diff --git a/_index.db b/_index.db index d3f965e43..6a78ff30c 100644 Binary files a/_index.db and b/_index.db differ diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._M._Hegde-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._M._Hegde-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..05c07ff95 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._M._Hegde-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "B. M. Hegde" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._M._Hegde" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:56.036245+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Belle Monappa Hegde (born 18 August 1938) is an Indian cardiologist, professor of medicine, and author. He was the vice chancellor of Manipal Academy of Higher Education from 1999 to 2003. He was awarded Padma Bhushan in 2010 and Padma Vibhushan in 2021. He has supported homeopathy a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine and quantum healing. + + +== Early life == +Hegde was born on 18 August 1938 in Pangala near Udupi, Karnataka, India He obtained MBBS from Stanley Medical College, Madras in 1960 and later M.D. from King George’s Medical College, University of Lucknow + + +== Career == +Over a long career at Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Hegde served in various positions such as professor, principal and dean. He was appointed the vice chancellor of Manipal Academy of Higher Education in 1999 and served till 2003. He was an independent director of Zydus Wellness. He also served as chairman of an expert committee of Bihar State Health Society +He was the chairman of Mangaluru branch of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. He started a medical journal, Journal of the Science of Healing Outcomes and serves as its editor-in-chief. Hegde was a fellow of the National Academy of Medical Sciences till 2016. +B.M. Hegde is a member of the selection jury of Mahaveer Awards instituted by Bhagwan Mahaveer Foundation. + + +== Pseudoscience and controversies == +He has proposed that 'quantum healing' can bring sick persons back to normal, a concept widely regarded in the scientific community as pseudoscientific. +In 2019, when Hegde was invited to deliver a lecture on "Sauce of Happiness" at the campus of Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, he was called a proponent of "pseudo-science and quackery" by a group of research scholars, who questioned his criticism of modern medicine and accused him of promoting unverified treatments for various ailments. Hegde said it showed "how much the protesters knew about science." +His TEDx talk on "Change is life" was flagged by TED as containing medical fallacies and sweeping generalizations. TED said that the assertions made in the talk lacked legitimate scientific support. +Hegde has also written articles and given talks in support of homeopathy, regarded globally as a pseudoscience. Hegde argues that even if one thinks incorrectly that Homeopathy is a placebo, it is still important, as most modern medicine is worse than placebo. + + +== Bibliography == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hatfield-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hatfield-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cda73aee5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hatfield-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Charles Hatfield" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hatfield" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:53.727256+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Charles Mallory Hatfield (July 15, 1875 – January 12, 1958) was an American "rainmaker". + + +== Early life == +Hatfield was born in Fort Scott, Kansas, on July 15, 1875. His father, Stephen, a property speculator, moved the family to Southern California in 1886, settling first in San Diego, where Hatfield Sr built three houses. He later built a home on a forty-acre ranch and olive grove at Gopher Canyon near Bonsall, forty miles north of the city. As an adult, Charles became a salesman for the New Home Sewing Machine Company. In 1904, he moved to Glendale, California. + + +== Career == +As a young man growing up in Bonsall, Hatfield studied pluviculture and began to develop his own methods for producing rain, inspired by the way a boiling kettle attracted the water vapour rising from an adjacent, steaming pan on his mother's stove. By 1902 he had created a secret mixture of 23 chemicals in large galvanized evaporating tanks that, he claimed, attracted rain. Hatfield called himself a "moisture accelerator". +In 1904, promoter Fred Binney began a public relations campaign for Hatfield. A number of Los Angeles ranchers saw his ads in newspapers and promised Hatfield $50 to produce rain. In February, Hatfield and his brother Paul built an evaporating tower at La Crescenta where Hatfield released his mixture into the air. Hatfield's attempt was apparently successful, so the ranchers paid him $100. Contemporary weather bureau reports described the rain as a small part of a storm that was already coming, but Hatfield's supporters disregarded this. +Hatfield began to receive more job offers. He promised Los Angeles 18 inches (46 cm) of rain, apparently succeeded, and collected a fee of $1000. For this effort, Hatfield had built his tower on the grounds of the Esperanza Sanitarium in Altadena, near Rubio Canyon. +In 1906, Hatfield was invited to the Yukon Territory, where he agreed to create rain for the water-dependent mines of the Klondike goldfields. The Klondike contract was for $10,000, but after unsuccessful efforts, Hatfield slipped away, collecting only $1,100 for expenses. This failure did not deter his supporters. +In 1915, the San Diego City Council, pressured by the San Diego Wide Awake Improvement Club, approached Hatfield to produce rain to fill the reservoir of Morena Dam. Hatfield offered to produce rain for free, then charge $1,000 per inch ($393.7 per centimetre) for between forty and fifty inches (1.0 and 1.3 m) and free again over fifty inches (1.3 m). The council voted four to one for a $10,000 fee, payable when the reservoir was filled. A formal agreement was never drawn up, though Hatfield continued based on verbal understanding. Hatfield, with his brother, built a tower beside Lake Morena and was ready early in the New Year. +On January 5, 1916, heavy rain began—and grew gradually heavier day by day. Dry riverbeds filled to the point of flooding. Worsening floods destroyed bridges, marooned trains and cut phone cables - not to mention flooding homes and farms. Two dams, Sweetwater Dam and one at Lower Otay Lake, overflowed. Rain stopped on 20 January but resumed two days later. On January 27 Lower Otay Dam broke, increasing the devastation and reportedly causing about 20 deaths (accounts vary on the exact number). +Hatfield talked to the press on February 4 and said that the damage was not his fault and that the city should have taken adequate precautions. Hatfield had fulfilled the requirements of his contract—filling the reservoir—but the city council refused to pay the money unless Hatfield would accept liability for damages; there were already claims worth $3.5 million. Besides, there was no written contract. Hatfield tried to settle for $4000 and then sued the council. The suit continued until 1938 when two courts decided that the rain was an act of God, which absolved him of any wrongdoing, but also meant Hatfield did not get his fee. +Hatfield's fame only grew and he received more contracts for rainmaking. Among other things, in 1929 he was hired by the Standard Steamship and Fruit Company of New Orleans to stop a fire on a 100,000 acre banana plantation in Honduras Later the Bear Valley Mutual Water Company wanted to fill Big Bear Lake. However, during the Great Depression he had to return to his work as a sewing machine salesman. His wife Mable divorced him in 1931, claiming in the divorce settlement that Hatfield had hidden some of his earnings from her. +Charles Hatfield died January 12, 1958, and took his chemical formula with him to his grave in Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. +Hatfield claimed at least 500 successes. According to later commentators and those who encountered him, Hatfield's successes were mainly due to his meteorological skill, detailed study of rainfall statistics and innate sense of timing, selecting periods where there was a high probability of rain anyway. John L. Bacon, a mayor of San Diego who studied Hatfield's so-called successes, regarded him as nothing more than "a darned good weather prophet." + + +== References in popular culture == + +Charles Hatfield and the 1916 flooding at Lake Morena is the subject of the song "Hatfield" by the band Widespread Panic. Singer/guitarist John Bell wrote the song after reading the story of the rainmaker in a Farmers' Almanac. The song was released on the album Everyday in 1993. +Charles Hatfield and the San Diego flood is credited as the inspiration for the instrumental musical piece "The Rainmaker" from the album Innovators released in 1993 by Sam Cordon and Kurt Bestor. +Hatfield's story inspired the 1956 Burt Lancaster film The Rainmaker, based on the play of the same name. Hollywood invited Hatfield to the premiere. The play also became the basis of a Broadway Musical, 110 in the Shade. +In T. Jefferson Parker's 2007 novel Storm Runners, Charles Hatfield's fictional great-great-granddaughter takes up his research. +Charles Hatfield and the San Diego flood was featured in a 2016 episode of the White Rabbit Project on Netflix. +Charles Hatfield and his rainmaking endeavors are mentioned in Chapter One of Mark Arax's 2019 book, "The Dreamt Land." +Charles Hatfield and the San Diego flood is the subject of The Wizard of Sun City: The Strange, True Story of Charles Hatfield, The Rainmaker Who Drowned a City's Dreams by Garry Jenkins. + + +== See also == +Cloud seeding + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +McNearney, Allison (26 December 2020). "Charles Hatfield Made It Rain in San Diego. The Problem Was He Couldn't Make It Stop". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 26 December 2020. + + +== External links == +San Diego History +A Rainmaker Meets His Match, Ephrata, Wash., 1920 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_therapy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_therapy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bfb613534 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_therapy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Grape therapy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_therapy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:44.259990+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Grape therapy or grape diet, also known as ampelotherapy, is a diet that involves heavy consumption of grapes, sometimes with their seeds, leaves and parts of the vine, as a form of alternative medicine. It emerged in German spas such as Bad Duerkheim and Merano in the 19th century. The concept has no scientific basis and is regarded as quackery by scientific institutions including the American Cancer Society. + + +== Background == +An assumption of some of grape therapy is that consuming grape constituents would provide unusual therapeutic or nutritional benefits. However, consuming grapes has unknown effects against cardiovascular diseases and other diseases, such as metabolic syndrome. Alternative medicine practitioners have recommended grapes and parts of the vine for treating various diseases, but there is no clinical evidence for any such effects. +Grape pomace contains various micronutrients, but the resulting flour from pomace has variable nutrient contents due to processing, drying, and storage conditions. In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw grapes provide little nutritional benefit, except for moderate amounts of carbohydrates and vitamin K (see grape nutrition). +Proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins and resveratrol extracted from grape seeds and grape skins are under basic research for their possible biological effects. Pomace also contains