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+title: "Antipositivism"
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+
+In social science, antipositivism (also interpretivism, negativism or antinaturalism) is a theoretical stance which proposes that the social realm cannot be studied with the methods of investigation utilized within the natural sciences, and that investigation of the social realm requires a different epistemology. Fundamental to that antipositivist epistemology is the belief that the concepts and language researchers use in their research shape their perceptions of the social world they are investigating and seeking to define.
+Interpretivism (anti-positivism) developed among researchers dissatisfied with post-positivism, the theories of which they considered too general and ill-suited to reflect the nuance and variability found in human interaction. Because the values and  beliefs of researchers cannot fully be removed from their inquiry, interpretivists believe research on human beings by human beings cannot yield objective results. Thus, rather than seeking an objective perspective, interpretivists look for meaning in the subjective experiences of individuals engaging in social interaction. Many interpretivist researchers immerse themselves in the social context they are studying, seeking to understand and formulate theories about a community or group of individuals by observing them from the inside. Interpretivism is an inductive practice influenced by philosophical frameworks such as hermeneutics, phenomenology, and symbolic interactionism. Interpretive methods are used in many fields of the social sciences, including human geography, sociology, political science, cultural anthropology, among others.
+
+
+== History ==
+Beginning with Giambattista Vico, in the early eighteenth century, and later with Montesquieu, the study of natural history and human history were separate fields of intellectual enquiry. Natural history is not under human control, whereas human history is a human creation. As such, antipositivism is informed by an epistemological distinction between the natural world and the social realm. The natural world can only be understood by its external characteristics, whereas the social realm can be understood externally and internally, and thus can be known.
+In the early nineteenth century, intellectuals, led by the Hegelians, questioned the prospect of empirical social analysis. Karl Marx died before the establishment of formal social science, but nonetheless rejected the sociological positivism of Auguste Comte—despite his attempt to establish a historical materialist science of society.
+The enhanced positivism of Émile Durkheim served as foundation of modern academic sociology and social research, yet retained many mechanical elements of its predecessor. Hermeneuticians such as Wilhelm Dilthey theorized in detail on the distinction between natural and social science ('Geisteswissenschaft'), whilst neo-Kantian philosophers such as Heinrich Rickert maintained that the social realm, with its abstract meanings and symbolisms, is inconsistent with scientific methods of analysis. Edmund Husserl, meanwhile, negated positivism through the rubric of phenomenology.
+At the turn of the twentieth century, the first wave of German sociologists formally introduced verstehende (interpretive) sociological antipositivism, proposing research should concentrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social processes viewed from a resolutely subjective perspective. As an antipositivist, however, one seeks relationships that are not as "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable" as those pursued by natural scientists.
+The interaction between theory (or constructed concepts) and data is always fundamental in social science and this subjection distinguishes it from physical science. Durkheim himself noted the importance of constructing concepts in the abstract (e.g. "collective consciousness" and "social anomie") in order to form workable categories for experimentation. Both Weber and Georg Simmel pioneered the verstehen (or 'interpretative') approach toward social science; a systematic process in which an outside observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, or indigenous people, on their own terms and from their own point of view.
+
+[Sociology is ] ... the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds and the effects which it produces. By 'action' in this definition is meant the human behaviour when and to the extent the agent or agents see it as subjectively meaningful ... the meaning to which we refer may be either (a) the meaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particular historical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in a given set of cases, or (b) the meaning attributed to the agent or agents, as types, in a pure type constructed in the abstract. In neither case is the 'meaning' thought of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true' by some metaphysical criterion. This is the difference between the empirical sciences of action, such as sociology and history, and any kind of a priori discipline, such as jurisprudence, logic, ethics, or aesthetics whose aim is to extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or 'valid' meaning.
+Through the work of Simmel in particular, sociology acquired a possible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic systems of structural law. Relatively isolated from the sociological academy throughout his lifetime, Simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses of modernity more reminiscent of the phenomenological and existential writers than of Comte or Durkheim, paying particular concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social individuality. His sociology engaged in a neo-Kantian critique of the limits of human perception.
+Antipositivism thus holds there is no methodological unity of the sciences: the three goals of positivism – description, control, and prediction – are incomplete, since they lack any understanding. Science aims at understanding causality so control can be exerted. If this succeeded in sociology, those with knowledge would be able to control the ignorant and this could lead to social engineering.
+This perspective has led to controversy over how one can draw the line between subjective and objective research, much less draw an artificial line between environment and human organization (see environmental sociology), and influenced the study of hermeneutics. The base concepts of antipositivism have expanded beyond the scope of social science, in fact, phenomenology has the same basic principles at its core. Simply put, positivists see sociology as a science, while anti-positivists do not.
