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--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers-0.md
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers"
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--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-0.md
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+---
+title: "Discrete time and continuous time"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:24.635876+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In mathematical dynamics, discrete time and continuous time are two alternative frameworks within which variables that evolve over time are modeled.
+
+== Discrete time ==
+
+Discrete time views values of variables as occurring at distinct, separate "points in time", or equivalently as being unchanged throughout each non-zero region of time ("time period")—that is, time is viewed as a discrete variable. Thus a non-time variable jumps from one value to another as time moves from one time period to the next. This view of time corresponds to a digital clock that gives a fixed reading of 10:37 for a while, and then jumps to a new fixed reading of 10:38, etc. In this framework, each variable of interest is measured once at each time period. The number of measurements between any two time periods is finite. Measurements are typically made at sequential integer values of the variable "time".
+A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series consisting of a sequence of quantities.
+Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a function of a continuous argument; however, it may have been obtained by sampling from a continuous-time signal. When a discrete-time signal is obtained by sampling a sequence at uniformly spaced times, it has an associated sampling rate.
+Discrete-time signals may have several origins, but can usually be classified into one of two groups:
+
+By acquiring values of an analog signal at constant or variable rate. This process is called sampling.
+By observing an inherently discrete-time process, such as the weekly peak value of a particular economic indicator.
+
+== Continuous time ==
+In contrast, continuous time views variables as having a particular value only for an infinitesimally short amount of time. Between any two points in time there are an infinite number of other points in time. The variable "time" ranges over the entire real number line, or depending on the context, over some subset of it such as the non-negative reals. Thus time is viewed as a continuous variable.
+A continuous signal or a continuous-time signal is a varying quantity (a signal) 
+whose domain, which is often time, is a continuum (e.g., a connected interval of the reals). That is, the function's domain is an uncountable set. The function itself need not to be continuous. To contrast, a discrete-time signal has a countable domain, like the natural numbers.
+A signal of continuous amplitude and time is known as a continuous-time signal or an analog signal. This (a signal) will have some value at every instant of time. The electrical signals derived in proportion with the physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, sound etc. are generally continuous signals. Other examples of continuous signals are sine wave, cosine wave, triangular wave etc. 
+The signal is defined over a domain, which may or may not be finite, and there is a functional mapping from the domain to the value of the signal. The continuity of the time variable, in connection with the law of density of real numbers, means that the signal value can be found at any arbitrary point in time.
+A typical example of an infinite duration signal is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        sin
+        ⁡
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ,
+        
+        t
+        ∈
+        
+          R
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(t)=\sin(t),\quad t\in \mathbb {R} }
+  
+
+A finite duration counterpart of the above signal could be:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        sin
+        ⁡
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ,
+        
+        t
+        ∈
+        [
+        −
+        π
+        ,
+        π
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(t)=\sin(t),\quad t\in [-\pi ,\pi ]}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(t)=0}
+  
+ otherwise.
+The value of a finite (or infinite) duration signal may or may not be finite. For example,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            t
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+        t
+        ∈
+        [
+        0
+        ,
+        1
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(t)={\frac {1}{t}},\quad t\in [0,1]}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(t)=0}
+  
+ otherwise,
+is a finite duration signal but it takes an infinite value for 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+        =
+        0
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t=0\,}
+  
+. 
+In many disciplines, the convention is that a continuous signal must always have a finite value, which makes more sense in the case of physical signals.
+For some purposes, infinite singularities are acceptable as long as the signal is integrable over any finite interval (for example, the 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t^{-1}}
+  
+ signal is not integrable at infinity, but 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            −
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t^{-2}}
+  
+ is).
+Any analog signal is continuous by nature. Discrete-time signals, used in digital signal processing, can be obtained by sampling and quantization of continuous signals.
+Continuous signal may also be defined over an independent variable other than time. Another very common independent variable is space and is particularly useful in image processing, where two  space dimensions are used.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-1.md
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+---
+title: "Discrete time and continuous time"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:24.635876+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Relevant contexts ==
+Discrete time is often employed when empirical measurements are involved, because normally it is only possible to measure variables sequentially. For example, while economic activity actually occurs continuously, there being no moment when the economy is totally in a pause, it is only possible to measure economic activity discretely. For this reason, published data on, for example, gross domestic product will show a sequence of quarterly values.
+When one attempts to empirically explain such variables in terms of other variables and/or their own prior values, one uses time series or regression methods in which variables are indexed with a subscript indicating the time period in which the observation occurred. For example, yt might refer to the value of income observed in unspecified time period t, y3 to the value of income observed in the third time period, etc.
+Moreover, when a researcher attempts to develop a theory to explain what is observed in discrete time, often the theory itself is expressed in discrete time in order to facilitate the development of a time series or regression model.
+On the other hand, it is often more mathematically tractable to construct theoretical models in continuous time, and often in areas such as physics an exact description requires the use of continuous time. In a continuous time context, the value of a variable y at an unspecified point in time is denoted as y(t) or, when the meaning is clear, simply as y.
+
+== Types of equations ==
+
+=== Discrete time ===
+Discrete time makes use of difference equations, also known as recurrence relations. An example, known as the logistic map or logistic equation, is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            t
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        r
+        
+          x
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        
+          x
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        )
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{t+1}=rx_{t}(1-x_{t}),}
+  
+
+in which r is a parameter in the range from 2 to 4 inclusive, and x is a variable in the range from 0 to 1 inclusive whose value in period t nonlinearly affects its value in the next period, t + 1. For example, if 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+        =
+        4
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r=4}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        3
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{1}=1/3}
+  
+, then for t = 1 we have 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        4
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        3
+        )
+        (
+        2
+        
+          /
+        
+        3
+        )
+        =
+        8
+        
+          /
+        
+        9
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{2}=4(1/3)(2/3)=8/9}
+  
+, and for t = 2 we have 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        =
+        4
+        (
+        8
+        
+          /
+        
+        9
+        )
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        9
+        )
+        =
+        32
+        
+          /
+        
+        81
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{3}=4(8/9)(1/9)=32/81}
+  
+.
+Another example models the adjustment of a price P in response to non-zero excess demand for a product as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          P
+          
+            t
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          P
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        +
+        δ
+        ⋅
+        f
+        (
+        
+          P
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        ,
+        .
+        .
+        .
+        )
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P_{t+1}=P_{t}+\delta \cdot f(P_{t},...),}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \delta }
+  
+ is the positive speed-of-adjustment parameter which is less than or equal to 1, and where 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ is the excess demand function.
+
+=== Continuous time ===
+Continuous time makes use of differential equations. For example, the adjustment of a price P in response to non-zero excess demand for a product can be modeled in continuous time as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              P
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        λ
+        ⋅
+        f
+        (
+        P
+        ,
+        .
+        .
+        .
+        )
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {dP}{dt}}=\lambda \cdot f(P,...),}
+  
+
+where the left side is the first derivative of the price with respect to time (that is, the rate of change of the price), 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda }
+  
+ is the speed-of-adjustment parameter which can be any positive finite number, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ is again the excess demand function.
+
+== Graphical depiction ==
+A variable measured in discrete time can be plotted as a step function, in which each time period is given a region on the horizontal axis of the same length as every other time period, and the measured variable is plotted as a height that stays constant throughout the region of the time period. In this graphical technique, the graph appears as a sequence of horizontal steps. Alternatively, each time period can be viewed as a detached point in time, usually at an integer value on the horizontal axis, and the measured variable is plotted as a height above that time-axis point. In this technique, the graph appears as a set of dots.
+The values of a variable measured in continuous time are plotted as a continuous function, since the domain of time is considered to be the entire real axis or at least some connected portion of it.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+Gershenfeld, Neil A. (1999). The Nature of mathematical Modeling. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57095-6.
+Wagner, Thomas Charles Gordon (1959). Analytical transients. Wiley.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+---
+title: "Finkbeiner test"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:32.907127+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Finkbeiner test, named for the science journalist Ann Finkbeiner, is a checklist to help science journalists avoid gender bias in articles about women in science. It asks writers to avoid describing women scientists in terms of stereotypically feminine traits, such as their family arrangements.
+The Finkbeiner test has been linked to affirmative action, because writing can cause readers to view women in science as different from men in negative or unfair ways. The test helps avoid gender bias in science reporting similarly to various tests that focus on under-representation of marginalized groups in different career fields.
+
+
+== Checklist ==
+
+The Finkbeiner test is a checklist proposed by freelance journalist Christie Aschwanden to help journalists avoid gender bias in media articles about women in science. To pass the test, an article about a female scientist must not mention:
+
+That she is a woman
+Her husband's job
+Her childcare arrangements
+How she nurtures her underlings
+How she was taken aback by the competitiveness in her field
+How she is a role model for other women
+How she's the "first woman to ..."
+
+
+== History ==
+Aschwanden formulated the test in a 2013 article for the online magazine Double X Science.  She created the test in the spirit of (but was not inspired by) the Bechdel test – used to highlight gender bias in film – in response to the sexist media coverage of women scientists she noticed. She recalled:
+
+Campaigns to recognize outstanding female scientists have led to a recognizable genre of media coverage. Let's call it "A lady who..." genre. You've seen these profiles, of course you have, because they're everywhere. The hallmark of "A lady who..." profile is that it treats its subject's sex as her most defining detail. She's not just a great scientist, she's a woman! And if she's also a wife and a mother, those roles get emphasized too.
+Aschwanden named the test after journalist Ann Finkbeiner, winner of the 2008 AIP Science Communication Award, who had earlier written a post for the science blog The Last Word on Nothing about her decision not to write about the subject of her latest profile, an astronomer, "as a woman".
+Both journalists agree that the test "should apply mainly to the sort of general-interest scientist profiles that one might find in The New York Times or the front section of Nature, which are supposed to focus on professional accomplishments". The point of the test is to not overemphasize or privilege the gender of a female scientist. Even Finkbeiner, who vowed to "ignore gender" in her writing, actually tripped up on the tendency to focus on sex; in an astronomer's profile she considered mentioning that the scientist was the "first" to win a certain award. "After a reader urged Finkbeiner to stick to her pledge, she [left out 'the first.']" The tactic of singling out women as "role models" can also distort gender equality in the reception of news reporting. Students indiscriminately cite scholars and mentors of any sex or gender as "great role models"; being a role model is not unique to a person's gender. Thus, emphasizing sex in profiles about members of marginalized groups reinforces their supposed difference, perpetuating gender bias in science.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+The test was mentioned in the media criticism of The New York Times's obituary of rocket scientist Yvonne Brill. That obituary, published on 30 March 2013, by Douglas Martin, began with the words: "She made a mean beef stroganoff, followed her husband from job to job and took eight years off from work to raise three children". A few hours after publication The New York Times revised the obituary to address some of the criticisms; the revised version begins "She was a brilliant rocket scientist who followed her husband from job to job..."
+Another New York Times article, on Jennifer Doudna, published on 11 May 2015, drew similar criticism with reference to the Finkbeiner test.  An article in The Globe and Mail on astrophysicist Victoria Kaspi, published on 16 February 2016, drew the same criticism, as did David Quammen's book A Tangled Tree, for giving women scientists, especially Lynn Margulis, short shrift.
+Susan Gelman, Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan, applauded the move to report on female scientists without emphasising their gender, but questions whether the Finkbeiner test should seek to eliminate all references to personal life, suggesting that the move should be towards asking male scientists about personal issues too. This view is shared by other writers. In addition, Vasudevan Mukunth points out in The Wire that countries in which women are drastically under-represented in science might want to bend the test's rules in hopes of highlighting any systemic barriers: "The test's usefulness rests on the myth of a level playing field—there is none in India."  In another post on Last Word on Nothing, Finkbeiner responded to these questions by arguing with herself.
+
+
+== Reversed Finkbeiner ==
+The "Reversed Finkbeiner" approach is an exercise in which students are asked to write an article about a male scientist that would fail the Finkbeiner test if it were about a woman.
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Hypothetical types of biochemistry"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Several forms of biochemistry are agreed to be scientifically viable, but are not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms known on Earth, as of 2026, all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) to define and control their form. If life exists on other celestial bodies (planets, moons), it may be chemically similar, though it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries – for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, and/or another solvent in place of water.
+The possibility of life-forms being based on "alternative" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is of interest in synthetic biology and is also a common subject in science fiction.
+The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and, like carbon, it is tetravalent. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule, and cosmically abundant; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane, which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan.
+
+== Overview of hypothetical types of biochemistry ==
+
+== Shadow biosphere ==
+
+A shadow biosphere is a hypothetical microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. Although life on Earth is relatively well-studied, the shadow biosphere may still remain unnoticed because the exploration of the microbial world targets primarily the biochemistry of the macro-organisms.
+
+== Alternative-chirality biomolecules ==
+Perhaps the least unusual alternative biochemistry would be one with differing chirality of its biomolecules. In known Earth-based life, amino acids are almost universally of the L form and sugars are of the D form. Molecules using D amino acids or L sugars may be possible; molecules of such a chirality, however, would be incompatible with organisms using the opposing chirality molecules. Amino acids which chirality is opposite to the norm are found on Earth, and these substances are generally thought to result from decay of organisms of normal chirality. However, physicist Paul Davies speculates that some of them might be products of "anti-chiral" life.
+It is questionable, however, whether such a biochemistry would be truly alien. Although it would certainly be an alternative stereochemistry, molecules that are overwhelmingly found in one enantiomer throughout the vast majority of organisms can nonetheless often be found in another enantiomer in different (often basal) organisms such as in comparisons between members of Archaea and other domains, making it an open topic whether an alternative stereochemistry is truly novel.
+
+== Non-carbon-based biochemistries ==
+On Earth, all known living things have a carbon-based structure and system. Scientists have speculated about the advantages and disadvantages of using elements other than carbon to form the molecular structures necessary for life, but no one has proposed a theory employing such atoms to form all the necessary structures. However, as Carl Sagan argued, it is very difficult to be certain whether a statement that applies to all life on Earth will turn out to apply to all life throughout the universe. Sagan used the term "carbon chauvinism" for such an assumption. He regarded silicon and germanium as conceivable alternatives to carbon (other plausible elements include but are not limited to palladium and titanium); but, on the other hand, he noted that carbon does seem more chemically versatile and is more abundant in the cosmos. Norman Horowitz devised the experiments to determine whether life might exist on Mars that were carried out by the Viking Lander of 1976, the first U.S. mission to successfully land a probe on the surface of Mars. Horowitz argued that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival on other planets. He considered that there was only a remote possibility that non-carbon life forms could exist with genetic information systems capable of self-replication and the ability to evolve and adapt.
+
+=== Silicon biochemistry ===
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-1.md
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Hypothetical types of biochemistry"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The silicon atom has been much discussed as the basis for an alternative biochemical system, because silicon has many chemical similarities to carbon and is in the same group of the periodic table. Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information.
+However, silicon has several drawbacks as a carbon alternative. Carbon is ten times more cosmically abundant than silicon, and its chemistry appears naturally more complex. By 1998, astronomers had identified 84 carbon-containing molecules in the interstellar medium, but only 8 containing silicon, of which half also include carbon. Even though Earth and other terrestrial planets are exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor (silicon is roughly 925 times more abundant in Earth's crust than carbon), terrestrial life bases itself on carbon. This might be due to the comparatively lower diversity of functional groups observed in naturally-occurring Silicon-based polymers. 
+Relative to carbon, silicon has a much larger atomic radius, and forms much weaker covalent bonds to atoms — except oxygen and fluorine, with which it forms very strong bonds. Almost no multiple bonds to silicon are stable, although silicon does exhibit varied coordination number. Silanes, silicon analogues to the alkanes, react rapidly with water, and long-chain silanes spontaneously decompose. Consequently, most terrestrial silicon is "locked up" in silica, and not a wide variety of biogenic precursors. 
+Silicones, which alternate between silicon and oxygen atoms, are much more stable than silanes, and may even be more stable than the equivalent hydrocarbons in sulfuric acid-rich extraterrestrial environments. Alternatively, the weak bonds in silicon compounds may help maintain a rapid pace of life at cryogenic temperatures. Polysilanols, the silicon homologues to sugars, are among the few compounds soluble in liquid nitrogen.
+All known silicon macromolecules are artificial polymers, and so "monotonous compared with the combinatorial universe of organic macromolecules". Even so, some Earth life uses biogenic silica: diatoms' silicate skeletons. A. G. Cairns-Smith hypothesized that silicate minerals in water played a crucial role in abiogenesis, in that biogenic carbon compounds formed around their crystal structures. Although not observed in nature, carbon–silicon bonds have been added to biochemistry under directed evolution (artificial selection): a cytochrome c protein from Rhodothermus marinus has been engineered to catalyse new carbon–silicon bonds between hydrosilanes and diazo compounds.
+
+=== Other exotic element-based biochemistries ===
+
+Boranes are dangerously explosive in Earth's atmosphere, but would be more stable in a reducing atmosphere. However, boron's low cosmic abundance makes it less likely as a base for life than carbon.
+Various metals, together with oxygen, can form very complex and thermally stable structures rivalling those of organic compounds; the heteropoly acids are one such family. Some metal oxides are also similar to carbon in their ability to form both nanotube structures and diamond-like crystals (such as cubic zirconia). Titanium, aluminium, magnesium, and iron are all more abundant in Earth's crust than carbon. Metal-oxide-based life could therefore be a possibility under certain conditions, including those (such as high temperatures) at which carbon-based life would be unlikely. The Cronin group at Glasgow University reported self-assembly of tungsten polyoxometalates into cell-like spheres. By modifying their metal oxide content, the spheres can acquire holes that act as porous membrane, selectively allowing chemicals in and out of the sphere according to size.
+Sulfur is also able to form long-chain molecules, but suffers from the same high-reactivity problems as phosphorus and silanes. The biological use of sulfur as an alternative to carbon is purely hypothetical, especially because sulfur usually forms only linear chains rather than branched ones. (The biological use of sulfur as an electron acceptor is widespread and can be traced back 3.5 billion years on Earth, thus predating the use of molecular oxygen. Sulfur-reducing bacteria can utilize elemental sulfur instead of oxygen, reducing sulfur to hydrogen sulfide.)
+
+== Arsenic as an alternative to phosphorus ==
+
+While arsenic, which is chemically similar to phosphorus, is poisonous for most life forms on Earth, it is incorporated into the biochemistry of some organisms. Some marine algae incorporate arsenic into complex organic molecules such as arsenosugars and arsenobetaines. Fungi and bacteria can produce volatile methylated arsenic compounds. Arsenate reduction and arsenite oxidation have been observed in microbes (Chrysiogenes arsenatis). Additionally, some prokaryotes can use arsenate as a terminal electron acceptor during anaerobic growth and some can utilize arsenite as an electron donor to generate energy.
+It has been speculated that the earliest life forms on Earth may have used arsenic biochemistry in place of phosphorus in the structure of their DNA. A common objection to this scenario is that arsenate esters are so much less stable to hydrolysis than corresponding phosphate esters that arsenic is poorly suited for this function.
+The authors of a 2010 geomicrobiology study, supported in part by NASA, have postulated that a bacterium named GFAJ-1, collected in the sediments of Mono Lake in eastern California, can employ such 'arsenic DNA' when cultured without phosphorus. They proposed that the bacterium may employ high levels of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate or other means to reduce the effective concentration of water and stabilize its arsenate esters. This claim was heavily criticized almost immediately after publication for the perceived lack of appropriate controls. Other authors were unable to reproduce their results and showed that the study had issues with phosphate contamination, suggesting that the low amounts present could sustain extremophile lifeforms. The 2010 paper was retracted in 2025.
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+---
+title: "Hypothetical types of biochemistry"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Non-water solvents ==
+In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, and (at temperatures much lower than Earth's) liquid nitrogen, or hydrogen in the form of a supercritical fluid.
+Water as a solvent limits the forms biochemistry can take. For example, Steven Benner, proposes the polyelectrolyte theory of the gene that claims that for a genetic biopolymer such as DNA to function in water, it requires repeated ionic charges. If water is not required for life, these limits on genetic biopolymers are removed. 
+Carl Sagan once described himself as both a carbon chauvinist and a water chauvinist; however, on another occasion he said that he was a carbon chauvinist but "not that much of a water chauvinist".
+He speculated on hydrocarbons, hydrofluoric acid, and ammonia as possible alternatives to water.
+Some of the properties of water that are important for life processes include:
+
+A complexity which leads to a large number of permutations of possible reaction paths including acid–base chemistry, H+ cations, OH− anions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals bonding, dipole–dipole and other polar interactions, aqueous solvent cages, and hydrolysis. This complexity offers a large number of pathways for evolution to produce life, many other solvents have dramatically fewer possible reactions, which severely limits evolution.
+Thermodynamic stability: the free energy of formation of liquid water is low enough (−237.24 kJ/mol) that water undergoes few reactions. Other solvents are highly reactive, particularly with oxygen.
+Water does not combust in oxygen because it is already the combustion product of hydrogen with oxygen. Most alternative solvents are not stable in an oxygen-rich atmosphere, so it is highly unlikely that those liquids could support aerobic life.
+A large temperature range over which it is liquid.
+High solubility of oxygen and carbon dioxide at room temperature supporting the evolution of aerobic aquatic plant and animal life.
+A high heat capacity (leading to higher environmental temperature stability).
+Water is a room-temperature liquid leading to a large population of quantum transition states required to overcome reaction barriers. Cryogenic liquids (such as liquid methane) have exponentially lower transition state populations which are needed for life based on chemical reactions. This leads to chemical reaction rates which may be so slow as to preclude the development of any life based on chemical reactions.
+Spectroscopic transparency allowing solar radiation to penetrate several meters into the liquid (or solid), greatly aiding the evolution of aquatic life.
+A large heat of vaporization leading to stable lakes and oceans.
+The ability to dissolve a wide variety of compounds.
+The solid (ice) has lower density than the liquid, so ice floats on the liquid. This is why bodies of water freeze over but do not freeze solid (from the bottom up). If ice were denser than liquid water (as is true for nearly all other compounds), then large bodies of liquid would slowly freeze solid, which would not be conducive to the formation of life.
+Water as a compound is cosmically abundant, although much of it is in the form of vapor or ice. Subsurface liquid water is considered likely or possible on several of the outer moons: Enceladus and Europa (where geysers have been observed), Titan, and Ganymede. Earth and Titan are the only worlds currently known to have stable bodies of liquid on their surfaces.
+Not all properties of water are necessarily advantageous for life, however. For instance, water ice has a high albedo, meaning that it reflects a significant quantity of light and heat from the Sun. During ice ages, as reflective ice builds up over the surface of the water, the effects of global cooling are increased.
+There are some properties that make certain compounds and elements much more favourable than others as solvents in a successful biosphere. The solvent must be able to exist in liquid equilibrium over a range of temperatures the planetary object would normally encounter. Because boiling points vary with the pressure, the question tends not to be does the prospective solvent remain liquid, but at what pressure. For example, hydrogen cyanide has a narrow liquid-phase temperature range at 1 atmosphere, but in an atmosphere with the pressure of Venus, with 91 standard atmospheres (92 bar) of pressure, it can indeed exist in liquid form over a wide temperature range.
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+---
+title: "Hypothetical types of biochemistry"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Ammonia ===
+The ammonia molecule (NH3), like the water molecule, is abundant in the universe, being a compound of hydrogen (the simplest and most common element) with another very common element, nitrogen. The possible role of liquid ammonia as an alternative solvent for life is an idea dating back to 1954 at least, when J. B. S. Haldane raised the topic at a symposium about life's origin.
+Many chemical reactions can occur in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has chemical similarities with water. Ammonia dissolves most organic molecules at least as well as water does, and many elemental metals. Haldane indicated that various common water-related organic compounds have ammonia-related analogues; for instance, the ammonia-related amine group (−NH2) is analogous to the water-related hydroxyl group (−OH).
+Ammonia, like water, can either accept or donate an H+ ion. When ammonia accepts an H+, it forms the ammonium cation (NH4+), analogous to hydronium (H3O+). When it donates an H+ ion, it forms the amide anion (NH2−), analogous to the hydroxide anion (OH−). Compared to water, however, ammonia is more inclined to accept an H+ ion, and less inclined to donate one; it is a stronger nucleophile. Ammonia added to water functions as an Arrhenius base: it increases the concentration of the anion hydroxide. Conversely, using a solvent system definition of acidity and basicity, water added to liquid ammonia functions as an acid, because it increases the concentration of the cation ammonium. The carbonyl group (C=O), which is much used in terrestrial biochemistry, would not be stable in ammonia solution, but the analogous imine group (C=NH) could be used instead.
+However, ammonia has some problems as a basis for life. The hydrogen bonds between ammonia molecules are weaker than those in water, causing ammonia's heat of vaporization to be half that of water, its surface tension to be a third, and reducing its ability to concentrate non-polar molecules through a hydrophobic effect. Gerald Feinberg and Robert Shapiro have questioned whether ammonia could hold prebiotic molecules together well enough to allow the emergence of a self-reproducing system. Ammonia is also flammable in oxygen and could not exist sustainably in an environment suitable for aerobic metabolism.
+
+A biosphere based on ammonia would likely exist at temperatures or air pressures that are extremely unusual in relation to life on Earth. Life on Earth usually exists between the melting point and boiling point of water, at a pressure designated as normal pressure, between 0 and 100 °C (273 and 373 K). When also held to normal pressure, ammonia's melting and boiling points are −78 °C (195 K) and −33 °C (240 K) respectively. Because chemical reactions generally proceed more slowly at lower temperatures, ammonia-based life existing in this set of conditions might metabolize more slowly and evolve more slowly than life on Earth. On the other hand, lower temperatures could also enable living systems to use chemical species that would be too unstable at Earth temperatures to be useful.
+A set of conditions where ammonia is liquid at Earth-like temperatures would involve it being at a much higher pressure. For example, at 60 atm ammonia melts at −77 °C (196 K) and boils at 98 °C (371 K).
+Ammonia and ammonia–water mixtures remain liquid at temperatures far below the freezing point of pure water, so such biochemistries might be well suited to planets and moons orbiting outside the water-based habitability zone. Such conditions could exist, for example, under the surface of Saturn's largest moon Titan.
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+---
+title: "Hypothetical types of biochemistry"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Methane and other hydrocarbons ===
+Methane (CH4) is a simple hydrocarbon: that is, a compound of two of the most common elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and carbon. It has a cosmic abundance comparable with ammonia. Hydrocarbons could act as a solvent over a wide range of temperatures but would lack polarity. Isaac Asimov, the biochemist and science fiction writer, suggested in 1981 that poly-lipids could form a substitute for proteins in a non-polar solvent such as methane. Lakes composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons, including methane and ethane, have been detected on the surface of Titan by the Cassini spacecraft.
+There is debate about the effectiveness of methane and other hydrocarbons as a solvent for life compared to water or ammonia. Water is a stronger solvent than the hydrocarbons, enabling easier transport of substances in a cell. However, water is also more chemically reactive and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. A life-form which solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the threat of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way. Also, the water molecule's tendency to form strong hydrogen bonds can interfere with internal hydrogen bonding in complex organic molecules. Life with a hydrocarbon solvent could make more use of hydrogen bonds within its biomolecules. Moreover, the strength of hydrogen bonds within biomolecules would be appropriate to a low-temperature biochemistry.
+Astrobiologist Chris McKay has argued, on thermodynamic grounds, that if life does exist on Titan's surface, using hydrocarbons as a solvent, it is likely also to use the more complex hydrocarbons as an energy source by reacting them with hydrogen, reducing ethane and acetylene to methane. Possible evidence for this form of life on Titan was identified in 2010 by Darrell Strobel of Johns Hopkins University; a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers, arguing for a downward diffusion at a rate of roughly 1025 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan's surface. As Strobel noted, his findings were in line with the effects Chris McKay had predicted if methanogenic life-forms were present. The same year, another study showed low levels of acetylene on Titan's surface, which were interpreted by Chris McKay as consistent with the hypothesis of organisms reducing acetylene to methane. While restating the biological hypothesis, McKay cautioned that other explanations for the hydrogen and acetylene findings are to be considered more likely: the possibilities of yet unidentified physical or chemical processes (e.g. a non-living surface catalyst enabling acetylene to react with hydrogen), or flaws in the current models of material flow. He noted that even a non-biological catalyst effective at 95 K would in itself be a startling discovery.
+
+==== Azotosome ====
+A hypothetical cell membrane termed an azotosome, able to function in liquid methane in Titan conditions was computer-modelled in an article published in February 2015. Composed of acrylonitrile, a small molecule containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, it is predicted to have stability and flexibility in liquid methane comparable to that of a phospholipid bilayer (the type of cell membrane possessed by all life on Earth) in liquid water. An analysis of data obtained using the Atacama Large Millimeter / submillimeter Array (ALMA), completed in 2017, confirmed substantial amounts of acrylonitrile in Titan's atmosphere. Later studies questioned whether acrylonitrile would be able to self-assemble into azotosomes. However, in 2025 a new mechanism was proposed by scientists Christian Mayer and Conor Nixon to overcome the previous barriers to self-assembly of azotosomes in liquid methane, based on 'splashing' of a methane lake surface film by a hydrocarbon raindrop.
