Scrape wikipedia-science: 5863 new, 3170 updated, 9299 total (kb-cron)
This commit is contained in:
parent
1467547cab
commit
8220619e9f
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLEO_(router)-0.md
Normal file
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLEO_(router)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "CLEO (router)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLEO_(router)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:30.318956+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
CLEO, the Cisco router in Low Earth Orbit, is an Internet router from Cisco Systems that was integrated into the UK-DMC Disaster Monitoring Constellation satellite built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL) as a secondary experimental hosted payload, and launched into space with the satellite and sister satellites on a Kosmos 3M rocket from Plesetsk on 27 September 2003.
|
||||
CLEO and the UK-DMC satellite were tested over five years to show the feasibility of extending the Internet to orbit, using both the Internet Protocol and Mobile IP. CLEO was configured by NASA's Glenn Research Center to be used with Virtual Mission Operations Center (VMOC) software from General Dynamics as part of a large internetworking exercise from the field at Vandenberg Air Force Base in June 2004.
|
||||
On 29 March 2007, CLEO was configured for and tested on IPsec and IPv6 use, making this the first use of IPv6 on board a satellite in orbit.
|
||||
The use of CLEO builds on and validates the approach to use of the Internet Protocol articulated by Keith Hogie with NASA Goddard and first demonstrated as part of the Operating Missions as Nodes on the Internet (OMNI) effort on board the UoSAT-12 satellite built by SSTL.
|
||||
CLEO was followed by the IRIS router on a geostationary Intelsat satellite.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Cisco routers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Papers, presentations and articles on CLEO Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Information on the UK-DMC satellite and CLEO from the Earth Observation Portal
|
||||
Cisco Systems Global Defense, Space and Security group
|
||||
36
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONSERT-0.md
Normal file
36
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONSERT-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "CONSERT"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONSERT"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:31.535643+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
CONSERT (COmet Nucleus Sounding Experiment by Radiowave Transmission) is a scientific experiment on board the European Space Agency's Rosetta mission, launched in 2004, to provide information about the deep interior of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko upon the probe's rendezvous with the comet in 2014.
|
||||
The CONSERT radar was to perform tomography of the nucleus by measuring electromagnetic wave propagation from the Philae lander and the Rosetta orbiter throughout the comet nucleus in order to determine its internal structures and to deduce information on its composition. The related lander and orbiter electronics were provided by France and both antennas were constructed in Germany. The experiment was designed and built in France by Laboratoire de Planétologie de Grenoble (LPG now IPAG) and by Service d'Aéronomie in Paris (SA now LATMOS), in Germany by the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS) in Göttingen. The Principal Investigator of CONSERT is Dr. Wlodek Kofman (IPAG), Director of Research at CNRS.
|
||||
On 13 November 2014, the experiment unexpectedly provided information to locate Philae after it had bounced into an unknown place.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Scientific objectives ==
|
||||
The scientific objectives of the CONSERT experiment are the determination of the main dielectric properties and, through modelling, to set constraints on the cometary composition (materials, porosity, etc.), to detect large–size structures (several tens of meters) and stratification, to detect and characterise small–scale irregularities within the nucleus.
|
||||
A detailed analysis of the radio–waves which have passed through all or parts of the nucleus will put real constraints on the materials and on inhomogeneities and will help to identify blocks, gaps or voids. From this information, scientists will attempt to answer some fundamental questions of cometary physics. How is the nucleus built up? Is it homogeneous, layered or composed of accreted blocks (cometesimals, boulders)? What is the nature of the refractory component? Is it chondritic as generally expected or does it contain inclusions of unexpected electromagnetic properties?
|
||||
In more detail, the purpose of CONSERT experiment is to measure the following quantities:
|
||||
|
||||
The mean permittivity of the comet nucleus is derived from the group delay of the main path introduced when the comet is inserted into the propagation path. The permittivity enables to identify the electrical properties of the material found in the comet nucleus.
|
||||
The mean absorption of the comet nucleus is derived from the radiowave path loss as the signal propagates through the comet nucleus. The absorption identifies the class of materials found in the comet nucleus.
|
||||
The structure of the received signal, the number of different paths and their variation with the propagation path are related to the size of the cometesimals and to the reflection coefficient at internal interfaces.
|
||||
The correlation length of the measured signal as a function of the orbit position is related to the size of the irregularities or small structures inside the comet.
|
||||
The volume scattering coefficient is derived from the nature of the observed signal. The volume scattering coefficient measures the homogeneity of the interior of the comet nucleus.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Basic principle of the CONSERT experiment ==
|
||||
The basic principle of the experiment was to use the electromagnetic propagation (90 MHz VHF radio) through the cometary interior. An electromagnetic wave–front propagates through the cometary nucleus at a smaller velocity than in free space, and loses energy in the process. Both the change in velocity and the energy loss depend on the complex permittivity of the cometary materials. They also depend on the ratio of the wavelength used to the size of any inhomogeneities present. Thus, any signal that has propagated through the medium contains information concerning this medium. The change in velocity of the electromagnetic wave induced by propagation through the cometary material is calculable from the time taken by the wave to travel between the orbiter and the lander, while the loss of energy is deducible from the change in signal amplitude.
|
||||
The orbiter sent a signal to be picked up by the lander. As the orbiter moved along its orbit, the path between it and the lander varied and so passed through differing parts of the comet. The rotation of the comet nucleus also changed the relative position of the lander and the orbiter. Hence, over several orbits, many different paths were to be obtained.
|
||||
The lander communicated with the Rosetta orbiter again on 9 July 2015 and transmitted measurement data from the CONSERT instrument.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
This article incorporates public domain material from Comet Nucleus Sounding Experiment by Radiowave Transmission (CONSERT). National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Dust_Analyzer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:25:17.895762+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:32.786321+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
79
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Ray_Subsystem-0.md
Normal file
79
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Ray_Subsystem-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Cosmic Ray Subsystem"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Ray_Subsystem"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:34.007122+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Cosmic Ray Subsystem (CRS, or Cosmic Ray System) is an instrument aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft of the NASA Voyager program, and it is an experiment to detect cosmic rays. The CRS includes a High-Energy Telescope System (HETS), Low-Energy Telescope System (LETS), and The Electron Telescope (TET). It is designed to detect energetic particles and some of the requirements were for the instrument to be reliable and to have enough charge resolution. It can also detect the energetic particles like protons from the Galaxy or Earth's Sun.
|
||||
As of 2019, CRS is one of the active remaining instruments on both Voyager spacecraft. It is described by as being able to detect electrons from 3–110 MeV and cosmic ray nuclei 1–500 MeV/n. All three systems used solid-state detectors. CRS is one of the five fields and particle experiments on each spacecraft. One of the goals is to gain a deeper understanding of the solar wind. Other objects of study including electrons and nuclei from planetary magnetospheres and from outside the Solar System.
|
||||
In the summer of 2019, the heater for the CRS on Voyager 2 was turned off to save power; however, although it cooled off, it was still returning data at a new lower temperature outside its original operating range. The amount of power on the Voyager spacecraft has been slowly decreasing, so various items of equipment are turned off to save power.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
Areas of original study for this investigation:
|
||||
|
||||
origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays
|
||||
nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources
|
||||
behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium
|
||||
trapped planetary energetic particle environment.
|
||||
High-Energy Telescope System:
|
||||
|
||||
6 and 500 MeV/nucleon for atomic numbers from 1 through 30
|
||||
electrons from 3 and 100 MeV.
|
||||
Low-Energy Telescope System:
|
||||
|
||||
0.15 and 30 MeV/nucleon for atomic numbers from 1 to 30
|
||||
measures anisotropies of electrons and nuclei.
|
||||
Electron Telescope (TET):
|
||||
|
||||
the TET measures the energy spectrum of electrons from 3 to 110 MeV.
|
||||
The TET consists of eight solid-state detectors with different thicknesses of tungsten between each detector. The detectors and tungsten layers are stacked one on top of each other. The tungsten layers range from 0.56 mm to 2.34 mm thick and function as absorbers. Each TET solid state detector has an area of 4.5 cm2 and is 3 mm thick.
|
||||
Principal investigators: Rochus Eugen Vogt, Edward C. Stone, Alan C. Cummings
|
||||
The CRS was tested to operate down to a temperature of minus 49 degrees F (minus 59 degrees C) during its development in the 1970s.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operating temperature ==
|
||||
During its development, the CRS was rated to operate down to a temperature of minus 49 degrees F (minus 45 degrees C). Up until 2019 the instrument was operating on both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, however in the summer of 2019 there was need to save some power on Voyager 2. The heater for the CRS was turned off at this time, which caused a lowering of the CRS temperature to drop below its lowest rated operating temperature. The device cooled down to minus 74 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 59 degrees Celsius), but it continued to operate at this temperature.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Results ==
|
||||
|
||||
In 1977, the spectra of helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and neon during the solar minimum were measured using the CRS instrument on the Voyagers that year. The solar minimum of 1977 occurred towards the end of year. It was possible to observe both interplanetary, galactic, and anomalous energy spectra.
|
||||
In the early 1980s, the CRS detected charged particles around Saturn. It detected a 0.43 million volt flux of protons as it traveled through Saturn's magnetosphere. In the 1980s the CRS data from both Voyagers was used to determine the abundances of energetic particles from the Sun and additional information. Another area studied in the 1980s using CRS data was variation in galactic cosmic rays in the outer Heliosphere
|
||||
CRS helped predict that Voyager 1 and 2 would cross the Solar System's termination shock in 2003. This helped support the later conclusion that Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock in December 2004 and that Voyager 2 crossed it in August 2007.
|
||||
In 2011, CRS data along with the Voyager Magnetometer discovered an area where the solar wind was not going in either direction. The area was identified as a sort of charged particle doldrums, where the particles from the Solar System are pushed back by cosmic forces. At a distance of 17 light-hours Voyager 1 was commanded to rotate several times (in the other direction then its spinning), to make detection in different directions.
|
||||
It was determined that in 2012 Voyager 1 entered interstellar space, that is, it entered the interstellar medium between the stars. One of the reasons this was recognized was a significant increase in galactic cosmic rays.
|
||||
In 2013, CRS data led some to propose that Voyager 1 had entered a "transition zone" as it leaves the heliosphere. There were some changes in the amounts and type of detections that triggered deeper analysis. The results from the magnetometer muddied the waters of interpretation.
|
||||
|
||||
First, I don't think any of us on the CRS [Cosmic Ray Subsystem, an instrument on Voyager] team will ever forget watching on the computer monitors, even on an hourly basis, in one case, as some particle intensities dropped precipitously, and others increased simultaneously on several occasions in July and August 2012.
|
||||
Other scientists proposed that this indicated a departure from the Solar System in the sense that it had left the Sun's heliosphere. The issue was the interpretation of the drop in cosmic rays, which happened at 123 AU from the Sun for Voyager 2 that year. The many revelations and restructured understandings as the Voyagers head out, as influenced by data from the CRS and other active instruments, were called by Nature publication as the "long goodbye".
|
||||
The CRS on Voyager 2, helped identify that spacecraft's departure from the Sun's heliosphere in 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== CRS location ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Cosmic-ray observatory
|
||||
New Horizons (see plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite)
|
||||
Local Interstellar Cloud
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Cosmic ray investigation for the Voyager missions: Energetic particle studies in the outer heliosphere – and beyond, Stone, et al
|
||||
NASA – Cosmic Rays (general overview of CR)
|
||||
Objective of CRS
|
||||
Papers by decade from CRS
|
||||
CRS
|
||||
Voyager Instruments – Cosmic Ray Subsystem
|
||||
CRS – Graphs
|
||||
TET info
|
||||
A New Plan for Keeping NASA's Oldest Explorers Going (July 2019)
|
||||
59
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DORIS_(satellite_system)-0.md
Normal file
59
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DORIS_(satellite_system)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "DORIS (satellite system)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DORIS_(satellite_system)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:36.342174+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
DORIS is a French satellite system used for the determination of satellite orbits (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon) and for positioning.
|
||||
The name is an acronym of "Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite" or, in French, Détermination d'Orbite et Radiopositionnement Intégré par Satellite.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Principle ==
|
||||
Ground-based radio beacons emit a signal which is picked up by receiving satellites. This is in reverse configuration to other GNSS, in which the transmitters are space-borne and receivers are in majority near the surface of the Earth. A frequency shift of the signal occurs that is caused by the movement of the satellite (Doppler effect). From this observation satellite orbits, ground positions, as well as other parameters can be derived.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Organization ==
|
||||
DORIS is a French system which was initiated and is maintained by the French Space Agency (CNES). It is operated from Toulouse.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Ground segment ==
|
||||
|
||||
The ground segment includes about 50-60 ground stations, equally distributed over the Earth and ensure a good coverage for orbit determination. For the installation of a beacon only electricity is required because the station only emits a signal but does not receive any information. DORIS beacons transmit to the satellites on two UHF frequencies, 401.25 MHz and 2036.25 MHz.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Australian ground segments ===
|
||||
There are two active DORIS stations in Australia:
|
||||
|
||||
Yatharagga - active
|
||||
Orroral Valley Tracking Station - no longer active
|
||||
Mount Stromlo Observatory - currently active, replaced Orroral Valley Tracking station installation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Space segment ==
|
||||
The best known satellites equipped with DORIS receivers are the altimetry satellites TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, OSTM/Jason-2, Jason-3, and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich. They are used to observe the ocean surface as well as currents or wave heights. DORIS contributes to their orbit accuracy of about 2 cm.
|
||||
Other DORIS satellites are the Envisat, SPOT, HY-2A and CryoSat-2 satellites.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Positioning ==
|
||||
Apart from orbit determination, the DORIS observations are used for positioning of ground stations. The accuracy is a bit lower than with GPS, but it still contributes to the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Argos (satellite system)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
G. Seeber: Satellite Geodesy. De Gruyter-Verlag, 2. Auflage (590 p.), Berlin 2003
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
DORIS presentation on AVISO, website which distributes satellite altimeter data
|
||||
IDS, International DORIS Service
|
||||
ESA page for Envisat DORIS, offering technical information and data
|
||||
19
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diviner_(radiometer)-0.md
Normal file
19
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diviner_(radiometer)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Diviner (radiometer)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diviner_(radiometer)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:35.175772+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Diviner, also referred to as the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE), is an infrared radiometer aboard NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, part of the Lunar Precursor Robotic Program which is studying the Moon. It has been used to create temperature maps of the Moon's surface, as well as detect ice deposits and surface composition.
|
||||
The instrument has measured temperatures of −247 °C (−412.6 °F) in a crater at the northern pole and −238 °C (−396.4 °F) in craters at the southern pole. On 9 October 2009, the Diviner team announced the detection of a hot spot on the Moon at the location of the LCROSS spacecraft impact site.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment at UCLA
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Dual segmented Langmuir probe"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_segmented_Langmuir_probe"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:37.548960+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Dual Segmented Langmuir Probe (DSLP) is an instrument developed primarily by Czech researchers and engineers to study the magnetospheric background plasma flown on board the spacecraft of the European Space Agency (ESA) Proba 2.
|
||||
Data acquired by DSLP will be used to reach these specific scientific goals:
|
||||
|
||||
Directional Measurements: Contrary to classical Langmuir probes, the new DSLP concept of data acquisition from the independent segments will enable to study also plasma characteristics in different directions. This should provide for example estimations of plasma flow velocity. Typically in the presence of magnetic field, electron temperatures are observed to be slightly different in the direction parallel and perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. This temperature anisotropy should be measured with DSLP by way of directional data acquisition.
|
||||
Non-Maxwellian Features in Ionospheric Plasma: Classical theories for LPs are typically developed for plasmas in a thermodynamic equilibrium, that is for particle populations possessing Maxwellian velocity distribution functions. However, a thermodynamic equilibrium and thus a Maxwellian distribution is an idealized case while the real distribution in many plasma environments often exhibits various non-Maxwellian features, like loss-cone or flat-top distributions or high-energy tails. We intend to adapt the DSLP theoretical model in order to see whether such features exist also in ionospheric plasmas.
|
||||
Ionospheric Irregularities: Ionosphere especially in the equatorial region possess several phenomena such equatorial ionization anomaly or ionospheric perturbations in auroral and cusp regions. The latitudinal distribution of these anomalies should be mapped during the whole mission. The effects are also highly dependent on space weather, on magnetospheric forces induced by solar, interplanetary and magnetospheric disturbances. Hence also coordination with LYRA and SWAP (other Proba 2 payload) measurements would be useful to find a correlation between particular solar events and ionospheric disturbances.
|
||||
Ionospheric Perturbations by Solar Events (CMEs): This scientific objective will use cooperation with LYRA and SWAP experiments and further more enhance the sphere of interest. Detected solar event, if possible, should start DSLP burst measurement when the solar event affects the Earth.
|
||||
Mapping Bulk Plasma Parameters: All acquired DSLP data will be used to map the bulk plasma parameters (primarily electron density and temperature) and to study their latitude and seasonal variations.
|
||||
The DSLP instrument consists of two Langmuir probes, electronics and small data processing unit. DSLP shares some interface, power and processing resources with TPMU experiment. DSLP has been developed on the basis of its predecessor ISL (Instrument Sonde de Langmuir), flown on the
|
||||
Demeter mission of CNES.
|
||||
DSLP was developed by the consortium of
|
||||
Astronomical
|
||||
Institute
|
||||
and Institute of Atmospheric Physics,
|
||||
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Research and Scientific Support Department (RSSD) ESA ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, Czech Space Research Centre (CSRC), Brno Czech Republic, and SPRINX Systems, Prague, Czech Republic. The team has been led by the Principal Investigator Pavel Trávníček.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons-0.md
Normal file
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:38.794422+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) instrument is an experiment mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory's Curiosity rover. It is a pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and detector used to measure hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface. The instrument consists of the detector element (DE) and a 14.1 MeV pulsing neutron generator (PNG). The die-away time of neutrons is measured by the DE after each neutron pulse from the PNG.
|
||||
DAN was provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency, funded by Russia and is under the leadership of Principal Investigator Igor Mitrofanov.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
On August 18, 2012 (sol 12), DAN was turned on, marking the success of a Russian-American collaboration on the surface of Mars and the first working Russian science instrument on the Martian surface since Mars 3 stopped transmitting over forty years ago. The instrument is designed to detect subsurface water.
|
||||
On March 18, 2013 (sol 218), NASA reported evidence of mineral hydration, likely hydrated calcium sulfate, in several rock samples including the broken fragments of "Tintina" rock and "Sutton Inlier" rock as well as in veins and nodules in other rocks like "Knorr" rock and "Wernicke" rock. Analysis using the rover's DAN instrument provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4% water content, down to a depth of 60 cm (2.0 ft), in the rover's traverse from the Bradbury Landing site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the Glenelg terrain.
|
||||
|
||||
On August 19, 2015, NASA scientists reported that the DAN instrument on Curiosity detected an unusual hydrogen-rich area, at "Marias Pass," on Mars. The hydrogen found seemed related to water or hydroxyl ions in rocks within 3 feet (0.91 m) beneath the rover, according to the scientists.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Exploration of Mars
|
||||
Groundwater on Mars
|
||||
Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory
|
||||
Water on Mars
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Media related to Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons at Wikimedia Commons
|
||||
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladus_Icy_Jet_Analyzer-0.md
Normal file
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladus_Icy_Jet_Analyzer-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Enceladus Icy Jet Analyzer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladus_Icy_Jet_Analyzer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:40.032692+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Enceladus Icy Jet Analyzer (ENIJA) is a time-of-flight mass spectrometer developed to search for prebiotic molecules like amino acids and biosignatures in the plumes of Saturn's moon Enceladus.
|
||||
Most of the ice particles in Enceladus's plume have been shown to be direct samples of subsurface waters, offering an opportunity to assess its internal ocean's geochemical and habitability potential without having to land and drill through the ice.
|
||||
The ENIJA instrument has been formally proposed to fly on two missions: the Enceladus Life Finder (ELF), and on the Explorer of Enceladus and Titan (E2T).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Description ==
|
||||
The instrument is based on the principle of impact ionization and is optimized for the analysis of high dust fluxes and number densities as typically occur during Enceladus plume crossings. Impact ionization shows an excellent sensitivity for compounds embedded in a water ice matrix. Ice particles as small as 0.1 μm at an impact speed of 5 km/s can be analyzed.
|
||||
The mass resolution is > 970 m/dm for typical plume particles in the size range 0.01 to 100 μm. Detection of elemental and molecular species over such a wide mass range permits clear characterization of particle chemistry, simultaneously covering individual ions like H+, C−, O, and complex organics with masses of many hundred Da. ENIJA records time-of-flight mass spectra in the range between 1 and 2000 Da. Up to 50 spectra are recorded per second. The instrument has a mass of 3.5 kg, and peak power is 14.2 W.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_Clipper_Magnetometer-0.md
Normal file
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_Clipper_Magnetometer-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Europa Clipper Magnetometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_Clipper_Magnetometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:41.220992+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Europa Clipper Magnetometer (ECM) is a spacecraft magnetometer aboard the planned Europa Clipper mission. It will be used to precisely measure Europa's magnetic field during consecutive fly-bys, allowing scientists to potentially confirm the existence of Europa's hypothesised subsurface ocean. If this ocean exists, the instrument will be able to determine its depth and salinity, as well as the thickness of the moon's icy shell.
|
||||
The magnetometer team is led by Margaret Kivelson, with Xianzhe Jia serving as deputy team leader.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
The ECM is a highly sensitive and precise magnetometer used to measure small changes in the characteristics of Europa's magnetic field, studying how they vary according to time and location. The instrument will be stowed in a canister at launch, and will have a total of three flux-gate sensors attached to it. It will deploy to its full length of 8.5 meters (25 feet) in the days after launch.
|
||||
The spacecraft contains over 300 individual sources of magnetic interference, such as magnets in the propulsion valves, and current loops in the solar arrays. As a result, the instrument will be mounted on an 8.5 meter boom to reduce the effect of this contamination, but will still need to be carefully calibrated in order to account for the effects of these artificial sources.
|
||||
|
||||
Originally, a more complex multi-frequency magnetometer (ICEMAG) was planned for inclusion aboard Europa Clipper. This instrument was ultimately scrapped, and later replaced with ECM due to cost overruns.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
The primary objectives of the ECM instrument are:
|
||||
|
||||
Confirm the existence of a subsurface ocean under Europa's icy surface
|
||||
If an ocean does exist, accurately measure its depth and salinity
|
||||
Characterize the ice shell by determining its thickness
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Large strategic science missions
|
||||
Europa Orbiter – Cancelled NASA orbiter mission to Europa
|
||||
Europa Lander – Cancelled NASA lander for Europa
|
||||
Exploration of Jupiter – Overview of the exploration of the planet Jupiter and its moons
|
||||
Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer – European mission to study Jupiter and its moons since 2023
|
||||
Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter – Canceled NASA orbiter mission to Jupiter's icy moons
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Europa Ultraviolet Spectrograph"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_Ultraviolet_Spectrograph"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:42.368285+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Europa Ultraviolet Spectrograph (Europa-UVS) is an ultraviolet spectrograph imager that will be flown on board the Europa Clipper mission to Jupiter's moon Europa. The Europa-UVS will be able to detect small erupting plumes and will provide data about the composition and dynamics of Europa's thin exosphere.
|
||||
The Principal Investigator is Kurt Retherford of the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), and the instrument engineer is Laura Jones-Wilson from JPL.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
The Europa Ultraviolet Spectrograph inherits technology from a series of successful ultraviolet imaging spectrographs (Rosetta-Alice, New Horizons-Alice, LRO-LAMP, Juno-UVS and JUICE-UVS). Europa-UVS observes photons in the 55-210 nm wavelength range, along a 7.5° slit. A radiation-hardened integrated circuit will be incorporated to meet the radiation requirements.
|
||||
The Europa-UVS offers additional capabilities to locate and characterize plumes erupting from Europa's surface. UVS will also investigate the composition and chemistry of Europa's atmosphere, its surface, and study how energy and mass flow around the moon and its environment.
|
||||
The instrument is a sensitive imaging spectrograph that can observe in the ultraviolet spectral range of 55 nm to 210 nm and can achieve a spectral resolution of <0.6 nm. The instrument does not contain a scan mirror, so the spacecraft must provide the maneuvering capability necessary to obtain complete spatial images of the moon.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
The science objectives of the Europa-UVS investigation are:
|
||||
|
||||
Determine the composition and chemistry, source and sinks, and structure and variability of Europa's atmosphere.
|
||||
Search for and characterize active plumes in terms of global distribution, structure, composition, and variability.
|
||||
Explore the surface composition and microphysics and their relation to endogenic and exogenic processes.
|
||||
Investigate how energy and mass flow in the Europa atmosphere, neutral cloud and plasma torus, and footprint on Jupiter.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
UVS (Juno) (Instrument on the Juno Jupiter orbiter which arrived at Jupiter in 2016)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
58
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIELDS-0.md
Normal file
58
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIELDS-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "FIELDS"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIELDS"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:43.570266+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
FIELDS is a science instrument on the Parker Solar Probe (PSP), designed to measure magnetic fields in the solar corona during its mission to study the Sun. It is one of four major investigations on board PSP, along with WISPR, ISOIS, and SWEAP. It features three magnetometers. FIELDS is planned to help answer an enduring questions about the Sun, such as why the solar corona is so hot compared to the surface of the Sun and why the solar wind is so fast (a million miles per hour).
|
||||
The host spacecraft, Parker Solar Probe, was launched by a Delta IV Heavy on August 12, 2018 from Florida, USA. On August 13, 2018 FIELDS became the first instrument to be activated including beginning deployment of the four whip antennas (clamps unlocked) and extension of the magnetometer boom. On September 4, 2018 the whip antennas were deployed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
FIELDS features three magnetometers: two are fluxgate magnetometers, and the third is a search-coil magnetometer. It has five voltage sensors, four of which extend beyond the spacecraft's heatshield and must directly endure the intense conditions at the planned distances of less than 10 solar radii to the Sun.
|
||||
For best scientific observations, the spacecraft must approach to approximately about 10 solar radii (4% of the Earth-Sun distance) to take measurements from within the solar corona. The task of FIELDS is to take measurements of the electrical and magnetic fields near the Sun. Most of FIELDS instrumentation is protected, along with the bulk of the spacecraft by a special 4.5 inch (11.43 cm) thick carbon heatshield as the spacecraft is expected to endure temperatures of 2,500 degrees F. While the surface of the Sun is roughly 10,000 degrees F, the solar corona has a temperature exceeding 1 million°F. (about half a million°C)
|
||||
Planned measurements include:
|
||||
|
||||
electric and magnetic fields and waves
|
||||
Alfven waves and turbulence
|
||||
poynting flux
|
||||
absolute plasma density
|
||||
electron temperature
|
||||
spacecraft floating potential and density fluctuations
|
||||
radio emissions
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Components ==
|
||||
The key components of FIELDS are:
|
||||
|
||||
Five voltage sensors
|
||||
Two fluxgate magnetometers
|
||||
One search-coil magnetometer
|
||||
Main Electronics Package
|
||||
Supporting systems include four whip antennas (called V1 through V4) that are 2 meters long and made of C-103 niobium alloy. These antennas are numbered V1, V2, V3, and V4. V5 is a voltage sensor on the end of the spacecraft's magnetometer boom. All five send signals to the Antenna Electronics Board which is part of the Main Electronics Package, and each V1 to V5 has its own pre-amplifier that is sending this signal. The sensors are integrated with various electrical and electronic processing systems which take in the raw signals and convert them into software data for transmission back to Earth by radio communication.
|
||||
The FIELDS experiment can also detect cosmic dust, by recording the dust impact strikes on the antennas. It will try to detect micron sized and nanodust, if carried by the solar wind. It detects and sizes dust impacts on its antennas by the voltage signature.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operations ==
|
||||
By September 2018, FIELDS had been turned on and first data was returned. Data from FIELDS was designed for return from observations during the closer solar encounters of the Parker Solar Probe spacecraft in October–November 2018 and March–April 2019.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Timeline ==
|
||||
August 12, 2018; launched.
|
||||
August 13, 2018; FIELDS instrument is powered on in outer space.
|
||||
The first activity conducted was opening the clamps that hold the antennas down during launch.
|
||||
The next activity was to extend the magnetometer boom.
|
||||
September 4, 2018 - four whip antennas deployed/extended.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Interior Characterization of Europa using Magnetometry, a planned magnetometer for Europa Clipper
|
||||
Magnetometer (Juno), a magnetometer on board Juno Jupiter orbiter
|
||||
Spacecraft magnetometer
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
20
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOXSI_Sounding_Rocket-0.md
Normal file
20
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOXSI_Sounding_Rocket-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "FOXSI Sounding Rocket"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOXSI_Sounding_Rocket"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:44.693883+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Focusing Optics X-ray Solar Imager, or FOXSI, is a sounding rocket payload built by UC Berkeley and led by Säm Krucker to test high energy grazing-incidence focusing optics paired with solid-state pixelated detectors to observe the Sun. FOXSI is composed of seven identical Wolter-I telescope modules, as well as Silicon and Cadmium Telluride strip detectors originally developed for the HXT telescope on the Japanese Hitomi mission. The FOXSI payload flew two times, most recently in 2014 and previously in 2012, on the Black Brant IX sounding rocket. Like most sounding rockets, FOXSI flew for approximately 15 minutes per mission and observed the Sun for about 5 minutes while in space. During its first flight, FOXSI successfully imaged a solar microflare in the hard x-ray band for the first time.
|
||||
FOXSI's third mission, led by Lindsay Glesener of the University of Minnesota, had a successful launch on September 7, 2018, from White Sands, New Mexico. This iteration of the payload included a combination of Silicon and improved Cadmium Telluride detectors, as well as one CMOS soft x-ray detector. Two of the telescope modules were updated from 7-shell to 10-shell configurations, and the payload also introduced collimator technology to reduce the impact of singly-reflected rays.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official FOXSI website
|
||||
FOXSI Twitter feed
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_and_Ulysses_Dust_Detectors"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:25:30.411571+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:45.895848+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Gamma Ray Spectrometer (2001 Mars Odyssey)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Ray_Spectrometer_(2001_Mars_Odyssey)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:47.060034+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) is a gamma-ray spectrometer on the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, a space probe orbiting the planet Mars since 2001. Part of NASA's Mars Surveyor 2001 program, it returns geological data about Mars's surface such as identifying elements and the location of water. It is maintained by the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory at the University of Arizona in the United States. This instrument has mapped the distribution surface hydrogen, thought to trace water in the surface layer of Martian soil.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== GRS specifications ==
|
||||
The Gamma Ray Spectrometer weighs 30.5 kilograms (67 lb) and uses 32 watts of power. Along with its cooler, it measures 468 by 534 by 604 millimetres (18.4 by 21.0 by 23.8 in). The detector is a photodiode made of a 1.2-kilogram (2.6 lb) germanium crystal, reverse biased to about 3 kilovolts, mounted at the end of a 6-metre (20 ft) boom to minimize interferences from the gamma radiation produced by the spacecraft itself. Its spatial resolution is about 300 kilometres (190 mi).
|
||||
The neutron spectrometer is 173 by 144 by 314 millimetres (6.8 by 5.7 by 12.4 in).
|
||||
The high-energy neutron detector measures 303 by 248 by 242 millimetres (11.9 by 9.8 by 9.5 in). The instrument's central electronics box is 281 by 243 by 234 millimetres (11.1 by 9.6 by 9.2 in).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Mars Odyssey GRS instrument site Archived 2019-05-05 at the Wayback Machine at the University of Arizona
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Geostationary Carbon Cycle Observatory"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_Carbon_Cycle_Observatory"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:48.413911+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Geostationary Carbon Cycle Observatory (GeoCarb or GeoCARB) was an intended NASA Venture-class Earth observation mission that was designed to measure the carbon cycle, building off the success of OCO-2, but in geostationary orbit.
|
||||
GeoCarb was to be stationed over the Americas and make observations between 50° North and South latitudes in geostationary Earth orbit 35,786 km above the equator. Its primary mission was to conduct observations of vegetation health and stress by measuring solar-induced fluorescence, as well as observe the processes that govern the movement of greenhouse gases in the carbon cycle.