+
+
+=== Frankfurt School ===
+
+The antipositivist tradition continued in the establishment of critical theory, particularly the work associated with the Frankfurt School of social research. Antipositivism would be further facilitated by rejections of 'scientism'; or science as ideology. Jürgen Habermas argues, in his On the Logic of the Social Sciences (1967), that the positivist thesis of unified science, which assimilates all the sciences to a natural-scientific model, fails because of the intimate relationship between the social sciences and history, and the fact that they are based on a situation-specific understanding of meaning that can be explicated only hermeneutically ... access to a symbolically prestructured reality cannot be gained by observation alone.
+The sociologist Zygmunt Bauman argued that our innate tendency to express moral concern and identify with the Other's wants is stifled in modernity by positivistic science and dogmatic bureaucracy. If the Other does not 'fit in' to modernity's approved classifications, it is liable to be extinguished.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Critical theory
+Grounded theory
+Holism
+Humanistic sociology
+Methodological dualism
+Philosophy of social science
+Poststructuralism
+Social action
+Sociology of science
+Symbolic interactionism
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative-0.md

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+---
+title: "BRAIN Initiative"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:50.117439+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The White House BRAIN Initiative (Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies) is a collaborative, public-private research initiative announced by the second Obama administration on April 2, 2013, with its primary goal being to support the development and application of innovative technologies that can create a dynamic understanding of brain function.
+This activity is a Grand Challenge focused on revolutionizing our understanding of the human brain, and was developed by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) as part of a broader White House Neuroscience Initiative. Inspired by the Human Genome Project, BRAIN aims to help researchers uncover the mysteries of brain disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, depression, and traumatic brain injury (TBI).
+Participants and affiliates of the BRAIN project include DARPA, IARPA, as well as numerous private companies, universities, and other organizations in the United States, Australia, Canada, and Denmark.
+
+== Background ==
+The BRAIN Initiative reflects several influences, that stem back over a decade. Some of these include: planning meetings at the National Institutes of Health that led to the NIH's Blueprint for Neuroscience Research; workshops at the National Science Foundation (NSF) on cognition, neuroscience, and convergent science, including a 2006 report on "Grand Challenges of Mind and Brain"; reports from the National Research Council and the Institute of Medicine's Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System Disorders, including "From Molecules to Mind: Challenges for the 21st Century," a report of a June 25, 2008 Workshop on Grand Challenges in Neuroscience.; years of research and reports from scientists and professional societies; and congressional interest.
+One important activity was the Brain Activity Map Project. In September 2011, molecular biologist Miyoung Chun of The Kavli Foundation organized a conference in London, at which scientists first put forth the idea of such a project. At subsequent meetings, scientists from the United States government laboratories, including members of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, as well as from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the Allen Institute for Brain Science, along with representatives from Google, Microsoft, and Qualcomm, discussed possibilities for a future government-led project.
+Other influences included the interdisciplinary "Decade of the Mind" project led by James L. Olds, who is currently the Assistant Director for Biological Sciences at NSF, and the "Revolutionizing Prosthetics" project at DARPA, led by Dr. Geoffrey Ling and shown on 60 Minutes in April 2009.
+Development of the plan for the BRAIN Initiative within the Executive Office of the President (EOP) was led by OSTP and included the following EOP staff: Philip Rubin, then Principal Assistant Director for Science and leader of the White House Neuroscience Initiative; Thomas Kalil, Deputy Director for Technology and Innovation; Cristin Dorgelo, then Assistant Director for Grand Challenges, and later Chief of Staff at OSTP; and Carlos Peña, Assistant Director for Emerging Technologies and currently the Division Director for the Division of Neurological and Physical Medicine Devices, in the Office of Device Evaluation, Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH), at the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Announcement ===
+
+On April 2, 2013, at a White House event, President Barack Obama announced the BRAIN Initiative, with proposed initial expenditures for fiscal year 2014 of approximately $110 million from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the National Science Foundation (NSF). The President also directed the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues to explore the ethical, legal, and societal implications raised by the initiative and by neuroscience in general. Additional commitments were also made by the Allen Institute for Brain Science, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and the Kavli Foundation. The NIH also announced the creation of a working group of the Advisory Committee to the Director, led by neuroscientists Cornelia Bargmann and William Newsome and with ex officio participation from DARPA and NSF, to help shape NIH's role in the BRAIN Initiative. Furthermore, NSF planned to receive advice from its directorate advisory committees, the National Science Board, and from a series of meetings that brought together scientists in neuroscience and related areas.
+
+=== NeMO Archive ===
+The Neuroscience Multi-Omic Archive (NeMO Archive) serves as the primary repository of genomic data from the BRAIN Initiative.
+In April 2025, NeMO Archive, along with at least 33 other online archives, placed a disclaimer on their site that read, "This repository is under review for potential modification in compliance with Administration directives" as a result of Executive Order 14168. The principal investigator confirmed that the NeMO Archive was addressing NIH requests "to improve our security measures to protect human data" and anticipated the ongoing review to continue "for some time."
+
+== Experimental approaches ==

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+title: "BRAIN Initiative"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative"
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+---
+
+According to news reports, the research intends to map the dynamics of neuron activity in mice and other animals and eventually the tens of billions of neurons in the human brain.
