist as in Petaurinae. It has elongated limbs compared to its non-gliding relatives.
+Ring-tailed glider (Tous ayamaruensis). A specie of gliding possum of the subfamily Hemibelideinae, having unique combination of both a strongly prehensile tail and a well-developed patagium. It is further distinguished from its closest relatives by its very small size, naked ears, ear rings, and non-bushy tapering tail.
+Feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus). A possum found in Australia the size of a very small mouse and the smallest mammalian glider.
+
+=== Extinct ===
+
+==== Reptiles ====
+Extinct reptiles similar to Draco. There are a number of unrelated extinct lizard-like reptiles with similar "wings" to the Draco lizards. These include the Late Permian Weigeltisauridae, the Triassic Kuehneosauridae and Mecistotrachelos, and the Cretaceous lizard Xianglong. The largest, Kuehneosuchus, had a wingspan of 40 centimetres (16 in).
+Sharovipterygidae. These strange reptiles from the Upper Triassic of Kyrgyzstan and Poland had a membrane on their elongated hind limbs, extending their otherwise normal, flying-squirrel-like patagia significantly. In contrast, their forelimbs were much smaller.
+Hypuronector. This bizarre drepanosaur displayed limb proportions, particularly the elongated forelimbs, consistent with a flying or gliding animal with patagia.
+
+==== Non-avian dinosaurs ====
+ Scansoriopterygidae is unique among theropods as it developed membranous wings instead of feathered airfoils. Much like modern anomalures, it developed a bony rod to help support the wing, albeit on the wrist and not the elbow.
+
+==== Fish ====
+Thoracopteridae is a lineage of Triassic flying fish-like Perleidiformes, having converted their pectoral and pelvic fins into broad wings very similar to those of their modern counterparts. The Ladinian genus Potanichthys is the oldest member of this clade, suggesting that these fish began exploring aerial niches soon after the Permian-Triassic extinction event.
+
+==== Mammals ====
+Volaticotherium antiquum, a gliding eutriconodont long considered the earliest gliding mammal until the discovery of the contemporary gliding haramiyidans. It lived around 164 million years ago during the Middle-Late Jurassic of what is now China, and used a fur-covered skin membrane to glide through the air.  The closely related Argentoconodon is also thought to have been able to glide based on postcranial similarities.
+The haramiyidans Vilevolodon, Xianshou, Maiopatagium, and Arboroharamiya, known from the Middle-Late Jurassic of China, had extensive patagia, highly convergent with those of colugos.
+A gliding metatherian, possibly a marsupial, known from the Paleocene of Itaboraí, Brazil.
+A gliding rodent belonging to the extinct family Eomyidae, Eomys quercyi, known from the late Oligocene of Germany.
+
+== See also ==
+Animal locomotion
+Flying mythological creatures
+Insect thermoregulation
+Organisms at high altitude
+Aerial locomotion in marine animals
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Flying and gliding animals"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Davenport, J. (1994). "How and why do flying fish fly?". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 40 (2): 184–214. Bibcode:1994RFBF....4..184D. doi:10.1007/BF00044128. S2CID 34720887.
+Saidel, W.M.; Strain, G.F.; Fornari, S.K. (2004). "Characterization of the aerial escape response of the African butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholzi Peters". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 71 (1): 63–72. Bibcode:2004EnvBF..71...63S. doi:10.1023/b:ebfi.0000043153.38418.cd. S2CID 11856131.
+Xu, Xing; Zhou, Zhonghe; Wang, Xiaolin; Kuang, Xuewen; Zhang, Fucheng; Du, Xiangke (2003). "Four-winged dinosaurs from China" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6921): 335–340. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..335X. doi:10.1038/nature01342. PMID 12540892. S2CID 1160118.
+Schiøtz, A.; Vosloe, H. (1959). "The gliding flight of Holaspis guentheri Gray, a west-African lacertid". Copeia. 1959 (3): 259–260. doi:10.2307/1440407. JSTOR 1440407.
+Arnold, E. N. (2002). "Holaspis, a lizard that glided by accident: mosaics of cooption and adaptation in a tropical forest lacertid (Reptilia, Lacertidae. )". Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Zoology Series. 68 (2): 155–163. doi:10.1017/s0968047002000171. S2CID 49552361.
+McGuire, J. A. (2003). "Allometric Prediction of Locomotor Performance: An Example from Southeast Asian Flying Lizards". The American Naturalist. 161 (2): 337–349. Bibcode:2003ANat..161..337M. doi:10.1086/346085. PMID 12675377. S2CID 29494470.
+Demes, B.; Forchap, E.; Herwig, H. (1991). "They seem to glide. Are there aerodynamic effects in leaping prosimian primates?". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 78 (3): 373–385. doi:10.1127/zma/78/1991/373. PMID 1909482.
+The Pterosaurs: From Deep Time by David Unwin
+
+== External links ==
+
+Canopy Locomotion from Mongabay online magazine
+Learn the Secrets of Flight from Vertebrate Flight Exhibit at UCMP
+Canopy life
+Insect flight, photographs of flying insects – Rolf Nagels
+Map of Life - "Gliding mammals" Archived 15 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine – University of Cambridge

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+title: "Geologic time scale"
+chunk: 1/7
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The geologic time scale or geological time scale describes how geologic time is divided into standardised intervals. It uses the rock record together with the principles of chronostratigraphy to place rock sequences into their relative age positions, and geochronology techniques, such as radiometric dating, to precisely date the boundaries between them. It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardised international units of geological time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geological time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define geochronologic units.
+
+== Principles ==
+
+The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time span of about 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years. It arranges the rock record in chronological order by observing fundamental changes in stratigraphy that correspond to major geological or paleontological events. It combines the disciplines of chronostratigraphy, which studies the relationships between rock sequences to determine their relative ages, and geochronology, the science of dating rocks and other geological materials.
+
+=== Chronostratigraphy ===
+Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that organises all the rocks of the Earth's crust into groups, known as chronostratigraphic units, based on their relative ages. A chronostratigraphic unit includes all rock sequences globally that were deposited during a particular time interval.
+Chronostratigraphy uses several key principles to determine the relative relationships of rocks and thus their chronostratigraphic position in the rock record.
+
+The law of superposition that states that in undeformed stratigraphic sequences the oldest strata will lie at the bottom of the sequence, while newer material stacks upon the surface. In practice, this means a younger rock will lie on top of an older rock unless there is evidence to suggest otherwise.
+The principle of original horizontality that states layers of sediments will originally be deposited horizontally under the action of gravity. However, it is now known that not all sedimentary layers are deposited purely horizontally, but this principle is still a useful concept.