+
+=== Hydrogen fluoride ===
+Hydrogen fluoride (HF), like water, is a polar molecule, and due to its polarity it can dissolve many ionic compounds. At atmospheric pressure, its melting point is 189.15 K (−84.00 °C), and its boiling point is 292.69 K (19.54 °C); the difference between the two is a little more than 100 K. HF also makes hydrogen bonds with its neighbour molecules, as do water and ammonia. It has been considered as a possible solvent for life by scientists such as Peter Sneath and Carl Sagan.
+HF is dangerous to the systems of molecules that Earth-life is made of, but certain other organic compounds, such as paraffin waxes, are stable with it. Like water and ammonia, liquid hydrogen fluoride supports an acid–base chemistry. Using a solvent system definition of acidity and basicity, nitric acid functions as a base when it is added to liquid HF.
+However, hydrogen fluoride is cosmically rare, unlike water, ammonia, and methane.
+
+=== Hydrogen sulfide ===
+Hydrogen sulfide is the closest chemical analog to water, but is less polar and is a weaker inorganic solvent. Hydrogen sulfide is quite plentiful on Jupiter's moon Io and may be in liquid form a short distance below the surface; astrobiologist Dirk Schulze-Makuch has suggested it as a possible solvent for life there. On a planet with hydrogen sulfide oceans, the source of the hydrogen sulfide could come from volcanoes, in which case it could be mixed in with a bit of hydrogen fluoride, which could help dissolve minerals. Hydrogen sulfide life might use a mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide as their carbon source. They might produce and live on sulfur monoxide, which is analogous to oxygen (O2). Hydrogen sulfide, like hydrogen cyanide and ammonia, suffers from the small temperature range where it is liquid, though that, like that of hydrogen cyanide and ammonia, increases with increasing pressure.
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+---
+title: "Hypothetical types of biochemistry"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Silicon dioxide and silicates ===
+Silicon dioxide, also known as silica and quartz, is very abundant in the universe and has a large temperature range where it is liquid. However, its melting point is 1,600 to 1,725 °C (2,912 to 3,137 °F), so it would be impossible to make organic compounds in that temperature, because all of them would decompose. Silicates are similar to silicon dioxide and some have lower melting points than silica. Feinberg and Shapiro have suggested that molten silicate rock could serve as a liquid medium for organisms with a chemistry based on silicon, oxygen, and other elements such as aluminium.
+
+=== Other solvents or cosolvents ===
+
+Other solvents sometimes proposed:
+
+Supercritical fluids: supercritical carbon dioxide and supercritical hydrogen.
+Simple hydrogen compounds: hydrogen chloride.
+More complex compounds: sulfuric acid, formamide, methanol.
+Very-low-temperature fluids: liquid nitrogen and hydrogen.
+High-temperature liquids: sodium chloride.
+Sulfuric acid in liquid form is strongly polar. It remains liquid at higher temperatures than water, its liquid range being 10 °C to 337 °C at a pressure of 1 atm, although above 300 °C it slowly decomposes. Sulfuric acid is known to be abundant in the clouds of Venus, in the form of aerosol droplets. In a biochemistry that used sulfuric acid as a solvent, the alkene group (C=C), with two carbon atoms joined by a double bond, could function analogously to the carbonyl group (C=O) in water-based biochemistry.
+A proposal has been made that life on Mars may exist and be using a mixture of water and hydrogen peroxide as its solvent.
+A 61.2% (by mass) mix of water and hydrogen peroxide has a freezing point of −56.5 °C and tends to super-cool rather than crystallize. It is also hygroscopic, an advantage in a water-scarce environment.
+Supercritical carbon dioxide has been proposed as a candidate for alternative biochemistry due to its ability to selectively dissolve organic compounds and assist the functioning of enzymes and because "super-Earth"- or "super-Venus"-type planets with dense high-pressure atmospheres may be common.
+
+== Other speculations ==
+
+=== Non-green photosynthesizers ===
+Physicists have noted that, although photosynthesis on Earth generally involves green plants, a variety of other-colored plants could also support photosynthesis, essential for most life on Earth, and that other colors might be preferred in places that receive a different mix of stellar radiation than Earth.
+These studies indicate that blue plants would be unlikely; however yellow or red plants may be relatively common.
+
+=== Variable environments ===
+Many Earth plants and animals undergo major biochemical changes during their life cycles as a response to changing environmental conditions, for example, by having a spore or hibernation state that can be sustained for years or even millennia between more active life stages. Thus, it would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it.
+For example, frogs in cold climates can survive for extended periods of time with most of their body water in a frozen state, whereas desert frogs in Australia can become inactive and dehydrate in dry periods, losing up to 75% of their fluids, yet return to life by rapidly rehydrating in wet periods. Either type of frog would appear biochemically inactive (i.e. not living) during dormant periods to anyone lacking a sensitive means of detecting low levels of metabolism.
+
+=== Alanine world and hypothetical alternatives ===
+
+The genetic code may have evolved during the transition from the RNA world to a protein world. The alanine world hypothesis postulates that the evolution of the genetic code (the so-called GC phase) started with only four basic amino acids: alanine, glycine, proline and ornithine (now arginine). The evolution of the genetic code ended with 20 proteinogenic amino acids. From a chemical point of view, most of them are Alanine-derivatives particularly suitable for the construction of α-helices and β-sheets – basic secondary structural elements of modern proteins. Direct evidence of this is an experimental procedure in molecular biology known as alanine scanning.
+A hypothetical proline world would create a possible alternative life with the genetic code based on the proline chemical scaffold as the protein backbone. Similarly, a glycine world and ornithine world are also conceivable, but nature has chosen none of them. Evolution of life with Proline, Glycine, or Ornithine as the basic structure for protein-like polymers (foldamers) would lead to parallel biological worlds. They would have morphologically radically different body plans and genetics from the living organisms of the known biosphere.
+
+== Nonplanetary life ==
+
+=== Dusty plasma-based ===
+
+In 2007, Vadim N. Tsytovich and colleagues proposed that lifelike behaviors could be exhibited by dust particles suspended in a plasma, under conditions that might exist in space. Computer models showed that, when the dust became charged, the particles could self-organize into microscopic helical structures, and the authors offer "a rough sketch of a possible model of...helical grain structure reproduction".
+
+=== Cosmic necklace-based ===
+In 2020, Luis A. Anchordoqu and Eugene M. Chudnovsky of the City University of New York hypothesized that cosmic necklace-based life composed of magnetic monopoles connected by cosmic strings could evolve inside stars. This would be achieved by a stretching of cosmic strings due to the star's intense gravity, thus allowing it to take on more complex forms and potentially form structures similar to the RNA and DNA structures found within carbon-based life. As such, it is theoretically possible that such beings could eventually become intelligent and construct a civilization using the power generated by the star's nuclear fusion. Because such use would use up part of the star's energy output, the luminosity would also fall. For this reason, it is thought that such life might exist inside stars observed to be cooling faster or dimmer than current cosmological models predict.
+
+=== Life on a neutron star ===
+Frank Drake suggested in 1973 that intelligent life could inhabit neutron stars. Physical models in 1973 implied that Drake's creatures would be microscopic.
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+---
+title: "Hypothetical types of biochemistry"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Scientists who have published on this topic ==
+Scientists who have considered possible alternatives to carbon-water biochemistry include:
+
+J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), a geneticist noted for his work on abiogenesis.
+V. Axel Firsoff (1910–1981), British astronomer. cited in Ammonia-based Life.
+Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), biochemist and science fiction writer.
+Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), astronomer, science fiction writer, panspermia proponent.
+Norman Horowitz (1915–2005), Caltech geneticist who devised the first experiments done to detect life on Mars.
+George C. Pimentel (1922–1989), American chemist, University of California, Berkeley.
+Peter Sneath (1923–2011), microbiologist, author of the book Planets and Life.
+Gerald Feinberg (1933–1992), physicist and Robert Shapiro (1935–2011), chemist, co-authors of the book Life Beyond Earth.
+Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer, science popularizer, and SETI proponent.
+Jonathan Lunine (born 1959), American planetary scientist and physicist.
+Robert Freitas (born 1952), specialist in nanotechnology and nanomedicine.This work is acknowledged the partial basis of the article Ammonia-based Life.
+John Baross (born 1940), oceanographer and astrobiologist, who chaired a committee of scientists under the United States National Research Council that published a report on life's limiting conditions in 2007.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bains, William (2004). "Many Chemistries Could Be Used to Build Living Systems". Astrobiology. 4 (2): 137–167. Bibcode:2004AsBio...4..137B. doi:10.1089/153110704323175124. PMID 15253836. S2CID 27477952.
+Astronomy FAQ (archive)
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+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 1/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This page aims to list inventions and discoveries in which women played a major role.
+
+== Medicine ==
+
+=== Pharmaceuticals ===
+Aciclovir
+Gertrude B. Elion contributed to the development of aciclovir, an antiviral drug used for the treatment of herpes simplex virus infections, chickenpox, and shingles.
+Artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin
+Tu Youyou discovered artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, both now standard treatments for malaria. Artemisinin is isolated from the plant Artemisia annua, sweet wormwood, a herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine.
+Azathioprine
+Azathioprine is an Immunosuppressive drug used in rheumatoid arthritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and in kidney transplants to prevent rejection first synthesized by George H. Hitchings and Gertrude B. Elion in 1957 .
+AZT
+Flossie Wong-Staal was the first scientist to clone HIV and map its genes. Gertrude Elion made foundational contributions to the development of AZT, one of the first antiretroviral medications used in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS.
+Chemotherapy
+Jane C. Wright was the first to identify methotrexate, one of the foundational chemotherapy drugs, as an effective tool against cancerous tumors.
+feeding tube
+Bessie Blount Griffin used plastic, boiling water to mold the material, a file, ice pick, hammer, and some dishes to create the first feeding tube, allowed patients to control how much they would eat without assistance from others.
+Mercaptopurine
+Mercaptopurine is a medication for cancer and autoimmune diseases including acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis. It was discovered by  Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings.
+Pyrimethamine
+Pyrimethamine, sold under the trade name Daraprim, is an anti-parasitic medication used to treat a variety of conditions including toxoplasmosis and isosporiasis. Pyrimethamine was initially developed by Nobel Prize winning scientist Gertrude Elion as a treatment for malaria.
+Vitamin E
+Katharine Bishop and Herbert McLean Evans co-discovered Vitamin E while studying the reproductive cycle of rats.
+
+=== Pediatrics ===
+
+Apgar score
+Invented in 1952 by Virginia Apgar.
+Disposable diapers
+The first disposable diaper was invented in 1946 by Marion Donovan, a professional-turned-homemaker who wanted to ensure her children's cloth diapers remained dry while they slept. Donovan patented her design (called 'Boaters') in 1951. She also invented the first paper diapers, but executives did not invest in this idea and it was consequently scrapped for over ten years, until Procter & Gamble used Donovan's design ideas to create Pampers.
+Another diaper design was created by Valerie Hunter Gordon (née de Ferranti), who patented it in 1948.
+Child carriers
+Snugli and Weego were invented by nurse and peacekeeper Ann Moore first in the 1960s.
+Pertussis vaccine
+A pioneering female American doctor, medical researcher and an outspoken voice in the pediatrics community, the supercentenarian Leila Alice Denmark (1898–2012) is credited as co-developer of the pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine.
+Single hand medical syringe
+Letitia Mumford Geer thought that the syringes being manufactured were difficult to use because they were often imprecise and unsanitary. This influenced her to create a more precise syringe. On February 12, 1896, Geer filed for a patent for the one-handed medical syringe design.
+The entire discipline of Physical Therapy
+Mary McMillan, working with Polio patients in the 1920s.
+
+== Astronomy and astrophysics ==
+Harvard Stellar Classification Scheme
+The first classification of stars based on their temperature, created by Annie Jump Cannon, used in publications up to 1924.
+Pulsars
+Rapidly rotating neutron stars discovered by Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967.
+The galaxy rotation problem
+A major piece of evidence for the presence of dark matter in the Universe, discovered by Vera Rubin from observations of galactic rotation curves in the 1970s.
+Stars luminosity
+Henrietta Swan Leavitt was an American astronomer who discovered the relation between the luminosity and the period of Cepheid variable stars at the beginning of 20th century.
+Merieme Chadid is a French and Moroccan astronomer and explorer who discovered hypersonic shock waves in variable stars as well as the first astronomer committed to install a large observatory at the heart of Antarctica towards an understanding of stellar evolution in the Universe by leading scientific polar explorations.
+Radio astronomy
+Ruby Violet Payne-Scott was an Australian pioneer in radiophysics and radio astronomy as well as the first female radio astronomer discovering Type I and Type III solar radio bursts.
+Stars are  primarily composed of hydrogen and helium
+Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin found in her 1925 PhD thesis that stars are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium.  Thus, her thesis established that hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe.
+When Payne's dissertation was reviewed, astronomer Henry Norris Russell dissuaded her from concluding that the composition of the Sun was predominantly hydrogen and thus very different from that of the Earth, as it contradicted the accepted wisdom at the time. She consequently described the result in her thesis as "spurious". Russell realized she was correct four years later after having derived the same result by different means and publishing it in 1929. He acknowledged Payne's work and discovery admiringly in his paper but he is often credited for the conclusions they both reached.
+The new outer arm of the Milky Way
+In 2004, astrophysicist and radio astronomer Naomi McClure-Griffiths  identified a new spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy.
+
+== Physics ==
+Radiation
+Marie Skłodowska-Curie (born Maria Salomea Skłodowska) was the first woman to receive a Nobel prize for her works on radiations and, up until today, the only woman to receive two Nobel prizes (among them, one Nobel prize in chemistry for discoveries on polonium and radium). She is the sole laureate to be recognized within two distinct scientific areas.
+Fanny Gates further investigated the properties of radiation. Together with Ernest Rutherford, she amassed evidence that radioactivity was not the result of any simple chemical or physical processes. In particular, Gates showed that radioactivity could not be destroyed by heat or ionization due to chemical reactions, and that radioactive materials differ from phosphorescent materials both qualitatively and quantitatively.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-1.md
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+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Chien-Shiung Wu was the first scientist to confirm Enrico Fermi’s theory of radioactive beta decay. She also overturned the theory of parity in physics.
+Radon
+In 1901, Harriet Brooks and Ernest Rutherford contributed to the discovery of the element radon by finding evidence that the "emanation" emitted by thorium compounds was likely to be a gas. This follows work in 1899 by Pierre and Marie Curie, who observed that the gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month.
+Kinetic energy
+Emilie du Châtelet (born Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil) translated Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica from Latin to French during the 18th century. She carried out physics experiments, popularizing the work of Leibniz. She demonstrated that the kinetic energy of an object was proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity, and postulated a conservation law for the total energy of a system.
+Heavy elements in cosmic radiation
+As a graduate student, Phyllis S. Freier found evidence for the existence of elements heavier than helium in cosmic radiation. Her work was published in Physical Review in 1948 with co-authors Edward J. Lofgren, Edward P. Ney, and Frank Oppenheimer.
+Beta particles are electrons.
+Gertrude Scharff Goldhaber and her husband Maurice Goldhaber showed that beta particles were identical to electrons.
+Top quark
+Melissa Franklin's team at Fermilab found some of the first evidence for the existence of the top quark.
+Nuclear shell
+Maria Goeppert Mayer, a German immigrant to the US who studied at Johns Hopkins during the Great Depression, persisted in her studies even when no university would employ her and became a chemical physicist. Her most-famous contribution to modern physics was discovering the nuclear shell of the atomic nucleus, for which she won the Nobel Prize in 1963.
+Slow light
+Lene Hau led a Harvard University team who used a Bose–Einstein condensate to slow down a beam of light to about 17 metres per second, and, in 2001, was able to stop a beam completely.
+Astatine
+The Austrian physicist Berta Karlik discovered that the element 85 astatine is a product of the natural decay processes.
+Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem
+In her 1919 thesis, Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen explained why magnetism is an essentially quantum mechanical effect, a result now referred to as the Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem. (Niels Bohr had arrived at the same conclusion a few years earlier.)
+Francium
+In 1939, Marguerite Perey, a student of Marie Curie, discovered the element francium by purifying samples of lanthanum that contained actinium.  Perey first noticed that the actinium she purified was emitting unexpected radiation. After further study she was able to isolate this new element which she named "francium" for France.
+Nuclear fission
+Austrian–Swedish physicist Lise Meitner, together with Otto Hahn and Otto Robert Frisch, led the small group of scientists who first discovered nuclear fission of uranium when it absorbed an extra neutron.  The results were published in early 1939. Meitner, Hahn and Frisch understood that the fission process, which splits the atomic nucleus of uranium into two smaller nuclei, must be accompanied by an enormous release of energy. Nuclear fission is the process exploited by nuclear reactors to generate heat and, subsequently, electricity. This process is also one of the basics of nuclear weapons that were developed in the U.S. during World War II and used against Japan in 1945.
+Structure of the Milky Way
+Heidi Jo Newberg's team found that Milky Way is cannibalizing stars from smaller galaxies and that the Milky Way is larger and has more ripples than was previously understood.
+Chirped pulse amplification
+Donna Strickland received the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of chirped pulse amplification, a technique which "paved the way towards the shortest and most intense laser pulses ever created by mankind."
+Semiconductor saturable-absorber mirror
+semiconductor saturable absorber mirror (SESAM) invented and demonstrated by Ursula Keller in 1992
+Conwell–Weisskopf theory
+One of the first ionized impurity scattering mobility models proposed by Esther Conwell in 1950
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-2.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-2.md
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+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Chemistry ==
+Catalysis
+The concept of catalysis invented by Scottish chemist Elizabeth Fulhame
+Kevlar
+A powerful para-aramid synthetic fiber, developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965
+Polonium and radium
+The discoveries of elements radium and polonium were made by Polish chemist Marie Curie through the deep study of their nature and their compounds.
+Rhenium
+Rhenium, a d-block transition metal with Atomic number 75, was first isolated by Ida Noddack and her husband. The existence of this element was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Ida Noddack was nominated three times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
+Seaborgium
+Carol Alonso was a co-discoverer of seaborgium, a synthetic chemical element with symbol Sg and atomic number 106.
+Scotchgard
+This stain repellent and durable water repellent was co-invented by chemists Patsy Sherman and Samuel Smith while working for 3M.
+Langmuir–Blodgett film
+The technique for making Langmuir–Blodgett film, which involves immersing a substrate into a solution to deposit a monolayer of molecules onto a substrate, was co-invented by Katharine Burr Blodgett and Irving Langmuir while working for General Electric. Earlier work by Agnes Pockels influenced the development of the trough.
+Zeolite Y
+Zeolite Y, a molecular sieve used to catalyse fractional distillation in petroleum refining, was invented by Edith M. Flanigen while working for Union Carbide. Flanigen also co-invented a synthetic emerald and was the first female recipient of the Perkin Medal in 1992.
+Synthetic radiochemistry
+Irene Joliot-Curie was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for synthesis of new radioactive elements for application in medicine. The prize was shared jointly with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie.
+Structure of benzene
+The planar structure of benzene, an important cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, was determined by Kathleen Lonsdale using X-ray crystallography. The nature of the chemical bonds had been a mystery for many years. Alongside Marjory Stephenson, Kathleen Lonsdale was one of the first two women to be elected a Fellow of The Royal Society.
+Structure of vitamin B12
+The chemical structure was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin using crystallographic data. She was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her work on Vitamin B12 and other complex molecules.
+Electron microscopy
+The in-situ atomic-resolution environmental transmission electron microscope (ETEM) was created by Pratibha Gai in 2009. This microscope allows for visualisation of chemical reactions at the atomic scale. Dame Gai decided not to patent her device, the culmination of 20 years' work, in order to further the advancement of science.
+Photocatalysis
+In 2015, Deepika Kurup invented a photocatalytic composite material that removes 100% of faecal coliform bacteria from contaminated water. Deepika has won the Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge award and The US Stockholm Junior Water Prize for her work.
+Surface chemistry (surface science)
+Agnes Pockels pioneered the new discipline of surface chemistry from her kitchen after being denied formal science training due to her gender. She created the Pockels Trough to measure surface tension, published several papers and was credited by Lord Rayleigh and Irving Langmuir.
+Mass spectrometry
+Sybil M. Rock developed the mathematical techniques used in analysing the results from mass spectrometers and devised many of the procedures for mixture analysis.
+Carbon dioxide
+Eunice Newton Foote was the first scientist to make the connection between the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere and climate change in 1856. She discovered the warming properties of carbon dioxide and the "greenhouse effect." She was able to submit her experiment and findings at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS); however, because she was a woman and not able to be a member of the organization, Professor Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution presented her findings.
+Bioorthogonal chemistry
+The term was coined by Carolyn Bertozzi in 2003. Since its introduction, the concept of the bioorthogonal reaction has enabled the study of biomolecules such as glycans, proteins, and lipids.
+
+== Geology ==
+Earth's inner core
+Discovered in 1936 by Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann. Through her work on seismology she was able to conclude that the Earth had a solid inner core and a molten outer core to explain inconsistencies in seismic wave data from earth quakes.
+Documentation of all volcanos in planet Earth.
+In February 2005, Rosaly Lopes – planetary scientist and volcanologist – wrote "Volcano Adventure Guide", in order to document every single volcano on planet Earth through a variety of aspects. This is the only book that addresses all volcanos on Earth; it provides information such as: volcano behavior, types of eruptions, dangers, maps, and even travel tips.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-3.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-3.md
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+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 4/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Household ==
+Square-bottom paper bag
+In 1868, Margaret E. Knight invented a machine that folded and glued flat-bottomed brown paper bags familiar to shoppers today. She obtained 87 US patents that include lid-removing pliers, a numbering machine, a window frame and sash, and variants on rotary engines.
+Dishwasher
+Josephine Cochrane developed in 1887 the first commercially successful dishwasher, together with mechanic George Butters.
+Home security system
+Marie VanBrittan Brown, mid 1960's.
+Electric refrigerator
+Florence Parpart, 1914.
+Pedal bin
+Lillian Gilbreth invented the pedal bin in 1914 for the disposal of kitchen waste. The foot pedal enables the user to open the lid without touching it with their hands.
+Improved ironing board
+In 1892, Sarah Boone obtained a patent in the United States for improvements to the ironing board, allowing for better quality ironing for shirt sleeves.
+Central heating
+In 1919, Alice Parker invented a system of gas-powered central heating. While her particular design was never built, it was the first time an inventor had conceived of using natural gas to heat a personal home, which inspired the future central heating systems.
+Automatic Rotimaker
+In 2008, Pranoti Nagarkar-Israni invented a kitchen robot called Rotimatic, which makes rotis, tortillas, pizza crusts and puris in under a minute. She has obtained 6 patents. The product makes use of artificial intelligence and Internet of Things to understand user requirements and improve itself after each use.
+Correction fluid
+Bette Nesmith Graham, the founder of the Liquid Paper company, invented one of the first forms of correction fluid in 1956.
+House solar heating
+Hungarian-American MIT inventor Mária Telkes and American architect Eleanor Raymond created, in 1947, the Dover Sun House, the first house powered by solar energy.
+Wrinkle-free fiber
+Wrinkle-free fiber invented by Ruth R. Benerito. The invention was said to have "saved the cotton industry".
+
+== Cosmetics ==
+Hot comb
+The hot comb was an invention developed in France as a way for women with coarse curly hair to achieve a fine straight look traditionally modeled by historical Egyptian women. However, it was Annie Malone who first patented this tool, while her protégé and former worker, Madam C. J. Walker, widened the teeth.
+curling iron
+Theora Stephens patents a more effective curling iron.
+
+== Vehicle appliances ==
+Windscreen wiper
+Mary Anderson is credited for inventing the first functional windscreen wiper in 1903. Two other inventors, Robert Douglass and John Apjohn, also patented windscreen cleaning devices in the same year.
+Car heater
+Margaret A. Wilcox invented an improved car heater, which directed air from over the engine to warm the chilly toes of aristocratic 19th-century motorists, in 1893. She also invented a combined clothes and dish washer.
+Airplane mufflers
+Eldorado Jones is credited with inventing a light-weight electric iron, travel size iron board, and airplane mufflers in 1919.
+Underwater telescope
+Patented by Sarah Mather in 1845, this permitted sea-going vessels to survey the depths of the ocean. It used a camphine lamp in a glass globe that was sunk in the water. The device allowed examination of the hull and other details from a person on the deck of a boat. In 1864 Sarah Mather improved her invention to detect Confederate underwater warships.
+
+== Computing ==
+Written computer program
+During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea. The memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first written computer program.
+Written compiler
+An early compiler related tool was written by Grace Hopper, in 1952, for the A-0 programming language. She also helped to popularize the idea of machine-independent programming languages which led to the development of COBOL, one of the first high-level programming languages.
+Written (programming) languages
+Nine coding languages were invented by women: ARC assembly language by Kathleen Booth in 1950, Address by Kateryna Yushchenko in 1955, COBOL by Grace Hopper along with other members of the Conference on Data System Languages in 1959, FORMAC by Jean Sammet in 1962, Logo by Cynthia Solomon in 1967 with members of her team, CLU by Barbara Liskov in 1974, Smalltalk by Adele Goldberg, Diana Merry, and four main other team members at Xerox PARC in 1980, BBC BASIC by Sophie Wilson in 1981, Rocq (previously knows as Coq) by Christine Paulin-Mohring along with eight development team members of the Lab in 1991. More generally speaking, women have strongly impacted the data processing domain especially women in computing.
+GIF
+
+Invented by Lisa Gelobter.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-4.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-4.md
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+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 5/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Mathematics ==
+Daubechies wavelet
+Ingrid Daubechies introduced the Daubechies wavelet and contributed to the development of the CDF wavelet, important tools in image compression.
+You can't hear the shape of a drum.
+In 1966, Mark Kac asked whether the shape of a drum could be determined by the sound it makes (whether a Riemannian manifold is determined by the spectrum of its Laplace–Beltrami operator).  John Milnor observed that a theorem due to Witt implied the existence of a pair of 16-dimensional tori that have the same spectrum but different shapes. However, the problem in two dimensions remained open until 1992, when Carolyn S. Gordon with coauthors Webb and Wolpert, constructed a pair of regions in the Euclidean plane that have different shapes but identical eigenvalues (see figure on right).
+Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem
+In mathematics, the Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem (also written as the Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem) is the main local existence and uniqueness theorem for analytic partial differential equations associated with Cauchy initial value problems. A special case was proven by Augustin Cauchy (1842), and the full result by Sophia Kovalevskaya (1875).
+Kovalevskaya top
+In classical mechanics, the precession of a rigid body such as a top under the influence of gravity is not, in general, an integrable problem. There are however three (or four) famous cases that are integrable, the Euler, the Lagrange, and the Kovalevskaya top. The Kovalevskaya top is a special symmetric top with a unique ratio of the moments of inertia which satisfy the relation
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        2
+        
+          I
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{1}=I_{2}=2I_{3},}
+  
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-5.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-5.md
@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 6/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+That is, two moments of inertia are equal, the third is half as large, and the center of gravity is located in the plane perpendicular to the symmetry axis (parallel to the plane of the two equal points). QR algorithm
+In numerical linear algebra, the QR algorithm is an eigenvalue algorithm: that is, a procedure to calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix. The QR algorithm was developed in the late 1950s by John G. F. Francis and by Vera N. Kublanovskaya, working independently. The basic idea is to perform a QR decomposition, writing the matrix as a product of an orthogonal matrix and an upper triangular matrix, multiply the factors in the reverse order, and iterate. Navier–Stokes equations
+Olga Ladyzhenskaya provided the first rigorous proofs of the convergence of a finite difference method for the Navier–Stokes equations. Ladyzhenskaya was on the shortlist for potential recipients for the 1958 Fields Medal, ultimately awarded to Klaus Roth and René Thom. Braid groups are linear
+ Ruth Lawrence's  1990 paper, "Homological representations of the Hecke algebra", in Communications in Mathematical Physics, introduced, among other things, certain  novel linear representations of the braid group — known as Lawrence–Krammer representation. In papers published in 2000 and 2001, Daan Krammer and Stephen Bigelow established the faithfulness of Lawrence's representation. This result goes by the phrase "braid groups are linear."