+In a 2012 scientific commentary outlining experimental plans for a more limited project, Alivisatos et al. outlined a variety of specific experimental techniques that might be used to achieve what they termed a "functional connectome", as well as new technologies that will have to be developed in the course of the project. Among others, they indicated that initial studies might be performed in Caenorhabditis elegans, followed by Drosophila, because of their comparatively simple neural circuits. Additionally, mid-term studies could be performed in zebrafish, mice, and the Etruscan shrew, with subsequent studies ultimately to be conducted in primates and humans. They proposed the development of nanoparticles that could serve as voltage sensors to detect individual action potentials, as well as nanoprobes that could function as electrophysiological multielectrode arrays. In particular, they called for the use of wireless, non-invasive methods of detecting neuronal activity, either utilizing microelectronic very-large-scale integration or based on synthetic biology rather than microelectronics. In one such proposed method, enzymatically produced DNA would serve as a "ticker tape record" of neuronal activity, based on calcium ion-induced errors in DNA polymerase coding. Eventually, the obtained data would be analyzed and modeled by large scale computation. Moreover, a related technique proposed the use of high-throughput DNA sequencing for rapidly mapping neural connectivity.
+
+=== Timeline ===
+In 2014, the Working Group proposed the following timeline:
+
+2016–2020: technology development and validation
+2020–2025: application of those technologies in an integrated fashion, aimed at achieving new fundamental discoveries about the human brain
+
+== Working group ==
+The advisory committee is:
+
+== Participants ==
+As of December 2018, the BRAIN Initiative website lists the following participants and affiliates:
+
+National Institutes of Health (Alliance Member)
+National Science Foundation (Alliance Member)
+U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Alliance Member)
+Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (Alliance Member)
+White House BRAIN Initiative (Alliance Affiliate)
+Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (B.I. Participant)
+Simons Foundation (Alliance Member)
+National Photonics Initiative (B.I. Participant)
+Allen Institute for Brain Science (Alliance Member)
+Janelia/Howard Hughes Medical Institute (Alliance Affiliate)
+Neurotechnology Architecting Network (B.I. Participant)
+Pacific Northwest Neuroscience Neighborhood (B.I. Participant)
+University of California System Cal-BRAIN (B.I. Participant)
+University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute (B.I. Participant)
+Blackrock Microsystems (B.I. Participant)
+GlaxoSmithKline (B.I. Participant)
+Brain & Behavior Research Foundation (B.I. Participant)
+Boston University Center for Systems Neuroscience (B.I. Participant)
+General Electric (B.I. Participant)
+Boston Scientific (B.I. Participant)
+Carnegie Mellon University BrainHub (B.I. Participant)
+NeuroNexus (B.I. Participant)
+Medtronic (B.I. Participant)
+Pediatric Brain Foundation (B.I. Participant)
+University of Texas System UT Neuroscience (B.I. Participant)
+University of Arizona Center for Innovation in Brain Science (B.I. Participant)
+Salk Institute for Biological Studies (B.I. Participant)
+Second Sight (B.I. Participant)
+Kavli Foundation (Alliance Member)
+University of Utah Neurosciences Gateway (B.I. Participant)
+Blackrock Microsystems (B.I. Participant)
+Ripple (B.I. Participant)
+Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (B.I. Participant)
+NeuroPace (B.I. Participant)
+Google (B.I. Participant)
+Inscopix (B.I. Participant)
+Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (B.I. Participant)
+Brain Canada Foundation (B.I. Participant)
+Denmark's Lundbeck Foundation (B.I. Participant).
+
+== Reactions ==
+Several scientists offered differing views of the plan. Neuroscientist John Donoghue stated that the project has the potential to fill a gap in neuroscience research between, on the one hand, activity measurements at the level of brain regions using methods such as fMRI, and, on the other hand, measurements at the level of single cells. Psychologist Ed Vul expressed concern, however, that the initiative would divert funding from individual investigator studies. Neuroscientist Donald Stein expressed concern, believing it would be a mistake to initiate the project by allocating financial resources to the development of different technological methods before specifically outlining which neurological activities and parameters would be measured exactly. On the other hand, physicist Michael Roukes argued that nanotechnology research methods have been steadily evolving and have already become sufficiently developed to make the time right for a brain activity map. Neuroscientist Rodolfo Llinás declared at the first Rockefeller meeting, "What has happened here is magnificent, never before in neuroscience have I seen so much unity in such a glorious purpose."
+The projects face great logistical challenges. Neuroscientists estimated that the project would generate 300 exabytes of data annually, presenting a significant technical barrier. Most of the available high-resolution brain activity monitors are of limited use, as they require invasive surgical implantation with the opening of the skull. Parallels have been drawn to past large-scale government-led research efforts, including the map of the human genome, the voyage to the moon, and the development of the atomic bomb.