+The principle of lateral continuity that states layers of sediments extend laterally in all directions until either thinning out or being cut off by a different rock layer, i.e. they are laterally continuous. Layers do not extend indefinitely; their limits are controlled by the amount and type of sediment in a sedimentary basin, and the geometry of that basin.
+The principle of cross-cutting relationships that states a rock that cuts across another rock must be younger than the rock it cuts across.
+The law of included fragments that states small fragments of one type of rock that are embedded in a second type of rock must have formed first, and were included when the second rock was forming.
+The relationships of unconformities which are geologic features representing a gap in the geologic record. Unconformities are formed during periods of erosion or non-deposition, indicating non-continuous sediment deposition. Observing the type and relationships of unconformities in strata allows geologist to understand the relative timing of the strata.
+The principle of faunal succession (where applicable) that states rock strata contain distinctive sets of fossils that succeed each other vertically in a specific and reliable order. This allows for a correlation of strata even when the horizon between them is not continuous.
+
+=== Geochronology ===
+Geochronology is the study of geological time. It uses quantitative measurements (geochronometry), such as radiometric dating, to provide precise ages, and relative methods of dating (e.g. paleomagnetism and stable isotope ratios) to establish a timeframe for events in Earth's history. A geochronologic unit is an interval of time during which a chronostratigraphic unit formed. For example, all the rocks of the Silurian System (a chronostratigraphic unit) were deposited during the Silurian Period (a geochronologic unit).
+The age of a geochronologic unit can be refined and changed by improved dating techniques. However, the equivalent chronostratigraphic unit boundary remains unchanged. For example, in early 2022, the base of the Cambrian Period (a geochronologic unit) was revised from 541 Ma to 538.8 Ma but the rock definition of the boundary (GSSP) at the base of the Cambrian, and thus the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian systems (chronostratigraphic units) has not been changed; rather, the absolute age has merely been refined.

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+---
+title: "Geologic time scale"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) ===
+Historically, regional geologic time scales were used due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time equivalent rocks. The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardising globally significant and identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units. A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) defines the lower boundary of a stage as being at a precise point in a specific rock succession in a particular geographic location. These reference points are known informally as "golden" spikes. All the beds above the spike belong to one time interval and all those below it to another. This allows beds of a similar age around the world to be correlated with the strata that contain the golden spike. For example, the iridium anomaly produced by the Chicxulub asteroid impact marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System and thus the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene. Whilst the GSSP is defined at Oued Djerfane in Tunisia, strata containing the iridium anomaly are found worldwide.
+The Proterozoic (apart from the Ediacaran), Archean and Hadean are subdivided by absolute ages (Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages) rather than geological features. Proposals have been made to better reconcile these divisions with the rock record.
+
+== Divisions of geologic time ==
+
+The standard international units of the geologic time scale are published by the International Commission on Stratigraphy on the International Chronostratigraphic Chart. However, regional terms are still in use in some areas. The numeric values on the International Chronostratigraphic Chart are represented by the unit Ma (megaannum, for 'million years'). For example, 201.4 ± 0.2  Ma, the lower boundary of the Jurassic Period, is defined as 201,400,000 years old with an uncertainty of 200,000 years. Other SI prefix units commonly used by geologists are Ga (gigaannum, billion years), and ka (kiloannum, thousand years), with the latter often represented in calibrated units (before present).
+The geologic time scale is divided into chronostratigraphic units and their corresponding geochronologic units:
+
+An eon is the largest geochronologic time unit and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic eonothem. There are four formally defined eons: the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
+An era is the second largest geochronologic time unit and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic erathem. There are ten defined eras: the Eoarchean, Paleoarchean, Mesoarchean, Neoarchean, Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, with none from the Hadean eon.
+A period is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic system. There are 22 defined periods, with the current being the Quaternary period. As an exception, two subperiods are used for the Carboniferous Period.
+An epoch is the second smallest geochronologic unit. It is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic series. There are 37 defined epochs and one informal one. The current epoch is the Holocene. There are also 11 subepochs which are all within the Neogene and Quaternary. The use of subepochs as formal units in international chronostratigraphy was ratified in 2022.
+An age is the smallest hierarchical geochronologic unit. It is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic stage. There are 96 formal and five informal ages. The current age is the Meghalayan.
+A chron is a non-hierarchical formal geochronology unit of unspecified rank and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic chronozone. These correlate with magnetostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic, or biostratigraphic units as they are based on previously defined stratigraphic units or geologic features.
+
+The subdivisions Early and Late are used as the geochronologic equivalents of the chronostratigraphic Lower and Upper, e.g., Early Triassic Period (geochronologic unit) is used in place of Lower Triassic System (chronostratigraphic unit).
+
+== Naming of geologic time ==
+The names of geologic time units are defined for chronostratigraphic units with the corresponding geochronologic unit sharing the same name with a change to the suffix (e.g. Phanerozoic Eonothem becomes the Phanerozoic Eon). Names of erathems in the Phanerozoic were chosen to reflect major changes in the history of life on Earth: Paleozoic (old life), Mesozoic (middle life), and Cenozoic (new life). Names of systems are diverse in origin, with some indicating chronologic position (e.g., Paleogene), while others are named for lithology (e.g., Cretaceous), geography (e.g., Permian), or are tribal (e.g., Ordovician) in origin. Most currently recognised series and subseries are named for their position within a system/series (early/middle/late); however, the International Commission on Stratigraphy advocates for all new series and subseries to be named for a geographic feature in the vicinity of its stratotype or type locality. The name of stages should also be derived from a geographic feature in the locality of its stratotype or type locality.
+Informally, the time before the Cambrian is often referred to as the Precambrian or pre-Cambrian (Supereon).
+
+== History of the geologic time scale ==

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+title: "Geologic time scale"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Early history ===
+The most modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911 by Arthur Holmes (1890 – 1965), who drew inspiration from James Hutton (1726–1797), a Scottish Geologist who presented the idea of uniformitarianism or the theory that changes to the Earth's crust resulted from continuous and uniform processes. The broader concept of the relation between rocks and time can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of Ancient Greece from 1200 BC to 600 AD. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487 BCE) observed rock beds with fossils of seashells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed. This view was shared by a few of Xenophanes's scholars and those that followed, including Aristotle (384–322 BC) who (with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. The concept of deep time was also recognized by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Islamic scientist-philosophers, notably the Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in their treatises. Their work likely inspired that of the 11th-century Persian polymath Avicenna (Ibn Sînâ, 980–1037) who wrote in The Book of Healing (1027) on the concept of stratification and superposition, pre-dating Nicolas Steno by more than six centuries. Avicenna also recognized fossils as "petrifications of the bodies of plants and animals", with the 13th-century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280), who drew from Aristotle's natural philosophy, extending this into a theory of a petrifying fluid. These works appeared to have little influence on scholars in Medieval Europe who looked to the Bible to explain the origins of fossils and sea-level changes, often attributing these to the 'Deluge', including Ristoro d'Arezzo in 1282. It was not until the Italian Renaissance when Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) would reinvigorate the relationships between stratification, relative sea-level change, and time, denouncing attribution of fossils to the 'Deluge':
+
+Of the stupidity and ignorance of those who imagine that these creatures were carried to such places distant from the sea by the Deluge...Why do we find so many fragments and whole shells between the different layers of stone unless they had been upon the shore and had been covered over by earth newly thrown up by the sea which then became petrified? And if the above-mentioned Deluge had carried them to these places from the sea, you would find the shells at the edge of one layer of rock only, not at the edge of many where may be counted the winters of the years during which the sea multiplied the layers of sand and mud brought down by the neighboring rivers and spread them over its shores. And if you wish to say that there must have been many deluges in order to produce these layers and the shells among them it would then become necessary for you to affirm that such a deluge took place every year.