+Recursion theory
+Rózsa Péter was one of the founders of recursion theory, a branch of mathematical logic, of computer science, and of the theory of computation that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees. The field has since expanded to include the study of generalized computability and definability. In these areas, recursion theory overlaps with proof theory and effective descriptive set theory. Hilbert's tenth problem
+Hilbert's tenth problem is the tenth on the list of mathematical problems that the German mathematician David Hilbert posed in 1900. It is the challenge to provide a general algorithm which, for any given Diophantine equation (a polynomial equation with integer coefficients and a finite number of unknowns) can decide whether the equation has a solution with all unknowns taking integer values. For example, the Diophantine equation 
+  
+    
+      
+        3
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        −
+        2
+        x
+        y
+        −
+        
+          y
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        z
+        −
+        7
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 3x^{2}-2xy-y^{2}z-7=0}
+  
+ has an integer solution: 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        =
+        1
+        ,
+         
+        y
+        =
+        2
+        ,
+         
+        z
+        =
+        −
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x=1,\ y=2,\ z=-2}
+  
+. By contrast, the Diophantine equation 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          y
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        1
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}+1=0}
+  
+ has no such solution. Hilbert's tenth problem has been solved, and it has a negative answer: such a general algorithm does not exist. This is the result of combined work of Martin Davis, Yuri Matiyasevich, Hilary Putnam and Julia Robinson which spans 21 years, with Yuri Matiyasevich completing the theorem in 1970. The theorem is now known as Matiyasevich's theorem or the MRDP theorem. Optimal design
+In the design of experiments, optimal designs (or optimum designs) are a class of experimental designs that are optimal with respect to some statistical criterion. The creation of this field of statistics has been credited to Danish statistician Kirstine Smith. Three-gap theorem
+The three-gap theorem states that if one places n points on a circle, at angles of θ, 2θ, 3θ ... from the starting point, then there will be at most three distinct distances between pairs of points in adjacent positions around the circle. When there are three distances, the larger of the three always equals the sum of the other two. Unless θ is a rational multiple of π, there will also be at least two distinct distances. This result was conjectured by Hugo Steinhaus, and proved in the 1950s by Vera T. Sós, János Surányi, and Stanisław Świerczkowski. Its applications include the study of plant growth and musical tuning systems, and the theory of Sturmian words. Noether normalization lemma
+The Noether normalization lemma is a result of commutative algebra, introduced by Emmy Noether in 1926. It states that for any field k, and any finitely generated commutative k-algebra A, there exists a nonnegative integer d and algebraically independent elements y1, y2, ..., yd in A such that A is a finitely generated module over  the polynomial ring S:=k[y1, y2, ..., yd]. The theorem has a geometric interpretation. Suppose A is integral. Let S be the coordinate ring of the d-dimensional affine space 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            A
+          
+          
+            k
+          
+          
+            d
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {A} _{k}^{d}}
+  
+, and A as the coordinate ring of some other d-dimensional affine variety X. Then the inclusion map S → A induces a surjective finite morphism of affine varieties 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+        →
+        
+          
+            A
+          
+          
+            k
+          
+          
+            d
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X\to \mathbb {A} _{k}^{d}}
+  
+. The conclusion is that any affine variety is a branched covering of affine space. The Noether normalization lemma is an important step in proving Hilbert's Nullstellensatz. Noether's theorem
+Noether's (first) theorem states that every differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. The theorem was proven by mathematician Emmy Noether in 1915 and published in 1918, although a special case was proven by E. Cosserat & F. Cosserat in 1909. The action of a physical system is the integral over time of a Lagrangian function (which may or may not be an integral over space of a Lagrangian density function), from which the system's behavior can be determined by the principle of least action. Noether's theorem is used in theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalization of the formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (developed in 1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian alone (e.g. systems with a Rayleigh dissipation function). In particular, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law. Noether's theorem can be stated informally
+If a system has a continuous symmetry property, then there are corresponding quantities whose values are conserved in time. Noether's second theorem
+In mathematics and theoretical physics, Noether's second theorem relates symmetries of an action functional with a system of differential equations. The action S of a physical system is an integral of a so-called Lagrangian function L, from which the system's behavior can be determined by the principle of least action. Isomorphism theorems
+In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, the isomorphism theorems are three theorems that describe the relationship between quotients, homomorphisms, and subobjects. Versions of the theorems exist for groups, rings, vector spaces, modules, Lie algebras, and various other algebraic structures. In universal algebra, the isomorphism theorems can be generalized to the context of algebras and congruences. The isomorphism theorems were formulated in some generality for homomorphisms of modules by Emmy Noether in her paper Abstrakter Aufbau der Idealtheorie in algebraischen Zahl- und Funktionenkörpern which was published in 1927 in Mathematische Annalen. Less general versions of these theorems can be found in work of Richard Dedekind and previous papers by Noether. Three years later, B.L. van der Waerden published his influential Algebra, the first abstract algebra textbook that took the groups-rings-fields approach to the subject.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-6.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-6.md
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+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 7/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Van der Waerden credited lectures by Noether on group theory and Emil Artin on algebra, as well as a seminar conducted by Artin, Wilhelm Blaschke, Otto Schreier, and van der Waerden himself on ideals as the main references. The three isomorphism theorems, called homomorphism theorem, and two laws of isomorphism when applied to groups, appear explicitly. Lasker–Noether theorem
+In mathematics, the Lasker–Noether theorem states that every Noetherian ring is a Lasker ring, which means that every ideal can be decomposed as an intersection, called primary decomposition, of finitely many primary ideals (which are related to, but not quite the same as, powers of prime ideals). The theorem was first proven by Emanuel Lasker (1905) for the special case of polynomial rings and convergent power series rings, and was proven in its full generality by Emmy Noether (1921). The Lasker–Noether theorem is an extension of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and more generally the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups to all Noetherian rings. The Lasker–Noether theorem plays an important role in algebraic geometry, by asserting that every algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of irreducible components. Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem
+In algebraic number theory, the Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem states that a central simple algebra over an algebraic number field K which splits over every completion Kv is a matrix algebra over K. The theorem is an example of a local-global principle in algebraic number theory and leads to a complete description of finite-dimensional division algebras over algebraic number fields in terms of their local invariants. It was proved independently by Richard Brauer, Helmut Hasse, and Emmy Noether and by Abraham Adrian Albert. The earthquake flow on Teichmüller space is ergodic
+Fields medalist Maryam Mirzakhani proved  the long-standing conjecture that William Thurston's earthquake flow on Teichmüller space is ergodic.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-7.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-7.md
@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+---
+title: "List of inventions and discoveries by women"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Wireless transmission ==
+Torpedoes Radio guidance device
+Austrian-American Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr, together with musician and author George Antheil, developed a mechanism for radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes which used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. Though the US Navy did not adopt frequency-hopping until the 1960s, the principles of it are now incorporated into modern Wi-Fi, CDMA and Bluetooth technology.
+
+== Food and food appliances ==
+Chocolate-chip cookies
+Invented by Ruth Graves Wakefield in 1938.
+Pizza saver
+Patented in 1985 by Carmela Vitale of Dix Hills, New York.
+Mint chocolate chip
+Invented by Marilyn Ricketts in 1973.
+Ice cream maker
+Invented by Nancy M. Johnson in 1843.
+Coffee filter
+Invented by Melitta Bentz, 1908.
+
+== Biology ==
+DNA structure
+Rosalind Franklin was a British molecular biologist who was instrumental in the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1951. At King's College London where she applied X-ray diffraction to the study of biological materials, she performed several X-ray radiographs of the DNA.
+Sex chromosomes
+Nettie Maria Stevens is credited with the discovery of sex chromosomes.
+The Cori cycle (lactic acid cycle)
+Gerty Cori, together with Carl Ferdinand Cori, discovered the Cori cycle, the metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is metabolized back to lactate.
+Radioimmunoassay
+Rosalyn Sussman Yalow developed the radioimmunoassay, an immunoassay that uses radiolabeled molecules in a stepwise formation of immune complexes at the Veterans Administration Hospital in the Bronx, New York. This technique is used to accurately measure levels of substances such as hormones which are found in small concentrations in the body.
+Transposable elements
+Barbara McClintock discovered transposable elements (also known as transposons and jumping genes), DNA sequences which change their position within the genome. Transposons make up a large fraction of the DNA in eukaryotic cells (44% of the human genome and 90% of the maize genome) and play an important role in genome function and evolution. In Oxytricha, which has a unique genetic system, these elements play a critical role in development.
+Nerve growth factor
+Rita Levi-Montalcini and colleague Stanley Cohen discovered nerve growth factor, a neurotrophic factor and neuropeptide primarily involved in the regulation of growth, maintenance, proliferation, and survival of certain target neurons. This discovery was recognized with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1986.
+Gap genes
+Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and colleague Eric Wieschaus were the first to describe gap genes, genes involved in the development of segmentation in Drosophila embryogenesis. This work was foundational to our understanding of the genetic control of embryonic development.
+Telomerase
+Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, and Jack W. Szostak co-discovered the enzyme telomerase, which replenishes the telomere, a structure found at the ends of chromosomes which protects the DNA in the rest of the chromosome from damage.
+
+Grid cells
+May-Britt Moser, together with Edvard Moser and their students Torkel Hafting, Marianne Fyhn and Sturla Molden, discovered grid cells, cells which contribute to the brain's positioning and navigation system. The grid cells of a freely moving animal fire when the animal is near the vertices of a hexagonal grid in the environment.
+CRISPR gene editing
+CRISPR/cas9 invented by Jennifer Anne Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier
+
+== Psychology ==
+Dialectical Behavior Therapy
+Psychologist Marsha Linehan developed DBT in the 1980s in order to treat patients with personality disorders and suicidality. In the modern day, it has been shown to be effective against a variety of mental illnesses. A skills-based therapy drawing from Buddhism, DBT teaches the four key components of distress tolerance, mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, and emotion regulation.
+Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
+Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers invented this psychological test, where participants answer an introspective self-report questionnaire. The result takes the form of 16 types, indicating the psychological preferences of the participant.
+Strange Situation Procedure
+The strange situation is a procedure devised by Mary Ainsworth in the 1970s to observe attachment in children, that is relationships between a caregiver and child. The procedure played an important role in the development of attachment theory.
+
+== See also ==
+Women in science
+Women's history
+List of women's firsts
+History of women in engineering
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,454 @@
+---
+title: "Return period"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:25.813539+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A return period, also known as a recurrence interval or repeat interval, is an average time or an estimated average time between events such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, or river discharge flows to occur.
+The reciprocal value of return period is called the frequency of occurrence.
+It is a statistical measurement typically based on historic data over an extended period, and is used usually for risk analysis. Examples include deciding whether a project should be allowed to go forward in a zone of a certain risk or designing structures to withstand events with a certain return period. The following analysis assumes that the probability of the event occurring does not vary over time and is independent of past events.
+
+== Estimating a return period ==
+Recurrence interval 
+  
+    
+      
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              n
+              +
+              1
+            
+            m
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ={n+1 \over m}}
+  
+
+n  number of years on record;
+m is the rank of observed occurrences when arranged in descending order
+For floods, the event may be measured in terms of m3/s or height; for storm surges, in terms of the height of the surge, and similarly for other events.  This is Weibull's Formula.
+
+== Return period as the reciprocal of expected frequency ==
+The theoretical return period between occurrences is the inverse of the average frequency of occurrence. For example, a 10-year flood has a 1/10 = 0.1 or 10% chance of being exceeded in any one year and a 50-year flood has a 0.02 or 2% chance of being exceeded in any one year.
+This does not mean that a 100-year flood will happen regularly every 100 years, or only once in 100 years.  Despite the connotations of the name "return period". In any given 100-year period, a 100-year event may occur once, twice, more, or not at all, and each outcome has a probability that can be computed as below.
+Also, the estimated return period below is a statistic: it is computed from a set of data (the observations), as distinct from the theoretical value in an idealized distribution. One does not actually know that a certain or greater magnitude happens with 1% probability, only that it has been observed exactly once in 100 years.
+That distinction is significant because there are few observations of rare events: for instance, if observations go back 400 years, the most extreme event (a 400-year event by the statistical definition) may later be classed, on longer observation, as a 200-year event (if a comparable event immediately occurs) or a 500-year event (if no comparable event occurs for a further 100 years).
+Further, one cannot determine the size of a 1000-year event based on such records alone but instead must use a statistical model to predict the magnitude of such an (unobserved) event. Even if the historic return interval is a lot less than 1000 years, if there are a number of less-severe events of a similar nature recorded, the use of such a model is likely to provide useful information to help estimate the future return interval.
+
+=== Probability distributions ===
+One would like to be able to interpret the return period in probabilistic models. The most logical interpretation for this is to take the return period as the counting rate in a Poisson distribution since it is the expectation value of the rate of occurrences. An alternative interpretation is to take it as the probability for a yearly Bernoulli trial in the binomial distribution. That is disfavoured because each year does not represent an independent Bernoulli trial but is an arbitrary measure of time. This question is mainly academic as the results obtained will be similar under both the Poisson and binomial interpretations.
+
+== Poisson ==
+The probability mass function of the Poisson distribution is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        r
+        ;
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              (
+              μ
+              t
+              
+                )
+                
+                  r
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              r
+              !
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            μ
+            t
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              (
+              t
+              
+                /
+              
+              T
+              
+                )
+                
+                  r
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              r
+              !
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            t
+            
+              /
+            
+            T
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(r;t)={(\mu t)^{r} \over r!}e^{-\mu t}={(t/T)^{r} \over r!}e^{-t/T}}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ is the number of occurrences the probability is calculated for, 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  
+ the time period of interest, 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ is the return period and 
+  
+    
+      
+        μ
+        =
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mu =1/T}
+  
+ is the counting rate.
+The probability of no-occurrence can be obtained simply considering the case for 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r=0}
+  
+. The formula is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        r
+        =
+        0
+        ;
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            μ
+            t
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            t
+            
+              /
+            
+            T
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(r=0;t)=e^{-\mu t}=e^{-t/T}}
+  
+
+Consequently, the probability of exceedance (i.e. the probability of an event "stronger" than the event with return period 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ to occur at least once within the time period of interest) is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        t
+        >
+        0
+        ;
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        1
+        −
+        P
+        (
+        t
+        =
+        0
+        ;
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        1
+        −
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            μ
+            t
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+        −
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            t
+            
+              /
+            
+            T
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(t>0;t)=1-P(t=0;t)=1-e^{-\mu t}=1-e^{-t/T}}
+  
+
+Note that for any event with return period 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+, the probability of exceedance within an interval equal to the return period (i.e. 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+        =
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t=T}
+  
+) is independent from the return period and it is equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        −
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        (
+        −
+        1
+        )
+        ≈
+        63.2
+        %
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1-\exp(-1)\approx 63.2\%}
+  
+. This means, for example, that there is a 63.2% probability of a flood larger than the 50-year return flood to occur within any period of 50 year.
+
+=== Example ===
+If the return period of occurrence 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle T}
+  
+ is 243 years (
+  
+    
+      
+        μ
+        =
+        0.0041
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle \mu =0.0041}
+  
+) then the probability of exactly one occurrence in ten years is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                P
+                (
+                r
+                ;
+                t
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      (
+                      μ
+                      t
+                      
+                        )
+                        
+                          r
+                        
+                      
+                    
+                    
+                      r
+                      !
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  e
+                  
+                    −
+                    μ
+                    t
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                P
+                (
+                r
+                =
+                1
+                ;
+                t
+                =
+                10
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      (
+                      10
+                      
+                        /
+                      
+                      243
+                      
+                        )
+                        
+                          1
+                        
+                      
+                    
+                    
+                      1
+                      !
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  e
+                  
+                    −
+                    10
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    243
+                  
+                
+                ≈
+                3.95
+                %
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P(r;t)&={\frac {(\mu t)^{r}}{r!}}e^{-\mu t}\\[6pt]P(r=1;t=10)&={\frac {(10/243)^{1}}{1!}}e^{-10/243}\approx 3.95\%\end{aligned}}}
+  
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-1.md
@ -0,0 +1,443 @@
+---
+title: "Return period"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:25.813539+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Binomial ==
+In a given period of 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        ×
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n\times \tau }
+  
+ for a unit time 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau }
+  
+ (e.g. 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+        =
+        1
+        
+          year
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau =1{\text{year}}}
+  
+), the probability of a given number r of events of a return period 
+  
+    
+      
+        μ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mu }
+  
+ is given by the binomial distribution as follows.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        X
+        =
+        r
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              (
+            
+            
+              n
+              r
+            
+            
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          μ
+          
+            r
+          
+        
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        μ
+        
+          )
+          
+            n
+            −
+            r
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(X=r)={n \choose r}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}.}
+  
+
+This is valid only if the probability of more than one occurrence per unit time 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau }
+  
+ is zero. Often that is a close approximation, in which case the probabilities yielded by this formula hold approximately.
+If 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        →
+        ∞
+        ,
+        μ
+        →
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n\rightarrow \infty ,\mu \rightarrow 0}
+  
+ in such a way that 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        μ
+        →
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n\mu \rightarrow \lambda }
+  
+ then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              n
+              !
+            
+            
+              (
+              n
+              −
+              r
+              )
+              !
+              r
+              !
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          μ
+          
+            r
+          
+        
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        μ
+        
+          )
+          
+            n
+            −
+            r
+          
+        
+        →
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            λ
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              λ
+              
+                r
+              
+            
+            
+              r
+              !
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {n!}{(n-r)!r!}}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}\rightarrow e^{-\lambda }{\frac {\lambda ^{r}}{r!}}.}
+  
+
+Take
+
+  
+    
+      
+        μ
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            T
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            m
+            
+              n
+              +
+              1
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mu ={\frac {1}{T}}={m \over n+1}}
+  
+
+where
+
+T is return interval
+n is number of years on record.
+m is the number of recorded occurrences of the event being considered
+
+=== Example ===
+Given that the return period of an event is 100 years,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            100
+          
+        
+        =
+        0.01.
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p={1 \over 100}=0.01.}
+  
+
+So the probability that such an event occurs exactly once in 10 successive years is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                P
+                (
+                X
+                =
+                1
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      (
+                    
+                    
+                      10
+                      1
+                    
+                    
+                      )
+                    
+                  
+                
+                ×
+                
+                  0.01
+                  
+                    1
+                  
+                
+                ×
+                
+                  0.99
+                  
+                    9
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+              
+                
+                ≈
+                10
+                ×
+                0.01
+                ×
+                0.914
+              
+            
+            
+              
+              
+                
+                ≈
+                0.0914
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P(X=1)&={\binom {10}{1}}\times 0.01^{1}\times 0.99^{9}\\[4pt]&\approx 10\times 0.01\times 0.914\\[4pt]&\approx 0.0914\end{aligned}}}
+  
+
+=== Risk analysis ===
+Return period is useful for risk analysis (such as natural, inherent, or hydrologic risk of failure). When dealing with structure design expectations, the return period is useful in calculating the riskiness of the structure.
+The probability of at least one event that exceeds design limits during the expected life of the structure is the complement of the probability that no events occur which exceed design limits.
+The equation for assessing this parameter is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            R
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+        −
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              1
+              −
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  T
+                
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+        −
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        P
+        (
+        X
+        ≥
+        
+          x
+          
+            T
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          )
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {R}}=1-\left(1-{1 \over T}\right)^{n}=1-(1-P(X\geq x_{T}))^{n}}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            1
+            T
+          
+        
+        =
+        P
+        (
+        X
+        ≥
+        
+          x
+          
+            T
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {1 \over T}=P(X\geq x_{T})}
+  
+ is the expression for the probability of the occurrence of the event in question in a year;
+n is the expected life of the structure.
+
+== See also ==
+100-year flood
+Cumulative frequency analysis
+Frequency of exceedance
+Residence time
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "The Future Is Wild"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Future Is Wild (also referred to by the acronym FIW) is a 2002 speculative evolution docufiction miniseries and an accompanying multimedia entertainment franchise. The Future Is Wild explores the ecosystems and wildlife of three future time periods: 5 million, 100 million, and 200 million years in the future, in the format of a nature documentary. Though the settings and animals are fictional, the series has an educational purpose, serving as an informative and entertaining way to explore concepts such as evolution and climate change.
+The Future Is Wild was first conceived by independent producer Joanna Adams in 1996 and developed together with various scientists, including Dougal Dixon, best known as the author of the 1981 book After Man, which also explored future wildlife. The 2002 series was an international co-production, involving the Franco-German channel Arte, the German ZDF, the Austrian ORF, the Italian MFE - MediaForEurope (via their Mediaset division), and the American Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. Wildly successful, The Future Is Wild continues to be broadcast to this day and has been shown on TV in more than 60 countries.
+The success of The Future Is Wild spawned a large multimedia franchise, including books, children's entertainment, exhibitions, theme park rides, educational material, and toys. There have also been cancelled projects, such as a potential movie adaptation, as well as a sequel series, The Future Is Wild 2. From 2016 onwards, there has been talk of "relaunching" the franchise through various projects, such as an action-adventure TV series and The Future is Wild VR (a virtual reality videogame), though no new media has yet materialized.
+
+== Premise ==
+The Future Is Wild explores twelve different future ecosystems across three future time periods: 5 million years in the future, 100 million years in the future, and 200 million years in the future. Four ecosystems from each period are explored and described.
+
+=== Ice World: 5 million years in the future ===
+The early episodes describe a world after an ice age, when giant seal-like sea-birds roam the beaches and carnivorous bats rule the skies. Ice sheets extend as far south as Paris in the northern hemisphere and as far north as Buenos Aires in the southern hemisphere. The Amazon rainforest has dried up and become grassland. The North American plains have become a cold desert, and Africa has collided with Europe, enclosing the Mediterranean Sea. Without water to replace it in the dry climate, the Mediterranean has dried out into a salt flat dotted with brine lakes, as it has been in the past. Most of Europe is a frozen tundra. The part of Africa east of the African Rift Valley has broken away from the rest of the continent. Asia has dried up and is now mountainous. The once warm, tropical area of Central America has been transformed into a dry area. Australia has moved north and collided with eastern Indonesia.
+
+=== Hothouse World: 100 million years in the future ===
+In the scenario for 100 million years in the future, the Earth has a muggy hothouse climate. Octopuses and enormous tortoises have come on to the land, much of which is flooded by shallow seas surrounded by brackish swamps surrounding jungles. Antarctica has drifted towards the tropics and is covered with dense rainforests, as it was before. Australia has collided with North America and Asia, forcing up an enormous, 12-kilometre-high mountain plateau much taller than the modern Himalayas. Greenland has been reduced to a small, temperate island. There are cold, deep ocean trenches. The Sahara has once again become the rich grassland it was millions of years ago.
+
+=== New World: 200 million years in the future ===
+The hypothetical world of 200 million years from now is recovering from a mass extinction caused by a flood basalt eruption even larger than the one that created the Siberian Traps, wiping out 95% of the species on the planet. Fish have taken to the skies, squid to the forests, and the world's largest-ever desert is filled with strange worms and insects. All the continents have collided with one another and fused into a single heavily desertified supercontinent, a Second Pangaea or New Pangea. Although the formation of this new supercontinent has caused most distinctive geological features of its components to disappear, some can still be discerned, including Hudson Bay, the Novaya Zemlya archipelago and the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as the general outline of Africa. One large global ocean with a single-current system gives rise to deadly hurricanes called hypercanes, which batter the coastlines of the continent all year long. The northwestern side of Pangaea II, drenched with an endless supply of rain, has become a temperate forest. Mountains resting at the end of the coast prevent most of the rain's moisture from reaching a long line of scrubby rainshadow deserts. The very center of the continent receives no rain at all and has become a barren, plantless desert. The survivors of the aforementioned mass extinction - fish, arthropods, worms and mollusks - populate the Earth and continue the process of adaptation and evolution.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-1.md
@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "The Future Is Wild"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Development and production ==
+The idea for The Future Is Wild was first conceived in 1996 by Joanna Adams, a British entrepreneur who has previously produced documentaries on modern and extinct animals. As an independent producer, Adams wanted to create a documentary series different from anything that had come before, and something that could not be copied by larger production companies. The series was envisioned as an entertaining, informative and inspirational way to explain planetary change and evolution, suitable for the popular market worldwide. In 1996, the concept of the series, and ideas for an accompanying multimedia franchise, was first unveiled at the Frankfurt Book Fair and the MIPTV Media Market.
+The Future Is Wild was influenced by Scottish geologist and paleontologist Dougal Dixon's 1981 book After Man, which imagines wildlife and ecosystems 50 million years in the future. Dixon was brought in as a consultant early on in the development of the series and designed many of the creatures featured. The series was not able to use any of Dixon's creatures from After Man, given that the rights to adapting After Man were at this time owned by DreamWorks SKG. Nevertheless, several creatures were similar to Dixon's earlier designs, such as the Gannetwhale, a seal-like bird similar to whale-like penguins in After Man.
+The series was created in close collaboration with scientists, filmmakers and animators. Although the future creatures and environments created for the series are all fictional, they were based on evolutionary principles and grounded in science. According to Adams: "If you look at the creatures, you cannot say with any degree of accuracy that this is going to happen, but what you can say is, given certain conditions, creatures like this could develop." Adams felt that it was important that the series would not just be dismissed as "another science-fiction fantasy", but that it would instead be seen as something credible. The geography of the future worlds depicted were designed through collaboration with geologists, and botanists and weather experts were consulted for the future environments. In addition to Dougal Dixon, several other animal experts, biomechanics engineers, and other scientists took part in designing the animals in the series.
+In total, development and production of The Future Is Wild took six years. Throughout its development, some television executives had very different and conflicting ideas of what the series should be. In particular, some were concerned about humans being absent and wished for a contrived explanation as to what happened to humanity. Adams co-produced the series with the Franco-German channel Arte, the German ZDF, the Austrian ORF, the Italian Mediaset and the American Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. In total, the series cost £5 million to make.
+
+== Episodes ==
+
+== Distribution ==
+The Future Is Wild aired on Animal Planet in the United Kingdom, on the Discovery Channel and Animal Planet in the United States, on ZDF in Germany, on ORF in Austria and on Mediaset in Italy. The series was wildly successful, winning several accolades and achieving high ratings on channels worldwide. The premiere of The Future Is Wild on Animal Planet in the United States doubled the channel's previous highest viewership (being viewed by about 1.8 million households) and The Future Is Wild to this day remains the number one most viewed series in Animal Planet's history. ZDF Enterprises sold the television rights of the series to 18 markets: Belgium, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Ecuador, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Hungary, Japan, Korea, Mexico, the Middle East, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia and Venezuela. The series continues to be licensed internationally. As of 2021, The Future Is Wild has been broadcast in over 60 countries.
+
+== Multimedia franchise ==
+Following the airing of the series, The Future Is Wild branched out into various other media, including books, children's entertainment, exhibitions, theme park rides, educational material and toys.
+
+=== Books ===
+The Future Is Wild was accompanied by two companion books, The Future Is Wild: A Natural History of the Future (2002), co-authored by Dougal Dixon and Joanna Adams, and The Wild World of the Future (2003) by Claire Pye. The Future Is Wild: A Natural History of the Future is a 128-page family reference work and The Wild World of the Future is a 96-page reference work for younger children. These books were translated into 20 languages. The French translation of The Wild World of the Future, titled Les Animaux du Futur ('The Animals of the Future'), incorporated augmented reality, one of the first books to do so.
+Another children's reference work, also 96 pages long, was co-authored by Dougal Dixon and Joanna Adams in the 2010s, titled The Future Is Wild: Our World Tomorrow. The book was published in 2016 in China by Hunan Publishing. Internationally, the book has been released in eBook and iBook format as an augmented reality book, under the title The Future Is Wild: The Living Book. The Future Is Wild: The Living Book was released in 2011, first presented at the 2011 Frankfurt Book Fair. The more than forty different augmented reality features were developed by the German company Meatio. The book has received scholarly attention as a work that showcases how augmented reality can encourage readers to connect with a book.
+
+=== Animated children’s series ===
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+---
+title: "The Future Is Wild"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 2007, a 3D animated children's series (targeted at children aged six to twelve) based on The Future Is Wild premiered on Discovery Kids. Consisting of 26 episodes, each 22 minutes in length, the series was also simply called The Future Is Wild, and followed the four children C.G., Ethan, Emily and Luis, and their pet Squibbon, as they travelled through time and explored the settings and animals seen in the original series. According to Joanna Adams, the animated series, just like the original series, encourages viewers to think about the future of the planet, but "this time it is devoted particularly to kids and our future science is woven into some really fun stories about a group of time travelling kids." Portions of the original The Future Is Wild team worked on the series, and it was jointly produced by the Singaporean company iVL Animation and the Canadian company Nelvana. It was the first co-produced Singaporean 3D-animated TV programme to be broadcast in the United States and Germany.