|
||||
Selected by NASA in 2016.
|
||||
It was originally intended to be mounted on a commercial geostationary communication satellite operated by SES S.A., but instead NASA, in February 2022, sought a standalone spacecraft to carry GeoCarb.
|
||||
On 28 November 2022, NASA announced the cancellation of development of the GeoCarb mission, citing cost overruns, technical concerns, and the availability of other options to measure and observe greenhouse gases, like the EMIT instrument on the ISS and the upcoming Earth System Observatory. NASA worked with the University of Oklahoa to close the project which was scheduled to be launched around the end of June 2025.
|
||||
GeoCarb was a joint collaboration between NASA's Ames Research Center, Goddard Space Flight Center, and Jet Propulsion Laboratory; the University of Oklahoma; Colorado State University; the Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center of Palo Alto, California; and SES Government Solutions (now SES Space & Defense) of Reston, Florida. The instrument is built by Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Uses ==
|
||||
It would have been able to detect gas leaks remotely and efficiently from orbit, which at the time it had to be done via manual inspection by crews on the ground looking for a gas leak. Using this method would have saved money (approximately $5-10 billion a year in the US alone) and reduce the carbon footprint of natural gas due to less waste during a leak due to the increased speed and frequency of identification. Additionally, airborne sensors weren't as available as they are at present making this a more viable option at the time.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrumentation ==
|
||||
GeoCARB is an athmospheric chemistry type of instrument which consisted of an apperture assembly, 4 focal plane assemblies, a telescope, a Cold Optical Bench, 2 grating spectrometers, and the necessary electrical components. Its near-infared sensor could have detected and measured CO2, CO, methane, and solar-induced fluorescence or SIF.
|
||||
It would have been able to view an area of approximately 2,800 km (1,740 miles) north to south and 6 km (3.7 miles) east to west of the US and South America where it would have been stationed above at a rate 2.25 hours for the entirety of the continental US and 2.75 hours for South America.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Technical specifications ==
|
||||
The instrument would have weighed approximately 138kg (304 lbs) and would have had a volume of 2 m3. It would have required approximately 128 W and would have had a data rate of 10 Mbit/s operating in the bands of 0.76 μm, 1.61 μm, 2.06 μm and 2.32 μm.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Statements about the project ==
|
||||
Principal Investigator Berrien Moore of the University of Oklahoma stated, "In designing our instrument we said, let's do OCO, but in geostationary orbit. We're building on JPL's work in designing and building OCO-2 and processing its data. In fact, many members of our science team are also working on the OCO-2 mission."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Orbiting Carbon Observatory
|
||||
Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2
|
||||
Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Polonsky, I. N.; et al. (April 2014). "Performance of a geostationary mission, geoCARB, to measure CO2, CH4 and CO column-averaged concentrations". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 7 (4): 959–981. Bibcode:2014AMT.....7..959P. doi:10.5194/amt-7-959-2014.
|
||||
Moore, Berrien III; et al. (9 June 2016). The GeoCARB Mission (PDF). 12th International Workshop on Greenhouse Gas Measurements from Space. 7–9 June 2016. Kyoto, Japan. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
GeoCarb at NASA's Earth Observing System
|
||||
GeoCarb instrument images and schematics of the GeoCarb instrument
|
||||
GeoCarb Archived 2021-05-10 at the Wayback Machine at World Meteorological Organization's OSCAR
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_Earth_Radiation_Budget"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:49.626063+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget (GERB) is an instrument aboard EUMETSAT's Meteosat Second Generation geostationary satellites designed to make accurate measurements of the Earth radiation budget.
|
||||
It was produced by a European consortium consisting of the United Kingdom, Belgium and Italy. The first, known as GERB 2, was launched on 28 August 2002 on an Ariane 5 rocket. The second, GERB 1, was launched on 21 December 2005, and the third, GERB3, on 5 July 2012. The last GERB 4 device was launched 14 July 2015. The first launched GERB 2 on MSG 1 is currently situated over the Indian Ocean at 41.5°E, while GERBs 1 and 3 on MSG 2 and 3 are still located over the standard Africa EUMETSAT position. GERB 4 on MSG is yet to become operational.
|
||||
|
||||
== Scientific motivations and objectives ==
|
||||
The unprecedented rate of atmospheric CO2 increase occurring since the Industrial Revolution due to human activity is of much concern to scientists as it has occurred an order of magnitude faster than planet Earth has ever experienced. Climate models described as Global Circulation Models (GCMs) are currently avenue to investigate and try and predict how Earth climate will change in response such an un-precedented rate of change. Such computer models largely agree on many predictions of how climate will be 'forced' to a different state by such changes but there is still much disagreement, more specifically how such forcing will also results in 'feedbacks' to the system. For example, increased CO2 will increase the greenhouse effect resulting in warmer atmosphere and more melting of Arctic ice. However it is known that a warmer atmosphere can for example contain a higher quantity of water vapor at the same relative humidity, and the melting of highly reflective white Arctic ice will expose open ocean to sunlight. Since water vapor is itself a very strong greenhouse gas and dark Arctic Ocean will absorb more sunlight than highly reflected floating ice, these are both reasonably well understood to be positive feedbacks that will act to accelerate the rate of global warming. Perhaps the least understood aspect of climate change involves clouds, and how they might change in-response to straight atmospheric warming from increased CO2. These effects collectively referred to as cloud forcing or Cloud Radiative Forcing (CRF) and Feedback are not yet understood to the level where it can be predicted with certainty whether their possible feedbacks will in total be positive and accelerate, or negative and slow down global warming. The actions of the Earth weather/climate system are essentially the work done from a global scale heat engine, the heat into which comes from all the absorbed solar energy while the heat out is from thermal infra-red emissions back to space. These two radiative fluxes are referred to as Short-Wave (SW for solar) and Long-Wave (LW for IR) components in what is known as the Earth Radiation Budget (ERB, naturally the heat in requires the reflected SW to be measured and subtracted from the also needed in incoming solar flux). Clouds hence naturally have a huge effect on the ERB due to their high solar SW reflectivity and their strong absorption of outgoing thermal LW. Globally ERB fluxes can only be measured from orbit and have been collected since the 1970s by missions from the US and Europe, most extensively since 1998 by the NASA Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) instruments in low Earth orbit. Such orbital platforms however at most see each point of Earth only twice per day, while cloud formation and modulation of the ERB occurs on the time scale of minutes (see Fig.1). Hence although vital for tracking global changes in the ERB such low orbital measurements cannot be directly used to validate computer simulations of changes to convective cloud formation and dissipation in direct response to the inevitable surface warming due to CO2 increases etc. To address this deficiency in the Earth observing system the European consortium between the UK, Belgium and Italy embarked on the Geo-stationary Earth Radiation Budget (GERB) project, with the intention of placing a highly accurate ERB radiometer on board the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) spin stabilized platforms.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_Earth_Radiation_Budget"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:49.626063+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== GERB device and calibration ==
|
||||
The GERB project is led by the Space and Atmospheric Group (SPAT) based at Imperial College UK, with Professor John. E. Harries the original Principal Investigator and now succeeded by Dr Helen Brindley. The devices themselves were constructed by Rutherford Appleton Laboratory using an Italian 3 mirror silver telescope and electronics designed by the Space Science center at the University of Leicester UK. Each of the four completed GERB devices underwent extensive ground radiometric calibration in a Vacuum Calibration Chamber (VCC) at the Earth Observation and Characterization Facility (EOCF) also the Imperial College and designed by Ray Wrigley. Such tests included confirmation of linearity, LW radiometric gain determination using Warm and Cold BlackBodies (WBB & CBB), SW gain determination using Visible Calibration Source (VISCS) lamp and spot checks on the system level spectral response.
|
||||
Each GERB device makes use of a linear array of blackened thermopile detectors manufactured by Honeywell, which stare at the Earth on each 100rpm rotation of the MSG platform by making use of a De-Scan Mirror (DSM). Hence a column of the Earth disk is taken on each revolution allowing 250x256 Total channel samples followed by 250x256 SW samples with the quartz filter in place every 5 minutes (i.e. the relative phase of the DSM to MSG rotation is shifted slightly each rotation, see Fig.4 bottom right). On each rotation the detectors hence also see the Internal Blackbody (IBB) and Calibration Monitor (CalMon) to allow continuous upgrading of LW & SW gain changes. Its placement toward the outskirts of the 3 meter wide MSG spinning platform demanded rigorous design of the GERB device to withstand the 16g constant centrifugal force to which it is exposed as the DSM rotates.
|
||||
Every 15mins after 3 complete Total and SW 250x256 arrays of the Earth disk are taken a synthetic LW result is obtained from the mean difference between the two. Such ERB results are then combined with a resolution enhancement and cloud retrievals using the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) also on the MSG platform. The combination of GERB and SEVIRI through data synergy also required detailed mapping of each of the 256 GERB detector/telescope Field of View response or Point Spread Function (PSF, see Matthews (2004) ). This was done using a He-Ne laser computer controlled to map each of the 256 thermopiles responses after being covered with gold blacking. Full details of the GERB ground calibration can be obtained at Matthews (2003). The spectral response or measure of the relative absorption at different wavelength of light for each GERB detector is required for the process of un-filtering each thermopile's raw signal. This uses radiative transfer models to estimate the spectral shape of a particular scene radiance to estimate an un-filtering ratio, or the factor needed to account for non-uniform spectral response. For each GERB device this relies on the multiplication of unit level laboratory measurements of detector, telescope, DSM and quartz filter spectral throughput/absorption. The accuracy of GERB SW results is directly dependent on the quality of such measurements as the SW gain is determined using the VISCS lamp, whose spectrum is significantly shifted to longer wavelengths compared to that of the Sun. Such GERB accuracy is currently estimated to be around the 2% level by ref. Such un-filtering is performed by the Royal Meteorological Institute Belgium (RMIB), along with the synergy with SEVIRI data and conversion from radiance to irradiance using Angular Dependency Models (ADMs).
|
||||
|
||||
=== GERB in-flight calibration ===
|
||||
For each of the 100 rotations per minute every GERB detector obtains a scan of both the Internal Blackbody (IBB) and CalMon solar diffuser. The gain in Counts per Wm−2Sr−1 and offsets of each thermopile pixel are regularly updated based on the known temperature of the IBB and its signal's difference from that of the Earthview. The original intention was to use the aluminium solar diffuser CalMon views to track changes in the GERB device throughput of solar photons (see Equations developed by J. Mueller). However, in-flight solar diffusers and their sunlight transmission changes drastically on orbit such that the diffusers on CERES were deemed un-usable by NASA. Also the integrating sphere nature of the CalMon means that solar photons will likely have undergone many reflections off aluminium on the way to the GERB telescope, likely significantly reducing energy at the 830 nm dip in aluminium reflectivity by an unknown amount. Possible alternatives to track changes to GERB device solar response include comparison to other ERB devices such as the proposed NASA CLARREO instrument, or perhaps other broadband devices assuming their calibration is later validated. Another possibility is the use of Moon views as used by the SeaWIFS project to ensure stability of Earth results (see Fig.5).
|
||||
|
||||
== GERB data ==
|
||||
GERB data is available from the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory GGSPS download site below as shown in the animation of Fig.6 which displayed full Earth Disk reflected SW (left) and outgoing LW (right). This animation shows 24hrs worth of GERB SW and LW fluxes which will enable climate scientists to validate how GCMs simulate cloud formation and dissipation and the effects on the ERB.
|
||||
|
||||
=== GERB-SEVIRI synergy ===
|
||||
As ERB fluxes from the CERES instruments are paired with MODIS imager cloud retrievals, it was always the intention to tie GERB SW and LW measurements with results from the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infra-Red Imager (SEVIRI) primary device on the MSG platforms. In addition to the cloud/aerosol retrievals from the narrow-band SEVIRI instrument, the high spatial resolution imager data is combined with the accuracy of GERB to perform resolution enhancement of climate driving fluxes to better evaluate climate model simulations of cloud formation/dissipation and know how they may speed up or slow down climate change. SEVIRI radiances are also used in the GERB un-filtering process to help estimate the spectral shape of the scene being viewed.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Data access ===
|
||||
In addition to the Rutherford GGSPS download site, a new access hub is being set up at the Centre for Environmental Data Analysis (CEDA), which is also listed in the URLs below that will allow access to GERB files.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
GERB
|
||||
GERB at RMIB
|
||||
GGSPS GERB data download Site at Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
|
||||
GERB data download Site at Centre for Environmental Data Analysis
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global-scale_Observations_of_the_Limb_and_Disk"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:53.195103+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk (GOLD) is a heliophysics Mission of Opportunity (MOU) for NASA's Explorers program. Led by Richard Eastes at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, which is located at the University of Colorado Boulder, GOLD's mission is to image the boundary between Earth and space in order to answer questions about the effects of solar and atmospheric variability of Earth's space weather. GOLD was one of 11 proposals selected, of the 42 submitted, for further study in September 2011. On 12 April 2013, NASA announced that GOLD, along with the Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON), had been selected for flight in 2017. GOLD, along with its commercial host satellite SES-14, launched on 25 January 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mission concept and history ==
|
||||
GOLD is intended to perform a two-year mission imaging Earth's thermosphere and ionosphere from geostationary orbit. GOLD is a two-channel far-ultraviolet (FUV) imaging spectrograph built by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and flown as a hosted payload on the commercial communications satellite SES-14. Additional organizations participating in the GOLD mission include the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Virginia Tech, the University of California, Berkeley, the University of Central Florida, Computational Physics Inc., the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), Boston University, and Clemson University.
|
||||
In June 2017, SES announced the successful integration of GOLD with the SES-14 satellite under construction at Airbus Defence and Space in Toulouse, France. GOLD was launched on 25 January 2018 at 22:20 UTC aboard Ariane 5 ECA VA241 from the Centre spatial Guyanais.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Scientific objectives ==
|
||||
The scientific objectives of the GOLD mission are to determine how geomagnetic storms alter the temperature and composition of Earth's atmosphere, to analyze the global-scale response of the thermosphere to solar extreme-ultraviolet variability, to investigate the significance of atmospheric waves and tides propagating from below the temperature structure of the thermosphere and to resolve how the structure of the equatorial ionosphere influences the formation and evolution of equatorial plasma density irregularities. The viewpoint provided by GOLD's geostationary orbit – from which the same hemisphere is always observable – is a new perspective on the Earth's upper atmosphere. This viewpoint allows local time, universal time and longitudinal variations of the thermosphere and ionosphere's response to the various forcing mechanisms to be uniquely determined.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Results ==
|
||||
Data from GOLD has been used to confirm that variation in the equatorial ionization anomaly at night and in the early morning is governed by atmospheric waves in the lower atmosphere. GOLD observations have also implicated gravity waves emanating from the lower atmosphere in the seeding of equatorial plasma bubbles, which degrade GPS performance.
|
||||
GOLD daytime observations of the thermosphere column density ratio of atomic oxygen and nitrogen revealed new findings. First, GOLD observations showed that even weak or minor geomagnetic activity (maximum Kp=1.7) can still generate significant disturbances in the thermosphere and ionosphere. This is crucial for space weather forecasting because the pre-quiet condition before the disturbed time determines the accuracy of the forecast. Second, the neutral tongue, which is an enhancement of O/N2 surrounded by depletion of O/N2 and had only been seen in simulations, was first observed by GOLD. This modified the classic theory of thermospheric composition disturbance during storms. The theory predicted that the disturbance co-rotates from day to night but did not specify what else happens to the depletion.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
GOLD website Archived 15 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine by the University of Central Florida
|
||||
GOLD website Archived 27 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine by NASA
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Ecosystem_Dynamics_Investigation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:50.820843+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI, pronounced ) is a LiDAR altimeter mission by NASA to measure how deforestation has contributed to atmospheric CO2 concentrations. A full-waveform LiDAR was attached to the International Space Station to provide the first global, high-resolution observations of forest vertical structure. This will allow scientists to map habitats and biomass, particularly in the tropics, providing detail on the Earth's carbon cycle. Although GEDI has been originally developed to monitor biomass and carbon cycle, other potentials have been also investigated such as inland water level monitoring and DSM generation.
|
||||
The Principal Investigator is Ralph Dubayah, at the University of Maryland. The Deputy Principal Investigator & Instrument Scientist is J. Bryan Blair at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
GEDI was competitively selected as a NASA Earth Ventures Instrument (EVI) mission in 2014. Cost-capped at $94 M, GEDI is led by the University of Maryland in collaboration with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
|
||||
Climate change is closely tied to that of the carbon cycle. GEDI produces high resolution laser ranging observations of the 3D structure of the forests of Earth, which will provide answers to how deforestation has contributed to atmospheric CO2 concentrations, how much carbon forests will absorb in the future, and how habitat degradation will affect global biodiversity and the water cycle. This, in turn, is also of value for weather forecasting, forest management, glacier and snowpack monitoring. Overall, GEDI will help to better understand how the Earth behaves as a living system.
|
||||
GEDI's LIDAR system provides precise geolocated elevation data that drastically improve global Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). Owing to the vast number of data points that GEDI is capable of collecting it will provide a stronger baseline for DEMs and remove more system errors compared to ICESat.
|
||||
It launched on 5 December 2018 on board a Falcon 9 and it is part of the SpaceX CRS-16 mission. It was mounted on the Japanese Experiment Module - Exposed Facility (JEM-EF) Kibo module for a two-year mission. After three month, GEDI started collecting data for scientific use on March 25, 2019. The mission is being led by Professor Ralph Dubayah of the University of Maryland. Once reaching the end of its two-year mission, GEDI will be removed from the JEM-EF and loaded into another Dragon Capsule trunk for disposal.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument ==
|
||||
|
||||
The GEDI instrument is a geodetic-class, light detection and ranging (Lidar) laser system consisting of three lasers that produce eight parallel tracks of observations. Each laser fires 242 times per second and illuminates a 25 m spot (a footprint) on the surface over which 3D structure is measured. Each footprint is separated by 60 m along track, with an across-track distance of about 600 m between each of the eight tracks. GEDI is expected to produce about 10 billion cloud-free observations during its nominal 24-month mission length.
|
||||
Using an 80 cm telescope attached to the bottom of the instrument, GEDI will be able to receive the pulses of light that bounce back from the Earth' surface and collect information on the 3D structure of the area in question. Upon the optical bench, the instrument contains three Beam Dither Units (BDU), three beam expanders, three star trackers, and three HOMER lasers. The three HOMER lasers built and installed on GEDI were built by D. Barry Coyle, Furqan L. Chiragh, and Erich A. Frese.
|
||||
The GEDI instrumentation is designed to collect data between 51.6° N latitude and 51.6° S latitude. Within this area, GEDI gathers data from approximately four percent of the Earth's surface, including both tropical and temperate forests.
|
||||
The LIDAR system can only operate effectively over relatively cloud free areas. Dense cloud cover blocks the laser pulses and prevents accurate measurements.
|
||||
GEDI uses an active across-track pointing system in order to help show area that is not normally covered due to the International Space Station's orbit pattern. These occur because the ISS is not maintained in a repeating orbit and can get stuck in orbital resonances that essentially repeat orbital tracks and result in large coverage gaps.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Ozone_Monitoring_by_Occultation_of_Stars"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:51.994880+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS), is an instrument on board the European satellite Envisat launched 1 March 2002. It is the first space instrument dedicated to the study of the atmosphere of the Earth by the technique of stellar occultation. The spectrum of stars in the ultraviolet, visible and the near infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum is observed. It is aimed to use GOMOS to build a climatology of ozone and related species in the middle atmosphere (15 to 100 km).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument details ==
|
||||
The 250-680 nm spectral domain is used for the determination of O3, NO2, NO3−, aerosols and temperature. In addition, two high spectral resolution channels centred at 760 and 940 nm allow measurements of O2 and H2O and two fast photometers are used to correct star scintillation perturbations and to determine high vertical resolution temperature profiles.
|
||||
Global latitude coverage is obtained with up to 40 stellar occultations per orbit from South Pole to North Pole. Data acquired on dark limb (night-time) are of better quality than on bright limb (day-time) because of a smaller perturbation by background light.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
GOMOS was first proposed in 1988 as an Announcement of Opportunity instrument dedicated to be a part of the Earth Observation Polar Platform Mission, the former name of Envisat. In 1992 it was decided that GOMOS would be developed as a European Space Agency-funded instrument.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official ESA GOMOS page
|
||||
GOMOS page Archived 2020-02-18 at the Wayback Machine from DLR
|
||||
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_science_(Juno)-0.md
Normal file
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_science_(Juno)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Gravity science (Juno)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_science_(Juno)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:54.396191+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Gravity Science experiment and instrument set aboard the Juno Jupiter orbiter is designed to monitor Jupiter's gravity. It maps Jupiter's gravitational field, which will allow the interior of Jupiter to be better understood. It uses special hardware on Juno, and also on Earth, including the high-gain K-band and X-band communication systems of the Deep Space Network as well as Juno's Ka-band Translator System (KaTS). These components work together to detect minute changes in radio frequency (Doppler shift) to measure the spacecraft's velocity over time. The KaTS box was funded by the Italian Space Agency and overseen by professor Luciano Iess from University La Sapienza in Rome. KaTS detects signals coming from the DSN on Earth, and then sends replies in a very precise way that allows the velocity of Juno to be determined to within 0.001 millimeters per second. The spacecraft receives a tone signal on the X or Ka band and then replies using the Ka-band radio.
|
||||
As the spacecraft traverses the space near Jupiter, the planet, and even variations in the planets interior, cause a variation in Juno velocity. The gravity science experiment measures these velocity changes using a combination of hardware on Earth and the spacecraft, which allows the effect of gravity to be measured, and thereby mass variations in Jupiter's interior.
|
||||
Communication signals:
|
||||
|
||||
Deep Space Network sends a tone signal at 7.1 GHz (X-band) and 34 GHz (Ka-Band)
|
||||
Juno KaTS sends tone signal at 8.5 GHz (X-band) and 32 GHz (Ka-Band)
|
||||
Juno launched in 2011 and arrived at Jupiter orbit in July 2016.
|
||||
The GS was planned out to be used on orbits 4, orbit 9, and orbits 10 through 32. When GS operates it must point its antenna at Earth, and is not operated simultaneously with the Microwave Radiometer instrument on Juno. The parameters of the GS experiment were adjusted to account for a 53-day orbit the Juno spacecraft ended up being in.
|
||||
The GS experiment uses Deep Space Network's DSS-25 antenna which is equipped with simultaneous dual X- and Ka-band transmitters and receivers, as well as the spacecraft which also has X and Ka-band radio systems.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Observations ==
|
||||
The 53-day orbit (rather than the originally planned orbit) produced certain challenges for the GS experiment, which required signals to be sent between the DSN on Earth and the spacecraft. It was possible to make measurements, although various configurations were tried for the first five Perijoves between July 2016 and September 2017.
|
||||
It was possible to use the data from the observations, and from just the first two Perijoves the accuracy of Jupiter's gravity field record was increased by factor of five according to one report. This data allowed further insight to Jupiter's internal structure.
|
||||
Additional data collections refined by understanding of the early recordings is planned for the experiment.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
NASA Deep Space Network
|
||||
GRACE and GRACE-FO (GRACE, gravity science spacecraft for Earth)
|
||||
Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (ASI contributed instrument)
|
||||
REX (New Horizons) (Radio science experiment for Pluto probe)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA – Juno instruments Archived 2017-05-09 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
JUNO JUPITER RAW GRAVITY SCIENCE 1 V1.0
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Habitability, Brine Irradiation and Temperature"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitability,_Brine_Irradiation_and_Temperature"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:55.573215+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Habitability, Brine Irradiation and Temperature (HABIT) is an instrument designed to harvest water from the Mars atmosphere, an experiment that might pave the way to future water farms on Mars. As part of ESA's ExoMars-2 mission, the instrument was planned to be placed on board the Kazachok lander. The launch of ExoMars-2 has been postponed to 2028.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument description ==
|
||||
HABIT is composed of two major components: BOTTLE (Brine Observation Transition to Liquid Experiment) and ENVPACK (Environmental Package). BOTTLE contains six containers protected by HEPA filters, filled with salts that will collect atmospheric water through deliquescence. Sensors in each container will measure hydration and a state in which brine formed. Salts in the instrument can be dehydrated to allow indefinite operations of the instrument.
|
||||
ENVPACK will contain instruments measuring ultraviolet irradiance, ground temperature, and a temperature of the atmosphere in three different directions. Most of the ENVPACK instruments were already used in Rover Environmental Monitoring Station of the NASA's Curiosity rover. The Principal Investigator of HABIT is Javier Martin-Torres.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Scientific objectives ==
|
||||
The objectives of HABIT are:
|
||||
|
||||
to investigate (and quantify) the habitability of the landing site in terms of availability of water, ultraviolet radiation, and temperature ranges
|
||||
to investigate the atmosphere/regolith water interchange, the subsurface hydration, as well as the ozone, water and dust atmospheric cycle, and the convective activity of the boundary layer
|
||||
to demonstrate an in situ resource utilization technology for future Mars exploration
|
||||
The HABIT instrument will use salts to absorb 5 millilitres of water from the atmosphere each day, and can hold 25 mL in total. If the process works as expected, the technology could be scaled up to provide water for future crewed missions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
36
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazcam-0.md
Normal file
36
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazcam-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Hazcam"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazcam"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:56.826839+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Hazcams (short for hazard avoidance cameras) are photographic cameras mounted on the front and rear of NASA's Spirit, Opportunity, Curiosity and Perseverance rover missions to Mars and on the lower front portion of the Chinese Yutu rover mission to the Moon and the Zhurong rover to Mars.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
The Curiosity rover's hazcams are sensitive to visible light and return black and white images of resolution 1024 × 1024 pixels. These images are used by the rovers' internal computer to autonomously navigate around hazards. Due to their positioning on both sides of the rovers, simultaneous images taken by either both front or both rear cameras can be used to produce a 3D map of the immediate surroundings. As the cameras are fixed (i.e. can not move independently of the rover), they have a wide field of view (approximately 120° both horizontally and vertically) to allow a large amount of terrain to be visible.
|
||||
They are considered engineering cameras since they were not designed to be used for scientific experiments. The other set of engineering cameras on the rovers are the navcams.
|
||||
The safe landing of the Mars Science Laboratory was initially confirmed using the vehicle's hazcams.
|
||||
The Perseverance cameras are qualified to operate in temperatures at the poles of Mars and image correctly over a 100 °C (212 °F) temperature range.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Astrionics
|
||||
List of NASA cameras on spacecraft
|
||||
Mars rover
|
||||
Navigation Camera (Navcam)
|
||||
Panoramic Camera (Pancam)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
NASA page detailing the rovers' "senses" Archived 2005-04-05 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Mars Exploration Rover Technical Data
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_Flow_and_Physical_Properties_Package"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:58.005408+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3) is a science payload on board the InSight lander that features instruments to study the heat flow and other thermal properties of Mars. One of the instruments, a burrowing probe nicknamed "the mole", was designed to penetrate 5 m (16 ft) below Mars' surface. In March 2019, the mole burrowed a few centimeters, but then became unable to make progress due to various factors. In the following year further attempts were made to resolve the issues, with little net progress. On January 14, 2021, it was announced that efforts to drill into the martian surface using the device had been terminated.
|
||||
HP3 was provided by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The hammering mechanism inside the mole was designed by the Polish company Astronika and the Space Research Centre of the Polish Academy of Sciences under contract and in cooperation with DLR.
|
||||
The Principal Investigator is Tilman Spohn from the German Aerospace Center.
