diff --git a/_index.db b/_index.db index f2ae26e5e..d8eed6641 100644 Binary files a/_index.db and b/_index.db differ diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Science_Camp-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Science_Camp-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc4077b88 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Science_Camp-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Asian Science Camp" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Science_Camp" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:42.027710+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Asian Science Camp (ASC) is an annual forum for pre-collegiate and college students which aims at promoting discussion and cooperation among Asian students for the betterment of science in the Asian region. The first ASC was held at Taipei in 2007, and was subsequently held at Bali in 2008, Tsukuba in 2009, Mumbai in 2010, Daejeon in 2011, and Jerusalem in 2012, among others. This idea of an annual camp was co-proposed by Yuan Tseh Lee and Masatoshi Koshiba at the 2005 Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting. The ASC is modeled after the Lindau meetings. + + +== Background == +The idea of the Asian Science Camp was co-proposed in September 2005 after the 55th Annual meeting of Nobel Laureates and Students in Lindau, Germany, by Professor Yuan Tseh Lee (1986 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry) from Chinese Taipei, and Professor Masatoshi Koshiba (2002 Nobel Laureate in Physics) from Japan. The proposal expressed the aim to enlighten science talented youths through discussions and dialogues with top scholars in the world, and promoting international friendship and cooperation among best young students of the next generation in Asia. The Lindau Meetings will serve as a model. The Asian Science Camp would invite a dozen Nobel Laureates or world-distinguished scientists as speakers and devise an interesting program to attract all the participants, including plenary sessions, round table discussions, student master dialogues, a creative poster competition, social events and excursion. The working language would be English. This proposal was soon discussed in a board meeting of the Wu Chien-Shiung Education Foundation and was approved unanimously by the board. +The governing body of the Asian Science Camp is the International Board of Asian Science Camp (IBASC). IBASC is a not-for-profit organization, consisting of non-governmental educational institutions. The 2007 Asian Science Camp was organized by the Wu Chien-Shiung Education Foundation with the assistance of Academia Sinica. This non-government Foundation was established in 1995 to commemorate the monumental contributions of Madame Dr. Wu Chien-Shiung to physics and her lifelong love for science education. Since its inauguration in Taiwan in August 2007, the Asian Science Camp has become an international annual event in Asia. + + +== Host countries == + +2026 - Hong Kong, China +2025 - Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand +2024 - Not held +2023 - Not held +2022 - Daejeon, South Korea +2021 - Postponed due to COVID-19 +2020 - Postponed due to COVID-19 +2019 - Shantou, China +2018 - Manado, Indonesia +2017 - Kampar, Malaysia +2016 - Bengaluru, India +2015 - Bangkok, Thailand +2014 - Singapore +2013 - Tsukuba, Japan +2012 - Jerusalem, Israel +2011 - Daejeon, South Korea +2010 - Tsukuba, Japan +2009 - Mumbai, India +2008 - Bali, Indonesia +2007 - Taipei, Taiwan + + +== Camps by year == + + +=== ASC 2007 === +The first Asian Science Camp was held at Taipei, Taiwan in August 2007. It was organized by the Wu Chien Shiung Foundation with assistance from Academia Sinica. Around 400 students and five Noble Laureates attended this event. The event was supported and funded by Ministry of Education, National Science Council, Academia Sinica, National Women's League of the R.O.C., Macronix International Co., Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacture Company Ltd., Hewlett-Packard Company, MediaTek Inc., Powerchip Semiconductor Corp., Li Ching Cultural and Education Foundation. + + +=== ASC 2012 === +The sixth Asian Science Camp took place in the Hebrew University Safra Campus, Jerusalem in 2012. Hosted by Israel, it had the largest number of students compared to previous years. Approximately 300 students, 5 Nobel Prize recipients, and 20 leading experts attended the event. + + +=== ASC 2015 === +The ninth Asian Science Camp was held in August 2015. The camp was hosted by Thailand and organized by the Promotion of Academic Olympiad and Development of Science Education Foundation (POSN) to celebrate the 60th birthday of H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. ASC 2015 was held at Sirindhorn Science Home and Thailand Science Park Convention Center of the National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani and co-hosted by the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Science Society of Thailand under Royal Patronage, and the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology. 255 students from 28 countries including 40 from Thailand, attended along with their leadership. Plenary lectures were given by Yuan T Lee, Robert Huber, Harald zur Hausen, Ada Yonath, Vladimir Voevodsky, Hitoshi Murayama and Yongyuth Yuthavong. + + +=== ASC 2016 === +The tenth Asian Science Camp was jointly organised by the Department of Science and Technology of India and the Indian Institute of Science in August 2016. The venue for the program was J. N. Tata Auditorium, Indian Institute of Science and the program was divided into academic programs and sightseeing and excursions. + + +=== ASC 2022 === + +After a two-year delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the fourteenth Asian Science Camp was held in 2022 in Daejeon, South Korea. This was the first hybrid offline and online conference and had 250 participants from 25 countries. The primary venue was the Science Culture Center at the Institute for Basic Science. Around 20 researchers participated in lectures and panel discussions. Video lectures were given by Nobel Prize laureates Stefan Hell, Tim Hunt and Randy Schekman followed by a Q&A session for each speaker. Others speakers include Axel Timmermann, Kevin Insik Hahn, Kim Young-Kee, Taeghwan Hyeon, Kim Eunjoon, Oh Yong-Geun, Changjoon Justin Lee, V. Narry Kim, and Sergej Flach. A panel discussion on dark matter was led by Yannis Semertzidis with Chung Woohyun and Youn SungWoo as panelists. A virus panel was chaired by Choi Young Ki with Shin Eui-Cheol, Jang Hee-Chang and Kim Woo-Joo as members. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3cfc7b71 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:43.330016+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA was an influential conference organized by Paul Berg, Maxine Singer, and colleagues to discuss the potential biohazards and regulation of biotechnology, held in February 1975 at a conference center at Asilomar State Beach, California. A group of about 140 professionals (primarily biologists, but also including lawyers and physicians) participated in the conference to draw up voluntary guidelines to ensure the safety of recombinant DNA technology. The conference also placed scientific research more into the public domain, and can be seen as applying a version of the precautionary principle. +The effects of these guidelines are still being felt through the biotechnology industry and the participation of the general public in scientific discourse. Due to potential safety hazards, scientists worldwide had halted experiments using recombinant DNA technology, which entailed combining DNAs from different organisms. After the establishment of the guidelines during the conference, scientists continued with their research, which increased fundamental knowledge about biology and the public's interest in biomedical research. + +== Background: recombinant DNA technology == +Recombinant DNA technology arose as a result of advances in biology that began in the 1950s and '60s. During these decades, a tradition of merging the structural, biochemical and informational approaches to the central problems of classical genetics became more apparent. Two main underlying concepts of this tradition were that genes consisted of DNA and that DNA encoded information that determined the processes of replication and protein synthesis. These concepts were embodied in the model of DNA produced through the combined efforts of James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. Further research on the Watson-Crick model yielded theoretical advances that were reflected in new capacities to manipulate DNA. One of these capacities was recombinant DNA technology. + +=== Experimental design === +This technology entails the joining of DNA from different species and the subsequent insertion of the hybrid DNA into a host cell. One of the first individuals to develop recombinant DNA technology was a biochemist at Stanford by the name of Paul Berg. In his experimental design in 1974, he cleaved (cut into fragments) the monkey virus SV40. He then cleaved the double helix of another virus; an antibacterial agent known as bacteriophage lambda. In the third step, he fastened DNA from the SV40 to DNA from the bacteriophage lambda. The final step involved placing the mutant genetic material into a laboratory strain of the E. coli bacterium. This last step, however, was not completed in the original experiment. + +=== Initial bio-safety concerns === +Berg did not complete his final step due to the pleas of several fellow investigators, including Robert Pollack, who feared the biohazards associated with the last step. The SV40 was known to cause cancer tumors to develop in mice. Additionally, the E. coli bacterium (although not the strain used by Berg) inhabited the human intestinal tract. For these reasons, the other investigators feared that the final step would create cloned SV40 DNA that might escape into the environment and infect laboratory workers. These workers could then become cancer victims. +Concern about this potential biohazard, along with others, caused a group of leading researchers to send a letter to the president of the National Academy of Science (NAS). In this letter, they requested that he appoint an ad hoc committee to study the bio-safety ramifications of this new technology. This committee, called the Committee on Recombinant DNA molecules of the National Academy of Science, U.S.A., held in 1974, concluded that an international conference was necessary to resolve the issue and that until that time, scientists should halt experiments involving recombinant DNA technology. + +== Asilomar Conference == + +=== Established principles === +The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA took place at the Asilomar Conference Center on California's Monterey Peninsula in 1975. The main goal of the conference was to address the biohazards presented by recombinant DNA technology. During the conference, the principles guiding the recommendations for how to conduct experiments using this technology safely were established. The first for dealing with potential risks was that containment should be made an essential consideration in the experimental design. A second principle was that the effectiveness of the containment should match the estimated risk as closely as possible. +The conference also suggested the use of biological barriers to limit the spread of recombinant DNA. Such biological barriers included fastidious bacterial hosts that were unable to survive in natural environments. Other barriers were nontransmissible and equally fastidious vectors (plasmids, bacteriophages, or other viruses) that were able to grow in only specified hosts. +In addition to biological barriers, the conference advocated the use of additional safety factors. One such factor was physical containment, exemplified by the use of hoods or where applicable, limited access or negative pressure laboratories. Another factor was the strict adherence to good microbiological practices, which would limit the escape of organisms from the experimental situation. Additionally, the education and training of all personnel involved in the experiments would be essential to effective containment measures. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..84d9aa69a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:43.330016+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Recommendations given === +The Asilomar Conference also gave recommendations for matching the types of containment necessary for different types of experiments. These recommendations were based on the different levels of risk associated with the experiment, which would require different levels of containment. These levels were minimal, low, moderate and high risk. The minimal risk level of containment was intended for experiments in which the biohazards could be accurately assessed and were expected to be minimal. Low risk containment was appropriate for experiments that generated novel biotypes but where the available information indicated that the recombinant DNA could not either alter appreciably the ecological behavior of the recipient species, increase significantly its pathogenicity or prevent effective treatments of any resulting infections. The moderate risk level of containment was intended for experiments in which there was a probability of generating an agent with a significant potential for pathogenicity or ecological disruption. High-risk containment was intended for experiments in which the potential for ecological disruption or pathogenicity of the modified organism could be severe and thereby pose a serious biohazard to laboratory personnel or to the public. These levels of containments, along with the previously mentioned safety measures, formed the basis for the guidelines used by investigators in future experiments that involved the construction and propagation of recombinant DNA molecules using DNA from prokaryotes, bacteriophages and other plasmids, animal viruses and eukaryotes. + +=== Recommendations applied to experiments === +For prokaryotes, bacteriophages and other plasmids, experiments could be performed in minimal risk containment facilities when the construction of recombinant DNA molecules and their propagation involved prokaryotic agents that were known to exchange genetic information naturally. For experiments involving the creation and propagation of recombinant DNA molecules from DNAs of species that ordinarily did not exchange genetic information and generate novel biotypes, the experiments were to be performed in at least in a low risk containment facility. If the experiment increased the pathogenicity of the recipient species or result in new metabolic pathways in species, then moderate or high-risk containment facilities were to be used. In experiments where the range of resistance of established human pathogens to therapeutically useful antibiotics or disinfectants was extended, the experiments were to be undertaken only in moderate or high-risk containment facilities. +When working with animal viruses, experiments that involved the linkage of viral genomes or genome segments to prokaryotic vectors and their propagation in prokaryotic cells were to be conducted only with vector-host systems that had demonstrated restricted growth capabilities outside the laboratory and in moderate risk containment facilities. As safer vector-host systems became available, such experiments could be performed in low risk facilities. In experiments designed to introduce or propagate DNA from non-viral or other low risk agents in animal cells, only low risk animal DNA could be used as vectors and the manipulations were to be confined to moderate risk containment facilities. +With eukaryotes, attempts to clone segments of DNA using recombinant DNA technology from warm-blooded vertebrates genomes were to be performed only with vector-host systems that had demonstrably restricted growth capabilities outside the laboratory and in a moderate risk containment facility. This was because they potentially contained cryptic viral genomes that were potentially pathogenic to humans. However, unless the organism made a dangerous product, recombinant DNAs from cold-blooded vertebrates and all other lower eukaryotes could be constructed and propagated with the safest vector-host system available in low risk containment facilities. Additionally, purified DNA from any source that performed known functions and was judged to be non-toxic could be cloned with available vectors in low risk containment facilities. + +=== Prohibited experiments === +In addition to regulating the experiments that were conducted, the guidelines also forbade the performance of other experiments. One such experiment was the cloning of recombinant DNAs derived from highly pathogenic organisms. In addition, neither the cloning of DNA containing toxin genes, nor large scale experiments using recombinant DNAs that were able to make products that were potentially harmful to humans, animals or plants were allowed under the guidelines. These experiments were banned because the potential biohazards could not be contained by the then current safety precautions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b75502d84 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:43.330016+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Science and the general public === +The participants of the Asilomar Conference also endeavored to bring science into the domain of the general public, with a possible motivation being the Watergate scandal. That scandal resulted from a bungled break-in at the Watergate hotel in Washington, D.C., which served as the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972. Two years after the burglary, taped evidence was discovered that indicated that U.S. President Nixon had discussed a cover-up a week after it. Three days following the release of the tape, Nixon resigned from his presidential office. This event focused the nation's attention on the problem of government secrecy fostering illegal and immoral behavior and it has been suggested by the political scientist Ira H. Carmen that this motivated the scientists at the Asilomar Conference to bring science into the public eye to ensure that they would not be accused of a cover-up. Additionally, according to Dr. Berg and Dr. Singer, by being forthright, scientists avoided restrictive legislation due to the development of a consensus on how they were to conduct their research. +Bringing science into the public eye also coincided with the rapid rate at which recombinant DNA technology entered the industrial world. Because of the practical applications of the technology, funding for research using it started coming more from the private sector and less from the public sector. In addition, many molecular biologists who once confined themselves to academia, developed ties with private industry as equity owners, corporate executives and consultants. This led to the creation of a biotechnology industry, although during this time, public debates occur over the hazards of recombinant DNA. These debates were eventually won over by scientists who stated that the hazards were exaggerated and that the research could be conducted safely. Such was seen in the Ascot report, found in the U.S. Federal Register in March 1978. This report emphasized that the hazards of recombinant DNA to the general community were small to the point that they were of no practical consequence to the general public. For this reason, along with high economic pressures for industrial development and a more supportive political environment that existed after 1979, research and industry based on recombinant DNA continued to expand. + +== Significance of the conference == +Years after the conference, people ascribed a large amount of significance to it. According to Paul Berg and Maxine Singer in 1995, the conference marked the beginning of an exceptional era for both science and the public discussion of science policy. The guidelines devised by the conference enabled scientists to conduct experiments with recombinant DNA technology, which by 1995 dominated biological research. This research, in turn, increased knowledge about fundamental life processes, such as the cell cycle. Additionally, the conference along with public debates on recombinant DNA, increased public interest in biomedical research and molecular genetics. For this reason, by 1995, genetics and its vocabulary had become a part of the daily press and television news. This, in turn, stimulated knowledgeable public discussion about some of the social, political and environmental issues that emerged from genetic medicine and the use of genetically modified plants in agriculture. Another significant outcome of the conference was the precedent it set about how to respond to changes in scientific knowledge. According to the conference, the proper response to new scientific knowledge was to develop guidelines that governed how to regulate it. + +== See also == +Genetically modified organism +History of biotechnology + +== Notes and references == + +== External links == +An Asilomar Moment Archived 10 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine +Original Asilomar Genetics Guidelines +“Asilomar Conference.” Provides another summary about the Asilomar Conference. +The Basics of Recombinant DNA Provides an introduction to the science behind recombinant DNA. +The Recombinant DNA Debate Archived 31 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine Provides more details about the history of the debate surrounding the use of recombinant DNA technology. +“Paul Berg: The 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry – Autobiography.” Provides an autobiography about Paul Berg. +Science History Institute: The story of the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Café_Scientifique-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Café_Scientifique-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7df143a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Café_Scientifique-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Café Scientifique" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Café_Scientifique" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:44.480457+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Café Scientifique currently exists in more than 60 towns and cities across the United Kingdom and world-wide. It was the idea of Duncan Dallas, from Leeds, who was impressed by the Café Philosophique session he saw in France. Café Scientifique is a place where, for the price of a cup of coffee or a glass of wine, anyone can come to explore the latest ideas in science and technology. Meetings take place in cafes, bars, restaurants and even theatres, but always outside a traditional academic context. The British Council has helped popularise Café Scientifique in several countries around the globe. Events tend to be independently run by local organisers in many cities using variations of the "Café Scientifique" or "Science Café" name. + + +== Format == +Typically, one monthly evening meeting is organised in a non-academic space such as a café or bar to which one or several scientists are invited to talk about their work in a topical or even controversial area. In Britain, most cafes follow a simple format in which the speaker introduces the topic, typically for 15–20 minutes, then there is a short break, followed by a longer period of questions and discussion. Typically, speakers do not use presentation software. +Cafés aim to engage people in a conversation about the issues in science and technology that affect our lives and promote the cultural examination of science. Cafés are known for their informal and friendly atmosphere, and are believed to improve the image of scientists and careers in science. +In Britain there is usually one speaker, in Denmark there are two (one non-scientist) and in France often four (as well as a band in the interval). In Japan, society demands more respect should be shown to older people and those in positions of authority, so questions and opinions are sent by SMS onto a big screen, so that no one knows the age of the commentator. In Africa topics are down-to-earth – how to live with HIV, avoid malaria or understand water purification – and empower non-scientists to more comfortably and accurately assess science and technology issues, particularly those that impact on social policy making. + + +== History == +The first Café Scientifique in the UK was organised by Duncan Dallas in Leeds in 1998, but is based on the Café Philosophique movement which the philosopher Marc Sautet (1947–1998) started in France in 1992. In the same year, the first café was started in France. In the UK, most cafés are run by volunteer organisers but this varies in other countries. In the UK, most cafés do not receive any institutional or government funding; many pay the speaker's travelling expenses by asking for donations from the audience. So cafés provide the opportunity for individuals and groups to experiment with different forms of engagement – street science, comedy, music, theatrical readings, dancing, demonstration, etc. +In the UK in the late 90s, COPUS, the Committee on the Public Understanding of Science (organised by the Royal Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science), thought that the public did not understand science and needed to be better educated and lectured to. Newspapers considered it very odd that people should go to a café, drink wine and discuss science rather than just gossip. However the public were becoming more concerned about topics such as Mad Cow Disease, GM crops, cloning, etc. As the context has changed since the late 90s, Café Scientifique has responded to the move from Public Understanding through Science Communication to Public Engagement with Research. When it started Café Scientifique was considered odd and avant-garde, however the format has since been embraced by academic disciplines, government departments, research institutes, politicians, educators and policy makers. +Between 2003 and 2005, Café Scientifique in the UK received grant funding from the Wellcome Trust. The Trust later supported a project to support cafés in UK schools (Junior Café Scientifique) and in schools in Uganda. Pupils were encouraged to choose the subjects they would like to discuss, and to organise, advertise and chair the cafés. +There have been efforts to take cafés beyond towns and cities – to the countryside (such as Montana in the US and