+
+=== Exhibitions ===
+The Future Is Wild has been adapted into exhibition form, both for use as a temporary exhibition or short-term events, and for long-term high-profile attractions. There have been four notable The Future Is Wild special exhibitions: at Futuroscope in France, the Sydney Aquarium in Australia, Dinosaurier-Park Münchehagen in Germany and Dinosaurierpark Teufelsschlucht in Germany. There have also been exhibitions elsewhere, for instance in Japan.
+The exhibition at Futuroscope was called Les Animaux du Futur and was inaugurated on 5 April 2008 by French politician Hervé Novelli. The exhibition itself was fully interactive, utilizing augmented reality technology, and also contained the first augmented reality theme park ride in the world. The ride involved visitors sitting in a car, equipped with sensor-bracelets and googles with LCD-screens. The ride then simulated a time travel-safari expedition, with visitors being able to interact with the various creatures they encounter. In total, the exhibition cost €7 million to make. The exhibition received recognition among specialists in virtual reality, being the recipient of the prestigious Laval Virtual award in 2008. Les Animaux du Futur was shut down in 2012.
+Like the Futuroscope exhibition and ride, the Sydney Aquarium exhibition, open from 2010 to 2011, employed advanced technology such as holograms, computer-generated imagery, animatronics and augmented reality. Among other things, augmented reality and face-tracking technology was used to allow visitors to see themselves in virtual diving gear, diving alongside some of the creatures. In contrast to most special exhibitions, The Future Is Wild installations were separated into species-specific installations spread throughout the aquarium, rather than concentrated in one place and each showcased new technologies. The exhibition also intended to encourage school participation, launching a competition called "Design a Future Marine Creature", which saw the winning design become a "life-size" permanent exhibit at the aquarium.
+The exhibition at Dinosaurier-Park Münchehagen, opened in 2012, was considerably different from the French and Australian exhibitions, opting for a much more traditional exhibition containing just "life-size" models of some of the creatures of The Future Is Wild, with realistic backgrounds behind them. The hall containing the models was designed to act as a "journey's end", after visitors have walked through the millions of years of prehistoric creatures exhibited elsewhere in the park. In 2016, the sixteen The Future Is Wild models were moved to Dinosaurierpark Teufelsschlucht, another park, and placed at the end of the park's walkway of exhibited models of dinosaurs and other prehistoric creatures.
+
+=== Other ===
+In 2004, The Future Is Wild was adapted into a 20-minute fulldome film. The fulldome film was made by Evans & Sutherland, in association with Discovery Channel International, Animal Planet and GOTO Optical Company and is narrated by the American actor John de Lancie.
+The Future Is Wild had a very strong fanbase in Japan. In 2006–2007, the series was adapted into a story-driven manga, written and illustrated by artist Takaaki Ogawa. A line of toy figurines based on creatures from The Future Is Wild was produced by Tokyo-based company Diamond in 2006. Seven figures were released, each about five centimetres tall, depicting the Gannetwhale, Carakiller, Toraton, Poggle, Terabyte, Ocean Flish and Megasquid. The figures were also released in France in 2008 to coincide with the opening of the exhibition at Futuroscope, and in Australia in 2010 to coincide with the exhibition at the Sydney Aquarium.
+Since The Future Is Wild is based on actual science concerning evolution, the environment, ecology and climate change, the series has been adapted into educational material. Marketed as "a unique mix of science and imagination combined with education and entertainment", there are United Kingdom curriculum specific lesson plans based on the series, which are freely available. Among other things, lessons include children creating their own future environments, plants and animals. In France, experimental educational projects were coordinated with The Future Is Wild exhibition at Futuroscope, and included classroom resources such as printed charts and an interactive CD-ROM programme.
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+---
+title: "The Future Is Wild"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Cancelled projects ===
+Following the success of The Future Is Wild, plans were made to adapt the series into a feature film with Warner Bros., but those plans fell through after the release of the film Avatar (2009), when Warner Bros. felt that the bar for such a film had been raised too high. Joanna Adams and the team at one point also worked on developing a sequel documentary series to the original The Future Is Wild series, dubbed The Future Is Wild 2, and had raised the necessary funding, but the project collapsed when Discovery Channel announced that they would no longer be making documentaries.
+In 2015, the virtual reality and augmented reality developer Cornel Hillmann, and his studio, STUDIO CGARTIST, began developing The Future Is Wild for virtual reality, initially focusing on small-scale preview projects. The first completed project was a small preview programme for Google Cardboard, which met with positive response at the 2016 Frankfurt Book Fair. A The Future Is Wild virtual reality game, The Future Is Wild VR, was in development in 2016. According to Hillmann, the game was intended to be a first-person exploration game with survival elements, with players able to travel through five future time periods between 50 and 200 million years in the future. The game was also planned to introduce 20 new creatures, some of them based on designs originally intended for the unproduced The Future Is Wild 2. Hillmann had the opportunity to correspond with Dougal Dixon, who offered his input on some of the designs. In 2019, the game was still in development. According to Hillmann, The Future Is Wild VR would eventually be part of a "major brand relaunch" alongside other types of The Future Is Wild media and material. In September 2024, Adams confirmed that the VR game was no longer in development.
+
+=== Planned revival of the franchise ===
+In 2016, John H. Williams, a producer of the animated Shrek franchise, and his animation company Vanguard Animation, acquired the rights to produce an animated TV series based on The Future Is Wild. In a January 2016 interview, Williams stated that "we believe The Future Is Wild will be a spectacular franchise launch point for us into quality television" and also mentioned that Vanguard Animation was working on creating a 26-part science fiction action-adventure series, planned to be produced as an international co-production.
+At the same time as Vanguard Animation acquired the rights to produce a new TV series, Adams also stated in an interview that she was looking at relaunching the franchise: "coinciding with this new series development, we are rolling out our plans for digital media, such as mobile games, apps and interactive multimedia books". Adams believes that more modern technology could help to lift and help launch The Future Is Wild in a new direction, while still re-creating or further developing some of the "original stories" and "original themes". Coinciding with this attempted revival of the franchise, The Future Is Wild was once more at the Frankfurt Book Fair and MIPTV Media Market events in 2016 to present new planned content.
+In 2024, Adams claimed that they are in the early stages of development for a new documentary series.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website
+The Future Is Wild at IMDb
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-0.md
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 1/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century. Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as "imperative" by the United Nations and "critical" by the Population Reference Bureau.  A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would "provide more effective climate change mitigation and adaptation."
+Many studies have documented the gender gap in science and investigated why women are not included or represented, particularly at higher levels of research. Despite significant progress, female scientists continue to endure discrimination, unequal pay, and funding inequities, according to a special report published in the journal Nature in 2013. It also states that 70 percent of men and women around the world regard science as a male endeavor. Women encounter hurdles due to their family obligations, and they are underrepresented in publications and citations.
+
+== Overview ==
+ 
+
+Women have made major contributions to climate change research and policy and to broader analysis of global environmental issues.  They include many women scientists as well as policy makers and activists. Women researchers have made significant contributions to major scientific assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and are reasonably well represented on key global change committees of the International Council for Science (ICSU) and US National Academy of Sciences.  Women have played important leadership roles in international climate policy. For example, Christiana Figueres leads the international climate negotiations as the Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and former Irish President Mary Robinson is the UN Special Envoy on Climate Change. 
+Susan Solomon chaired the climate science working group 1 of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment in 2007.
+
+== Underrepresentation of women in science ==
+
+Women are generally underrepresented in science and have faced many barriers to their success and recognition. Following the scientific revolution in the 17th century European women became involved in observational science, including astronomy, natural history and weather observations although many universities would not admit women until the late 19th century.
+The latest report from the US National Science Foundation shows that while women are now earning half of the undergraduate degrees in science and engineering, most of these are in the biosciences (especially pre-med) compared to physics, computer sciences and engineering (20%). In terms of doctorates, women are also only 20% of the engineering and physics PhDs. Although the proportion of women full professors in the US has doubled since 1993 women occupy less than 1/4 of senior faculty positions in science and engineering and women earn less than men at the same level.
+It has been noted that women of color, indigenous women and women from the global south are even more likely to be overlooked, to be poorly represented in the academy and leadership.  This is associated with a legacy of discrimination, lack of educational opportunities, language barriers, and a lack of effort to identify and cite them.
+
+== Women in climate change disciplines ==
+Women are underrepresented in key disciplines for the study of climate change.  For example, women are a minority in the earth sciences where surveys reveal that less than 20% of meteorologists and geoscientists are women.  A recent analysis of US atmospheric science doctoral programs reveals that women were 17% of tenure track and tenured faculty, with even smaller proportions at higher rank,  and 53% of departments had two or fewer women faculty.  Women are slightly better represented in the ecological sciences.  One study reports that women are 55% of graduate students in ecology but only 1/3 of tenured faculty are women and that 3/4 of the articles in the flagship international journal - Ecology - are written by men. Women received proportionally less research funding and were less likely to be cited by their colleagues. Women members of the Ecological Society of America increased from 23% in 1992 to 37% in 2010.
+The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization publishes data on women in science worldwide. Overall women are better represented as a share of total scientific researchers in Latin America, Oceania and Europe (30%+) and least in Asia (19%).
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 2/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Arguments for women in science and climate change ==
+It is argued that when women are overlooked as scholars and decision makers the world fails to take advantage of its full human capacity, which is needed for issues as urgent as climate change. Women may also take more collaborative approaches, especially in negotiations, and may pay more attention to disadvantaged groups and to the natural environment.
+Gender has become an issue because of women's essential roles in managing resources such as water, forests and energy and as women lead fights for environmental protection.
+A general concern has been expressed about the need to highlight the work of women and to include more women in major committees in order to provide gender balance, social justice, and inspiration to young women to enter careers in science.  This reflects more general arguments about the barriers to women's advancement and the need for women to "Lean in" to leadership positions.
+Another argument focuses on the effects climate change on reproductive health. It was not until recently that these issues were discovered and brought to light however, they are currently affecting many women all around the world and in turn will eventually have population effects. The pollutants and toxic chemicals that in air, food, and ecosystems are causing lots of health issues. Developing countries are currently suffering the most as they tend to be the waste dump sites from more developed countries as they are seen as more disposable. Not only can these pollutants cause infertility, they can create issues with formation of babies and the overall weight and health as well as cause miscarriages. Not only is our future generation suffering the consequences the mothers of these children are suffering health issues. This is another important reason why women should be brought into the climate change discussion.
+
+== Women and international climate policy ==
+The outcome document of the Rio+20 Conference on Sustainable Development - the Future we Want - recognized the need to remove barriers to the full and equal participation of women in decision making and management and the need to increase women in leadership positions. A report prepared by UN Women, the Mary Robinson Foundation - Climate Justice, the Global Gender and Climate Alliance and the UNFCCC recognizes the structural inequalities that impede the representation of women in climate science, negotiations and policies and recommends greater gender balance in the UNFCCC and national delegations.  The report argues that the "challenges of climate change cannot be solved without empowering women" and that women have been marginalized in international negotiations. It reports data that show weak representation of women in the institutions of the UNFCCC including the Adaptation Committee (25%), the GEF Council (19%) and the Expert Group (15%) and that overall women constitute less than 20% of delegation heads and less than 30% of delegation members at UNFCCC conferences.
+
+== The Manthropocene ==
+A call for international science to pay greater attention to the inclusion of women scholars was made by Kate Raworth and then in her article "Must the Anthropocene be the Manthropocene?" She pointed out that the working group of 36 scientists and scholars who convened in Berlin in 2014 to begin assessing evidence humanity was entering a new epoch, the Anthropocene, was composed almost entirely of men.  She stated: "Leading scientists may have the intellect to recognize that our planetary era is dominated by human activity, but they still seem oblivious to the fact that their own intellectual deliberations are bizarrely dominated by white northern male voices".
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-10.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-10.md
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-11.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-11.md
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-12.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-12.md
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 14/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kirsten Zickfeld: Associate Professor at Simon Fraser University, Canada, working on the effects of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols on climate on centennial to millennial timescales. Gina Ziervogel: Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Her research interests include climate change adaptation and resilience across scales, multi-level governance of urban adaptation, and social justice. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Zinta Zommers: Mercy Corp's Head of the Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance and is a Rhodes and Commonwealth Scholar from Latvia. Her work experience includes providing support to the United Nations' Secretary-General's support team during the Paris Negotiation with the United Nations Environment and Food and Agriculture Organization, advising the United States' Government and the Government of Sierra Leone and co-editing a book on early warning systems for climate change. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Zhiyan Zuo: Professor in the Department of Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences, Fudan University, China. She was formerly a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences. Her research focuses on land-atmosphere interaction, climate change, extreme events and asian monsoon. She currently serves as a lead author to the IPCC AR6 report.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-14.md
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 15/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Women climate change policy makers and activists ==
+
+Franny Armstrong: British documentary film director known for films including The Age of Stupid, a reflection from 2055 about climate change. She founded the carbon reduction campaign 10:10 in 2009.
+Gro Harlem Brundtland: Former prime minister of Norway and author of the Brundtland report on Sustainable Development who has served on countless international committees on the environment.
+Kotchakorn Voraakhom: Thai landscape architect, public green space campaigner,  Echoing Green Climate Fellow and chief executive officer of Porous City Network. She is also the founder of the Koungkuey Design Initiative.
+Helen Clark: Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the 37th Prime Minister of New Zealand (1999-2008). Clark's government implemented several major economic initiatives including the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme.
+Sheila Watt-Cloutier:  Canadian Inuit activist who has focused on persistent organic pollutants and global warming, among other issues.
+Christiana Figueres: Costa Rican diplomat who has served in negotiations over climate change instruments since 1995. She became the Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010.  She was the founder of the Global Optimism group and was also the head of the UN climate change convention which led to the Paris agreement in 2015.
+Fiona Godlee: Anglo-American doctor, editor and journalist. Founder member and board director of the Climate and Health Council. Executive committee for the UK Health Alliance on Climate Change.
+Genevieve Guenther: Founder and director of End Climate Silence and a nominee for the 2020 EcoAmerica American Climate Leadership Awards.
+Katharine Wilkinson: a writer and climate change activist and vice president at Project Drawdown. She is among the 2019 Time magazine's list of women who will save the world.
+Marie Christina Kolo: Climate activist, ecofeminist, and social entrepreneur from Madagascar, who has raised global awareness of the effects of climate change in Madagascar and requested international solidarity in addressing its impacts. She is the founder of Green N Kool and Ecofeminism Madagascar.
+Anne Simpson: CalPERS' director of board governance & strategy. She was part of Time magazine's list of 15 women leading the global fight on climate change, GreenBiz's list of 25 "kickass" women on climate change and Barron's (Dow Jones) list of 100 Most Influential Women in US Finance. She was previously senior faculty fellow and lecturer at the Yale School of Management, World Bank's head of the global corporate governance forum, first executive director of the International Corporate Governance Network and joint managing director of Pensions and Investment Research Consultants Limited.
+Wu Changhua: Chinese policy analyst and China/Asia Director of Office of Jeremy Rifkin. She is the Greater China director of The Climate Group, director of China studies of World Resources Institute, and editor of the English edition of China Environment News.
+Julia Marton-Lefevre: Hungarian environmentalist and academic who was Director General of IUCN, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, from 2007 to 2014 and formerly Rector of the UN University for Peace.
+Jacqueline McGlade: Marine biologist and environmental informatics professor. Her research focuses on the spatial and nonlinear dynamics of ecosystems, climate change and scenario development. She was head of the European Environment Bureau.
+Catherine McKenna: Canadian human rights and social justice lawyer and Minister of Environment and Climate Change in Justin Trudeau's cabinet.
+Mary Robinson: Former president of Ireland and UN Commissioner on Human Rights who now serves as the UN special envoy on climate change
+Margaret Klein Salamon: Executive Director of the Climate Emergency Fund, founder and principal of Climate Awakening, co-founder of The Climate Mobilization, and the author of the book, "Facing the Climate Emergency: How to Transform Yourself with Climate Truth."
+Marina Silva: Brazilian environmentalist, politician, Minister of Environment and former colleague of Chico Mendes. She ran in the 2010 and 2014 Brazilian elections.
+Greta Thunberg: Swedish activist who began protesting outside the Swedish parliament about the need for immediate action to combat climate change, also credited with initiating the school strike for climate movement in 2018 and 2019. She spoke for the UN Climate Action Summit in New York in September 2019.
+Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim: Chadian environmental activist and geographer, coordinator of the Association des Femmes Peules Autochtones du Chad (AFPAT, the association of indigenous Fulani women of Chad) and served as the co-chair of the International Indigenous Peoples Forum on Climate Change.
+Miranda Wang: Co-founder and CEO of BioCellection, 2018 UN Environment Programme's Young Champions of the Earth award for North America. She is also an Echoing Green Fellow, TED Speaker, and CNN Tomorrow's Hero.
+Jeanny Yao: Co-founder and CEO of BioCellection
+Rhiana Gunn-Wright: Director of climate policy at the Roosevelt Institute, formally the policy director for New Consensus. she is a Chamberlain Fellow of Women and Public Policy at the Institute for Women's Policy Research, and served on the policy team for former First Lady Michelle Obama. Worked with Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez as an author of the Green New Deal.
+Hilda Heine: First female president of the Republic of the Marshall Islands elected in January 2016, she served as Minister of Education during the tenure of former President Christopher J. Loeak. She is the co-founder of the women's rights group Women United Together Marshall Islands (WUTMI). She is one of the Pacific leaders who are focal about climate crisis and the chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum.
+Tessa Khan: co-director of the Climate Litigation Network, and received an award from the Climate Breakthrough Project in 2018. She is known for her focus on international human rights law as a tool to dramatically increase national climate mitigation ambition.
+Rachel Kyte: Chief executive officer of the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All), and Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Sustainable Energy for All. She previously served as World Bank Group vice president and Special Envoy for Climate Change and International Finance Corporation Vice President for Business Advisory Services. She is currently the dean at Fletcher School Inc.
+
+== See also ==
+Climate change and gender
+Climate justice
+List of women climate scientists and activists
+List of climate scientists
+Women in science
+Women4Climate (C40 Cities)
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-2.md
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@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 3/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Women working in climate change ==
+There are a variety of ways to identify women who have made major contributions to climate change.  The first is the list of authors of the high level international assessments for the UN and other organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The second is to examine women who have been invited to join the editorial boards of climate change refereed journals. A third is to look at the membership of the global change committees of the International Council for Science (ICSU). And a fourth is to recognize women that are members of their National Academy of Sciences who work on climate change. Many of them are IPCC or other report authors, and also members of ICSU committees, members of their National Academy and other marks of accomplishment.
+Seven cities around the world have appointed women as Chief Heat Officers (CHOs) to take action against extreme heat due to climate change.
+In February 2024, the EIB Group established the Women Climate Leaders Network, bringing together 47 women leaders from the commercial sector from all 27 EU Member States, to collaborate on innovative business models and strategies to facilitate the low-carbon and green transition.
+Women are statistically more likely to live in conditions of poverty in today's world. Women tend to  work within the household cooking, cleaning, and taking care of children. Women have a lack of access to resources as well as environmental services in comparison to the rest of the population. Despite these setbacks, there has been a push for women to get more involved in climate change activism. Many Indigenous communities have put more of an emphasis on passing environmental knowledge down through generations. This provides knowledge of the past and how to effectively go forward with more sustainable practices. There is a push to understand how genders are differently affected by climate change and use the various perspectives that are not always seen to initiate change. Overall there is a general push to push for more genders to be involved in bigger climate issues to see how best to attack issues.
+Women in climate change have taken on many roles to help the fight against climate change in the field today. For example, Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim is an Indigenous activist that is working in Chad. She is working to spread the word of the people actively fighting climate change today in Chad and educate people about their conditions. She is trying to spread the knowledge of indigenous people as their in-depth knowledge of the environment can help us adapt to the changes. She has won many awards for her work and has been working within the UN on indigenous issues as well as indigenous advocacy. Katharine Wilkinson is an educator around the country. She is working to educate people on climate change and the impacts that it is having on the Earth. She aims to create an encouraging positive environment for women to work within the climate movement. Katharine Wilkinson has worked on a book called the All We Can Save Project that brings together the voices of 60 women that are doing work within climate change on the ground today. She aims to bring in more voices of women in order to open up the climate change discussion to different perspectives as well as show the readers the ways that we can help to combat climate change together.
+
+== Ecofeminism ==
+Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism that sees environmentalism and the relationship between women and the earth as interlinked. According to Françoise d'Eaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort (1974), ecofeminism relates the oppression and domination of all marginalized groups (women, people of color, children, the poor) to the oppression and domination of nature (animals, land, water, air, etc.).
+Ecofeminism first came to be in the 1970s when there were major changes in policy in terms of sustainability and gender inequality. Ecofeminism work originates in peace movements, women’s health care, and women labor movements. Ecofeminists aim to show connection with nonhuman life. The Ecofeminists argue that patriarchy gives the view that men are ‘developed' and women and other underrepresented groups are ‘underdeveloped’ which normalizes the oppression of these ’underdeveloped’ groups. Ecofeminism aims to open up the woman view of the interconnected sense of self that women hold versus males that tend to be more disconnected. Adding women’s views within the work of climate change brings a different perspective that lacks within the current male dominated discussion of climate change.
+Ecofeminism also aims to break stereotypes of women and the effects that climate change has on them. Women are devalued in our current society for their knowledge whereas men are praised for their intellect and reasoning. Women are greatly affected by climate change with things such as health and reproductive issues that come from the many hazardous pollutants within the environment. With this they have no voice within climate change discussions as they are seen as lesser. Ecofeminism works to provide a safe space for women to come together, share their stories, and work towards a more just green future for women.
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 4/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== The Greta Thunberg effect ==
+Greta Thunberg has been credited with inspiring young girl to take more action on climate change, which has become known as the "Greta Thunberg effect." Thunberg is well known for her work on fighting climate change, and is seen as a role model for younger girls. These new generations of girls are being called "eco-warriors", they are taking actions for the environment in various ways. In Kazakhstan, a group of young girls named Team Coco have come together to fight the ecological problems that pollute their nation, in order to accomplish this they have created an app known as TECO which is an "augmented reality game that merges educational and entertainment tools to help players change their behavior and become more eco-conscious". More girls have been taking action against climate change by using technology, and in turn help encourage other political leaders to take action for climate change and business corporations to reduce the carbon foot print they leave behind.
+
+== Women climate researchers ==
+
+Following is a comprehensive list of women researchers in the climate change field. Note that not all women researchers have their individual Wikipedia pages that showcase their work (red text indicates no Wikipedia page). You can amplify their work by creating individual Wikipedia pages and updating them if they already exist.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-4.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-4.md
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-5.md
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 6/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis. She completed her PhD from University of Oxford in Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics. Noemí Chacón:  Researcher at Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Venezuela. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Elizabeth Chatterjee: She is an Environmental Historian expert. She works with a focus on energy histories,specifically in India. She wrote one book called Electric Democracy about the history of India's energy- centered transformation over time and is currently working on her second book about worldwide energy and environmental crises starting from the 1970s. She is currently teaching at the University of Chicago. Lynette Cheah: Associate Professor at Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore. She leads the Sustainable Urban Mobility research group to reduce environmental impacts of passengers and urban freight transport. Her expertise lies in transport modeling and simulation, life cycle energy and environmental assessment of products and systems, and urban metabolism. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Ying Chen: Professor at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) Graduate School and a Senior Research Fellow at Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies (IUE), CASS, China. She is also the Deputy Director of CASS Research Center for Sustainable Development. Her research interests include international climate governance, energy and climate policy. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6. Wenying Chen: Professor in Energy, Environment and Economics Research Institute, Tsinghua University, China. Her research focuses on energy system modeling, energy development, and climate change mitigation strategy. She also researches CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) to develop an Arc-GIS based Decision Support System to map carbon emission sources and sinks. She is well known for her work in the area of energy environment, economy modelling, carbon permit allocation and more. She is a review editor for both IPCC AR5 and AR6. So Min Cheong: Associate Professor in the Department of Geography and Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Kansas, USA. Her research focuses on the social consequences of environmental disasters and climate change adaptation. She is a lead author of the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report and the IPCC special report on ocean and cryosphere. She has also worked on a number of commissioned reports for the Korean government, UNESCO and WMO on the topic of coastal management, climate change adaptation and boundary issues and disaster management. Julia Cole: Professor of Earth & Environmental Sciences at the University of Michigan, USA. Expert on climate history, variability and corals. Leopold Leadership Fellow (2008), IPCC contributor and Google Science Communication Fellow (2011). Cecilia Conde: Professor of Atmospheric Science at UNAM, Mexico, who works on climate impacts on agriculture. She is the director of climate adaptation for the Mexican Institute of Ecology and Climate, contributor to IPCC. Leticia Cotrim Da Cunha: Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Oceanography at Rio de Janeiro State University in Brazil. As a chemical oceanographer, her research focuses on the Southwestern Atlantic region and co-leads the Brazilian Ocean Acidification Research Network. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I. Faye Abigail Cruz: Laboratory Head of the Manila Observatory, Philippines. Her research is focused on regional climate and climate change, extreme weather events, and interactions between land surface and climate. She is also involved in the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX)-Southeast Asia project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I. Heidi Cullen: Director of Communications and Strategic Initiatives and director of the Information and Technology Dissemination (ITD) Division at MBARI, formally the chief scientist for Climate Central. Expert on climate change communication. Formerly climate change expert for weather channel. Science advisory board for NOAA
+Judith Curry: Professor at the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology. She has written or co-authored over 140 research papers, mainly in the field of atmospheric science. She also runs her own climate blog, and has testified before the US House of Representatives. Gretchen Daily: Professor of Environmental Science at Stanford University, director of the Center for Conservation Biology at Stanford, and senior fellow at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment. Co-founder, Natural Capital Project. She is a fellow of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. She is a board member of the Beijer Institute for Ecological Economics and The Nature Conservancy and was a MacArthur fellow. Purnamita Dasgupta: Chair Professor and Head of Environmental Economics Unit at Institute of Economic Growth, India. Her research focuses on the relationship between environment and economic development. She has been an author and advisor to the international research assessments including the IPCC 1.5C Special Report and International Panel on Social Progress; the IPCC's Scientific Steering Group on Economics, Costing and Ethics; Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA) and the Association of Commonwealth Universities. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6. Ruth DeFries: Professor of Sustainable Development Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology, Columbia University. She is a faculty affiliate of the Earth Institute, Columbia University. She is a member of the United States Academy of Sciences and was a MacArthur Fellow in 2007. Defries specializes in using remote sensing to study earth's habitability in the context of deforestation and other human drivers that influence biophysical and biogeochemical regulatory processes. Fatima Denton: Director of the United Nations University, Institute for Natural Resources in Africa (UNU-INRA), Ghana. Her expertise lies in natural resource management, research and policy development and the African region. Formerly, she worked with the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), Canada-based International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and United Nations Environment Programme. She is a lead author for the IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land, and a coordinating lead author for the IPCC AR6 Working Group III. Claudine Dereczynski: Professor at Institute of Geosciences, Federal University of Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. Her research expertise include numerical weather prediction, regional climate modeling, climate variability, atmospheric science and climate change. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Sandra Diaz: Professor of Community and Ecosystems Ecology at Córdoba National University, and Senior Principal Researcher of the National Research Council of Argentina. She studies plant interactions with global change drivers and their effects on ecosystem properties. She was a Guggenheim Fellow in 2002 and is a Foreign Associate Member of the USA National Academy of Sciences. She participated in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the IPCC. She is a member of the Science Committee of the international programme on biodiversity science DIVERSITAS, and the founder and director of the international initiative Núcleo DiverSus on Diversity and Sustainability. Aïda Diongue-Niang: Adviser of the National Agency for Civil Aviation and Meteorology, Senegal. She has more than 20 years of experience in interacting with a wide range of stakeholders at all levels and has expertise in numerical weather prediction, atmospheric physics, climate, monsoon and extreme events. She is a lead author of the IPCC Sixth Assessment report Working Group I. Riyanti Djalante: Assistant Director/Head of Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance Division at the ASEAN Secretariat, Indonesia.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-6.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-6.md
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-7.md
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 9/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Diana Liverman: Professor of Geography and Development and formerly co-director of the Institute of the Environment at the University of Arizona USA and expert on the human dimensions of climate change. IPCC author. ICSU. Emma Liwenga: Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Her research focuses on agriculture, food and livelihood security, natural resource management and climate change adaptation. She was an author of the IPCC Special Report on Land and Climate Change and currently serves as a coordinating lead author of IPCC AR6 report. Jane Lubchenco: Professor of environmental science and marine ecology at Oregon State University. Former Administrator of NOAA and Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere (2009-2013). Her research interests include interactions between the environment and human well-being, biodiversity, climate change, and sustainable use of oceans and the planet. Nominated by President Obama in December 2008 as part of his "Science Dream Team". Amanda Lynch: Professor of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown University and the founding director of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society. She is an expert in polar climate system modelling, indigenous environmental knowledge and climate policy analysis. She is a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society, the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering and the Norwegian Scientific Academy for Polar Research. Graciela Magrin: Researcher at the Institute of Climate and Water at Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria (INTA) in Argentina. She participated in the IPCC and served as Training Material Reviewer of vulnerability and adaptation assessment related to climate change in the agriculture sector at the UNFCCC Secretariat in Germany. She specializes in climate change, vegetal ecophysiology, and agrometeorology. Jennifer Marohasy: Australian biologist, columnist and blogger. She was a senior fellow at the free-market think tank, the Melbourne-based Institute of Public Affairs between 2004 and 2009 and director of the Australian Environment Foundation until 2008. Paulina Martinetto: Researcher at National Scientific and Technical Research Council, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Her research focuses on ecology of nearshore marine ecosystems, climate change, and answering fundamental questions related to carbon budget in coastal and shelf ecosystems of the South West Atlantic. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Kate Marvel: New York City based climate scientist and science writer. She is an Associate Research Scientist at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia Engineering's Department of Applied Physics and Mathematics. She writes regularly in her column "Hot Planet."  for Scientific American. Catherine Masao: Lecturer at the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Her research interests include conservation biology, ecology, biodiversity management and impact assessments. Currently, she is contributing as a lead author for the IPCC AR6 report. Valerie Masson-Delmotte: leading French climate scientist and research director at the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory of the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives, CEA)
+Valérie Masson-Delmotte: Senior researcher at the Laboratoire des Science du Climat et de l'environnement, France. Co-chair of IPCC Working Group I. She specializes in reconstructing and understanding past climate variations using natural archives, stable isotopes and climate models. Ritu Mathur: Director of Integrated Assessments and Modelling at The Energy and Resource Institute (TERI), India. She is also an Adjunct Faculty in the Department of Energy and Environment at TERI School of Advanced Studies. For the past two decades, she has been working in the field of sustainable development, energy security, mitigation and climate change. She has experience with IPCC assessments and has contributed to other national and global scientific assessments. Currently, she serves as a lead author to the IPCC AR6 report. Pamela Matson: Professor of Environmental Studies and former Dean of Earth Sciences at Stanford University, US; scholar of land use and sustainability science and member of the US National Academy of Sciences. Rachel McCarthy (1984-) Former expert scientist at the Met Office, specialising in Disaster Risk and Reduction. Special Advisor to the UK Government. Advisor to the European Commission on the scientific veracity of bids for part of €20M public funding. She is a pioneer in combining science and the arts. Shannon McNeeley: Senior Researcher at the Pacific Institute and formerly a research scientist at the North Central Climate Adaptation Science Center at Colorado State University. She focuses on water and climate environmental justice for frontline communities and incorporates both natural and social sciences approach in her research. She was an author of third and fourth U.S. National Climate Assessment and currently serves on the steering committee of upcoming fifth National Adaptation Forum. Linda Mearns: Senior scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) USA who works on regional climate models and climate impacts. IPCC author. Liliana Raquel Miranda Sara: Founder and Executive Director of Cities for Life Foro, Peru. She is an architect, urban environmental planner, researcher and an activist. Her research focuses on climate change, cities, water, sustainable construction and justice issues. She is an Ashoka Fellow who designed and implemented pilot projects to promote sustainable building. Currently, she is serving as a lead author of Chapter 6 on Cities for the IPCC AR6 report. Mariana Moncassim Vale: Associate Professor at the Department of Ecology of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She works in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, the Amazon and focuses mainly on systematic conservation planning, ecosystem services, climate change, roadless areas, and GIS to prioritize species and area conservation. She is also a lead author for the IPCC AR6 report. Linda Mortsch: Senior Researcher, Adaptation and Impacts Research Division, Environment Canada. Adjunct in the Faculty of Environment at the University of Waterloo. She researches on the impact of climate change on water resources and wetlands in Canada, climate change scenario development, and "effective" communication of climate change information. She is a contributing author of the IPCC. Suzanne Moser: Consultant and researcher from Santa Cruz, California, USA who works on climate change impacts on coastal regions and on communication of climate information. ICSU committees. Aditi Mukherji: Principal Researcher at International Water Management Institute, India. Her expertise lies in climate change adaptation, groundwater institutions and policies, community management for water resources, political ecology, and water-energy-food nexus. Before IWMI, she was a theme leader of water and air at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). Currently, she serves as a coordinating lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Maria Silvia Muylaert De Araujo: Based at Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Her research focuses on land use change and renewable energy. She is the Assistant of the Rio de Janeiro State Government's Environment Secretary since 2007. She has contributed to IPCC work as a lead author in the IPCC AR5 and currently serves as a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Michelle Mycoo: Professor of Urban and Regional Planning in the Department of Geomatics Engineering and Land Management, The University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago. She is the coordinating lead author of the IPCC AR6 chapter on small islands and has served as Senior Technical Expert to various international, regional and local agencies in the field of urban planning, sustainable land, climate change and more.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-9.md
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+---
+title: "Women in climate change"
+chunk: 10/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Her research focuses on strengthening science, policy and practice alignment/interface for optimal land use, infrastructure provision and environmental management. Soojeong Meong: Senior Research Fellow at Korea Environment Institute, Korea. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6 report. Sarah Myhre: climate and ocean scientist with expertise in the physical, biological, and chemical consequences of abrupt climate warming. A Ph.D. holder from the University of California at Davis, and has worked as a research associate at the University of Washington's School of Oceanography. She is a Kavli Fellow with the National Academy of Science. Sasha Naidoo: Researcher at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa. Her expertise lies in forest, wood anatomy, silviculture, wood science, climate change and environmental science. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Sunita Narain: Director general of the India-based Centre for Science and Environment and the director of the Society for Environmental Communications and publisher of the bimonthly magazine, Down To Earth. She is an influential environmental activist with interests in democracy at different scales, climate change, and natural resource management.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 1/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The presence of women in science spans the earliest times of the history of science wherein they have made substantial contributions. Historians with an interest in gender and science have researched the scientific endeavors and accomplishments of women, the barriers they have faced, and the strategies implemented to have their work peer-reviewed and accepted in major scientific journals and other publications. The historical, critical, and sociological study of these issues has become an academic discipline in its own right.