+
+These views of da Vinci remained unpublished, and thus lacked influence at the time; however, questions of fossils and their significance were pursued and, while views against Genesis were not readily accepted and dissent from religious doctrine was in some places unwise, scholars such as Girolamo Fracastoro shared da Vinci's views, and found the attribution of fossils to the 'Deluge' absurd. Although many theories surrounding philosophy and concepts of rocks were developed in earlier years, "the first serious attempts to formulate a geological time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made in the late 18th century." Later, in the 19th century, academics further developed theories on stratification. William Smith, often referred to as the "Father of Geology" developed theories through observations rather than drawing from the scholars that came before him. Smith's work was primarily based on his detailed study of rock layers and fossils during his time and he created "the first map to depict so many rock formations over such a large area". After studying rock layers and the fossils they contained, Smith concluded that each layer of rock contained distinct material that could be used to identify and correlate rock layers across different regions of the world. Smith developed the concept of faunal succession or the idea that fossils can serve as a marker for the age of the strata they are found in and published his ideas in his 1816 book, "Strata identified by organized fossils."
+
+=== Establishment of primary principles ===
+Niels Stensen, more commonly known as Nicolas Steno (1638–1686), is credited with establishing four of the guiding principles of stratigraphy. In De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus Steno states:
+
+When any given stratum was being formed, all the matter resting on it was fluid and, therefore, when the lowest stratum was being formed, none of the upper strata existed.
+... strata which are either perpendicular to the horizon or inclined to it were at one time parallel to the horizon.
+When any given stratum was being formed, it was either encompassed at its edges by another solid substance or it covered the whole globe of the earth. Hence, it follows that wherever bared edges of strata are seen, either a continuation of the same strata must be looked for or another solid substance must be found that kept the material of the strata from being dispersed.
+If a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum.

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+title: "Geologic time scale"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships. From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from Creation). While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging. These basic principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining the correlation of strata relative to geologic time.
+Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that:
+
+Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition
+Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances
+The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history
+
+=== Formulation of a modern geologic time scale ===
+The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced during the era of Biblical models by Thomas Burnet who applied a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying "montes primarii" for rock formed at the time of the 'Deluge', and younger "monticulos secundarios" formed later from the debris of the "primarii". Anton Moro (1687–1784) also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units but his mechanism was volcanic. In this early version of the Plutonism theory, the interior of Earth was seen as hot, and this drove the creation of primary igneous and metamorphic rocks and secondary rocks formed contorted and fossiliferous sediments. These primary and secondary divisions were expanded on by Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti (1712–1783) and Giovanni Arduino (1713–1795) to include tertiary and quaternary divisions. These divisions were used to describe both the time during which the rocks were laid down, and the collection of rocks themselves (i.e., it was correct to say Tertiary rocks, and Tertiary Period). Only the Quaternary division is retained in the modern geologic time scale, while the Tertiary division was in use until the early 21st century. The Neptunism and Plutonism theories would compete into the early 19th century with a key driver for resolution of this debate being the work of James Hutton (1726–1797), in particular his Theory of the Earth, first presented before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1785. Hutton's theory would later become known as uniformitarianism, popularised by John Playfair (1748–1819) and later Charles Lyell (1797–1875) in his Principles of Geology. Their theories strongly contested the 6,000 year age of the Earth as suggested determined by James Ussher via Biblical chronology that was accepted at the time by western religion. Instead, using geological evidence, they contested Earth to be much older, cementing the concept of deep time.
+During the early 19th century William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brongniart pioneered the systematic division of rocks by stratigraphy and fossil assemblages. These geologists began to use the local names given to rock units in a wider sense, correlating strata across national and continental boundaries based on their similarity to each other. Many of the names below erathem/era rank in use on the modern ICC/GTS were determined during the early to mid-19th century.
+
+=== The advent of geochronometry ===
+
+During the 19th century, the debate regarding Earth's age was renewed, with geologists estimating ages based on denudation rates and sedimentary thicknesses or ocean chemistry, and physicists determining ages for the cooling of the Earth or the Sun using basic thermodynamics or orbital physics. These estimations varied from 15,000 million years to 0.075 million years depending on method and author, but the estimations of Lord Kelvin and Clarence King were held in high regard at the time due to their pre-eminence in physics and geology. All of these early geochronometric determinations would later prove to be incorrect.
+The discovery of radioactive decay by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Pierre Curie laid the ground work for radiometric dating, but the knowledge and tools required for accurate determination of radiometric ages would not be in place until the mid-1950s. Early attempts at determining ages of uranium minerals and rocks by Ernest Rutherford, Bertram Boltwood, Robert Strutt, and Arthur Holmes, would culminate in what are considered the first international geological time scales by Holmes in 1911 and 1913. The discovery of isotopes in 1913 by Frederick Soddy, and the developments in mass spectrometry pioneered by Francis William Aston, Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, and Alfred O. C. Nier during the early to mid-20th century would finally allow for the accurate determination of radiometric ages, with Holmes publishing several revisions to his geological time-scale with his final version in 1960.

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+title: "Geologic time scale"
+chunk: 5/7
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Modern international geological time scale ===
+The establishment of the IUGS in 1961 and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965) to become a member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS. One of the primary objectives of the ICS is "the establishment, publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions".
+Following on from Holmes, several A Geological Time Scale books were published in 1982, 1989, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020. However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack of oversight by the ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS. Subsequent Geologic Time Scale books (2016 and 2020) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to the chart produced by the ICS. The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01. At least one new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since the prior version.
+The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline.