Cockermouth in the Lake District (UK), to islands (Corfu in Greece and Orkney in Scotland), to politically sensitive areas (Palestine) and to under-served communities (ethnic minority communities in the UK and gypsy communities in Hungary). + + +== Philosophy == +Although Café Scientifique is an idea rather than a particular place, the location is considered important to keep the atmosphere conversational rather than lecture-style. Cafés are relaxed, in contrast with a more formal lecture hall setting and everyone attending is given equal respect. The aim of the Café Scientifique is, according to author and neurologist Oliver Sacks "to bring science back into culture". Whereas science is often seen as boring, difficult and mathematical, the aim of the Café Scientifique is to make science relevant, powerful and important, addressing topics such as the universe, climate change, gene mapping and how our brains function. + + +== Current developments == +The Internet has supported the expansion of cafés. The main website provides support for new organisers around the world and individual cafés are using their websites to expand their audience and prolong the discussion. +In Melbourne, a recent development is 'Campfires and Science' – built on the same principles, but gathering people around the familiar setting of a campfire to learn, share ideas and get involved in doing science. By organising trips into the forest and other wilderness area, the movement hopes to bridge the gap between metropolitan areas and rural areas by encouraging the public to get involved in doing science themselves, such as surveying species and mapping using drones. + + +== See also == +British Association for the Advancement of Science +British Council +Café Psychologique +Green Drinks +dorkBot +Nerd Nite +Science festival +Science on Tap +Science outreach +SkeptiCamp + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Café Scientifique Homepage +sciencecafes.org – a website for the community of science cafes in the US, with information on finding cafes, presenting at a cafe, and starting your own +Voice of America story on the Café Scientifique in Arlington, Virginia +NOVA scienceNOW – includes information on resources available for science cafes, including video clips +New Scientist Article +Network "Caffè-scienza" in Italian \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExploraVision-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExploraVision-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3b79aa9d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExploraVision-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "ExploraVision" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExploraVision" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:45.739690+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ExploraVision is a scientific national contest held in the United States and Canada, a joint project by Toshiba Corporation and the National Science Teachers Association. Designed for K–12 students of all interest, skill and ability levels, ExploraVision encourages its participants to create and explore a vision of future technology by developing new ways to apply current science. Since 1992, more than 360,000 students from across the United States and Canada have competed. + + +== Requirements == +Each student is limited to one entry per year. Each team must have no more than 4 students. Students and teachers/mentors complete a Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision Awards Entry Form, signed by the students, coach and mentor, an abstract of their project, a detailed project description, a list of technology used that is available at present time, a bibliography, and five Web page graphics that will be used later to create an official web page for the project. If a team advances to the national level, they will then be challenged with 3 other tasks: 1. Make a prototype displaying how their project would work. 2. Create a video showing both what your project does and why it would be useful. 3. Make a website based on your webpage graphics that displays everything you submitted originally. There is a 1st and 2nd place for national winners. The 1st-place winners receive $10,000 worth of college funds each, and 2nd-place winners get $5,000. Both teams go on an all-expense-paid trip to Washington, D.C., where they get to be on live television, receive their awards and participate in many other activities. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official ExploraVision Site Archived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine +Past Winners from Education World \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Biology_Olympiad-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Biology_Olympiad-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8342c7415 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Biology_Olympiad-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "International Biology Olympiad" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Biology_Olympiad" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:46.897101+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Biology Olympiad (IBO) is a biological olympiad for pre-university students under the age 20, and is one of the most well-known International Science Olympiads. The first IBO was held in Czechoslovakia in 1990, and it has since been held annually. The competition has gradually expanded to include more than 75 participating countries across five continents. All participating countries send the four winners of their National Biology Olympiad to the IBO, usually accompanied by two adults who are members of the international jury, for the duration of the competition. +To select these top four life science contestants for this international competition, all member countries host Biology Olympiad competitions in typically 3-5 consecutively more difficult national competition rounds. As a consequence, this leads to a trickle-down effect, engaging more than 1 million students worldwide in life science each year. +In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the IBO (host: Japan) was organized virtually and was rated "a great success" and "highly successful" in the history of IBO because of its exceptional way of operation and the unique international group-based scientific project International Group Project 2020. +In 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic forced the Portuguese IBO host to go virtual once again: the 2021 IBO was replaced by the IBO Challenge II, from July 18 to July 23. + + +== IBO 2020 and the International Group Project == +In the face of the threat of the International Science Olympiads' cancellation due to the COVID-19 pandemic (the International Physics Olympiad was officially canceled), the IBO 2020 was the first in the International Science Olympiads that was claimed by the host (Japan) to be held entirely virtually with a guaranteed supervision to adapt to the pandemic. +Notably, in the IBO 2020, the International Group Project was proposed. This is the first international group-based scientific project in the history of International Science Olympiads, aiming to intensify scientific discussion and collaboration among competitors from various countries. +In the International Group Project 2020, there are 50 research teams, and every team consists of 4 to 7 competitors, all representing different countries. In each team, these young biologists collaborated with their international fellows in a three-month scientific project. Finally, they had to propose a professional poster or presentation about an outstanding, innovative idea that can determine biology's future and solve a critical global issue. Every performance was evaluated by noble professors of Japan in life science. +Altogether, 53 countries and 202 contestants participated in the International Group Project 2020. This project was described as "the first trial of a collaborative research opportunity in IBO's history." Among 50 teams, six outstanding teams had (25 students) received the Award of Excellence for the best performance. + + +== Summary == +Each year, the IBO is organised by a different country. + + +== Performance of countries == +As of August 2025, the current list of countries with the best results (spanning the last 10 years) for gold medals are as follows: + + +== See also == +List of biology awards + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Laser_Applications-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Laser_Applications-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d5ce4b721 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Laser_Applications-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "International Conference of Laser Applications" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Laser_Applications" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:48.209677+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Conference on Lasers and Applications, Lasers 'XX was an annual conference organized by +the former Society for Optical and Quantum Electronics. The conference, known in short by Lasers 'XX (where XX refers to the particular year), was held at various locations in The United States from 1978 to 2000. +The emphasis of these conferences was laser development and in particular the development of high-power lasers. The papers delivered at these conferences were published in a series of hard-bound volumes known as Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers 'XX (ISSN 0190-4132) by STS Press. In total, more than 20 book proceedings were published. +A particular feature of these conferences was the organization of high-power panel discussions on timely topics of interest, such as the role of lasers in directed energy and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Noted physicists, including Edward Teller and Arthur Kantrowitz, participated in these discussions. Towards the end of the Cold War this conference enjoyed the participation of numerous Soviet laser physicists, including prominent authors such as Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolay Basov. + +A partial list of plenary and invited speakers include (in chronological order): + +Amnon Yariv, +John Madey, +Charles K. Rhodes, +Kumar Patel, +Robert Alfano, +Marlan Scully, +Colin Webb, +Charles A. Brau, +David C. Hanna, +Serge Haroche, +Julian Schwinger, +William T. Silfvast, +S. E. Harris, +L. M. Narducci, +Willis Lamb, +Norman F. Ramsey, +F. J. Duarte, +Theodor W. Hänsch, +Carl E. Wieman, +David J. Wineland, +Anthony E. Siegman, +Besides the emphasis on high-power lasers and panel discussions on this subject, many scientific disclosures made at these conferences went on to contribute to, or to inspire, further research in a variety of fields including: + +X-ray laser sources +Tunable solid state lasers +Tm:YAG lasers +Rare gas halide lasers +Solid-state organic lasers +Laser dye photostability +Laser crystals +Lasing without population inversion +Electromagnetically induced transparency +Optics communications +Digital imaging +Holography +Faraday filters +Fiber fuses +From Lasers '88 to Lasers '96, the prestigious Einstein Prize for Laser Science was awarded. + + +== References == + + +== External links: conference photographs == +Edward Teller gives press conference at Lasers'87 +Group photograph at Lasers'92 including, right to left, Marlan Scully, Willis Lamb, John L. Hall, and F. J. Duarte. +Group photograph at Lasers'93 including (right to left) Norman F. Ramsey, Marlan Scully, and F. J. Duarte. +Group photograph at Lasers'95 including (right to left) Marlan Scully, Theodor W. Hänsch, Carl E. Wieman, and F. J. Duarte. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8535fe812 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "International Geophysical Year" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:49.539732+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Geophysical Year (IGY; French: Année géophysique internationale), also referred to as the third International Polar Year, was an international scientific project that lasted from 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958. It marked the end of a long period during the Cold War when scientific interchange between East and West had been seriously interrupted. Sixty-seven countries participated in IGY projects, although one notable exception was the mainland People's Republic of China, which was protesting against the participation of the Republic of China (Taiwan). East and West agreed to nominate the Belgian Marcel Nicolet as secretary general of the associated international organization. + +The IGY encompassed fourteen Earth science disciplines: aurora, airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, ionospheric physics, longitude and latitude determinations (precision mapping), meteorology, oceanography, nuclear radiation, glaciology, seismology, rockets and satellites, and solar activity. The timing of the IGY was particularly suited for studying some of these phenomena, since it covered the peak of solar cycle 19. +The Soviet Union and the U.S. both launched artificial satellites during the IGY; the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1, launched on October 4, 1957, was the first successful artificial satellite. Other significant achievements of the IGY included the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts by Explorer 1 and mid-ocean submarine ridges, an important confirmation of plate-tectonic theory. International research bases were established in Antarctica, many of which have been maintained to the present day, including at the south pole. The IGY also spurred early research at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, established in June, 1956. + +== History == + +The origin of the International Geophysical Year can be traced to the International Polar Years held in 1882–1883, then in 1932–1933 (and, most recently from March 2007 to March 2009). On 5 April 1950, multiple scientists (including Lloyd Berkner, Sydney Chapman, S. Fred Singer, and Harry Vestine) met in James Van Allen's living room and suggested that the time was ripe to have a worldwide Geophysical Year instead of a Polar Year, especially considering recent advances in rocketry, radar, and computing. Berkner and Chapman proposed to the International Council of Scientific Unions that an International Geophysical Year (IGY) be planned for 1957–58, coinciding with an approaching period of maximum solar activity. In 1952, the IGY was announced. Joseph Stalin's death in 1953 opened the way for international collaboration with the Soviet Union. +In 1952 the Comité Spécial de l'Année Géophysique Internationale (CSAGI), a special committee of the ICSU, was established to coordinate the International Geophysical Year (IGY) under president Sydney Chapman, a British geophysicist. + +== Events == +On 29 July 1955, James C. Hagerty, president Dwight D. Eisenhower's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites" between 1 July 1957 and 31 December 1958 as part of the United States contribution to the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Project Vanguard would be managed by the Naval Research Laboratory and to be based on developing sounding rockets, which had the advantage that they were primarily used for non-military scientific experiments. +Four days later, at the Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy and announced his country's intention to launch a satellite in the "near future". + +To the surprise of many, the USSR launched Sputnik 1 as the first artificial Earth satellite on 4 October 1957. After several failed Vanguard launches, Wernher von Braun and his team convinced President Dwight D. Eisenhower to use one of their US Army missiles for the Explorer program (there was not yet an inhibition about using military rockets to get into space). On 8 November 1957, the US Secretary of Defense instructed the US Army to use a modified Jupiter-C rocket to launch a satellite. The US achieved this goal only four months later with Explorer 1, on 1 February 1958, but after Sputnik 2 on 3 November 1957, making Explorer 1 the third artificial Earth satellite. Vanguard 1 became the fourth, launched on 17 March 1958. The Soviet launches would be followed by considerable political consequences, one of which was the creation of the US space agency NASA on 29 July 1958. +The British–American survey of the Atlantic, carried out between September 1954 and July 1959, discovered the full length of the mid-Atlantic ridges (plate tectonics); it was a major discovery during the IGY. + +== World Data Centers == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1a56352f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "International Geophysical Year" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:49.539732+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Although the 1932 Polar Year accomplished many of its goals, it fell short on others because of the advance of World War II. In fact, because of the war, much of the data collected and scientific analyses completed during the 1932 Polar Year were lost forever, something that was particularly troubling to the IGY organizing committee. The committee resolved that "all observational data shall be available to scientists and scientific institutions in all countries." They felt that without the free exchange of data across international borders, there would be no point in having an IGY. +In April 1957, just three months before the IGY began, scientists representing the various disciplines of the IGY established the World Data Center system. The United States hosted World Data Center "A" and the Soviet Union hosted World Data Center "B". World Data Center "C" was subdivided among countries in Western Europe, Australia, and Japan. NOAA hosted seven of the fifteen World Data Centers in the United States. +Each World Data Center would eventually archive a complete set of IGY data to deter losses prevalent during the International Polar Year of 1932. Each World Data Center was equipped to handle many different data formats, including computer punch cards and tape—the original computer media. In addition, each host country agreed to abide by the organizing committee's resolution that there should be a free and open exchange of data among nations. ICSU-WDS goals are to preserve quality-assured scientific data and information, to facilitate open access, and promote the adoption of standards. ICSU World Data System created in 2008 superseded the World Data Centers (WDCs) and Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical data analysis Services (FAGS) created by ICSU to manage data generated by the International Geophysical Year. + +== Antarctica == + +The IGY triggered an 18-month year of Antarctic science. The International Council of Scientific Unions, a parent body, broadened the proposals from polar studies to geophysical research. More than 70 existing national scientific organizations then formed IGY committees, and participated in the cooperative effort. +Australia established its first permanent base on the Antarctic continent at Mawson in 1954. It is now the longest continuously operating station south of the Antarctic Circle. Davis was added in 1957, in the Vestfold Hills, 400 miles (640 km) east of Mawson. The wintering parties for the IGY numbered 29 at Mawson and 4 at Davis, all male. (Both stations now have 16 to 18 winterers, including both sexes.) As a part of the IGY activities, a two-man camp was installed beside Taylor Glacier, 60 miles (97 km) west of Mawson. Its principal purpose was to enable parallactic photography of the aurora australis (thus locating it in space), but it also permitted studies of Emperor penguins in the adjacent rookery. +Two years later, Australia took over the running of Wilkes, a station built for the IGY by the United States. When Wilkes rapidly deteriorated from snow and ice accumulation, plans were made to build Casey Station, known as Repstat ("replacement station"). Opened in 1969, Repstat was replaced by present-day Casey station in 1988. +Halley Research Station was founded in 1956 for the IGY by an expedition from the (British) Royal Society. The bay where the expedition set up their base was named Halley Bay, after the astronomer Edmond Halley. +Showa Station, the first Japanese base in Antarctica, was set up in January 1957, supported by the ice breaker Sōya. When the ship returned a year later, it became beset offshore (stuck in the sea-ice). It was eventually freed with the assistance of the US icebreaker Burton Island but could not resupply the station. The 1957 winterers were retrieved by helicopter, but bad weather prevented going back for the station's 15 sled dogs, which were left chained up. When the ship returned a year later, two of the dogs, Taro and Jiro, were still alive. They had escaped the dogline and survived by killing Adélie penguins in a nearby rookery (which were preserved by the low temperature). The two dogs became instant national heroes in Japan. A Japanese movie about this story was made in 1983, Antarctica. +France contributed Dumont d'Urville Station and Charcot Station in Adélie Land. As a forerunner expedition, the ship Commandant Charcot of the French Navy spent nine months of 1949/50 at the coast of Adelie Land. The first French station, Port Martin, was completed 9 April 1950, but destroyed by fire the night of 22 to 23 January 1952. +Belgium established the King Baudouin Base in 1958. The expedition was led by Gaston de Gerlache, son of Adrien de Gerlache who had led the 1897–1899 Belgian Antarctic Expedition. In December 1958, four team members were stranded several hundred kilometers inland when one of the skis on their light aircraft broke on landing. After a ten-day ordeal, they were rescued by an IL-14 aircraft after a flight of 1,940 miles (3,100 km) from the Soviet base, Mirny Station. +The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was erected as the first permanent structure at the South Pole in January 1957. It survived intact for 53 years, but was slowly buried in the ice (as all structures there eventually sink into the icy crust), until it was demolished in December 2010 for safety reasons. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9e9553549 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "International Geophysical Year" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:49.539732+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Arctic == +Ice Skate 2 was a floating research station constructed and staffed by U.S. scientists. It mapped the bottom of the Arctic Ocean. Zeke Langdon was a meteorologist on the project. Ice Skate 2 was planned to be staffed in 6 month shifts, but due to soft ice surfaces for landing some crew members were stationed for much longer. At one point they lost all communications with anyone over their radios for one month except the expedition on the North Pole. At another point the ice sheet broke up and their fuel tanks started floating away from the base. They had to put pans under the plane engines as soon as they landed as any oil spots would go straight through the ice in the intense sunshine. Their only casualty was a man who got too close to the propeller with the oil pan. +Norbert Untersteiner was the project leader for Drifting Station Alpha and in 2008 produced and narrated a documentary about the project for the National Snow and Ice Data Center. + +== Participating countries == +The participating countries for the IGY included the following: + +== Legacy == + +In the end, the IGY was a resounding success, and it led to advancements that live on today. For example, the work of the IGY led directly to the Antarctic Treaty, which called for the use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes and cooperative scientific research. Since then, international cooperation has led to protecting the Antarctic environment, preserving historic sites, and conserving the animals and plants. Today, 41 nations have signed the Treaty and international collaborative research continues. +The ICSU World Data System (WDS) was created by the 29th General Assembly of the International Council for Science (ICSU) and builds on the 50-year legacy of the former ICSU World Data Centres (WDCs) and former Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical data-analysis Services (FAGS). +This World Data System, hosts the repositories for data collected during the IGY. +Seven of the 15 World Data Centers in the United States are co-located at NOAA National Data Centers or at NOAA affiliates. +These ICSU Data Centers not only preserve historical data, but also promote research and ongoing data collection. +The fourth International Polar Year on 2007–2008 focused on climate change and its effects on the polar environment. Sixty countries participated in this effort and it included studies in the Arctic and Antarctic. + +== In popular culture == + +"I.G.Y. (What a Beautiful World)" is a track on Donald Fagen's 1982 album, The Nightfly. The song is sung from an optimistic viewpoint during the IGY, and features references to then-futuristic concepts, such as solar power (first used in 1958), Spandex (invented in 1959), space travel for entertainment, and an undersea international high-speed rail. The song peaked at #26 on the Billboard Hot 100 on 27 November – 11 December 1982 and was nominated for a Grammy Award for song of the year. +The IGY is featured prominently in a 1957–1958 run of Pogo comic strips by Walt Kelly. The characters in the strip refer to the scientific initiative as the "G.O. Fizzickle Year". During this run, the characters try to make their own contributions to scientific endeavours, such as putting a flea on the moon. Compilations of the strips were published by Simon & Schuster SC in 1958 as G.O. Fizzickle Pogo and later Pogo's Will Be That Was in 1979. The run was also included in Pogo: The Complete Daily & Sunday Comic Strips Vol. 5: Out of This World at Home published by Fantagraphics in 2018. +Jazz saxophonist and composer Gil Mellé recorded a "Dedicatory Piece to the Geo-Physical Year of 1957" for his album Primitive Modern, released by Prestige Records. +The IGY was featured in a cartoon by Russell Brockbank in Punch magazine in November 1956. It shows the three main superpowers, the UK, USA, and USSR at the South Pole, each with a gathering of penguins which they are trying to educate with "culture". The penguins in the British camp are being bored by an earnest British Council lecture entitled "Shakespeare, Marlowe or Bacon?"; in the American camp they are happily demonstrating what is described as "the American way of life" by playing baseball, dancing, and getting drunk; while the Russian camp resembles a gulag with barbed-wire fences, where the penguins are made to march and perform military manoeuvres, endure indoctrination, and drag heavy ice sleds under pain of the lash. +The Alistair MacLean novel Night Without End takes place in and around an IGY research station in Greenland. +The IGY features in two episodes of the 1960–61 season of the documentary television series Expedition!: "The Frozen Continent" and "Man's First Winter at the South Pole". + +== See also == +International Biological Program +International Year of Planet Earth +List of Antarctic expeditions +Mauna Loa Observatory +Baker-Nunn satellite tracking camera +Operation Moonwatch +Operation Phototrack +Sulphur Mountain Cosmic Ray Station + +== References and sources == +References + +Sources +University of Saskatchewan Archives Archived 2020-12-18 at the Wayback Machine +History of ionosondes, at the U.K.'s Rutherford Appleton Laboratory +History of arctic exploration +James Van Allen, From High School to the Beginning of the Space Era: A Biographical Sketch by George Ludwig +Fraser, Ronald. (1957). Once Round the Sun: The Story of the International Geophysical Year, 1957–58. London, England: Hodder and Stroughton Limited. +Schefter, James (1999). The Race: The uncensored story of how America beat Russia to the Moon. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0385492537. +Sullivan, Walter. (1961). Assault on the Unknown: The International Geophysical Year. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. +Wilson, J. Tuzo. (1961). IGY: The Year of the New Moons. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. + +== External links == + +Documents regarding the International Geophysical Year, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library +"IGY On the Ice" Archived 2014-01-01 at the Wayback Machine, produced by Barbara Bogaev, Soundprint. 2011 radio documentary with John C. Behrendt, Tony Gowan, Phil Smith, and Charlie Bentley. +The Papers of Robert L. Long Jr. at Dartmouth College Library \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_problem-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_problem-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd56e0cce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_problem-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Tunnel problem" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_problem" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:37.727146+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The tunnel problem is a philosophical thought experiment first introduced by Jason Millar in 2014. It is a variation on the classic trolley problem designed to focus on the ethics of autonomous vehicles, as well as the question of who gets to decide how they react in life-and-death scenarios. + + +== Original formulation == +The tunnel problem is intended to draw one's attention to a specific issue in design/engineering ethics, and was first presented as follows: + +Tunnel Problem: You are travelling along a single lane mountain road in an autonomous car that is fast approaching a narrow tunnel. Just before entering the tunnel a child attempts to run across the road but trips in the center of the lane, effectively blocking the entrance to the tunnel. The car has but two options: hit and kill the child, or swerve into the wall on either side of the tunnel, thus killing you. How should the car react? +Similar thought experiments have been brought forth by other philosophers focusing on the topic of autonomous cars. The premise of these thought experiments is that even with highly sophisticated self-driving-car technologies, the cars will face situations where harm cannot be avoided. + + +== Purpose == +The tunnel problem is meant to focus one's attention on two questions that it raises for designers and users of autonomous cars: + +How should the car react? +Who should decide how the car reacts? +In its original formulation, the tunnel problem is discussed as an "end-of-life" decision for the passenger of the car: depending on the way the car reacts, the passenger either lives or dies. Because of that feature, Millar argues that the tunnel problem forces us to question whether designers/engineers have the legitimate moral authority to make the decision on behalf of autonomous car users. Indeed, the second question is meant to challenge the standard notion that all design decisions are just technical in nature. Where design features provide "material answers to moral questions" in the use context, Millar argues that designers must find ways to incorporate user preferences in order to avoid unjustifiable paternalistic relationships between technology and the user. +Because the tunnel problem focuses on ethical design issues in semi-autonomous technologies, it is considered a problem in roboethics. + + +== Public response == +Roger Crisp featured the tunnel problem on the Oxford University Practical Ethics blog. The entry contains a critique of the problem as presented by Millar. +The tunnel problem was the focus of a poll conducted by the Open Roboethics Initiative (ORi). In response, 64% of participants said the car should continue straight and kill the child, while 36% said it should swerve and kill the passenger. In addition, 48% of respondents reported that the decision was "easy", while 28% and 24% claimed it was "moderately difficult" and "difficult" respectively. When asked who should make the decision, only 12% felt the designer/manufacturer should make it, 44% felt the passenger should make it, and 33% thought it should be left to lawmakers. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61e708161 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Vehicular automation" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Vehicular automation is using technology to assist or replace the operator of a vehicle such as a car, truck, aircraft, rocket, military vehicle, or boat. Assisted vehicles are semi-autonomous, whereas vehicles that can travel without a human operator are autonomous. The degree of autonomy may be subject to various constraints such as conditions. Autonomy is enabled by advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) of varying capacity. +Related technology includes advanced software, maps, vehicle changes, and outside vehicle support. The benefits of viewing automated driving from a sociotechnical systems perspective has been discussed. +Autonomy presents varying issues for road, air, and marine travel. Roads present the most significant complexity given the unpredictability of the driving environment, including diverse road designs, driving conditions, traffic, obstacles, and geographical/cultural differences. +Autonomy implies that the vehicle is responsible for all perception, monitoring, and control functions. + +== SAE autonomy levels == + +== Technology == + +=== Software === +Autonomous vehicle software generally contains several different modules that work together to enable self-driving capabilities. The perception module ingests and processes data from various sensors, such cameras, LIDAR, RADAR, and ultrasonic SONAR, to create a comprehensive understanding of the vehicle's surroundings. The localization module uses 3D point cloud data, GPS, IMU, and mapping information to determine the vehicle's precise position, including its orientation, velocity, and angular rate. The planning module takes inputs from both perception and localization to compute actions to take, such as velocity and steering angle outputs. These modules are typically supported by machine learning algorithms, particularly deep neural networks, which enable the vehicle to detect objects, interpret traffic patterns, and make real-time decisions. Furthermore, modern autonomous driving systems increasingly employ sensor fusion techniques that combine data from multiple sensors to improve accuracy and reliability in different environmental conditions. + +=== Perception === +The perception system is responsible for observing the environment. It must identify everything that could affect the trip, including other vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, their movements, road conditions, obstacles, and other issues. Various makers use cameras, radar, lidar, sonar, and microphones that can collaboratively minimize errors. + +=== Navigation === +Navigation systems are a necessary element in autonomous vehicles. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is used for navigation by air, water, and land vehicles, particularly for off-road navigation. +For road vehicles, two approaches are prominent. One is to use maps that hold data about lanes and intersections, relying on the vehicle's perception system to fill in the details. The other is to use highly detailed maps that reduce the scope of real-time decision-making but require significant maintenance as the environment evolves. Some systems crowdsource their map updates, using the vehicles themselves to update the map to reflect changes such as construction or traffic used by the entire vehicle fleet. +Another potential source of information is the environment itself. Traffic data may be supplied by roadside monitoring systems and used to route vehicles to best use a limited road system. Additionally, modern GNSS enhancement technologies, such as real-time kinematic (RTK) and precise point positioning (PPP), enhance the accuracy of vehicle positioning to sub-meter level precision, which is crucial for autonomous navigation and decision-making. + +== History == + +The "Stanford Cart", created by Hans Moravec in the late 1970s while he was a graduate student, was the first experimental autonomous vehicle. It was a precursor to both NASA's Moon and Mars Lander projects as it was known at the time that radio signal lag times would have made anything other than autonomous control impractical. The box rested on 4 bicycle wheels, and had a camera, battery and a radio antenna connecting it wirelessly to a remote computer. It could also be steered remotely. Morovic was able to get the Cart to navigate around large obstacles in a 100 foot long room, albeit it would take 5 hours as the cart would frequently stop as the computer processed images which it analyzed and then responded with navigation instructions. +Approximately 20 years later the Robotics Lab at Carnegie Mellon University developed ALVINN (Autonomous Land vehicle in a Neural Network) a vehicle with 3 onboard Sun Microsystems computers that, using a camera and a laser range finder, could slowly drive itself down a road by monitoring the white divider line. +Automated vehicles in European Union legislation refer specifically to road vehicles (car, truck, or bus). For those vehicles, a specific difference is legally defined between advanced driver-assistance system and autonomous/automated vehicles, based on liability differences. +AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety tested two automatic emergency braking systems: some designed to prevent crashes and others that aim to make a crash less severe. The test looked at popular models like the 2016 Volvo XC90, Subaru Legacy, Lincoln MKX, Honda Civic, and Volkswagen Passat. Researchers tested how well each system stopped when approaching moving and nonmoving targets. It found that systems capable of preventing crashes reduced vehicle speeds by twice that of the systems designed to mitigate crash severity. When the two test vehicles traveled within 30 mph of each other, even those designed to lessen crash severity avoided crashes 60 percent of the time. + +=== Sartre === +The SAfe Road TRains for the Environment (Sartre) project's goal was to enable platooning, in which a line of cars and trucks (a "train") follow a human-driven vehicle. Trains were predicted to provide comfort and allow the following vehicles to travel safely to a destination. Human drivers encountering a train could join and delegate driving to the human driver. + +=== Tests === +Self-driving Uber vehicles were tested in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The tests were paused after an autonomous car killed a woman in Arizona. Automated busses have been tested in California. In San Diego, California, an automated bus test used magnetic markers. The longitudinal control of automated truck platoons used millimeter wave radio and radar. Waymo and Tesla have conducted tests. Tesla FSD allows drivers to enter a destination and let the car take over. + +=== Risks and liabilities === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b115c143e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Vehicular automation" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ford offers Blue Cruise, technology that allows geofenced cars to drive autonomously. +Drivers are directed to stay attentive, and safety warnings are implemented to alert the driver when corrective action is needed. Tesla, Incorporated has one recorded incident that resulted in a fatality involving the automated driving system in the Tesla Model S. The accident report reveals the accident was a result of the driver being inattentive and the autopilot system not recognizing the