+The involvement of women in medicine occurred in several early Western civilizations, and the study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Women contributed to the proto-science of alchemy in the first or second centuries CE. During the Middle Ages, religious convents were an important place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. The 11th century saw the emergence of the first universities; women were, for the most part, excluded from university education. Outside academia, botany was the science that benefitted most from women’s contributions in early modern times. The attitude toward educating women in medical fields appears to have been more liberal in Italy than elsewhere. The first known woman to earn a university chair in a scientific field of study was eighteenth-century Italian scientist Laura Bassi.
+Gender roles were largely deterministic in the eighteenth century and women made substantial advances in science.  During the nineteenth century, women were excluded from most formal scientific education, but they began to be admitted into learned societies during this period. In the later nineteenth century, the rise of the women's college provided jobs for women scientists and opportunities for education. Marie Curie paved the way for scientists to study radioactive decay and discovered the elements radium and polonium. Working as a physicist and chemist, she conducted pioneering research on radioactive decay and was the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics and  the first person to receive a second Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Sixty women have been awarded the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2022. Twenty-four women have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine.
+
+== Cross-cultural perspectives ==
+In the 1970s and 1980s, many books and articles about women scientists were appearing. Virtually all of the published sources ignored women of color and women outside of Europe and North America. The formation of the Kovalevskaia Fund in 1985 and the Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World in 1993 gave more visibility to previously marginalized women scientists, but even today there is a dearth of information about current and historical women in science in developing countries. According to academic Ann Hibner Koblitz:
+
+Most work on women scientists has focused on the personalities and scientific subcultures of Western Europe and North America, and historians of women in science have implicitly or explicitly assumed that the observations made for those
+regions will hold true for the rest of the world.
+Koblitz has said that these generalizations about women in science often do not hold up cross-culturally:
+
+A scientific or technical field that might be considered 'unwomanly' in one country in a given period may enjoy the participation of many women in a different historical period or in another country. An example is engineering, which in many countries is considered the exclusive domain of men, especially in usually prestigious subfields, such as electrical or mechanical engineering. There are exceptions to this, however. In the former Soviet Union all subspecialties of engineering had high percentages of women, and at the Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería of Nicaragua, women made up 70% of engineering students in 1990.
+
+== Historical examples ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 2/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Ancient history ===
+The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An ancient Egyptian physician, Peseshet (c. 2600–2500 B.C.E.), described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest known female physician named in the history of science. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War (c. 1194–1184 BCE). 
+The study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Recorded examples include Aglaonike, who predicted eclipses; and Theano, mathematician and physician, who was a pupil (possibly also wife) of Pythagoras, and one of the school in Crotone founded by Pythagoras, which included many other women. A passage in Pollux speaks about those who invented the process of coining money, mentioning Pheidon and Demodike from Cyme, wife of the Phrygian king, Midas, and daughter of King Agamemnon of Cyme. A daughter of a certain Agamemnon, king of Aeolian Cyme, married a Phrygian king called Midas. This link may have facilitated the Greeks "borrowing" their alphabet from the Phrygians because the Phrygian letter shapes are closest to the inscriptions from Aeolis.
+During the period of the Babylonian civilization, around 1200 BCE, two perfumeresses named Tapputi-Belatekallim and -ninu (first half of her name unknown) were able to obtain the essences from plants by using extraction and distillation procedures. During the Egyptian dynasty, women were involved in applied chemistry, such as the making of beer and the preparation of medicinal compounds. Women have been recorded to have made major contributions to alchemy. Many of whom lived in Alexandria around the 1st or 2nd centuries C.E., where the gnostic tradition led to female contributions being valued. The most famous of the women alchemists, Mary the Jewess, is credited with inventing several chemical instruments, including the double boiler (bain-marie); the improvement or creation of distillation equipment of that time. Such distillation equipment was called kerotakis (simple still) and the tribikos (a complex distillation device).
+Hypatia of Alexandria (c. 350–415 CE), daughter of Theon of Alexandria, was a philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer. She is the earliest female mathematician about whom detailed information has survived. Hypatia is credited with writing several important commentaries on geometry, algebra, and astronomy. Hypatia was the head of a philosophical school and taught many students. In 415 CE, she became entangled in a political dispute between Cyril, the bishop of Alexandria, and Orestes, the Roman governor, which resulted in a mob of Cyril's supporters stripping her, dismembering her, and burning the pieces of her body.
+
+=== Medieval Europe ===
+
+The early parts of the European Middle Ages, also known as the Dark Ages, were marked by the decline of the Roman Empire. The Latin West was left with great difficulties that dramatically affected the continent's intellectual production. Although nature was still seen as a system that could be comprehended through reason, there was little innovative scientific inquiry. The Arabic world deserves credit for preserving scientific advancements. Arabic scholars produced original scholarly work and generated copies of manuscripts from classical periods. During this period, Christianity underwent a period of resurgence, and Western civilization was bolstered as a result. This phenomenon was, in part, due to monasteries and nunneries that nurtured the skills of reading and writing, and the monks and nuns who collected and copied important writings by scholars of the past.
+As it mentioned before, convents were an important place of education for women during this period, for the monasteries and nunneries encourage the skills of reading and writing, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. An example is the German abbess Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179 A.D), a famous philosopher and botanist, whose prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including medicine, botany and natural history (c. 1151–58). Another famous German abbess was Hroswitha of Gandersheim (935–1000 A.D.) that also helped encourage women to be intellectual. However, with the growth in number and power of nunneries, the all-male clerical hierarchy was not welcomed toward it, and thus it stirred up conflict by having backlash against women's advancement. That impacted many religious orders closed on women and disbanded their nunneries, and overall excluding women from the ability to learn to read and write. With that, the world of science became closed off to women, limiting women's influence in science.
+Entering the 11th century, the first universities emerged. Women were, for the most part, excluded from university education. However, there were some exceptions. The Italian University of Bologna allowed women to attend lectures from its inception, in 1088.
+The attitude toward educating women in medical fields in Italy appears to have been more liberal than in other places. The physician Trotula di Ruggiero, is supposed to have held a chair at the Medical School of Salerno in the 11th century, where she taught many noble Italian women, a group sometimes referred to as the "ladies of Salerno". Several influential texts on women's medicine, dealing with obstetrics and gynecology, among other topics, are also often attributed to Trotula.
+Dorotea Bucca was another distinguished Italian physician. She held a chair of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna for over forty years, from 1390. Other Italian women whose contributions in medicine have been recorded include Abella, Jacobina Félicie, Alessandra Giliani, Rebecca de Guarna, Margarita, Mercuriade (14th century), Constance Calenda, Calrice di Durisio (15th century), Constanza, Maria Incarnata and Thomasia de Mattio.
+Despite the success of some women, cultural biases affecting their education and participation in science were prominent in the Middle Ages. For example, Saint Thomas Aquinas, a Christian scholar, wrote, referring to women, "She is mentally incapable of holding a position of authority."
+
+=== Scientific Revolutions of 1600s and 1700s ===
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 11/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Immediately after the end of World War II, the country saw a "retrenchment of positions for women" as male veterans returned and began filling open job positions. While men benefited from the opportunities of the G.I. Bill, some women had success with programs such as Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), a women's branch of the US Navy Reserve. The Society of Women Engineers held their first meeting in 1950. Although NASA was established in 1958, women were only admitted to the astronaut program in 1983, 25 years later.
+Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were six of the original programmers for the ENIAC, the first general purpose electronic computer.
+Linda B. Buck is a neurobiologist who was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel for their work on olfactory receptors.
+Rachel Carson was a marine biologist from the United States. She is credited with being the founder of the environmental movement. The biologist and activist  published Silent Spring, a work on the dangers of pesticides, in 1962. The publishing of her environmental science book led to the questioning of usage of harmful pesticides and other chemicals in agricultural settings. This led to a campaign to attempt to ultimately discredit Carson. However, the federal government called for a review of DDT which concluded with DDT being banned. Carson later died from cancer in 1964 at 57 years old.
+Eugenie Clark, popularly known as The Shark Lady, was an American ichthyologist known for her research on poisonous fish of the tropical seas and on the behavior of sharks.
+Ann Druyan is an American writer, lecturer and producer specializing in cosmology and popular science. Druyan has credited her knowledge of science to the 20 years she spent studying with her late husband, Carl Sagan, rather than formal academic training. She was responsible for the selection of music on the Voyager Golden Record for the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 exploratory missions. Druyan also sponsored the Cosmos 1 spacecraft.
+Gertrude B. Elion was an American biochemist and pharmacologist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for her work on the differences in biochemistry between normal human cells and pathogens.
+Sandra Moore Faber, with Robert Jackson, discovered the Faber–Jackson relation between luminosity and stellar dispersion velocity in elliptical galaxies. She also headed the team which discovered the Great Attractor, a large concentration of mass which is pulling a number of nearby galaxies in its direction.
+Zoologist Dian Fossey worked with gorillas in Africa from 1967 until her murder in 1985.
+Astronomer Andrea Ghez received a MacArthur "genius grant" in 2008 for her work in surmounting the limitations of earthbound telescopes.
+Maria Goeppert Mayer was the second female Nobel Prize winner in Physics, for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. Earlier in her career, she had worked in unofficial or volunteer positions at the university where her husband was a professor. Goeppert Mayer is one of several scientists whose works are commemorated by a U.S. postage stamp.
+Sulamith Low Goldhaber and her husband Gerson Goldhaber formed a research team on the K meson and other high-energy particles in the 1950s.
+Carol Greider and the Australian born Elizabeth Blackburn, along with Jack W. Szostak, received the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase.
+Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hopper developed the first computer compiler while working for the Eckert Mauchly Computer Corporation, released in 1952.
+Deborah S. Jin's team at JILA, in Boulder, Colorado, in 2003 produced the first fermionic condensate, a new state of matter.
+Stephanie Kwolek, a researcher at DuPont, invented poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide – better known as Kevlar.
+Lynn Margulis is a biologist best known for her work on endosymbiotic theory, which is now generally accepted for how certain organelles were formed.
+Barbara McClintock's studies of maize genetics demonstrated genetic transposition in the 1940s and 1950s. Before then, McClintock obtained her PhD from Cornell University in 1927. Her discovery of transposition provided a greater understanding of mobile loci within chromosomes and the ability for genetics to be fluid. She dedicated her life to her research, and she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1983. McClintock was the first American woman to receive a Nobel Prize that was not shared by anyone else. McClintock is one of several scientists whose works are commemorated by a U.S. postage stamp.
+Nita Ahuja is a renowned surgeon-scientist known for her work on CIMP in cancer, she is currently the chief of surgical oncology at Johns Hopkins Hospital. First woman ever to be the chief of this prestigious department.
+Carolyn Porco is a planetary scientist best known for her work on the Voyager program and the Cassini–Huygens mission to Saturn. She is also known for her popularization of science, in particular space exploration.
+Physicist Helen Quinn, with Roberto Peccei, postulated Peccei-Quinn symmetry. One consequence is a particle known as the axion, a candidate for the dark matter that pervades the universe. Quinn was the first woman to receive the Dirac Medal by the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) and the first to receive the Oskar Klein Medal.
+Lisa Randall is a theoretical physicist and cosmologist, best known for her work on the Randall–Sundrum model. She was the first tenured female physics professor at Princeton University.
+Sally Ride was an astrophysicist and the first American woman, and then-youngest American, to travel to outer space. Ride wrote or co-wrote several books on space aimed at children, with the goal of encouraging them to study science. Ride participated in the Gravity Probe B (GP-B) project, which provided more evidence that the predictions of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity are correct.
+Through her observations of galaxy rotation curves, astronomer Vera Rubin discovered the Galaxy rotation problem, now taken to be one of the key pieces of evidence for the existence of dark matter. She was the first female allowed to observe at the Palomar Observatory.
+Sara Seager is a Canadian-American astronomer who is currently a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and known for her work on extrasolar planets.
+Astronomer Jill Tarter is best known for her work on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. Tarter was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time Magazine in 2004. She is the former director of SETI.
+Rosalyn Yalow was the co-winner of the 1977 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (together with Roger Guillemin and Andrew Schally) for development of the radioimmunoassay (RIA) technique.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 12/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Australia after World War II ====
+Amanda Barnard, an Australia-based theoretical physicist specializing in nanomaterials, winner of the Malcolm McIntosh Prize for Physical Scientist of the Year.
+Isobel Bennett, was one of the first women to go to Macquarie Island with the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE). She is one of Australia's best known marine biologists.
+Dorothy Hill, an Australian geologist who became the first female professor at an Australian university.
+Ruby Payne-Scott, was an Australian who was an early leader in the fields of radio astronomy and radiophysics. She was one of the first radio astronomers and the first woman in the field.
+Penny Sackett, an astronomer who became the first female chief scientist of Australia in 2008. She is a US-born Australian citizen.
+Fiona Stanley, winner of the 2003 Australian of the Year award, is an epidemiologist noted for her research into child and maternal health, birth disorders, and her work in the public health field.
+Michelle Simmons, winner of the 2018 Australian of the Year award, is a quantum physicist known for her research and leadership on atomic-scale silicon quantum devices.
+
+==== Israel after World War II ====
+Ada Yonath, the first woman from the Middle East to win a Nobel prize in the sciences, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009 for her studies on the structure and function of the ribosome.
+Latin America
+Maria Nieves Garcia-Casal, the first scientist and nutritionist woman from Latin America to lead the Latin America Society of Nutrition.
+Angela Restrepo Moreno is a microbiologist from Colombia. She first gained interest in tiny organisms when she had the opportunity to view them through a microscope that belonged to her grandfather. While Restrepo has a variety of research, her main area of research is fungi and their causes of diseases. Her work led her to develop research on a disease caused by fungi that has only been diagnosed in Latin America but was originally found in Brazil: Paracoccidioidomycosis. Research groups also developed by Restrepo have begun studying two routes: the relationship between humans, fungi, and the environment and also how the cells within the fungi work.
+Along with her research, Restrepo co-founded a non-profit that is devoted to scientific research named Corporation for Biological Research (CIB). Angela Restrepo Moreno was awarded the SCOPUS Prize in 2007 for her numerous publications. She currently resides in Colombia and continues her research.
+Susana López Charretón was born in Mexico City, Mexico in 1957. She is a virologist whose area of study focused on the rotavirus. When she initially began studying rotavirus, it had only been discovered four years earlier. Charretón's main job was to study how the virus entered cells and its ways of multiplying. Because of her, and several others, work other scientists were able to learn about more details of the virus. Now, her research focuses on the virus's ability to recognize the cells it infects. Along with her husband, Charretón was awarded the Carlos J. Finlay Prize for Microbiology in 2001. She also received the Loreal-UNESCO prize titled "Woman in Science" in 2012. Charretón has also received several other awards for her research.
+Liliana Quintanar Vera is a Mexican chemist. Currently a researcher at the Department of Chemistry of the Center of Investigation and Advanced Studies, Vera's research currently focuses on neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and prion disease and also on degenerative diseases like diabetes and cataracts. For this research she focused on how copper interacts with the proteins of the neurodegenerative diseases mentioned before.
+Liliana's awards include the Mexican Academy of Sciences Research Prize for Science in 2017, the Marcos Moshinsky Chair award in 2016, the Fulbright Scholarship in 2014, and the L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Award in 2007.
+
+== Nobel laureates ==
+
+The Nobel Prize and Prize in Economic Sciences have been awarded to women 61 times between 1901 and 2022. One woman, Marie Sklodowska-Curie, has been honored twice, with the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics and the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This means that 60 women in total have been awarded the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2022. 25 women have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine.
+
+=== Chemistry ===
+2022 – Carolyn Bertozzi
+2020 – Emmanuelle Charpentier, Jennifer Doudna
+2018 – Frances Arnold
+2009 – Ada E. Yonath
+1964 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
+1935 – Irène Joliot-Curie
+1911 – Marie Sklodowska-Curie
+
+=== Physics ===
+2023 – Anne L'Huillier
+2020 – Andrea Ghez
+2018 – Donna Strickland
+1963 – Maria Goeppert-Mayer
+1903 – Marie Sklodowska-Curie
+
+=== Physiology or Medicine ===
+2023 – Katalin Karikó
+2015 – Youyou Tu
+2014 – May-Britt Moser
+2009 – Elizabeth H. Blackburn
+2009 – Carol W. Greider
+2008 – Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
+2004 – Linda B. Buck
+1995 – Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
+1988 – Gertrude B. Elion
+1986 – Rita Levi-Montalcini
+1983 – Barbara McClintock
+1977 – Rosalyn Yalow
+1947 – Gerty Cori
+
+== Fields Medal ==
+2014 – Maryam Mirzakhani (1977–2017), the first woman to have won the prize, was an Iranian mathematician and a professor of mathematics at Stanford University.
+2022 – Maryna Viazovska
+
+== Statistics ==
+
+Statistics are used to indicate disadvantages faced by women in science, and also to track positive changes of employment opportunities and incomes for women in science.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 13/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Situation in the 1990s ===
+Women appear to do less well than men (in terms of degree, rank, and salary) in the fields that have been traditionally dominated by women, such as nursing. In 1991 women attributed 91% of the PhDs in nursing, and men held 4% of full professorships in nursing. In the field of psychology, where women earn the majority of PhDs, women do not fill the majority of high rank positions in that field.
+Women's lower salaries in the scientific community are also reflected in statistics. According to the data provided in 1993, the median salaries of female scientists and engineers with doctoral degrees were 20% less than men. This data can be explained as there was less participation of women in high rank scientific fields/positions and a female majority in low-paid fields/positions. However, even with men and women in the same scientific community field, women are typically paid 15–17% less than men. In addition to the gender gap, there were also salary differences between ethnicity: African-American women with more years of experiences earn 3.4% less than European-American women with similar skills, while Asian women engineers out-earn both Africans and Europeans.
+Women are also under-represented in the sciences as compared to their numbers in the overall working population. Within 11% of African-American women in the workforce, 3% are employed as scientists and engineers. Hispanics made up 8% of the total workers in the US, 3% of that number are scientists and engineers. Native Americans participation cannot be statistically measured.
+Women tend to earn less than men in almost all industries, including government and academia. Women are less likely to be hired in highest-paid positions. The data showing the differences in salaries, ranks, and overall success between the genders is often claimed to be a result of women's lack of professional experience. The rate of women's professional achievement is increasing. In 1996, the salaries for women in professional fields increased from 85% to 95% relative to men with similar skills and jobs. Young women between the age of 27 and 33 earned 98%, nearly as much as their male peers. In the total workforce of the United States, women earn 74% as much as their male counterparts (in the 1970s they made 59% as much as their male counterparts).
+Claudia Goldin, Harvard concludes in A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter – "The gender gap in pay would be considerably reduced and might vanish altogether if firms did not have an incentive to disproportionately reward individuals who labored long hours and worked particular hours."
+Research on women's participation in the "hard" sciences such as physics and computer science speaks of the "leaky pipeline" model, in which the proportion of women "on track" to potentially becoming top scientists fall off at every step of the way, from getting interested in science and maths in elementary school, through doctorate, postdoctoral, and career steps.  The leaky pipeline also applies in other fields. In biology, for instance, women in the United States have been getting Masters degrees in the same numbers as men for two decades, yet fewer women get PhDs; and the numbers of women principal investigators have not risen.
+It is important to determine what may be causing this "leaky pipeline" by looking at factors outside of academia that are occurring in women's lives at the same time as they are pursuing their continued education and career search. At this crucial time the most outstanding factor is family formation. As women continue their academic careers, they are often also stepping into new roles as wives and mothers. These traditionally require a large time commitment and cause difficulties for an individual looking to attain tenure. It's been found that women entering the family formation period of their life are 35% less likely than their male counterparts to pursue tenure positions after receiving their PhD's.
+In the UK, women occupied over half the places in science-related higher education courses (science, medicine, maths, computer science and engineering) in 2004–05. However, gender differences varied from subject to subject: women substantially outnumbered men in biology and medicine, especially nursing, while men predominated in maths, physical sciences, computer science and engineering.
+In the US, women with science or engineering doctoral degrees were predominantly employed in the education sector in 2001, with substantially fewer employed in business or industry than men. According to salary figures reported in 1991, women earn anywhere between 83.6 percent to 87.5 percent that of a man's salary.  An even greater disparity between men and women is the ongoing trend that women scientists with more experience are not as well-compensated as their male counterparts.  The salary of a male engineer continues to experience growth as he gains experience whereas the female engineer sees her salary reach a plateau.
+Women, in the United States and many European countries, who succeed in science tend to be graduates of single-sex schools.  Women earn 54% of all bachelor's degrees in the United States and 50% of those are in science.  9% of US physicists are women.
+
+=== Overview of situation in 2013 ===
+
+In 2013, women accounted for 53% of the world's graduates at the bachelor's and master's level and 43% of successful PhD candidates but just 28% of researchers. Women graduates are consistently highly represented in the life sciences, often at over 50%. However, their representation in the other fields is inconsistent. In North America and much of Europe, few women graduate in physics, mathematics and computer science but, in other regions, the proportion of women may be close to parity in physics or mathematics. In engineering and computer sciences, women consistently trail men, a situation that is particularly acute in many high-income countries.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 14/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== In decision-making ====
+As of 2015, each step up the ladder of the scientific research system saw a drop in female participation until, at the highest echelons of scientific research and decision-making, there were very few women left. In 2015, the EU Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation Carlos Moedas called attention to this phenomenon, adding that the majority of entrepreneurs in science and engineering tended to be men. In 2013, the German government coalition agreement introduced a 30% quota for women on company boards of directors.
+In 2010, women made up 14% of university chancellors and vice-chancellors at Brazilian public universities  and 17% of those in South Africa in 2011. As of 2015, in Argentina, women made up 16% of directors and vice-directors of national research centres and, in Mexico, 10% of directors of scientific research institutes at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. In the US, numbers are slightly higher at 23%. In the EU, less than 16% of tertiary institutions were headed by a woman in 2010 and just 10% of universities. In 2011, at the main tertiary institution for the English-speaking Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, women represented 51% of lecturers but only 32% of senior lecturers and 26% of full professors . A 2018 review of the Royal Society of Britain by historians Aileen Fyfe and Camilla Mørk Røstvik produced similarly low numbers, with women accounting for more than 25% of members in only a handful of countries, including Cuba, Panama and South Africa. As of 2015, the figure for Indonesia was 17%.
+
+==== Women in life sciences ====
+In life sciences, women researchers have achieved parity (45–55% of researchers) in many countries. In some, the balance even now tips in their favour. Six out of ten researchers are women in both medical and agricultural sciences in Belarus and New Zealand, for instance. More than two-thirds of researchers in medical sciences are women in El Salvador, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, the Philippines, Tajikistan, Ukraine and Venezuela.