+
+== See also ==
+Allen Brain Atlas
+Blue Brain Project
+BrainMaps
+Brain Mapping Foundation
+Brain/MINDS
+China Brain Project
+Decade of the Brain
+Decade of the Mind
+G20 World Brain Mapping & Therapeutic Scientific Summit
+Human Connectome Project
+List of animals by number of neurons
+List of neuroscience databases
+Organization for Human Brain Mapping
+Outline of brain mapping
+Outline of the human brain
+Society for Brain Mapping and Therapeutics
+SpiNNaker
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+doi:10.1038/s41592-018-0210-0 "The impact of the NIH BRAIN Initiative", Nature Methods editorial, November 2018.
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

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+title: "British Society for Social Responsibility in Science"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+---
+
+The British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (BSSRS) was a science movement most active in the 1970s. The main aims of the BSSRS was to raise awareness of the social responsibilities of scientists, the political aspects of science and technology, and to create an informed public. The organisation was concerned with the misuse of science and technological innovation and the impact on the environment, both for the health of workers and wider society.
+
+== Creation ==
+BSSRS was formed in 1968 in opposition to university research on chemical and biological weapons, and supported by 83 distinguished scientists, including William Bragg, Francis Crick, Julian Huxley and Bertrand Russell.
+The Society was inaugurated at a meeting, sponsored by 64 Fellows of the Royal Society, and held in the Society on 19 April 1969. It was attended by more
+than 300, mostly UK, scientists and engineers. Nobel Laureate Professor Maurice Wilkins
+was the founding President.
+A provisional committee was elected at the April 1969 meeting, ahead of the first general meeting in November 1969.  At the November meeting, the Society's Secretary Dr R L Smith, reported on the activities of the new Society, including the creation of a regular newsletter by the Society, the creation of a number of local societies and the organising of regular public meetings in London. By the time of that meeting, membership had "grown to nearly 1,000": in 1971, membership was around 2500 and 12 local societies had been created.
+At the November 1969 meeting, Smith also reported on the establishment by BSSRS of an investigative team (of five medical and social scientists) who went to Northern Ireland to investigate the use in August of CS gas as a "riot control agent".
+The November 1969 meeting also established BSSRS's constitution and its aims and activities.
+
+== Organisation ==
+BSSRS grew in the early 1970s: it received a grant from the Joseph Rowntree Foundation, opened an office in Poland Street and employed David Dickson as its General Secretary (the same building housed an early iteration of Friends of the Earth).  Hugh Saddler took over this role in 1973. BSSRS also garnered attention through letters from its members to national newspapers and increasingly coverage in science publications such as New Scientist and Nature.
+BSSRS published a newsletter between 1969 and 1972, when it grew into a bi-monthly magazine, Science for People. The second edition of the magazine was a special on women and later issues often included articles "surrounding the intersection between science and gender".  Science for People also illustrated BSSRS's focus on pacifism and also on newer topics of debate such as environmentalism. In 1976, three BSSRS members and contributors to Science for People - Charlie Clutterbuck, Alan Dalton and Tony Fletcher - began Hazards, an occupational safety and health magazine, in response to the introduction of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974.
+From 1969 onwards, local BSSRS societies organised study groups and events. For example, the branch in Edinburgh was part of a teach-in on pollution in March 1970 and the Cambridge branch organised discussions and activities around race and intelligence in the summer of 1970, refuting the recently published work of Arthur Jensen.
+BSSRS had close connections to other organisations such as The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), Scientists against the Bomb and Radical Statistics.  Its members included staff from universities such as the Open University and the London School of Economics (LSE). Active members of BSSRS included Eric Burhop, Tom Kibble, Jerome Ravetz, Jill Purce, Jonathan Rosenhead, Steven Rose, Hilary Rose and Felix Pirani.
+
+== Campaigns ==
+At a meeting of the British Science Association (BSA) in Durham in 1970, a group of BSSRS activists - inspired by actions earlier in the year at the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)  - raised political issues under a banner of "Science is not neutral". They disrupted the meeting, claiming the BSA served a "propagandist function", and staged a mid-conference teach-in. The group also organised for a radical street theatre group to act out the effects of biological and chemical warfare as attendees left the auditorium following the BSA Presidential Address.  However, the actions in Durham were described by one prominent member of BSSRS as "perhaps not meeting the approval of all members".
+From the investigation of the use of CS gas in 1969, BSSRS developed a strong interest in Northern Ireland and the other "methods used to contain separatist protests", such as rubber bullets and water cannon and "interrogation in depth"., This led to BSSRS publishing in 1974 the pamphlet The New Technology of Repression: Lessons from Ireland.
+BSSRS also carried out investigations with grassroots communities: for example, working in 1972 with local residents in Battersea, London to uncover the origins of the "Battersea Smell" (which locals belied to be caused by one or two local factories).  BSSRS worked with residents to carry out a survey into the smell, which in turn developed press coverage which led to Battersea council health committee investigating one of the local factories (Garton Sons and Co, a glucose manufacturer).  After which, the smell improved.