organic acids (tartaric, malic, citric, tannic), but there is no evidence for health effects from these phytochemicals. + + +== History == +The documentation of a grape diet was first seen in a publication by Dr. Veit Kaufmann, a family doctor in the viticultural city of Bad Duerkheim, Germany, called "Die Traubenkur in Dürkheim a.d. Haardt" (The Grape Treatment Course in Duerkheim at Haardt River) (1856). Kaufmann was well known locally, and a personal friend of Rudolph Virchow, who underwent the treatment regularly. +In the USSR, the principles of a grape cure were developed in the 1920s by a group of physicians of the Semashko Institute (Yalta), headed by A.V. D'iakov. Ampelotherapy is offered in alternative medicine clinics and spas, particularly in Europe, together with vinotherapy, a cosmetic treatment that involves rubbing grapes into the skin. + +Johanna Brandt, a South African author, popularized the grape diet as a treatment for cancer from 1925. She published about twenty pamphlets on the subject of natural remedies for health problems with her book The Grape Cure, which is said to have been written after Brandt had cured herself of stomach cancer by following the diet. The book was republished in 1989 as How to Conquer Cancer, Naturally, including an endorsement of Brandt's work by Benedict Lust, who is commonly referred to as "the father of naturopathy". +Although commonly used as a dietary supplement and studied in human trials at an amount much higher than can be consumed from drinking red wine, there is no high-quality evidence that resveratrol provides any benefits for cardiovascular risk factors. Advocates of grape therapy argue that grape phytochemicals inhibit the development of cancer, arthritis or diabetes, but there is no scientific evidence for such effects. + + +== Treatments == +The diet proposed by Veit Kaufmann recommended the consumption of several pounds of freshly picked grapes a day, spread over 4 portions, combined with walks, sports and light healthy meals, over a course of three to six weeks in a spa, overseen by medical personnel. The diet proposed by Johanna Brandt recommended fasting for two or three days, consuming only cold water, followed by a diet of only grapes and water for one to two weeks, with seven meals a day. Fresh fruits, tomatoes, and sour milk or cottage cheese are then introduced to the diet followed by raw vegetables. + + +== Criticisms == +Available scientific evidence does not support claims that a diet of grapes is effective for treating cancer or any other disease. The Brandt diet, in particular, has been described as "quackery" by Barrett who notes that the American Cancer Society reviewed The Grape Cure in 1965, 1971, 1974, and 2000 and found no evidence of benefit against human cancer or any other disease. Grape seed extract has been identified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a "fake cancer 'cure'". + + +== See also == +Grape surgery +Urine therapy +Gerson therapy +List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapefruit_diet-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapefruit_diet-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c28c97f3b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapefruit_diet-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Grapefruit diet" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapefruit_diet" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:45.428826+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Grapefruit diet (also known as the Hollywood diet and the 18-Day diet) is a short-term fad diet that has existed in the United States since at least the 1930s. There are variations on the diet, although it generally consists of eating one half of a grapefruit at each meal, along with meat, eggs, other foods that are rich in fat and protein, and certain vegetables. Sugar, fruits (other than grapefruit), sweet vegetables, grains and starchy vegetables are to be avoided. The grapefruit diet is thus a low-carbohydrate diet. A typical breakfast menu usually includes bacon and eggs. +The diet is based on the claim that grapefruit has a fat-burning enzyme or similar property. The grapefruit diet does not require exercise. The grapefruit diet lasts for 10 to 12 days followed by 2 days off. + + +== History == +The grapefruit diet originated in the 1930s. initially, it was referred to as the "eighteen-day diet" in 1929 , consisting of grapefruit, orange, toast, vegetable and egg combinations for 18 days, totaling approximately 500 kilocalories (2,100 kJ). The originator of the diet is not known. One rumour traces the diet to actress Ethel Barrymore, who is alleged to have paid William James Mayo and his brother 500 dollars (equivalent to $10,000 in 2025) to create a special diet for her. The diet then became a fad in Hollywood and spread throughout America. The Mayo Clinic has disavowed the grapefruit diet. +Novelist Fannie Hurst was a notable devotee of the diet. It was re-popularized in the 1980s and nicknamed the "10-day, 10-pounds-off diet". The idea that grapefruit eaten before a meal acts as a "catalyst" to burn body fat has no evidence from biochemistry. + + +== Health risks == +The diet was criticized as early as 1935. Carl Malmberg commented that it lacks in all the necessary minerals (calcium, phosphorus and iron) and in vitamin A. He noted that many people became ill on the diet and "casualties" were heavy around Hollywood. In 1936, Lewis Wolberg described the diet as "nonsensical, irrational and even dangerous". +The variations of the grapefruit diet that are too low in calories (below 800–1,000 calories a day), too low in carbohydrates, or too low in essential micronutrients are considered unhealthy and potentially dangerous. While eating half a grapefruit with every meal may be a good way to incorporate more fruit in the diet of a healthy person, grapefruit and grapefruit juice is harmful if the dieter is allergic to citrus, or is taking medicines that can interact with grapefruit juice. This diet will not be beneficial to anyone when followed long-term, as the extremely low calorie intake could lead to malnutrition and many health problems. + + +== See also == +List of diets § Fad diets + + +== References == + + +== External links == +WebMD Grapefruit Diet Page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87f7f86f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Graphology" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:46.593471+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Graphology is the analysis of handwriting in an attempt to determine the writer's personality traits. Its methods and conclusions are not supported by scientific evidence, and as such it is considered to be a pseudoscience. +Graphology has been controversial for more than a century. Although proponents point to positive testimonials as anecdotal evidence of its utility for personality evaluation, these claims have not been supported by scientific studies. It has been rated as among the most discredited methods of psychological analysis by a survey of mental health professionals. + +== Etymology == +The word "graphology" derives from the Greek γραφή (grapho-; 'writing'), and λόγος (logos; 'theory'). + +== History == +In 1991, Jean-Charles Gille-Maisani stated that Juan Huarte de San Juan's 1575 Examen de ingenios para las ciencias was the first book on handwriting analysis. In American graphology, Camillo Baldi's Trattato come da una lettera missiva si conoscano la natura e qualità dello scrittore from 1622 is considered to be the first book. +Around 1830, Jean-Hippolyte Michon became interested in handwriting analysis. He published his findings shortly after founding Société Graphologique in 1871. The most prominent of his disciples was Jules Crépieux-Jamin, who rapidly published a series of books that were soon published in other languages. Starting from Michon's integrative approach, Crépieux-Jamin founded a holistic approach to graphology. +Alfred Binet was convinced to conduct research into graphology from 1893 to 1907. He called it "the science of the future" despite rejection of his results by graphologists. +French psychiatrist Joseph Rogues De Fursac combined graphology and psychiatry in the 1905 book Les ecrits et les dessins dans les maladies mentales et nerveuses. +After World War I, interest in graphology continued to spread in Europe and the United States. In Germany during the 1920s, Ludwig Klages founded and published his findings in Zeitschrift für Menschenkunde (Journal for the Study of Mankind). His major contribution to the field can be found in Handschrift und Charakter. +Thea Stein Lewinson and J. Zubin modified Klage's ideas, based upon their experience working for the U.S. government, publishing their method in 1942. +In 1929, Milton Bunker founded The American Grapho Analysis Society teaching graphoanalysis. This organization and its system split the American graphology world in two. Students had to choose between graphoanalysis or holistic graphology. While hard data is lacking, anecdotal accounts indicate that 10% of the members of International Graphoanalysis Society (IGAS) were expelled between 1970 and 1980. +Regarding a proposed correlation between biological sex and handwriting style, a paper published by James Hartley in 1989 concluded that there was some evidence in support of this hypothesis. +Rowan Bayne, a British psychologist who has written several studies on graphology, summarized his view of the appeal of graphology: "[I]t's very seductive because at a very crude level someone who is neat and well behaved tends to have neat handwriting", adding that the practice is "useless... absolutely hopeless". The British Psychological Society ranks graphology alongside astrology, giving them both "zero validity". +Graphology was also dismissed as a pseudoscience by the skeptic James Randi in 1991. + +In his May 21, 2013 Skeptoid podcast episode titled "All About Graphology", scientific skeptic author Brian Dunning reports:In his book The Write Stuff, Barry Beyerstein summarized the work of Geoffrey Dean, who performed probably the most extensive literature survey of graphology ever done. Dean did a meta-analysis on some 200 studies: +Dean showed that graphologists have unequivocally failed to demonstrate any validity or reliability of their art for predicting work performance, aptitudes, or personality. Graphology thus fails according to the standards which a genuine psychological test must pass before it can ethically be released for use on the public. + +Dean found that no particular school of graphology fared better than any other. In fact, no graphologist of any kind was able to show reliably better performance than untrained amateurs making guesses from the same materials. In the vast majority of studies, neither group exceeded chance expectancy. +Dunning concludes:Other non-scientific techniques like iridology, phrenology, palmistry, and astrology also have differing schools of thought, require years of training, offer expensive certifications, and fail just as soundly when put to a scientific controlled test. Handwriting analysis does have its plausible-sounding separation from those other techniques though, and that's the whole "handwriting is brainwriting" idea — traits from the brain will be manifested in the way that it controls the muscles of the hand. Unfortunately, this is just as unscientific as the others. No amount of sciencey sounding language can make up for a technique failing when put to a scientifically controlled test. + +== Use by employers == +Although graphology had some support in the scientific community before the mid-twentieth century, more recent research rejects the validity of graphology as a tool to assess personality and job performance. Today it is considered a pseudoscience. Many studies have been conducted to assess its effectiveness to predict personality and job performance. Recent studies testing the validity of using handwriting for predicting personality traits and job performance have been consistently negative. +Measures of job performance appear similarly unrelated to the handwriting metrics of graphologists. Professional graphologists using handwriting analysis were just as ineffective as lay people at predicting performance in a 1989 study. A broad literature screen by King and Koehler confirmed that dozens of studies showing the geometric aspects of graphology (slant, slope, etc.) are essentially worthless as predictors of job performance. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d6c8d1e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Graphology" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:46.593471+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Additional specific objections === +The Barnum effect (the tendency to interpret vague statements as specifically meaningful) and the Dr. Fox effect (the tendency for supposed experts to be validated based on likeability rather than actual skill) make it difficult to validate methods of personality testing. These phenomena describe the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. See, for example, Tallent (1958). Non-individualized graphological reports give credence to this criticism. +Effect Size: Dean's (1992) primary argument against the use of graphology is that the effect size is too small. Regardless of the validity of handwriting analysis, the research results imply that it is not applicable for any specific individual, but may be applicable to a group. +Vagueness: Some important principles of graphology are vague enough to allow significant room for a graphologist to skew interpretations to suit a subject or preconceived conclusion. For example, one of the main concepts in the theory of Ludwig Klages is form-niveau (or form-level): the overall level of originality, beauty, harmony, style, etc. of a person's handwriting—a quality that, according to Klages, can be perceived but not measured. According to this theory, the same sign has a positive or negative meaning depending on the subject's overall character and personality as revealed by the form-niveau. In practice, this can lead the graphologist to interpret signs positively or negatively depending on whether the subject has high or low social status. + +== Systems == + +Integrative graphology focuses on the strokes and their purported relation to personality. Graphoanalysis was the most influential system in the United States between 1929 and 2000. +Holistic graphology is based on form, movement, and use of space. It uses psychograms to analyze handwriting. +Four academic institutions offer an accredited degree in handwriting analysis: + +The University of Urbino, Italy: MA (Graphology) +Instituto Superior Emerson, Buenos Aires, Argentina: BA (Graphology) +Centro de Estudios Superiores (CES), Buenos Aires, Argentina: BA (Graphology) +Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain: MA (Graphology) + +== Vocabulary == +Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meanings of those words may be different. The meanings of words to describe graphological observations used by handwriting analysts are not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means annoyance. In graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition. + +== Legal considerations == + +=== Hungary === +A report by the Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information says that handwriting analysis without informed consent is a privacy violation. + +=== United States === + +==== Employment law ==== +A 2001 advisory opinion letter from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission responded to a question regarding "whether it is legal to use an analysis of an applicant's handwriting as an employment screening tool. You also ask whether it is legal to ask the applicant's age and use of medications to allow for variants in his/her handwriting." The letter advised that in this circumstance, it was illegal under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) to ask a job applicant whether he or she is taking any medications, and also advised that asking an applicant for his or her age "allegedly to allow for variants in analyzing his/her handwriting" was not a per se violation of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA), but could be significant evidence of age discrimination. The letter also said that there was no judicial guidance on "whether a policy of excluding applicants based upon their handwriting has an adverse impact on a protected group" under the ADA, ADEA, or Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. + +== Applications == + +=== Gender and handwriting === +A 1991 review of the then-current literature concluded that respondents were able to predict the gender of handwriting between 57 and 78% of the time. However, most of these samples, as well as subsequent studies, are based on small sample sizes that are collected non-randomly. A much larger and more recent survey of over 3,000 participants only found a classification accuracy of 54%. As statistical discrimination below 0.7 is generally considered unacceptable, this indicates that most results are rather inaccurate, and that variation in results observed is likely due to sampling technique and bias. +The reason for this bias varies; hypotheses are that biology contributes due to average differences in fine motor skills among males and females, and that differences arise from culture and gender bias. + +=== Employment profiling === +A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and does a personality profile, supposedly matching the congruence of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position. The applicant can also malpractice in this system; they may ask someone to write on their behalf. +A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools. +Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure to guarded +success. The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance. +The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical and legal grounds in the United States. + +=== Psychological analysis === +Graphology has been used clinically by counselors and psychotherapists. When it is used, it is generally used alongside other projective personality assessment tools, and not in isolation. It is often used within individual psychotherapy, marital counseling, or vocational counseling. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e6f807d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Graphology" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:46.593471+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Marital compatibility === +In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s) within the relationship. The theory is that after knowing and understanding how each individual in the relationship differs from every other individual in the relationship, the resulting marriage will be more enduring. With a comparative analysis receiving and non-receiving parts responses are measured. + +=== Medical diagnosis === +Medical graphology is probably the most controversial branch of handwriting analysis. Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to motor control. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents. The study of these phenomena is a by-product of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body. +The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice, amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis by those not licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice. + +=== Graphotherapy === + +Graphotherapy is the pseudoscience of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality, or "handwriting analysis in reverse." It originated in France during the 1930s, spreading to the United States in the late 1950s. The purported therapy consists of a series of exercises similar to those taught in basic calligraphy courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk. + +== See also == +Literomancy +Numerology +Physiognomy + +=== Graphologists === +Max Pulver +Robert Saudek +Rafael Schermann +Léopold Szondi +Sheila Lowe + +=== Related fields === +Asemic writing +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Palaeography +Graphonomics +Doodle + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Bangerter A, König CJ, Blatti S, Salvisberg A (2009). "How Widespread is Graphology in Personnel Selection Practice? A case study of a job market myth" (PDF). International Journal of Selection and Assessment. 17 (2): 219–30. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2009.00464.x. S2CID 55481603. +Berger J (2002). "Handwriting Analysis and Graphology". In Shermer M (ed.). The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. ABC-CLIO. pp. 116–20. ISBN 978-1-57607-653-8. + +== External links == +Skeptic's Dictionary entry on graphology +BBC article about graphology +How Graphology Fools People \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_shielding-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_shielding-0.md index f3b85d4f8..e6b1c6e2f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_shielding-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_shielding-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_shielding" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:14:22.061333+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:47.795998+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_cancer_cure-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_cancer_cure-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f8238ad6a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_cancer_cure-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Greek cancer cure" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_cancer_cure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:48.964062+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Greek cancer cure was a putative cancer cure invented and promoted by microbiologist Hariton-Tzannis Alivizatos (died 1991). It consisted of intravenous injections of a fluid for which Alivizatos would not reveal the formula. + + +== Medical claims and criticism == +In 1983, Alivizatos announced that he had developed a serum that had a 60-percent success rate in arresting most types of cancers, with the exception of extremely advanced cases. He claimed that the serum could attack a protein-like substance that surrounds cancer cells and weaken the body's ability to keep the disease from spreading. Greek health officials ridiculed Alivizatos's assertions, while the American Cancer Society warned his current patients that there was no evidence that the diagnostic procedures and treatment for cancer proposed had resulted in any benefits for the treatment of cancer in human beings. They concluded that, "there is no evidence that any aspect of the diagnostic test nor the treatment... are effective in the treatment of cancer." In addition they state "Nor is there any evidence that.. the intravenous injections are safe." + + +== See also == +List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6d12c475b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Grokipedia" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:50.100026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Grokipedia is an AI-generated online encyclopedia operated by the American company xAI. The site was launched on October 27, 2025. Some entries are generated by Grok, a large language model owned by the same company, while others were forked from Wikipedia, with some altered and some used nearly verbatim. Articles cannot be directly edited, though logged-in visitors to the encyclopedia can suggest new articles or corrections via a pop-up form, which are reviewed by Grok. +The xAI founder Elon Musk suggested Grokipedia could be an alternative to Wikipedia that would "purge out the propaganda" he believes is promoted by the latter, describing Wikipedia as "woke" and an "extension of legacy media propaganda". +External analysis of Grokipedia's content has focused on its accuracy and biases due to hallucinations and potential algorithmic bias, which reviewers have described as promoting right-wing perspectives and Musk's views. The majority of coverage has described the website as validating, promoting, and legitimizing