+There has been a steady increase in female graduates in agricultural sciences since the turn of the century. In sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, numbers of female graduates in agricultural science have been increasing steadily, with eight countries reporting a share of women graduates of 40% or more: Lesotho, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. The reasons for this surge are unclear, although one explanation may lie in the growing emphasis on national food security and the food industry. Another possible explanation is that women are highly represented in biotechnology. For example, in South Africa, women were underrepresented in engineering (16%) in 2004 and in 'natural scientific professions' (16%) in 2006 but made up 52% of employees working in biotechnology-related companies.
+Women play an increasing role in environmental sciences and conservation biology. In fact, women played a foremost role in the development of these disciplines. Silent Spring by Rachel Carson proved an important impetus to the conservation movement and the later banning of chemical pesticides. Women played an important role in conservation biology including the famous work of Dian Fossey, who published the famous Gorillas in the Mist and Jane Goodall who studied primates in East Africa. Today women make up an increasing proportion of roles in the active conservation sector. A recent survey of those working in the Wildlife Trusts in the U.K., the leading conservation organisation in England, found that there are nearly as many women as men in practical conservation roles.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 15/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== In engineering and related fields ====
+Women are consistently underrepresented in engineering and related fields. In Israel, for instance, where 28% of senior academic staff are women, there are proportionately many fewer in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) but dominate education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%). In Japan and the Republic of Korea, women represent just 5% and 10% of engineers.
+For women who are pursuing STEM major careers, these individuals often face gender disparities in the work field, especially in regards to science and engineering. It has become more common for women to pursue undergraduate degrees in science, but are continuously discredited in salary rates and higher ranking positions. For example, men show a greater likelihood of being selected for an employment position than a woman.
+In Europe and North America, the number of female graduates in engineering, physics, mathematics and computer science is generally low. Women make up just 19% of engineers in Canada, Germany and the US and 22% in Finland, for example. However, 50% of engineering graduates are women in Cyprus, 38% in Denmark and 36% in the Russian Federation, for instance.
+In many cases, engineering has lost ground to other sciences, including agriculture. The case of New Zealand is fairly typical. Here, women jumped from representing 39% to 70% of agricultural graduates between 2000 and 2012, continued to dominate health (80–78%) but ceded ground in science (43–39%) and engineering (33–27%).
+In a number of developing countries, there is a sizable proportion of women engineers. At least three out of ten engineers are women, for instance, in Costa Rica, Vietnam and the United Arab Emirates (31%), Algeria (32%), Mozambique (34%), Tunisia (41%) and Brunei Darussalam (42%). In Malaysia (50%) and Oman (53%), women are on a par with men. Of the 13 sub-Saharan countries reporting data, seven have observed substantial increases (more than 5%) in women engineers since 2000, namely: Benin, Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Namibia.
+Of the seven Arab countries reporting data, four observe a steady percentage or an increase in female engineers (Morocco, Oman, Palestine and Saudi Arabia). In the United Arab Emirates, the government has made it a priority to develop a knowledge economy, having recognized the need for a strong human resource base in science, technology and engineering. With just 1% of the labour force being Emirati, it is also concerned about the low percentage of Emirati citizens employed in key industries. As a result, it has introduced policies promoting the training and employment of Emirati citizens, as well as a greater participation of Emirati women in the labour force. Emirati female engineering students have said that they are attracted to a career in engineering for reasons of financial independence, the high social status associated with this field, the opportunity to engage in creative and challenging projects and the wide range of career opportunities.
+An analysis of computer science shows a steady decrease in female graduates since 2000 that is particularly marked in high-income countries. Between 2000 and 2012, the share of women graduates in computer science slipped in Australia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea and US. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the share of women graduates in computer science dropped by between 2 and 13 percentage points over this period for all countries reporting data.
+There are exceptions. In Denmark, the proportion of female graduates in computer science increased from 15% to 24% between 2000 and 2012 and Germany saw an increase from 10% to 17%. These are still very low levels. Figures are higher in many emerging economies. In Turkey, for instance, the proportion of women graduating in computer science rose from a relatively high 29% to 33% between 2000 and 2012.
+The Malaysian information technology (IT) sector is made up equally of women and men, with large numbers of women employed as university professors and in the private sector. This is a product of two historical trends: the predominance of women in the Malay electronics industry, the precursor to the IT industry, and the national push to achieve a 'pan-Malayan' culture beyond the three ethnic groups of Indian, Chinese and Malay. Government support for the education of all three groups is available on a quota basis and, since few Malay men are interested in IT, this leaves more room for women. Additionally, families tend to be supportive of their daughters' entry into this prestigious and highly remunerated industry, in the interests of upward social mobility. Malaysia's push to develop an endogenous research culture should deepen this trend.
+In India, the substantial increase in women undergraduates in engineering may be indicative of a change in the 'masculine' perception of engineering in the country. It is also a product of interest on the part of parents, since their daughters will be assured of employment as the field expands, as well as an advantageous marriage. Other factors include the 'friendly' image of engineering in India and the easy access to engineering education resulting from the increase in the number of women's engineering colleges over the last two decades.
+
+==== In space ====
+While women have made huge strides in the STEM fields, it is obvious that they are still underrepresented. One of the areas where women are most underrepresented in science is space flight. Out of the 556 people who have traveled to space, only 65 of them were women. This means that only 11% of astronauts have been women.
+In the 1960s, the American space program was taking off. However, women were not allowed to be considered for the space program because at the time astronauts were required to be military pilots – a profession that women were not allowed to be a part of. There were other "practical" reasons as well. According to General Don Flickinger of the United States Air Force, there was difficulty "designing and fitting a space suit to accommodate their particular biological needs and functions."
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 16/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+During the early 1960s, the first American astronauts, nicknamed the Mercury Seven, were training. At the same time, William Randolph Lovelace II was interested to see if women could manage to go through the same training that the Mercury 7 undergoing at the time. Lovelace recruited thirteen female pilots, called the "Mercury 13", and put them through the same tests that the male astronauts took. As a result, the women actually performed better on these tests than the men of the Mercury 7 did. However, this did not convince NASA officials to allow women in space. In response, congressional hearings were held to investigate discrimination against women in the program. One of the women who testified at the hearing was Jerrie Cobb, the first woman to pass Lovelace's tests. During her testimony, Cobb said:I find it a little ridiculous when I read in a newspaper that there is a place called Chimp College in New Mexico where they are training chimpanzees for space flight, one a female named Glenda. I think it would be at least as important to let the women undergo this training for space flight.NASA officials also had representatives present, notably astronauts John Glenn and Scott Carpenter, to testify that women are not suited for the space program. Ultimately, no action came from the hearings, and NASA did not put a woman in space until 1983.
+Even though the United States did not allow women in space during the 60s or 70s, other countries did. Valentina Tereshkova, a cosmonaut from the Soviet Union, was the first woman to fly in space. Although she had no piloting experience, she flew on the Vostok 6 in 1963. Before going to space, Tereshkova was a textile worker. Although she successfully orbited the Earth 48 times, the next woman to go to space did not fly until almost twenty years later.
+Sally Ride was the third woman to go to space and the first American woman in space. In 1978, Ride and five other women were accepted into the first class of astronauts that allowed women. In 1983, Ride became the first American woman in space when she flew on the Challenger for the STS-7 mission.
+
+NASA has been more inclusive in recent years. The number of women in NASA's astronaut classes has steadily risen since the first class that allowed women in 1978. The most recent class was 45% women, and the class before was 50%. In 2019, the first all-female spacewalk was completed at the International Space Station.
+
+=== Regional trends as of 2013 ===
+The global figures mask wide disparities from one region to another. In Southeast Europe, for instance, women researchers have obtained parity and, at 44%, are on the verge of doing so in Central Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean. In the European Union, on the other hand, just one in three (33%) researchers is a woman, compared to 37% in the Arab world. Women are also better represented in sub-Saharan Africa (30%) than in South Asia (17%).
+There are also wide intraregional disparities. Women make up 52% of researchers in the Philippines and Thailand, for instance, and are close to parity in Malaysia and Vietnam, yet only one in three researchers is a woman in Indonesia and Singapore. In Japan and the Republic of Korea, two countries characterized by high researcher densities and technological sophistication, as few as 15% and 18% of researchers respectively are women. These are the lowest ratios among members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The Republic of Korea also has the widest gap among OECD members in remuneration between men and women researchers (39%). There is also a yawning gap in Japan (29%).
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 17/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Latin America and the Caribbean ====
+Latin America has some of the world's highest rates of women studying scientific fields; it also shares with the Caribbean one of the highest proportions of female researchers: 44%. Of the 12 countries reporting data for the years 2010–2013, seven have achieved gender parity, or even dominate research: Bolivia (63%), Venezuela (56%), Argentina (53%), Paraguay (52%), Uruguay (49%), Brazil (48%) and Guatemala (45%). Costa Rica is on the cusp (43%). Chile has the lowest score among countries for which there are recent data (31%). The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with Cuba having achieved gender parity (47%) and Trinidad and Tobago on 44%. Recent data on women's participation in industrial research are available for those countries with the most developed national innovation systems, with the exception of Brazil and Cuba: Uruguay (47%), Argentina (29%), Colombia and Chile (26%).
+As in most other regions, the great majority of health graduates are women (60–85%). Women are also strongly represented in science. More than 40% of science graduates are women in each of Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama and Uruguay. The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with women graduates in science being on a par with men or dominating this field in Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic and Trinidad and Tobago.
+In engineering, women make up over 30% of the graduate population in seven Latin American countries (Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, Honduras, Panama and Uruguay) and one Caribbean country, the Dominican Republic. There has been a decrease in the number of women engineering graduates in Argentina, Chile and Honduras.
+The participation of women in science has consistently dropped since the turn of the century. This trend has been observed in all sectors of the larger economies: Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Colombia. Mexico is a notable exception, having recorded a slight increase. Some of the decrease may be attributed to women transferring to agricultural sciences in these countries. Another negative trend is the drop in female doctoral students and in the labour force. Of those countries reporting data, the majority signal a significant drop of 10–20 percentage points in the transition from master's to doctoral graduates.
+A study at UNICAMP (2019–2023) reveals female underrepresentation in publications, particularly in STEM fields and first/last authorship positions. While UNICAMP's 42% female participation is comparable to USP's historical average (38.28%), both fall below the Brazilian average (49%), contrasting with higher female representation in science in some Latin American countries (UNESCO). Despite gender equity policies, female participation at UNICAMP declined after 2021, potentially due to the pandemic, and Field-Weighted Citation Impact (FWCI) was lower in areas like Social Sciences and Life Sciences, highlighting the need for stronger gender equality policies in science.
+
+==== Eastern Europe, West and Central Asia ====
+Most countries in Eastern Europe, West and Central Asia have attained gender parity in research (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Ukraine) or are on the brink of doing so (Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan). This trend is reflected in tertiary education, with some exceptions in engineering and computer science. Although Belarus and the Russian Federation have seen a drop over the past decade, women still represented 41% of researchers in 2013. In the former Soviet states, women are also very present in the business enterprise sector: Bosnia and Herzegovina (59%), Azerbaijan (57%), Kazakhstan (50%), Mongolia (48%), Latvia (48%), Serbia (46%), Croatia and Bulgaria (43%), Ukraine and Uzbekistan (40%), Romania and Montenegro (38%), Belarus (37%), Russian Federation (37%).
+One in three researchers is a woman in Turkey (36%) and Tajikistan (34%). Participation rates are lower in Iran (26%) and Israel (21%), although Israeli women represent 28% of senior academic staff. At university, Israeli women dominate medical sciences (63%) but only a minority study engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer science (10%). There has been an interesting evolution in Iran. Whereas the share of female PhD graduates in health remained stable at 38–39% between 2007 and 2012, it rose in all three other broad fields. Most spectacular was the leap in female PhD graduates in agricultural sciences from 4% to 33% but there was also a marked progression in science (from 28% to 39%) and engineering (from 8% to 16%).
+
+==== Southeast Europe ====
+With the exception of Greece, all the countries of Southeast Europe were once part of the Soviet bloc. Some 49% of researchers in these countries are women (compared to 37% in Greece in 2011). This high proportion is considered a legacy of the consistent investment in education by the Socialist governments in place until the early 1990s, including that of the former Yugoslavia. Moreover, the participation of female researchers is holding steady or increasing in much of the region, with representation broadly even across the four sectors of government, business, higher education and non-profit. In most countries, women tend to be on a par with men among tertiary graduates in science. Between 70% and 85% of graduates are women in health, less than 40% in agriculture and between 20% and 30% in engineering. Albania has seen a considerable increase in the share of its women graduates in engineering and agriculture.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 18/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== European Union ====
+Women make up 33% of researchers overall in the European Union (EU), slightly more than their representation in science (32%). Women constitute 40% of researchers in higher education, 40% in government and 19% in the private sector, with the number of female researchers increasing faster than that of male researchers. The proportion of female researchers has been increasing over the last decade, at a faster rate than men (5.1% annually over 2002–2009 compared with 3.3% for men), which is also true for their participation among scientists and engineers (up 5.4% annually between 2002 and 2010, compared with 3.1% for men).
+Despite these gains, women's academic careers in Europe remain characterized by strong vertical and horizontal segregation. In 2010, although female students (55%) and graduates (59%) outnumbered male students, men outnumbered women at the PhD and graduate levels (albeit by a small margin). Further along in the research career, women represented 44% of grade C academic staff, 37% of grade B academic staff and 20% of grade A academic staff.11 These trends are intensified in science, with women making up 31% of the student population at the tertiary level to 38% of PhD students and 35% of PhD graduates. At the faculty level, they make up 32% of academic grade C personnel, 23% of grade B and 11% of grade A. The proportion of women among full professors is lowest in engineering and technology, at 7.9%. With respect to representation in science decision-making, in 2010 15.5% of higher education institutions were headed by women and 10% of universities had a female rector.
+Membership on science boards remained predominantly male as well, with women making up 36% of board members. The EU has engaged in a major effort to integrate female researchers and gender research into its research and innovation strategy since the mid-2000s. Increases in women's representation in all of the scientific fields overall indicates that this effort has met with some success; however, the continued lack of representation of women at the top level of faculties, management and science decision making indicate that more work needs to be done. The EU is addressing this through a gender equality strategy and crosscutting mandate in Horizon 2020, its research and innovation funding programme for 2014–2020.
+
+==== Australia, New Zealand and USA ====
+In 2013, women made up the majority of PhD graduates in fields related to health in Australia (63%), New Zealand (58%) and the United States of America (73%). The same can be said of agriculture, in New Zealand's case (73%). Women have also achieved parity in agriculture in Australia (50%) and the United States (44%). Just one in five women graduate in engineering in the latter two countries, a situation that has not changed over the past decade. In New Zealand, women jumped from constituting 39% to 70% of agricultural graduates (all levels) between 2000 and 2012 but ceded ground in science (43–39%), engineering (33–27%) and health (80–78%). As for Canada, it has not reported sex-disaggregated data for women graduates in science and engineering in recent years. Moreover, none of the four countries mentioned here have reported recent data on the share of female researchers.
+
+==== South Asia ====
+South Asia is the region where women make up the smallest proportion of researchers: 17%. This is 13 percentage points below sub-Saharan Africa. Of those countries in South Asia reporting data for 2009–2013, Nepal has the lowest representation of all (in head counts), at 8% (2010), a substantial drop from 15% in 2002. In 2013, only 14% of researchers (in full-time equivalents) were women in the region's most populous country, India, down slightly from 15% in 2009. The percentage of female researchers is highest in Sri Lanka (39%), followed by Pakistan: 24% in 2009, 31% in 2013. There are no recent data available for Afghanistan or Bangladesh.
+
+Women are most present in the private non-profit sector – they make up 60% of employees in Sri Lanka – followed by the academic sector: 30% of Pakistani and 42% of Sri Lankan female researchers. Women tend to be less present in the government sector and least likely to be employed in the business sector, accounting for 23% of employees in Sri Lanka, 11% in India and just 5% in Nepal. Women have achieved parity in science in both Sri Lanka and Bangladesh but are less likely to undertake research in engineering. They represent 17% of the research pool in Bangladesh and 29% in Sri Lanka. Many Sri Lankan women have followed the global trend of opting for a career in agricultural sciences (54%) and they have also achieved parity in health and welfare. In Bangladesh, just over 30% choose agricultural sciences and health, which goes against the global trend. Although Bangladesh still has progress to make, the share of women in each scientific field has increased steadily over the past decade.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 19/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Southeast Asia ====
+Southeast Asia presents a different picture entirely, with women basically on a par with men in some countries: they make up 52% of researchers in the Philippines and Thailand, for example. Other countries are close to parity, such as Malaysia and Vietnam, whereas Indonesia and Singapore are still around the 30% mark. Cambodia trails its neighbours at 20%. Female researchers in the region are spread fairly equally across the sectors of participation, with the exception of the private sector, where they make up 30% or less of researchers in most countries.
+The proportion of women tertiary graduates reflects these trends, with high percentages of women in science in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines (around 60%) and a low of 10% in Cambodia. Women make up the majority of graduates in health sciences, from 60% in Laos to 81% in Myanmar – Vietnam being an exception at 42%. Women graduates are on a par with men in agriculture but less present in engineering: Vietnam (31%), the Philippines (30%) and Malaysia (39%); here, the exception is Myanmar, at 65%. In the Republic of Korea, women make up about 40% of graduates in science and agriculture and 71% of graduates in health sciences but only 18% of female researchers overall. This represents a loss in the investment made in educating girls and women up through tertiary education, a result of traditional views of women's role in society and in the home. Kim and Moon (2011) remark on the tendency of Korean women to withdraw from the labour force to take care of children and assume family responsibilities, calling it a 'domestic brain drain'.
+Women remain very much a minority in Japanese science (15% in 2013), although the situation has improved slightly (13% in 2008) since the government fixed a target in 2006 of raising the ratio of female researchers to 25%. Calculated on the basis of the current number of doctoral students, the government hopes to obtain a 20% share of women in science, 15% in engineering and 30% in agriculture and health by the end of the current Basic Plan for Science and Technology in 2016. In 2013, Japanese female researchers were most common in the public sector in health and agriculture, where they represented 29% of academics and 20% of government researchers. In the business sector, just 8% of researchers were women (in head counts), compared to 25% in the academic sector. In other public research institutions, women accounted for 16% of researchers. One of the main thrusts of Abenomics, Japan's current growth strategy, is to enhance the socio-economic role of women. Consequently, the selection criteria for most large university grants now take into account the proportion of women among teaching staff and researchers.
+The low ratio of women researchers in Japan and the Republic of Korea, which both have some of the highest researcher densities in the world, brings down Southeast Asia's average to 22.5% for the share of women among researchers in the region.
+
+==== Arab States ====
+At 37%, the share of female researchers in the Arab States compares well with other regions. The countries with the highest proportion of female researchers are Bahrain and Sudan at around 40%. Jordan, Libya, Oman, Palestine and Qatar have percentage shares in the low twenties. The country with the lowest participation of female researchers is Saudi Arabia, even though they make up the majority of tertiary graduates, but the figure of 1.4% covers only the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology. Female researchers in the region are primarily employed in government research institutes, with some countries also seeing a high participation of women in private nonprofit organizations and universities. With the exception of Sudan (40%) and Palestine (35%), fewer than one in four researchers in the business enterprise sector is a woman; for half of the countries reporting data, there are barely any women at all employed in this sector.
+Despite these variable numbers, the percentage of female tertiary-level graduates in science and engineering is very high across the region, which indicates there is a substantial drop between graduation and employment and research. Women make up half or more than half of science graduates in all but Sudan and over 45% in agriculture in eight out of the 15 countries reporting data, namely Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates. In engineering, women make up over 70% of graduates in Oman, with rates of 25–38% in the majority of the other countries, which is high in comparison to other regions.
+The participation of women is somewhat lower in health than in other regions, possibly on account of cultural norms restricting interactions between males and females. Iraq and Oman have the lowest percentages (mid-30s), whereas Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Palestine and Saudi Arabia are at gender parity in this field. The United Arab Emirates and Bahrain have the highest rates of all: 83% and 84%.
+Once Arab women scientists and engineers graduate, they may come up against barriers to finding gainful employment. These include a misalignment between university programmes and labour market demand – a phenomenon which also affects men –, a lack of awareness about what a career in their chosen field entails, family bias against working in mixed-gender environments and a lack of female role models.
+One of the countries with the smallest female labour force is developing technical and vocational education for girls as part of a wider scheme to reduce dependence on foreign labour. By 2017, the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation of Saudi Arabia is to have constructed 50 technical colleges, 50 girls' higher technical institutes and 180 industrial secondary institutes. The plan is to create training placements for about 500 000 students, half of them girls. Boys and girls will be trained in vocational professions that include information technology, medical equipment handling, plumbing, electricity and mechanics.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 20/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Sub-Saharan Africa ====
+Just under one in three (30%) researchers in sub-Saharan Africa is a woman. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is seeing solid gains in the share of women among tertiary graduates in scientific fields. In two of the top four countries for women's representation in science, women graduates are part of very small cohorts, however: they make up 54% of Lesotho's 47 tertiary graduates in science and 60% of those in Namibia's graduating class of 149. South Africa and Zimbabwe, which have larger graduate populations in science, have achieved parity, with 49% and 47% respectively. The next grouping clusters seven countries poised at around 35–40% (Angola, Burundi, Eritrea, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Rwanda). The rest are grouped around 30% or below (Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, Swaziland and Uganda). Burkina Faso ranks lowest, with women making up 18% of its science graduates.
+Female representation in engineering is fairly high in sub-Saharan Africa in comparison with other regions. In Mozambique and South Africa, for instance, women make up more than 34% and 28% of engineering graduates, respectively. Numbers of female graduates in agricultural science have been increasing steadily across the continent, with eight countries reporting the share of women graduates of 40% or more (Lesotho, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe). In health, this rate ranges from 26% and 27% in Benin and Eritrea to 94% in Namibia.
+Of note is that women account for a relatively high proportion of researchers employed in the business enterprise sector in South Africa (35%), Kenya (34%), Botswana and Namibia (33%) and Zambia (31%). Female participation in industrial research is lower in Uganda (21%), Ethiopia (15%) and Mali (12%).
+
+== Lack of agency and representation ==
+
+=== Social pressures to both conform to femininity and which punish femininity ===
+Beginning in the twentieth century to present day, more and more women are becoming acknowledged for their work in science. However, women often find themselves at odds with expectations held towards them in relation to their scientific studies. For example, in 1968 James Watson questioned scientist Rosalind Franklin's place in the industry. He claimed that "the best place for a feminist was in another person's lab". Women were and still are often critiqued of their overall presentation. In Franklin's situation, she was seen as lacking femininity for she failed to wear lipstick or revealing clothing.
+Since on average most of a woman's colleagues in science are men who do not see her as a true social peer, she will also find herself left out of opportunities to discuss possible research opportunities outside of the laboratory. In Londa Schiebinger's book, Has Feminism Changed Science?, she mentions that men would have discussed their research outside of the lab, but this conversation is preceded by culturally "masculine" small-talk topics that, whether intentionally or not, excluded women influenced by their culture's feminine gender role from the conversation. Consequently, this act of excluding many women from the after-hours work discussions produced a more separate work environment between the men and the women in science; as women then would converse with other women in science about their current findings and theories. Ultimately, the women's work was devalued as a male scientist was not involved in the overall research and analysis.
+According to Oxford University Press, the inequality toward women is "endorsed within cultures and entrenched within institutions [that] hold power to reproduce that inequality". There are various gendered barriers in social networks that prevent women from working in male-dominated fields and top management jobs. Social networks are based on the cultural beliefs such as schemas and stereotypes. According to social psychology studies, top management jobs are more likely to have incumbent schemas that favor "an achievement-oriented aggressiveness and emotional toughness that is distinctly male in character". Gender stereotypes of feminine style assume women to be conforming and submissive to male culture creating a sense of unqualified women for top management jobs. In attempting to demonstrate competence and power, women can still be seen as unlikeable and untrustworthy, even if they excel at traditionally "masculine" tasks. In addition, women's achievements are likely to be dismissed or discredited. These "untrustworthy, dislikable women" could have very well been denied achievement from the fear men held of a woman overtaking his management position. Social networks and gender stereotypes produce many injustices that women have to experience in their workplace, as well as, the various obstacles they encounter when trying to advance in male-dominated and top management jobs. Women in professions like science, technology, and other related industries are likely to encounter these gendered barriers in their careers.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 3/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Margaret Cavendish, a seventeenth-century aristocrat, took part in some of the most important scientific debates of that time. She was, however, not inducted into the English Royal Society, although she was once allowed to attend a meeting. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy. In these works she was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature. The observations provided a critique of the experimental science of Bacon and criticized microscopes as imperfect machines.
+Isabella Cortese, an Italian alchemist, is best known for her book I secreti della signora Isabella Cortese or The Secrets of Isabella Cortese. Cortese was able to manipulate nature in order to create several medicinal, alchemy and cosmetic "secrets" or experiments. Isabella's book of secrets belongs to a larger book of secrets that became extremely popular among the elite during the 16th century. Despite the low percentage of literate women during Cortese's era, the majority of alchemical and cosmetic "secrets" in the book of secrets were geared towards women. This included but was not limited to pregnancy, fertility, and childbirth.
+Sophia Brahe, sister of Tycho Brahe, was a Danish horticulturalist. Brahe was trained by her older brother in chemistry and horticulture but taught herself astronomy by studying books in German. Sophia visited her brother in Uranienborg on numerous occasions and assisted on his project the De nova stella. Her observations led to the discovery of the supernova SN 1572 which helped refute the geocentric model of the universe.
+In Germany, the tradition of female participation in craft production enabled some women to become involved in observational science, especially astronomy. Between 1650 and 1710, women were 14% of German astronomers. The most famous female astronomer in Germany was Maria Winkelmann. She was educated by her father and uncle and received training in astronomy from a nearby self-taught astronomer. Her chance to be a practicing astronomer came when she married Gottfried Kirch, Prussia's foremost astronomer. She became his assistant at the astronomical observatory operated in Berlin by the Academy of Science. She made original contributions, including the discovery of a comet. When her husband died, Winkelmann applied for a position as an assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy – for which she had the necessary experience. As a woman – with no university degree – she was denied the post. Members of the Berlin Academy feared that they would establish a bad example by hiring a woman. "Mouths would gape", they said.
+Winkelmann's problems with the Berlin Academy reflect the obstacles women faced in being accepted in scientific work, which was considered to be chiefly for men. No woman was invited to either the Royal Society of London nor the French Academy of Sciences until the twentieth century. Most people in the seventeenth century viewed a life devoted to any kind of scholarship as being at odds with the domestic duties women were expected to perform.
+A founder of modern botany and zoology, the German Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717), spent her life investigating nature. When she was thirteen, Merian began growing caterpillars and studying their metamorphosis into butterflies. She kept a "Study Book" which recorded her investigations into natural philosophy. In her first publication, The New Book of Flowers, she used imagery to catalog the lives of plants and insects. After her husband died, and her brief stint living in Siewert, she and her daughter journeyed to Paramaribo for two years to observe insects, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. She returned to Amsterdam and published The Metamorphosis of the Insects of Suriname, which "revealed to Europeans for the first time the astonishing diversity of the rain forest." She was a botanist and entomologist who was known for her artistic illustrations of plants and insects. Uncommon for that era, she traveled to South America and Suriname, where, assisted by her daughters, she illustrated the plant and animal life of those regions.
+Overall, the Scientific Revolution did little to change people's ideas about the nature of women – more specifically – their capacity to contribute to science just as men do. According to Jackson Spielvogel, 'Male scientists used the new science to spread the view that women were by nature inferior and subordinate to men and suited to play a domestic role as nurturing mothers. The widespread distribution of books ensured the continuation of these ideas'.