+
+== Decline ==
+BSSRS came to an end in the early 1990s.  Reasons given have included the fading of the radical movement in the UK during the 1980s and members leaving and not being replaced.
+
+== Publications ==
+As well as issues of Science for People BSSRS also published a range of pamphlets and books, including:

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+title: "British Society for Social Responsibility in Science"
+chunk: 2/2
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+
+Fuller, Watson, British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (ed.) (1971). The Social impact of modern biology: International Conference held in London on 26–28 November 1970. London,: Routledge and K. Paul. 1971. ISBN 0-7100-6676-7. OCLC 227435.
+British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (1972). The environment - a radical agenda. [London]: B.S.S.R.S. ISBN 0-9502541-0-X. OCLC 596458.
+Dalton, Alan J. P. (1975). Oil : a workers' guide to the health hazards and how to fight them. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science: London. ISBN 0-9502541-4-2. OCLC 16489307.
+Fletcher, Tony (1975). Noise : fighting the most widespread industrial disease. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science. London. ISBN 0-9502541-1-8. OCLC 16486197.
+British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (1977). Ecology : a critical reading guide. BSSRS/SCANUS. OCLC 499245068
+Dalton, Alan J. P. (1977) Vibration : a workers' guide to the health hazards of vibration and their prevention. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. OCLC 81763804
+McMorrow, John, British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (1977). Killer dust on the tube [the health hazard of asbestos]. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. OCLC 24709743.
+British Society for Social Responsibility and Science (1978) Our daily bread : who makes the dough. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. OCLC 5407180.
+Dalton, Alan J. R. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science (1979) Asbestos killer dust : a worker/community guide; how to fight the hazards of asbestos and its substitute. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. ISBN 978-0-9502541-3-5. OCLC 872738959
+British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (1979). Science under capitalism. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science, London. OCLC 220295101.
+British Society for Social Responsibility and Science (1980) Nuclear power : the rigged debate. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. OCLC 621477636.
+British Society for Social Responsibility and Science (1982) Reading between the numbers : a critical guide to educational research. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science Radical Statistics Education Group, London. OCLC 500000286.
+British Society for Social Responsibility and Science (1982) Science on our side : a new socialist agenda for science, technology and medicine. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. ISBN 978-0-946285-01-3 OCLC 220836640.
+British Society for Social Responsibility in Science, Research and Monitoring of Police Equipment and Training (1985) TechnoCop : new police technologies, Free Association Books, London. ISBN 978-0-946960-25-5. OCLC 12516932.
+Evans, Rob, British Society for Social Responsibility in Science, (c.1990) Universities and the bomb : the funding of research in universities during the 1980s by the Atomic Weapons Establishment at Aldermaston. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science, London. OCLC 85077881
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bell, Alice (2017-01-01). "The Scientific Revolution That Wasn't: The British Society for Social Responsibility in Science". Radical History Review. 2017 (127): 149–172. doi:10.1215/01636545-3690930. ISSN 0163-6545.
+Werskey, Paul Gary (1971). "British Scientists and 'Outsider' Politics, 1931-1945". Science Studies. 1 (1): 67–83. ISSN 0036-8539.
+
+== Archives ==
+The BSSRS archive is held at Wellcome Collection (ref no: SA/BSR).
+A BSSRS online archive has been created by former members.
+
+== See also ==
+Politicization of science
+Sociobiology Study Group
+Science for the People
+New World Agriculture and Ecology Group
+
+== References ==

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+---
+
+The House of Commons Standing Committee on Industry and Technology (INDU) is a standing committee of the House of Commons of Canada.
+
+
+== Mandate ==
+The mandate and management of Department of Industry and its subsidiary agencies:
+Any government policies having to do with:
+Industry and technology capability
+Scientific research and development
+Telecommunications policy
+Investment, trade, small business and tourism
+Rules and services supporting the effective operation of the market
+Fluctuation of gas prices
+The Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
+The e-commerce market in Canada
+The committee was formerly called the Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology. The word "Science" was removed upon the creation of a separate Standing Committee on Science and Research at the beginning of the 44th Canadian Parliament
+
+
+== Membership ==
+As of the 45th Canadian Parliament:
+
+
+== Subcommittees ==
+Subcommittee on Agenda and Procedure (SIND)
+
+
+== External links ==
+Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology (INDU)

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+---
+title: "Outline of brain mapping"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:51.311848+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to brain mapping:
+Brain mapping – set of neuroscience techniques predicated on the mapping of (biological) quantities or properties onto spatial representations of the (human or non-human) brain resulting in maps. Brain mapping is further defined as the study of the anatomy and function of the brain and spinal cord through the use of imaging (including intra-operative, microscopic, endoscopic and multi-modality imaging), immunohistochemistry, molecular and optogenetics, stem cell and cellular biology, engineering (material, electrical and biomedical), neurophysiology and nanotechnology.
+
+== Broad scope ==
+History of neuroscience
+History of neurology
+Brain mapping
+Human brain
+Neuroscience
+Nervous system.