a variety of debunked conspiracy theories and ideas against scientific consensus on topics such as HIV/AIDS denialism, vaccines and autism, climate change, and race and intelligence. The site has been accused of whitewashing far-right extremism, such as by falsely claiming a white genocide is actively occurring. Several right-wing figures have welcomed the site. Studies have highlighted its use of sources deemed as having very low credibility such as X conversations and neo-Nazi websites, and for writing about far-right figures and topics in a promotional manner. + +== Background == + +Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers. Its possible bias has been studied and debated. In 2018, Haaretz noted "Wikipedia has succeeded in being accused of being both too liberal and too conservative, and has critics from across the spectrum". +xAI is an American AI company founded by Elon Musk in 2023. Its flagship product is the family of large language models called Grok. + +== History == + +In 2021, Musk expressed affection for Wikipedia on its 20th anniversary. In 2022, however, Musk argued that Wikipedia was "losing its objectivity", and in 2023, said he would donate US$1 billion to the project if it was pejoratively renamed "Dickipedia". In December 2024, Musk called for a boycott of donations to Wikipedia over its perceived left-wing bias, calling it "Wokepedia". In January 2025, Musk made a series of statements on Twitter denouncing Wikipedia for its description of the incident where he made a controversial gesture, which many viewed as resembling a Nazi salute, at president Donald Trump's second inauguration. Musk has since positioned Grokipedia as an alternative to Wikipedia that would "purge out the propaganda" in the latter, with Musk describing Wikipedia as "woke" and an "extension of legacy media propaganda". + +=== Idea and announcement === +In September 2025, Musk spoke at the All-In podcast conference with David O. Sacks, the White House advisor on AI and cryptocurrency, about how Grok consumed data from Wikipedia and other sources to gain more complete knowledge of the world. Sacks suggested publishing its knowledge base as an artifact called "Grokipedia", saying "Wikipedia is so biased, it's a constant war". +Following the conversation, Musk announced that xAI was building a new AI-generated online encyclopedia called Grokipedia. According to Musk's announcement, it would be an AI-powered knowledge base designed to rival Wikipedia by addressing its perceived biases, errors, and ideological slants. +The project positioned itself within a history of ideologically driven alternatives to Wikipedia, such as the conservative Conservapedia (launched in 2006) and the Russian-government-friendly Ruwiki (launched in 2023). However, Grokipedia is distinct in its core reliance on artificial intelligence rather than human community editing. + +=== Launch and traffic === +On October 6, 2025, Musk announced that the early version of Grokipedia was scheduled for release in two weeks, but the project was postponed briefly to address content quality issues. It launched on October 27, 2025, labeled "v 0.1", with over 800,000 articles, compared to over seven million English Wikipedia articles as of September 1, 2025. According to an initial analysis of usage figures by Similarweb, which evaluates data from registered users and partners, Grokipedia recorded a peak of over 460,000 website visits in the US on October 28, 2025. After that, traffic dropped significantly and settled at around 35,000 visits per day between November 8 and 11, 2025. As of early 2026, it had over 5.6 million articles. +In January 2026, The Guardian reported that GPT-5.2 frequently cited Grokipedia as a source in responses, raising concerns of misinformation on ChatGPT. The same month, The Verge reported that Google's AI Overviews, AI Mode, and Gemini language model, as well as Microsoft Copilot and Perplexity AI, used Grokipedia to answer niche, obscure, or highly specific factual questions or "non-sensitive queries." +According to a case study published by SEO Engico, the site received only 19 clicks from Google Search in November 2025 but reached approximately 3.2 million monthly clicks by January 2026, with over 900,000 pages indexed and millions of ranking keywords. Analysts attributed the surge in part to the site's technical structure and large-scale AI-generated content production. In early February 2026, Grokipedia's visibility in Google Search declined sharply. SEO analysts, including Glenn Gabe and Malte Landwehr, reported a significant drop in rankings across Google organic results as well as in Google AI Overviews and AI Mode. The same case study cited independent reviews that identified citation quality concerns, including references to low-credibility sources and instances of self-citation. By mid-February 2026, Grokipedia had reportedly lost much of its previous search visibility, and Wikipedia ranked above it for searches related to its own name. + +=== Updates === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca8b7f9a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Grokipedia" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:50.100026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Future ==== +In November 2025, Musk announced that he eventually plans to change the name of the site to Encyclopedia Galactica when Grokipedia is "good enough", saying that it had a "long way to go". This name is taken from the publication of that title in the works of Isaac Asimov and Douglas Adams. +Musk said that he hoped to send copies of the encyclopedia to "the Moon and Mars and out to deep space". + +== Content == + +The Grok large language model generates and fact-checks articles on Grokipedia. Users cannot directly edit Grokipedia articles, but logged-in users can suggest edits and report errors, with such submissions being reviewed and implemented by the Grok AI. +Some articles are nearly identical to their Wikipedia entries, but the format of Grokipedia citations is different, and some Grokipedia articles were republished almost verbatim, accompanied by a disclaimer noting that the content was "adapted from Wikipedia" under a Creative Commons license. Others were completely rewritten from scratch using Musk's AI chatbot, Grok. Forbes identified the articles AMD, Lamborghini, and PlayStation 5 as examples of copied Wikipedia articles. Articles attributed to Wikipedia carry a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license, while the license of other articles is licensed under the "X Community License", a license that accepts reuse and remixing for "non-commercial and research purposes" and commercial use that abides to "all of the guardrails provided in xAI's Acceptable Use Policy". +On October 31, 2025, Musk clarified that the duplication of Wikipedia articles was intentional, saying that the Grokipedia team instructed Grok to compile Wikipedia's top 1 million articles and make content changes to them. The site's design has been described as minimalist with a simple homepage including little more than a large search bar. In a comparative textual analysis of the most heavily edited matched article pairs from Grokipedia and Wikipedia, Grokipedia entries are substantially longer and less densely referenced, indicating that AI-produced encyclopedias prioritise exposition rather than source-based validation. +Starting in version 0.2, Grok reviews and implements approved suggested edits, and a small panel rotates through a display of the names of several recently edited articles. +In February 2026, the Columbia Journalism Review reported on an analysis by the Tow Center for Digital Journalism finding that Grok, the AI behind Grokipedia, had increasingly begun suggesting and approving edits to the site itself without human involvement. According to the report, AI-generated edit suggestions overtook human submissions in December 2025 and accounted for more than three-quarters of proposed changes. The analysis raised concerns about transparency, editorial oversight, and fact-checking standards, particularly after instances in which Grok proposed or modified politically sensitive content. Critics cited in the report questioned the reliability of a self-editing AI system and described Grokipedia as a centrally controlled knowledge project rather than a collaboratively maintained encyclopedia. + +== Reliability == +A November 2025 review of Grokipedia's content by PolitiFact found that article content that differs from Wikipedia includes unsourced content and misleading or opinionated claims, and that Grokipedia occasionally includes incorrect citations for its sources. It described pages as crediting sources that did not exist, and that some pages contained no citations other than saying it was adapted from Wikipedia. For instance, Grokipedia's page for the Canadian singer Feist was directly copied from Wikipedia except for an added line saying her father died in May 2021, citing a 2017 article that did not make that claim. Pages were also described as citing secondhand, unattributed information and commentary such as Instagram Reels and user-generated content that Wikipedia describes as being "generally unacceptable as sources". + +=== Factual inaccuracies === +Wired reported that "The new AI-powered Wikipedia competitor falsely claims that pornography worsened the AIDS epidemic and that social media may be fueling a rise in transgender people". LGBTQ Nation also highlighted how Grokipedia has an article on "HIV/AIDS skepticism" which claims there is legitimate scientific critique that HIV does not cause AIDS. The Verge highlighted other instances of articles that legitimize ideas and conspiracy theories that go against scientific consensus, pointing to topics such as vaccines and autism; COVID-19; race and intelligence; and climate change. +The Guardian highlighted several pages that supported a variety of pseudoscientific claims around discredited 20th-century scientific racism. For instance, its page on eugenics supported the theory with alleged "empirical evidence", dismissed criticism as a result of suppression tactics from left-wing sources, and that several pages on the topic had entries about purported skull measurements for "Negroid", "Mongoloid", "Armenoid", "Nordic" and "Ethiopid" skull types. +Matteo Wong noted in The Atlantic that Grokipedia frames the white genocide conspiracy theory as an event that is currently occurring. The Business Standard described Grokipedia pages as validating debunked conspiracy theories such as Pizzagate and the "Great Replacement". British historian Richard J. Evans reported multiple false statements in his Grokipedia entry. +Multiple outlets noted that there are factual issues with Grokipedia's pages on topics related to LGBTQ+ issues. PinkNews was especially critical of Grokipedia's transgender-related articles which, among other things, claimed being trans is a choice and a "social contagion"; promoted the discredited rapid-onset gender dysphoria controversy; misused statistics to argue that trans identification is declining; rewrote LGBTQ+ history to suggest that trans people were not a part of the queer rights movement before the 1990s; and cited groups like the Society for Evidence-Based Gender Medicine (which has been classified as an anti-transgender hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center) to support some of these claims. +Researcher Renée DiResta reported that the Grokipedia article about her included conspiracy theories about her former research team at Stanford Internet Observatory censoring 22 million tweets during the 2020 United States presidential election, and hallucinated content that they were involved in Twitter's moderation of content about Hunter Biden's laptop. + +== Reception == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c4e3bfab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Grokipedia" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:50.100026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Accusations of bias === +Several pages on Grokipedia broadly criticize academia and the news media as left-wing and accuse them of