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
The mission goal was to understand the origin and diversity of terrestrial planets. Information from the HP3 heat flow package was expected to reveal whether Mars and Earth formed from the same material, and determine how active the interior of Mars is today. Additional science goals included determining the thickness of Mars' crust, the composition of its mantle, and thermal characteristics of the interior, such as the temperature gradient and heat flux.
|
||||
Together with the seismometer, the mission will estimate the size of Mars' core and whether the core is liquid or solid. The vibrations generated by the mole were monitored by SEIS to learn about the local subsurface.
|
||||
In addition to the mole, HP3 includes an infrared radiometer (HP3-RAD) mounted to the landing platform, also contributed by DLR.
|
||||
|
||||
The HP3 heat flow probe is made up of the following subsystems:
|
||||
|
||||
Support Structure (SS) a housing that includes:
|
||||
Engineering tether (ET) to communicate between the support structure to the lander
|
||||
Science tether (TEM-P) a flex PCB with 14 platinum RTDs for measuring thermal properties of the regolith.
|
||||
Tether length monitor (TLM) optical length meter for measuring the deployed length of the science tether
|
||||
Infrared radiometer (HP3-RAD) for measuring surface temperature.
|
||||
Back end electronics (BEE) electronic control unit
|
||||
Mole penetrometer for burrowing beneath the surface
|
||||
TEM-A active thermal conductivity sensor
|
||||
STATIL tiltmeter for determining orientation and direction of the mole.
|
||||
|
||||
== Development ==
|
||||
|
||||
HP3 was conceived by Gromov V. V. et al. in 1997, and first flown as the PLUTO instrument on the failed 2003 Beagle 2 Mars lander mission. HP3 evolved further and it was proposed in 2001 for a mission to Mercury, in 2009 to the European Space Agency as part of the Humboldt payload on board the ExoMars lander, in 2010 for a mission to the Moon, and in 2011 it was proposed to NASA's Discovery Program as a payload for InSight Mars lander, known at that time as GEMS (Geophysical Monitoring Station). InSight was launched on 5 May 2018 and landed on 26 November 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
== Mole penetrometer ==
|
||||
The mole is described as a "self-hammering nail" and was designed to burrow below the Martian surface while trailing a tether with embedded heaters and temperature sensors. The goal was to measure the thermal properties of Mars' interior, and thus reveal unique information about the planet's geologic history.
|
||||
The burrowing mole is a pointed cylinder with a smooth outer surface approximately 35 cm (14 in) in length and 3.5 cm (1.4 in) in diameter. It contains a heater to determine thermal conductivity during descent, and it trails a tether equipped with precise heat sensors placed at 10 cm (3.9 in) intervals to measure the temperature profile of the subsurface.
|
||||
The mole penetrator unit is designed to be placed near the lander in an area about 3-m long and 2-m wide. The total mass of the system is approximately 3 kg (6.6 lb) and it consumes a maximum of 2 watts while the mole is active.
|
||||
For displacement, the mole uses a motor and a gearbox (provided by Maxon) and a cammed roller that periodically loads a spring connected to a rod that functions as a hammer. After release from the cam, the hammer accelerates downwards to hit the outer casing and cause its penetration through the regolith. Meanwhile, a suppressor mass travels upwards and its kinetic energy is compensated by gravitational potential and compression of a brake spring and wire helix on the opposite side of the mole.
|
||||
In principle, every 50 cm (20 in) the probe puts out a pulse of heat and its sensors measure how the heat pulse changes with time. If the crust material is a thermal conductor, like metal, the pulse will decay quickly. The mole is first allowed to cool down for two days, then it is heated to about 10 °C (50 °F) over 24 hours. Temperature sensors within the tether measure how rapidly this happens, which tells scientists the thermal conductivity of the soil. Together, these measurements yield the rate of heat flowing from the interior.
|
||||
The HP3 mole was originally expected to take about 40 days to reach 5 m (16 ft) deep, but ultimately achieved only a few centimeters after more than a year of effort. As the mole burrows, it generates vibrations that SEIS can detect, which were hoped to yield information about the Martian subsurface.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_Flow_and_Physical_Properties_Package"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:58.005408+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Penetration efforts ===
|
||||
In March 2019, the HP3 began burrowing into the surface sand, but became stalled after several centimeters by what was initially suspected to be a large rock. Further analysis and testing with a replica model on Earth suggested the problem may be due to insufficient friction. In June 2019, more evidence for this was revealed when the support structure was lifted off of the HP3 mole. The Martian regolith appeared to be compressed, leaving a gap around the probe.
|
||||
A technique was implemented using the lander's robotic arm to press on the soil near the probe to increase soil friction. Ultimately, this method was not able to generate enough downward force, since the HP3 probe was at the limit of the arm's range.
|
||||
Instead, the team used the robotic scoop to pin the probe against the edge of its hole. This method appeared successful initially, as the probe continued to dig for two weeks, until it was flush with the surface. At this time, the exposed top of the probe was too small for the scoop to press against, so the scoop was re-positioned to press down on the soil near the probe. Unfortunately, this caused the probe to back out again due to unusual soil properties and low atmospheric pressure. As the probe bounced, loose soil filled the area beneath it and lifted the probe halfway out again. In January 2020, the team used the pinning method again, but once again the probe ejected after the scoop was repositioned.
|
||||
In February 2020, the team reevaluated the risks of pushing the back cap of the mole directly using the robotic scoop, and determined the procedure to be acceptable. The procedure progressed slowly due to the requirement to reposition the scoop after each 1.5 cm of progress. In June 2020, the top of the mole reached the regolith surface. The mole entered the surface at an angle of 30 degrees from vertical, but this angle may decrease if a greater depth is reached.
|
||||
In July 2020, it was revealed that the mole was bouncing in place, underneath the scoop, suggesting insufficient friction to continue digging. A proposed solution was to fill the hole with sand in order to distribute pressure from the robotic scoop, thereby increasing friction. This procedure was performed in early August 2020.
|
||||
In late August 2020, a test indicated positive results. The scoop applied a downward force to the sand which covered the mole while hammering strokes were performed. This test resulted in a few millimeters of progress, and ultimately buried the instrument. In October 2020, the top of the mole was below the surface of Mars, and a decision was made to scrape two more scoops of regolith and tamp it down with the robotic scoop. Hammering operations were scheduled to continue in January 2021.
|
||||
Final attempts to get the probe deeper took place on 9 January 2021; after they proved unsuccessful, the decision was made to stop attempting to dig deeper. On January 14, 2021, NASA announced that, as the final attempt to bury the "mole" had failed, the team had given up, with the heat probe portion of the mission declared to be over. The lead scientist for the experiment, Tilman Spohn, said that, "Mars and our heroic mole remain incompatible." The science team determined that the soil properties at the landing location were too different from what the instrument had been designed for. The team attempted many different remedies over several years to get the mole burrowing, but ultimately the attempts did not reach the target depth. The friction between the soil and the probe was not enough for the mole to hammer itself deeper.
|
||||
The mole did achieve complete burial; the top of the mole is 2 to 3 centimetres below the Martian surface (with the mole itself being about 40 centimetres in length, the depth was thus about 43 centimetres). To be able to produce useful thermal measurements, the minimum required depth was specified as at least 3 metres deep.
|
||||
Although unsuccessful, the mole's operations did teach the mission team a lot about the soil at the Insight site, about conducting excavation/drilling on Mars, and about operating the lander's robotic arm. The mole-rescue effort used the arm in ways that were unplanned before the mission. The seismometer (SEIS), radio experiment (RISE) and the weather instruments (TWINS) continued to operate until the end of December 2022.
|
||||
|
||||
== HP3-RAD Infrared Radiometer ==
|
||||
The HP3 includes an infrared radiometer for measuring surface temperatures, contributed by DLR and based on the MARA radiometer for the Hayabusa2 mission. HP3-RAD uses thermopile detectors to measure three spectral bands: 8–14 μm, 16–19 μm and 7.8–9.6 μm. HP3-RAD has a mass of 120 g (4.2 oz).
|
||||
The detector was protected by a removable cover during landing. The cover also serves as a calibration target for the instrument, supporting on-site calibration of the HP3-RAD.
|
||||
Infrared radiometers were sent to Mars in 1969 as one of four major instruments on the Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 flyby spacecraft, and the observations helped to trigger a scientific revolution in knowledge about Mars. The Mariner 6 & 7 infrared radiometer results showed that the atmosphere of Mars is composed mostly of carbon dioxide (CO2), and revealed trace amounts water on the surface of Mars.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Mini-TES, an infrared instrument on the 2003 Mars Exploration Rovers
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Hammering Mechanism for the HP3 Experiment onboard InSight. (PDF)
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:25:32.987481+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:59.180833+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:25:32.987481+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:44:59.180833+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiROS-0.md
Normal file
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiROS-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "HiROS"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiROS"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:01.545763+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
HiROS (High Resolution Optical System) is a satellite system operating in the visible and near infra-red (NIR) optical range with a 0.5 m ground resolution. It is developed by the German Aerospace Center and will allegedly be used for espionage purposes, according to leaked diplomatic cables.
|
||||
The satellite has a mass of 820 kg, and can be launched from various Soyuz, Vega, or Rockot rockets. It has a revisit time of 24 h.
|
||||
The project was cancelled in 2012.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument performance ==
|
||||
The instrument itself has a mass of 190 kg. Its detector has a panchromatic channel between 450 and 900 nm (visible and near IR) with a ground resolution of 0.5 m. In a multichannel operation, it can achieve 2 m ground resolution. It has a signal to noise ratio of 200 and a dynamic range of 1:5000 and uses a 14 bit analog to digital converter.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
(in English) www.ifp.uni-stuttgart.de Presentations from 2009
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "High Resolution Stereo Camera"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Resolution_Stereo_Camera"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:00.340228+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) is a camera experiment on Mars Express. A version for Earth called HRSC-AX was also developed, as was a version for Mars 96. It has four main parts: camera head, super resolution channel, instrument frame, and digital unit. At an altitude of 250 km from Mars, SRC can produce images with a resolution of 2.3 meters/pixel of 2.35 km square Mars terrain. It has 9 channels and can produce digital terrain models. A typical image from HRSC of Mars has a resolution ranging from 12.5 for nadir (directly down) to 25 m/pixel for the furthest off-nadir shots, which can be up to 18.9 degrees.
|
||||
By 2012, about 61.5% of the surface of Mars was mapped at a resolution of at least 20 meters per pixel by the Mars Express mission using this camera. Another area of study is repeat imaging, to allow the study of dynamic processes on Mars. Another trick is to make short videos of the Mars surface by taking advantage of the pushbroom nature of the detector. Each section is slightly offset for a different color, but when combined, every view is used to make a short animation.
|
||||
By the start of 2015, about 70% of Mars had been imaged at resolutions greater than 20 m per pixel, and 97% at resolutions of least 60 m per pixel.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Example observation ==
|
||||
Orcus Patera, imaged by the HRSC:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Trace Gas Orbiter (next ESA Mars orbiter, arrived 2016)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
ESA – High Resolution Stereo Camera
|
||||
Aeolis Mons (Mount Sharp) and Gale – Image/HRSCview Archived 2017-08-07 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Aeolis Mons (Mount Sharp) – HRSCview Archived 2016-08-05 at the Wayback Machine (oblique view looking east)
|
||||
HRSC + Phobos Archived 2013-11-11 at the Wayback Machine (with SRC shots overlaid)
|
||||
Phobos by HRSC
|
||||
HRSC Press release archive (2004–2012)
|
||||
HRSC with SRC of Victoria Crater and area near Opportunity rover's landing site Archived 2016-11-13 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Clouds in Nilokeras Scopulus Archived 2016-11-13 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
TPS – Capturing Martian Weather in Motion – November 4, 2016
|
||||
THE HIGH RESOLUTION STEREO CAMERA (HRSC): STATUS AND FACTS (2015) (Includes graph of cumulative surface coverage by resolution, up to 2015)
|
||||
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Stellar_Compass-0.md
Normal file
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Stellar_Compass-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Inertial Stellar Compass"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Stellar_Compass"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:02.734752+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Inertial Stellar Compass (ISC) was a proposed instrument for an advanced navigation system designed to allow spacecraft to operate more autonomously by enabling precise attitude determination with an accuracy of better than 0.1 degrees across all three axes. It also provides the capability to recover orientation after a power loss.
|
||||
The ISC is small in size and consumes low power to operate. The ISC was developed by NASA as part of New Millennium program's Space Technology 6 project in collaboration with Charles Stark Draper Laboratory.
|
||||
The instrument functions with a combination of a miniaturized star tracker and gyroscopes. It uses a wide field-of-view active pixel star camera and a micro electromechanical system to determine the real-time stellar attitude (orientation) of the spacecraft. It has a mass of 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and requires 3.5 W power.
|
||||
In 2007, it was successfully deployed and fully operational in space aboard the TacSat-2 spacecraft.
|
||||
As the New Millennium Program had its budget cancelled in 2009, it is unclear whether development of this instrument is ongoing.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Infrared Spectrometer for ExoMars"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Spectrometer_for_ExoMars"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:05.255251+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Infrared Spectrometer for ExoMars (ISEM) was an infrared spectrometer for remote sensing designed to be part of the science payload on board the European Space Agency's Rosalind Franklin rover, tasked to search for biosignatures and biomarkers on Mars. ISEM would provide context assessment of the surface mineralogy in the vicinity of the Rosalind Franklin rover for selection of potential astrobiological targets. The Principal Investigator was Oleg Korablev from the Russian Space Research Institute (IKI). The instrument's use on the rover was cancelled, together with other Russian contributions to the project, after Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and it was replaced by the Welsh-built ENFYS.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
The Infrared Spectrometer for ExoMars (ISEM) was being developed by the Russian Space Research Institute (IKI). It would be the first instance of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) observations done from the Mars surface. The instrument would be installed on the Rosalind Franklin rover's mast to measure reflected solar radiation in the near infrared range for context assessment of the surface mineralogy in the vicinity of Rosalind Franklin for selection of potential astrobiological targets. As the number of samples obtained with the drill will be limited, the selection of high-value sites for drilling will be crucial. Working with PanCam (a high-resolution panoramic camera), ISEM would aid in the selection of potential targets, especially water-bearing minerals, for close-up investigations and drilling sites. ISEM could detect, if present, organic compounds, including evolving trace gases such as hydrocarbons like methane in the Martian atmosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
The stated science objectives of ISEM were:
|
||||
|
||||
Geological investigation and study a composition of Martian soils in the uppermost few millimeters of the surface.
|
||||
Characterisation of the composition of surface materials, discriminating between various classes of silicates, oxides, hydrated minerals and carbonates.
|
||||
Identification and mapping of the distribution of aqueous alteration products on Mars.
|
||||
Real-time assessment of surface composition in selected areas, in support of identifying and selection of the most promising drilling sites.
|
||||
Studies of variations of the atmospheric dust properties and of the atmospheric gaseous composition.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Development ==
|
||||
ISEM was a derivative of the Lunar Infrared Spectrometer (LIS) being developed by the Russian Space Research Institute (IKI) in Moscow for the planned Luna-25 and Luna-27 Russian landers. Collaborating institutions included: Moscow State University, Main Astrophysical Observatory, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the National Research Institute for Physicotechnical and Radio Engineering Measurements (VNIIFTRI) in Russia, Moscow State University, and the Aberystwyth University in United Kingdom. The science team includes researchers from Russia, France, Italy, Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Canada.
|
||||
The instrument has been designed to specifically detect carbonates, oxalates, borates, nitrates, NH4-bearing minerals, that are good indicators of past habitable conditions such as aqueous minerals. It was also designed to detect organic compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and those containing aliphatic C-H molecules. In addition, ISEM could also detect seasonal frost, if present at the landing site, and it could be used to analyse the bore hole excavated by the ExoMars drill, if the rover backs away some distance.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Astrobiology
|
||||
Life on Mars
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Infrared interferometer spectrometer and radiometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_interferometer_spectrometer_and_radiometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:03.977246+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An infrared interferometer spectrometer and radiometer (IRIS) is a scientific instrument of the Voyager space probes which enables the measurement of three distinct properties. The instrument itself consists of two separate instruments that together share a single large-aperture telescope system.
|
||||
The Infrared interferometer spectrometer holds two functions as it can act as a thermometer and/or spectrometer. The thermometer allows for the observance and measurement of heat energy emitting from an object, and the spectrometer enables the identification of various elements, molecules, and compounds which may be present in an atmosphere and/or on the surface of a body. The separate radiometer allows for the measurement of reflected infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light off of a body.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
Early versions of the IRIS were flown on the 1960s Nimbus 3 and Nimbus 4. In 1971, an early prototype was used on Mariner 9 to examine Mars.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
The instrument was included, primarily, to meet the following objectives.
|
||||
|
||||
Determination of atmospheric vertical thermal structure (which in turn aids modeling of atmospheric dynamics).
|
||||
Measurement of the abundances of hydrogen and helium (as a check on theories regarding their ratio in the primitive solar nebula).
|
||||
Determination of the balance of energy radiated to that absorbed from the sun (to help investigate planetary origin, evolution, and internal processes).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Discoveries ==
|
||||
During the Voyager trip past Saturn, the IRIS discovered complex organic molecules in Titan's atmosphere. This discovery would be further examined by the Cassini-Huygens probe in 2005.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
"Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer and Radiometer". voyager.jpl.nasa.gov. N.A.S.A. Retrieved 2018-08-04.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Science_Investigation_of_the_Sun"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:06.434344+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun or IS☉IS, is an instrument aboard the Parker Solar Probe, a space probe designed to study the Sun. IS☉IS is focused on measuring energetic particles from the Sun, including electrons, protons, and ions. The parent spacecraft was launched in early August 2018, and with multiple flybys of Venus will study the heliosphere of the Sun from less than 4 million kilometers or less than 9 solar radii.
|
||||
IS☉IS consists of two detectors, EPI-Lo and EPI-Hi, corresponding to detection of relatively lower and higher energy particles. EPI-Lo is designed to detect from about 20 keV per nucleon up to 15 MeV (mega electronvolts) total energy, and for electrons from about 25 keV up to 1000 keV. EPI-Hi is designed to measure charged particles from about 1– to 200 MeV per nucleon and electrons from about 0.5 to 6 MeV, according to a paper about the device.
|
||||
The shortname includes a symbol for the Sun, a circle with a dot in it: ☉. NASA suggests pronouncing the name as in English.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operations ==
|
||||
|
||||
By September 2018, IS☉IS had been turned on and first light data was returned.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== EPI-Hi ==
|
||||
EPI-Hi includes:
|
||||
|
||||
High Energy Telescope (1)
|
||||
HET has 16 detectors stacked
|
||||
Low Energy Telescopes (2)
|
||||
LET1 is double ended with 9 stacked detectors
|
||||
LET2 is single ended with 7 stacked detectors
|
||||
The detectors are solid-state devices.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== EPI-Lo ==
|
||||
EPI-Lo includes 8 wedge detectors, fed by 80 separate entrances. These entrances correspond to covering a field of view over almost a full hemisphere.
|
||||
EPI-Lo can record differential energy spectra for electrons, Hydrogen, Helium-3, Helium-4, Carbon, Oxygen, Neon, Magnesium, Silicon, and Iron.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
JEDI (instrument on Juno Jupiter orbiter that detects energetic particles at Jupiter)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Interior Characterization of Europa using Magnetometry"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_Characterization_of_Europa_using_Magnetometry"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:07.678711+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Interior Characterization of Europa using Magnetometry (ICEMAG) is a multi-frequency magnetometer that was proposed to be flown on board the Europa Clipper mission to Jupiter's moon Europa, but its inclusion was cancelled in March 2019. Magnetic induction is a powerful tool for probing the subsurface and determine Europa's ocean depth, salinity, and ice shell thickness, as well as detecting erupting plume activity.
|
||||
The Principal Investigator is Carol Raymond, at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
|
||||
On March 5, 2019, NASA's Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate, Thomas Zurbuchen, announced that ICEMAG would no longer be part of the Europa Clipper mission, primarily citing recurring cost increases (over three times the original cost put forward in the proposal). A less complex magnetometer will be included on the mission.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
Magnetic induction is a powerful tool for probing the subsurface. ICEMAG would have observed the magnetic field near Europa with greatly enhanced sensitivity compared to a similar instrument carried by NASA's Galileo spacecraft, which orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003. The magnetic field induced in Europa over many frequencies would reveal the ocean depth and ice shell thickness, especially when combined with the REASON ice penetrating radar data and the PIMS instrument. Knowledge of the ocean properties would help understand Europa's evolution and allow evaluation of processes that have cycled material between the depths and the surface, and would help assess the ocean's potential habitability. ICEMAG would have helped in understanding not only what Europa is made of, but also the processes that link the ocean to the surface, and how the system works.
|
||||
ICEMAG was to utilize fluxgate magnetic field sensors and helium sensors in an integrated magnetic measurement system. Electromagnetic waves between 10−2 to 1 hertz could reveal localized mass flow of ions arising from plumes and the atmosphere; that is, localized transient currents indicate plume activity. In general, ICEMAG data would have combined synergistically with other data sets to improve knowledge of interior properties and exosphere activity.
|
||||
The instrument was put under review in the summer of 2018 due to out of control costs. By March 6, 2019, the instrument was cancelled in favor of finding a more affordable, less complex replacement. The cause of the cost increases was traced to the helium sensors used to detect the direction and strength of a magnetic field.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
The objectives of the ICEMAG investigation were to be:
|
||||
|
||||
Constrain Europa's thermal evolution and current interior state
|
||||
Identify the source of the Europan atmosphere and processes by which it is lost
|
||||
Understand coupling between Europa and Jupiter's ionospheres and coupling of plumes to the flowing plasma
|
||||
Determine the location, thickness and salinity of the Europan ocean
|
||||
Locate of any active vents, plumes, and ionized plasma trails, the strength of plumes, and loss rates from the atmosphere
|
||||
Determine the strength of electric currents and plasma coupling Jupiter to Europa
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Spacecraft magnetometer
|
||||
Magnetometer (Juno)
|
||||
FIELDS
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "International Lunar Observatory"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Lunar_Observatory"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:08.826982+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The International Lunar Observatory (ILO) is a private scientific and commercial lunar mission by the International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA Hawai'i) of Kamuela, Hawaii to place a permanent observatory near the South Pole of the Moon to conduct astrophysical studies using an optical telescope and possibly an antenna dish. The mission aims to prove a conceptual design for a lunar observatory that would be reliable, low cost, and fast to implement. A precursor mission, ILO-X consisting of two small imagers (totaling less than 0.6 kg), launched on 15 February 2024 aboard the Intuitive Machines IM-1 mission to the Moon south pole region. It is hoped to be a technology precursor to a future observatories on the Moon, and other commercial initiatives.
|
||||
The ILO-1 mission is being organized by the International Lunar Observatory Association and the Space Age Publishing Company. It was planned to be launched in 2008 with development by SpaceDev, and was first delayed to 2013. The prime contractors originally were Moon Express, providing the MX-1E lander, and Canadensys Aerospace, providing the optical telescope system. The estimated cost in 2004 was of US$50 million.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
The ILO-1 mission, was later scheduled to be launched in July 2020 with an Electron rocket from New Zealand. The mission was called Moon Express Lunar Scout, and it would have used the MX-1E lander to deliver the observatory on top of the Malapert Mountain, a 5 km tall peak in the Aitken Basin region that has an uninterrupted direct line of sight to Earth, which facilitates communications any time. The original launch of the MX-1E lander with an Electron rocket was cancelled sometime before February 2020; no launch date or launch rocket for the MX-1E has been since announced, leaving the status of it unknown. The ILO-1 flagship payload, and its back up ILO-2, is still being advanced through work by Canadensys Aerospace Corporation (March 2024) while ILOA seeks a different landing provider and partner to land on Malapert Mountain.
|
||||
On July 2, 2025, ILOA Hawai'i announced its selection of Venturi Astrolab FLEX rover to carry the ILO-1 payload to the Moon South Pole region. The mission is set to launch no earlier than December 2026, and operate on the lunar surface for 1-6 years.
|
||||
The small robotic ILO-1 observatory is designed to withstand the long lunar nights so it is expected to operate for a few years. Moon Express would have also utilized the mission to explore the Moon's South Pole for mineral resources including water ice. The original plan for the ILO-1 included an optical portion of the system is a Schmidt–Cassegrain telescope. That optical system uses a 7 cm diameter lens, with an 18 cm focal plane, a 13 cm f/5.6 aperture, and 6.4-megapixel resolution. The telescope system would have been "about the size of a shoe-box" with a mass of approximately 2 kg.
|
||||
Some collaborators include the National Astronomical Observatory of China (NAOC), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the newly formed Southeast Asia Principal Operating Partnership, and others.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== ILO-X precursor ==
|
||||
An ILO-X Precursor instruments were launched on the Intuitive Machines Nova-C IM-1 mission on 15 February 2024. IM-1 landed on the Moon on 22 February, about halfway through the lunar day. Since the lander is unprotected from the cold lunar night, it was only expected to operate until sunset, about seven earth days. ILO-X includes both wide-field and narrow-field imaging systems. The narrow field-of-view imager was named "Ka 'Imi" (To Search) after a student won the Moon Camera Naming Contest held statewide in Hawai'i from March–May 2022. There was an auction to name the wide field-of-view instrument which closed 22 March 2024 and resulted in the winning name Lunar Codex being proposed and accepted. ILOA released its first images from the ILO-X wide field-of-view imager to the public on 29 February 2024 which included one image taken during Deorbit, Descent and Landing (DDL) on 22 February 2024 about 4.2 minutes prior to touchdown which occurred 23:24 UTC, and another image post-landing taken at about 00:30 UTC on 25 February 2024 which shows portions of the lunar landscape, regolith / dust, the Sun, and the IM-1 Odysseus lunar lander. The company received a total of 16 high-res images and 322 thumbnails from the ILO-X imagers, but the mission did not fulfill its main astronomy mission goals to capture images of the Milky Way Galaxy or stars in the celestial sky due to off-nominal pointing of the lander. Also stored on the flash memory within the ILO-X instruments are digital assets (41 files, 2 copies of which were transmitted back to Earth from the Moon surface), which are documented on the commercial payloads/digital assets catalogue of the Space Artefacts site under search term "ILOA Moon Museum".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== ILO-C instrument ==
|
||||
An ILO-C payload is planned to be launched aboard China's Chang'E-7 lunar lander around 2026. CNSA announced its solicitation for payloads onboard Chang’E-7 mission, from which the ILO-C proposal was selected to move forward. ILO-C "seeks to advance Galaxy imaging, 21st Century Astronomy / Science from the Moon and precursor proof-of-concept development for the ILO-1 flagship mission". It will be a small, wide-field optical telescope, produced in Beijing, China through a Memorandum of Understanding between International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA), Hong Kong University (HKU), National Astronomical Observatories of Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC), and the National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand (NARIT).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objective ==
|
||||
The ILO-1 mission's objective is to conduct astrophysical observations from the surface of the Moon, whose lack of atmosphere eliminates much of the need for costly adaptive optics technology. Also, since the Moon's days (about fourteen Earth days) have a dark sky, it allows for nonstop astronomical observations. Disadvantages include micrometeorite impacts, cosmic and solar radiation, lunar dust, and temperature shifts as large as 350 °C. The mission aims to acquire images of galaxies, stars, planets, the Moon and Earth. The project will promote commercial access to the telescope use to schools, scientists and the public at large through the Internet.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of artificial objects on the Moon
|
||||
List of missions to the Moon
|
||||
Lunar Ultraviolet Cosmic Imager, a proposed lunar-based telescope
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
ILO-X and ILO-X Commercial Missions at Canadyensis Aerospace
|
||||
History of Lunar-Based Astronomy at Space Age Publishing Co.
|
||||
47
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDI-0.md
Normal file
47
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDI-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "JEDI"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDI"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:10.021020+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
JEDI (Jupiter Energetic-particle Detector Instrument) is an instrument on the Juno spacecraft orbiting planet Jupiter. JEDI coordinates with the several other space physics instruments on the Juno spacecraft to characterize and understand the space environment of Jupiter's polar regions, and specifically to understand the generation of Jupiter's powerful aurora. It is part of a suite of instruments to study the magnetosphere of Jupiter. JEDI consists of three identical detectors that use microchannel plates and foil layers to detect the energy, angle, and types of ion within a certain range. It can detect electrons between 40 and 500 keV (Kilo electron-volts), and hydrogen and oxygen from a few tens of keV to less than 1000 keV (1 MeV). JEDI uses radiation-hardened Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)s. JEDI was turned on in January 2016 while still en route to Jupiter, to study interplanetary space. JEDI uses solid state detectors (SSDs) to measure the total energy (E) of both the ions and the electrons. The MCP anodes and the SSD arrays are configured to determine the directions of arrivals of the incoming charged particles. The instruments also use fast triple coincidence and optimum shielding to suppress penetrating background radiation and incoming UV foreground.
|
||||
JEDI is designed to collect data on "energy, spectra, mass species (H, He, O, S), and angular distributions"; the plan is to study the energies and distribution of charged particles. It can detect them at between 30 keV and 1 GeV, whereas JADE, another instrument on the spacecraft, is designed to observe below 30 keV. One of the concepts being studied is how energy from Jupiter's rotation is being converted in its atmosphere and magnetosphere.
|
||||
It is radiation-hardened to collect in situ data on the planet's auroral magnetic field lines, the equatorial magnetosphere, and the polar ionosphere. It was built by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL). One of the goals is to understand the aurorae, and how particles are accelerated to such high speeds. One of the mysteries of Jupiter is that X-rays are emitted from the poles, but do not seem to come from the auroral ring.
|
||||
Each detector has a field of view of 120 degrees by 12 degrees, and they are together positioned to provide a 360-degree (a full circle) view of the sky along that axis. The Juno spacecraft travels very rapidly in the close vicinity of Jupiter (up to 50 km/s) and also spins very slowly (2 RPM).
|
||||
JEDI can detected particles from 30 to 1000 keV including:
|
||||
|
||||
Electrons
|
||||
Proton (hydrogen) ions
|
||||
Helium ions
|
||||
Sulfur ions
|
||||
Oxygen ions
|
||||
Energetic neutral atoms (ENA's)
|
||||
In relation to other space missions, an instrument on the Earth-orbiting Van Allen Probes (launched 2012), called RBSPICE, is nearly identical to JEDI. This type of instrument is also similar to the PEPSSI instrument on New Horizons (Pluto/Kupiter probe).
|
||||
JEDI, in combination with data from the Ultraviolet Spectrometer, detected electrical potentials of 400,000 electron volts (400 keV), 20–30 times higher than Earth, driving charged particles into the polar regions of Jupiter.
|
||||
A scientific paper titled Juno observations of energetic charged particles over Jupiter's polar regions: Analysis of monodirectional and bidirectional electron beams included results from a close pass over Jupiter's poles in August 2016 for electrons (25–800 keV) and protons (10–1500 keV). The paper analyzed electron angular beams in the auroral regions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Gravity Science
|
||||
IS☉IS (energetic particle detector on Parker Solar Probe)
|
||||
Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment (JADE)
|
||||
Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM)
|
||||
JunoCam (Visible-light camera on Juno orbiter)
|
||||
Magnetometer (Juno) (MAG)
|
||||
Microwave Radiometer (Juno)
|
||||
Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation
|
||||
SWAP (New Horizons), measures the Solar Wind on the New Horizons mission to Pluto and beyond
|
||||
SWEAP (measures ions and electrons on the Parker Solar Probe)
|
||||
UVS (Juno)
|
||||
Waves (Juno) (Radio and Plasma wave instrument)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The Jupiter Energetic Particle Detector Instrument (JEDI) Investigation for the Juno Mission (abstract link)
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_Auroral_Distributions_Experiment"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:11.241000+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment (JADE) is an instrument that detects and measures ions and electrons around the spacecraft. It is a suite of detectors on the Juno Jupiter orbiter (launched 2011, orbiting Jupiter since 2016). JADE includes JADE-E, JADE-I, and the EBox. JADE-E and JADE-I are sensors that are spread out on the spacecraft, and the EBox is located inside the Juno Radiation Vault. EBox stands for Electronics Box. JADE-E is for detecting electrons from 0.1 to 100 keV, and there are three JADE-E sensors on Juno. JADE-I is for detecting ions from 5 eV to 50 keV. It is designed to return data in situ on Jupiter's auroral region and magnetospheric plasmas, by observing electrons and ions in this region. It is primarily focused on Jupiter, but it was turned on in January 2016 while still en route to study inter-planetary space (when it was still several million miles from Jupiter at that time).
|
||||
JADE was built by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), located in the United States in Texas. Two other instruments help understand the magnetosphere of Jupiter, WAVES and MAG. The JEDI instrument measures higher energy ions and electrons and JADE lower energy ones; therefore they are complementary.
|
||||
The JADE sensors, in addition to other materials, also use a special plastic designed to endure the spaceflight conditions. The instrument uses special molded rings of polyether ether ketone (PEEK).
|
||||
By May 2017, some of the first scientific analyses reported that JADE observed plasma coming up from the upper atmosphere of Jupiter into the magnetosphere. Some auroral processes were compared to the ones on Earth, but there seemed to be other processes at work creating the auroras at Jupiter, according to the JADE project leader, in early 2017. Like Earth's aurorae, scientists noted Jupiter's could be affected by the Solar wind; however, many of the ions in the Jupiter aurorae were different from those in Earth's.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== JADE-E ==
|
||||
Each of the three JADE-E electron sensors weighs 5.25 kg (11.57 pounds, 0.827 stones) with dimensions of 21 cm on all sides;
|
||||
Each JADE-E sensor includes:
|
||||
|
||||
top-hat electrostatic analyzer
|
||||
two deflectors
|
||||
Multi-channel plate detector
|
||||
anode ring
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== JADE-I ==
|
||||
The one JADE-I sensors is a spherical top hat electrostatic analyzer combined with a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The sensor is made of nickel plated titanium metal. JADE-I sensor weighs 7.55 Kilograms(16.65 pounds, 1.1889 stones).
|
||||
JADE-I can measure ions from 1 to 50 atomic mass units (AMU), with the ability to discern atomic hydrogen, H2+, H3+, oxygen and sulfur.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
JEDI
|
||||
JunoCam
|
||||
Van Allen Probes (also studies ions)
|
||||
MAVEN
|
||||
UVS (Juno)
|
||||
Microwave Radiometer (Juno)
|
||||
Waves (Juno)
|
||||
Gravity Science
|
||||
SWEAP (measures ions and electrons on the Parker Solar Probe)
|
||||
SWAP (New Horizons), measures the Solar Wind on the New Horizons mission to Pluto and beyond
|
||||
Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (detects on ions on New Horizons)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_Infrared_Auroral_Mapper"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:12.422936+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) is an instrument on the Juno spacecraft in orbit of the planet Jupiter. It is an image spectrometer and was contributed by Italy. Similar instruments are on ESA Rosetta, Venus Express, and Cassini-Huygens missions. The primary goal of JIRAM is to probe the upper layers of Jupiter's atmosphere down to pressures of 5–7 bars (72–102 pound/square inch) at infrared wavelengths in the 2–5 μm interval using an imager and a spectrometer. The Jupiter's atmosphere and auroral regions are targeted for study. In particular it has been designed to study the dynamics and chemistry in the atmosphere, perhaps determining the how Jovian hot spots form.
|
||||
H+3 ions, ammonia, and phosphine can be mapped. The ion of Hydrogen H+3 is rare on Earth, but is one of the most common ions in the universe and known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation.
|
||||
Despite the intense magnetosphere of Jupiter, the JIRAM is expected to be operational for at least the first eight orbits.
|
||||
Previously Jupiter was observed by an Infrared imaging spectrometer called NIMS (Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer) on the Galileo Jupiter orbiter. JIRAM was used to observe Earth during its flyby en route to Jupiter. These observations were used to help calibrate the instrument, and the lunar observations were actually a critical planned step in preparing the instrument for observations at Jupiter. The polar orbit of the Juno mission permits to get unprecedented observations of the planet. In particular, the polar regions, that where never observed before Juno, can be observed with high spatial resolution.
|
||||
On August 27, 2016, JIRAM observed Jupiter at infrared wavelengths. The first science observation in space was conducted on Earth's Moon in October 2013.
|
||||
The JIRAM project was started by Professor Angioletta Coradini, however she died in 2011. The instrument was developed from Leonardo under the directions and supervision of the Institute for Space Astrophysics and Planetogy (IAPS) which is part of the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics and was funded by the Italian Space Agency. Dr. Alberto Adriani of IAPS is presently the responsible of the JIRAM project.