+
+=== Eighteenth century ===
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 21/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Underrepresentation of homosexual and bi women, and gender nonconformists in STEM ===
+While there has been a push to encourage more women to participate in science, there is less outreach to lesbian, bi, or gender nonconforming women, and gender nonconforming people more broadly. Due to the lack of data and statistics of LGBTQ members involvement in the STEM field, it is unknown to what exact degree lesbian and bisexual women, gender non-conformers (transgender, nonbinary/agender, or anti-gender gender abolitionists who eschew the system altogether) are potentially even more repressed and underrepresented than their straight peers. But a general lack of out lesbian and bi women in STEM has been noted. Reasons for under-representation of same-sex attracted women and anyone gender nonconforming in STEM fields include lack of role models in K–12, the desire of some transgender girls and women to adopt traditional heteronormative gender roles as gender is a cultural performance and socially-determined subjective internal experience, employment discrimination, and the possibility of sexual harassment in the workplace. Historically, women who have accepted STEM research positions for the government or the military remained in the closet due to lack of federal protections or the fact that homosexual or gender nonconforming expression was criminalized in their country.  A notable example is Sally Ride, a physicist, the first American female astronaut, and a lesbian. Sally Ride chose not to reveal her sexuality until after her death in 2012; she purposefully revealed her sexual orientation in her obituary. She has been known as the first female (and youngest) American to enter space, as well as, starting her own company, Sally Ride Science, that encourages young girls to enter the STEM field. She chose to keep her sexuality to herself because she was familiar with "the male-dominated" NASA's anti-homosexual policies at the time of her space travel. Sally Ride's legacy continues as her company is still working to increase young girls and women's participation in the STEM fields.
+In a nationwide study of LGBTQA employees in STEM fields in the United States, same-sex attracted and gender nonconforming women in engineering, earth sciences, and mathematics reported that they were less likely to be out in the workplace. In general, LGBTQA people in this survey reported that, when more female or feminine gender role-identified people worked in their labs, the more accepting and safe the work environment. In another study of over 30,000 LGBT employees in STEM-related federal agencies in the United States, queer women in these agencies reported feeling isolated in the workplace and having to work harder than their gender conforming male colleagues. This isolation and overachievement remained constant as they earned supervisory positions and worked their way up the ladder. Gender nonconforming people in physics, particularly those identified as trans women in physics programs and labs, felt the most isolated and perceived the most hostility.
+Organizations such as Lesbians Who Tech, Out to Innovate, Out in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (OSTEM), Pride in STEM, and House of STEM provide networking and mentoring opportunities for lesbian girls and women and LGBT people interested in or currently working in STEM fields. These organizations also advocate for the rights of lesbian and bi women and gender nonconformists in STEM in education and the workplace.
+
+== Reasons for disadvantages ==
+Margaret Rossiter, an American historian of science, offered three concepts to explain the reasons behind the data in statistics and how these reasons disadvantaged women in the science industry. The first concept is hierarchical segregation. This is a well-known phenomenon in society, that the higher the level and rank of power and prestige, the smaller the population of females participating. The hierarchical differences point out that there are fewer women participating at higher levels of both academia and industry. Based on data collected in 1982, women earn 54 percent of all bachelor's degrees in the United States, with 50 percent of these in science. The source also indicated that this number increased almost every year. As of 2020, women were earning 57.3 percent of all bachelor's degrees, with 38.6 percent of these in a STEM field.
+The second concept included in Rossiter's explanation of women in science is territorial segregation. The term refers to how female employment is often clustered in specific industries or categories in industries. Women stayed at home or took employment in feminine fields while men left the home to work. Although nearly half of the civilian work force is female, women still comprise the majority of low-paid jobs or jobs that society considered feminine. Statistics show that 60 percent of white professional women are nurses, daycare workers, or schoolteachers.
+Researchers collected the data on many differences between women and men in science. Rossiter found that in 1966, thirty-eight percent of female scientists held master's degrees compared to twenty-six percent of male scientists; but large proportions of female scientists were in environmental and nonprofit organizations. During the late 1960s and 1970s, equal-rights legislation made the number of female scientists rise dramatically. The number of science degrees awarded to woman rose from seven percent in 1970 to twenty-four percent in 1985. In 1975 only 385 women received bachelor's degrees in engineering compared to 11,000 women in 1985. Elizabeth Finkel claims that even if the number of women participating in scientific fields increases, the opportunities are still limited. Another researcher, Harriet Zuckerman, claims that when woman and man have similar abilities for a job, the probability of the woman getting the job is lower. Finkel agrees, saying, "In general, while woman and men seem to be completing doctorate with similar credentials and experience, the opposition and rewards they find are not comparable. Women tend to be treated with less salary and status, many policy makers notice this phenomenon and try to rectify the unfair situation for women participating in scientific fields."
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 22/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Societal disadvantages ===
+Despite women's tendency to perform better than men academically, there are flaws involving stereotyping, lack of information, and family influence that have been found to affect women's involvement in science. Stereotyping has an effect, because people associate characteristics such as nurturing, kind, and warm or characteristics like strong and powerful with a particular gender. These character associations lead people to stereotype that certain jobs are more suitable to a particular gender. Lack of information is something that many institutions have worked hard over the years to improve by making programs such as the IFAC project (Information for a choice: empowering women through learning for scientific and technological career paths) which investigated low women participation in science and technology fields at high school to university level. However, not all efforts were as successful, "Science: it's a girl thing" campaign, which has since been removed, received backlash for further encouraging women that they must partake in "girly" or "feminine" activities. The idea being that if women are fully informed of their career choices and employability, they will be more inclined to pursue STEM field jobs. Women also struggle in the sense of lacking role models of women in science. Family influence is dependent on education level, economic status, and belief system. Education level of a student's parent matters, because oftentimes people who have higher education have a different opinion on education's importance than someone that does not. A parent can also be an influence in the sense that they want their children to follow in their footsteps and pursue a similar occupation, especially in women, it's been found that the mother's line of work tends to correlate with their daughters. Economic status can influence what kind of higher education a student might get. Economic status may influence their education depending on whether they are a work bound student or a college bound student. A work bound student may choose a shorter career path to quickly begin making money or due to lack of time. The belief system of a household can also have a big impact on women depending on their family's religious or cultural viewpoints. There are still some countries that have certain regulations on women's occupation, clothing, and curfew that limit career choices for women. Parental influence is also relevant because people tend to want to fulfill what they could not have as a child. Unfortunately, women are at such a disadvantage because not only must they overcome societal norms but then they also have to outperform men for the same recognition, studies show.
+
+That sexism is alive and well in science is known. ...Even in the life sciences, where men and women start careers in fairly equal numbers, the number of women drops off rapidly at professorial level.On average, fewer than one in five science professors are female. Science punishes career breaks, and women who take time off to have children are immediately disadvantaged. "The flashpoint is when you're about 35 and trying to get tenure. That can be when you're trying to have kids, and it can play a major role in why you see so much attrition at that stage," said Jennifer Rohn, a cell biologist at University College London. A grant may give a woman a year's grace if she has a baby, but it takes longer to get back into research projects than that.
+
+== Contemporary advocacy and developments ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 23/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Efforts to increase participation ===
+A number of organizations have been set up to combat the stereotyping that may encourage girls away from careers in these areas.  In the UK The WISE Campaign (Women into Science, Engineering and Construction) and the UKRC (The UK Resource Centre for Women in SET) are collaborating to ensure industry, academia and education are all aware of the importance of challenging the traditional approaches to careers advice and recruitment that mean some of the best brains in the country are lost to science.  The UKRC and other women's networks provide female role models, resources and support for activities that promote science to girls and women. The Women's Engineering Society, a professional association in the UK, has been supporting women in engineering and science since 1919.  In computing, the British Computer Society group BCSWomen is active in encouraging girls to consider computing careers, and in supporting women in the computing workforce.
+In the United States, the Association for Women in Science is one of the most prominent organization for professional women in science.  In 2011, the Scientista Foundation was created to empower pre-professional college and graduate women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), to stay in the career track.  There are also several organizations focused on increasing mentorship from a younger age. One of the best known groups is Science Club for Girls, which pairs undergraduate mentors with high school and middle school mentees. The model of that pairs undergraduate college mentors with younger students is quite popular. In addition, many young women are creating programs to boost participation in STEM at a younger level, either through conferences or competitions.
+In efforts to make women scientists more visible to the general public, the Grolier Club in New York hosted a "landmark exhibition" titled "Extraordinary Women in Science & Medicine: Four Centuries of Achievement", showcasing the lives and works of 32 women scientists in 2003. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) developed a video series highlighting the stories of female researchers at NIOSH. Each of the women featured in the videos share their journey into science, technology, engineering, or math (STEM), and offers encouragement to aspiring scientists. NIOSH also partners with external organizations in efforts to introduce individuals to scientific disciplines and funds several science-based training programs across the country.
+Creative Resilience: Art by Women in Science is a multi–media exhibition and accompanying publication, produced in 2021 by the Gender Section of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The project aims to give visibility to women, both professionals and university students, working in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). With short biographical information and graphic reproductions of their artworks dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic and accessible online, the project provides a platform for women scientists to express their experiences, insights, and creative responses to the pandemic.
+
+==== In the media ====
+In 2013, journalist Christie Aschwanden noted that a type of media coverage of women scientists that "treats its subject's sex as her most defining detail" was still prevalent. She proposed a checklist, the "Finkbeiner test", to help avoid this approach. It was cited in the coverage of a much-criticized 2013 New York Times obituary of rocket scientist Yvonne Brill that began with the words: "She made a mean beef stroganoff". Women are often poorly portrayed in film. The misrepresentation of women scientists in film, television and books can influence children to engage in gender stereotyping. This was seen in a 2007 meta-analysis conducted by Jocelyn Steinke and colleagues from Western Michigan University where, after engaging elementary school students in a Draw-a-Scientist Test, out of 4,000 participants only 28 girls drew female scientists.
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 24/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Notable controversies and developments ===
+A study conducted at Lund University in 2010 and 2011 analysed the genders of invited contributors to News & Views in Nature and Perspectives in Science.  It found that 3.8% of the Earth and environmental science contributions to News & Views were written by women even while the field was estimated to be 16–20% female in the United States.  Nature responded by suggesting that, worldwide, a significantly lower number of Earth scientists were women, but nevertheless committed to address any disparity.
+In 2012, a journal article published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) reported a gender bias among science faculty. Faculty were asked to review a resume from a hypothetical student and report how likely they would be to hire or mentor that student, as well as what they would offer as starting salary.  Two resumes were distributed randomly to the faculty, only differing in the names at the top of the resume (John or Jennifer).  The male student was rated as significantly more competent, more likely to be hired, and more likely to be mentored.  The median starting salary offered to the male student was greater than $3,000 over the starting salary offered to the female student.  Both male and female faculty exhibited this gender bias.  This study suggests bias may partly explain the persistent deficit in the number of women at the highest levels of scientific fields.  Another study reported that men are favored in some domains, such as biology tenure rates, but that the majority of domains were gender-fair; the authors interpreted this to suggest that the under-representation of women in the professorial ranks was not solely caused by sexist hiring, promotion, and remuneration. In April 2015 Williams and Ceci published a set of five national experiments showing that hypothetical female applicants were favored by faculty for assistant professorships over identically qualified men by a ratio of 2 to 1.
+In 2014, a controversy over the depiction of pinup women on Rosetta project scientist Matt Taylor's shirt during a press conference raised questions of sexism within the European Space Agency. The shirt, which featured cartoon women with firearms, led to an outpouring of criticism and an apology after which Taylor "broke down in tears."
+In 2015, stereotypes about women in science were directed at Fiona Ingleby, research fellow in evolution, behavior, and environment at the University of Sussex, and Megan Head, postdoctoral researcher at the Australian National University, when they submitted a paper analyzing the progression of PhD graduates to postdoctoral positions in the life sciences to the journal PLOS ONE. The authors received an email on 27 March informing them that their paper had been rejected due to its poor quality. The email included comments from an anonymous reviewer, which included the suggestion that male authors be added in order to improve the quality of the science and serve as a means of ensuring that incorrect interpretations of the data are not included. Ingleby posted excerpts from the email on Twitter on 29 April bringing the incident to the attention of the public and media. The editor was dismissed from the journal and the reviewer was removed from the list of potential reviewers.  A spokesman from PLOS apologized to the authors and said they would be given the opportunity to have the paper reviewed again.
+On 9 June 2015, Nobel prize winning biochemist Tim Hunt spoke at the World Conference of Science Journalists in Seoul.  Prior to applauding the work of women scientists, he described emotional tension, saying "you fall in love with them, they fall in love with you, and when you criticise them they cry." Initially, his remarks were widely condemned and he was forced to resign from his position at University College London.  However, multiple conference attendees gave accounts, including a partial transcript and a partial recording, maintaining that his comments were understood to be satirical before being taken out of context by the media.
+In 2016, an article published in JAMA Dermatology reported a significant and dramatic downward trend in the number of NIH-funded woman investigators in the field of dermatology and that the gender gap between male and female NIH-funded dermatology investigators was widening.  The article concluded that this disparity was likely due to a lack of institutional support for women investigators.
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 25/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Problematic public statements ====
+In January 2005, Harvard University President Lawrence Summers sparked controversy at a National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce. Dr. Summers offered his explanation for the shortage of women in senior posts in science and engineering. He made comments suggesting the lower numbers of women in high-level science positions may in part be due to innate differences in abilities or preferences between men and women. Making references to the field and behavioral genetics, he noted the generally greater variability among men (compared to women) on tests of cognitive abilities, leading to proportionally more men than women at both the lower and upper tails of the test score distributions. In his discussion of this, Summers said that "even small differences in the standard deviation [between genders] will translate into very large differences in the available pool substantially out [from the mean]". Summers concluded his discussion by saying:So my best guess, to provoke you, of what's behind all of this is that the largest phenomenon, by far, is the general clash between people's legitimate family desires and employers' current desire for high power and high intensity, that in the special case of science and engineering, there are issues of intrinsic aptitude, and particularly of the variability of aptitude, and that those considerations are reinforced by what are in fact lesser factors involving socialization and continuing discrimination.Despite his protégée, Sheryl Sandberg, defending Summers' actions and Summers offering his own apology repeatedly, the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences passed a motion of "lack of confidence" in the leadership of Summers who had allowed tenure offers to women plummet after taking office in 2001. The year before he became president, Harvard extended 13 of its 36 tenure offers to women and by 2004 those numbers had dropped to 4 of 32 with several departments lacking even a single tenured female professor. This controversy is speculated to have significantly contributed to Summers resignation from his position at Harvard the following year.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+ This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, 85–103, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Science Speaks: A Focus on NIOSH Women in Science Short, personal stories of females working in fields of science.  A video series developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
+Gender tutorials on women in science from Hunter College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY)
+Statistics on women at science conferences from the American Astronomical Society, Committee on the Status of Women in Astronomy
+The Library of Congress Selected Internet Resources Women in Science and Medicine
+Women in Science at the Encyclopædia Britannica
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 4/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Although women excelled in many scientific areas during the eighteenth century, they were discouraged from learning about plant reproduction. Carl Linnaeus' system of plant classification based on sexual characteristics drew attention to botanical licentiousness, and people feared that women would learn immoral lessons from nature's example. Women were often depicted as both innately emotional and incapable of objective reasoning, or as natural mothers reproducing a natural, moral society.
+The eighteenth century was characterized by three divergent views towards women: that women were mentally and socially inferior to men, that they were equal but different, and that women were potentially equal in both mental ability and contribution to society. While individuals such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed women's roles were confined to motherhood and service to their male partners, the Enlightenment was a period in which women experienced expanded roles in the sciences.
+The rise of salon culture in Europe brought philosophers and their conversation to an intimate setting where men and women met to discuss contemporary political, social, and scientific topics. While Jean-Jacques Rousseau attacked women-dominated salons as producing 'effeminate men' that stifled serious discourse, salons were characterized in this era by the mixing of the sexes.
+Lady Mary Wortley Montagu defied convention by introducing smallpox inoculation through variolation to Western medicine after witnessing it during her travels in the Ottoman Empire. In 1718 Wortley Montague had her son inoculated and when in 1721 a smallpox epidemic struck England, she had her daughter inoculated. This was the first such operation done in Britain. She persuaded Caroline of Ansbach to test the treatment on prisoners. Princess Caroline subsequently inoculated her two daughters in 1722. Under a pseudonym, Wortley Montague published an article describing and advocating in favor of inoculation in September 1722.
+After publicly defending forty nine theses in the Palazzo Pubblico, Laura Bassi was awarded a doctorate of philosophy in 1732 at the University of Bologna. Thus, Bassi became the second woman in the world to earn a philosophy doctorate after Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678, 54 years prior. She subsequently defended twelve additional theses at the Archiginnasio, the main building of the University of Bologna which allowed her to petition for a teaching position at the university. In 1732 the university granted Bassi's professorship in philosophy, making her a member of the Academy of the Sciences and the first woman to earn a professorship in physics at a university in Europe But the university held the value that women were to lead a private life and from 1746 to 1777 she gave only one formal dissertation per year ranging in topic from the problem of gravity to electricity. Because she could not lecture publicly at the university regularly, she began conducting private lessons and experiments from home in the year of 1749. However, due to her increase in responsibilities and public appearances on behalf of the university, Bassi was able to petition for regular pay increases, which in turn was used to pay for her advanced equipment. Bassi earned the highest salary paid by the University of Bologna of 1200 lire. In 1776, at the age of 65, she was appointed to the chair in experimental physics by the Bologna Institute of Sciences with her husband as a teaching assistant.
+According to Britannica, Maria Gaetana Agnesi is "considered to be the first woman in the Western world to have achieved a reputation in mathematics." She is credited as the first woman to write a mathematics handbook, the Instituzioni analitiche ad uso della gioventù italiana, (Analytical Institutions for the Use of Italian Youth). Published in 1748 it "was regarded as the best introduction extant to the works of Euler." The goal of this work was, according to Agnesi herself, to give a systematic illustration of the different results and theorems of infinitesimal calculus. In 1750 she became the second woman to be granted a professorship at a European university. Also appointed to the University of Bologna she never taught there.
+The German Dorothea Erxleben was instructed in medicine by her father from an early age and Bassi's university professorship inspired Erxleben to fight for her right to practise medicine. In 1742 she published a tract arguing that women should be allowed to attend university. After being admitted to study by a dispensation of Frederick the Great, Erxleben received her M.D. from the University of Halle in 1754. She went on to analyse the obstacles preventing women from studying, among them housekeeping and children. She became the first female medical doctor in Germany.
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 1741–42 Charlotta Frölich became the first woman to be published by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences with three books in agricultural science. In 1748 Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into that academy. In 1746 Ekeblad had written to the academy about her discoveries of how to make flour and alcohol out of potatoes. Potatoes had been introduced into Sweden in 1658 but had been cultivated only in the greenhouses of the aristocracy. Ekeblad's work turned potatoes into a staple food in Sweden, and increased the supply of wheat, rye and barley available for making bread, since potatoes could be used instead to make alcohol. This greatly improved the country's eating habits and reduced the frequency of famines. Ekeblad also discovered a method of bleaching cotton textile and yarn with soap in 1751, and of replacing the dangerous ingredients in cosmetics of the time by using potato flour in 1752.
+Émilie du Châtelet, a close friend of Voltaire, was the first scientist to appreciate the significance of kinetic energy, as opposed to momentum. She repeated and described the importance of an experiment originally devised by Willem 's Gravesande showing the impact of falling objects is proportional not to their velocity, but to the velocity squared. This understanding is considered to have made a profound contribution to Newtonian mechanics. In 1749 she completed the French translation of Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (the Principia), including her derivation of the notion of conservation of energy from its principles of mechanics. Published ten years after her death, her translation and commentary of the Principia contributed to the completion of the Scientific Revolution in France and to its acceptance in Europe.
+Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze and her husband Antoine Lavoisier rebuilt the field of chemistry, which had its roots in alchemy and at the time was a convoluted science dominated by George Stahl's theory of phlogiston. Paulze accompanied Lavoisier in his lab, making entries into lab notebooks and sketching diagrams of his experimental designs. The training she had received allowed her to accurately and precisely draw experimental apparatuses, which ultimately helped many of Lavoisier's contemporaries to understand his methods and results. Paulze translated various works about phlogiston into French. One of her most important translation was that of Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids, which she both translated and critiqued, adding footnotes as she went along and pointing out errors in the chemistry made throughout the paper. Paulze was instrumental in the 1789 publication of Lavoisier's Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, which presented a unified view of chemistry as a field. This work proved pivotal in the progression of chemistry, as it presented the idea of conservation of mass as well as a list of elements and a new system for chemical nomenclature. She also kept strict records of the procedures followed, lending validity to the findings Lavoisier published.
+
+The astronomer Caroline Herschel was born in Hanover but moved to England where she acted as an assistant to her brother, William Herschel. Throughout her writings, she repeatedly made it clear that she desired to earn an independent wage and be able to support herself. When the crown began paying her for her assistance to her brother in 1787, she became the first woman to do so at a time when even men rarely received wages for scientific enterprises – to receive a salary for services to science. During 1786–97 she discovered eight comets, the first on 1 August 1786. She had unquestioned priority as discoverer of five of the comets and rediscovered Comet Encke in 1795. Five of her comets were published in Philosophical Transactions, a packet of paper bearing the superscription, "This is what I call the Bills and Receipts of my Comets" contains some data connected with the discovery of each of these objects. William was summoned to Windsor Castle to demonstrate Caroline's comet to the royal family. Caroline Herschel is often credited as the first woman to discover a comet; however, Maria Kirch discovered a comet in the early 1700s, but is often overlooked because at the time, the discovery was attributed to her husband, Gottfried Kirch.
+
+=== Nineteenth century ===
+
+==== Early nineteenth century ====
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 6/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Science remained a largely amateur profession during the early part of the nineteenth century. Botany was considered a popular and fashionable activity, and one particularly suitable to women. In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it was one of the most accessible areas of science for women in both England and North America.
+However, as the nineteenth century progressed, botany and other sciences became increasingly professionalized, and women were increasingly excluded.  Women's contributions were limited by their exclusion from most formal scientific education, but began to be recognized through their occasional admittance into learned societies during this period.
+Scottish scientist Mary Fairfax Somerville carried out experiments in magnetism, presenting a paper entitled 'The Magnetic Properties of the Violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum' to the Royal Society in 1826, the second woman to do so. She also wrote several mathematical, astronomical, physical and geographical texts, and was a strong advocate for women's education. In 1835, she and Caroline Herschel were the first two women elected as Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society.
+English mathematician Ada, Lady Lovelace, a pupil of Somerville, corresponded with Charles Babbage about applications for his analytical engine. In her notes (1842–43) appended to her translation of Luigi Menabrea's article on the engine, she foresaw wide applications for it as a general-purpose computer, including composing music. She has been credited as writing the first computer program, though this has been disputed.
+In Germany, institutes for "higher" education of women (Höhere Mädchenschule, in some regions called Lyzeum) were founded at the beginning of the century. The Deaconess Institute at Kaiserswerth was established in 1836 to instruct women in nursing. Elizabeth Fry visited the institute in 1840 and was inspired to found the London Institute of Nursing, and Florence Nightingale studied there in 1851.
+In the US, Maria Mitchell made her name by discovering a comet in 1847, but also contributed calculations to the Nautical Almanac produced by the United States Naval Observatory. She became the first woman member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1848 and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1850.
+Other notable female scientists during this period include:
+
+in Britain, Mary Anning (paleontologist), Anna Atkins (botanist), Janet Taylor (astronomer), , Penelope Steel (cartographer)
+in France, Marie-Sophie Germain (mathematician), Jeanne Villepreux-Power (marine biologist)
+
+==== Late 19th century in western Europe ====
+The latter part of the 19th century saw a rise in educational opportunities for women. Schools aiming to provide education for girls similar to that afforded to boys were founded in the UK, including the North London Collegiate School (1850), Cheltenham Ladies' College (1853) and the Girls' Public Day School Trust schools (from 1872). The first UK women's university college, Girton, was founded in 1869, and others soon followed: Newnham (1871) and Somerville (1879).
+The Crimean War (1854–1856) contributed to establishing nursing as a profession, making Florence Nightingale a household name. A public subscription allowed Nightingale to establish a school of nursing in London in 1860, and schools following her principles were established throughout the UK. Nightingale was also a pioneer in public health as well as a statistician.
+James Barry became the first British woman to gain a medical qualification in 1812, passing as a man. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson was the first openly female Briton to qualify medically, in 1865. With Sophia Jex-Blake, American Elizabeth Blackwell and others, Garret Anderson founded the first UK medical school to train women, the London School of Medicine for Women, in 1874.
+
+Annie Scott Dill Maunder was a pioneer in astronomical photography, especially of sunspots. A mathematics graduate of Girton College, Cambridge, she was first hired (in 1890) to be an assistant to Edward Walter Maunder, discoverer of the Maunder Minimum, the head of the solar department at Greenwich Observatory. They worked together to observe sunspots and to refine the techniques of solar photography. They married in 1895. Annie's mathematical skills made it possible to analyse the years of sunspot data that Maunder had been collecting at Greenwich. She also designed a small, portable wide-angle camera with a 1.5-inch-diameter (38 mm) lens. In 1898, the Maunders traveled to India, where Annie took the first photographs of the Sun's corona during a solar eclipse. By analysing the Cambridge records for both sunspots and geomagnetic storm, they were able to show that specific regions of the Sun's surface were the source of geomagnetic storms and that the Sun did not radiate its energy uniformly into space, as William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin had declared.
+In Prussia women could go to university from 1894 and were allowed to receive a PhD. In 1908 all remaining restrictions for women were terminated.
+Alphonse Rebière published a book in 1897, in France, entitled Les Femmes dans la science (Women in Science) which listed the contributions and publications of women in science.
+Other notable female scientists during this period include:
+
+in Britain, Hertha Marks Ayrton (mathematician, engineer), Margaret Huggins (astronomer), Beatrix Potter (mycologist)
+in France, Dorothea Klumpke-Roberts (American-born astronomer)
+in Germany, Amalie Dietrich (naturalist), Agnes Pockels (physicist)
+in Russia and Sweden, Sofia Kovalevskaya (mathematician)
+
+==== Late nineteenth-century Russians ====
+In the second half of the 19th century, a large proportion of the most successful women in the STEM fields were Russians.  Although many women received advanced training in medicine in the 1870s, in other fields women were barred and had to go to western Europe – mainly Switzerland – in order to pursue scientific studies.  In her book about these "women of the [eighteen] sixties" (шестидесятницы), as they were called, Ann Hibner Koblitz writes:
+
+To a large extent, women's higher education in continental Europe was pioneered by this first generation of Russian women.  They were the first students in Zürich, Heidelberg, Leipzig, and elsewhere.  Theirs were the first doctorates in medicine, chemistry, mathematics, and biology.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md
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+---
+title: "Women in science"
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Among the successful scientists were Nadezhda Suslova (1843–1918), the first woman in the world to obtain a medical doctorate fully equivalent to men's degrees; Maria Bokova-Sechenova (1839–1929), a pioneer of women's medical education who received two doctoral degrees, one in medicine in Zürich and one in physiology in Vienna; Julia Lermontova (1846–1919), the first woman in the world to receive a doctoral degree in chemistry; the marine biologist Sofia Pereiaslavtseva (1849–1903), director of the Sevastopol Biological Station and winner of the Kessler Prize of the Russian Society of Natural Scientists; and the mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaia (1850–1891), the first woman in 19th century Europe to receive a doctorate in mathematics and the first to become a university professor in any field.
+
+==== Late nineteenth century in the United States ====
+
+In the later nineteenth century the rise of the women's college provided jobs for women scientists, and opportunities for education.
+Women's colleges produced a disproportionate number of women who went on for PhDs in science.
+Many coeducational colleges and universities also opened or started to admit women during this period; such institutions included just over 3000 women in 1875, by 1900 numbered almost 20,000.
+An example is Elizabeth Blackwell, who became the first certified female doctor in the US when she graduated from Geneva Medical College in 1849. With her sister, Emily Blackwell, and Marie Zakrzewska, Blackwell founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children in 1857 and the first women's medical college in 1868, providing both training and clinical experience for women doctors. She also published several books on medical education for women.
+In 1876, Elizabeth Bragg became the first woman to graduate with a civil engineering degree in the United States, from the University of California, Berkeley.
+
+=== Early twentieth century ===
+
+==== Europe before World War II ====
+Marie Skłodowska-Curie, the first woman to win a Nobel prize in 1903 (physics), went on to become a double Nobel prize winner in 1911, both for her work on radiation. She was the first person to win two Nobel prizes, a feat accomplished by only four others since then. She also was the first woman to teach at Sorbonne University in Paris.
+Alice Perry is understood to be the first woman to graduate with a degree in civil engineering in the then United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in 1906 at Queen's College, Galway, Ireland.
+Lise Meitner played a major role in the discovery of nuclear fission. As head of the physics section at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin she collaborated closely with the head of chemistry Otto Hahn on atomic physics until forced to flee Berlin in 1938. In 1939, in collaboration with her nephew Otto Frisch, Meitner derived the theoretical explanation for an experiment performed by Hahn and Fritz Strassman in Berlin, thereby demonstrating the occurrence of nuclear fission. The possibility that Fermi's bombardment of uranium with neutrons in 1934 had instead produced fission by breaking up the nucleus into lighter elements, had actually first been raised in print in 1934, by chemist Ida Noddack (co-discover of the element rhenium), but this suggestion had been ignored at the time, as no group made a concerted effort to find any of these light radioactive fission products.