suppressing opposing views. The Guardian highlighted Grokipedia's description of Holocaust denier David Irving in positive terms as a symbol of "resistance to institutional suppression of unorthodox historical inquiry" in the face of "coordinated efforts to silence dissent rather than scholarly refutation"; Grokipedia's entry adds: "Despite mainstream dismissals from sources with evident anti-revisionist biases, such as advocacy groups, Irving's archival rigor continues to be praised within these circles." +The Intercept highlighted Grokipedia's page on Germany's far-right political party Alternative for Germany (AfD), describing its 'Media Portrayals and Alleged Bias' section as echoing AfD claims of media bias against the party. The page had a section entitled "Media Portrayals and Alleged Bias" which The Intercept described as serving "to parrot AfD's long-held claims that the media is biased and undermining them". The Intercept also reported that Grokipedia: accuses the United Nations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch of focusing on "Israeli actions while minimizing Hamas's violations"; includes Israeli government accusations that the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East is infiltrated by Hamas; and cites pro-Israel groups such as UN Watch and NGO Monitor. +Sociologist and physicist Taha Yasseri argued in The Conversation that the encyclopedia may end up displaying biases just like Wikipedia (though acknowledging that Wikipedia's "infrastructure is designed to make that bias visible and correctable"), since large language models like Grok's reflect the political and other biases of their datasets. Anaïs Nony, a researcher in digital technologies at the University of Johannesburg, stated that Grokipedia seeks to "discredit scientific and collaborative work". L. K. Sellig, an AI researcher at the Weizenbaum Institute, described Grokipedia as "cloaking misinformation". +The Guardian, NBC News and The Atlantic reported that requests for comment about Grokipedia sent to xAI were responded to with an automated message saying: "Legacy Media Lies". + +==== Towards Elon Musk's personal views ==== + +Articles related to topics that Musk has been outspoken on have been noted to align with Musk's personal views on the topics, including gender transition, gender identities, Tesla, Neuralink, and former Twitter CEO Parag Agrawal. NBC News noted that unlike Musk's Wikipedia article, his Grokipedia entry did not mention his controversial hand gesture made in January 2025, which many viewed as resembling a Nazi salute. Time magazine wrote that the Grokipedia article on Musk sometimes "describes him in rapturous terms while downplaying, or even omitting, several of his controversies". The magazine added that "Grokipedia includes more detailed descriptions of Musk's views, including the idea of a 'woke mind virus,' which Musk claimed 'killed' his estranged transgender daughter [Vivian Wilson], who is alive". Futurism reported that the Grokipedia article on the Tesla Cybertruck included language promoting the Cybertruck and criticizing media coverage of it and Tesla. +David Swan of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that the ideological bias of Musk present in Grokipedia is less of a concern than how easy it has been shown to do this at scale, stating that "Other billionaires and authoritarian regimes are watching". Journalist Richard Cooke, who authored a political biography of Musk, stated in remarks to The Guardian that "Grokipedia is a copy of Wikipedia but one where in each instance that Wikipedia disagrees with the richest man in the world, it's 'rectified' so that it's congruent with them". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..93674dea1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Grokipedia" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:50.100026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Towards right-wing views ==== +Grokipedia has been described as having a right-wing bias, with The Business Standard noting reviewers finding it framed "contested social and political issues through a right-leaning perspective, echoing Musk's personal views", with some pages accused of whitewashing extremism. Matteo Wong noted in The Atlantic how in the Grokipedia article on Adolf Hitler, his "rapid economic achievements" are prioritized over events like the Holocaust. NBC News stated that while Wikipedia mentions the Holocaust in the first paragraph of the Hitler article, Grokipedia mentions it only after 13,000 words. +Wong also states that Grokipedia repeatedly cites Kremlin.ru for its article on the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Meduza compared Grokipedia's coverage to that of the Kremlin-aligned Ruwiki, finding that Grokipedia's treatment of the Russo-Ukrainian war was less overtly propagandistic than Ruwiki's, though it did give more favorable treatment to "Russian propaganda talking points" than Wikipedia did. On Vladimir Putin, Grokipedia's coverage was "less fawning" than Ruwiki's, though still omitting noteworthy negative information about him. Meduza noted that Grokipedia also omits mention of scandals surrounding Donald Trump, such as his relationship with Jeffrey Epstein. Texas-based news site Chron observed that Grokipedia articles often cited "Texas Republican bloggers and advocacy groups", and that Grokipedia's coverage of Texas history tended to minimize the role of slavery. +On November 17, 2025, the British newspaper The Guardian published an analysis of Grokipedia finding that entries "variously promote white nationalist talking points, praise neo-Nazis and other far-right figures, promote racist ideologies and white supremacist regimes, and attempt to revive concepts and approaches historically associated with scientific racism". It described several pages on white nationalists, antisemites and Holocaust deniers "written to portray them in a positive light while casting doubt on the credibility of their critics" and giving favorable accounts of historical far-right figures. It highlighted Grokipedia's praise and defense of Jared Taylor, Kevin MacDonald, Revilo P. Oliver, and William Luther Pierce, such as by describing Pierce's 1978 book The Turner Diaries and its "advocacy for total racial war, rejection of democratic compromise and portrayal of mass extermination as moral imperative" as having merely "drawn scrutiny from institutions prone to framing such texts through lenses of hate rather than analyzing their appeal via first-principles incentives like group survival". A November 2025 article by NBC News noted that Grokipedia used the phrase "advancement of peoples of European descent" in place of terms like "white nationalist". +Several entries were described as praising white supremacist or exclusionary communities on the basis of economic performance, such as its entry on Orania in South Africa or Rhodesia, the latter of which stated that: "In retrospect, Rhodesia's era demonstrated effective resource management and institutional stability under constrained minority governance, yielding higher per capita incomes, literacy rates, and life expectancies for the broader population". It labeled critics as having "institutional biases favoring rapid decolonization narratives" that are "prevalent in mainstream academic and media sources". The Agence France-Presse described several right-wing figures as welcoming the site, including Russian far-right philosopher Aleksander Dugin, who praised the Grokipedia article on him, saying it was better than his article on Wikipedia. + +=== Response from Wikimedia community members === +A spokesperson for the Wikimedia Foundation commented that "Wikipedia's knowledge is – and always will be – human. [...] This human-created knowledge is what AI companies rely on to generate content; even Grokipedia needs Wikipedia to exist". Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales commented that the use of large language models would cause Grokipedia to contain "massive errors". Larry Sanger, a co-founder and noted critic of Wikipedia, noted that the Grokipedia article on himself contained both correct content not found in the corresponding Wikipedia article and hallucinated errors. +The Wikipedia community has deprecated Grokipedia as a source, citing issues with verifiability, circular sourcing and copyrighted material. + +== See also == +List of content forks of Wikipedia – Content forks of the open-source encyclopedia Wikipedia +List of online encyclopedias + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Ditter, Roger (October 30, 2025). "Truth wars: Grokipedia vs. Wikipedia". Deutsche Welle. +Hart, Robert (January 31, 2026). "ChatGPT isn't the only chatbot pulling answers from Elon Musk's Grokipedia". The Verge. Retrieved February 1, 2026.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) + +== External links == + +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gua_sha-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gua_sha-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b16f97d3d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gua_sha-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Gua sha" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gua_sha" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:51.343975+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Gua sha or scraping therapy is a pseudoscientific practice in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which an object is used to scrape the skin, for purported wide-ranging therapeutic benefits. Gua sha has been used for centuries across East and Southeast Asia. +The practice is known by various names in English, such as "spooning," "coining," and in French as tribo-effleurage (friction-stroking). While it is widely practiced for pain relief, relaxation, and treating symptoms like colds or fatigue, gua sha can cause adverse effects, ranging from mild skin irritation to rare but severe complications. + + +== Etymology == +The term gua sha derives from Chinese: gua (刮) meaning "to scrape" and sha (痧), referring to the petechiae or "bruise-like" marks that appear on the skin post-treatment. In TCM, sha is associated with stagnation or blockages in the body’s energy (qi) and blood, which practitioners aim to release. +The practice is originally from China and spread from there to neighbouring regions from East asia into worldwidely practice. A concept linked to the Shanghan Lun, a foundational Chinese medical text from circa 220 CE that discusses cold-induced illnesses. + + +== History == +Gua sha traces its origins to ancient China, with evidence of similar scraping techniques dating back to the Paleolithic era, where stones were used to alleviate pain or illness. Its formalized use in TCM emerged during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), when texts began documenting the technique as a method to treat sha syndromes—conditions believed to result from environmental factors like wind or cold stagnating in the body. + + +== Technique == + +Gua sha involves applying firm, unidirectional strokes to lubricated skin using a blunt, smooth-edged tool. Common tools include ceramic spoons, coins, jade stones, water buffalo horn, or specially designed instruments. The skin is typically prepared with massage oil, balm, or even rice wine infused with ginger (used traditionally for fatigue or colds). Strokes are applied along muscle groups or acupuncture meridians, each stroke spanning 4–6 inches, until sha (petechiae) appears. +The technique is often combined with other TCM practices like fire cupping, which also aims to relieve stagnation. Practitioners may vary the pressure based on the condition being treated—lighter for cosmetic purposes (e.g., facial gua sha) and firmer for musculoskeletal issues. In professional settings in China, gua sha is offered in hospitals, clinics, and massage parlors, reflecting its widespread acceptance and affordability. + + +== Safety and effectiveness == +Gua sha is a pseudoscience. Proponents make a wide range of claims for its effectiveness for conditions including infection, constipation, and respiratory disease. It lacks high-quality