+
+=== The neuron doctrine ===
+Neuron doctrine –  A set of carefully constructed elementary set of observations regarding neurons. For more granularity, more current, and more advanced topics, see the cellular level section
+Asserts that neurons fall under the broader cell theory, which postulates:
+All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
+The cell is the basic unit of structure, function, and organization in all organisms.
+All cells come from preexisting, living cells.
+The Neuron doctrine postulates several elementary aspects of neurons:
+The brain is made up of individual cells (neurons) that contain specialized features such as dendrites, a cell body, and an axon.
+Neurons are cells differentiable from other tissues in the body.
+Neurons differ in size, shape, and structure according to their location or functional specialization.
+Every neuron has a nucleus, which is the trophic center of the cell (The part which must have access to nutrition). If the cell is divided, only the portion containing the nucleus will survive.
+Nerve fibers are the result of cell processes and the outgrowths of nerve cells. (Several axons are bound together to form one nerve fibril. See also: Neurofilament. Several nerve fibrils then form one large nerve fiber. Myelin, an electrical insulator, forms around selected axons.
+Neurons are generated by cell division.
+Neurons are connected by sites of contact and not via cytoplasmic continuity. (A cell membrane isolates the inside of the cell from its environment. Neurons do not communicate via direct cytoplasm to cytoplasm contact.)
+Law of dynamic polarization. Although the axon can conduct in both directions, in tissue there is a preferred direction of transmission from cell to cell.
+Elements added later to the initial Neuron doctrine
+A barrier to transmission exists at the site of contact between two neurons that may permit transmission. (Synapse)
+Unity of transmission. If a contact is made between two cells, then that contact can be either excitatory or inhibitory, but will always be of the same type.
+Dale's law, each nerve terminal releases a single type of neurotransmitter.
+Some of the basic postulates in the Neuron doctrine have been subsequently questioned, refuted, or updated. See the cellular level section topics for additional information.
+
+=== Map, atlas, and database projects ===
+Brain Activity Map Project – 2013 NIH $3 billion project to map every neuron in the human brain in ten years, based upon the Human Genome Project.
+NIH Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative [1]
+Community outreach site for above where the public may comment [2]
+Human Brain Project (EU) – 1 billion euro, 10-year project to simulate the human brain with supercomputers.
+BigBrain A high-resolution 3D atlas of the human brain created as part of the HBP.
+Human Connectome Project – 2009 NIH $30 million project to build a network map of the human brain, including structural (anatomical) and functional elements. Emphasis included research into dyslexia, autism, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia. See also Connectome a, comprehensive map of neural connections in the brain.
+Allen Brain Atlas – 2003 $100 million project funded by Paul Allen (Microsoft)
+BrainMaps – National Institute of Health (NIH) database including 60 terabytes of image scans of primate and non-primates, integrated with information covering structure and function.
+NeuroNames – Defines the brain in terms of about 550 primary structures (about 850 unique structures) to which all other structures, names, and synonyms are related. About 15,000 neuroanatomical terms are cross indexed, including many synonyms in seven languages. Coverage includes the brain and spinal cord of the four species most frequently studied by neuroscientists: human, macaque (monkey), rat and mouse. The controlled, standardized vocabulary for each structure is located in an unambiguous, strict physical hierarchy, and these terms are selected based on ease of pronunciation, mnemonic value, and frequency of use in recent neuroscientific publications. Relation of each structure to its superstructures and substructures is included. The controlled vocabulary is suitable for uniquely indexing neuroanatomical information in digital databases.
+Decade of the Brain 1990–1999 promotion by NIH and the Library of Congress "to enhance public awareness of the benefits to be derived from brain research". Communications targeted Members of Congress, staffs, and the general public to promote funding.
+Talairach Atlas see Jean Talairach
+Harvard Whole Brain Atlas see Human brain
+MNI Template see Medical image computing
+Blue Brain Project and Artificial brain
+International Consortium for Brain Mapping see Brain Mapping
+List of neuroscience databases
+NIH Toolbox National Institute of Health (USA) toolbox for the assessment of neurological and behavioral function
+Organization for Human Brain Mapping The Organization for Human Brain Mapping (OHBM) is an international society dedicated to using neuroimaging to discover the organization of the human brain.
+
+== Imaging and recording systems ==
+This section covers imaging and recording systems. The general section covers history, neuroimaging, and techniques for mapping specific neural connections. The specific systems section covers the various specific technologies, including experimental and widely deployed imaging and recording systems.

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+title: "Outline of brain mapping"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:51.311848+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== General ===
+Most imaging work to date on individual neurons has been conducted outside the brain, typically on large neurons, and has been most frequently destructive. New techniques are however rapidly emerging. Search on "Single neuron imaging" and see related topics: Biological neuron model, Single-unit recording, Neural oscillation, Computational neuroscience. dMRI (above) is also promising in non-destructive imaging of single neurons inside the brain.