+
+== Table of geologic time ==
+The following table summarises the major events and characteristics of the divisions making up the geologic time scale of Earth. This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the oldest at the bottom. The height of each table entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time. As such, this table is not to scale and does not accurately represent the relative time-spans of each geochronologic unit. While the Phanerozoic Eon looks longer than the rest, it merely spans ~538.8 Ma (~11.8% of Earth's history), whilst the previous three eons collectively span ~4,028.2 Ma (~88.2% of Earth's history). This bias toward the most recent eon is in part due to the relative lack of information about events that occurred during the first three eons compared to the current eon (the Phanerozoic). The use of subseries/subepochs has been ratified by the ICS.
+While some regional terms are still in use, the table of geologic time conforms to the nomenclature, ages, and colour codes set forth by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in the official International Chronostratigraphic Chart.
+
+== Major proposed revisions to the ICC ==
+
+=== Proposed Anthropocene Series/Epoch ===
+
+First suggested in 2000, the Anthropocene is a proposed epoch/series for the most recent time in Earth's history. While still informal, it is a widely used term to denote the present geologic time interval, in which many conditions and processes on Earth are profoundly altered by human impact. The definition of the Anthropocene as a geologic time period rather than a geologic event remains controversial and difficult.
+In May 2019 the Anthropocene Working Group voted in favour of submitting a formal proposal to the ICS for the establishment of the Anthropocene Series/Epoch. The formal proposal was completed and submitted to the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy in late 2023 for a section in Crawford Lake, Ontario, with heightened Plutonium levels corresponding to 1952 CE. This proposal was rejected as a formal geologic epoch in early 2024, to be left instead as an "invaluable descriptor of human impact on the Earth system"
+
+=== Proposals for revisions to pre-Cryogenian timeline ===
+
+==== Shields et al. 2021 ====
+The ICS Subcommission for Cryogenian Stratigraphy has outlined a template to improve the pre-Cryogenian geologic time scale based on the rock record to bring it in line with the post-Tonian geologic time scale. This work assessed the geologic history of the currently defined eons and eras of the Precambrian, and the proposals in the "Geological Time Scale" books 2004, 2012, and 2020. Their recommend revisions of the pre-Cryogenian geologic time scale were as below (changes from the current scale [v2023/09] are italicised). This suggestion was unanimously rejected by the International Subcommission for Precambrian Stratigraphy, based on scientific weaknesses.
+
+Three divisions of the Archean instead of four by dropping Eoarchean, and revisions to their geochronometric definition, along with the repositioning of the Siderian into the latest Neoarchean, and a potential Kratian division in the Neoarchean.
+Archean (4000–2450 Ma)
+Paleoarchean (4000–3500 Ma)
+Mesoarchean (3500–3000 Ma)
+Neoarchean (3000–2450 Ma)
+Kratian (no fixed time given, prior to the Siderian) – from Greek κράτος (krátos) 'strength'.
+Siderian (?–2450 Ma) – moved from Proterozoic to end of Archean, no start time given, base of Paleoproterozoic defines the end of the Siderian
+Refinement of geochronometric divisions of the Proterozoic, Paleoproterozoic, repositioning of the Statherian into the Mesoproterozoic, new Skourian period/system in the Paleoproterozoic, new Kleisian or Syndian period/system in the Neoproterozoic.
+Paleoproterozoic (2450–1800 Ma)
+Skourian (2450–2300 Ma) – from Greek σκουριά (skouriá) 'rust'.
+Rhyacian (2300–2050 Ma)
+Orosirian (2050–1800 Ma)
+Mesoproterozoic (1800–1000 Ma)
+Statherian (1800–1600 Ma)
+Calymmian (1600–1400 Ma)
+Ectasian (1400–1200 Ma)
+Stenian (1200–1000 Ma)
+Neoproterozoic (1000–538.8 Ma)
+Kleisian or Syndian (1000–800 Ma) – respectively from Greek κλείσιμο (kleísimo) 'closure' and σύνδεση (sýndesi) 'connection'.
+Tonian (800–720 Ma)
+Cryogenian (720–635 Ma)
+Ediacaran (635–538.8 Ma)
+Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (Shield et al. 2021, ICS working group on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphy), shown to scale:
+
+ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2024/12, current as of January 2025), shown to scale:

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+---
+title: "Geologic time scale"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012) ====
+The book, Geologic Time Scale 2012, was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was closely associated with the ICS and the Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy. It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important events such as the formation of the Solar System and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span. As of April 2022 these proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS. The proposed changes (changes from the current scale [v2023/09]) are italicised:
+
+Hadean Eon (4567–4030 Ma)
+Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation.
+Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era/Erathem (4404–4030 Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons.
+Archean Eon/Eonothem (4030–2420 Ma)
+Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (4030–3490 Ma)
+Acastan Period/System (4030–3810 Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved pieces of continental crust.
+Isuan Period/System (3810–3490 Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt.
+Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (3490–2780 Ma)
+Vaalbaran Period/System (3490–3020 Ma) – based on the names of the Kaapvaal (Southern Africa) and Pilbara (Western Australia) cratons, to reflect the growth of stable continental nuclei or proto-cratonic kernels.
+Pongolan Period/System (3020–2780 Ma) – named after the Pongola Supergroup, in reference to the well preserved evidence of terrestrial microbial communities in those rocks.
+Neoarchean Era/Erathem (2780–2420 Ma)
+Methanian Period/System (2780–2630 Ma) – named for the inferred predominance of methanotrophic prokaryotes
+Siderian Period/System (2630–2420 Ma) – named for the voluminous banded iron formations formed within its duration.
+Proterozoic Eon/Eonothem (2420–538.8 Ma)
+Paleoproterozoic Era/Erathem (2420–1780 Ma)
+Oxygenian Period/System (2420–2250 Ma) – named for displaying the first evidence for a global oxidising atmosphere.
+Jatulian or Eukaryian Period/System (2250–2060 Ma) – names are respectively for the Lomagundi–Jatuli δ13C isotopic excursion event spanning its duration, and for the (proposed) first fossil appearance of eukaryotes.
+Columbian Period/System (2060–1780 Ma) – named after the supercontinent Columbia.
+Mesoproterozoic Era/Erathem (1780–850 Ma)
+Rodinian Period/System (1780–850 Ma) – named after the supercontinent Rodinia, stable environment.
+Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (GTS2012), shown to scale:
+
+ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2024/12, current as of January 2025), shown to scale:
+
+== Extraterrestrial geologic time scales ==
+
+Some other planets and satellites in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own histories, for example, Venus, Mars and the Earth's Moon. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the giant planets, do not comparably preserve their history. Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing, and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still a matter of debate.
+
+=== Lunar (selenological) time scale ===
+The geologic history of Earth's Moon has been divided into a time scale based on geomorphological markers, namely impact cratering, volcanism, and erosion. This process of dividing the Moon's history in this manner means that the time scale boundaries do not imply fundamental changes in geological processes, unlike Earth's geologic time scale. Five geologic systems/periods (Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, Copernican), with the Imbrian divided into two series/epochs (Early and Late) were defined in the latest Lunar geologic time scale. The Moon is unique in the Solar System in that it is the only other body from which humans have rock samples with a known geological context.