evidence of clinical benefit, relying on misinterpreted physiological markers. +Gua sha can cause tissue damage. It nearly always causes minor skin trauma, including redness, bruising, or dermatitis. +The negative side effects of gua sha range from minor ones – including dermatitis, burns and blood in the urine – to rare major ones including bleeding in the brain and severe injuries requiring skin grafts. +The risk of infection is a significant concern if tools are not properly sterilized or if open wounds are present. While no documented cases of blood-borne pathogen transmission (e.g., hepatitis) have been directly linked to gua sha, the potential exists, particularly in informal settings. + + +== Cross-cultural perceptions and misunderstandings == +In immigrant communities, particularly among Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Indonesian diaspora, gua sha (or its local variants) remains a common home remedy. In the United States, healthcare providers in areas with large Southeast Asian populations, such as Orange County, California, frequently encounter patients with sha marks. However, these marks have been mistaken for signs of physical abuse, leading to legal and cultural misunderstandings. +In the 1980s, Vietnamese immigrants in the U.S. expressed distrust toward Western medical providers, partly due to fears of being reported for child abuse when practicing cạo gió on their children. U.S. physicians are legally obligated to report suspected abuse, regardless of cultural context, complicating cross-cultural healthcare interactions. + + +== Popular culture == +Gua sha has appeared in various media, reflecting its cultural significance and occasional controversy. The 2001 Hong Kong film The Gua Sha Treatment explores a Chinese-American family’s struggle when a welfare agency misinterprets gua sha marks on a child as abuse. The film highlights cultural clashes and differing definitions of care versus harm. +In 2021–2022, gua sha surged in popularity on TikTok, driven by beauty influencers promoting facial gua sha for lymphatic drainage and skin rejuvenation. +In the United States, gua sha is one of many types of traditional medicine included in certain states' licensing laws under an umbrella recognition of traditional Chinese medicine. + + +== See also == +Graston technique – A modern therapeutic scraping method +Cupping therapy – Another TCM practice for stagnation relief +C-beauty – Chinese beauty trends influencing global markets +Acupuncture – TCM practice involving meridians + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health – Gua Sha Overview \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..826218863 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +HIV/AIDS denialism is the belief, despite evidence to the contrary, that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) does not cause acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Some of its proponents reject the existence of HIV, while others accept that HIV exists but argue that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS. Insofar as they acknowledge AIDS as a real disease, they attribute it to some combination of sexual behavior, recreational drugs, malnutrition, poor sanitation, haemophilia, or the effects of the medications used to treat HIV infection (antiretrovirals). +The scientific consensus is that the evidence showing HIV to be the cause of AIDS is conclusive and that HIV/AIDS denialist claims are pseudoscience based on conspiracy theories, faulty reasoning, cherry picking, and misrepresentation of mainly outdated scientific data. As evidence mounted against denialism, combined with those with HIV/AIDS living much longer, these claims stopped being believed. With the rejection of these arguments by the scientific community, HIV/AIDS denialist material is now targeted at less scientifically sophisticated audiences and spread mainly through the Internet, increased substantially since the COVID-19 pandemic. +Despite its lack of scientific acceptance, HIV/AIDS denialism has had a significant political impact, especially in South Africa under the presidency of Thabo Mbeki. Scientists and physicians have raised alarm at the human cost of HIV/AIDS denialism, which discourages HIV-positive people from using proven treatments. Public health researchers have attributed 330,000 to 340,000 AIDS-related deaths, along with 171,000 other HIV infections and 35,000 infant HIV infections, to the South African government's former embrace of HIV/AIDS denialism. The interrupted use of antiretroviral treatments is also a major global concern as it potentially increases the likelihood of the emergence of antiretroviral-resistant strains of the virus. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..66dc7e244 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== History == +A constellation of symptoms named "gay-related immune deficiency" was noted in 1982. In 1983, a group of scientists and doctors at the Pasteur Institute in France, led by Luc Montagnier, discovered a new virus in a patient with signs and symptoms that often preceded AIDS. They named the virus lymphadenopathy-associated virus, or LAV, and sent samples to Robert Gallo's team in the United States. Their findings were peer reviewed and slated for publication in Science. +At a 23 April 1984 press conference in Washington, D.C., Margaret Heckler, Secretary of Health and Human Services, announced that Gallo and his co-workers had discovered a virus that was the "probable" cause of AIDS. This virus was initially named HTLV-III. In the same year, Casper Schmidt responded to Gallo's papers with "The Group-Fantasy Origins of AIDS", published in the Journal of Psychohistory. Schmidt posited that AIDS was not an actual disease, but rather an example of "epidemic hysteria", in which groups of people subconsciously act out social conflicts. Schmidt compared AIDS to documented cases of epidemic hysteria in the past which were mistakenly thought to be infectious. (Schmidt himself later died of AIDS in 1994.) +In 1986, the viruses discovered by Montagnier and Gallo, found to be genetically indistinguishable, were renamed HIV. +In 1987, molecular biologist Peter Duesberg questioned the link between HIV and AIDS in the journal Cancer Research. Duesberg's publication coincided with the start of major public health campaigns and the development of zidovudine (AZT) as a treatment for HIV/AIDS. +In 1988, a panel of the Institute of Medicine of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences found that "the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive." That same year, Science published Blattner, Gallo, and Temin's "HIV causes AIDS", and Duesberg's "HIV is not the cause of AIDS". Also that same year, the Perth Group, a group of denialists based in Perth, Western Australia, led by Eleni Papadopulos-Eleopulos, published in the non-peer-reviewed journal Medical Hypotheses their first article questioning aspects of HIV/AIDS research, arguing that there was "no compelling reason for preferring the viral hypothesis of AIDS to one based on the activity of oxidising agents." +In 1989, Duesberg exercised his right as a member of the National Academy of Sciences to bypass the peer review process and published his arguments in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) unreviewed. The editor of PNAS initially resisted, but ultimately allowed Duesberg to publish, saying, "If you wish to make these unsupported, vague, and prejudicial statements in print, so be it. But I cannot see how this would be convincing to any scientifically trained reader." +In 1990, the physiologist Robert Root-Bernstein published his first peer-reviewed article detailing his objections to the mainstream view of AIDS and HIV. In it, he questioned both the mainstream view and the "dissident" view as potentially inaccurate. +In 1991, The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV-AIDS Hypothesis, comprising twelve scientists, doctors, and activists, submitted a short letter to various journals, but the letter was rejected. +In 1993, Nature published an editorial arguing that Duesberg had forfeited his right of reply by engaging in disingenuous rhetorical techniques and ignoring any evidence that conflicted with his claims. That same year, Papadopulos-Eleopulos and coauthors from the Perth Group alleged in the journal Nature Biotechnology (then edited by fellow denialist Harvey Bialy) that the western blot test for HIV was not standardized, non-reproducible, and of unknown specificity due to a claimed lack of a "gold standard". +On 28 October 1994, Robert Willner, a physician whose medical license had been revoked for, among other things, treating an AIDS patient with ozone therapy, publicly jabbed his finger with blood he said was from an HIV-infected patient. Willner died in 1995 of a heart attack. +In 1995, The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV-AIDS Hypothesis published a letter in Science similar to the one they had attempted to publish in 1991. That same year, Continuum, a denialist group, placed an advertisement in the British gay and lesbian magazine The Pink Paper offering a £1,000 reward to "the first person finding one scientific paper establishing actual isolation of HIV", according to a set of seven steps they claimed to have been drawn up by the Pasteur Institute in 1973. The challenge was later dismissed by various scientists, including Duesberg, asserting that HIV undoubtedly exists. Stefan Lanka argued in the same year that HIV does not exist. Also that year, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases released a report concluding that "abundant epidemiologic, virologic and immunologic data support the conclusion that infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the underlying cause of AIDS." +In 1996, the British Medical Journal published "Response: arguments contradict the "foreign protein-zidovudine" hypothesis" as a response to a petition by Duesberg: "In 1991 Duesberg challenged researchers… We and Darby et al. have provided that evidence". The paper argued that Duesberg was wrong regarding the cause of AIDS in haemophiliacs. +In 1997, The Perth Group questioned the existence of HIV, and speculated that the production of antibodies recognizing HIV proteins can be caused by allogenic stimuli and autoimmune disorders. They continued to repeat this speculation through at least 2006. +In 1998, Joan Shenton published the book Positively False: Exposing the Myths Around HIV and AIDS, which promotes AIDS denialism. In the book, Shenton claims that AIDS is a conspiracy created by pharmaceutical companies to make money from selling antiretroviral drugs. +In 2006, Celia Farber, a journalist and prominent HIV/AIDS denialist, published an essay in the March issue of Harper's Magazine entitled "Out of Control: AIDS and the Corruption of Medical Science", in which she summarized a number of arguments for HIV/AIDS denialism and alleged incompetence, conspiracy, and fraud on the part of the medical community. Scientists and AIDS activists extensively criticized the article as inaccurate, misleading, and poorly fact-checked. +In 2007, members of the Perth Group testified at an appeals hearing for Andre Chad Parenzee, asserting that HIV could not be transmitted by heterosexual sex. The judge concluded, "I reject the evidence of Ms Papadopulos-Eleopulos and Dr Turner. I conclude… that they are not qualified to give expert opinions." +In 2009, a paper was published in the then non-peer-reviewed journal Medical Hypotheses by Duesberg and four other researchers which criticized a 2008 study by Chigwedere et al., which found that HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa resulted in hundreds of thousands of preventable deaths from HIV/AIDS, because the government delayed the provision of antiretroviral drugs. The paper concluded that "the claims that HIV has caused huge losses of African lives are unconfirmed and that HIV is not sufficient or even necessary to cause the previously known diseases, now called AIDS in the presence of antibody against HIV." Later that year, the paper was withdrawn from the journal