+Maria Montessori was the first woman in Southern Europe to qualify as a physician. She developed an interest in the diseases of children and believed in the necessity of educating those recognized to be ineducable. In the case of the latter she argued for the development of training for teachers along Froebelian lines and developed the principle that was also to inform her general educational program, which is the first the education of the senses, then the education of the intellect. Montessori introduced a teaching program that allowed defective children to read and write. She sought to teach skills not by having children repeatedly try it, but by developing exercises that prepare them.
+Emmy Noether revolutionized abstract algebra, filled in gaps in relativity, and was responsible for a critical theorem about conserved quantities in physics. One notes that the Erlangen program attempted to identify invariants under a group of transformations. On 16 July 1918, before a scientific organization in Göttingen, Felix Klein read a paper written by Emmy Noether, because she was not allowed to present the paper herself. In particular, in what is referred to in physics as Noether's theorem, this paper identified the conditions under which the Poincaré group of transformations (now called a gauge group) for general relativity defines conservation laws. Noether's papers made the requirements for the conservation laws precise. Among mathematicians, Noether is best known for her fundamental contributions to abstract algebra, where the adjective noetherian is nowadays commonly used on many sorts of objects.
+Mary Cartwright was a British mathematician who was the first to analyze a dynamical system with chaos. Inge Lehmann, a Danish seismologist, first suggested in 1936 that inside the Earth's molten core there may be a solid inner core. Women such as Margaret Fountaine continued to contribute detailed observations and illustrations in botany, entomology, and related observational fields. Joan Beauchamp Procter, an outstanding herpetologist, was the first woman curator of Reptiles for the Zoological Society of London at London Zoo.
+Florence Sabin was an American medical scientist. Sabin was the first woman faculty member at Johns Hopkins in 1902, and the first woman full-time professor there in 1917. Her scientific and research experience is notable. Sabin published over 100 scientific papers and multiple books.
+
+==== United States before and during World War II ====
+
+Women moved into science in significant numbers by 1900, helped by the women's colleges and by opportunities at some of the new universities. Margaret Rossiter's books Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action 1940–1972 provide an overview of this period, stressing the opportunities women found in separate women's work in science.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md
@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 8/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 1892, Ellen Swallow Richards called for the "christening of a new science" – "oekology" (ecology) in a Boston lecture. This new science included the study of "consumer nutrition" and environmental education. This interdisciplinary branch of science was later specialized into what is currently known as ecology, while the consumer nutrition focus split off and was eventually relabeled as home economics, which provided another avenue for women to study science. Richards helped to form the American Home Economics Association, which published a journal, the Journal of Home Economics, and hosted conferences. Home economics departments were formed at many colleges, especially at land grant institutions. In her work at MIT, Ellen Richards also introduced the first biology course in its history as well as the focus area of sanitary engineering.
+Women also found opportunities in botany and embryology. In psychology, women earned doctorates but were encouraged to specialize in educational and child psychology and to take jobs in clinical settings, such as hospitals and social welfare agencies.
+In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon first noticed that it was a star's temperature that was the principal distinguishing feature among different spectra. This led to re-ordering of the ABC types by temperature instead of hydrogen absorption-line strength. Due to Cannon's work, most of the then-existing classes of stars were thrown out as redundant. Afterward, astronomy was left with the seven primary classes recognized today, in order: O, B, A, F, G, K, M; that has since been extended.
+
+Henrietta Swan Leavitt first published her study of variable stars in 1908. This discovery became known as the "period-luminosity relationship" of Cepheid variables. Our picture of the universe was changed forever, largely because of Leavitt's discovery.
+The accomplishments of Edwin Hubble, renowned American astronomer, were made possible by Leavitt's groundbreaking research and Leavitt's Law. "If Henrietta Leavitt had provided the key to determine the size of the cosmos, then it was Edwin Powell Hubble who inserted it in the lock and provided the observations that allowed it to be turned", wrote David H. and Matthew D.H. Clark in their book Measuring the Cosmos.
+Hubble often said that Leavitt deserved the Nobel for her work. Gösta Mittag-Leffler of the Swedish Academy of Sciences had begun paperwork on her nomination in 1924, only to learn that she had died of cancer three years earlier (the Nobel prize cannot be awarded posthumously).
+In 1925, Harvard graduate student Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin demonstrated for the first time from existing evidence on the spectra of stars that stars were made up almost exclusively of hydrogen and helium, one of the most fundamental theories in stellar astrophysics.
+Canadian-born Maud Menten worked in the US and Germany.  Her most famous work was on enzyme kinetics together with Leonor Michaelis, based on earlier findings of Victor Henri.  This resulted in the Michaelis–Menten equations. Menten also invented the azo-dye coupling reaction for alkaline phosphatase, which is still used in histochemistry. She characterised bacterial toxins from B. paratyphosus, Streptococcus scarlatina and Salmonella ssp., and conducted the first electrophoretic separation of proteins in 1944. She worked on the properties of hemoglobin, regulation of blood sugar level, and kidney function.
+World War II brought some new opportunities. The Office of Scientific Research and Development, under Vannevar Bush, began in 1941 to keep a registry of men and women trained in the sciences. Because there was a shortage of workers, some women were able to work in jobs they might not otherwise have accessed. Many women worked on the Manhattan Project or on scientific projects for the United States military services. Women who worked on the Manhattan Project included Leona Woods Marshall, Katharine Way, and Chien-Shiung Wu. It was actually Wu who confirmed Enrico Fermi's hypothesis through her earlier draft that Xe-135 impeded the B reactor from working. The adjustments made would quickly let the project resume its course.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 9/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Wu would later also confirm Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox in the first experimental corroboration, and prove the first violation of Parity and Charge Conjugate Symmetry, thereby laying the conceptual basis for the future Standard Model of Particle Physics, and the rapid development of the new field.
+Women in other disciplines looked for ways to apply their expertise to the war effort. Three nutritionists, Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, developed the Recommended Dietary Allowance in 1941 to help military and civilian groups make plans for group feeding situations. The RDAs proved necessary, especially, once foods began to be rationed. Rachel Carson worked for the United States Bureau of Fisheries, writing brochures to encourage Americans to consume a wider variety of fish and seafood. She also contributed to research to assist the Navy in developing techniques and equipment for submarine detection.
+Women in psychology formed the National Council of Women Psychologists, which organized projects related to the war effort. The NCWP elected Florence Laura Goodenough president. In the social sciences, several women contributed to the Japanese Evacuation and Resettlement Study, based at the University of California. This study was led by sociologist Dorothy Swaine Thomas, who directed the project and synthesized information from her informants, mostly graduate students in anthropology. These included Tamie Tsuchiyama, the only Japanese-American woman to contribute to the study, and Rosalie Hankey Wax.
+In the United States Navy, female scientists conducted a wide range of research. Mary Sears, a planktonologist, researched military oceanographic techniques as head of the Hydgrographic Office's Oceanographic Unit. Florence van Straten, a chemist, worked as an aerological engineer. She studied the effects of weather on military combat. Grace Hopper, a mathematician, became one of the first computer programmers for the Mark I computer. Mina Spiegel Rees, also a mathematician, was the chief technical aide for the Applied Mathematics Panel of the National Defense Research Committee.
+Gerty Cori was a biochemist who discovered the mechanism by which glycogen, a derivative of glucose, is transformed in the muscles to form lactic acid, and is later reformed as a way to store energy. For this discovery she and her colleagues were awarded the Nobel prize in 1947, making her the third woman and the first American woman to win a Nobel Prize in science. She was the first woman ever to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Cori is among several scientists whose works are commemorated by a U.S. postage stamp.
+
+=== Late 20th century to early 21st century ===
+
+Nina Byers notes that before 1976, fundamental contributions of women to physics were rarely acknowledged. Women worked unpaid or in positions lacking the status they deserved.
+In the early 1980s, Margaret Rossiter presented two concepts for understanding the statistics behind women in science as well as the disadvantages women continued to suffer. She coined the terms "hierarchical segregation" and "territorial segregation." The former term describes the phenomenon in which the further one goes up the chain of command in the field, the smaller the presence of women. The latter describes the phenomenon in which women "cluster in scientific disciplines."
+A recent book titled Athena Unbound provides a life-course analysis (based on interviews and surveys) of women in science from early childhood interest, through university, graduate school and the academic workplace. The thesis of this book is that "Women face a special series of gender-related barriers to entry and success in scientific careers that persist, despite recent advances".
+The L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science were set up in 1998, with prizes alternating each year between the materials science and life sciences. One award is given for each geographical region of Africa and the Middle East, Asia-Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, and North America. By 2017, these awards had recognized almost 100 laureates from 30 countries.  Two of the laureates have gone on to win the Nobel Prize, Ada Yonath (2008) and Elizabeth Blackburn (2009). Fifteen promising young researchers also receive an International Rising Talent fellowship each year within this programme.
+By the early twenty-first century, the number of women receiving major scientific awards had increased, although women remained underrepresented among Nobel Prize laureates in physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine. Several women scientists received Nobel Prizes in the 2020s, including Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna, who were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of CRISPR gene-editing technology.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Women in science"
+chunk: 10/25
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Europe after World War II ====
+South-African born physicist and radiobiologist Tikvah Alper(1909–95), working in the UK, developed many fundamental insights into biological mechanisms, including the (negative) discovery that the infective agent in scrapie could not be a virus or other eukaryotic structure.
+French virologist Françoise Barré-Sinoussi performed some of the fundamental work in the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the cause of AIDS, for which she shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
+In July 1967, Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered evidence for the first known radio pulsar, which resulted in the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics for her supervisor. She was president of the Institute of Physics from October 2008 until October 2010.
+Astrophysicist Margaret Burbidge was a member of the B2FH group responsible for originating the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, which explains how elements are formed in stars. She has held a number of prestigious posts, including the directorship of the Royal Greenwich Observatory.
+Mary Cartwright was a mathematician and student of G. H. Hardy. Her work on nonlinear differential equations was influential in the field of dynamical systems.
+Rosalind Franklin was a crystallographer, whose work helped to elucidate the fine structures of coal, graphite, DNA and viruses. In 1953, the work she did on DNA allowed Watson and Crick to conceive their model of the structure of DNA. Her photograph of DNA gave Watson and Crick a basis for their DNA research, and they were awarded the Nobel Prize without giving due credit to Franklin, who had died of cancer in 1958.
+Jane Goodall is a British primatologist considered to be the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees and is best known for her over 55-year study of social and family interactions of wild chimpanzees. She is the founder of the Jane Goodall Institute and the Roots & Shoots programme.
+Dorothy Hodgkin analyzed the molecular structure of complex chemicals by studying diffraction patterns caused by passing X-rays through crystals. She won the 1964 Nobel prize for chemistry for discovering the structure of vitamin B12, becoming the third woman to win the prize for chemistry.
+Irène Joliot-Curie, daughter of Marie Curie, won the 1935 Nobel Prize for chemistry with her husband Frédéric Joliot for their work in radioactive isotopes leading to nuclear fission. This made the Curies the family with the most Nobel laureates to date.
+Palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey discovered the first skull of a fossil ape on Rusinga Island and also a noted robust Australopithecine.
+Italian neurologist Rita Levi-Montalcini received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of Nerve growth factor (NGF). Her work allowed for a further potential understanding of different diseases such as tumors, delayed healing, malformations, and others. This research led to her winning the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine alongside Stanley Cohen in 1986. While making advancements in medicine and science, Rita Levi-Montalcini was also active politically throughout her life. She was appointed a Senator for Life in the Italian Senate in 2001 and is the oldest Nobel laureate ever to have lived.
+Zoologist Anne McLaren conducted studied in genetics which led to advances in in vitro fertilization. She became the first female officer of the Royal Society in 331 years.
+Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995 for research on the genetic control of embryonic development. She also started the Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Foundation (Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Stiftung), to aid promising young female German scientists with children.
+Bertha Swirles was a theoretical physicist who made a number of contributions to early quantum theory. She co-authored the well-known textbook Methods of Mathematical Physics with her husband Sir Harold Jeffreys.
+
+==== United States after World War II ====
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+---
+title: "World line"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The world line (or worldline) of an object is the path that an object traces in 4-dimensional spacetime. It is an important concept of modern physics, and particularly theoretical physics.
+The concept of a "world line" is distinguished from concepts such as an "orbit" or a "trajectory" (e.g., a planet's orbit in space or the trajectory of a car on a road) by inclusion of the dimension time, and typically encompasses a large area of spacetime wherein paths which are straight perceptually are rendered as curves in spacetime to show their (relatively) more absolute position states—to reveal the nature of special relativity or gravitational interactions.
+The idea of world lines was originated by physicists and was pioneered by Hermann Minkowski. The term is now used most often in the context of relativity theories (i.e., special relativity and general relativity).
+
+== Usage in physics ==
+A world line of an object (generally approximated as a point in space, e.g., a particle or observer) is the sequence of spacetime events corresponding to the history of the object. A world line is a special type of curve in spacetime. Below an equivalent definition will be explained: A world line is either a time-like or a null curve in spacetime. Each point of a world line is an event that can be labeled with the time and the spatial position of the object at that time.
+For example, the orbit of the Earth in space is approximately a circle, a three-dimensional (closed) curve in space: the Earth returns every year to the same point in space relative to the sun. However, it arrives there at a different (later) time. The world line of the Earth is therefore helical in spacetime (a curve in a four-dimensional space) and does not return to the same point.
+Spacetime is the collection of events, together with a continuous and smooth coordinate system identifying the events. Each event can be labeled by four numbers: a time coordinate and three space coordinates; thus spacetime is a four-dimensional space. The mathematical term for spacetime is a four-dimensional manifold (a topological space that locally resembles Euclidean space near each point). The concept may be applied as well to a higher-dimensional space. For easy visualizations of four dimensions, two space coordinates are often suppressed. An event is then represented by a point in a Minkowski diagram, which is a plane usually plotted with the time coordinate, say 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  
+, vertically, and the space coordinate, say 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+, horizontally. As expressed by F.R. Harvey
+
+A curve M in [spacetime] is called a worldline of a particle if its tangent is future timelike at each point. The arclength parameter is called proper time and usually denoted τ. The length of M is called the proper time of the particle. If the worldline M is a line segment, then the particle is said to be in free fall.
+A world line traces out the path of a single point in spacetime. A world sheet is the analogous two-dimensional surface traced out by a one-dimensional line (like a string) traveling through spacetime. The world sheet of an open string (with loose ends) is a strip; that of a closed string (a loop) resembles a tube.
+Once the object is not approximated as a mere point but has extended volume, it traces not a world line but rather a world tube.
+
+== World lines as a method of describing events ==
+
+A one-dimensional line or curve can be represented by the coordinates as a function of one parameter. Each value of the parameter corresponds to a point in spacetime and varying the parameter traces out a line. So in mathematical terms a curve is defined by four coordinate functions 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            a
+          
+        
+        (
+        τ
+        )
+        ,
+        
+        a
+        =
+        0
+        ,
+        1
+        ,
+        2
+        ,
+        3
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{a}(\tau ),\;a=0,1,2,3}
+  
+ (where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{0}}
+  
+ usually denotes the time coordinate) depending on one parameter 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau }
+  
+. A coordinate grid in spacetime is the set of curves one obtains if three out of four coordinate functions are set to a constant.
+Sometimes, the term world line is used informally for any curve in spacetime. This terminology causes confusions. More properly, a world line is a curve in spacetime that traces out the (time) history of a particle, observer or small object. One usually uses the proper time of an object or an observer as the curve parameter 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau }
+  
+ along the world line.
+
+=== Trivial examples of spacetime curves ===
+
+A curve that consists of a horizontal line segment (a line at constant coordinate time), may represent a rod in spacetime and would not be a world line in the proper sense. The parameter simply traces the length of the rod.
+A line at constant space coordinate (a vertical line using the convention adopted above) may represent a particle at rest (or a stationary observer). A tilted line represents a particle with a constant coordinate speed (constant change in space coordinate with increasing time coordinate). The more the line is tilted from the vertical, the larger the speed.
+Two world lines that start out separately and then intersect, signify a collision or "encounter". Two world lines starting at the same event in spacetime, each following its own path afterwards, may represent e.g. the decay of a particle into two others or the emission of one particle by another.
+World lines of a particle and an observer may be interconnected with the world line of a photon (the path of light) and form a diagram depicting the emission of a photon by a particle that is subsequently observed by the observer (or absorbed by another particle).
+
+=== Tangent vector to a world line: four-velocity ===
+The four coordinate functions 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            a
+          
+        
+        (
+        τ
+        )
+        ,
+        
+        a
+        =
+        0
+        ,
+        1
+        ,
+        2
+        ,
+        3
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{a}(\tau ),\;a=0,1,2,3}
+  
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-1.md
@ -0,0 +1,293 @@
+---
+title: "World line"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+defining a world line, are real number functions of a real variable 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau }
+  
+ and can simply be differentiated by the usual calculus. Without the existence of a metric (this is important to realize) one can imagine the difference between a point 
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p}
+  
+ on the curve at the parameter value 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          τ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau _{0}}
+  
+ and a point on the curve a little (parameter 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          τ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        +
+        Δ
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau _{0}+\Delta \tau }
+  
+) farther away. In the limit 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        τ
+        →
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta \tau \to 0}
+  
+, this difference divided by 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        τ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta \tau }
+  
+ defines a vector, the tangent vector of the world line at the point 
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p}
+  
+. It is a four-dimensional vector, defined in the point 
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p}
+  
+. It is associated with the normal 3-dimensional velocity of the object (but it is not the same) and therefore termed four-velocity 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              v
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}}
+  
+, or in components:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              v
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              v
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              v
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              v
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ,
+            
+              v
+              
+                3
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                  
+                    x
+                    
+                      0
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  d
+                  τ
+                
+              
+            
+            
+            ,
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                  
+                    x
+                    
+                      1
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  d
+                  τ
+                
+              
+            
+            
+            ,
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                  
+                    x
+                    
+                      2
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  d
+                  τ
+                
+              
+            
+            
+            ,
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                  
+                    x
+                    
+                      3
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  d
+                  τ
+                
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}=\left(v^{0},v^{1},v^{2},v^{3}\right)=\left({\frac {dx^{0}}{d\tau }}\;,{\frac {dx^{1}}{d\tau }}\;,{\frac {dx^{2}}{d\tau }}\;,{\frac {dx^{3}}{d\tau }}\right)}
+  
+
+such that the derivatives are taken at the point 
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p}
+  
+, so at 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+        =
+        
+          τ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau =\tau _{0}}
+  
+.
+All curves through point p have a tangent vector, not only world lines. The sum of two vectors is again a tangent vector to some other curve and the same holds for multiplying by a scalar. Therefore, all tangent vectors for a point p span a linear space, termed the tangent space at point p. For example, taking a 2-dimensional space, like the (curved) surface of the Earth, its tangent space at a specific point would be the flat approximation of the curved space.
+
+== World lines in special relativity ==
+So far a world line (and the concept of tangent vectors) has been described without a means of quantifying the interval between events. The basic mathematics is as follows: The theory of special relativity puts some constraints on possible world lines. In special relativity the description of spacetime is limited to special coordinate systems that do not accelerate (and so do not rotate either), termed inertial coordinate systems. In such coordinate systems, the speed of light is a constant. The structure of spacetime is determined by a bilinear form η, which gives a real number for each pair of events. The bilinear form is sometimes termed a spacetime metric, but since distinct events sometimes result in a zero value, unlike metrics in metric spaces of mathematics, the bilinear form is not a mathematical metric on spacetime.
+World lines of freely falling particles/objects are called geodesics. In special relativity these are straight lines in Minkowski space.
+Often the time units are chosen such that the speed of light is represented by lines at a fixed angle, usually at 45 degrees, forming a cone with the vertical (time) axis. In general, useful curves in spacetime can be of three types (the other types would be partly one, partly another type):
+
+light-like curves, having at each point the speed of light. They form a cone in spacetime, dividing it into two parts. The cone is three-dimensional in spacetime, appears as a line in drawings with two dimensions suppressed, and as a cone in drawings with one spatial dimension suppressed.
+
+time-like curves, with a speed less than the speed of light. These curves must fall within a cone defined by light-like curves. In our definition above: world lines are time-like curves in spacetime.
+space-like curves falling outside the light cone. Such curves may describe, for example, the length of a physical object. The circumference of a cylinder and the length of a rod are space-like curves.
+At a given event on a world line, spacetime (Minkowski space) is divided into three parts.
+
+The future of the given event is formed by all events that can be reached through time-like curves lying within the future light cone.
+The past of the given event is formed by all events that can influence the event (that is, that can be connected by world lines within the past light cone to the given event).
+The lightcone at the given event is formed by all events that can be connected through light rays with the event. When we observe the sky at night, we basically see only the past light cone within the entire spacetime.
+Elsewhere is the region between the two light cones. Points in an observer's elsewhere are inaccessible to them; only points in the past can send signals to the observer. In ordinary laboratory experience, using common units and methods of measurement, it may seem that we look at the present, but in fact there is always a delay time for light to propagate. For example, we see the Sun as it was about 8 minutes ago, not as it is "right now". Unlike the present in Galilean/Newtonian theory, the elsewhere is thick; it is not a 3-dimensional volume but is instead a 4-dimensional spacetime region.
+Included in "elsewhere" is the simultaneous hyperplane, which is defined for a given observer by a space that is hyperbolic-orthogonal to their world line. It is really three-dimensional, though it would be a 2-plane in the diagram because we had to throw away one dimension to make an intelligible picture. Although the light cones are the same for all observers at a given spacetime event, different observers, with differing velocities but coincident at the event (point) in the spacetime, have world lines that cross each other at an angle determined by their relative velocities, and thus they have different simultaneous hyperplanes.
+The present often means the single spacetime event being considered.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-2.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-2.md
@ -0,0 +1,156 @@
+---
+title: "World line"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Simultaneous hyperplane ===
+Since a world line 
+  
+    
+      
+        w
+        (
+        τ
+        )
+        ∈
+        
+          R
+          
+            4
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle w(\tau )\in R^{4}}
+  
+ determines a velocity 4-vector 
+  
+    
+      
+        v
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              w
+            
+            
+              d
+              τ
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v={\frac {dw}{d\tau }}}
+  
+ that is time-like, the Minkowski form 
+  
+    
+      
+        η
+        (
+        v
+        ,
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \eta (v,x)}
+  
+ determines a linear function 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+          
+            4
+          
+        
+        →
+        R
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R^{4}\rightarrow R}
+  
+ by 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ↦
+        η
+        (
+        v
+        ,
+        x
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\mapsto \eta (v,x).}
+  
+ Let N be the null space of this linear functional. Then N is called the simultaneous hyperplane with respect to v. The relativity of simultaneity is a statement that N depends on v. Indeed, N is the orthogonal complement of v with respect to η. 
+When two world lines u and w are related by 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              u
+            
+            
+              d
+              τ
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              w
+            
+            
+              d
+              τ
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {du}{d\tau }}={\frac {dw}{d\tau }},}
+  
+ then they share the same simultaneous hyperplane. This hyperplane exists mathematically, but physical relations in relativity involve the movement of information by light. For instance, the traditional electro-static force described by Coulomb's law may be pictured in a simultaneous hyperplane, but relativistic relations of charge and force involve retarded potentials.
+
+== World lines in general relativity ==
+The use of world lines in general relativity is basically the same as in special relativity, with the difference that spacetime can be curved. A metric exists and its dynamics are determined by the Einstein field equations and are dependent on the mass-energy distribution in spacetime. Again the metric defines lightlike (null), spacelike, and timelike curves. Also, in general relativity, world lines include timelike curves and null curves in spacetime, where timelike curves fall within the lightcone. However, a lightcone is not necessarily inclined at 45 degrees to the time axis. However, this is an artifact of the chosen coordinate system, and reflects the coordinate freedom (diffeomorphism invariance) of general relativity. Any timelike curve admits a comoving observer whose "time axis" corresponds to that curve, and, since no observer is privileged, we can always find a local coordinate system in which lightcones are inclined at 45 degrees to the time axis. See also for example Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates.
+World lines of free-falling particles or objects (such as planets around the Sun or an astronaut in space) are called geodesics.
+
+== World lines in quantum field theory ==
+Quantum field theory, the framework in which all of modern particle physics is described, is usually described as a theory of quantized fields. However, although not widely appreciated, it has been known since Feynman that many quantum field theories may equivalently be described in terms of world lines. This preceded much of his work on the formulation which later became more standard. The world line formulation of quantum field theory has proved particularly fruitful for various calculations in gauge theories and in describing nonlinear effects of electromagnetic fields.
+
+== World lines in literature ==
+In 1884 C. H. Hinton wrote an essay "What is the fourth dimension ?", which he published as a scientific romance. He wrote
+
+Why, then, should not the four-dimensional beings be ourselves, and our successive states the passing of them through the three-dimensional space to which our consciousness is confined.
+A popular description of human world lines was given by J. C. Fields at the University of Toronto in the early days of relativity. As described by Toronto lawyer Norman Robertson:
+
+I remember [Fields] lecturing at one of the Saturday evening lectures at the Royal Canadian Institute. It was advertised to be a "Mathematical Fantasy"—and it was! The substance of the exercise was as follows: He postulated that, commencing with his birth, every human being had some kind of spiritual aura with a long filament or thread attached, that traveled behind him throughout his life. He then proceeded in imagination to describe the complicated entanglement every individual became involved in his relationship to other individuals, comparing the simple entanglements of youth to those complicated knots that develop in later life.
+Kurt Vonnegut, in his novel Slaughterhouse-Five, describes the worldlines of stars and people: 
+
+"Billy Pilgrim says that the Universe does not look like a lot of bright little dots to the creatures from Tralfamadore. The creatures can see where each star has been and where it is going, so that the heavens are filled with rarefied, luminous spaghetti. And Tralfamadorians don't see human beings as two-legged creatures, either. They see them as great millepedes – "with babies' legs at one end and old people's legs at the other," says Billy Pilgrim."
+Almost all science-fiction stories which use this concept actively, such as to enable time travel, oversimplify this concept to a one-dimensional timeline to fit a linear structure, which does not fit models of reality. Such time machines are often portrayed as being instantaneous, with its contents departing one time and arriving in another—but at the same literal geographic point in space. This is often carried out without note of a reference frame, or with the implicit assumption that the reference frame is local; as such, this would require either accurate teleportation, as a rotating planet, being under acceleration, is not an inertial frame, or for the time machine to remain in the same place, its contents 'frozen'.
+Author Oliver Franklin published a science fiction work in 2008 entitled World Lines in which he related a simplified explanation of the hypothesis for laymen.
+In the short story Life-Line, author Robert A. Heinlein describes the world line of a person:
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-3.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-3.md
@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+---
+title: "World line"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+He stepped up to one of the reporters. "Suppose we take you as an example. Your name is Rogers, is it not? Very well, Rogers, you are a space-time event having duration four ways. You are not quite six feet tall, you are about twenty inches wide and perhaps ten inches thick. In time, there stretches behind you more of this space-time event, reaching to perhaps nineteen-sixteen, of which we see a cross-section here at right angles to the time axis, and as thick as the present. At the far end is a baby, smelling of sour milk and drooling its breakfast on its bib. At the other end lies, perhaps, an old man someplace in the nineteen-eighties.
+"Imagine this space-time event that we call Rogers as a long pink worm, continuous through the years, one end in his mother's womb, and the other at the grave..."
+Heinlein's Methuselah's Children uses the term, as does James Blish's The Quincunx of Time (expanded from "Beep").
+A visual novel named Steins;Gate, produced by 5pb., tells a story based on the shifting of world lines. Steins;Gate is a part of the "Science Adventure" series. World lines and other physical concepts like the Dirac Sea are also used throughout the series.
+Neal Stephenson's novel Anathem involves a long discussion of worldlines over dinner in the midst of a philosophical debate between Platonic realism and nominalism.
+Absolute Choice depicts different world lines as a sub-plot and setting device.
+A space armada trying to complete a (nearly) closed time-like path as a strategic maneuver forms the backdrop and a main plot device of "Singularity Sky" by Charles Stross.
+
+== See also ==
+Specific types of world lines
+Geodesics
+Closed timelike curves
+Causal structure, curves that represent a variety of different types of world line
+Isotropic line
+Feynman diagram
+Time geography
+
+== References ==
+
+Minkowski, Hermann (1909), "Raum und Zeit" , Physikalische Zeitschrift, 10: 75–88
+Various English translations on Wikisource: Space and Time
+Ludwik Silberstein (1914) Theory of Relativity, p. 130, Macmillan and Company
+
+== External links ==
+World lines article on h2g2.
+In-depth text on world lines and special relativity Archived 12 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine