Scrape wikipedia-science: 202 new, 858 updated, 1092 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research-0.md

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+---
+title: "High-altitude research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:03.817026+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There are a wide range of potential applications for research at high altitude, including medical, physiological, and cosmic physics research.
+
+
+== High-altitude medical research ==
+The most obvious and direct application of high-altitude research is to understand altitude illnesses such as acute mountain sickness, and the rare but rapidly fatal conditions, high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Research at high altitude is also an important way to learn about sea level conditions that are caused or complicated by hypoxia such as chronic lung disease and sepsis. Patients with these conditions are very complex and usually suffer from several other diseases at the same time, so it is virtually impossible to work out which of their problems is caused by lack of oxygen. Altitude research gets round this by studying the effects of oxygen deprivation on otherwise healthy people.
+Travelling to high altitude is often used as a way of studying the way the body responds to a shortage of oxygen. It is difficult and prohibitively expensive to conduct some of this research at sea level.
+Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be linked to the lack of atmospheric pressure. At low elevation, the pressure is higher because the molecules of air are compressed from the weight of the air above them. However, at higher elevations, the pressure is lower and the molecules are more dispersed. The percentage of oxygen in the air at sea level is the same at high altitudes. But because the air molecules are more spread out at higher altitudes, each breath takes in less oxygen to the body. With this in mind, the lungs take in as much air as possible, but because the atmospheric pressure is lower the molecules are more dispersed, resulting in a lower amount of oxygen per breath.
+At 26,000 feet the body reaches a maximum and can no longer adjust to the altitude, often referred to as the "Death Zone".
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine Archived 2009-03-12 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md

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+---
+title: "Incompatibility thesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:04.978566+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Incompatibility thesis is an argument in research methodology about incompatibility of quantitative research and qualitative research paradigms in the same research. This thesis is based on philosophies of post-structuralism and post-modernism (among others). Arguments from those philosophies support exclusive superiority of one orientation (usually, the qualitative one) are oppose mixing it with quantitative research (as is advocated by the proponents of mixed-method research who support the compatibility thesis).
+
+
+== Information ==
+Incompatibilists maintain that problems arise not so much at the level of practice, but at the level of epistemological paradigms. In particular, they propose that quantitative and qualitative methods are incompatible on an epistemological level; therefore, the two kinds of methods are incompatible. HOWE 1998, argues that a principle implicit in the incompatibilist's argument ‘that abstract paradigms should determine research methods in a one-way fashion—is untenable’. That paradigms must demonstrate their worth in terms of how they inform, and are informed by, research methods that are successfully employed. Given such a two-way relationship between methods and paradigms, paradigms are evaluated in terms of how well they square with the demands of research practice and incompatibilism vanishes.
+
+
+== References ==
+Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J.; Leech, Nancy L. (2005). "Taking the "Q" Out of Research: Teaching Research Methodology Courses Without the Divide Between Quantitative and Qualitative Paradigms". Quality & Quantity. 39 (3): 267–295. doi:10.1007/s11135-004-1670-0. ISSN 0033-5177. S2CID 144474054.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive-0.md

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+---
+title: "Infrared Science Archive"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:06.233747+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) is the primary archive for the infrared and submillimeter astronomical projects of NASA, the space agency of the United States. IRSA curates the science products of over 15 missions, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS). It also serves data from infrared and submillimeter European Space Agency missions with NASA participation, including the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), Planck, and the Herschel Space Observatory. As of 2019, IRSA provides access to more than 1 petabyte of data consisting of roughly 1 trillion astronomical measurements, which span wavelengths from 1 micron to 10 millimeters and include all-sky coverage in 24 bands. Approximately 10% of all refereed astronomical journal articles cite data sets curated by IRSA.
+IRSA is part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) and is located on the campus of the California Institute of Technology. It is one of NASA's Astrophysics Data Centers, along with the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), and others.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Infrared Science Archive
+Infrared Processing and Analysis Center

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias-0.md

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+---
+title: "Infrastructure bias"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:07.459896+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In economics and social policy, infrastructure bias is the influence of the location and availability of pre-existing infrastructure, such as roads and telecommunications facilities, on social and economic development.
+In science, infrastructure bias is the influence of existing social or scientific infrastructure on scientific observations.
+In astronomy and particle physics, where the availability of particular kinds of telescopes or particle accelerators acts as a constraint on the types of experiments that can be done, the data that can be retrieved is biased towards that which can be obtained by the equipment.
+Procedural bias, related to infrastructure bias, is shown by a case of irregular genetic sampling of Bolivian wild potatoes. A 2000 report of previous studies' sampling found that 60% of samples had been taken near towns or roads, where 22% would be the average, had the samples been taken at random (or from equidistant points, or at specifically varying distances from towns, representative of the average terrain density).
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check-0.md

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+---
+title: "Instructional manipulation check"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:08.715364+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An instructional manipulation check, often abbreviated IMC, is a special kind of question inserted in a questionnaire among the regular questions, designed to check whether respondents are paying attention to the instructions. Discarding responses by participants who fail to read the instructions increases the signal-to-noise ratio and can thereby increase the statistical power of an experiment. The tool was developed by Oppenheimer et al.
+Eliminating random responses this way before performing statistical hypothesis testing may be considered a legitimate form of data manipulation, but should be duly mentioned in publications reporting on the outcome of the experiment in question.
+
+
+== Blue-dot task ==
+Among several forms an IMC can take, a popular one is the so-called blue-dot task, suitable for on-line questionnaires. A number of larger blue circles are arranged according to a Likert scale from (say) "very rarely" to "very frequently". Participants who ignore the instructions and merely want to finish the task will just click any one of these circles. The instructions, however, ask the participants to ignore the larger circles and instead click a little blue dot at the bottom of the screen. Oppenheimer et al. report that in a large sample of undergraduate participants, approximately 7% failed this task.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect-0.md

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+---
+title: "Instrument effect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:09.812579+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The instrument effect is an issue in experimental methodology meaning that any change during the measurement, or, the instrument, may influence the research validity. For example, in a control group design experiment, if the instruments used to measure the performance of the experiment group and the control group are different, a wrong conclusion about the experiment would be reached, the research result would be invalid.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.-0.md

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+---
+title: "International Publisher Ltd."
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd."
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:11.012870+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+International Publisher Ltd. (or International Publisher LLC) is an academic paper mill company that coordinates the sale of fake authorships on research papers for publication in an academic journal.  The company is headquartered in Moscow (Russia) with offices in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Iran, and lists its chief editor as Ksenia Badziun. Its website has existed since 2018.
+Buyers can preselect a number of critera for their desired article. Many papers are created specifically for the purpose of selling co-authorships, and only after a sufficient number of slots are sold, and the company recruits writers to produce at least some of these papers. Others may be otherwise legitimate articles; there is evidence that it also approaches authors published in high-quality journals to sell co-authorship slots. Slots are priced according to the prestige of the journal and the position of the slot in the list of purported collaborators.
+
+
+== Discovery and investigation ==
+The company was exposed by scientific misconduct tracking website Retraction Watch in 2019. In 2022, a report on arXiv was covered by Science Magazine detailing how International Publisher Ltd. had published hundreds of academic papers across diverse academic journals, including from respected publishing companies. Some of these publishers have opened an investigation into the matter. In 2019, the scientific indexing company Clarivate's Web of Science group sent International Publisher Ltd. a cease-and-desist letter, which was ignored.
+
+
+== See more ==
+Research paper mill
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics-0.md

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+---
+title: "Light ergonomics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:13.513764+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Light ergonomics is the relationship between the light source and the individual. Poor light can be divided into the following:
+
+Individual or socio-cultural expectations
+Insufficient light
+Poor distribution of light
+Improper contrast
+Glare
+Flicker
+Thermal heating (over or under)
+Acoustic noise (especially fluorescents)
+Color spectrum (full-spectrum light, color temperature, etc.)
+
+
+== Effects of poor light ==
+The effects of poor light can include the following:
+
+low productivity
+high human error rates
+inability to match or select correct colors
+eyestrain
+headache
+a reduction in mental alertness
+general malaise
+low employee morale
+
+
+== Types of light sources ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ergonomics
+Full-spectrum light
+Artificial sunlight
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date-0.md

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+---
+title: "Lilian date"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:14.628810+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Lilian date is a day numbering system that counts the number of days elapsed since 15 October 1582, the first day of the Gregorian calendar, which is designated as Lilian date 1. The system was introduced in 1986 by Bruce G. Ohms, an engineer at IBM, to simplify date calculations in computing environments.
+Named after Aloysius Lilius, the principal author of the Gregorian Calendar reform, the Lilian date represents calendar dates as continuous integers rather than as year–month–day components. It is currently used by date conversion routines that are part of IBM Language Environment (LE) software and in IBM AIX COBOL.
+Lilius’s reform addressed accumulated drift in the Julian calendar and was promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII. In the first countries to implement the reform, Thursday 4 October 1582 (Julian) was followed by Friday 15 October 1582 (Gregorian). The Lilian epoch aligns with this first Gregorian day.
+
+
+== Definition ==
+The Lilian date represents a calendar day as a single integer: 1 corresponds to 15 October 1582 (Gregorian), 2 to 16 October 1582, and so on, increasing by one each day. IBM documentation describes 14 October 1582 as day 0 for internal calculations, while public interfaces typically accept and produce values greater than or equal to 1, corresponding to dates from 15 October 1582 onward. Implementations commonly support dates through 31 December 9999. T
+The system is intended solely for date arithmetic (adding/subtracting days, computing intervals) and deliberately excludes fractions of a day or references to time standards.
+
+
+== Relation to other day counts ==
+The Lilian date is only a date format: it is not tied to any particular time standard. Another, better known, date notation that is used for similar purposes is the Julian date, which is tied to Universal time (or some other closely related time scale, such as International Atomic Time). The Julian date always begins at noon, Universal Time, and a decimal fraction may be used to represent the time of day. In contrast, Ohms did not make any mention of time zones or time of day in his paper.
+If the Lilian date was to be reckoned in Universal Time, and if the Lilian date is taken to begin at midnight, the Lilian date can be obtained from the Julian date by subtracting 2,299,159.5 from the Julian date, and ignoring the decimal fraction in the result.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Rata Die
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics-0.md

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+---
+title: "The Internet Pilot to Physics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:12.270752+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+TIPTOP (fully known as The Internet Pilot to Physics) was a web site operated in collaboration between Kenneth Bodin-Holmlund at Umeå University, Mikko Karttunen at McGill University and Guenther Nowotny at the Technical University of Vienna during 1994–1998, and it was originally derived from Physics Around the World (PAW) that was initiated by Karttunen at McGill University.
+In a historical perspective, PAW was one of the first web directories, listing various physics related resources. TIPTOP utilized (at the time) new technologies to handle a news system, a job database, a conference database, and an improved web directory for physics. TIPTOP was the first major site to use PHP with mySQL, today a highly popular combination. Already in 1995, TIPTOP also had one of the first embryos of a wiki, called the Living Encyclopedia of Physics, that offered community based-editing, an editorial system and peer review, as well as automatic cross linking.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+A page entitled "About PhysicsWeb", that mentions TIPTOP
+A position paper in Journal of Physics C from 1996, by the creators of TIPTOP, that describes the initiative.