+
+=== Martian geologic time scale ===
+The geological history of Mars has been divided into two alternate time scales. The first time scale for Mars was developed by studying the impact crater densities on the Martian surface. Through this method four periods have been defined, the Pre-Noachian (~4,500–4,100 Ma), Noachian (~4,100–3,700 Ma), Hesperian (~3,700–3,000 Ma), and Amazonian (~3,000 Ma to present).
+
+Epochs:
+
+A second time scale based on mineral alteration observed by the OMEGA spectrometer on board the Mars Express. Using this method, three periods were defined, the Phyllocian (~4,500–4,000 Ma), Theiikian (~4,000–3,500 Ma), and Siderikian (~3,500 Ma to present).
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Geologic time scale"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian R.; Owen, Donald E.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael (2009). "Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a community standard". Stratigraphy. 6 (2): 100–105. doi:10.7916/D8DR35JQ.
+Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G. (June 2004). "Geologic Time Scale 2004 – why, how, and where next!". Lethaia. 37 (2): 175–181. Bibcode:2004Letha..37..175G. doi:10.1080/00241160410006483.
+Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G., eds. (2005). A Geologic Time Scale 2004. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511536045. ISBN 978-0-521-78673-7.
+Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G.; Bleeker, Wouter; Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004). "A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene". Episodes. 27 (2): 83–100. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002. CORE output ID 11773078.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
+Ialenti, Vincent (28 September 2014). "Embracing 'Deep Time' Thinking". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture.
+Ialenti, Vincent (21 September 2014). "Pondering 'Deep Time' Could Inspire New Ways To View Climate Change". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture.
+Knoll, Andrew H.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Narbonne, Guy M.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30 July 2004). "A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale". Science. 305 (5684): 621–622. doi:10.1126/science.1098803. PMID 15286353.
+Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology". The Earth Through Time. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-38774-0.
+Montenari, Michael, ed. (2016). Stratigraphy & Timescales. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-811550-3.
+Montenari, Michael (2017). Advances in Sequence Stratigraphy (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-813077-3.
+Montenari, Michael, ed. (2018). Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-815098-6.
+Montenari, Michael, ed. (2019). Case Studies in Isotope Stratigraphy (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-817552-1.
+Montenari, Michael, ed. (2020). Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-820991-2.
+Montenari, Michael, ed. (2021). Calcareous Nannofossil Biostratigraphy (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-824624-5.
+Montenari, Michael, ed. (2022). Integrated Quaternary Stratigraphy (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-323-98913-8.
+Montenari, Michael, ed. (2023). Stratigraphy of Geo- and Biodynamic Processes (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-323-99242-8.
+Nichols, Gary (2013). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-68777-2.
+Williams, Aiden (2019). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Callisto Reference. ISBN 978-1-64116-075-9.
+
+== External links ==
+
+The current version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart can be found at stratigraphy.org/chart
+Interactive version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart is found at stratigraphy.org/timescale
+A list of current Global Boundary Stratotype and Section Points is found at stratigraphy.org/gssps
+NASA: Geologic Time (archived 18 April 2005)
+GSA: Geologic Time Scale (archived 20 January 2019)
+British Geological Survey: Geological Timechart
+GeoWhen Database (archived 23 June 2004)
+National Museum of Natural History – Geologic Time (archived 11 November 2005)
+SeeGrid: Geological Time Systems. Archived 23 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Information model for the geologic time scale.
+Exploring Time from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe
+Lane, Alfred C, and Marble, John Putman 1937. Report of the Committee on the measurement of geologic time
+Lessons for Children on Geologic Time (archived 14 July 2011)
+Deep Time – A History of the Earth : Interactive Infographic
+Geology Buzz: Geologic Time Scale. Archived 12 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.

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+---
+title: "Humboldtian science"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Humboldtian science refers to a movement in science in the 19th century closely connected to the work and writings of German scientist, naturalist, and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. It maintained a certain ethics of precision and observation, which combined scientific field work with the sensitivity and aesthetic ideals of the age of Romanticism.  Like Romanticism in science, it was rather popular in the 19th century. The term was coined by Susan Faye Cannon in 1978.
+The example of Humboldt's life and his writings allowed him to reach out beyond the academic community with his natural history and address a wider audience with popular science aspects. It has supplanted the older Baconian method, related as well to a single person, Francis Bacon.
+
+== Brief biography ==
+
+Humboldt was born in Berlin in 1769 and worked as a Prussian mining official in the 1790s until 1797 when he quit and began collecting scientific knowledge and equipment. His extensive wealth aided his infatuation with the spirit of Romanticism; he amassed an extensive collection of scientific instruments and tools as well as a sizeable library. In 1799 Humboldt, under the protection of King Charles IV of Spain, left for South America and New Spain, toting all of his tools and books. The purpose of the voyage was steeped in Romanticism; Humboldt intended to investigate how the forces of nature interact with one another and find out about the unity of nature. Humboldt returned to Europe in 1804 and was acclaimed as a public hero. The details and findings of Humboldt's journey were published in his Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equatorial Regions of the New Continent (30 volumes). This Personal Narrative was taken by Charles Darwin on his famous voyage on H.M.S Beagle. Humboldt spent the rest of his life mainly in Europe, although he did embark on a short expedition to Siberia and the Russian steppes in 1829. Humboldt's last works were contained in his book, Kosmos: Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung ("Cosmos. Sketch for a Physical Description of the Universe"). The book mainly described the development of a life-force from the cosmos, but also included the formation of stars from nebular clouds as well as the geography of planets. Alexander von Humboldt died in 1859, while working on the fifth volume of Kosmos.
+Through his travels to South America and his observational records in An Essay on the Geography of Plants as well as Kosmos, an important trend emerged through his techniques of observation, scientific instruments used and unique perspective on nature. Humboldt's novel style has been defined as Humboldtian Science. Humboldt had the ability to combine the study of empirical data with a holistic view of nature and its aesthetically pleasing characteristics, which is now held to be the true definition of the study of vegetation and plant geography. Humboldtian science is one of the first techniques for studying both organic and inorganic branches of science. Examining the interconnectedness of vegetation and its respective environment is one of the new and important aspects of Humboldt's work, an idea labeled as "terrestrial physics," something that scientists who preceded him, such as Linnaeus, failed to do. Humboldtian science is founded on a principle of "general equilibrium of forces." General equilibrium was the idea that there are infinite forces in nature that are in constant conflict, yet all forces balance each other out.
+Humboldt laid the groundwork for future scientific endeavors by establishing the importance of studying organisms and their environment in conjunction .