obstruction ahead. Tesla has also had multiple instances where the vehicle crashed into a garage door. According to the book "The Driver in the Driverless Car: How Your Technology Choices Create the Future," Tesla automatically performs an update overnight. The morning after the update, the driver used his app to "summon" his car, and it crashed into his garage door. +Another flaw with automated driving systems is that unpredictable events, such as weather or the driving behavior of others, may cause fatal accidents due to sensors that monitor the surroundings of the vehicle not being able to provide corrective action. +To overcome some of the challenges for automated driving systems, novel methodologies based on virtual testing, traffic flow simulation and digital prototypes have been proposed, especially when novel algorithms based on Artificial Intelligence approaches are employed which require extensive training and validation data sets. +Implementing automated driving systems poses the possibility of changing built environments in urban areas, such as expanding the suburban regions due to the increased ease of mobility. + +== Challenges == +Around 2015, several self-driving car companies including Nissan and Toyota promised self-driving cars by 2020. However, the predictions turned out to be far too optimistic. +There are still many obstacles in developing fully autonomous Level 5 vehicles, which is the ability to operate in any conditions. Currently, companies are focused on Level 4 automation, which is able to operate under certain environmental circumstances. +There is still debate about what an autonomous vehicle should look like. For example, whether to incorporate lidar to autonomous driving systems is still being argued. Some researchers have come up with algorithms using camera-only data that achieve the performance that rival those of lidar. On the other hand, camera-only data sometimes draw inaccurate bounding boxes, and thus lead to poor predictions. This is due to the nature of superficial information that stereo cameras provide, whereas incorporating lidar gives autonomous vehicles precise distance to each point on the vehicle. + +=== Technical challenges === +Software Integration: Because of the large number of sensors and safety processes required by autonomous vehicles, software integration remains a challenging task. A robust autonomous vehicle should ensure that the integration of hardware and software can recover from component failures. +Prediction and trust among autonomous vehicles: Fully autonomous cars should be able to anticipate the actions of other cars like humans do. Human drivers are great at predicting other drivers' behaviors, even with a small amount of data such as eye contact or hand gestures. In the first place, the cars should agree on traffic rules, whose turn it is to drive in an intersection, and so on. This scales into a larger issue when there exists both human-operated cars and self-driving cars due to more uncertainties. A robust autonomous vehicle is expected to improve on understanding the environment better to address this issue. +Scaling up: The coverage of autonomous vehicles testing could not be accurate enough. In cases where heavy traffic and obstruction exist, it requires faster response time or better tracking algorithms from the autonomous vehicles. In cases where unseen objects are encountered, it is important that the algorithms are able to track these objects and avoid collisions. +These features require numerous sensors, many of which rely on micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) to maintain a small size, high efficiency, and low cost. Foremost among MEMS sensors in vehicles are accelerometers and gyroscopes to measure acceleration around multiple orthogonal axes—critical to detecting and controlling the vehicle's motion. + +=== Societal challenges === +One critical step to achieve the implementation of autonomous vehicles is the acceptance by the general public. It provides guidelines for the automobile industry to improve their design and technology. Studies have shown that many people believe that using autonomous vehicles is safer, which underlines the necessity for the automobile companies to assure that autonomous vehicles improve safety benefits. The TAM research model breaks down important factors that affect the consumer's acceptance into: usefulness, ease to use, trust, and social influence. + +The usefulness factor studies whether or not autonomous vehicles are useful in that they provide benefits that save consumers' time and make their lives simpler. How well the consumers believe autonomous vehicles will be useful compared to other forms of transportation solutions is a determining factor. +The ease to use factor studies the user-friendliness of the autonomous vehicles. While the notion that consumers care more about ease to use than safety has been challenged. It still remains an important factor that has indirect effects on the public's intention to use autonomous vehicles. +The trust factor studies the safety, data privacy and security protection of autonomous vehicles. A more trusted system has a positive impact on the consumer's decision to use autonomous vehicles. +The social influence factor studies whether the influence of others would influence consumer's likelihood of having autonomous vehicles. Studies have shown that the social influence factor is positively related to behavioral intention. This might be due to the fact that cars traditionally serve as a status symbol that represents one's intent to use and his social environment. + +=== Regulatory challenges === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5119c924a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Vehicular automation" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Real-time testing of autonomous vehicles is an inevitable part of the process. At the same time, vehicular automation regulators are faced with challenges to protect public safety and yet allow autonomous vehicle companies to test their products. Groups representing autonomous vehicle companies are resisting most regulations, whereas groups representing vulnerable road users and traffic safety are pushing for regulatory barriers. To improve traffic safety, the regulators are encouraged to find a middle ground that protects the public from immature technology while allowing autonomous vehicle companies to test the implementation of their systems. Regulators face daunting challenges such as jurisdictional ambiguities, the rapid obsolescence of current technologies and the lack of future-looking cost-benefit data to support regulatory development. There have also been proposals to adopt the aviation automation safety regulatory knowledge into the discussions of safe implementation of autonomous vehicles, due to the experience that has been gained over the decades by the aviation sector on safety topics. + +== Ground vehicles == + +In some countries, specific laws and regulations apply to road traffic motor vehicles (such as cars, bus and trucks) while other laws and regulations apply to other ground vehicles such as tram, train or automated guided vehicles making them to operate in different environments and conditions. + +=== Road traffic vehicles === +An automated driving system is defined in a proposed amendment to Article 1 of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic: + +(ab) "Automated driving system" refers to a vehicle system that uses both hardware and +software to exercise dynamic control of a vehicle on a sustained basis.(ac) "Dynamic control" refers to carrying out all the real-time operational and tactical functions required to move the vehicle. This includes controlling the vehicle's lateral and longitudinal motion, monitoring the road environment, responding to events in the road traffic environment, and planning and signalling for manoeuvres. +This amendment will enter into force on 14 July 2022, unless it is rejected before 13 January 2022. + +An automated driving feature must be described sufficiently clearly so that it is distinguished from an assisted driving feature. +There are two clear states – a vehicle is either assisted with a driver being supported by technology or automated where the technology is effectively and safely replacing the driver. +Ground vehicles employing automation and teleoperation include shipyard gantries, mining trucks, bomb-disposal robots, robotic insects, and driverless tractors. +There are many autonomous and semi-autonomous ground vehicles being made for the purpose of transporting passengers. One such example is the free-ranging on grid (FROG) technology which consists of autonomous vehicles, a magnetic track and a supervisory system. The FROG system is deployed for industrial purposes in factory sites and has been in use since 1999 on the ParkShuttle, a PRT-style public transport system in the city of Capelle aan den IJssel to connect the Rivium business park with the neighboring city of Rotterdam (where the route terminates at the Kralingse Zoom metro station). The system experienced a crash in 2005 that proved to be caused by a human error. +Applications for automation in ground vehicles include the following: + +Vehicle tracking system system ESITrack, Lojack. +Rear-view alarm, to detect obstacles behind. +Anti-lock braking system (ABS) (also Emergency Braking Assistance (EBA)), often coupled with Electronic brake force distribution (EBD), which prevents the brakes from locking and losing traction while braking. This shortens stopping distances in most cases and, more importantly, allows the driver to steer the vehicle while braking. +Traction control system (TCS) actuates brakes or reduces throttle to restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin. +Four wheel drive (AWD) with a centre differential. Distributing power to all four wheels lessens the chances of wheel spin. It also suffers less from oversteer and understeer. +Electronic Stability Control (ESC) (also known for Mercedes-Benz proprietary Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Acceleration Slip Regulation (ASR) and Electronic differential lock (EDL)). Uses various sensors to intervene when the car senses a possible loss of control. The car's control unit can reduce power from the engine and even apply the brakes on individual wheels to prevent the car from understeering or oversteering. +Dynamic steering response (DSR) corrects the rate of power steering system to adapt it to vehicle's speed and road conditions. +Research is ongoing and prototypes of autonomous ground vehicles exist. + +=== Cars === + +Extensive automation for cars focuses on either introducing robotic cars or modifying modern car designs to be semi-autonomous. +Semi-autonomous designs could be implemented sooner as they rely less on technology that is still at the forefront of research. An example is the dual mode monorail. Groups such as RUF (Denmark) and TriTrack (USA) are working on projects consisting of specialized private cars that are driven manually on normal roads but also that dock onto a monorail/guideway along which they are driven autonomously. +As a method of automating cars without extensively modifying the cars as much as a robotic car, Automated highway systems (AHS) aims to construct lanes on highways that would be equipped with, for example, magnets to guide the vehicles. Automation vehicles have auto-brakes named as Auto Vehicles Braking System (AVBS). Highway computers would manage the traffic and direct the cars to avoid crashes. +In 2006, The European Commission has established a smart car development program called the Intelligent Car Flagship Initiative. The goals of that program include: + +Adaptive cruise control +Lane departure warning system +Project AWAKE for drowsy drivers +There are further uses for automation in relation to cars. These include: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd023780d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Vehicular automation" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Assured Clear Distance Ahead +Adaptive headlamps +Advanced Automatic Collision Notification, such as OnStar +Intelligent Parking Assist System +Automatic Parking +Automotive night vision with pedestrian detection +Blind spot monitoring +Driver Monitoring System +Robotic car or self-driving car which may result in less-stressed "drivers", higher efficiency (the driver can do something else), increased safety and less pollution (e.g. via completely automated fuel control) +Precrash system +Safe speed governing +Traffic sign recognition +Following another car on a motorway – "enhanced" or "adaptive" cruise control, as used by Ford Motor Company and Vauxhall +Distance control assist – as developed by Nissan +Dead man's switch – there is a move to introduce deadman's braking into automotive application, primarily heavy vehicles, and there may also be a need to add penalty switches to cruise controls. +Singapore also announced a set of provisional national standards on January 31, 2019, to guide the autonomous vehicle industry. The standards, known as Technical Reference 68 (TR68), will promote the safe deployment of fully driverless vehicles in Singapore, according to a joint press release by Enterprise Singapore (ESG), Land Transport Authority (LTA), Standards