|
||||
In March 2018, results from JIRAM were released showing both the North and south poles have a central cyclone surrounded by addition cyclones. The north cycle was surrounded by 8 cyclones, while the southern cyclone was surrounded by five. By this time Juno had completed 10 close passes for science observations, since arriving in Jupiter's orbit on July 4, 2016. The first science pass occurred on August 28, 2016, and JIRAM was operated during that pass.
|
||||
Various results, including a 3-D movie a flyover of the north pole of Jupiter with JIRAM data were released at the European Geosciences Union General Assembly in April 2018.
|
||||
JIRAM's spin-compensation mirror has been stuck since PJ44, but the instrument is operational.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Specifications ==
|
||||
Mass: 8 kg (17.6 pounds)
|
||||
Max power use: 16.7 watts
|
||||
Observation range: 2–5 micron wavelength light
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Observations ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Gravity Science
|
||||
Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment (JADE)
|
||||
JunoCam
|
||||
Magnetometer (Juno) (MAG)
|
||||
Mapping Imaging Spectrometer for Europa
|
||||
Microwave Radiometer (Juno)
|
||||
MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) (Infrared imaging spectrometer on JWST)
|
||||
Ralph (New Horizons), imaging spectrometer on New Horizons, Pluto flyby probe
|
||||
UVS (Juno) (Imaging spectrometer on Juno for ultraviolet light)
|
||||
Atmosphere of Jupiter
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Juno JIRAM website
|
||||
Jovian InfraRed Auroral Mapper – Lunar and Planetary Institute
|
||||
Juno instruments (Adobe Flash)
|
||||
JIRAM images at JPL Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
NASA Juno Findings – Jupiter’s Jet-Streams Are Unearthly March 7, 2018 Archived January 10, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
NASA's Juno Mission Provides Infrared Tour of Jupiter's North Pole (April 11, 2018)
|
||||
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_photometer-0.md
Normal file
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_photometer-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Kepler photometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_photometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:13.590989+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Kepler photometer is the main instrument on NASA's Kepler space telescope.
|
||||
It is a Schmidt telescope (95 cm clear aperture, 140 cm mirror) with an array of 42 2200x1024 CCDs in the focal plane; each CCD is flat, but they are mounted on a curved structure to account for the curved focal plane. The CCDs are not abutting, so the focal plane is not entirely covered, but since the mission's goal is to observe a sample of stars, this doesn't matter.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Kepler Mission: Photometer and Spacecraft [1]
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LYRA-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LYRA-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "LYRA"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LYRA"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:17.282783+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
LYRA (Lyman Alpha Radiometer) is the solar UV radiometer on board Proba-2, a European Space Agency technology demonstration satellite that was launched on November 2, 2009.
|
||||
LYRA has been designed and manufactured by a Belgian-Swiss-German consortium (ROB-SIDC, PMOD/WRC, IMOMEC, CSL, MPS and BISA) with additional international collaborations (Japan, USA, Russia, and France). Jean-François Hochedez (ROB) is Principal Investigator, Yves Stockman (CSL) is Project Manager, and Werner Schmutz (PMOD) is Lead co-Investigator.
|
||||
LYRA will monitor the Solar irradiance in four UV passbands. They have been chosen for their relevance to solar physics, aeronomy and Space Weather:
|
||||
|
||||
the 115-125 nm Lyman-α channel,
|
||||
the 200-220 nm Herzberg continuum channel,
|
||||
the Aluminium filter channel (17-50 nm) including He II at 30.4 nm, and
|
||||
the Zirconium filter channel (1-20 nm).
|
||||
The Radiometric calibration of the instrument is traceable to Synchrotron source standards, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Its stability will be monitored by onboard calibration light sources (light-emitting diodes), which allow distinguishing between potential degradations of the detectors and filters. Additionally, a redundancy strategy contributes to the accuracy and the stability of the measurements. LYRA will benefit from wide bandgap detectors based on diamond: it will be the first space assessment of a pioneering UV detectors program. Diamond sensors make the instruments radiation-hard and solar-blind: their high bandgap energy makes them quasi-insensitive to visible light (see also references in Marchywka Effect). The SWAP extreme ultraviolet (EUV) imaging telescope will operate next to LYRA on Proba-2. Together, they will establish a high performance solar monitor for operational space weather nowcasting and research. LYRA demonstrates technologies important for future missions such as the ESA Solar Orbiter mission.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
51
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaRa-0.md
Normal file
51
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaRa-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "LaRa"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaRa"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:14.880276+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
LaRa (Lander Radioscience) was a Belgian radio science experiment that will be placed onboard Kazachok, planned to be launched in 2022. LaRa will monitor the Doppler frequency shift of a radio signal traveling between the Martian lander and the Earth. These Doppler measurements will be used to precisely observe the orientation and rotation of Mars, leading to a better knowledge of the internal structure of the planet.
|
||||
Kazachok was cancelled, and the ExoMars mission was moved to 2028.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument description ==
|
||||
LaRa will obtain coherent two-way Doppler measurements from the X band radio link between Kazachok and large antennas on Earth, like those of the Deep space network. The relative radial velocity between the Earth and the Martian lander is inferred from Doppler shifts measured at the Earth ground stations. Masers at the Earth's ground stations ensure the frequency stability. Véronique Dehant, scientist at the Royal Observatory of Belgium, is the Principal Investigator of the experiment.
|
||||
Antwerp Space N.V., a subsidiary of OHB SE, is the manufacturer of the LaRa instrument. The main parts of the transponder are the coherent detector, the transmitter with the solid-state power amplifier, the micro controller unit, the receiver and the power supply unit. The Allan deviation (quantifying the frequency stability of the signal) of the measurements is expected to be lower than
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
10
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
13
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle 10^{-13}}
|
||||
|
||||
at 60 second integration time.
|
||||
The LaRa high-performance antennas were designed at the Université catholique de Louvain in Belgium to obtain an optimal antenna gain centered on an elevation (angle of the line-of-sight from the lander to Earth) of about 30° to 55°. There will be three antennas: two for the transmission (for redundancy purposes) and one for reception. Cables connect the transponder to the three antennas.
|
||||
Belgium and the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) fund the development and the manufacturing of LaRa through ESA's PRODEX program.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Scientific objectives ==
|
||||
LaRa will study the rotation of Mars as well as its internal structure, with particular focus on its core. It will observe the Martian precession rate, the nutations, and the length-of-day variations, as well as the polar motion. The precession and the nutations are variations in the orientation of Mars's rotation axis in space, the precession being the very long term motion (about 170 000 years for Mars) while the nutations are the variations with a shorter period (annual, semi-annual, ter-annual, periods). A precise measurement of the Martian nutations enables an independent determination of the size and density of the liquid core because of a resonance in the nutation amplitudes. The resonant amplification of the low-frequency forced nutations depends sensibly on the size, moment of inertia, and flattening of the core. This amplification is expected to correspond to a displacement of between a few to forty centimeters on Mars surface. Observing the amplification allows to confirm the liquid state of the core and to determine some core properties.
|
||||
LaRa will also measure variations in the rotation angular momentum due to the redistribution of masses, such as the migration of ice from the polar caps to the atmosphere and the sublimation/condensation cycle of atmospheric CO2.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment, a similar radio science experiment by the InSight Mars lander
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Home site of LaRa at the Royal Observatory of Belgium.
|
||||
Twitter account of LaRa.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Long Lived In-situ Solar System Explorer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Lived_In-situ_Solar_System_Explorer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:16.047216+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Long Lived In-situ Solar System Explorer (LLISSE) is a possible NASA payload on the Russian Venera-D mission to Venus.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
LLISSE uses new materials and heat-resistant electronics that would enable independent operation for about 90 Earth days. This endurance may allow it to obtain periodic measurements of weather data to update global circulation models and quantify near surface atmospheric chemistry variability.
|
||||
Its anticipated instruments include wind speed/direction sensors, temperature sensors, pressure sensors, and a chemical multi-sensor array. LLISSE is a small 20 cm (7.9 in) cube of about 10 kg (22 lb). The Venera-D lander may carry two LLISSE units; one would be battery-powered (3,000 h), and the other would be wind-powered.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARSIS-0.md
Normal file
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARSIS-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "MARSIS"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARSIS"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:23.265306+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
MARSIS (Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding) is a low frequency, pulse-limited radar sounder and altimeter developed by the University of Rome La Sapienza and Alenia Spazio (today Thales Alenia Space Italy). The Italian MARSIS instrument, which is operated by the European Space Agency, is operational and orbits Mars as an instrument for the ESA's Mars Express exploration mission.
|
||||
The MARSIS Principal Investigator is Giovanni Picardi from the University of Rome "La Sapienza", Italy. It features ground-penetrating radar capabilities, which uses synthetic aperture technique and a secondary receiving antenna to isolate subsurface reflections. MARSIS identified buried basins on Mars. MARSIS was funded by ASI (Italy) and NASA (USA). The processor runs the real-time operating system EONIC Virtuoso.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Deployment ==
|
||||
|
||||
On May 4, 2005, Mars Express deployed the first of its two 20-metre-long radar booms for the MARSIS experiment. At first the boom didn't lock fully into place; however, exposing it to sunlight for a few minutes on May 10 fixed the glitch. The second 20 m boom was successfully deployed on June 14. Both 20 m booms were needed to create a 40 m dipole antenna for MARSIS to work; a less crucial 7-meter-long monopole antenna was deployed on June 17. The radar booms were originally scheduled to be deployed in April 2004, but this was delayed out of fear that the deployment could damage the spacecraft through a whiplash effect. Due to the delay it was decided to split the four-week commissioning phase in two parts, with two weeks running up to July 4 and another two weeks in December 2005.
|
||||
The deployment of the booms was a critical and highly complex task, requiring effective inter-agency cooperation between ESA, NASA, industry partners, and public Universities.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Science ==
|
||||
MARSIS transmits a series of modulated chirps at frequencies between 1.8 and 5.0 MHz in subsurface sounding mode, with a 1 MHz bandwidth. It also emits chirps sweeping between 0.1 and 5.4 MHz when ionosphere sounding. Depending on the mode, the pulsewidth is 30, 91 or 250 μs, and the nominal Pulse repetition frequency is 130 Hz. Transmitted power is either 1.5 or 5 W.
|
||||
Nominal science observations began during July 2005.
|
||||
A 2012 paper by the MARSIS team measured a difference between the dielectric constant of the northern and southern high-latitude regions. This is evidence that the material that fills the northern basin is a lower-density material, which could be interpreted as evidence of an ancient northern ocean.
|
||||
Using MARSIS data, 22 Italian scientists reported in July 2018 the discovery of a subglacial lake on Mars, 1.5 km (0.93 mi) below the southern polar ice cap, and extending horizontally about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of water on Mars.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
LRS, Lunar radar sounder (LRS) is a orbiting low frequency radar sounder and altimeter over Earth's Moon
|
||||
RIME, Radar for Icy Moons Exploration (RIME) is a orbiting low frequency radar sounder and altimeter for Jupiter's Icy moons
|
||||
SHARAD, The Mars SHAllow RADar sounder (SHARAD) radar (20 MHz) on the later launched Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter complements MARSIS capabilities.
|
||||
Tianwen-1, The Tianwen-1 mission plans an Orbiter Subsurface Radar (OSR) and rover based Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) for Mars
|
||||
WISDOM (radar), Water Ice and Subsurface Deposit Observation on Mars (WISDOM) is a ground-penetrating radar on the ExoMars rover
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
ESA - MARSIS Finds Buried Basins in Chryse Planitia
|
||||
ESA - Buried Basins in Northern Lowlands
|
||||
buried basins and ice - eSA
|
||||
NASA - buried basins
|
||||
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMOS_II-0.md
Normal file
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMOS_II-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "MIMOS II"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMOS_II"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:30.407890+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
MIMOS II is the miniaturised Mössbauer spectrometer, developed by Dr. Göstar Klingelhöfer at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany, that is used on the Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity for close-up investigations on the Martian surface of the mineralogy of iron-bearing rocks and soils.
|
||||
MIMOS II uses a Cobalt-57 gamma ray source of about 300 mCi at launch which gave a 6-12 hr time for acquisition of a standard MB spectrum during the primary mission on Mars, depending on total Fe content and which Fe-bearing phases are present.
|
||||
Cobalt-57 has a half-life of only 271.8 days (h
|
||||
The MIMOS II sensorheads used snMars are approx 9 cm x 5 cm x 4 cm and weigh about 400g.
|
||||
The MIMOS II system also includes a circuit board of about 100g.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSSTA-0.md
Normal file
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSSTA-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "MSSTA"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSSTA"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:35.207408+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Multi-Spectral Solar Telescope Array (MSSTA) was a sounding rocket payload built by Arthur B. C. Walker Jr. at Stanford University in the 1990s to test EUV/XUV imaging of the Sun using normal incidence EUV-reflective multilayer optics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
MSSTA contained a large number of individual telescopes (> 10), all trained on the Sun and all sensitive to slightly different wavelengths of ultraviolet light. Like all sounding rockets, MSSTA flew for approximately 14 minutes per mission, about 5 minutes of which were in space—just enough time to test a new technology or yield "first results" science. MSSTA is one of the last solar observing instruments to use photographic film rather than a digital camera system such as a CCD. MSSTA used film instead of a CCD in order to achieve the highest possible spatial resolution and to avoid the electronics difficulty presented by the large number of detectors that would have been required for its many telescopes.
|
||||
MSSTA and its sister rocket, NIXT, were prototypes for normal incidence extreme ultraviolet imaging telescopes that are in use today, as well as the historic EIT instrument aboard the SOHO spacecraft, and the TRACE spacecraft. MSSTA flew three times: once in 1991 (NASA Sounding Rocket flight 36.049), once in 1994 (flight 36.091), and once in 2002 (flight 36.194). While Walker's 1991 telescope was the first in the series to carry the MSSTA moniker, the precursor to the MSSTA, the Stanford/MSFC Rocket Spectroheliograph (NASA Sounding Rocket flight 27.092), which carried two EUV telescopes in 1987, was the first mission to successfully obtain high-resolution, full-disk solar images utilizing normal incidence EUV optics. The MSSTA I flown in 1991 carried 14 telescopes; the MSSTA II flown in 1994 carried 19 telescopes; and the MSSTA III flown in 2002 carried 11 telescopes.
|
||||
Several Stanford Ph.D. degrees in Physics resulted from the MSSTA program. These include those earned by Joakim Lindblom, Maxwell J. Allen, Ray H. O'Neal, Craig Edward DeForest, Charles C. Kankelborg, Hakeem Oluseyi, Dennis S. Martinez-Galarce, and Paul F.X. Boerner.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Rapid Acquisition Imaging Spectrograph Experiment
|
||||
NIXT
|
||||
51
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetometer_(Juno)-0.md
Normal file
51
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetometer_(Juno)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Magnetometer (Juno)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetometer_(Juno)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:18.504639+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Magnetometer (MAG) is an instrument suite on the Juno orbiter for planet Jupiter. The MAG instrument includes both the Fluxgate Magnetometer (FGM) and Advanced Stellar Compass (ASC) instruments. There two sets of MAG instrument suites, and they are both positioned on the far end of three solar panel array booms. Each MAG instrument suite observes the same swath of Jupiter, and by having two sets of instruments, determining what signal is from the planet and what is from spacecraft is supported. Avoiding signals from the spacecraft is another reason MAG is placed at the end of the solar panel boom, about 10 m (33 feet) and 12 m (39 feet) away from the central body of the Juno spacecraft.
|
||||
The MAG instrument is designed to detect the magnetic field of Jupiter, which is one of the largest structures in the Solar System. If one could see Jupiter's magnetic field from Earth, it would appear five times larger than the full moon in the sky despite being nearly 1700 times farther away. Jupiter's internal magnetic field prevents the solar wind, a stream of ionized particles emitted by the Sun, from interacting directly with its atmosphere, and instead diverts it away from the planet, effectively creating a cavity in the solar wind flow, called a magnetosphere, composed of a plasma different from that of the solar wind.
|
||||
Mission goals:
|
||||
|
||||
map the magnetic field of Jupiter
|
||||
determine the dynamics of Jupiter's interior
|
||||
determine the three-dimensional structure of the polar magnetosphere and its auroras.
|
||||
Jupiter has the strongest and biggest magnetic fields known to exist in the solar system. Studying these fields is one of the goals of the Juno mission, and in particular the task rests on the Magnetometer instruments. MAG measures the field about 60 times per second, and records the direction and strength of the field. MAG collected data on Earth during its 9 October 2013 flyby en route to Jupiter (this was a gravity assist maneuver, but also was to collect data).
|
||||
Another advantage to studying Jupiter's field is that on Earth, crustal magnetism interferes with measurements of the field generated deep in the core, partially shielding it from measurements. On Earth the field is generated by spinning liquid iron, whereas on Jupiter is generated by hydrogen. Jupiter is mostly hydrogen (about 90%), and as it compresses from gravity it turns conductive in a special form. However, it is not known if farther in, where it should compress into metallic form, the hydrogen continues to conduct electricity. That is one of the questions Juno may answer. In addition to studying Jupiter, the MAG also returned data on the Earth's magnetosphere.
|
||||
The MAG instrument was delivered to Lockheed Martin Space Systems' facility in Denver, Colorado, United States for integration into the Juno spacecraft by NASA's Goddard Spaceflight Center (GFSC) in October 2010. MAG was overall designed and built at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GFSC) in Greenbelt, Maryland. The Advanced Stellar Compass was built and contributed by the Technical University of Denmark. (Technical University of Denmark, or in Danish (Danish: Danmarks Tekniske Universitet) commonly known as DTU)
|
||||
The FGM and ASC were turned on in late August after Juno's launch on 5 August 2011. The ASC allow a very precise determination of the magnetometers orientation in space. They are star trackers that take a picture of the sky, then compare those images to a catalog of star maps to allow the orientation to be determined.
|
||||
|
||||
Juno's magnetometers will measure Jupiter's magnetic field with extraordinary precision and give us a detailed picture of what the field looks like both around the planet and deep within, ...
|
||||
The fluxgate magnetometer (FGM) is similar to previous instruments flown on spacecraft like the Voyagers, Magsat, Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers, Mars Global Surveyor, etc. This style of FGM uses twin wide-range, triaxial flux gate sensors mounted far away from the spacecraft body in which the magnetic flux is periodically switched (hence the ame flux-gate). Two FGM's are used so the separate readings can be combined to make the magnetic field calculation. MAG has two vector fluxgate magnetometers supported by advanced star trackers. The star tracking system allows the orientation of the FGM to be calculated and determined more accurately enhancing the usefulness of the FGM readings.
|
||||
Jupiter's magnetic fields were previously observed in the 1970s with Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11, and Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. Magnetometers related to Juno include ones on MAVEN, MGS, Voyager, AMPTE, GIOTTO, CLUSTER, Lunar Prospector, MESSENGER, STEREO, and Van Allen Probes.
|
||||
At one point, JPL was working on including a Scalar Helium Magnetometer on Juno, in addition to the FGM and ASC suite.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Results and papers ==
|
||||
In 2017, a paper called The analysis of initial Juno magnetometer data using a sparse magnetic field representation included analysis of data from the Juno magnetometer which passed 10 times closer than previous probes. The nature of Jupiter's magnetic field was examined, combining the latest results from MAG with a mathematical model called VIP4 spherical harmonic model for the magnetic field of Jupiter.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Magnetometer (type of instrument to measure magnetic fields)
|
||||
Spacecraft magnetometer
|
||||
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
|
||||
Earth's magnetic field
|
||||
Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter
|
||||
UVS (Juno)
|
||||
Microwave Radiometer (Juno)
|
||||
Waves (Juno)
|
||||
Gravity Science
|
||||
FIELDS (Magnetometer and electrical fields investigation on Parker Solar Probe)
|
||||
List of missions to the outer planets
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA News - NASA's Juno Peers Inside a Giant - June 29, 2016
|
||||
13
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Climate_Sounder-0.md
Normal file
13
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Climate_Sounder-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Mars Climate Sounder"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Climate_Sounder"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:19.678068+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA - Mars Climate Sounder
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Mars Organic Molecule Analyser"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Organic_Molecule_Analyser"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:20.894507+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Mars Organic Molecule Analyser (MOMA) is a mass spectrometer-based instrument on board the Rosalind Franklin rover to be launched in 2028 to Mars on an astrobiology mission. It will search for organic compounds (carbon-containing molecules) in the collected soil samples. By characterizing the molecular structures of detected organics, MOMA can provide insights into potential molecular biosignatures. MOMA will be able to detect organic molecules at concentrations as low as 10 parts-per-billion by weight (ppbw). MOMA examines solid crushed samples exclusively; it does not perform atmospheric analyses.
|
||||
The Principal Investigator is Fred Goesmann, from the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Germany.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
The goal of MOMA is to seek signs of past life on Mars (biosignatures) by analysing a wide range of organic compounds that may be found in drilled samples acquired from 2 meters below the Martian surface by the Rosalind Franklin rover. MOMA examines solid crushed samples only; it does not perform atmospheric analyses.
|
||||
MOMA will first volatilize solid organic compounds so that they can be analysed by a mass spectrometer; this volatilisation of organic material is achieved by two different techniques: laser desorption and thermal volatilisation, followed by separation using four GC-MS columns. The identification of the organic molecules is then performed with an ion trap mass spectrometer.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Organic biosignatures ===
|
||||
While there is no unambiguous Martian biosignature to look for, a pragmatic approach is to look out for certain molecules such as lipids and phospholipids that may be forming cell membranes which can be preserved over geological timescales. Lipids and other organic molecules may exhibit biogenic features that are not present in abiogenic organic material. If biogenic (synthesized by a life form), such compounds may be found at high concentrations only over a narrow range of molecular weights, unlike in carbonaceous meteorites where these compounds are detected over a broader range of molecular weights. In the case of sugars and amino acids, excessive molecular homochirality (asymmetry) is another important clue of their biological origin. The assumption is that life on Mars would be carbon-based and cellular as on Earth, so there are expected common building blocks such as chains of amino acids (peptides and proteins) and chains of nucleobases (RNA, DNA, or their analogs). Also, some isomers of high molecular weight organics can be potential biosignatures when identified in context with other supporting evidence. Other compounds targeted for detection will include fatty acids, sterols, and hopanoids.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Background organics ===
|
||||
The surface of Mars is expected to have accumulated significant quantities of large organic molecules delivered by interplanetary dust particles and carbonaceous meteorites. MOMA's characterization of this fraction, may determine not only the abundance of this potential background for trace biomarker detection, but also the degree of decomposition of this matter by radiation and oxidation as a function of depth. This is essential in order to interpret the samples' origin in the local geological and geochemical context.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Development ==
|
||||
The components of MOMA related to GC-MS have heritage from the Viking landers, the COSAC on board the comet lander Philae, and SAM on board the Curiosity rover. But the methods applied in the past on board the Viking landers and the Curiosity rover are mostly destructive (pyrolysis), and consequently important information of the organic material is lost. Also, only volatile molecules can be detected and, only nonpolar molecules can get through the GC columns to the detector. MOMA will combine pyrolysis–derivatization with a less destructive method: LDMS (Laser Desorption Mass Spectrometry), which allows large and intact molecular fragments to be detected and characterized by the mass spectrometer (MS). The LDMS technique is not affected by these drawbacks, and it is unaffected to the presence of perchlorates, known to be abundant on the surface of Mars. Tandem mass spectrometry can then be used to further characterize these molecules.
|
||||
The Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research is leading the development. International partners include NASA. The mass spectrometer (MS) and the main electronics of MOMA are provided by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, while the gas chromatography (GC) is provided by the two French institutes LISA and LATMOS. The UV-Laser is being developed by the Laser Zentrum Hannover. MOMA does not form a single compact unit, but is modular with numerous mechanical and thermal interfaces within the rover. The final integration and verification will be performed at Thales Alenia Space in Italy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Video (04:14) – ExoMars rover/MOMA on YouTube (NASA; 24 May 2018))
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Mars Radiation Environment Experiment"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Radiation_Environment_Experiment"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:22.065459+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE) was designed to measure the radiation environment of Mars using an energetic particle spectrometer as part of the science mission of the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft (launched on April 7, 2001). It was led by NASA's Johnson Space Center and the science investigation was designed to characterize aspects of the radiation environment both on the way to Mars and while it was in the Martian orbit.
|
||||
Since space radiation presents an extreme hazard to crews of interplanetary missions the experiment was an attempt to predict anticipated radiation doses that would be experienced by future astronauts and it helped determine possible effects of Martian radiation on human beings.
|
||||
Space radiation comes from cosmic rays emitted by Earth's local star, the Sun, and from stars beyond the Solar System as well. Space radiation can trigger cancer and cause damage to the central nervous system. Similar instruments are flown on the Space Shuttles and on the International Space Station (ISS), but none have ever flown outside Earth's protective magnetosphere, which blocks much of this radiation from reaching the surface of our planet.
|
||||
MARIE was turned off on 28 October 2003 after communication was lost during a large solar proton event.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operation ==
|
||||
A spectrometer inside the instrument measured the energy from two sources of space radiation: galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particles (SEP). As the spacecraft orbited the red planet, the spectrometer swept through the sky and measured the radiation field.
|
||||
The instrument, with a 68-degree field of view, was designed to collect data continuously during Mars Odyssey's cruise from Earth to Mars. It stored large amounts of data for downlink, and operated throughout the entire science mission.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== MARIE specifications ==
|
||||
|
||||
The Martian Radiation Environment Experiment weighs 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds) and uses 7 watts of power. It measures 29.4 x 23.2 x 10.8 centimeters (11.6 x 9.1 x 4.3 inches).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Results ==
|
||||
|
||||
The diagram above indicates that a main radiation exposure is about 20 mrad/d resulting in annual dose of about 73 mGy/a. However occasional solar proton events (SPEs) produce a hundred and more times higher doses (see the diagram above). SPEs, which were observed by MARIE, were not observed by sensors near Earth confirming that SPEs are directional. Thus the average in-orbit doses were about 400–500mSv/a.
|
||||
JPL reported that MARIE-measured radiation levels were two to three times greater than that at the International Space Station (which is 100–200 mSv/a). The levels at the Martian surface might be closer to the level at the ISS due to atmospheric shielding – ignoring the effect of thermal neutrons induced by GCR.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA's site on MARIE
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Mass Spectrometer for Planetary Exploration"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_Spectrometer_for_Planetary_Exploration"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:24.462092+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The MAss Spectrometer for Planetary EXploration (MASPEX) is a time-of-flight mass spectrometer capable of high-resolution and high-sensitivity that allows the determination of a wide variety of chemical compounds in complex mixtures. This instrument will fly on board the planned Europa Clipper orbiter to explore Jupiter's moon Europa. This astrobiology mission will analyse the composition of Europa's surface while in orbit, and will directly assess its internal ocean habitability by flying through Europa's tenuous atmosphere.
|
||||
On 27 May 2016 it was announced that MASPEX was selected to fly on the mission. The instrument has also been proposed to fly on three Discovery program missions: Enceladus Life Finder (ELF), comet Hartley 2 (PRIME), and to the main belt comet Read (Proteus). It also has applications for probes, landers, and sample return missions. The original Principal Investigator was Jack Waite, and the Technical Lead is Tim Brockwell, from the Southwest Research Institute. In 2020 NASA announced that Jim Burch of Southwest Research Institute would become the Principal Investigator and that some instrument capabilities might be reduced due to technical and financial limitations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
MASPEX is a next generation spectrometer with significantly improved performance over existing instruments, that was developed over 10 years by the Southwest Research Institute. Development of the MASPEX was born out of the need to separate and analyze the unexpectedly rich volatile mixtures discovered by the Cassini INMS instrument at Titan and Enceladus. The instrument is a high-resolution, high-sensitivity mass spectrometer developed for planetary applications. Its high-resolution allows the unambiguous determination of volatile isotopes of methane, water, ammonia, carbon monoxide, molecular nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and small organic compounds (C2, C3, and C4) in complex mixtures. MASPEX can also measure compounds in trace amounts (ppt), including the noble gases argon, krypton, xenon, and their isotopes.
|
||||
The MASPEX can operate in a heavy radiation environment, and can be baked to 300 °C for planetary protection against forward biological contamination in case the probe impacts any potentially habitable moon of Jupiter. Other areas of enhanced performance over existing instruments include:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Abiogenesis
|
||||
Astrobiology
|
||||
Cosmochemistry
|
||||
Europa Lander (NASA)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Materials Adherence Experiment"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_Adherence_Experiment"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:25.685217+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Materials Adherence Experiment (MAE) was a material science experiment conducted between July 4, 1997, and August 12, 1997, during NASA's Mars Pathfinder mission. This was a joint experiment between NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology that consisted of a small module mounted to Pathfinder's rover Sojourner that examined the effects of Martian surface dust on solar cells.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Purpose ==
|
||||
Using solar power on the Martian surface is challenging because the Martian atmosphere has a significant amount of dust suspended in it. In addition to blocking sunlight from reaching Mars's surface, dust particles gradually settle out of the air and onto objects. As Pathfinder was NASA's first Mars surface mission to be solar-powered, the effect of Martian dust settling on solar cells was not well understood before the mission. It was predicted at the time that dust particles in the Martian atmosphere would settle on the solar cells powering Pathfinder, blocking sunlight from striking them and slowly causing Pathfinder to lose power. Since knowing how the settling of dust out of Mars's atmosphere would affect solar cell performance would be critical to subsequent solar-powered missions on Mars, the MAE was included aboard the Sojourner rover to measure the degradation in performance of a solar cell as dust settled.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Design ==
|
||||
The MAE, which was located on the front left corner of the solar array, consisted of a small gallium-arsenide solar cell mounted underneath a removable glass cover plate. As the mission progressed, atmospheric dust would settle on the glass cover plate, blocking increasingly more sunlight from striking the solar cell, causing it to produce less power. Throughout the mission, the glass cover plate was occasionally rotated away from the solar cell, removing the light-blocking effects of the dust. Sensors measuring the difference in power output of the solar cell before and after the cover plate was removed indicated how quickly the solar cell was losing its ability to produce power, and by extension, how quickly dust was collecting on the cover plate.
|
||||
The rotating actuator used to move the glass cover plate away from the solar cell marked the first use of a multi-cycle shape memory alloy in a space application.
|
||||
|
||||
Due to the high level of UV radiation on the surface of Mars, it was important that the glass that covered the solar cell would not darken. For this purpose Suprasil was chosen.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Results ==
|
||||
The MAE recorded a 2% obscuration due to dust on its first day of operation, probably caused by dust kicked up locally by Pathfinder's airbag being retracted. Measurements taken by the MAE at local noon for the first 24 days of Pathfinder's operation on Mars showed that atmospheric dust obscured the test solar cell at a rate of 0.28% per day. This degradation rate was about the same regardless of whether Sojourner was moving or stationary. Measurements taken at local 2pm showed a slightly higher obscuration rate over the first 20 days of the mission, at 0.33% per day. These findings were consistent with the decline in power output of the solar cells on Sojourner and the Pathfinder lander, which indicated a dust accumulation rate of 0.29% per day, and fairly close to the value predicted before Pathfinder landed (0.22% per day).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Exploration of Mars
|
||||
Martian soil
|
||||
Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (planned atmospheric and dust experiment for the Mars 2020 rover)
|
||||
Cleaning event
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Notes
|
||||
|
||||
Bibliography
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Overview of MAE results on original Mars Pathfinder mission site.
|
||||
Discussion of MAE results by NASA Glenn Research Center.
|
||||
National Space Science Data Center technical discussion of MAE.
|
||||
55
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_Radiometer_(Juno)-0.md
Normal file
55
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_Radiometer_(Juno)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Microwave Radiometer (Juno)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_Radiometer_(Juno)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:28.069249+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Microwave Radiometer (MWR) is an instrument on the Juno orbiter sent to planet Jupiter. MWR is a multi-wavelength microwave radiometer for making observations of Jupiter's deep atmosphere. MWR can observe radiation from 1.37 to 50 cm in wavelength, from 600 MHz to 22 GHz in frequencies. This supports its goal of observing the previously unseen atmospheric features and chemical abundances hundreds of miles or kilometers into Jupiter's atmosphere. MWR is designed to detect six different frequencies in that range using separate antennas.
|
||||
MWR views Jupiter's microwave radiation so it can see up to hundreds of miles deep into the planet. In August 2016, as Juno swung closely by the planet MWR achieved a penetration of 200 to 250 miles (350 to 400 kilometers) below the surface cloud layer. MWR is designed to make observations below the cloud-tops, especially detecting the abundances of certain chemicals and determining dynamic features. These depths have not been observed before.
|
||||
MWR was launched aboard the Juno spacecraft on August 5, 2011 (UTC) from Cape Canaveral, USA, as part of the New Frontiers program, and after an interplanetary journey that including a swingby of Earth, entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5, 2016 (UTC),
|
||||
The electronics for MWR are located inside the Juno Radiation Vault, which uses titanium to protect it and other spacecraft electronics. The antennas and transmission lines are designed to handle the radiation environment at Jupiter so the instrument can function.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Goals ==
|
||||
Determining the features and abundances of oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur at up to 100 bar of pressure (1451 psi) will shed light on the origins and nature of Jupiter. MWR is also designed to detect the amount of water and ammonia deep inside Jupiter. It should also be able to provide a temperature profile of atmosphere down to 200 bar (2901 psi). Overall MWR is designed to look down as deep as roughly 1,000 atmospheres (or bar or kPa), which is about 342 miles (550 kilometers) down inside Jupiter. (1 bar is roughly the pressure at Earth sea level, 14.6 psi.)
|
||||
One of the molecules MWR is intended to look for inside Jupiter is water, which it is hoped will help explain the formation of the Solar System. By probing the interior, the insights may reveal how and where Jupiter formed, in turn shedding light on the formation of the Earth.
|
||||
At the time of its use in the 2010s, it was one of only four microwave radiometers to have been flown on interplanetary spacecraft. The first was Mariner 2, which used a microwave instrument to determine the high surface temperature of Venus was coming from the surface not higher up in the atmosphere. There were also radiometer-type instruments on the Rosetta comet probe, and Cassini-Huygens. Previously, the Galileo probe directly measured Jupiter's atmosphere in situ as it descended into the atmosphere, but only down to 22 bars of pressure. However, MWR is designed to look down as deep as 1000 bar of pressure. (1000 bar is about 14,500 psi, or 100000 kPa)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Antennas ==
|
||||
MWR has six separate antennas of different size that are mounted to the sides of the Juno spacecraft body. As the spacecraft turns (it is a spin-stabilzed spacecraft) each antenna takes a "swath" of observations of the giant. Five of the six antennas are all on one side of the spacecraft. The sixth and biggest antenna entirely fills another side the Juno body.
|
||||
MWR antennas: There are two patch array antennas, three slot arrays, and one horn antenna.
|
||||
|
||||
600 MHz/0.6 GHz frequency/50 cm wavelength (biggest antenna takes up one side of spacecraft body and is a patch array antenna)
|
||||
1.2 GHz (also a patch array antenna, but located with other five antennas on one side)
|
||||
2.4 GHz (waveguide slot array)
|
||||
4.8 GHz (waveguide slot array)
|
||||
9.6 GHz (waveguide slot array)
|
||||
22 GHz frequency/1.3 cm light wavelength (horn antenna on upper deck of Juno)
|
||||
As Juno turns the antennas sweep across Jupiter, each frequency/wavelength capable of seeing a certain distance below the visible cloud tops.
|
||||
See also Reflective array antenna and Slot antenna
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Results ==
|
||||
During a close pass in summer of 2017 when MWR was operated at Jupiter, it detected temperature changes deep within the Great Red Spot (GRS) storm. On Perijove 7, which was the sixth science orbit MWR took readings of Jupiter's great red storm down to dozens of kilometers/miles of depth below the surface layers.
|
||||
The distribution of ammonia gas was reported on in 2017, and analyzed. An ammonia rich layer was identified, as well as a belt of ammonia poor atmosphere from 5 to 20 degrees north.
|
||||
During the first eight orbits, MWR detected hundreds of lightning discharges, mostly in the polar regions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Galileo probe (in situ Atmospheric probe for Jupiter, entered and descended in 1995)
|
||||
Gravity Science
|
||||
Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment
|
||||
Waves (Juno)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA Juno Spacecraft and Instruments
|
||||
PIA22177: Slices of Jupiter's Great Red Spot
|
||||
32
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_humidity_sounder-0.md
Normal file
32
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_humidity_sounder-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Microwave humidity sounder"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_humidity_sounder"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:26.866232+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Microwave Humidity Sounder (MHS) is a five-channel passive microwave radiometer, with channels from 89 to 190 GHz. It is very similar in design to the AMSU-B instrument, but some channel frequencies have been altered. It is used to study profiles of atmospheric water vapor and provide improved input data to the cloud-clearing algorithms in the IR and MW sounder suites. Instruments were launched on NOAA's POES satellite series starting with NOAA-18 launched in May 2005 and the European Space Agency's MetOp series starting with MetOp-A launched in October 2006, continuing with MetOp-B launched in September 2012 and Metop-C launched in November 2018. The follow on instrument to MHS is MWS on the Metop-SGA satellites.
|
||||
The Microwave Humidity Sounder was designed and developed by Astrium EU in Portsmouth, UK, under contract to EUMETSAT.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument characteristics ==
|
||||
Heritage: AMSU-B, HSB
|
||||
Swath: 1650 km
|
||||
Spatial resolution: 17 km horizontal at nadir
|
||||
Mass: 63 kg
|
||||
Duty cycle: 100%
|
||||
Power: 74 W (BOL)
|
||||
Data rate: 4.2 kbit/s
|
||||
Field of View: ± 49.5 degrees cross-track
|
||||
Instrument Instantaneous Field of View: 1.1 degrees circular
|
||||
Table 1: Radiometric characteristics of the MHS
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NOAA KLM User's Guide
|
||||
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_sounding_unit-0.md
Normal file
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_sounding_unit-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Microwave sounding unit"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_sounding_unit"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:29.211966+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The microwave sounding unit (MSU) was the predecessor to the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU).
|
||||
The MSU was first launched aboard the TIROS-N satellite
|
||||
in late 1978 and provided global coverage (from Pole to Pole). It carries a 4-channel microwave radiometer, operating between 50 and 60 GHz. Spatial resolution on the ground was 2.5 deg in longitude and latitude (about 250 km circle). There were 9 different MSUs launched; the most recent one on NOAA-14. They provided measurements of the temperature of the troposphere and lower stratosphere until 1998, when the first AMSU was deployed. AMSU provides many more channels and finer resolution (about 50 km).
|
||||
Table 1 lists some characteristics of the MSU.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The radiometer's antenna scans underneath the satellite through nadir, and its polarization vector rotates with the scan angle.
|
||||
In the table, "vertical polarization near nadir" means that the E-vector is parallel to the scan direction at nadir, and "horizontal polarization" means the orthogonal direction.
|
||||
Table 1 Radiometric characteristics of the Microwave Sounding Unit
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Applications ==
|
||||
The MSU was used by NOAA for meteorological analyses in combination with two infrared instruments,
|
||||
|
||||
and sometimes alone, for post-analysis of weather events
|
||||
|
||||
and other atmospheric phenomena such as waves.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
MSU and AMSU together provide a long data record and have been used for tracking atmospheric temperature trends (see: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
MSU temperature measurements
|
||||
Satellite temperature measurements
|
||||
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini-TES-0.md
Normal file
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini-TES-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Mini-TES"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini-TES"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:31.559953+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) is an infrared spectrometer used for detecting the composition of a material (typically rocks) from a distance. By making its measurements in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, it has the ability to penetrate through the dust coatings common to the Martian surface which is usually problematic for remote sensing observations. There is one on each of the two Mars Exploration Rovers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Development ==
|
||||
The Mini-TES was originally developed by Raytheon for the Department of Geological Sciences at Arizona State University. The Mini-TES is a miniaturized version of Raytheon's Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) TES, built by Arizona State University and Raytheon SAS’ Santa Barbara Remote Sensing. The MGS TES data helped scientists choose landing sites for the Spirit and Opportunity Mars explorer rovers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Martian soil ==
|
||||
The Mini-TES is used for identifying promising rocks and soils for closer examination, and to determine the processes that formed Martian rocks. It measures the infrared radiation that the target rock or object emits in 167 different wavelengths, providing information about the target's composition. One particular goal is to search for minerals that were formed by the action of water, such as carbonates and clays. The instrument can also look skyward to provide temperature profiles of the Martian atmosphere and detect the abundance of dust and water vapor.
|
||||
The instrument is located inside the warm electronics box in the body of the rover - the mirror redirects radiation into the aperture from above. The Mini-TES instruments aboard the MERs Opportunity and Spirit were never expected to survive the cold Martian winter even if the rovers themselves survived. It was thought that a small potassium bromide (KBr) beamsplitter which was housed in an aluminium fitting would crack due to the mismatched coefficient of thermal expansion. This never happened however and the miniTES instrument on both rovers has survived several Martian winters, and the Spirit rover continues to periodically use the Mini-TES for remote sensing. (The miniTES on the Opportunity rover is not currently being used because of accumulated dust on the mirror following the 2007 dust storm).
|
||||
There are two other types of spectrometers mounted on the rover's arm which provide additional information about the composition when the rover is close enough to touch the object.
|
||||
Mini-Tes can work with Pancams to analyze surroundings.
|
||||
The Mini-TES weighs 2.1 kg (4.6 lb) of the total 185 kg (408 lb) for the whole rover.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (included an infrared radiometer)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA JPL web-page stating purpose of Mini-TES
|
||||
Technical academic publication on Mini-TES for Mars Exploration Rover
|
||||
Web-page regarding information recorded by Mini-TES
|
||||
Slide show of Mini-TES operational details
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Modular optoelectronic multispectral scanner"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_optoelectronic_multispectral_scanner"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:32.762948+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The modular optoelectronic multispectral scanner (MOMS) is a scanning system for spaceborne, geoscientific remote sensing applications used in satellite navigation systems for sensing atmospheric and oceanic systems. The scanner is combination of separate spectrometer blocks.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
The modular optoelectronic multispectral scanner is an optical technology programme funded by the German Ministry for Research and Technology. It was jointly designed and developed by DLR, LMU and EADS Astrium.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Characteristics ==
|
||||
The modular structure of MOMS makes it suitable for use in wide variety of geo-spatial missions, the modules being sensor, optical lens, electronics and filters. The first flight of MOMS yielded high-resolution images with 20x20 m ground pixel size from about 300 km orbital altitude.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== MOMS-01 ===
|
||||
MOMS01 consists of five instruments mounted on a carbon-fiber structure:
|
||||
|
||||
The optical module with four objectives, eight arrays, and associated shutters. Each module represents one spectral band, consisted of filters, dual-lens optics, four CCD detector line-scanning arrays, and preamplifier electronics.
|
||||
A power box for overall power control.
|
||||
A logic box for all sensor function control (including real-time correction, and formatting of the source data stream from the optical module)
|
||||
A HDDT (high-density digital tape) recorder.
|
||||
A pressurized container for the recording system.
|
||||
MOMS-01 is a two-channel system working in 575–625 nm for general surface imagery and 825–975 nm for vegetation detection.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== MOMS-02 ===
|
||||
MOMS-02 is an upgraded version of MOMS-01. Its objectives are:
|
||||
|
||||
Stereoscopic visual observation.
|
||||
Mapping of digital terrain models with < 5 m of ground pixel size.
|
||||
Testing the digital photogrammetric observation technique and processing system.
|
||||
Correlation of high-resolution panchromatic data with multispectral data.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Development ==
|
||||
The development of MOMS was overseen by DLR(German Aerospace Center). Following are the team members involved in development of the MOMS:
|
||||
|
||||
German Aerospace Center
|
||||
University of Stuttgart
|
||||
German National Research Centre or GFZ (GeoForschungsZentrum).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Uses ==
|
||||
The modular optoelectronic multispectral scanner usage can be employed in the following applications or related projects
|
||||
|
||||
Geological mapping of surfaces.
|
||||
GeoScientific missions.
|
||||
Mineral resources exploration
|
||||
Hydrology
|
||||
Oceanography
|
||||
Coastal zone mapping
|
||||
Topographic mapping
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mission ==
|
||||
The first two flights of MOMS-01 took place on board the Space Shuttle missions STS-7 and STS-11 in 1983 and 1984, respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoonLIGHT-0.md
Normal file
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoonLIGHT-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "MoonLIGHT"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoonLIGHT"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:33.985632+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
MoonLIGHT (Moon Laser Instrumentation for General relativity High accuracy Tests) is a laser retroreflector developed as a collaboration primarily between the University of Maryland in the United States, and the Italian National Institute for Nuclear Physics - National Laboratories of Frascati (INFN-LNF) to complement and expand on the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment started with the Apollo Program in 1969.
|
||||
MoonLIGHT was planned to be launched in July 2020 as a secondary payload on the MX-1E lunar lander built by the private company Moon Express. However, the launch of the MX-1E has been cancelled. In 2018 INFN proposed to the European Space Agency (ESA) the MoonLIGHT Pointing Actuators (MPAc) project and was contracted by ESA to deliver it. MPAc is an INFN development for ESA, with auxiliary support by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) for prototyping work. In 2021, ESA agreed with NASA to launch MPAc with a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) mission. Nova-C, the lander on which MPAc will be integrated, is designed by Intuitive Machines and the landing site is Reiner Gamma. The expected launch date of the Nova-C mission carrying the instrument, IM-3, is in 2026.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
Laser Ranging is a technique used to perform accurate precision distance measurements between a laser and an optical target, called a retroreflector. Since 1969, it is possible to perform Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) measurements thanks to the Cube Corner Retroreflector (CCR) arrays placed on the lunar surface by the Apollo and Luna missions. The principle of this laser ranging is based on laser pulses sent from a telescope on Earth to the retroreflector array on the Moon. The retroreflector (mirrors) send the pulse straight back to the originating telescope where the round trip time—and therefore the exact distance—is recorded. The reflector arrays are designed to allow more accurate measurements from Earth that will increase lunar mapping accuracy, will test principles of Einstein's general theory of relativity, and other theories of gravity. Researchers think these studies may also help understand the nature of dark energy.
|
||||
MoonLIGHT is a single 100 mm-large CCR developed as a collaboration primarily between the University of Maryland and the Italian National Institute for Nuclear Physics - National Laboratories of Frascati (INFN-LNF) . Additional partners and collaborators include the Italian Space Agency's Matera Laser Ranging Observatory, as well as others laser ranging observatories and research institutes.
|
||||
This experiment will complement and advance the retroreflector experiments begun with Apollo 11 in 1969. The team claims to have developed a new approach and technology that would improve the ranging accuracy up to a factor of 100 (thus at a millimeter level) by using new technology and methods to correct for libration and the thermal behavior and the optical performance.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
The experiment and agreement between the collaborators was announced on 15 May 2015.
|
||||
The reflector was planned to be a secondary payload on the MX-1E lunar lander built by Moon Express, which was planned to be launched in 2020 with an Electron rocket. An unrelated planned science payload on the same lander was the International Lunar Observatory. The MX-1E lander was planned to land on the Malapert Mountain, a 5 km tall peak in the Aitken Basin region that has an uninterrupted direct line of sight to Earth. The launch contract between Moon Express and Rocket Lab (manufacturer of Electron) was canceled sometime before February 2020. Moon Express does not, as of February 2020, anymore plan to launch MX-1E on an Electron rocket, thus leaving MX-1E and all its science payloads without a carrier rocket.
|
||||
In 2018 INFN proposed to ESA the MoonLIGHT Pointing Actuators (MPAc) project, able to perform automatic pointing operation of MoonLIGHT, on the contrary to the Apollo CCR arrays that were manually arranged by the astronauts. In 2019 ESA chose MPAc among 135 eligible scientific project proposals and, in 2021, ESA agreed with NASA to launch MPAc with a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) mission. Nova-C, the lander on which MPAc will be integrated, is designed by Intuitive Machines and the expected launch date is in 2026. The landing site is Reiner Gamma, a lunar swirl on the western edge of the Moon, as seen from Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of retroreflectors on the Moon
|
||||
Satellite laser ranging
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
"Theory and Model for the New Generation of the Lunar Laser Ranging Data" by Sergei Kopeikin
|
||||
Apollo 15 Experiments – Laser Ranging Retroreflector by the Lunar and Planetary Institute
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-angle_imaging_spectroradiometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:36.352254+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer (MISR) is a scientific instrument on the Terra satellite launched by NASA on 18 December 1999. This device is designed to measure the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the Earth system (planetary surface and atmosphere) in various directions and spectral bands; it became operational in February 2000. Data generated by this sensor have been proven useful in a variety of applications including atmospheric sciences, climatology and monitoring terrestrial processes.
|
||||
The MISR instrument consists of an innovative configuration of nine separate digital cameras that gather data in four different spectral bands of the solar spectrum. One camera points toward the nadir, while the others provide forward and aftward view angles at 26.1°, 45.6°, 60.0°, and 70.5°. As the instrument flies overhead, each region of the Earth's surface is successively imaged by all nine cameras in each of four wavelengths (blue, green, red, and near-infrared).
|
||||
The data gathered by MISR are useful in climatological studies concerning the disposition of the solar radiation flux in the Earth's system. MISR is specifically designed to monitor the monthly, seasonal, and long-term trends of atmospheric aerosol particle concentrations including those formed by natural sources and by human activities, upper air winds and cloud cover, type, height, as well as the characterization of land surface properties, including the structure of vegetation canopies, the distribution of land cover types, or the properties of snow and ice fields, amongst many other biogeophysical variables.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing (July 2002) Special issue on MISR, Volume 40, No. 7.
|
||||
Diner, D. J., B. H. Braswell, R. Davies, N. Gobron, J. Hu, Y. Jin, R. A. Kahn, Y. Knyazikhin, N. Loeb, J.-P. Muller, A. W. Nolin, B. Pinty, C. B. Schaaf, G. Seiz, and J. Stroeve (2005) 'The value of multiangle measurements for retrieving structurally and radiatively consistent properties of clouds, aerosols, and surfaces', Remote Sensing of Environment, 97, 495–518.
|
||||
Remote Sensing of Environment (March 2007) Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) Special Issue, Volume 107, Issues 1–2.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official NASA site
|
||||
Visible Earth: Latest MISR images
|
||||
JPL MISR homepage
|
||||
Langley Atmospheric Science Data Center MISR data page
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir_and_Occultation_for_Mars_Discovery"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:37.538199+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Nadir and Occultation for MArs Discovery (NOMAD) is a 3-channel spectrometer on board the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) launched to Mars orbit on 14 March 2016.
|
||||
NOMAD is designed to perform high-sensitivity orbital identification of atmospheric components, concentration and temperature, their sources, loss, and cycles. It measures the sunlight reflected from the surface and atmosphere of Mars, and it analyses its wavelength spectrum to identify the components of the Martian atmosphere that may suggest a biological source. The Principal Investigator is Ann Carine Vandaele, from the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy, Belgium.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
NOMAD is one of four science instruments on board the European ExoMars TGO orbiter. This spectrometer consists of three separate channels: solar occultation (SO), limb nadir and occultation (LNO), and ultraviolet and visible spectrometer (UVIS). The first two channels work in the infrared (2.2 to 4.3 μm); the third channel (UVIS) works in the UV-visible range (0.2 to 0.65 μm), which is able to measure ozone, sulphuric acid, and perform aerosol studies. Measurements are carried out during solar occultation, i.e. the instrument points toward the sunset as the orbiter moves toward or away the dark side of Mars. It also measures in nadir mode, i.e. looking directly at the sunlight reflected from the surface and atmosphere of Mars.
|
||||
Since 9 April 2018, NOMAD is measuring the existing atmospheric concentrations of gases, their temperature and total densities. Atmospheric methane concentrations below 1 ppb can be detected. These measurements will also facilitate investigations in the production and loss processes for the cycles of water, carbon, and dust.
|
||||
NOMAD development and fabrication was carried out by OIP Sensor Systems at Belgium, in collaboration with partners in Spain, the United Kingdom, Italy, US, and Canada. Its development was based on the SPICAV spectrometer flown on Venus Express.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
NOMAD will map the composition and distribution of Mars' atmospheric trace gases and isotopes in unprecedented detail. The specific objectives are:
|
||||
|
||||
search for signs of past or present life on Mars.
|
||||
investigate how the water and geochemical environment varies
|
||||
investigate Martian atmospheric trace gases and their sources.
|
||||
study the surface environment and identify hazards to future crewed missions to Mars.
|
||||
investigate the planet subsurface and deep interior to better understand the evolution and habitability of Mars.
|
||||
To achieve these objectives, NOMAD covers a spectral region from UV, visible, and infrared that reveals the signatures of the following molecules and isotopologues:
|
||||
CO2 (including 13CO2, 17OCO, 18OCO, C18O2), CO (including 13CO, C18O), H2O (including HDO), NO2, N2O, O3, CH4 (including 13CH4, CH3D), C2H2, C2H4, C2H6, H2CO, HCN, OCS, SO2, HCl, HO2, and H2S.
|
||||
In particular, the detection of the different methane (CH4) isotopologues (13CH4, CH3D) will be key to help determine whether they are of geological (serpentinisation, clathrates) or a biological source. In addition, NOMAD can detect formaldehyde (H2CO) which is a photochemical product of methane, as well as nitrous oxide (N2O) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which are potential atmospheric biosignatures. SO2, a gas related to volcanism may reveal present or recent volcanic activity on Mars.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Astrobiology
|
||||
Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars, a spectrometer on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
|
||||
ExoMars programme
|
||||
Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper, a spectrometer aboard Juno Jupiter orbiter
|
||||
Life on Mars
|
||||
Martian atmosphere
|
||||
Water on Mars
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
31
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navcam-0.md
Normal file
31
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navcam-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Navcam"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navcam"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:38.703648+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Navcam, short for navigational camera, is a type of camera found on certain robotic rovers or spacecraft used for navigation without interfering with scientific instruments. Navcams typically take wide angle photographs that are used to plan the next moves of the vehicle or object tracking.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
The Mars Curiosity rover has two pairs of black and white navigation cameras mounted on the mast to support ground navigation. The cameras have a 45 degree angle of view and use visible light to capture stereoscopic 3-D imagery. These cameras, like those on the Mars Pathfinder missions support use of the ICER image compression format.
|
||||
European Space Agency Rosetta spacecraft used a single camera with 5 degree field of view and 12 bit 1024x1024px resolution allowing for visual tracking on each of spacecraft approaches to the asteroids and finally the comet.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Gallery ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Astrionics
|
||||
Hazard avoidance camera (Hazcam)
|
||||
Panoramic camera (Pancam)
|
||||
Optical, Spectroscopic, and Infrared camera OSIRIS
|
||||
List of NASA cameras on spacecraft
|
||||
Mars rover
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odin-OSIRIS-0.md
Normal file
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odin-OSIRIS-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Odin-OSIRIS"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odin-OSIRIS"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:41.000273+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
OSIRIS (Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imager System) is an instrument that measures vertical profiles of spectrally dispersed, limb scattered sunlight from the upper troposphere into the lower mesosphere. OSIRIS is one of two instruments on the Odin satellite, launched February, 2001 (the other instrument being a sub-mm radiometer) into a Sun-synchronous, 6 pm/6 am local time orbit at 600 km. This restricts OSIRIS sunlit observations to the Northern hemisphere in May, June, July and August, and the Southern hemisphere in November, December, January and February. Global coverage from 82°S to 82°N occurs on the months adjoining the equinoxes. OSIRIS measurements began November, 2001 and continue to the present.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
Stratospheric ozone science: To elucidate the geographical extent of, and mechanisms responsible for, ozone depletion in the "ozone hole" region and to study dilution effects and possible heterogeneous chemistry even outside of the polar regions due to sulphate aerosols.
|
||||
Coupling of atmospheric regions: To study some of the mechanisms that provide coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere, e.g., downward transport of NO with its effects on ozone photochemistry and the vertical exchange of minor species such as odd oxygen, CO, and H2O.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument ==
|
||||
The OSIRIS spectrograph measures from 274 nm to 810 nm with a single line of sight that is scanned through a range of tangent altitudes. Each scan typically ranges from 7 km to 65 km and takes 80 seconds to acquire. The measurements are used to produce height profiles of O3, NO2, and stratospheric aerosols.
|
||||
The Odin satellite was operated until June 2007 as a joint mission between astronomy and aeronomy disciplines. 50% of the total observation time was dedicated to each discipline where time was split into 1 day segments. Odin has operated as a purely aeronomy mission since June, 2007, and continues to the present, with almost complete coverage.
|
||||
OSIRIS is a Canadian instrument, operated by the Canadian Space Agency. The mission PI is Dr. Doug Degenstein, University of Saskatchewan. Odin is operated by the Swedish Space Corporation, with funds from the European Space Agency as a Third Party Mission.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== OSIRIS Data ==
|
||||
OSIRIS data is publicly available on the Odin-OSIRIS website, odin-osiris.usask.ca.
|
||||
Level 0: Radiance Data
|
||||
Level 1: Calibrated Radiance Data
|
||||
Level 2: Number Density and Volume Mixing Ratio (VMR) profiles as a function of altitude for O3, Stratospheric Aerosols and NO2.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
OSIRIS (imaging system on Rosetta comet mission)
|
||||
OSIRIS-REx (asteroid sample return probe)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Llewellyn E. J., Degenstein D. A., Lloyd N. D., et al. 2003. First Results from the OSIRIS Instrument on-board Odin. Sodankylä Geophysical Observatory Publications. 92:41-47
|
||||
Llewellyn, E. J., N D Lloyd, D A Degenstein, et al. 2004. The OSIRIS instrument on the Odin spacecraft. Canadian Journal of Physics, 2004, 82(6): 411-422
|
||||
Degenstein, D. A., Bourassa, A. E., Roth, C. Z., & Llewellyn, E. J. (2009). Limb scatter ozone retrieval from 10 to 60 km using a multiplicative algebraic reconstruction technique. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9(17), 6521-6529.
|
||||
Bourassa, A. E., D. A. Degenstein, R. L. Gattinger, and E. J. Llewellyn (2007), Stratospheric aerosol retrieval with optical spectrograph and infrared imaging system limb scatter measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D10217
|
||||
McLinden, C. A., et al. (2010), Odin/OSIRIS observations of stratospheric BrO: Retrieval methodology, climatology, and inferred Bry, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D15308
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
odin-osiris.usask.ca
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Optical Payload for Lasercomm Science"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Payload_for_Lasercomm_Science"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:42.173012+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Optical PAyload for Lasercomm Science (OPALS) is a spacecraft communication instrument developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory that was tested on the International Space Station (ISS) from 18 April 2014 to 17 July 2014 to demonstrate the technology for laser communications systems between spacecraft and ground stations.
|
||||
The purpose of OPALS is to do research into replacing traditional radio-frequency (RF) communications which are currently used on spacecraft. This will allow spacecraft to increase the rate at which data is downlinked by 10 to 100 times. It also will have less error than RF communication.
|
||||
It launched from Cape Canaveral to the ISS on 18 April 2014 on a Falcon 9 SpaceX CRS-3 Dragon capsule resupply.
|
||||
The experiment used commercial products rather than space qualified components.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Science objectives ==
|
||||
The goal of the OPALS mission was to demonstrate a downlink of a short video from space using laser communication. In doing so, the following was studied:
|
||||
|
||||
Maintenance of an optical link between the ground and space with various environmental and operational conditions
|
||||
Processing of distorted data
|
||||
Procedure design for setting up the optical link
|
||||
What equipment is used for sending and receiving signal
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mission architecture ==
|
||||
Communications and commands were sent to the flight system via the Mission Operations System (MOS), which is a process developed by the OPALS team. When the team wanted to execute a laser downlink, it went as follows
|
||||
|
||||
The information starts at the flight MOS located the mission control at JPL, where communications with the flight system is planned
|
||||
Information is sent to the Huntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC) at the Marshall Space Flight Center where it is sent via RF to the Tracking Data and Relay Services System (TDRSS), which is a communications satellite array
|
||||
The TDRSS sends the information to the ISS and the flight system, again via RF
|
||||
The flight system executes the laser downlink, which is received by the Optical Communications Telescope Laboratory (OCTL) in Wrightwood, California, where the OPALS ground system is located
|
||||
The information is finally given to the principal investigator of the OPALS mission for the team to analyze
|
||||
This process is executed in a matter of seconds. In the case of communications that are not laser transmission (e.g. system health checks), the architecture is much the same. The uplink is the same, following steps 1-3. The downlink instead of going down to the OCTL goes through the same path as the uplink, except backwards. Just like the uplink, all the communications are via RF.
|
||||
Although most downlinks went through the OCTL, some went through other ground stations, including the German Aerospace Center's (DLR) optical ground station in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany and the European Space Agency's ground station in Mount Teide, Tenerife, Canary Islands.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Systems ==
|
||||
|
||||
The OPALS has two hardware systems: the flight system, which sends the laser downlinks from the ISS, and the ground system, which helps the flight system know where to point and receives its downlinks.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Flight System ===
|
||||
The flight system (depicted on the right) has three major parts, the sealed container, the optical gimbal transceiver, and the Flight Releasable Attachment Mechanism (FRAM).
|
||||
|
||||
The sealed container houses the electronics, avionics, the communications laser, and a custom power board pressurized to 1 atmosphere with air to keep the electronics cool. The laser uses a light wavelength of 1,550 nanometers with 2.5 watts of power and has a 2.2 centimeter diameter aperture. The laser was routed through fiber to the gimbal transceiver where it was transmitted with 1.5 milliradian beam divergence.
|
||||
The optical gimbal transceiver holds the uplink camera and the laser collimator on a 2-axis gimbal. Due to laser safety considerations, the gimbal may not shine on anything on the ISS. To avoid this, the gimbal is designed with mechanical stops and electromechanical limit switches so that its field of regard (the area where it can point) is limited to 36° wide in elevation and 106° in azimuth, where the azimuthal axis is generally in the direction of motion of the ISS. Because of the gimbal field of regard geometry, the flight system can only perform downlinks when the ISS is north of the ground station.
|
||||
Because of the fast-changing viewing geometry during passes, the direction in which the gimbal must point throughout the pass must be pre-computed. The list of directions for the gimbal to point was calculated based on the ISS GPS state vector and attitude quaternion. The need for this list to be accurate was very important because of error in ISS orientation predictions and because the gimbal lacked any encoders, so all gimbal movement had to be done through dead reckoning. Once the flight system detects the beacon from the ground system, it tracks beacon with the gimbal.
|
||||
The FRAM is the interface between OPALS and the ISS. It was not designed by the OPALS team, but was an existing part designed by the ISS team at Johnson Space Center.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ground System ===
|
||||
The ground system is what receives the signal from the flight system's laser downlinks. Most frequently, the Optical Communications Telescope Laboratory (OCTL) in Wrightwood, California was used as the ground station, but other international stations were used as well. The observatory has a 1-meter mirror through which all of the laser downlinks are performed. The telescope has the capability of tracking objects that are in Low Earth Orbit. The ground system's function is to indicate to the flight system where to point the laser and then to receive that signal. It indicates where the laser must point by illuminating the ISS with a 976 nanometer laser. Signal is received through a 3 nanometer bandpass 1550 nanometer spectral filter in front of an indium gallium arsenide acquisition camera and an avalanche photodiode detector, which keeps the receiver from being overwhelmed by sunlight backscattered by Earth's atmosphere during day passes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Results ==
|
||||
OPALS attempted 26 downlinks, of which 18 were successful. Half of the successes were attempted at night, and half during the day. Below is a list of several downlink attempts.
|
||||
|
||||
Despite many downlinks being considered a failure, some of those failures were able to send the entire data package, since downlink data consisted of the same data package repeated many times.
|
||||
Generally, downlinks were more successful in the day than in the night. Downlinks also suffered in the event of cloudy weather, although on some occasions it was able to reacquire the signal. Some difficulty was found with downlinks to high-latitude ground stations, like DLR.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Deep Space Optical Communications
|
||||
Free-space optical communication
|
||||
Laser communication in space
|
||||
Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer, hosted the Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration
|
||||
Optical communication
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
JPL Mission Page
|
||||
Press Release: International Space Station to Beam Video via Laser Back to Earth
|
||||
Feature Article: OPALS Boosts Space-to-Ground Optical Communications Research
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory_3"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:43.336222+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-3 (OCO-3) is a NASA-JPL instrument designed to measure carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere. The instrument is mounted on the Japanese Experiment Module-Exposed Facility on board the International Space Station (ISS). OCO-3 was launched as part of CRS-17 on 4 May 2019 at 06:48 UTC. The nominal mission lifetime is ten years.
|
||||
OCO-3 was assembled using spare materials from the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 satellite. Because the OCO-3 instrument is similar to the OCO-2 instrument, it is expected to have similar performance with its measurements used to quantify CO2 to 1 ppm precision or better at 3 Hz.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History and timeline ==
|
||||
24 February 2009 - Orbiting Carbon Observatory was launched on a Taurus XL rocket but failed to achieve orbit when the fairing failed to separate from the satellite.
|
||||
1 February 2010 - The 2010 President's budget included funding for development and re-flight of an OCO replacement.
|
||||
October 2010 - The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 project went into implementation phase.
|
||||
2 July 2014 - OCO-2 was successfully launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base with a Delta II rocket.
|
||||
2015 - Funding for the OCO-3 project cancelled.
|
||||
22 December 2015 - OCO-3 project authorized to proceed. Funding was included in the 2016 spending bill.
|
||||
16 March 2017 - OCO-3 was not included in the proposed FY2018 presidential budget.
|
||||
23 March 2018 - Funding for the OCO-3 project was restored.
|
||||
May 2018 - Instrument underwent TVAC testing.
|
||||
4 May 2019 - Launched using a Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The delivery was part of SpaceX CRS-17, which also included delivery of STP-H6 and a cargo resupply.
|
||||
After arrival - Robotic installation onto Exposed Facility Unit 3 (EFU 3) on the JEM-EF.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument design ==
|
||||
OCO-3 is constructed from spare equipment from the OCO-2 mission. Thus its physical characteristics are similar, but with some adaptations. A 2-axis pointing mirror was added, which will allow targeting of cities and other areas on order of 100 by 100 km (62 by 62 mi) for area mapping (also called "snapshot mode"). A 100 m (330 ft) resolution context camera was also added. An onboard cryocooler will maintain detector temperatures of around −120 °C (−184 °F). Entrance optics were modified to maintain a similar ground footprint to OCO-2.
|
||||
Similar to OCO and OCO-2, the main measurement will be of reflected near-IR sunlight. Grating spectrometers separate incoming light energy into different components of the electromagnetic spectrum (or wavelengths or "colors"). Because CO2 and molecular oxygen absorb light at specific wavelengths, the signal or absorption levels at different wavelengths provide information on the amount of gases. Three bands are used called Weak CO2 (around 1.6 μm), Strong CO2 (around 2.0 μm), and Oxygen-A (around 0.76 μm). There are 1,016 spectral elements per band, and measurements are made simultaneously at 8 side-by-side locations or "footprints" each about 4 km2 (1.5 sq mi) or smaller, 3 times per second.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Expected data use ==
|
||||
Overall measurements from OCO-3 will help quantify sources and sinks of carbon dioxide from terrestrial ecosystems, the oceans, and from anthropogenic sources. Due to the ISS orbit, measurements will be made at latitudes less than 52°. Data from OCO-3 are expected to significantly improve understanding of global emissions from human activities, for example, using measurements over cities. Near simultaneous observations from other instruments onboard the International Space Station such as ECOSTRESS (measuring plant temperatures) and Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation lidar (measuring forest structure) may be combined with OCO-3 observations to help improve the understanding of the terrestrial ecosystem. Similar to OCO-2, OCO-3 will also measure Solar Induced Fluorescence which is a process that occurs during plant photosynthesis.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite
|
||||
Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide
|
||||
Total Carbon Column Observing Network
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Planetary Fourier Spectrometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_Fourier_Spectrometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:44.525581+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) is an infrared spectrometer built by the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (Italian National Institute for Astrophysics) along with the Istituto di Fisica dello spazio Interplanetario and the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italian National Research Council). The instrument is currently used by the European Space Agency on both the Mars Express Mission and the Venus Express Mission. It consists of four units which together weigh around 31.4 kg, including a pointing device, a power supply, a control unit, and an interferometer with electronics.
|
||||
The main objective of the instrument is to provide temperature profiles of Mars's carbon dioxide atmosphere, and to the study composition of the planet's atmosphere through the infrared radiation that is reflected and emitted by the planet.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Methane in the Martian atmosphere ==
|
||||
In March 2004, Professor Vittorio Formisano, the researcher in charge of the Mars Express Planetary Fourier Spectrometer, announced the discovery of methane in the Martian atmosphere. However, methane cannot persist in the Martian atmosphere for more than a few hundred years since it can be broken down by sunlight. Thus, this discovery suggests that the methane is being continually replenished by some unidentified volcanic or geologic process, or that some kind of extremophile life form similar to some existing on Earth is metabolising carbon dioxide and hydrogen and producing methane. In July 2004, rumours began to circulate that Formisano would announce the discovery of ammonia at an upcoming conference. It later came to light that none had been found; in fact some noted that the PFS was not precise enough to distinguish ammonia from carbon dioxide anyway.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Atmosphere of Mars
|
||||
ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
ESA Venus Express PFS page
|
||||
ESA Mars Express PFS page
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Plasma Instrument for Magnetic Sounding"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_Instrument_for_Magnetic_Sounding"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:45.712227+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Plasma Instrument for Magnetic Sounding (PIMS) is a Faraday cup based instrument that will fly on board the Europa Clipper orbiter to explore Jupiter's moon Europa. PIMS will measure the plasma that populates Jupiter's magnetosphere and Europa's ionosphere.
|
||||
The principal investigator is Dr. Adrienn Luspay-Kuti, from the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
The plasma in Jupiter's magnetosphere interacts with Europa's atmosphere. This interaction results in magnetic field perturbations. While understanding this plasma interaction is inherently interesting, it is also crucial for successful magnetic sounding Europa's subsurface ocean. The interaction of the Jovian magnetic field with Europa's subsurface ocean produces a magnetic induction signature that is used to determine the ice shell thickness, ocean depth, and ocean salinity of Europa's subsurface ocean. Separating the sources of magnetic field perturbations produces a better understanding of the ocean's properties.
|
||||
|
||||
The Plasma Instrument for Magnetic Sounding (PIMS) is a Faraday cup-based instrument that will measure the plasma of Jupiter's magnetosphere and Europa's ionosphere. Such devices on spacecraft date back to Explorer 10 in 1961 and were used by the Voyager 1 spacecraft to study Jupiter's magnetosphere in 1979.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Science goals ==
|
||||
The three science goals of PIMS investigation are:
|
||||
|
||||
study how Europa influences its magnetosphere, and Jupiter's magnetosphere.
|
||||
study the mechanisms for weathering and releasing material from Europa's surface into the atmosphere and ionosphere.
|
||||
constrain the inner ocean's salinity and depth.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Principle ===
|
||||
In magnetic sounding, currents induced in Europa by the changing Jovian plasma produce a detectable secondary magnetic field that reflects properties of Europa's subsurface ocean such as depth and conductivity. PIMS is composed of three Faraday cups, each with a 90º field of view. The cups measure the current produced on metal collector plates by charged particles with sufficient energy per charge (E/q) to pass through a modulated retarding grid placed at variable high voltage.
|
||||
In the Jovian magnetospheric plasma PIMS measures the density and flow velocity of ions with energies below 7 keV, and the density and energy of electrons with energies below 2 keV. In Europa's ionosphere (and in transitional plasmas, such as plumes) PIMS measures the density and temperature of ions and electrons. The PIMS investigation can also help in the search for active plumes and measure their mass-loading, by measuring the magnetic perturbations of Europa's ionosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
PIMS works in synergy with the Interior Characterization of Europa using Magnetometry (ICEMAG) instrument to probe Europa's subsurface ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Plasma Wave Subsystem (PWS, on Voyager 1 & 2 previously used to observe Jovian magnetosphere)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_Wave_Subsystem-0.md
Normal file
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_Wave_Subsystem-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Plasma Wave Subsystem"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_Wave_Subsystem"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:48.115930+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Plasma Wave Subsystem (sometimes called Plasma Wave System), abbreviated PWS, is an instrument that is on board the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 unmanned probes of the Voyager program. The device is 16 channel step frequency receiver and a low-frequency waveform receiver that can measure electron density. The PWS uses the two long antenna in a V-shape on the spacecraft, which are also used by another instrument on the spacecraft. The instrument recorded data about the Solar System's gas giants, and about the outer reaches of the Heliosphere, and beyond. In the 2010s, the PWS was used to play the "sounds of interstellar space" as the spacecraft can sample the local interstellar medium after they departed the Sun's heliosphere. The heliosphere is a region essentially under the influence of the Sun's solar wind, rather than the local interstellar environment, and is another way of understanding the Solar System in comparison to the objects gravitationally bound (e.g in orbit) around Earth's Sun.
|
||||
The PWS instrument plan was introduced in 1974 during the development of the Voyager program. It was hoped it would help increase understanding of wave particle interactions and record data on the magnetospheres of planets like Jupiter and Saturn. The instruments went on to record radio waves at Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
|
||||
The PWS instrument is one of the instruments that is a part of the Voyager interstellar mission, and they have operated for several decades after their 1977 launch into the 2010s.
|
||||
Frederick L. Scarf of TRW was the first PI. After Scarf's death in 1988, Donald Gurnett became the PI.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Specifications ==
|
||||
List:
|
||||
|
||||
Mass: 1.4 kg (3.08 pounds)
|
||||
Average electrical power consumption: 1.3 watts
|
||||
Average data rate: 0.032 kbit/s
|
||||
Frequency range 10 Hz to 56 kHz
|
||||
PWS/PRA Antenna:
|
||||
Length of antenna: 10 meters (10.936 yards)
|
||||
Number of antenna: 2
|
||||
Angle between antenna: 90 degrees
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== PWS and PRS ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
New Horizons (see plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite)
|
||||
Waves in plasmas
|
||||
Waves (Juno) (Spacecraft instrument aboard the Juno Jupiter orbiter of the 2010s)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
PWS
|
||||
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_wave_instrument-0.md
Normal file
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_wave_instrument-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Plasma wave instrument"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_wave_instrument"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:46.896589+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A plasma wave instrument (PWI), also known as a plasma wave receiver, is a device capable of detecting vibrations in outer space plasma and transforming them into audible sound waves or air vibrations that can be heard by the human ear. This instrument was pioneered by then-University of Iowa physics professor, Donald Gurnett. Plasma wave instruments are commonly employed on space probes such as GEOTAIL, Polar, Voyager I and II (see Plasma Wave Subsystem), and Cassini–Huygens.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operating principle ==
|
||||
Vibrations in the audible frequency range are perceived by humans when air vibrates against their eardrum. Air, or some other vibrating medium such as water, is essential for sound perception by the human ear. Without a medium to transmit it, the sound produced by a source will not be heard by a human. There is no air in outer space, nor is there any other type of medium capable of transmitting vibrations from a source to a human ear. However, there are sources in outer space that vibrate at frequencies audible to humans if only there were some transmitting medium to carry those vibrations from the source to a human eardrum.
|
||||
One such source capable of vibrating at audible frequencies (ranging from 45 to 20,000 vibrations per second) is plasma. Plasma is a collection of charged particles, such as free electrons or ionized gas atoms. Examples of plasma include solar flares, solar wind, neon signs, and fluorescent lamps. Plasma interacts with electrical and magnetic fields in ways that can result in vibrations across various frequencies, including the audible range.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other applications ==
|
||||
The recordings of interplanetary and outer space plasma vibrations, captured by plasma wave instruments, were provided by NASA to composer Terry Riley and Kronos quartet founder David Harrington as inspiration for the composition of "Sun Rings", a 85-minute multimedia piece for a string quartet and choir. "Sun Rings" was performed November 3, 2006, at the Veteran's Auditorium, in Providence, Rhode Island.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto_Energetic_Particle_Spectrometer_Science_Investigation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:49.355754+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI), is an instrument on the New Horizons space probe to Pluto and beyond, it is designed to measure ions and electrons. Specifically, it is focused on measuring ions escaping from the atmosphere of Pluto during the 2015 flyby. It is one of seven major scientific instruments aboard the spacecraft. The spacecraft was launched in 2006, flew by Jupiter the following year, and went on to flyby Pluto in 2015 where PEPSSI was able to record and transmit back to Earth its planned data collections.
|
||||
PEPSSI is designed to help understand the rate of atmospheric loss from the atmosphere of Pluto into space, which is thought experience comet-like atmosphere loss into outer space. These ions blend in with the surrounding solar wind which passed by Pluto. During the flyby PEPSSI sent data back to Earth every day. During the journey to Pluto, PEPSSI was also used to record data about the interplanetary medium. Data about Jupiter and its magnetotail was also collected by PEPSSI during its 2007 flyby of that planet. Beyond Pluto and into the Kuiper belt, PEPSSI can be used to study how the solar wind interacts with interstellar wind, adding to the data pile from the Voyager's which also exited the Solar System in a similar direction as the trajectory of New Horizons.
|
||||
One of the expectations that was not confirmed by PEPSSI was that sunlight would make a large bubble of ionized gases around Pluto from its atmosphere. PEPSSI found that the rate of atmospheric loss was only 0.01 percent of what was anticipated, and the region of interaction with the solar wind was much smaller than expected.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Design ==
|
||||
PEPSSI is one of the seven major instruments on New Horizons, and along with SWAP is designed to detect ions. Ions come in and pass through two foils, which when they pass through these foils they are timed, then they hit a solid state detector. The time of flight between the two foils helps determine the particles mass, and the detector measures the energy, and from this the composition of the particle can be determined within certain parameters. The instrument is designed to "taste" the atmosphere of Pluto, and design is oriented towards being low weight, low power, and understanding the nature of atmospheric loss from Pluto.
|
||||
PEPPSI is a compact low-power ion measurement device, and it is a time of flight type of instrument The design detects ions from about 10 keV to 1 MeV in a fan shaped160 degree by 12 degree arc. The device has a mass of 1.5 kg (3.31 lb) and can consume about 2.5 watts of electrical power. The ionized particles pass through two microchannel plates, with the time recorded for the time between these detections. After passing through this section, there is a solid state silicon detector. The design avoided using magnets for the time of flight section, which enhanced weight and/or power savings for the instrument. The instruments sensor and collimator are integrated to form the sensor module, which is mounted on board the electronic board stack.
|
||||
The 160 by 12 degree field of view is covered by six detectors each with a 25 by 12 degree field of view. By noting which detector the particle has arrived at, its overall direction of input can be noted.
|
||||
To meet the low power use and weight requirements, the device made use of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs). Additional power saving decisions involved the use of lower current Micro Channel Plates, a newly designed low-voltage power supply, and a re-designed fime-of-flight circuit board with a higher gain and reduced power usage.
|
||||
PEPSSI is based on an instrument that was on board the Discovery program's MESSENGER (planet Mercury orbiter, launched 2004/ended 2015) called the Energetic Particle Spectrometer. PEPSSI complements the focus of SWAP, which is oriented towards lower energy ions. Whereas PEPSSI measures ions with energies from about 10 keV to 1000 keV, SWAP measures ions from 25 to 7.5 keV. PEPSSI's electron detectors are capable of measuring energetic electronics with a range of 25KeV - 500KeV. An aluminium layer is also present to filter out protons and ions.
|
||||
PEPSSI has an enhanced design to reduce weight and power consumption having to do with electron detection, with heritage going back the 1980s and 1990s. The instrument on MESSENGER was based on an instrument for that periods proposals for a Pluto flyby mission. The design can trace back to some heritage to instruments in the 1980s for detecting ions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Specifications ==
|
||||
Specs:
|
||||
|
||||
Mass: 1.5 kilograms (3.31 pounds); 1475 grams
|
||||
Power use: ~2.5 watts
|
||||
Field of view: 160°×12°
|
||||
Ion energy detection range: 20 keV to 1 MeV
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
MAVEN (Mars orbiter that also focused on studying planetary atmospheric interaction with the Solar System medium)
|
||||
Coma (cometary)
|
||||
JEDI (energetic particle detector on the Jupiter orbiter of the 2010s)
|
||||
Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment (spacecraft instruments detects ions)
|
||||
IS☉IS (energetic particle detector instrument on the Parker Solar Probe, launched in 2018 to the Sun)
|
||||
List of New Horizons topics
|
||||
Pepsi (similar sounding American soft-drink, also sent into space on Space Shuttle)
|
||||
Pickup ions
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA - New Horizons instruments Archived 2019-03-28 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
PEPSSI Pluto encounter data link
|
||||
New Horizons PEPSSI Pluto Encounter Calibrated Data v3.0
|
||||
51
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REX_(New_Horizons)-0.md
Normal file
51
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REX_(New_Horizons)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "REX (New Horizons)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REX_(New_Horizons)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:56.561398+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
REX or Radio Science Experiment is an experiment on the New Horizons space probe to measure properties of the atmosphere of Pluto during the 2015 flyby.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Experiment ==
|
||||
Experiment was designed with several goals including determination of pressure and temperature of Plutonian atmosphere, measurements of a possible ionosphere of Pluto and Charon, recording thermal emission temperatures, and taking more accurate chord lengths of Charon and Pluto.
|
||||
To accomplish the goals, as the spacecraft passed by Pluto, it was placed on a path that took it behind the dwarf planet in relation to the Earth, where radio signals from the flyby spacecraft passed through its atmosphere allowing various properties to be determined. REX also took measurements of the atmospheric conditions at Pluto's moon Charon as part of the mission. REX uses an ultrastable oscillator, various electronics, and radio hardware aboard the New Horizons spacecraft. REX uses the X-band radio uplink on the spacecraft.
|
||||
REX hardware weighs 160g (0.16 kg) and consumes 1.6 watts of spacecraft electrical power. It also makes use of other NH hardware, overall key hardware components for REX include:
|
||||
|
||||
high-gain antenna
|
||||
low-noise X-band receiver
|
||||
ultrastable oscillator
|
||||
To take the measurements, REX communicates with the Deep Space Network on Earth.
|
||||
Observation goals:
|
||||
|
||||
temperature profiles of Pluto's atmosphere
|
||||
pressure profiles of Pluto's atmosphere
|
||||
radiometric temperature
|
||||
gravitational moments
|
||||
ionosphere structure
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Extended mission ==
|
||||
REX is also being used in the New Horizon's post Pluto extended mission, including the 486958 Arrokoth flyby. REX is being used to take thermal measurements of the Kuiper belt body during the flyby. REX is also used to study the amount of electrons in outer space in the Kuiper belt region. The Kuiper belt is a ring of orbiting bodies between approximately 30 to 55 AU (Earth-Sun distances), home to Pluto and short-period comets it is estimated to consist of hundreds of thousand if not millions of small icy objects. The belt was discovered in 1992, and can be studied more closely by the New Horizons mission which passed through it in the late 2010s.
|
||||
During the post Pluto cruise, REX is normally turned on monthly to measure the electron density of the solar wind between Earth and the spacecraft. When New Horizons flew by Pluto in 2015, it was at about 32.9 AU from the Sun, and about 43.6 AU for the New Year's Day 2019 flyby of Arrokoth.
|
||||
The timing of the Arrokoth flyby was adjusted in part to aid the use of the REX experiment, so that more radar dishes on Earth could be used.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Data from REX ==
|
||||
Using REX radio occultation data the diameter of Pluto was found to be 2376.6±3.2 km in a 2017 paper.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Gravity science (Juno) (Experiment aboard Juno Jupiter orbiter that uses radio and time)
|
||||
Mariner 4 (radio experiment helped determine more accurate atmospheric conditions about Mars in the 1960s)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA - REX
|
||||
50
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_science_subsystem-0.md
Normal file
50
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_science_subsystem-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Radio science subsystem"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_science_subsystem"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:51.728266+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A radio science subsystem (RSS) is a subsystem placed on board a spacecraft for radio science purposes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Function of the RSS ==
|
||||
The RSS uses radio signals to probe a medium such as a planetary atmosphere. The spacecraft transmits a highly stable signal to ground stations, receives such a signal from ground stations, or both. Since the transmitted signal parameters are accurately known to the receiver, any changes to these parameters are attributable to the propagation medium or to the relative motion of the spacecraft and ground station.
|
||||
The RSS is usually not a separate instrument; its functions are usually "piggybacked" on the existing telecommunications subsystem. More advanced systems use multiple antennas with orthogonal polarizations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Applications ==
|
||||
Radio science is commonly used to determine the gravity field of a moon or planet by observing Doppler shift. This requires a highly stable oscillator on the spacecraft, or more commonly a "2-way coherent" transponder that phase locks the transmitted signal frequency to a rational multiple of a received uplink signal that usually also carries spacecraft commands.
|
||||
Another common radio science observation is in radio occultation, performed as a spacecraft is occulted by a planetary body. As the spacecraft moves behind the planet, its radio signals cuts through successively deeper layers of the planetary atmosphere. Measurements of signal strength and polarization vs time can yield data on the composition and temperature of the atmosphere at different altitudes.
|
||||
It is also common to use multiple radio frequencies coherently derived from a common source to measure the dispersion of the propagation medium. This is especially useful in determining the free electron content of a planetary ionosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Spacecraft using RSS ==
|
||||
Cassini–Huygens
|
||||
Mariner 2, 4,5,6,7,9, and 10
|
||||
Voyager 1 and 2
|
||||
MESSENGER
|
||||
Venus Express
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Functions ==
|
||||
Determine composition of gas clouds such as atmospheres, solar coronas.
|
||||
Characterize gravitational fields
|
||||
Estimate masses of celestial satellites that do not have satellites of their own.
|
||||
To estimate particle size of particle fields
|
||||
Estimate densities of ion fields.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Specifications ==
|
||||
Given a deep space network (DSN) of receivers and/or transmitters.
|
||||
A Ka-band traveling wave tube amplifier (K-TWTA) amplifies signals to a transmitting antenna to be received by a distal radio telescope.
|
||||
Ka-band translator (KAT) receives signal from a high gain antenna and retransmits the signal back to DSN. In this way the phase and phase-shift resulting from signal modification
|
||||
Ka-band exciter (KEX) it supplies telemetry data.
|
||||
S-band transmitter is used for radio science experiments. The transmitter receives signal from the RFS, amplifies and multiplies the signal, sending a 2290 MHz signal to the antenna.
|
||||
Filter microwave emitter allow only microwaves of a given frequency to be emitted, there is a polarizing element. There are two-bypass filters and a wave-guide. The bypass filters allow different feed polarizations, receiving and transmitting.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
99
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_(New_Horizons)-0.md
Normal file
99
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_(New_Horizons)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Ralph (New Horizons)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_(New_Horizons)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:52.956371+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Ralph is a science instrument aboard the robotic New Horizons spacecraft, which was launched in 2006. Ralph is a visible and infrared imager and spectrometer to provide maps of relevant astronomical targets based on data from that hardware. Ralph has two major subinstruments, LEISA and MVIC. MVIC stands for Multispectral Visible Imaging Camera and is a color imaging device, while LEISA originally stood for Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array and is an infrared imaging spectrometer for spaceflight. LEISA observes 250 discrete wavelengths of infrared light from 1.25 to 2.5 micrometers. MVIC is a pushbroom scanner type of design with seven channels, including red, blue, near-infrared (NIR), and methane.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
Ralph is one of seven major instruments aboard New Horizons which was launched in 2006 and flew by the dwarf planet Pluto in 2015.
|
||||
At Pluto, Ralph enables the observation of many aspects including:
|
||||
|
||||
geology of Pluto
|
||||
form
|
||||
structure
|
||||
surface composition
|
||||
surface temperature
|
||||
Ralph and Alice were used to characterize the atmosphere of Pluto in 2015. Ralph was previously used to observe the planet Jupiter and its moons in 2006 and in 2007 when it flew-by en route out of the Solar System and past Pluto. Observations of Jupiter were taken with Ralph in February 2007, when New Horizons was about 6 million kilometers (nearly 4 million miles) from the giant.
|
||||
Ralph took color images of Arrokoth during the New Horizons flyby on January 1, 2019. Ralph, in conjunction with the LORRI telescope, was used to make a digital elevation map of the body.
|
||||
A version of Ralph is carried on Lucy, which is visiting six Jupiter trojans and an asteroid in the 2020s. The developers of that spacecraft noted in particular Ralph's ability to observe visible and infrared light by splitting the light stream, and then analyze two spectrums of light at the same time.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Naming ==
|
||||
|
||||
Ralph is named after a character in the 1950s television show The Honeymooners, along with another New Horizons instrument, Alice.
|
||||
LEISA's acronym was retitled from Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array to Lisa Hardaway Infrared Mapping Spectrometer by NASA in June 2017, after Ralph's program manager. Lisa Hardaway was an aerospace engineer and New Horizons Ralph instrument program manager who died in January 2017 at the age of 50. Hardaway was honored with Engineer of the Year for 2015–2016 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (Rocky Mountain Section) and Women in Aerospace organization awarded her a leadership award in 2015. In the summer of 2017, NASA renamed the LEISA channel in her honor.
|
||||
|
||||
Lisa made incredible contributions to New Horizons and our success in exploring Pluto, and we wanted to celebrate those contributions in a special way by dedicating the LEISA spectrometer in her honor.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Methane observations ==
|
||||
An example of Ralph's abilities is shown by this detection of methane on the surface of Pluto (left), overlaid on an image from LORRI on the right:
|
||||
|
||||
In 2018 it was announced, based on New Horizons high resolution data, that some of the plains of Pluto have dunes made of methane ice granules. The dunes are thought to have been formed by the blowing winds of Pluto, which are not as dense as those of Earth, and were compared to Dunes elsewhere in the Solar System such as on Saturn's moon Titan.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Specifications ==
|
||||
|
||||
Specifications:
|
||||
|
||||
Mass: 10.5 kilograms (23 lb)
|
||||
Max power use: 7.1 watts
|
||||
Telescope design
|
||||
Unobscured
|
||||
Off-axis
|
||||
Three-mirror anastigmat
|
||||
Aperture 75 mm
|
||||
f/8.7
|
||||
Effective focal length 658 mm
|
||||
Electronic control boards
|
||||
Detector electronics (DE)
|
||||
Command and data handling (C&DH)
|
||||
Low voltage power supply (LVPS)
|
||||
The one telescope feeds light to both LEISA and MVIC channels, with light split by a dichroic beamsplitter.
|
||||
|
||||
MVIC detects light between 400 and 975 nm wavelengths
|
||||
LEISA detects light between 1250 and 2500 nm wavelengths
|
||||
MVIC has seven CCDs that are wide but short, utilizing time-delay integration to read the imaging area. These channels have a resolution of 5024×32 pixels, with the larger direction providing the swath of the image. There are seven channels, with 6 used for time delay integration imaging and the seventh with an array of 5024×128 for navigation framing. MVIC has a field of view that is 5.8 degrees wide The framing channel, with 5024×128 pixel size, is panchromatic and a field of view of 5.7 degrees × 0.15 degrees. Unlike the other six channels, it can stare at one target and take an image. The purpose of this channel is to support optical navigation. The Navigation channel is a Frame array that operates as a single frame, rather than the other channels which generate an image by time delay integration.
|
||||
MVIC Bands: There are six channels that use Time Delay Integration and another that takes a frame and is for navigation.
|
||||
|
||||
2 panchromatic channels (observing light wavelengths from 400 to 975 nm)
|
||||
Blue (400–550 nm)
|
||||
Red (540–700 nm)
|
||||
Near infrared (from 780 up to 975 nm light wavelengths)
|
||||
methane band (860–910 nm)
|
||||
Navigation channel / framing array
|
||||
LEISA achieved its highest resolution data of Pluto of about 3 km/pixel at New Horizon's closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015, when it was 47,000 km distant.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Images ==
|
||||
During the flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015, Ralph was able to collect data on Pluto and its moons yielding various image results. In addition, the MVIC color channels were often the source of color on the otherwise panchromatic LORRI images.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 486958 Arrokoth ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
UVS (Ultraviolet imaging spectrometer on Juno Jupiter orbiter)
|
||||
Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (Infrared imaging on Juno orbiter)
|
||||
Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM, an imaging spectrometer in Mars orbit)
|
||||
List of New Horizons topics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
New Horizons' Instrurments (NASA) Archived 2019-03-28 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
NASA – Ralph
|
||||
Compares the fields of view of various New Horizons instruments including Ralph channels
|
||||
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Laser_Spectrometer-0.md
Normal file
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Laser_Spectrometer-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Raman Laser Spectrometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Laser_Spectrometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:54.156293+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) is a miniature Raman spectrometer that is part of the science payload on board the European Space Agency's Rosalind Franklin rover, tasked to search for biosignatures and biomarkers on Mars. The rover is planned to be launched not earlier than 2028 and land on Mars in 2029.
|
||||
Raman spectroscopy is a technique employed to identify mineral phases produced by water-related processes. RLS will help to identify organic compounds and search for microbial life by identifying the mineral products and indicators of biologic activities. RLS will provide geological and mineralogical context information that will be scientifically cross-correlated with that obtained by other instruments.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
Raman spectroscopy is sensitive to the composition and structure of any organic compound, making it a powerful tool for the definitive identification and characterisation of biomarkers, and providing direct information of potential biosignatures of past microbial life on Mars. This instrument will also provide general mineralogical information for igneous, metamorphous, and sedimentary processes.
|
||||
RST will also correlate its spectral information with other spectroscopic and imaging instruments such as the Infrared Spectrometer and MicrOmega-IR. This will be the first Raman analyser to be deployed for a planetary exploration. The first version for the rover was presented by Fernando Rull-Perez and Sylvestre Maurice in 2003. The RLS is being developed by a European consortium integrated by Spanish, French, German and UK partners. The Principal Investigator is Fernando Rull-Perez, from Spanish Astrobiology Center. The co-investigator is from Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées (LAOMP), France.
|
||||
The three major components are the Spectrometer Unit, the Control and Excitation Unit (includes the power converters), and Optical head.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Principle and operation ==
|
||||
The RLS instrument provides a structural fingerprint by which molecules can be identified. It is used to analyse the vibrational modes of a substance either in the solid, liquid or gas state. The technique relies on Raman scattering of a photon by molecules which are excited to higher vibrational or rotational energy levels. In more detail, it will collect and analyse the scattered light emitted by a laser on a crushed Mars rock sample; the spectrum observed (number of peaks, position and relative intensities) is determined by the molecular structure and composition of a compound, enabling the identification and characterisation of the compounds in the sample.
|
||||
Some advantages of RLS over other analysers are that it is nondestructive, analysis is completed in a fraction of a second, and the spectral bands provide definitive composition of the material. RLS measurements will be conducted on the resulting crushed sample powder and it will be a useful tool for flagging the presence of organic molecules for further biomarker search by the MOMA analyser.
|
||||
The processor board carries out several key functions for the Raman spectrometer control, spectral operation, data storage, and communications with the rover. The complete instrument has a mass of 2.4 kg (5.29 lb) and consumes about 30 W while operating.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
The goal of RLS is to seek signs of past life on Mars (biosignatures and biomarkers) by analysing drilled samples acquired from 2 meters below the Martian surface by the Rosalind Franklin rover core drill. The science objectives of RLS are:
|
||||
|
||||
Identify organic compounds and search for life.
|
||||
Identify mineral products and indicators of biologic activity.
|
||||
Characterize mineral phases produced by water-related processes.
|
||||
Characterize igneous minerals and their alteration products.
|
||||
Characterize the water/geochemical environment as a function of depth in the shallow subsurface.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Astrobiology
|
||||
Life on Mars
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reentry_Breakup_Recorder-0.md
Normal file
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reentry_Breakup_Recorder-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Reentry Breakup Recorder"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reentry_Breakup_Recorder"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:55.347164+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A Reentry Breakup Recorder (REBR) is a device that is designed to be placed aboard a spacecraft to record pertinent data when the spacecraft (intentionally) breaks up as it re-enters Earth's atmosphere.