+History of neuroimaging (redirects from Brain scanner)
+Neuroimaging (redirects from Brain function map)
+Connectomics – mapping technique showing neural connections in a nervous system.
+
+=== Specific systems ===
+Cortical stimulation mapping
+Diffusion MRI (dMRI) – includes diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and  diffusion functional MRI (DfMRI).  dMRI is a recent breakthrough in brain mapping allowing the visualization of cross connections between different anatomical parts of the brain.  It allows noninvasive imaging of white matter fiber structure and in addition to mapping can be useful in clinical observations of abnormalities, including damage from stroke.
+Electroencephalography (EEG) – uses electrodes on the scalp and other techniques to detect the electrical flow of currents.
+Electrocorticography – intracranial EEG, the practice of using electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain to record electrical activity from the cerebral cortex.
+Electrophysiological techniques for clinical diagnosis
+Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
+Medical image computing (brain research of leads medical and surgical uses of mapping technology)
+Neurostimulation (in research stimulation is frequently used in conjunction with imaging)
+Positron emission tomography (PET) – a nuclear medical imaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule. Three-dimensional images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis. In modern scanners, three dimensional imaging is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient during the same session, in the same machine.
+
+=== Imaging and recording componentry ===
+
+==== Electrochemical ====
+Haemodynamic response – the rapid delivery of blood to active neuronal tissues. Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent signal (BOLD), corresponds to the concentration of deoxyhemoglobin. The BOLD effect is based on the fact that when neuronal activity is increased in one part of the brain, there is also an increased amount of cerebral blood flow to that area. Functional magnetic resonance imaging is enabled by the detection of the BOLD signal.
+Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging can be used to detect changes in the Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) hemodynamic response to neural activity in response to certain events.
+
+==== Electrical ====
+Event-related potential – positive and negative 10μ to 100μ Volts (μ is millionths) responses, measured via noninvasive electrodes attached to the scalp, that are the reliable and repeatable results of a certain specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event. These are also called a stereotyped electrophysiological response to a stimulus. They are called somatosensory evoked potentials when they are elicited by sensory (vs. cognitive or motor) event stimuli. The voltage swing sequences are recorded and broken down by positive and negative, and by how long after the stimulus they are observed. For example, [N100] is a negative swing observed between 80 and 120 milliseconds (100 being the midpoint) after the onset of the stimulus. Alternatively, the voltage swings are labeled based on their order, N1 being the first negative swing observed, N2 the second negative swing, etc. See: N100 (neuroscience), N200 (neuroscience), P300 (neuroscience), N400 (neuroscience), P600 (neuroscience). The first negative and positive swings (see Visual N1, C1 and P1 (neuroscience)) in response to visual stimulation are of particular interest in studying sensitivity and selectiveness of attention.
+
+==== Electromagnetic ====
+Magnetoencephalography – a technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers In research, MEG's primary use is the measurement of time courses of activity. MEG can resolve events with a precision of 10 milliseconds or faster, while functional MRI (fMRI), which depends on changes in blood flow, can at best resolve events with a precision of several hundred milliseconds. MEG also accurately pinpoints sources in primary auditory, somatosensory and motor areas. For creating functional maps of human cortex during more complex cognitive tasks, MEG is most often combined with fMRI, as the methods complement each other. Neuronal (MEG) and hemodynamic (fMRI) data do not necessarily agree, in spite of the tight relationship between local field potentials (LFP) and blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) signals
+
+==== Radiological ====
+Positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer). See Positron emission tomography
+Altanserin – a compound that binds to a serotonin receptor. When labeled with the isotope fluorine-18 it is used as a radioligand in positron emission tomography (PET) studies of the brain.
+
+==== Visual processing and image enhancement ====
+Scientific visualization – an interdisciplinary branch of science primarily concerned with the visualization of three-dimensional phenomena (including medical, biological, and others), where the emphasis is on realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps with a dynamic (time) component. It is considered a branch of computer science that is a subset of computer graphics. Brain mapping is a leading beneficiary of advances in scientific visualization.
+Blob detection – an area in computer vision, A blob is a region of a digital image in which some properties (such as brightness or color, compared to areas surrounding those regions) are constant or vary within a prescribed range of values; all the points in a blob can be considered in some sense to be similar to each other

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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:51.311848+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Information technology ====
+Determining the number of clusters in a data set – a typical application is in data reduction: as the increase in temporal resolution of fMRI experiments routinely yields fMRI sequences containing several hundreds of images, it is sometimes necessary to invoke feature extraction to reduce the dimensionality of the data space.
+Fractional anisotropy – a measure often used in diffusion imaging where it is thought to reflect fiber density, axonal diameter, and myelination in white matter. The FA is an extension of the concept of eccentricity of conic sections in three dimensions, normalized to the unit range. Anisotropy is the property of being directionally dependent, as opposed to isotropy, which implies identical properties in all directions.