on the grounds of it having methodological flaws, and that it contained assertions "that could potentially be damaging to global public health". A revised version was later published in Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..096b6d6d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== US courts === +In 1998, HIV/AIDS denialism and parental rights clashed with the medical establishment in court when Maine resident Valerie Emerson fought for the right to refuse to give AZT to her four-year-old son, Nikolas Emerson, after she witnessed the death of her daughter Tia, who died at the age of three in 1996. Her right to stop treatment was upheld by the court in light of "her unique experience". Nikolas Emerson died eight years later. The family refused to reveal whether the death was AIDS related. + +=== South Africa === +In 2000, South Africa's President Thabo Mbeki invited several HIV/AIDS denialists to join his Presidential AIDS Advisory Panel. A response named the Durban Declaration was issued affirming the scientific consensus that HIV causes AIDS:The declaration has been signed by over 5,000 people, including Nobel Prize winners, directors of leading research institutions, scientific academies and medical societies, notably the US National Academy of Sciences, the US Institute of Medicine, Max Planck institutes, the European Molecular Biology Organization, the Pasteur Institute in Paris, the Royal Society of London, the AIDS Society of India and the National Institute of Virology in South Africa. In addition, thousands of individual scientists and doctors have signed, including many from the countries bearing the greatest burden of the epidemic. Signatories are of MD, PhD level or equivalent, although scientists working for commercial companies were asked not to sign.In 2008, University of Cape Town researcher Nicoli Nattrass, and later that year a group of Harvard scientists led by Zimbabwean physician Pride Chigwedere, each independently estimated that Thabo Mbeki's denialist policies led to the early deaths of more than 330,000 South Africans. Barbara Hogan, the health minister appointed by Mbeki's successor, voiced shame over the studies' findings and stated: "The era of denialism is over completely in South Africa." +In 2009, Fraser McNeill wrote an article arguing that South Africa's reluctance to openly address HIV/AIDS resulted from social conventions that prevent people from talking about causes of death in certain situations, rather than from Mbeki's denialist views. Similarly, political scientist Anthony Butler has argued that "South African HIV/AIDS policy can be explained without appeals to leadership irrationality or wider cultural denialism." +In July 2016 Aaron Motsoaledi, the Health Minister of South Africa, wrote an article for the Centre for Health Journalism in which he criticised past South African leaders for their denialism, describing it as an "unlucky moment" in a country which has since become a leader in treatment and prevention. + +== Denialists' claims and scientific evidence == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4179ed15c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term "HIV/AIDS denialism" denotes the rejection of the mainstream scientific view that AIDS is a medical condition that is brought about by HIV infection. The use of the term encompasses the denial of the existence of the virus (HIV denialism), the denial of the causation of AIDS by HIV (that is, the proposed link between the virus and the syndrome), and the denial of the effects on the human body that are ascribed to HIV (that is, the description and characterization of the virus). In a framework incorporating the second denial and/or the third, criticism of the current scientific view has variously been rested on the claim that HIV has not been adequately isolated, that HIV does not fulfill Koch's postulates, HIV testing is inaccurate, and/or that antibodies to HIV neutralize the virus and render it harmless. Suggested alternative causes of AIDS variously include recreational drugs, malnutrition, and the very antiretroviral drugs used to treat the syndrome. +Such claims have been examined extensively in the peer-reviewed medical and scientific literature; a scientific consensus has arisen that denialist claims have been convincingly disproved, and that HIV does indeed cause AIDS. In the cases cited by Duesberg where HIV "cannot be isolated", PCR or other techniques demonstrate the presence of the virus, and denialist claims of HIV test inaccuracy result from an incorrect or outdated understanding of how HIV antibody testing is performed and interpreted. +Regarding Koch's postulates, New Scientist reported: "It is debatable how appropriate it is to focus on a set of principles devised for bacterial infections in a century when viruses had not yet been discovered. HIV does, however, meet Koch's postulates as long as they are not applied in a ridiculously stringent way". The author then demonstrated how each postulate has been met – the suspected cause is strongly associated with the disease, the suspected pathogen can be both isolated and spread outside the host, and when the suspected pathogen is transmitted to a new and uninfected host, that host develops the disease. +The latter was proven in a number of tragic accidents, including an instance when multiple scientific technicians with no other known risk factors were exposed to concentrated HIV in a laboratory accident, and transmission by a dentist to patients, the majority of whom had no other known risk factor or source of exposure except the same dentist in common. In 2010, Chigwedere and Max Essex demonstrated in the medical journal AIDS and Behavior that HIV as the cause of AIDS fulfills both Koch's postulates and the Bradford Hill criteria for causality. +Early denialist arguments held that the HIV/AIDS paradigm was flawed because it had not led to effective treatments. However, the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy in the mid-1990s and dramatic improvements in survival of HIV/AIDS patients reversed this argument, as these treatments were based directly on anti-viral activity and the HIV/AIDS paradigm. The development of effective anti-AIDS therapies based on targeting of HIV has been a major factor in convincing some denialist scientists to accept the causative role of HIV in AIDS. +In a 2010 article on conspiracy theories in science, Ted Goertzel lists HIV/AIDS denialism as an example where scientific findings are being disputed on irrational grounds. He describes proponents as relying on rhetoric, appeal to fairness, and the right to a dissenting opinion rather than on evidence. They frequently invoke the meme of a "courageous independent scientist resisting orthodoxy", invoking the name of persecuted physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei. Regarding this comparison, Goertzel states: + +...being a dissenter from orthodoxy is not difficult; the hard part is actually having a better theory. Publishing dissenting theories is important when they are backed by plausible evidence, but this does not mean giving critics 'equal time' to dissent from every finding by a mainstream scientist. + +== Denialist community == +Denialists often use their critique of the link between HIV and AIDS to promote alternative medicine as a cure, and attempt to convince HIV-positive individuals to avoid ARV therapy in favour of vitamins, massage, yoga and other unproven treatments. Despite this promotion, denialists will often downplay any association with alternative therapies, and attempt to portray themselves as "dissidents". An article in the Skeptical Inquirer stated: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3be38e13e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +AIDS denialists [prefer] to characterize themselves as brave "dissidents" attempting to engage a hostile medical/industrial establishment in genuine scientific "debate". They complain that their attempts to raise questions and pose alternative hypotheses have been unjustly rejected or ignored at the cost of scientific progress itself...Given their resistance to all evidence to the contrary, today's AIDS dissidents are more aptly referred to as AIDS denialists. +Several scientists have been associated with HIV/AIDS denialism, although they have not themselves studied AIDS or HIV. One of the most famous and influential is Duesberg, professor of molecular and cell biology at the University of California, Berkeley, who since 1987 has disputed that the scientific evidence shows that HIV causes AIDS. Other scientists associated with HIV/AIDS denialism include biochemists David Rasnick and Harvey Bialy. Biologist Lynn Margulis argued that "there's no evidence that HIV is an infectious virus" and that AIDS symptoms "overlap...completely" with those of syphilis. +Pathologist Étienne de Harven expressed sympathy for HIV/AIDS denial. AIDS researcher Seth Kalichman lists biochemist and Nobelist Kary Mullis "among the who's who of AIDS pseudoscientists". Mullis, who did not do any HIV research, expressed skepticism about the relationship between HIV and AIDS in his 1998 autobiography. +Additional notable HIV/AIDS denialists include Australian academic ethicist Hiram Caton, the late mathematician Serge Lang, former college administrator Henry Bauer, journalist Celia Farber, American talk radio host and author on alternative and complementary medicine and nutrition Gary Null, former General Practitioner Vernon Coleman and the late activist Christine Maggiore, who encouraged HIV-positive mothers to forgo anti-HIV treatment and whose 3-year-old daughter died of complications of untreated AIDS. Nate Mendel, bassist with the rock band Foo Fighters, expressed support for HIV/AIDS denialist ideas and organized a benefit concert in January 2000 for Maggiore's organization Alive & Well AIDS Alternatives. Organizations of HIV/AIDS denialists include the Perth Group, composed of several Australian hospital workers, and the Immunity Resource Foundation. +HIV/AIDS denialism has received some support from political conservatives in the United States. Duesberg's work has been published in Policy Review, a journal once published by The Heritage Foundation but later acquired by the Hoover Institution, and by Regnery Publishing. Regnery published Duesberg's Inventing the AIDS Virus in 1996, and journalist Tom Bethell's The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science, in which he endorses HIV/AIDS denialism, in 2005. +Law professor Phillip E. Johnson has accused the Centers for Disease Control of "fraud" in relation to HIV/AIDS. Describing the political aspects of the HIV/AIDS denialism movement, sociology professor Steven Epstein wrote in Impure Science that "... the appeal of Duesberg's views to conservatives—certainly including those with little sympathy for the gay movement—cannot be denied." The blog LewRockwell.com has also published articles supportive of HIV/AIDS denialism. +In a follow-up article in Skeptical Inquirer, Nattrass overviewed the prominent members of the HIV/AIDS denialist community and discussed the reasons of the intractable staying power of HIV/AIDS denialism in spite of scientific and medical consensus supported by over two decades of evidence. She observed that despite being a disparate group of people with very different background and professions, the HIV/AIDS denialists self-organize to fill four important roles: + +"Hero scientists" to provide scientific legitimacy: Most notably Duesberg who plays the central role of HIV/AIDS denialism from the beginning. Others include David Rasnick, Étienne de Harven, and Kary Mullis whose Nobel Prize makes him symbolically important. +"Cultropreneurs" to offer fake cures in place of antiretroviral therapy: Matthias Rath, Gary Null, Michael Ellner, and Roberto Giraldo all promote alternative medicine and remedies with a dose of conspiracy theories in the form of books, healing products, radio shows and counseling services. +HIV-positive "living icons" to provide proof of concept by appearing to live healthily without antiretroviral therapy: Christine Maggiore was and still is the most important