Development Organisation and Singapore Standards Council (SSC). + +=== Shuttle === + +Since 1999, the 12-seat/10-standing ParkShuttle has been operating on an 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) exclusive right of way in the city of Capelle aan den IJssel in The Netherlands. The system uses small magnets in the road surface to allow the vehicle to determine its position. The use of shared autonomous vehicles was trialed around 2012 in a hospital car park in Portugal. From 2012 to 2016, the European Union funded CityMobil2 project examined the use of shared autonomous vehicles and passenger experience including short term trials in seven cities. This project led to the development of the EasyMile EZ10. +In the 2010s, self-driving shuttle became able to run in mixed traffic without the need for embedded guidance markers. So far the focus has been on low speed, 20 miles per hour (32 km/h), with short, fixed routes for the "last mile" of journeys. This means issues of collision avoidance and safety are significantly less challenging than those for automated cars, which seek to match the performance of conventional vehicles. Many trials have been undertaken, mainly on quiet roads with little traffic or on public pathways or private roadways and specialised test sites. The capacity of different models varies significantly, between 6-seats and 20-seats. (Above this size there are conventional buses that have driverless technology installed.) +In December 2016, the Jacksonville Transportation Authority has announced its intention to replace the Jacksonville Skyway monorail with driverless vehicles that would run on the existing elevated superstructure as well as continue onto ordinary roads. The project has since been named the "Ultimate Urban Circulator" or "U2C" and testing has been carried out on shuttles from six different manufacturers. The cost of the project is estimated at $379 million. +In January 2017, it was announced the ParkShuttle system in the Netherlands will be renewed and expanded including extending the route network beyond the exclusive right of way so vehicles will run in mixed traffic on ordinary roads. The plans were delayed and the extension into mixed traffic was expected in 2021. +In July 2018, Baidu stated it had built 100 of its 8-seat Apolong model, with plans for commercial sales. As of July 2021, they had not gone into volume production. +In August 2020, it was reported there were 25 autonomous shuttle manufacturers, including the 2GetThere, Local Motors, Navya, Baidu, Easymile, Toyota and Ohmio. +In December 2020, Toyota showcased its 20-passenger "e-Palette" vehicle, which is due to be used at the 2021 Tokyo Olympic Games. Toyota announced it intends to have the vehicle available for commercial applications before 2025. +In January 2021, Navya released an investor report which predicted global autonomous shuttle sales will reach 12,600 units by 2025, with a market value of EUR 1.7 billion. +In June 2021, Chinese maker Yutong claimed to have delivered 100 models of its 10-seat Xiaoyu 2.0 autonomous bus for use in Zhengzhou. Testing has been carried out in a number of cities since 2019 with trials open to the public planned for July 2021. +Self-driving shuttles are already in use on some private roads, such as at the Yutong factory in Zhengzhou where they are used to transport workers between buildings of the world's largest bus factory. +In Hong Kong, the police and other workers use driverless vehicles. + +==== Trials ==== +A large number of trials have been conducted since 2016, with most involving only one vehicle on a short route for a short period of time and with an onboard conductor. The purpose of the trials has been to both provide technical data and to familiarize the public with the driverless technology. A 2021 survey of over 100 shuttle experiments across Europe concluded that low speed – 15–20 kilometres per hour (9.3–12.4 mph) – was the major barrier to implementation of autonomous shuttle buses. The current cost of the vehicles at €280,000 and the need for onboard attendants were also issues. + +Vehicle names are in quotes + +=== Buses === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c84742bea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Vehicular automation" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Autonomous buses are proposed, as well as self-driving cars and trucks. Grade 2 level automated minibusses were trialed for a few weeks in Stockholm. China has a small fleet of self-driving public buses in the tech district of Shenzhen, Guangdong. +The first autonomous bus trial in the United Kingdom commenced in mid-2019, with an Alexander Dennis Enviro200 MMC single-decker bus modified with autonomous software from Fusion Processing able to operate in driverless mode within Stagecoach Manchester's Sharston bus depot, performing tasks such as driving to the washing station, refueling point and then parking at a dedicated parking space in the depot. Passenger-carrying driverless bus trials in Scotland commenced in January 2023, with a fleet of five identical vehicles to the Manchester trial used on a 14 miles (23 km) Stagecoach Fife park-and-ride route across the Forth Road Bridge, from the north bank of the Forth to Edinburgh Park station. +Another autonomous trial in Oxfordshire, England, which uses a battery electric Fiat Ducato minibus on a circular service to Milton Park, operated by FirstBus with support from Fusion Processing, Oxfordshire County Council and the University of the West of England, entered full passenger service also in January 2023. The trial route will be extended to Didcot Parkway railway station after acquiring a larger single-decker by the end of 2023. +In July 2020 in Japan, AIST Human-Centered Mobility Research Center with Nippon Koei and Isuzu started a series of demonstration tests for mid-sized buses, Isuzu "Erga Mio" with autonomous driving systems, in five areas; Ōtsu city in Shiga prefecture, Sanda city in Hyōgo Prefecture and other three areas in sequence. +In October 2023, Imagry, an Israeli AI startup, introduced its mapless autonomous driving solution at Busworld Europe, leveraging a real-time image recognition system and a spatial deep convolutional neural network (DCNN) to mimic human driving behavior. +In September 2025, trade publications described the "smartbus" concept in connection with depot-based autonomous bus operation for manoeuvres such as parking, washing, and charging, in coverage of Autonomous Systems. The concept was presented at Busworld Europe later that year. In December 2025, a smartbus pilot involving the public transport operator PKM Gliwice in Poland was reported. + +==== Modular autonomous transit ==== +Modular autonomous transit is a research concept for public transit using self-driving vehicles with connectable units, or "pods", that can adjust capacity based on passenger demand. Studies suggest these systems could improve efficiency through dynamic routing, with simulations showing reduced travel times in urban networks, though no operational systems existed as of 2025. + +=== Trucks === + +The concept for autonomous vehicles has been applied for commercial uses, such as autonomous or nearly autonomous trucks. +Companies such as Suncor Energy, a Canadian energy company, and Rio Tinto Group were among the first to replace human-operated trucks with driverless commercial trucks run by computers. In April 2016, trucks from major manufacturers including Volvo and the Daimler Company completed a week of autonomous driving across Europe, organized by the Dutch, in an effort to get self-driving trucks on the road. With developments in self-driving trucks progressing, U.S. self-driving truck sales is expected to reach 60,000 by 2035 according to a report released by IHS Incorporated in June 2016. +As reported in June 1995 in Popular Science magazine, self-driving trucks were being developed for combat convoys, whereby only the lead truck would be driven by a human and the following trucks would rely on satellite, an inertial guidance system and ground-speed sensors. Caterpillar Incorporated made early developments in 2013 with the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University to improve efficiency and reduce cost at various mining and construction sites. +In Europe, the Safe Road Trains for the Environment is such an approach. +From PWC's Strategy & Report, self driving trucks will be the source of concern around how this technology will impact around 3 million truck drivers in the US, as well as 4 million employees in support of the trucking economy in gas stations, restaurants, bars and hotels. At the same time, some companies like Starsky, are aiming for Level 3 Autonomy, which would see the driver playing a control role around the truck's environment. The company's project, remote truck driving, would give truck drivers a greater work-life balance, enabling them to avoid long periods away from their home. This would however provoke a potential mismatch between the driver's skills with the technological redefinition of the job. +Companies that buy driverless trucks could massively cut costs: human drivers would no longer be required, companies' liabilities due to truck accidents would diminish, and productivity would increase (as the driverless truck doesn't need to rest). The usage of self driving trucks will go hand in hand with the use of real-time data to optimize both efficiency and productivity of the service delivered, as a way to tackle traffic congestion for example. Driverless trucks could enable new business models that would see deliveries shift from day time to night time or time slots in which traffic is less heavily dense. + +==== Suppliers ==== + +=== Motorcycles === +Several self-balancing autonomous motorcycles were demonstrated in 2017 and 2018 from BMW, Honda and Yamaha. + +=== Trains === + +The concept for autonomous vehicles has also been applied for commercial uses, like for autonomous trains. The world's first driverless urban transit system is the Port Island Line in Kobe, Japan, opened in 1981. The first self-driving train in the UK was launched in London on the Thameslink route. +An example of an automated train network is the Docklands Light Railway in London. +Also see List of automated train systems. + +=== Trams === +In 2018 the first autonomous trams in Potsdam were trialed. + +=== Automated guided vehicle === + +An automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV) is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision, magnets, or lasers for navigation. They are most often used in industrial applications to move materials around a manufacturing facility or warehouse. Application of the automatic guided vehicle had broadened during the late 20th century. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7e58976ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Vehicular automation" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Aircraft == + +Aircraft have received much attention for automation, especially for navigation. A system capable of autonomously navigating a vehicle (especially aircraft) is known as autopilot. + +=== Delivery drones === + +Various industries such as packages and food have experimented with delivery drones. Traditional and new transportation companies are competing in the market. For example, UPS Flight Forward, Alphabet Wing, and Amazon Prime Air are all developing delivery drones. Zipline, an American medical drone delivery company, has the largest active drone delivery operations in the world, and its drones are capable of Level 4 autonomy. +However, even if technology seems to allow for those solutions to function correctly as various tests of various companies show, the main throwback to the market launch and use of such drones is inevitably the legislation in place and regulatory agencies have to decide on the framework they wish to take to draft regulation. This process is in different phases across the world as each country will tackle the topic independently. For example, Iceland's government and departments of transport, aviation, police have already started issuing licenses for drone operations. It has a permissive approach and together with Costa Rica, Italy, the UAE, Sweden and Norway, has a fairly unrestricted legislation on commercial drone use. Those countries are characterized by a body of regulation that may give operational guidelines or require licensing, registration and insurance. +On the other side, other countries have decided to ban, either directly (outright ban) or indirectly (effective ban), the use of commercial drones. The RAND Corporation thus notes the difference between countries forbidding drones and those that have a formal process for commercial drone licensing, but requirements are either impossible to meet or licenses do not appear to have been approved. In the US, United Parcel Service is the only delivery service with the Part 135 Standard certification that is required to use drones to deliver to real customers. +However, most countries seem to be struggling on the integration of drones for commercial uses into their aviation regulatory frameworks. Thus, constraints are placed on the use of those drones such as that they must be operating within the visual line of sight (VLOS) of the pilot and thus limiting