|
||||
The device records data regarding the thermal, acceleration, rotational and other stresses the vehicle is subject to. In the final stages it transmits the data back to a laboratory before it is destroyed when it hits the surface.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
Two REBRs were launched in January 2011 on the Japanese Kounotori 2 transfer vehicle. One recorded the subsequent re-entry of that vehicle, and the other was placed aboard the Johannes Kepler ATV, which reentered Earth's atmosphere on 21 June 2011.
|
||||
The Kounotori 2 vehicle re-entered on 30 March 2011. Its REBR successfully collected and returned its data; it survived the impact with the ocean and while floating continued to transmit. It took between 6 and 8 weeks to analyze the data.
|
||||
The second unit was intended to collect data during the reentry of the Johannes Kepler ATV (ATV-2); however the device failed to make contact after reentry and consequently no data was retrieved.
|
||||
Two other units were used successfully for Kounotori 3 for its reentry on September 14, 2012, and Edoardo Amaldi ATV (ATV-3) on October 3, 2012.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Predecessor technology: image documentation of reentry and breakup ==
|
||||
Earlier data collection from reentry and breakup was mostly visual and spectrographic. A particularly well-documented case is seen in a reentry and breakup over the South Pacific—recorded by a large team of NASA and ESA space agency personnel with extensive photographic image and video data collection, at multiple spectrographic wavelengths—occurred in September 2008, following the first mission of the ESA cargo spacecraft—the Automated Transfer Vehicle Jules Verne—to the International Space Station (ISS) in March 2008.
|
||||
On 5 September 2008, Jules Verne undocked from the ISS and maneuvered to an orbital position 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) below the ISS. It remained in that orbit until the night of 29 September.
|
||||
At 10:00:27 UTC, Jules Verne started its first de-orbit burn of 6 minutes, followed by a second burn of 15 minutes at 12:58:18 UTC. At 13:31 GMT, Jules Verne re-entered the atmosphere at an altitude of 120 kilometres (75 mi), and then completed its destructive re-entry as planned over the following 12 minutes,
|
||||
depositing debris in the South Pacific Ocean southwest of Tahiti.
|
||||
This was recorded with video and still photography at night by two aircraft flying over the South Pacific for purposes of data gathering.
|
||||
The NASA documentary of the project is in the gallery, below.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Gallery ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Photo and diagram of the first REBRs, April 2011.
|
||||
19
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Abrasion_Tool-0.md
Normal file
19
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Abrasion_Tool-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Rock Abrasion Tool"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Abrasion_Tool"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:57.773704+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) is a grinding and brushing installation on NASA’s twin Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B), which landed on Mars in January 2004. It was designed, developed and continues to be operated by Honeybee Robotics LTD, a developer of specialized robots, automated technologies and related systems.
|
||||
The RAT was the first machine to gain access to the interior of rocks on another planet. The RAT has a mass of 0.685 kilograms (1.51 pounds), is 7 cm (3 in) in diameter and 10 cm (3.9 in) long, about the size of a soda can. It uses a diamond dust and resin wheel spinning at 3000 rpm to drill a 45 mm diameter by 5 mm deep bore hole in martian rocks. The RAT then uses two brushes to sweep dust from the bore holes for closer scientific inspection. Its average power consumption is 30 watts.
|
||||
There are five other instruments aboard both rovers, these are the Pancam (a camera), Mini-TES (an infrared spectrometer) for sensing targets at a distance, a microscopic imager, a Mössbauer spectrometer and an alpha particle X-ray spectrometer. The RAT provides these instruments with a smooth, clean surface from which they make more accurate observations.
|
||||
The RAT was first used by Spirit on its 34th sol (February 6, 2004). It was held up to the rock Adirondack, whereby it scraped to a depth of 2.85 mm (0.112 in) over the course of three hours. Since then it has been used on numerous Martian rocks by both MER rovers.
|
||||
The RAT was originally controlled from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, but is now run by Honeybee Robotics LTD from their New York headquarters. The RAT is the first product of Honeybee Robotics LTD's to be sent into space by NASA.
|
||||
The cable shield of each RAT is made from aluminum recovered from the World Trade Center site after the September 11 attacks.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_and_Interior_Structure_Experiment"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:45:58.982975+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment (RISE) is a radio science experiment onboard InSight Mars lander that will use the spacecraft communication system to provide precise measurements of Mars' rotation and wobble. RISE precisely tracks the location of the lander to measure how much Mars's axis wobbles as it orbits the Sun. These observations will provide new constraints on the core radius and help determine whether the core of Mars is mostly liquid, and which other elements, besides iron, may be present. This study will also help scientists understand why Mars's magnetic field is so weak, as compared to Earth's.
|
||||
The mission launched on 5 May 2018 and landed on the surface of Mars at Elysium Planitia on 26 November 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
The Principal Investigator for RISE is William Folkner of JPL, who led the 1997 investigation of Mars's core using the radio link between Earth and NASA's Mars Pathfinder. RISE uses the spacecraft's radio connection with Earth to assess perturbations of Mars's rotation axis to within 10 centimeters. These measurements can provide information about the size and composition of Mars's core.
|
||||
The radio science equipment is largely the same as used for the Mars Exploration Rover mission, and it includes two medium-gain horn antennas (MGAs) on the lander deck, and an X band radio transponder (8 GHz) and transmitter inside the lander, where electronics can be shielded from the harsh conditions of space. Although the lander will communicate all other science data in UHF to relay orbiters, the X band can be used directly with Earth in case of some problems with relay through an orbiter.
|
||||
In principle, after InSight lands on Mars, the lander reflects a signal sent from Earth, revealing its exact location and velocity in space. In doing so, the experiment measures changes in the signal, known as the Doppler effect as Mars -and the lander on it- move around the Sun. Scientists can use this information to understand how much Mars wobbles in its orbit, which relates to the nature of its iron-rich core. A planet with a liquid core will wobble more as it spins, compared to one that is solid at its core.
|
||||
The sensitivity is such that RISE can also detect the rotation changes caused by the seasonal redistribution of carbon dioxide (CO2) ice as it sublimates in the summer and condenses at the poles, causing tiny changes in the rotation rate of Mars, translating into a variation in the length of its days.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
|
||||
The goals of the RISE experiment are to deduce the size and density of the Martian core through estimation of the precession and nutation of the spin axis. The precession and nutation estimates will be based on measurements of the relative velocity of the InSight lander and tracking stations on Earth known as the Deep Space Network.
|
||||
The perturbations resemble the wobble of a spinning top and occur on two time scales. The longer wobble, called precession, takes about 165,000 years and it is directly related to the mass and diameter of the iron-rich core. The shorter-period wobbles, called nutations, occur on time scales of less than a year and are extremely small. Since they are determined by the density of the core, they will help determine if the core is mostly liquid or solid. This study will also help scientists understand why Mars's magnetic field is so weak, as compared to Earth's.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
LaRa, a similar radio science experiment on the ExoMars lander
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Home site of RISE at NASA
|
||||
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBUV/2-0.md
Normal file
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBUV/2-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "SBUV/2"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBUV/2"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:00.154245+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer, or SBUV/2, is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone, as well as ozone profiles, since March 1985. The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4. These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths. SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft. These extensive data sets (January 1979 to the present) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth's atmosphere from six to 30 miles.
|
||||
SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone. The SBUV/2 wavelength "channels" range from 252 nanometer (nm) to 340 nm. Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space. From this information, the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated.
|
||||
The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance (backscattered solar energy) in the near ultraviolet spectrum (160 to 400 nm). The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of “trace” constituents on the ozone layer.
|
||||
The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987, and continues to monitor this phenomenon. Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun's ultraviolet rays, which are believed to cause gene mutations, skin cancer, and cataracts in humans. Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems. The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft.
|
||||
The Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite on Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 is the follow-on to SBUV/2.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Dobson ozone spectrophotometer
|
||||
Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS)
|
||||
Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment-2 (GOME-2)
|
||||
Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI)
|
||||
SAGE III on ISS
|
||||
Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography (SCIAMACHY)
|
||||
Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE)
|
||||
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Latest SBUV/2 Analyses Daily NOAA-19 North Pole & South Pole Total Ozone Images
|
||||
Ball Aerospace SBUV/2
|
||||
POES Project
|
||||
NOAA SBUV/2
|
||||
Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp.
|
||||
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIR-2-0.md
Normal file
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIR-2-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "SIR-2"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIR-2"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:05.007315+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The SIR-2 instrument is a redesigned, highly compact, monolithic grating, near infrared spectrometer chosen to be a payload on the Indian Chandrayaan-1 satellite. It is an ESA project, and is built by Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Polish Academy of Sciences and University of Bergen.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mission ==
|
||||
The mission of the instrument is to map the lunar surface in the near infrared spectrum from 0.9 - 2.4 μm with an
|
||||
unprecedented resolution of 6 nm. The purpose of this is to obtain information on the mineral
|
||||
composition of the moon, which in turn will help getting insight into a number of questions:
|
||||
|
||||
What is the cause of the global asymmetry of the moon, which on the far side has a thicker crust and lacks the Mare structures which are characteristic for the near side?
|
||||
What was the early thermal evolution of the moon?
|
||||
What is the vertical and lateral structure of the lunar crust and how did it develop?
|
||||
What is the composition and structure of the lunar mantle?
|
||||
Why is the moon different from other planets and how do planets work in terms of surface processes, heat transfer, and geologic evolution?
|
||||
Are the Apollo geophysical measurements representative of the moon, or are they only valid for the small regions around the Apollo landing sites?
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Similar missions ===
|
||||
The instrument is a redesigned version of SIR, which was flown on board the SMART-1 technology satellite. SIR performed the same mission, but had a problem with dark current induced noise due to varying temperatures caused by differences in heat flux from the light and dark side of the Moon. SIR-2 will attempt to improve this, mainly by using a detector with an embedded thermoelectric cooler and a digital controller to keep the detector temperature stable. This will stabilize the dark current noise, making it simple to subtract it since it will have an almost constant level.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Electronics ==
|
||||
The control unit of SIR-2 is based on a System-on-a-chip design, minimizing the size and power consumption of the unit. A central component is the radiation hardened RTAX2000S Axcelerator FPGA, containing a LEON (LEON3FT) SPARC compliant CPU, communications interface Intellectual property cores, and custom interfaces to the rest of the instrument.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
SIR-2 on Chandrayaan-1 - First results
|
||||
An in-depth look at the lunar crater Copernicus: Exposed mineralogy by high-resolution near-infrared spectroscopy
|
||||
Study of Spectral Characteristics of the Central Peak Region of Tycho Crater Using the SIR-2 Data On-Board Chandrayaan-1
|
||||
SIR-2 as an important geological investigative tool
|
||||
Data from the SIR-2 Experiment on Chandrayaan-1
|
||||
A Near-Infrared Reflectance Survey Across Lunar Crater Aristoteles
|
||||
Study of Spectral Characteristics of the Central Peak Region of Tycho Crater Using the SIR-2 Data On-Board Chandrayaan-1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSMIS-0.md
Normal file
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSMIS-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "SSMIS"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSMIS"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:12.001520+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder (SSMIS) is a 24-channel, 21-frequency, linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system. The instrument is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) F-16, F-17, F-18 and F-19 satellites, which were launched in October 2003, November 2006, October 2009, and April 2014, respectively. It is the successor to the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I). The SSMIS on the F19 satellite stopped producing useful data in February 2016.
|
||||
The Department of Defense announced it would cut off access to SSMIS data useful for calculating depth of sea ice and location of hurricanes, as of July 31, 2025.
|
||||
In late July 2025, the Department of Defense announced it will keep the SSMIS data flowing until the sensor fails or the program formally ends in September 2026.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument characteristics ==
|
||||
|
||||
The SSMIS sensor is a passive conically scanning microwave radiometer that combines and extends the current imaging and sounding capabilities of three previously separate DMSP microwave sensors: the SSM/T-1 temperature sounder, the SSMI/T- 2 moisture sounder, and the SSM/I. The SSMIS instrument measures microwave energy at 24 discrete frequencies from 19 to 183 GHz with a swath width of 1700 km.
|
||||
The first SSMIS was launched aboard the DMSP-16 satellite on 18 October 2003.
|
||||
Due to a manufacturing mistake, the polarization for the channels at 50.3, 52.8, 53.6, 54.4 and 55.5 of the first unit of SSMIS (the one flying on DMSP-16) was reversed. Those five channels detect the vertical polarization rather than the Horizontal polarization detected by the successive units of SSMIS.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
44
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAP_(New_Horizons)-0.md
Normal file
44
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAP_(New_Horizons)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "SWAP (New Horizons)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAP_(New_Horizons)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:16.200916+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
SWAP (solar wind around Pluto) is a science instrument aboard the unmanned New Horizons space probe, which was designed to fly by dwarf planet Pluto. SWAP was designed to record solar wind en route, at, and beyond Pluto. At Pluto, SWAP's purpose was to record the relationship between the solarwind and ions and/or material entering space from the atmosphere of Pluto.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Background ==
|
||||
The atmosphere of Pluto was discovered in 1988, but it remained enigmatic and it was hard to understand an atmosphere existing in such low temperatures (45 K, −230 °C, −380 °F).
|
||||
One of the ideas about Pluto is atmospheric loss, with Pluto being compared to losses from comets. The idea of atmospheric loss was suggested in 1980, even before the atmosphere was discovered. One idea is the photoionization of escaping neutral particles might alter the flow solar wind around the dwarf planet. The atmosphere was known to be very tenuous compared to Earth, and one of the questions was how the gases were interacting with the solar wind and sunlight, likewise weaker at Pluto's orbit than at Earth's. One of the ideas was that Pluto's atmosphere would be stripped away by the solar wind over time.
|
||||
By the 2010s, only three other spacecraft besides New Horizons have collected extensive data about the solar wind beyond 10 AU: Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, and Pioneer 11.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
SWAP is designed to be able to detect the sparse solar wind concentration at 32 AU, which is about three orders of magnitude less than near Earth (1 AU). However, at that distance the flow of the Solar Wind is still supersonic, and thus liable to create a bow shock around an obstacle (at the distance of about 4.5 Pluto radii from the surface). One of the areas of investigation is the relationship between high altitude atmospheric loss and the solar wind. After the July 2015 flyby of Pluto by New Horizons, data from SWAP was used to study the nature of Pluto's interaction with the solar wind. It was determined that NH crossed the plutopause, that separates the solar wind plasma from one bound to Pluto, and then passed through a heavy ion tail.
|
||||
Earlier in the mission SWAP was intended to observe the Solar Wind around Jupiter. SWAP was also designed to be used in conjunction with PEPPSI and REX, to study how the solar wind changes with greater distance from the Sun. SWAP took only limited observations before 2012, but after that took a greater amount of data.
|
||||
Starting in 2012, while the rest of the spacecraft was in hibernation most of the time, SWAP was turned on to collect data about the Solar wind as it journeyed out to Pluto at 33 AU. SWAP recorded data about solar wind in the outer solar system and beyond Pluto, and some of the data that is sought about the solar wind are the proton density, speed, and temperature.
|
||||
One of the observations made with SWAP was that the cross-section of the Pluto's interaction region was limited to about six Pluto radii (about 7000 kilometers); this was smaller than expected.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Design ==
|
||||
|
||||
SWAP is a top-hat electrostatic analyzer. SWAP has a barrier known as the Retarding Potential Analyzer (RPA) that can be open or shut depending on the conditions. When closed ions must pass through the RPA before reaching the inner detectors. Beyond the orbit of Jupiter, it was not necessary to have the RPA engaged for measurements to protect the sensors from being overloaded. The RPA can protect the sensors from being overloaded by solar wind intensities that are too strong, as the device is also required to measure much fainter solar wind fluxes at 33 AU from Sun where Pluto would be at the time of the flyby, and even beyond. SWAP can detect ions up to 6.5 kiloelectron volts (keV).
|
||||
SWAP weighs 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds) and uses an average of 2.3 watts of spacecraft electrical power.
|
||||
Overall swap is designed to study the solar wind, including at the distant of 32 AU, and to study atmospheric loss from the atmosphere of Pluto.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
MAVEN (explored the Martian atmospheric loss, Mars orbiter of the 2010s)
|
||||
SWAP (instrument) (similarly named spacecraft instrument on a Solar space observatory)
|
||||
SWEAP (instrument on the Parker Solar Probe)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
New Horizons Swap Pluto Cruise Calibrated V2.0 Archived 2018-10-21 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAP_(instrument)-0.md
Normal file
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAP_(instrument)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "SWAP (instrument)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAP_(instrument)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:15.034710+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Sun Watcher using Active Pixel System Detector and Image Processing (SWAP) telescope is a compact extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) imager on board the PROBA-2 mission. SWAP provides images of the solar corona at a temperature of roughly 1 million degrees. the instrument was built upon the heritage of the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) which monitored the solar corona from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory from 1996 until after the launch of the Solar Dynamics Observatory in 2010.
|
||||
SWAP's coronal mass ejection (CME) watch program has collected images at an improved image cadence (typically 1 image every few minutes) since the PROBA-2 launch in 2009. These events include EIT waves (global waves propagating across the solar disc from the CME eruption site), EUV dimming regions (transient coronal holes from where the CME has lifted off), filament instabilities (a specific type of flickering during the rise of a filament). SWAP's EUV images of the corona routinely extend beyond 2 solar radii from the surface of the Sun, much further than was thought possible before the mission was launched. This led to the discovery, in 2021 by Seaton et al. using the SUVI instrument on board NOAA's GOES satellite, that the extended solar corona is visible in the extreme-ultraviolet, out to at least 3 solar radii from the center of the Sun.
|
||||
SWAP was built at the Liège Space Center and is operated from the PROBA-2 Science Center at the Royal Observatory of Belgium.
|
||||
SWAP has been used to study coronal brightspot dynamics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
SWAP (New Horizons) (solar wind detector on Pluto flyby probe)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
SWAP data
|
||||
55
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWEAP-0.md
Normal file
55
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWEAP-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "SWEAP"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWEAP"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:17.401031+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons (SWEAP) is an instrument on the Parker Solar Probe, designed for an unmanned mission to the Sun's outer corona. The Parker Solar Probe was launched by a Delta IV Heavy on 12 August 2018 from Cape Canaveral, Florida. SWEAP includes two types of instruments: the Solar Probe Cup (SPC) and Solar Probe Analyzers (SPAN). SWEAP has four sensors overall, and is designed to take measurements of solar wind including electrons, ions of hydrogen (protons), and helium (the main components of solar wind and the coronal plasma).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Background ==
|
||||
Scientists studying emission spectra of the Sun's corona during total solar eclipses thought they had found the presence of a new element they called "coronium." In the late 1930s, Walter Grotrian and Bengt Edlén postulated instead that these spectra were from highly ionized known elements, particularly iron. Since the levels of ionization they proposed required temperatures in the millions of Kelvins, this idea was initially not accepted as those temperatures were far higher than the actual surface of the Sun. This disparity was thought impossible as the corona should be cooler than the Sun, given that it lacks any apparent heat source of its own. Later measurements of the corona's temperature by other means suggested this idea was correct. Why this apparent disparity exists, now called the coronal heating problem, is still not known for certain.
|
||||
Some theories suggest that interactions between the various atomic particles in the plasma of the corona could account for the extra heat. To test those theories, NASA decided that it would be useful to collect data from the corona itself. They then commissioned the Solar Probe Plus for a 2018 launch (which was later renamed the Parker Solar Probe (PSP), after Eugene Parker, who predicted the existence of the later-proven solar wind in the 1950s, the first time NASA had ever named a space mission after a then-living person). Following a gravity assist from Earth and Mars, it used further gravity assists from Venus to make ever-closer orbits to the Sun.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Design ==
|
||||
SWEAP consists of the Solar Probe Cup (SPC), a Faraday cup that faces the Sun and is designed to measure mostly protons and alphas with the occasional measurement of electrons in the space environment near the Sun: the Solar Probe Analyzers (SPAN-A and SPAN-B); and the SWEAP electronics module (SWEM).
|
||||
The Solar Probe Cup is a Sun-facing instrument directly exposed to the Sun, and it had to be designed to handle the high temperature conditions at 9-10 Solar radii from the Sun that are planned for the mission. In operation, it peeks out from the probe’s Sun shield, and it is made entirely of refractory materials to endure these conditions. The hottest portion, the grid in front of the cup, can be heated to 3,000 °F (1,650 °C) and is made of tungsten. The wiring connecting to the electronics is made of niobium with sapphire insulators.
|
||||
SPAN-A and B are behind the heat shield, oriented forward ("ram side") and backward along the spacecraft's orbit, and take electron and ion measurements over a wide field of view. SPAN-A measure ions and electrons and SPAN-B measures electrons.
|
||||
Summary:
|
||||
|
||||
Solar Probe Cup (SPC): Outside solar shield directly exposed to the Sun
|
||||
Solar Probe Analyzers (SPAN)
|
||||
SPAN-Ai: ion electrostatic analyzer (ESA) on the ram side
|
||||
SPAN-Ae: electron electrostatic analyzer on the ram side
|
||||
SPAN-B: electron electrostatic analyzer on the anti-ram side
|
||||
SWEAP Electronics Module (SWEM)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operations ==
|
||||
|
||||
By September 2018, SWEAP had been turned on, and its first light data was returned.
|
||||
The data collected from the first and second encounters were released in November 2019 and are publicly available.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Location ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment (also can measure ions, on the Juno Jupiter orbiter)
|
||||
JEDI (also can measure ions, on the Juno Jupiter orbiter)
|
||||
SWAP (New Horizons), measures the Solar Wind on the New Horizons mission to Pluto and beyond
|
||||
Other instruments on PSP
|
||||
FIELDS
|
||||
IS☉IS
|
||||
WISPR
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_Experiment_for_Interior_Structure"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:01.421738+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) is a seismometer and the primary scientific instrument on board the InSight Mars lander launched on 5 May 2018 for a landing on 26 November 2018; the instrument was deployed to the surface of Mars on 19 December. SEIS is expected to provide seismic measurements of marsquakes, enabling researchers to develop 3D structure maps of the deep interior. Better understanding the internal structure of Mars will lead to better understanding of the Earth, Moon, and rocky planetary bodies in general.
|
||||
SEIS detected marsquakes in Cerberus Fossae in 2019.
|
||||
On 24 December 2021, the seismometer for the InSight mission on Mars detected a large seismic event with a distinct signature. The event was caused by a meteor impact on the surface of Mars, which was confirmed by satellite observations of a newly formed 150-meter crater. As of 21 December 2022, which marks the official end of the InSight mission, SEIS has detected a total of 1319 marsquakes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
Mars flybys and landings to gather scientific data have been conducted since the 1960s, but quality seismological studies – which would provide detailed information about the interior of Mars – have yet to be performed in the 21st century.
|
||||
Only two astronomical bodies – the Earth and the Moon – have been studied in this way, and learning about Mars is hoped to contribute to understanding the geology of all rocky planetary bodies.
|
||||
Other onboard instruments working in synergy with SEIS are the Temperature and Winds for InSight module, the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package, and the Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Earlier missions ===
|
||||
|
||||
While two seismometers were landed on Mars during the Viking missions in 1976, results were limited. Seismometers on both Viking spacecraft were mounted on the lander, which meant that it also picked up vibrations from various operations of the lander and caused by the wind. In addition, the Viking 1 lander's seismometer did not deploy properly.
|
||||
The seismometer readings were used to estimate a Martian geological crust thickness between 14 and 18 km (8.7 and 11.2 mi) at the Viking 2 lander site. Unexpectedly, the seismometer also detected pressure from the Mars winds, complementing the meteorology results. A single possible candidate for a marsquake was recorded, although it was not confirmed due to the limitations of the design, and interference from other sources of vibration such as wind. Despite these limitations, it was clear that widespread and large marsquakes were not detected.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Design ==
|
||||
SEIS is the primary instrument of the InSight mission, and it was designed and produced by the French Space Agency (CNES), with the participation of the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP), the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS), Imperial College, Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace (ISAE) and JPL. The Principal Investigator is Philippe Lognonné from the Institute of Earth Physics of Paris (Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris), in the E.U.
|
||||
Its design consists of a 3-axis very-broad-band seismometer (enclosed in a vacuum thermal enclosure) and a 3-axis short-period instrument. Mars is expected to have lower seismic activity than Earth, so minimisation of wind vibrations is critical. The whole assembly is placed under a heavy wind and thermal shield designed to minimize thermal contrasts and offer some protection against gusts of wind.
|
||||
The tripod-mounted seismometer will take precise measurements of marsquakes and other internal activity on Mars to better understand the planet's history and internal structure. It will also investigate how the Martian crust and mantle respond to the effects of meteorite impacts, which gives clues to the planet's inner structure. The seismometer will also detect sources including atmospheric waves and gravimetric signals (tidal forces) from Mars' moon Phobos, up to high-frequency seismic waves at 50 Hz.
|
||||
The SEIS instrument is deployed by the Instrument Deployment System, a robotic arm that can position the sensor directly on the surface. The instrument is supported by a suite of meteorological sensors (TWINS) to characterize atmospheric disturbances that might affect the measurements. These include a vector magnetometer provided by UCLA that will measure magnetic disturbances such as those caused by the Martian ionosphere; a suite of air temperature, wind speed and wind direction sensors based on the Spanish/Finnish Rover Environmental Monitoring Station; and a barometer from JPL.
|
||||
|
||||
During the final integration of SEIS, several small leaks were found in the vacuum thermal enclosure. This forced the postponement of the InSight launch from 2016 to 2018, and the redesign of a new enclosure under the supervision of JPL. The cost of the delay was estimated to be US$150 million.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operations ==
|
||||
|
||||
Routine operations will be split into two services, the Mars Structure Service (MSS) and Marsquake Service (MQS), which will be responsible, respectively, for defining the structure models and seismic activity. Combination of data with results from the InSight radio science and orbital observations will allow for constraint of the deeper structure.
|
||||
Possible observations include:
|
||||
|
||||
P waves and S waves
|
||||
Meteor strikes (see also Category:Meteorites found on Mars)
|
||||
Marsquakes
|
||||
Impact by other manmade objects
|
||||
Tidal forces from Mars' moons
|
||||
Interior revelations, such as the presence of a solid or liquid core and its size
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Single-site seismology ===
|
||||
|
||||
During development, the power of multiple sites was noted, but one site offers a tremendous insight to the interior. With a single site, the location of a marsquake event can be constrained to the surface of a sphere, by measuring what are known as P-waves and S-waves.
|
||||
There is a variety of single-site seismology techniques that can yield data, for example, the detection of an impact on the surface by a meteorite for which the location is identified. If Mars has large marsquakes, they may allow the deep interior to be determined. As the vibrations pass through the planet they are affected by the properties of the materials and its configuration.
|
||||
For example, the effect of tidal forces on Mars by Phobos, which should be about 10 mm, would be noticeably affected by a liquid Mars core. Even without any marsquake, it should be possible after about six months of observation to use this method to increase or decrease the likelihood Mars has a liquid core.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Cutaway illustration ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Placement on the surface ==
|
||||
On 19 December 2018, the SEIS instrument was deployed to the surface of Mars next to the lander by its robotic arm.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Composition of Mars
|
||||
Geology of Mars
|
||||
Volcanology of Mars
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Shuttle Radar Topography Mission"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Radar_Topography_Mission"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:02.602314+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) is an international research effort that obtained digital elevation models on a near-global scale from 56°S to 60°N, to generate the most complete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth prior to the release of the ASTER GDEM in 2009. The technique employed for generating topographic data by radar is known as interferometric synthetic aperture radar. It flew onboard the 11-day STS-99 mission in February 2000.
|
||||
Intermap Technologies was the prime contractor for processing the interferometric synthetic aperture radar data. The elevation models derived from the SRTM data are used in geographic information systems. They can be downloaded freely over the Internet, and their file format (.hgt) is widely supported.
|
||||
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission is an international project spearheaded by the U.S. National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense, and the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
|
||||
|
||||
== Mission and instrument ==
|
||||
|
||||
The mission consists of an interferometric synthetic aperture radar system based on the older Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR), previously used on the Shuttle in 1994. It features two antennas, a critical change from SIR-C/X-SAR, allowing single-pass interferometry. One antenna was located in the Shuttle's payload bay, like in SIR-C/X-SAR. The other was located on the end of a 60-meter (200-foot) mast that extended from the payload bay once the Shuttle was in space.
|
||||
Like in SIR-C/X-SAR, the SRTM radar antennas work in both X-band and C-band. C-band provides wider aperature and hence wider coverage under the tracks, whereas the X-band has a narrower aperature but higher resolution. The SRTM mission orbit was designed for the coverage of the American C-band mission, not the German-Italian X-band mission, hence the many gaps in X-band coverage.
|
||||
NASA transferred the SRTM payload to the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in 2003; the canister, mast, and antenna are now on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.
|
||||
|
||||
== Data processing ==
|
||||
The American data releases are based on the C-band data whereas the German data releases are based on the X-band data. No merging of the two bands have been done. All C-band processing was done on the 1-arcsecond (1″) resolution level.
|
||||
|
||||
=== No-data areas ===
|
||||
|
||||
The C-band elevation datasets are affected by mountain and desert no-data areas. These amount to no more than 0.2% of the total area surveyed, but can be a problem in areas of very high relief. They affect all summits over 8,000 meters, most summits over 7,000 meters, many Alpine and similar summits and ridges, and many gorges and canyons. There are some SRTM data sources which have filled these data voids, but some of these have used only interpolation from surrounding data, and may therefore be very inaccurate. If the voids are large, or completely cover summit or ridge areas, no interpolation algorithms will give satisfactory results.
|
||||
|
||||
== C-band digital elevation model ==
|
||||
|
||||
The elevation models are arranged into tiles, each covering one degree of latitude and one degree of longitude, named according to their south western corners. For example, "n45e006" stretches from 45°N 6°E to 46°N 7°E and "s45w006" from 45°S 6°W to 44°S 5°W. The resolution of the raw data is one arcsecond (1″, 30 m along the equator) and coverage includes Africa, Europe, North America, South America, Asia, and Australia. For the rest of the world, only three arcsecond (3″, 90 m along the equator) data are available.
|
||||
Each 1″ tile has 3,601 rows, each consisting of 3,601 16 bit bigendian cells. The dimensions of the 3″ tiles are 1201 1201. The original SRTM elevations were calculated relative to the WGS84 ellipsoid and then the EGM96 geoid separation values were added to convert to heights relative to the geoid for all the released products.
|
||||
|
||||
=== NASA/USGS versions ===
|
||||
The USGS SRTM data is based on NASA's SIR-C instrument. It is available in the following versions from NASA:
|
||||
|
||||
Version 1 (2003–2004) is almost the raw data.
|
||||
Version 2.1 (~2005) is an edited version of v1. Artifacts are removed, but large voids are not yet filled. There are 1-arcsecond (1″) data over the US.
|
||||
Version 3 (2013), also known as SRTM Plus, is void-filled. It features global 3″ data and US 1″ data. It was released by NASA LP DAAC in November 2013. Voids were filled primarily from ASTER GDEM2, and secondarily from USGS GMTED2010 – or USGS National Elevation Dataset (NED) for the United States (except Alaska) and northernmost Mexico according to the announcement.
|
||||
SRTM-GL1 (2014), global 1-arcsecond (30 meter) release sharing the "version 3" mark.
|
||||
The terminology regarding versions and resolutions can be confusing. "SRTM1" and "SRTM3" refers to the resolutions in 1 and 3 arc-seconds, not the versions of the format. On the other hand, "SRTM4.1" refers to a specific filled version by CGIAR-CSI. It is recommended to add a "v" in front of the version number to disambiguate.
|
||||
The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency is responsible for most of the data cleanup work seen in version 2.1. It maintains its own high-resolution version and a number of undisclosed void-filled versions containing data from additional sources. Such an undisclosed version was used to fill the voids in ASTER GDEM2, which was in turn used to fill the voids in SRTM version 3.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Shuttle Radar Topography Mission"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Radar_Topography_Mission"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:02.602314+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
==== Highest resolution global release ====
|
||||
SRTM-GL1 is a void-filled digital elevation model with 1-arcsecond (30 meter) resolution, or alternatively a high-resolution version of "SRTM version 3". It was released in 2014. It is available from the United States Geological Survey web site and the NASA data catalog.
|
||||
The United States Government announced on September 23, 2014 over a United Nations Climate Summit that the highest possible resolution of global topographic data derived from the SRTM mission will be released to public. Before the end of the same year, a 1-arc second global digital elevation model (30 meters) was released. Most parts of the world have been covered by this dataset ranging from 54°S to 60°N latitude except for the Middle East and North Africa area. Missing coverage of the Middle East was completed in August 2015.
|
||||
Jonathan de Ferranti published a short review of the new SRTM-GL1 data product in 2015. The effective resolution is about 50 metres, compared with 100 meters for versions 1 and 2 of ASTER GDEM. Voids remain around Mount Everest and the Swiss/Italian Matterhorn. There are some artificial details (bumps and pits), but at a lower amplitude than ASTER GDEM.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Third-party derivatives ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Void-filled SRTM datasets ====
|
||||
Groups of scientists have worked on algorithms to fill the voids of the original SRTM (v2.1) data. Three datasets offer global coverage void-filled SRTM data at full (3-arcsecond) resolution:
|
||||
|
||||
The CGIAR-CSI version 4 provides global coverage using interpolation. The latest version is 4.1 of 2007. The resolution is 3″ or 90 m. Data sources include SRTM version 2 (3″) and a number of auxiliary DEMs of comparable resolution.
|
||||
The USGS HydroSHEDS 3″ (90 m) dataset was generated for hydrological applications and is suitable for consistent drainage and water flow information. References are provided on the algorithms used and quality assessment. HydroSHEDS has since been spun off into its own website with many derived products. As of December 2025, a 12 m HydroSHEDS v2 based on TanDEM-X data is being worked on.
|
||||
The void-filled SRTM data from Viewfinder Panoramas by Jonathan de Ferranti are high quality at full SRTM resolution. The data is filled using local survey maps and photographs. The OpenTopoMap website uses this fill. 3″ and 15″ resolution globally, with 1″ resolution for: USA, Canada, Europe, Antarctica, New Zealand, Greenland, Scandinavia (last updated 2022). Future 1″ data will be based primarily on SRTM-GL1.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Cleaned terrain ====
|
||||
Due to how radar works, the SRTM data is contaminated by non-terrain features such as trees and buildings.
|
||||
Geoscience Australia released a derived 1″ dataset with trees and other vegetation features removed covering Australia in November 2011 under the CC-BY 4.0 license. There are three versions: one deriving from direct removal of vegetation using vegetation maps, one derived from smoothing of the former, and one derived by hydrological enforcement (i.e. adjusting the elevation to match known water flow paths) of the smoothed version.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Users ===
|
||||
In early June 2011, there were 750,000 confirmed users of SRTM topography dataset. Users in 221 countries have accessed the site.
|
||||
|
||||
== X-band digital elevation model ==
|
||||
The SRTM also carries the X-SAR instrument operated by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Italian Space Agency (ASI). The resulting dataset is usually called SRTM/X-SAR, or SRTMX for short. The grid resolution is high at 25 meters, but it has many gaps due to the narrower instrument aperture (only capturing 50 km wide areas). The data was made public in May 2011. A visualization of SRTM/X-SAR coverage is available from the EOC Geoservice of the Earth Observation Center (EOC) of the German Aerospace Center (DLR), which also offers downloads.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Synthetic aperture radar
|
||||
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
|
||||
Digital elevation model
|
||||
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
|
||||
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer
|
||||
SRTM Water Body Data
|
||||
WorldDEM private data with higher resolution, from newer satellite TerraSAR-X-TanDEM-X
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Nikolakopoulos, K. G.; Kamaratakis, E. K; Chrysoulakis, N. (10 November 2006). "SRTM vs ASTER elevation products. Comparison for two regions in Crete, Greece" (PDF). International Journal of Remote Sensing. 27 (21): 4819. Bibcode:2006IJRS...27.4819N. doi:10.1080/01431160600835853. ISSN 0143-1161. S2CID 1939968. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011. Retrieved March 10, 2010.
|
||||
Hirt, C.; Filmer, M.S.; Featherstone, W.E. (2010). "Comparison and validation of recent freely-available ASTER-GDEM ver1, SRTM ver4.1 and GEODATA DEM-9S ver3 digital elevation models over Australia". Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 57 (3): 337–347. Bibcode:2010AuJES..57..337H. doi:10.1080/08120091003677553. hdl:20.500.11937/43846. S2CID 140651372. Retrieved May 5, 2012.
|
||||
Rexer, M.; Hirt, C. (2014). "Comparison of free high-resolution digital elevation data sets (ASTER GDEM2, SRTM v2.1/v4.1) and validation against accurate heights from the Australian National Gravity Database" (PDF). Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 61 (2): 213–226. Bibcode:2014AuJES..61..213R. doi:10.1080/08120099.2014.884983. hdl:20.500.11937/38264. S2CID 3783826. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 7, 2016. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
|
||||
Hennig, T., Kretsch, J, Salamonowicz, P, Pessagno, C, and Stein, W., The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Digital Earth Moving 2001, Springer Verlag, London, UK.
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Li, P.; Li, Z.; Muller, J.-P.; Shi, C.; Liu, J. (November 2016). "A new quality validation of global digital elevation models freely available in China". Survey Review. 48 (351): 409–420. Bibcode:2016SurRv..48..409L. doi:10.1179/1752270615Y.0000000039. S2CID 129792781.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Official NASA SRTM site (SRTM V1 and V2)
|
||||
NASA MEaSUREs Products (SRTM V3 and more)
|
||||
NASA's server with SRTM data tiles – Please read the accompanying documentation
|
||||
Derived data
|
||||
|
||||
Digital elevation data from Geoscience Australia – arcsecond-resolution derived data covering Australia
|
||||
Void filled SRTM data at CGIAR-CSI Archived 2013-02-07 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
USGS HydroSHEDS – Full resolution SRTM-based DEM for hydrological applications
|
||||
Viewfinder Panoramas – Unofficial SRTM data with voids corrected using topographic maps
|
||||
Software
|
||||
|
||||
Software that can read and process SRTM data: 3dem, GRASS GIS, SAGA GIS, MapWindow GIS, DG Terrain Viewer/Void Killer, Virtual Terrain Project
|
||||
44
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signs_Of_LIfe_Detector-0.md
Normal file
44
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signs_Of_LIfe_Detector-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Signs Of LIfe Detector"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signs_Of_LIfe_Detector"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:03.796986+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Signs Of LIfe Detector (SOLID) is an analytical instrument under development to detect extraterrestrial life in the form of organic biosignatures obtained from a core drill during planetary exploration.
|
||||
The instrument is based on fluorescent immunoassays and it is being developed by the Spanish Astrobiology Center (CAB) in collaboration with the NASA Astrobiology Institute. SOLID is currently undergoing testing for use in astrobiology space missions that search for common biomolecules that may indicate the presence of extraterrestrial life, past or present. The system was validated in field tests and engineers are looking into ways to refine the method and miniaturize the instrument further.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Science background ==
|
||||
|
||||
Modern astrobiology inquiry has emphasized the search for water on Mars, chemical biosignatures in the permafrost, soil and rocks at the planet's surface, and even biomarker gases in the atmosphere that may give away the presence of past or present life. The detection of preserved organic molecules of unambiguous biological origin is fundamental for the confirmation of present or past life, but the 1976 Viking lander biological experiments failed to detect organics on Mars, and it is suspected it was because of the combined effects of heat applied during analysis and the unexpected presence of oxidants such as perchlorates in the Martian soil. The recent discovery of near surface ground ice on Mars supports arguments for the long-term preservation of biomolecules on Mars.
|
||||
SOLID demonstrated that antibodies are unaffected by acidity, heat and oxidants such as perchlorates, and it has emerged as a viable choice for an astrobiology mission directly searching for biosignatures.
|
||||
For a time, the ExoMars' Rosalind Franklin rover was planned to carry a similar instrument called Life Marker Chip.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument ==
|
||||
|
||||
SOLID was designed for automatic in situ detection and identification of substances from liquid and crushed samples under the conditions of outer space. The system uses hundreds of carefully selected antibodies to detect lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. These are complex biological polymers that could only be synthesized by life forms, and are therefore strong indicators —biosignatures— of past or present life.
|
||||
SOLID consists of two separate functional units: a Sample Preparation Unit (SPU) for extractions by ultrasonication, and a Sample Analysis Unit (SAU), for fluorescent immunoassays. The antibody microarrays are separated in hundreds of small compartments inside a biochip only a few square centimeters in size.
|
||||
SOLID instrument is able to perform both "sandwich" and competitive immunoassays using hundreds of well characterized and highly specific antibodies. The technique called "sandwich immunoassay" is a non-competitive immunoassay in which the analyte (compound of interest in the unknown sample) is captured by an immobilized antibody, then a labeled antibody is bound to the analyte to reveal its presence. In other words, the "sandwich" quantify antigens (i.e. biomolecules) between two layers of antibodies (i.e. capture and detection antibody). For the competitive assay technique, unlabeled analyte displaces bound labelled analyte, which is then detected or measured.
|
||||
An optical system is set up so that a laser beam excites the fluorochrome label and a CCD detector captures an image of the microarray that can be measured.
|
||||
The instrument is able to detect a broad range of molecular size compounds, from the amino acid size, peptides, proteins, to whole cells and spores, with sensitivities at 1–2 ppb (ng/mL) for biomolecules and 104 to 103 spores per milliliter. Some compartments in the microarray are reserved for samples of known nature and concentrations, that are used as controls for reference and comparison. SOLID instrument concept avoids the high-temperature treatments of other techniques that may destroy organic matter in the presence of Martian oxidants such as perchlorates.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Testing ==
|
||||
A field prototype of SOLID was first tested in 2005 in a simulated Mars drilling expedition called MARTE (Mars Analog Rio Tinto Experiment) where the researchers tested a drill 10 m (33 ft) in depth, sample-handling systems, and immunoassays relevant to the search for life in the Martian subsurface. MARTE was funded by the NASA Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets (ASTEP) program. Using the sample cores, SOLID successfully detected several biological polymers in extreme environments in different parts of the world, including a deep South African mine, Antarctica's McMurdo Dry Valleys, Yellowstone, Iceland, Atacama Desert in Chile, and in the acid water of Rio Tinto.
|
||||
Extracts obtained from Mars analogue sites on Earth were added to various perchlorate concentrations at −20 °C for 45 days and then the samples were analyzed with SOLID. The results showed no interference from acidity or from the presence of 50 mM perchlorate which is 20 times higher than that found at the Phoenix landing site. SOLID demonstrated that the chosen antibodies are unaffected by acidity, heat and oxidants such as perchlorates, and it has emerged as a viable choice for an astrobiology mission directly searching for biosignatures.
|
||||
In 2018, another field test took place at the Atacama Desert with a rover called ARADS (Atacama Rover Astrobiology Drilling Studies) that carried a core drill, SOLID instrument, and another life detection system called Microfluidic Life Analyzer (MILA). MILA processes minuscule volumes of fluid samples to isolate amino acids, which are building blocks of proteins. The rover tested different strategies for searching for potential evidence of life in the soil, and established that roving, drilling and life detection can take place in concert.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Status ===
|
||||
These tests validated the system for planetary exploration. Some improvements to be addressed in the future are instrument miniaturization, extraction protocols, and antibody stability under outer space conditions. SOLID would be one of the payloads of the proposed Icebreaker Life to Mars, or a lander to Europa.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_X-ray_Imager-0.md
Normal file
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_X-ray_Imager-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Solar X-ray Imager"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_X-ray_Imager"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:06.212667+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Solar X-ray Imager (SXI) are full-disc X-ray instruments observing the Sun aboard GOES satellites. The SXI on GOES 12 was the first of its kind and allows the U.S. NOAA to better monitor and predict space weather.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Operation ==
|
||||
The Solar X-ray Imager aboard the GOES 12, GOES 13, GOES 14, and GOES 15 NOAA weather satellites is used for early detection of solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and space phenomena that impact human spaceflight and military and commercial satellite communications. The Solar X-ray Imager was the first X-ray telescope to take a "full-disk" image of the Sun, providing forecasters with the ability to detect solar storms and real-time solar forecasting by the Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Imagery ==
|
||||
|
||||
The SXI aboard GOES 12 is a Wolter Type I (Wolter telescope) grazing incidence X-ray telescope designed to record coronal images in continuous sequence at 1-minute intervals. The Solar X-ray Imager obtains images at multiple wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum from 6 to 60 angstrom units (Å). The imagery obtained by the XSI and XRS on GOES 12 allowed forecasters to see space phenomena such as coronal holes, whose geomagnetic and proton storms impact electrical grid systems on Earth as well as radio communications and satellite communications systems.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Failure and termination of the GOES 12 instrument ==
|
||||
The XSI and XRS sensors on GOES 12 failed due to a problem with the electrical system which controls the north-south motion functionality of the instruments on April 12, 2007. The SXI and XRS currently have the ability to capture and record images. Due to limited field of view of the x-ray instrumentation, the XSI and XRS and been permanently deactivated.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
2001 in spaceflight
|
||||
List of GOES satellites
|
||||
Geomagnetism
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceborne_Imaging_Radar-0.md
Normal file
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceborne_Imaging_Radar-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Spaceborne Imaging Radar"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceborne_Imaging_Radar"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:07.354704+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) – full name 'Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR)', is a synthetic aperture radar which flew on two separate shuttle missions. Once from the Space Shuttle Endeavour in April 1994 on (STS-59) and again in October 1994 on (STS-68). The radar was run by NASA's Space Radar Laboratory. SIR utilizes 3 radar frequencies: L band (24 cm wavelength), C band (6 cm) and X band (3 cm), allowing for study of geology, hydrology, ecology and oceanography. Comparing radar images to data collected by teams of people on the ground as well as aircraft and ships using simultaneous measurements of vegetation, soil moisture, sea state, snow and weather conditions during each flight. The imaging radar was able to take images anytime regardless of clouds cover. The Radar-C system was built and operated by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The mission was a joint work of NASA with the German and Italian space agencies. Each of the week long mission scanned about 50 million square kilometers of the Earth's surface, (19.3 million square miles).
|
||||
The SIR mission revealed hidden river channels in the Sahara Desert indicating significant climate change in the past. SIR was also used for volcano research by keeping researchers a safe distance from hazardous and often inaccessible areas. The radar was also used to generate detailed three dimensional mappings of the Earth's surface.
|
||||
Radar also found temples in Angkor, and ancient segments of China's Great Wall.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Specification ==
|
||||
Orbital altitude above earth = 225 km (140 mi)
|
||||
The width of the imaged swath on the ground = 15–90 kilometers (9.3–55.9 miles)
|
||||
C-band beamwidth = 0.25 deg. × 5 deg.
|
||||
L-band beamwidth = 1.1 deg. × 6 deg.
|
||||
Scan angle range = ±23 deg. from boresight across narrow antenna direction only
|
||||
Bandwidth = 10, 20 and 40 MHz
|
||||
Pulse repetition rate = 1395–1736 pulses per second
|
||||
Total science data = 50 hours per channel, per mission (two missions, total 100 hours)
|
||||
Total instrument mass = 11,000 kg (24,000 lb)
|
||||
DC power consumption = 3000–9000 Watts
|
||||
L-band data rate = 90 Mbit/s
|
||||
C-band data rate = 90 Mbit/s
|
||||
X-band data rate = 45 Mbit/s
|
||||
L-band wavelength = 0.235 m
|
||||
C-band Wavelength = 0.058 m
|
||||
X-band wavelength = 0.031 m
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Seasat – Seasat Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) in 1978
|
||||
STS-2 with SIR-A
|
||||
STS-41-G with SIR-B
|
||||
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
|
||||
TerraSAR-X
|
||||
Earth Radiation Budget Satellite
|
||||
TopSat
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Spacecraft Atmosphere Monitor"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_Atmosphere_Monitor"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:08.543451+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Spacecraft Atmosphere Monitor (SCRAM) is a highly compact gas chromatograph mass spectrometer (GCMS) instrument built by JPL that is a technology demonstration on the International Space Station for monitoring the cabin atmosphere in human spacecraft. SCRAM measures both the major constituents (e.g. nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide) and trace parts per billion volatile chemicals (e.g. benzene, ethanol, siloxanes) in the spacecraft cabin atmosphere to ensure the health of the astronauts. SCRAM has a total mass of 9.5 kg and uses 40 W (nominal) during operation.
|
||||
SCRAM is an advanced technology demonstration that can be employed on future crewed flight missions, like in the Artemis program and the Orion spacecraft. It was launched to ISS on a Dragon spacecraft on July 25, 2019, and began continuous operations on July 29, 2019. SCRAM was returned to earth aboard SpaceX-25 on Jan. 24, 2022 after almost two years of continuous operations aboard the ISS, exceeding its design lifetime goal of one year. The instrument was returned to JPL on Feb. 15, 2022.
|
||||
This first SCRAM instrument will be refurbished and be flown, along with a second SCRAM unit (SCRAM-2), to ISS in late 2022. The two instruments operating at the same time will enable JPL scientists to continuously monitor the ISS cabin atmosphere for interesting or anomalous constituents and temporal or spatial variations in the cabin atmosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Human spaceflight
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
International Space Station
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Special sensor microwave/imager"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_sensor_microwave/imager"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:09.711725+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) is a seven-channel, four-frequency, linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system. It is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Block 5D-2 satellites. The instrument measures surface/atmospheric microwave brightness temperatures (TBs) at 19.35, 22.235, 37.0 and 85.5 GHz. The four frequencies are sampled in both horizontal and vertical polarizations, except the 22 GHz which is sampled in the vertical only.
|
||||
The SSM/I has been a very successful instrument, superseding the across-track and Dicke radiometer designs of previous systems. Its combination of constant-angle rotary-scanning and total power radiometer design has become standard for passive microwave imagers, e.g. TRMM Microwave Imager, AMSR.
|
||||
Its predecessor, the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR), provided similar information. Its successor, the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder (SSMIS), is an enhanced eleven-channel, eight-frequency system.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Products ==
|
||||
Along with its predecessor SMMR, the SSM/I contributes to an archive of global passive microwave products from late 1978 to present.
|
||||
Information within the SSM/I TBs measurements allow the retrieval of four important meteorological parameters over the ocean: near-surface wind speed (note scalar not vector), total columnar water vapor, total columnar cloud liquid water (liquid water path) and precipitation. Accurate and quantitative measurement of these parameters from the SSM/I TBs is, however, a non-trivial task. Variations within the meteorological parameters significantly modify the TBs. As well as open ocean retrievals, it is also possible to retrieve quantitatively reliable information on sea ice, land snow cover and over-land precipitation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument characteristics ==
|
||||
|
||||
The Block 5D-2 satellites are in circular or near-circular Sun-synchronous and near-polar orbits at altitudes of 833 km with inclinations of 98.8° and orbital periods of 102.0 minutes, each making 14.1 full orbits per day. The scan direction is from the left to the right with the active scene measurements lying ± 51.2 degrees about when looking in the F8 forward (F10–F15) or aft (F8) direction of the spacecraft travel. This results in a nominal swath width of 1394 km allowing frequent ground coverage, especially at higher latitudes. All parts of the globe at latitudes greater than 58° are covered at least twice daily except for small unmeasured circular sectors of 2.4° about the poles. Extreme polar regions (> 72° N or S) receive coverage from two or more overpasses from both the ascending and descending orbits each day.
|
||||
The spin rate of the SSM/I provides a period of 1.9 sec during which the DMSP spacecraft sub-satellite point travels 12.5 km. Each scan 128 discrete, uniformly spaced radiometric samples are taken at the two 85 GHz channels and, on alternate scans, 64 discrete samples are taken at the remaining 5 lower frequency channels. The resolution is determined by the Nyquist limit and the Earth surface's contribution of 3 dB bandwidth of the signal at a given frequency (see Table). The radiometer direction intersects the Earth's surface at a nominal incidence angle of 53.1 degrees, as measured from the local Earth normal.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Instrument history ==
|
||||
The SMMR was flown on Seasat and NASA Nimbus 7 in 1978. Seasat operated only for a few months until the satellite suffered an electrical short that ended the mission, while Nimbus 7 unexpectedly operated for 9 years, returning data until 1987.
|
||||
The SSM/I has been operating almost continuously on Block 5D-2 flights F8-F15 (not F9) since June 1987. Concerns about the radiometer's performance over the full range of space environmental conditions led to the F8 instrument being switched off in early December 1987 to avoid overheating. The 85 GHz vertical polarization channel failed to switch on in January 1988. Analysis showed inadequate thermal shielding of the sensor's radiometers due to excessive heating at perihelion. The 85 GHz horizontal polarization subsequently had a large increase in radiometric errors and was switched off in summer 1988.
|
||||
The launch of the next SSM/I, on board the F10 satellite, took place on 1 December 1990, but was not fully successful. The explosion of the booster rocket left the F10 in an elliptical orbit. The incidence angle of the F10 SSM/I boresight would vary in relation to the Earth throughout each orbit and this also altered the surface area of the Earth viewed by the radiometer. The deviations in the incidence angle of up to 1.4° were quite large and would alter the responses of several geophysical algorithms if not taken into consideration. Further, related changes in the swath width from a minimum of 1226 km at perigee to 1427 km at apogee altered the amounts of radiation viewed by the F10 SSM/I radiometers. The non-circular orbit also caused slight precession of the equatorial crossing time of the F10 by 50 seconds per week.
|
||||
The F12 imager had a delayed launch date (the spacecraft was out of the DMSP build sequence) due to a faulty SSM/I. The extra time and costs taken to rectify the problem did not, however, help. The SSM/I failed to ‘spin-up’ after launch, and consequently data were not available from this instrument. The SSM/Is on F11, F13, F14 and F15 have all produced excellent data.
|
||||
Before the F8 was decommissioned, it aided investigations into measuring passive microwaves at higher Earth incidence angles (i.e. > 51 degrees). An increase in angle would allow a greater swath width to be utilised, giving a greater amount of coverage at the Earth's surface. The F8 Tilt Experiment (see links) was carried out between 25 June and 13 July 1993.
|
||||
|
||||
F17, F18, and F19 all carry SSMIS.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
F8 Tilt experiment
|
||||
SSM/I daily over-ocean atmospheric retrievals
|
||||
Near real-time multi-DMSP SSM/I meteorological parameter retrievals from NESDIS
|
||||
USAF SSM/I users' guide
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Spectrometer Telescope for Imaging X-rays"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrometer_Telescope_for_Imaging_X-rays"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:10.877832+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Spectrometer Telescope for Imaging X-rays (STIX) is one of the 10 instruments that are part of the scientific payload for the ESA Solar Orbiter mission launched in 2020.
|
||||
The STIX instrument is an X-ray imaging spectrometer, whose purpose is to study the extremely hot solar plasma and the high-energy electrons accelerated during a solar flare. It can detect X-rays from 4 to 150 keV and exploits an indirect imaging technique based on the moiré effect, to produce images with few arcsec angular resolution in any given energy range.
|
||||
The instrument has been developed by an international collaboration led by the University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
STIX Data Center
|
||||
The spectrometer/telescope for imaging X-rays on board the ESA Solar Orbiter spacecraft
|
||||
ESA Solar Orbiter
|
||||
31
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_Dust_Analyser-0.md
Normal file
31
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_Dust_Analyser-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Surface Dust Analyser"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_Dust_Analyser"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:13.209747+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The SUrface Dust Analyzer (SUDA) is a time-of-flight mass spectrometer of reflectron-type that employs impact ionization and is optimised for a high mass resolution. The instrument was selected in May 2015 to fly on board the Europa Clipper mission which was sent to Jupiter's moon Europa in October, 2024.
|
||||
This instrument will measure the composition of small, solid particles ejected from Europa, providing the opportunity to directly sample the surface and potential plumes on low-altitude flybys. Europa's internal liquid water ocean has been identified as one of the locations in the Solar System that may offer habitable environments to microbial extraterrestrial life.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
The basic idea of compositional mapping is that moons without an atmosphere are surrounded by clouds of dust particles released from their surfaces by meteoroid bombardment. The ejected particles can be sampled and their composition analyzed from orbit or during a spacecraft flyby. Since these grains are direct samples from the moons' icy surfaces, determination of their composition will help to define and constrain the geological activities on and below the moons' surface, the exchange processes with the deeper interior, and assess its internal ocean habitability potential. The instrument is capable of identifying traces of organic and inorganic compounds in the ice of ejecta.
|
||||
The SUDA instrument has technological heritage from the Cassini CDA and the Stardust CIDA instruments. The Principal Investigator is Sascha Kempf, from the University of Colorado Boulder. Co-investigators on the instrument include Mihaly Horanyi and Zoltan Sternovsky.
|
||||
|
||||
Scientists expect SUDA to be able to detect a single cell in an ice grain.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objectives ==
|
||||
The SUDA objectives are:
|
||||
|
||||
Provide a spatially resolved compositional map of Europa for the regions along the groundtracks of the orbiter's flybys.
|
||||
Characterize the alteration of Europa's surface via exogenous dust impacts by measuring the composition, size, speed, and spatial distribution of dust in the vicinity of the moon.
|
||||
Investigate the local plasma environment of Europa by measuring the electrostatic charge of dust particles in the vicinity of the moon.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAGSAM-0.md
Normal file
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAGSAM-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "TAGSAM"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAGSAM"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:18.613929+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
TAGSAM or Touch-and-Go Sample Acquisition Mechanism is a robotic arm on the OSIRIS-REx space probe designed and used for collecting a sample from asteroid 101955 Bennu. OSIRIS-REx was launched in 2016. It arrived at asteroid Bennu in December 2018, and began scientific studies. It collected a sample of the material making up the surface of Bennu in 2020 and returned it to Earth in 2023.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
TAGSAM is a robotic arm attached to the main body of the spacecraft that collects a sample from the asteroid, and puts the samples into the Earth return vehicle. Bennu is about 500 meters in diameter and has very low gravity, so the arm must perform the collection in near zero gravity, yet still contend with some gravitational forces from the asteroid. One issue with small asteroids is their unique gravitational environment, and Bennu became the smallest body orbited by a spacecraft.
|
||||
TAGSAM was designed to take up to three samples from the asteroid, although in the event the first sample was so large no other samples were attempted. The collection head was filled using a nitrogen gas injection that stired up the regolith. The arm is about 11 feet (3.4 meters) long, with three joints for articulation. SamCam acquires images of the collection head. Two major parts of TAGSAM are the robotic arm and the sample collection head.
|
||||
The arm was used in conjunction with several instruments on the spacecraft including three cameras, three spectrometers, and a laser altimeter.
|
||||
Two identical TAGSAM units were made, one for use on the spacecraft called the flight unit, and another for testing on Earth called the qualification unit.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Timeline ==
|
||||
|
||||
17 October 2018 — TAGSAM head cover jettisoned
|
||||
25 October 2018 — Frangibolts fired, releasing the TAGSAM arm
|
||||
14 November 2018 — TAGSAM arm fully extended for the first time
|
||||
15 April 2020 — rehearsal manouvre performed by OSIRIS-REx
|
||||
20 October 2020 — successful TAGSAM deployment and sample collection
|
||||
24 September 2023 — safe touchdown on Earth of the OSIRIS-REx sample return capsule
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
CAESAR
|
||||
Sample-return mission
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
TAGSAM Schematic
|
||||
TAGSAM Testing Complete: OSIRIS-REx Prepared to TAG an Asteroid
|
||||
Animation of TAGSAM head cover being jettisoned
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Temperature and Winds for InSight"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_and_Winds_for_InSight"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:19.743594+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Temperature and Winds for InSight (TWINS) is a NASA meteorological suite of instruments on board the InSight lander that landed on Mars on 26 November 2018. TWINS provides continuous wind and air temperature measurements to help understand the seismic data from the Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) instrument. The instruments were developed by the Spanish Astrobiology Center at Madrid, Spain.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
|
||||
TWINS is based on the heritage from REMS (Rover Environmental Monitoring Station) on board the Curiosity rover, with enhanced performances in terms of dynamic range and resolution. TWINS provides continuous wind and air temperature measurements to help understand the seismic data from the SEIS instrument.
|
||||
While probing the internal structure of Mars is the primary scientific goal of the InSight mission, atmospheric science remains a key science objective. InSight will provide a continuous and higher-frequency record of pressure, air temperature and winds at the surface of Mars than previous in situ missions.
|
||||
The sensors include thermometers, and an anemometer to measure wind speed and direction twice per second. Additional sensors are the InSight FluxGate (IFG) magnetometer provided by University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to measure the direction and magnitude of magnetic fields such as those caused by the Martian ionosphere; and a highly sensitive pressure sensor (barometer) from Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).
|
||||
Wind, temperature, pressure and magnetometer data is used to understand the local wind behavior at the landing site to help understand and interpret SEIS data. At the same time, the lander uses its cameras to document cirrus clouds that develop high above Elysium Planitia, any instances of fog that appear along the ground, as well as dust devils. With this data, scientists are able to gain even greater insights into Mars' weather and climate, supplementing what was collected by previous missions, and what is currently being gathered by the Curiosity rover about 600 km to the south.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Auxiliary Payload Sensor Suite (APSS) ==
|
||||
TWINS on InSight is part of what is called the Auxiliary Payload Sensor Suite, forming a "weather station" which components include:
|
||||
|
||||
TWINS: Temperature and wind sensor developed by the Spanish Astrobiology Center (CAB), Madrid, Spain
|
||||
IFG: InSight FluxGate magnetometer, developed by the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) ay USA
|
||||
PS: Pressure sensor developed by the TAVIS company at USA
|
||||
PAE: Electronics controlling the TWINS, PS and IFG sensors developed by JPL
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Atmosphere of Mars
|
||||
Climate of Mars
|
||||
Geology of Mars
|
||||
Rover Environmental Monitoring Station, on board the Curiosity rover
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Thermal Emission Spectrometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_Emission_Spectrometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:20.917037+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) was an instrument on board Mars Global Surveyor. TES collected two types of data, hyperspectral thermal infrared data from 6 to 50 micrometres (μm) and bolometric visible-near infrared (0.3 to 2.9 μm) measurements. TES had six detectors arranged in a 2x3 array, and each detector had a field of view of approximately 3 × 6 km on the surface of Mars.
|
||||
|
||||
The TES instrument used the natural harmonic vibrations of the chemical bonds in materials to determine the composition of gases, liquids, and solids.
|
||||
TES identified a large (30,000 square-kilometer) area that contained the mineral olivine. Olivine was found in the Nili Fossae formation. It is thought that the ancient impact that created the Isidis basin resulted in faults that exposed the olivine. Olivine is present in many mafic volcanic rocks. In the presence of water it weathers into minerals such as goethite, chlorite, smectite, maghemite, and hematite. Olivine was also discovered in many other small outcrops within 60 degrees north and south of the equator. Olivine has also been found in the SNC (shergottite, nakhlite, and chassigny) meteorites that are generally accepted to have come from Mars. Later studies found the olivine-rich rocks to cover over 113,000 square kilometers. That is 11 times larger than the five volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Thermal Emission Imaging System
|
||||
Thermal infrared spectroscopy
|
||||
Phil Christensen
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Ozone_Mapping_Spectrometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:26:06.635770+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:22.162336+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_Emission_Spectrometer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:46:23.334091+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer or TES was a satellite instrument designed to measure the state of the earth's troposphere.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
TES was a high-resolution infrared Fourier Transform spectrometer and provided key data for studying tropospheric chemistry, troposphere-biosphere interaction, and troposphere-stratosphere exchanges. It was built for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. It was successfully launched into polar orbit by a Delta II 7920-10L rocket aboard NASA's third Earth Observing Systems spacecraft (EOS-Aura) at 10:02 UTC on July 15, 2004. Originally planned as a 5-year mission, it was decommissioned after almost 14 years on January 31, 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
NASA JPL's TES page
|
||||
NASA Aura TES page
|
||||
0
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_Emissions
Normal file
0
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_Emissions
Normal file
Some files were not shown because too many files have changed in this diff Show More
Loading…
Reference in New Issue
Block a user