+General linear model – a statistical linear model. It may be written as Y=XB +U where Y is a matrix with series of multivariate measurements, X is a matrix that might be a design matrix, B is a matrix containing parameters that are usually to be estimated, and U is a matrix containing errors or noise. It is frequently used in the analysis of multiple brain scans in scientific experiments where Y contains data from brain scanners, X contains experimental design variables and confounds. See also:  statistical parametric mapping
+Resampling (statistics) see section on permutation tests. Nonparametric Permutation Tests are used in fMRI.
+
+==== Software packages ====
+Analysis of Functional NeuroImages – an open-source environment for processing and displaying functional MRI data
+Cambridge Brain Analysis – a software repository developed at University of Cambridge for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) analysis under the GNU General Public License and runs under Linux.
+Statistical parametric mapping – a statistical technique for examining differences in brain activity recorded during functional neuroimaging experiments using neuroimaging technologies such as fMRI or PET. It may also refer to a specific piece of software created by the Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience (part of University College London) to carry out such analyses.
+ITK-SNAP an interactive software application that allows users to navigate three-dimensional medical images, manually delineate anatomical regions of interest, and perform automatic image segmentation. Its most frequently used to work with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) data sets.
+Computational anatomy toolbox a software package used for the analysis of structural brain imaging data
+The Budapest Reference Connectome server generates consensus braingraphs with selectable parameters; the graphs can be downloaded in annotated GraphML format, and can also be viewed instantly on the site.
+
+== Scientists, academics and researchers ==
+Mark S. Cohen neuroscientist Professor at the UCLA. Early pioneer of functional brain imaging using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
+Anders Dale neuroscientist and Professor University of California, San Diego. He developed FreeSurfer brain imaging analysis software that facilitates the visualization of the functional regions of the highly folded cerebral cortex.
+Pierre Flor-Henry demonstrated in a study of epileptic psychosis, that schizophrenia relates to left and manic-depressive states relate to right hemisphere epilepsies
+Angela D. Friederici director at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, Germany with a specialization in neuropsychology and linguistics.
+Karl J. Friston British neuroscientist and authority on brain imaging. Inventor of statistical parametric mapping
+Isabel Gauthier neuroscientist and head of the Object Perception Lab at Vanderbilt University
+Matthew Howard, III Professor of Neurosurgery at the University of Iowa known for contributions in the field of human brain mapping using intracranial electrophysiology.
+Dr. Surbhi Jain, the first female neurosurgeon from State of Rajasthan. Practices at the Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, and holds world's record for the most number of patients treated by brain mapping guided brain surgery.
+Gitte Moos Knudsen Gitte Moos Knudsen neurobiologist and clinical neurologist professor at Copenhagen University Hospital.
+Kenneth Kwong Scientist at Harvard University known for his work in fMRI
+Robert Livingston (scientist)  (October 9, 1918 – April 26, 2002) neuroscientist in 1964 Livingston founded the neuroscience department, the first of its kind in the world, at the newly built University of California, San Diego.  His best known research was in the computer mapping and imaging of the human brain. His interest in the brain also extended to questions of cognition, consciousness, emotions, and spirituality.
+Helen S. Mayberg – professor of neurology and psychiatry at Emory University. Specialization includes delineating abnormal brain function in patients with major depression using functional neuroimaging.
+Geraint Rees  head of the University College London Faculty of Brain Sciences
+Sidarta Ribeiro neuroscientist and Director of the Brain Institute at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte
+Perminder Sachdev Neuropsychiatrist Professor at University of New South Wales and director of the Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing
+Pedro Antonio Valdes-Sosa Vice-director of the Cuban Neuroscience Center which he cofounded in 1990. His specialization includes the statistical analysis of electrophysiological measurements, neuroimaging (fMRI, EEG and MEG tomography), nonlinear dynamical modeling of brain functions including software and electrophysiological equipment development. Member of the Editorial Boards of NeuroImage, Medicc, Audioology and Neurotology, PLosOne, and Brain Connectivity.
+Robert Turner director at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, Germany with a specialization in brain physics and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). He is credited with creating the design for the coils found inside every MRI scanner.
+Arno Villringer Director at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, Germany
+
+== Journals ==
+
+== See also ==
+Outline of the human brain
+Outline of neuroscience
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Yersin Museum"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yersin_Museum"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:41.950904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Alexandre Yersin Museum, or simply known as Yersin Museum, is a museum in Nha Trang, Vietnam. It is dedicated to Alexandre Yersin, the French-Swiss bacteriologist.
+It is located on 8–10 Trần Phú Boulevard, also the former home of Yersin and in the enclosure of the Pasteur Institute.
+The museum contains a large collection of Yersin's research pieces of equipment and letters as well as provides a description of his contributions to bacteriology, medicine, and science. The captions are in French with accompanied English and Vietnamese translations.
+It is open from 8 am until 11 am and 2 pm until 4:30 pm on weekdays and closed on Saturdays and Sundays. The entry fee is VND 26,000 for adults.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Bảo tàng Dr. A.Yersin