+
+== Humboldtian science defined ==
+
+Humboldtian science includes both the extensive work of Alexander von Humboldt, as well as many of the works of 19th century scientists. Susan Cannon is attributed with coining the term Humboldtian science. According to Cannon, Humboldtian science is, "the accurate, measured study of widespread but interconnected real phenomena in order to find a definite law and a dynamical cause." Humboldtian science is used now in place of the traditional, "Baconianism," as a more appropriate and less vague term for the themes of 19th century science.
+Natural history in the eighteenth century was the "nomination of the visible". Carl Linnaeus was preoccupied with fitting all nature into taxonomy, fixated on only what was visible. Towards the turn of the eighteenth century, Immanuel Kant became interested in understanding where species derived from, and was less concerned with an organism's physical attributes. Next, Johann Reinhold Forster, one of Humboldt's future partners, became interested in the study of vegetation as an essential way of understanding nature and its relationship with human society. Proceeding Forster, Karl Willdenow examined floristic plant geography, the distribution of plants and regionality as a whole. All of these pieces in the history before Humboldt help to shape what is defined as Humboldtian science. Humboldt took into account both the outward appearance and inward meaning of plant species. His attention to natural aesthetics and empirical data and evidence is what set his scientific work apart from ecologists before him. Nicolson so aptly puts it as: "Humboldt effortlessly combined a commitment to empiricism and the experimental elucidation of the laws of nature with an equally strong commitment to holism and to a view of nature which was intended to be aesthetically and spiritually satisfactory". It was through this holistic approach to science and the study of nature that Humboldt was able to find a web of interconnectedness despite a multitude of extensive differences between different species of organisms.
+According to Malcolm Nicholson, "Susan Cannon characterized Humboldtian science as synthetic, empirical, quantitative and impossible to fit into any one of our twentieth century disciplinary boundaries." A central element of Humboldtian science was its use of the latest advances in scientific instrumentation to observe and measure physical variables, while attending to all possible sources of error. Humboldtian science revolved around understanding the relationship between accurate measurement, sources of error and mathematical laws. Cannon identifies four distinctive features that marked Humboldtian science out from previous versions of science:

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+---
+title: "Humboldtian science"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+insistence on accuracy for all scientific instruments and observations;
+a mental sophistication in which theoretical mechanisms and entities of past science were taken lightly;
+a new set of conceptual tools, including isomaps, graphs, and a theory of errors;
+the application of accuracy, mental sophistication, and tools not to isolated science in laboratories, but to greatly variable real phenomena.
+
+== Humboldt's "terrestrial physicist" ==
+
+Humboldt was committed to what he called 'terrestrial physics.' Essentially Humboldt's new scientific approach required a new type of scientist: Humboldtian science demanded a transition from the naturalist to the physicist. Humboldt described how his idea of terrestrial physics differs from traditional "descriptive" natural history when he stated, "[traveling naturalists] have neglected to track the great and constant laws of nature manifested in the rapid flux of phenomena…and to trace the reciprocal interaction of the divided physical forces." Humboldt did not consider himself an explorer, but rather a scientific traveler, who accurately measured what explorers had reported inaccurately. According to Humboldt, the goal of the terrestrial physicist was to investigate the confluence and interweaving of all physical forces. An incredibly extensive array of precise instrumentation had to be readily available for Humboldt's terrestrial physicist. The expansive amount of scientific resources that characterized the Humboldtian scientist is best described in the book Science in Culture,
+
+Thus the complete Humboldtian traveller, in order to make satisfactory observations, should be able to cope with everything from the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter to the carelessness of clumsy donkeys.
+Just some of such instruments included chronometers, telescopes, sextants, microscopes, magnetic compasses, thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, electrometers, and eudiometers. Furthermore, it was necessary to have multiple makes and models of each specific instrument to compare errors and constancy among each type.
+
+== Humboldt's equilibrium ==
+One concept that is central to Humboldtian science is that of a general equilibrium of forces. Humboldt explains: "The general equilibrium which reigns amongst disturbances and apparent turmoil, is the result of infinite number of mechanical forces and chemical attractions balancing each other out." Equilibrium is derived from an infinite number of forces acting simultaneously and varying globally. In other words, the lawfulness of nature, according to Humboldt, is a result of infinity and complexity. Humboldtian science promotes the idea that the more forces that are accurately measured over more of the earth's surface results in a greater understanding of the order of nature.
+The voyage to the Americas produced many discoveries and developments that help to illustrate Humboldt's ideas about this equilibrium of forces. Humboldt produced the Tableau physique des Andes ("Physical Profile of the Andes), which aimed at capturing his voyage to the Americas in a single graphic table. Humboldt meant to capture all of the physical forces, from organisms to electricity, in this single table. Among many other complex empirical recordings of elevation-specific data, the table included a detailed biodistribution. This biodistribution mapped the specific distributions of flora and fauna at every elevation level on the mountain.
+Humboldt's study of plants provides an example of the movement of Humboldtian science away from traditional science. Humboldt's botany also further illustrates the concept of equilibrium and the Humboldtian ideas of the interrelationship of nature's elements. Although he was concerned with physical features of plants, he was largely focused on the investigation of underlying connections and relations among plant organisms. Humboldt worked for years on developing an understanding of plant distributions and geography. The link between the balancing equilibrium of natural forces and organism distribution is evident when Humboldt states:
+
+As in all other phenomena of the physical universe, so in the distribution of organic beings: amidst the apparent disorder which seems to result from the influence of a multitude of local causes, the unchanging law of nature become evident as soon as one surveys an extensive territory, or uses a mass of facts in which the partial disturbances compensate one another.
+The study of vegetation and plant geography arose out of new concerns that emerged with Humboldtian science. These new areas of concern in science included integrative processes, invisible connections, historical development, and natural wholes.
+Humboldtian science applied the idea of general equilibrium of forces to the continuities in the history of the generation of the planet. Humboldt saw the history of the earth as a continuous global distribution of such things as heat, vegetation, and rock formations. In order to graphically represent this continuity Humboldt developed isothermal lines. These isothermal lines functioned in the general balancing of forces in that isothermal lines preserved local peculiarities within a general regularity. According to Humboldtian science, nature's order and equilibrium emerged "gradually and progressively from laborious observing, averaging, and mapping over increasingly extended areas."

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+---
+title: "Humboldtian science"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Transformation of Humboldtian science ==
+Ralph Waldo Emerson once dubbed Humboldt to be "one of those wonders of the world… who appear from time to time, as if to show us the possibilities of the human mind."