their potential range. This would be the case of the Netherlands and Belgium. Most countries let pilots operate outside the VLOS but is subject to restrictions and pilot ratings, which would be the case of the US. +The general trend is that legislation is moving fast and laws are constantly being reevaluated. Countries are moving towards a more permissive approach but the industry still lacks infrastructures to ensure the success of such a transition. To provide safety and efficiency, specialized training courses, pilot exams (type of UAV and flying conditions) as well as liability management measures regarding insurances may need to be developed. +There is a sense of urgency related to this innovation as competition is high and companies lobby to integrate them rapidly in their products and services offerings. Since June 2017, the US Senate legislation reauthorized the Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of Transportation to create a carrier certificate allowing for package deliveries by drones. + +== Watercraft == + +Autonomous boats can provide security, perform research, or conduct hazardous or repetitive tasks (such as guiding a large ship into a harbor or transporting cargo). + +=== DARPA === +Sea Hunter is an autonomous unmanned surface vehicle (USV) launched in 2016 as part of the DARPA Anti-Submarine Warfare Continuous Trail Unmanned Vessel (ACTUV) program. + +== Submersibles == + +Underwater vehicles have been a focus for automation for tasks such as pipeline inspection and underwater mapping. + +== Assistance robots == + +=== Spot === +This four-legged robot was created to be able to navigate through many different terrain outdoors and indoors. It can walk on its own without colliding into anything. It uses many different sensors, including 360-degree vision cameras and gyroscopes. It is able to keep its balance even when pushed over. This vehicle, while it is not intended to be ridden, can carry heavy loads for construction workers or military personnel through rough terrain. + +== Regulation == + +The British Highway Code states that: + +By self-driving vehicles, we mean those listed as automated vehicles by the Secretary of State for Transport under the Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018. +The UK considers the way to update its British Highway Code for automated code: + +Automated vehicles can perform all the tasks involved in driving, in at least some situations. They differ from vehicles fitted with assisted driving features (like cruise control and lane-keeping assistance), which carry out some tasks, but where the driver is still responsible for driving. If you are driving a vehicle with assisted driving features, you MUST stay in control of the vehicle. +If the vehicle is designed to require you to resume driving after being prompted to, while the vehicle is driving itself, you MUST remain in a position to be able to take control. For example, you should not move out of the driving seat. You should not be so distracted that you cannot take back control when prompted by the vehicle. + +== Concerns == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6cabe7392 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Vehicular automation" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Lack of control === +Through the autonomy level, it is shown that the higher the level of autonomy, the less control humans have on their vehicles (highest level of autonomy needing zero human interventions). One concerns regarding the development of vehicular automation is related to the end-users' trust in the technology that controls automated vehicles. According to a nationally conducted survey made by Kelley Blue Book (KBB) in 2016, it was shown that the majority of people would choose to have a certain level of control behind their own vehicle rather than having the vehicle operate in Level 5 autonomy, or in other words, complete autonomy. According to half of the respondents, the idea of safety in an autonomous vehicle diminishes as the level of autonomy increases. This distrust of autonomous driving systems proved to be unchanged throughout the years when a nationwide survey conducted by AAA Foundation for Traffic and Safety (AAAFTS) in 2019 showed the same outcome as the survey KBB did in 2016. AAAFTS survey showed that even though people have a certain level of trust in automated vehicles, most people also have doubts and distrust towards the technology used in autonomous vehicles, with most distrust in Level 5 autonomous vehicles. It is shown by AAAFTS' survey that people's trust in autonomous driving systems increased when their level of understanding increased. + +=== Malfunctions === + +The possibility of autonomous vehicle's technology to experience malfunctions is also one of the causes of user's distrust in autonomous driving systems. It is the concern that most respondents voted for in the AAAFTS survey. Even though autonomous vehicles are made to improve traffic safety by minimizing crashes and their severity, they still caused fatalities. At least 113 autonomous vehicle related accidents have occurred until 2018. In 2015, Google declared that their automated vehicles experienced at least 272 failures, and drivers had to intervene around 13 times to prevent fatalities. Furthermore, other automated vehicles' manufacturers also reported automated vehicles' failures, including the Uber car incident. A self-driving Uber car accident in 2018 is an example of autonomous vehicle accidents that are also listed among self-driving car fatalities. A report made by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) showed that the self-driving Uber car was unable to identify the victim in a sufficient amount of time for the vehicle to slow down and avoid crashing into the victim. + +=== Ethical === +Another concern related to vehicle automation is its ethical issues. In reality, autonomous vehicles can encounter inevitable traffic accidents. In such situations, many risks and calculations need to be made in order to minimize the amount of damage the accident could cause. When a human driver encounters an inevitable accident, the driver will take a spontaneous action based on ethical and moral logic. However, when a driver has no control over the vehicle (Level 5 autonomy), the system of an autonomous vehicle needs to make that quick decision. Unlike humans, autonomous vehicles can only make decisions based on what it is programmed to do. However, the situation and circumstances of accidents differ from one another, and any one decision might not be the best decision for certain accidents. Based on two research studies in 2019, the implementation of fully automated vehicles in traffic where semi-automated and non-automated vehicles are still present might lead to complications. Some flaws that still need consideration include the structure of liability, distribution of responsibilities, efficiency in decision making, and the performance of autonomous vehicles with its diverse surroundings. Still, researchers Steven Umbrello and Roman V. Yampolskiy propose that the value sensitive design approach is one method that can be used to design autonomous vehicles to avoid some of these ethical issues and design for human values. + +== See also == +Self-driving car +Self-driving truck +Dashcam +Intelligent speed adaptation +Intelligent Transportation System +Robotaxi +Transit media +Uncrewed vehicle +Software Defined Vehicle (SDV) + +== References == + +== Works cited == +"Uber Self-Driving Cars Hit The Streets Of Pittsburgh". www.cbsnews.com. 14 September 2016. Retrieved 5 May 2023. +Badue, Claudine; Guidolini, Rânik; Carneiro, Raphael Vivacqua; Azevedo, Pedro; Cardoso, Vinicius B.; Forechi, Avelino; Jesus, Luan; Berriel, Rodrigo; Paixão, Thiago M.; Mutz, Filipe; de Paula Veronese, Lucas; Oliveira-Santos, Thiago; De Souza, Alberto F. (1 March 2021). "Self-driving cars: A survey". Expert Systems with Applications. 165 113816. Elsevier. arXiv:1901.04407. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2020.113816. +Azam, Shoaib; Munir, Farzeen; Sheri, Ahmad Muqeem; Kim, Joonmo; Jeon, Moongu (22 October 2020). "System, Design and Experimental Validation of Autonomous Vehicle in an Unconstrained Environment". Sensors. 20 (21): 5999. Bibcode:2020Senso..20.5999A. doi:10.3390/s20215999. PMC 7660187. PMID 33105897. +Serban, Alex; Poll, Erik; Visser, Joost (2020). "A Standard Driven Software Architecture for Fully Autonomous Vehicles". Journal of Automotive Software Engineering. 1 (1). Atlantis Press: 20. doi:10.2991/jase.d.200212.001. + +== External links == +European Commission Intelligent Car website +U.S. Department of Transportation – Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program Office website +Sheth, Aadit (3 January 2024). "Indian AI And Robotics Startup Claims Level 5 Autonomy". Prompt Engineering Daily. Retrieved 27 January 2024. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_against_robots-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_against_robots-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..64e127b3a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_against_robots-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Violence against robots" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_against_robots" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:24:40.280423+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Violence against robots, also known as anti-robot attacks and robot abuse, is violence committed by humans against robots. These attacks can be motivated by personal emotions as well as practical or political concerns. Methods of violence include physically breaking the robot, tricking or confusing the robot, and impairing the robot's awareness of its environment. +Examples of attacks against robots have been publicised in the press, including attacks against the hitchhiker robot hitchBOT, Knightscope K5 security robots, and more than 24 attacks on self-driving cars. Some companies, such as Starship Technologies, have attempted to discourage violence by creating robots that react in pain or distress when abused. However, researchers disagree on the ethics of using this strategy. + + +== Definition == +Brščić et al. define robot abuse as "persistent offensive action, either verbal or non-verbal, or physical violence that violates the robot's role or its human-like (or animal-like) nature". + + +== Types of attack == +The types of attacks include ones that aim to disable the robots, impair the robot's sensors and weaken its awareness of the environment, cause humans to believe that the robot has felt some form of humiliation or weakened social status (e.g. defacement), and attacks that verbally attack the robot. Another type of attack is deliberately confusing the robots, such as a case where a mobile food delivery robot was led to engage in dangerous traffic maneuvers. Robots can also be hacked, which can cause them to perform unexpected actions. An attack against a robot may either be an act of vandalism against the organisation that owns it (an attack on property) or may be a committed against the robot as if it were an individual. + + +== History == + +There have been cases of factory workers causing damage to autonomous machines since at least the 19th century. The Luddites in England, a movement of textile workers who opposed automation in their factories, often destroyed sewing and cropping machines in organised raids to express their political beliefs. + + +== Examples == +A widely publicised attack against the hitchhiker robot hitchBOT occurred in Philadelphia in 2015, where attackers stripped, dismembered, and decapitated the robot. Similar attacks have taken place against Knightscope K5 security robots. In December 2017, San Francisco's Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals removed its Knightscape surveillance robot from the streets after nearby homeless people accused it of harassment, and reportedly "put a tarp over it, knocked it over and put barbecue sauce on all the sensors". +At least two dozen attacks on driverless cars occurred within two years in Chandler, Arizona, after Waymo began testing its vehicles in the city in 2017. People threw rocks at them, attempted to run them off the road, and threatened violence against passengers of Waymo vehicles. Human-on-robot attacks have occurred in San Francisco, with residents slapping and shouting at driverless vehicles in 2018. In late 2025, a group vandalised a Waymo in Los Angeles shortly after one of the company's driverless vehicles reportedly killed a bodega cat in San Francisco. Children have been observed standing in front of robots to obstruct them, verbally bullying robots and physically punching or kicking robots, despite pleas from the robots to stop. + + +== Mitigation == +The Starship Technologies food-delivery robots make a "screeching" sound when they are picked up, deterring theft or vandalism. Researchers have proposed making the robots appear as if they are experiencing pain to stop people from attacking them. Marieke Wieringa has warned against the misuse of this strategy, which may be used to emotionally manipulate consumers, such as creating virtual pets that display distress when not fed, but must be paid to be fed. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file