+When Humboldt first began his studies of organisms and the environment he claimed that he wanted to "reorganize the general connections that link organic beings and to study the great harmonies of Nature". He is often considered one of the world's first genuine ecologists. Humboldt succeeded in developing a comprehensive science that joined the separate branches of natural philosophy under a model of natural order founded on the concept of dynamic equilibrium. Humboldt's work reached far beyond his personal expeditions and discoveries. Figures from all across the globe participated on his work. Some such participants included French naval officers, East India Company physicians, Russian provincial administrators, Spanish military commanders, and German diplomats. As was mentioned previously, Charles Darwin carried a copy of Humboldt's Personal Narrative aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Humboldt's projects, particularly those related to natural philosophy, played a significant role in the influx of European money and travelers to Spanish America in increasing numbers in the early 19th century. Sir Edward Sabine, a British scientist, worked on terrestrial magnetism in a manner that was certainly Humboldtian. Also, British scientist George Gabriel Stokes depended heavily on abstract mathematical measurement to deal with error in a precision instrument, certainly Humboldtian science. Maybe the most prominent figure whose work can be considered representative of Humboldtian science is geologist Charles Lyell. Despite a lack of emphasis on precise measurement in geology at the time, Lyell insisted on precision in a Humboldtian manner.
+The promotion and development of terrestrial physics under Humboldtian science produced not only useful maps and statistics, but offered both European and Creole societies tools for essentially 're-imaging' America. The lasting impact of Humboldtian science is described in Cultures of Natural History, "Humboldtian science illuminates the reorganization of knowledge and disciplines in the early nineteenth century that defined the emergence of natural history out of natural philosophy."
+
+== Revision of Humboldtian science as a concept ==
+In recent years, historian Andreas Daum has explored the history of Humboldtian science as a concept and suggests a fundamental revision. He points out that William Goetzman was the first to establish it. Daum distinguishes between Humboldt's science as an individual form of knowledge production and Humboldtian science as a generalization (and useful ideal type), which later generations coined. Humboldt's science constituted a set of  research practices that often defied the ideal of precision and minute comparative data analysis, which Humboldtian science in Cannon's understanding sees as the foundation of large-scale scientific research. Especially in his early years before leaving Europe to the Americas in 1799, Humboldt's research was impromptu, marked by epistemological and personal insecurities, and embedded in his peripatetic way of living. The constant moving around found its expression in an erratic writing style. The revision of Humboldtian Science and a renewed focus on Humboldt’s science undermine the "Humboldt exceptionalism" (Daum) found especially in popular accounts, such as Andrea Wulf's book on the Invention of Nature. This critical approach places Humboldt and his oeuvre firmly in the turbulent epoch he lived in – instead of portraying Humboldt as a man above his time. A review of Humboldtian science encourages historians to study standards of ‘objectivity’ and the belief in instruments yieding precise results as its guarantee. While Humboldt did advocate using widespread comparative measurements and strove to achieve accuracy in his research, his research practices often missed that ideal.
+
+== See also ==
+History of biology
+History of ecology
+History of geography
+History of geology
+Romanticism
+Romanticism in science
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+Cannon, Susan Faye. Science in Culture: The Early Victorian Period. Science History Publications. NY. 1978
+Andreas W. Daum, "Humboldtian Science and Humboldt’s Science". History of Science, 62 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1177/00732753241252478
+Andreas W. Daum, “Social Relations, Shared Practices, and Emotions: Alexander von Humboldt’s Excursion into Literary Classicism and the Challenges to Science around 1800”. The Journal of Modern History, 91 (March 2019), 1-37.
+Andreas W. Daum, Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography. Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2024.
+Jardine, N; Secord, J.A.; Spary, E.C. Cultures of Natural History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, NY. 1996
+Nicolson, Malcolm. "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation." History of Science, 25:2. June 1987

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+---
+title: "Insect collecting"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:32.821341+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Insect collecting refers to the collection of insects and other arthropods for scientific study or as a hobby. Most insects are small and the majority cannot be identified without the examination of minute morphological characters, so entomologists often make and maintain insect collections. Very large collections are preserved in natural history museums or universities where they are maintained and studied by specialists. Many college courses require students to form small collections. There are also amateur entomologists and collectors who keep collections.
+Historically, insect collecting has been widespread and was in the Victorian age a very popular educational hobby. Insect collecting has left traces in European cultural history, literature and songs, e.g., Georges Brassens's La chasse aux papillons (The Hunt for Butterflies). The practice is particularly common among Japanese youths.
+
+== Capture and kill techniques ==
+
+Insects may be passively caught using traps such as funnels, pitfall traps, bottle traps, malaise traps, or flight interception traps, some of which are baited with small bits of sweet foods (such as honey). Entomologists collecting nocturnal insects (especially moths) during faunistic survey studies might utilize ultraviolet light traps such as the Robinson trap. Aspirators, sometimes called "pooters", suck up insects too small or delicate to handle with fingers.
+Active capture of insects often involves using nets. Aerial insect nets are used to collect flying insects. The bag of a butterfly net is generally constructed from a lightweight mesh to minimize damage to delicate butterfly wings. Sweep nets are more rugged, and used to collect insects from grass and brush. A sweep net is swept back and forth through vegetation quickly turning the opening from side to side and following a shallow figure eight pattern. The collector walks forward while sweeping, and the net is moved through plants and grasses with force. Sweeping continues for some distance and then the net is flipped over, with the bag hanging over the rim, trapping the insects until they can be removed. Other types of nets used for collecting insects include beating nets and aquatic nets. Leaf litter sieves are used by coleopterists and to collect larvae.
+Once collected, insects must be killed before they damage themselves trying to escape. Killing jars are used on hard-bodied insects.  Soft-bodied insects, such as those in the larval stage, are generally fixed in a vial containing an ethanol and water solution.
+
+== Storage and curation ==
+
+There are several different preservation methods that are used; some of which include: dried preservation (pinning), liquid preservation, or slide mounts. Another (now mostly historical) approach is caterpillar inflation, where the innards were removed and the skin dried. Pinning is by far the most common form of insect preservation.
+It is better to pin an insect that has died recently enough that it has not dried yet, because it allows the thoracic muscles to adhere to the pin. Previously dried specimens must have glue applied to the pin location to avoid spinning. The large majority of the time insects are pinned vertically through their mesothorax and slightly off-center to the right of the mid-line. The pin should sit with 1/4 of the pin above the insect as to allow enough room for labels to be readable underneath.
+When pinning insects with wings, it is important to display them properly: Lepidoptera wings should always be spread. When drying insects with wings such as butterflies, setting paper is used to position the wings.
+Orthopteroids often have their left wings spread. In scientific collections, the insect's wings, legs, and antenna are tucked underneath it to conserve space.
+When point-mounting small insects the insect is glued to a small piece of non acidic, triangle paper.  When drying an insect the relaxed insect is spread out accordingly using pins on a foam block where it can dry and retain its positioning.
+When labeling insects the labels are presented in this order top down: Locality, additional locality/voucher label/accession numbers, insect identification.
+
+== Insect pins ==
+
+Insect pins are used by entomologists for mounting insect specimens.
+As standard, they are 38 millimetres (1.5 in) long and come in sizes from 000 (the smallest diameter), through 00, 0, and 1, to 8 (the largest diameter).
+The most generally useful size in entomology is size 2, which is 0.46 millimetres (0.018 in) in diameter, with sizes 1 and 3 being the next most useful.
+They were once commonly made from brass or silver, but these would corrode from contact with insect bodies and are no longer commonly used.
+Instead they are nickel-plated brass, yielding "white" or "black" enamelling, or even made from stainless steel.
+Similarly, the smallest sizes from 000 to 1 used to be impractical for mounting until plastic and polyethylene became commonly used for pinning bases.
+There are also micropins, which are 10–15 millimetres (0.39–0.59 in) long.
+minutens are headless micropins that are generally only made of stainless steel, used for double-mounting, where the insect is mounted on the minuten, which is pinned to a small block of soft material, which is in turn mounted on a standard, larger, insect pin.
+
+=== Pinning of entomological specimens ===
+
+Entomological pins. Continental pins, so called for historical reasons, are used internationally by museums and collectors. They are made of stainless steel for preference, especially for very long-term storage of specimens, but blackened steel also is used. The pins have round plastic or solid metal heads. Continental pins are of a standard length (40mm), but they are available in thicknesses numbered 000 (the thinnest), 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 (the thickest). This standard pin length is sufficient to accommodate an adequate number of data labels and to permit convenient handling with suitably curved forceps or tweezers, referred to as 'entomological forceps'.
+As an exception to this standard, there also are pins of size 7, extra-long and very strong pins for very large beetles; they are 52mm long and thicker than size 6 pins. 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+---
+title: "Insect collecting"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:32.821341+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Direct pinning. Direct pinning is the insertion of an entomological pin directly through the thorax of a specimen. The insects are pinned vertically through the thorax with a suitably sized pin, but by convention they are not pinned on the midline, but to the right, so as to leave at least one side undamaged.
+Point. A point is a triangular piece of white card. Specially designed point punches permit the production of large numbers of points of standard sizes as required. To use a point, a pin is inserted through the broad base of the triangle. To mount the specimen, a tiny amount of glue is placed on the tip and applied to the right side of the insect's thorax. If appropriate the tip of the point may be bent at the necessary angle to hold the body of the specimen horizontal when the pin is vertical, with the long axis of the insect at right angles to the point.
+
+Minuten pins. Insect pins without heads, 12mm long. They are used for double mounting (staging) very small insects. They also may be used profitably for staging insects of moderate size, where they have the advantage of being less damaging to the specimen. For best effect in that respect, the pin is inserted from below through the staging card, well into the thorax, but not all the way through. Alternatively the minuten pin can be inserted laterally into one side of the thorax, again preferably not all the way through.
+Carding. Insects (especially Coleoptera and Hemiptera) are glued to rectangular pieces of acid free card or Bristol board providing a stage. Typical sizes are 4.5 x 11 mm;5 x 14 mm;6 x 17 mm;10 x 21 mm;13 x 30 mm. Printed lines allow uniform placement of the entomological pin. Though this is convenient, it is dubious practice at best, because it obscures features that might be necessary for taxonomic or morphological studies. In any case, at the very least the glue should be sufficiently conveniently soluble to be removed with solvents when necessary. With such considerations in mind, Canada balsam is about as good an adhesive as any.
+
+Staging. When specimens are mounted on a smaller support which in turn is supported on a normal full-sized entomological pin, this is called staging. For example a specimen might be mounted on a minuten pin, typically being pinned on its side (lateral pinning) or upright (direct pinning) with the minuten pin driven into a stage, a strip of suitable material such as dried plant pith or plastic foam supported in a horizontal position on the main entomological pin; as a rule a number 3 pin is convenient. Other forms of stage include card mounts and point mounts.
+The stage usually is positioned at such a distance up the vertical stage-pin, as to put the specimen at the same height as a directly pinned insect; this normally allows room for labels beneath and to allow handling of the specimen without damage.
+If insects are side-pinned by pins that pass right through the specimens, then the minuten should be at such an angle that different features are damaged on the opposite sides of the thorax. Competent staging protects small specimens and displays most features conveniently. The stage-pin then is easy to manipulate when moving the specimen and the stage absorbs vibrations.
+
+== In popular culture ==
+Pokémon creator Satoshi Tajiri's childhood hobby of insect collecting is the inspiration behind the popular video game series.
+A beetle collection becomes a source of fascination for a mentally disturbed woman in Chapter XI of MacKinlay Kantor's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel Andersonville (1955).
+
+== See also ==
+Identification key
+Killing jar
+Timeline of entomology
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Works cited ===
+
+=== Further reading ===
+Picture guide series for college students. Out of date, but very useful for beginners:
+
+Harry Edwin Jaques, 1941 How to know the insects; an illustrated key to the more common families of insects, with suggestions for collecting, mounting and studying them. His Pictured-key nature series Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, The author Full text online here Excellent college level guide
+Hongfu, Zhu, 1949 How to know the immature insects; an illustrated key for identifying the orders and families of many of the immature insects with suggestions for collecting, rearing and studying them, by H. F. Chu. Pictured key nature series Dubuque, Iowa, W. C. Brown Co.Full text online here
+
+== External links ==
+
+Capture methods and techniques Intermediate level
+Collecting and Preserving Insects and Mites: Tools and Techniques; PDF Comprehensive, detailed download. Advanced level.
+How to make an insect collection; containing suggestions and hints designed to aid the beginning and less advanced collector (Wards Natural Science Establishment 1945)
+Bug Analyze to identify any insect

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of Natural History articles by Gerard Krefft in The Sydney Mail"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:34.064719+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Johann Ludwig (Louis) Gerard Krefft (1830 – 1881), one of Australia's first and most influential zoologists and palaeontologists, was an artist, draughtsman, scientist, and natural historian who served as the curator of the Australian Museum, in Sydney, New South Wales, for 13 years (1861–1874). The following is a list of Krefft's articles that were regularly published in the "Natural History" Section of The Sydney Mail between 4 March 1871 and 26 June 1875. Although a small number of relevant items written by others appeared in The Sydney Mail's "Natural History" section from time to time — e.g., John William Brazier (2 March 1872), George Bennett (9 August 1873), Georgen Mivart (7 March 1874), "Anonymous" (16 May 1874), etc. — the section's very first article was Krefft's 4 March 1871 contribution, and its very last was Krefft's 26 June 1875 contribution:
+
+
+== See also ==
+Krefft's "Natural History" articles in The Sydney Mail