icon in the HIV/AIDS denialist movement despite the fact that she died of AIDS related complications in 2008. +"Praise singers": sympathetic journalists and filmmakers who publicize the movement with uncritical and favorable opinion. They include journalists Celia Farber, Liam Scheff and Neville Hodgkinson; filmmakers Brent Leung and Robert Leppo. +Some of them had overlapping roles as board members of Rethinking AIDS and Alive and Well AIDS Alternatives, were involved in the film House of Numbers, The Other Side of AIDS or on Thabo Mbeki's AIDS Advisory Panel. +Nattrass argued that HIV/AIDS denialism gains social traction through powerful community-building effects where these four organized characters form "a symbiotic connection between AIDS denialism and alternative healing modalities" and they are "facilitated by a shared conspiratorial stance toward HIV science". + +=== Former denialists === +Several of the few prominent scientists who once voiced doubts about HIV/AIDS have since changed their views and accepted the fact that HIV plays a role in causing AIDS, in response to an accumulation of newer studies and data. Root-Bernstein, author of Rethinking AIDS: The Tragic Cost of Premature Consensus and formerly a critic of the causative role of HIV in AIDS, has since distanced himself from the HIV/AIDS denialist movement, saying, "Both the camp that says HIV is a pussycat and the people who claim AIDS is all HIV are wrong... The denialists make claims that are clearly inconsistent with existing studies." +Joseph Sonnabend, who until the late 1990s regarded the issue of AIDS causation as unresolved, has reconsidered in light of the success of newer antiretroviral drugs, stating, "The evidence now strongly supports a role for HIV… Drugs that can save your life can also under different circumstances kill you. This is a distinction that denialists do not seem to understand." Sonnabend has also criticized HIV/AIDS denialists for falsely implying that he supports their position, saying: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1369b3a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Some individuals who believe that HIV plays no role at all in AIDS have implied that I support their misguided views on AIDS causation by including inappropriate references to me in their literature and on their web sites. Before HIV was discovered and its association with AIDS established, I held the entirely appropriate view that the cause of AIDS was then unknown. I have successfully treated hundreds of AIDS patients with antiretroviral medications, and have no doubt that HIV plays a necessary role in this disease. +A former denialist wrote in the Journal of Medical Ethics in 2004: + +The group [of denialists] regularly points to a substantial number of scientists supportive of its agenda to re-evaluate the HIV/AIDS hypothesis. Some of those members still listed are people who have been dead for a number of years. While it is correct that these people supported the objective of a scientific re-evaluation of the HIV/AIDS link when they were alive, it is clearly difficult to ascertain what these people would have made of the scientific developments and the accumulation of evidence for HIV as the crucial causative agent in AIDS, which has occurred in the years after their deaths. + +=== Death of HIV-positive denialists === +In 2007, aidstruth.org, a website run by HIV researchers to counter denialist claims, published a partial list of HIV/AIDS denialists who had died of AIDS-related causes. For example, the editors of the magazine Continuum consistently denied the existence of HIV/AIDS. The magazine shut down after both editors died of AIDS-related causes. In each case, the HIV/AIDS denialist community attributed the deaths to unknown causes, secret drug use, or stress rather than HIV/AIDS. Similarly, several HIV-positive former dissidents have reported being ostracized by the AIDS-denialist community after they developed AIDS and decided to pursue effective antiretroviral treatment. +In 2008, activist Christine Maggiore died at the age of 52 while under a doctor's care for pneumonia. Maggiore, mother of two children, had founded an organisation to help other HIV-positive mothers avoid taking antiretroviral drugs that reduce the risk of HIV transmission from mother to child. After her three-year-old daughter died of AIDS-related pneumonia in 2005, Maggiore continued to believe that HIV is not the cause of AIDS, and she and her husband Robin Scovill sued Los Angeles County and others on behalf of their daughter's estate, for allegedly violating Eliza Scovill's civil rights by releasing an autopsy report that listed her cause of death as AIDS-related pneumonia. The litigants settled out of court, with the county paying Scovill $15,000 in March 2009, with no admission of wrongdoing. The Los Angeles coroner's ruling that Eliza Scovill died of AIDS remains the official verdict. + +=== Local community group denialism === +Australia: In 2009 representing the then Australian Vaccination-Skeptics Network, President Meryl Dorey signed a petition claiming that "the AIDS industry and the media" had tricked the public and the media into believing that HIV causes AIDS. +Canada: The Alberta Reappraising AIDS Society created the petition in March 2000 and has reportedly since attracted "2,951 doubters" representing groups and individuals. Signatories reportedly deny "that Aids is heterosexually transmitted". + +== Impact beyond the scientific community == +AIDS-denialist claims have failed to attract support in the scientific community, where the evidence for the causative role of HIV in AIDS is considered conclusive. However, the movement has had a significant impact in the political sphere, culminating with former South African President Thabo Mbeki's embrace of AIDS-denialist claims. The resulting governmental refusal to provide effective anti-HIV treatment in South Africa has been blamed for hundreds of thousands of premature AIDS-related deaths in South Africa. + +=== North America and Europe === +Skepticism about HIV being the cause of AIDS began almost immediately after the discovery of HIV was announced. One of the earliest prominent skeptics was the journalist John Lauritsen, who argued in his writings for the New York Native that amyl nitrite poppers played a role in AIDS, and that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention had used statistical methods that concealed this. Lauritsen's The AIDS War was published in 1993. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..08ffccc65 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Scientific literature ==== +The publication of Duesberg's first AIDS paper in 1987 provided visibility for denialist claims. Shortly afterwards, the journal Science reported that Duesberg's remarks had won him "a large amount of media attention, particularly in the gay press where he is something of a hero." However, Duesberg's support in the gay community diminished as he made a series of statements perceived as homophobic; in an interview with The Village Voice in 1988, Duesberg stated his belief that the AIDS epidemic was "caused by a lifestyle that was criminal twenty years ago." +In the following few years, others became skeptical of the HIV theory as researchers initially failed to produce an effective treatment or vaccine for AIDS. Journalists such as Neville Hodgkinson and Celia Farber regularly promoted denialist ideas in the American and British media; several television documentaries were also produced to increase awareness of the alternative viewpoint. In 1992–1993, The Sunday Times, where Hodgkinson served as scientific editor, ran a series of articles arguing that the AIDS epidemic in Africa was a myth. These articles stressed Duesberg's claims and argued that antiviral therapy was ineffective, HIV testing unreliable, and that AIDS was not a threat to heterosexuals. The Sunday Times coverage was heavily criticized as slanted, misleading, and potentially dangerous; the scientific journal Nature took the unusual step of printing a 1993 editorial calling the paper's coverage of HIV/AIDS "seriously mistaken, and probably disastrous." +Finding difficulty in publishing his arguments in the scientific literature, Duesberg exercised his right as a member of the National Academy of Sciences to publish in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) without going through the peer review process. However, Duesberg's paper raised a "red flag" at the journal and was submitted by the editor for non-binding review. All of the reviewers found major flaws in Duesberg's paper; the reviewer specifically chosen by Duesberg noted the presence of "misleading arguments", "nonlogical statements", "misrepresentations", and political overtones. Ultimately, the editor of PNAS acquiesced to publication, writing to Duesberg: "If you wish to make these unsupported, vague, and prejudicial statements in print, so be it. But I cannot see how this would be convincing to any scientifically trained reader." +HIV/AIDS denialists often resort to special pleading to support their assertion, arguing for different causes of AIDS in different locations and subpopulations. In North America, AIDS is blamed on the health effects of unprotected anal sex and poppers on homosexual men, an argument which does not account for AIDS in drug-free heterosexual women who deny participating in anal sex. In this case, HIV/AIDS denialists claim the women are having anal sex but refuse to disclose it. In haemophiliac North American children who contracted HIV from blood transfusions, the haemophilia itself or its treatment is claimed to cause AIDS. +In Africa, AIDS is blamed on poor nutrition and sanitation due to poverty. For wealthy populations in South Africa with adequate nutrition and sanitation, it is claimed that the antiretroviral drugs used to treat AIDS cause the condition. In each case, the most parsimonious explanation and uniting factor – HIV positive status – is ignored, as are the thousands of studies that converge on the common conclusion that AIDS is caused by HIV infection. +Haemophilia is considered the best test of the HIV-AIDS hypothesis by both denialists and AIDS researchers. While Duesberg claims AIDS in haemophiliacs is caused by contaminated clotting factors and HIV is a harmless passenger virus, this result is contradicted by large studies on haemophiliac patients who received contaminated blood. A comparison of groups receiving high, medium and low levels of contaminated clotting factors found the death rates differed significantly depending on HIV status. Of 396 HIV positive haemophiliacs followed between 1985 and 1993, 153 died. The comparative figure for the HIV negative group was one out of 66, despite comparable doses of contaminated clotting factors. A comparison of individuals receiving blood donations also supports the results. In 1994 there were 6,888 individuals with AIDS who had their HIV infection traced to blood transfusions. Since the introduction of HIV testing, the number of individuals whose AIDS status can be traced to blood transfusions was only 29 (as of 1994). + +==== Lay press and on the Internet ==== +With the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1996–1997, the survival and general health of people with HIV improved significantly. The positive response to treatment with anti-HIV medication cemented the scientific acceptance of the HIV/AIDS paradigm, and led several prominent HIV/AIDS denialists to accept the causative role of HIV. Finding their arguments increasingly discredited by the scientific community, denialists took their message to the popular press. A former denialist wrote:Scientists among the HIV dissidents used their academic credentials and academic affiliations to generate interest, sympathy, and allegiances in lay audiences. They were not professionally troubled about recruiting lay people—who were clearly unable to evaluate the scientific validity or otherwise of their views—to their cause. +In addition to elements of the popular and alternative press, AIDS denialist ideas are propagated largely via the Internet. +A 2007 article in PLoS Medicine noted: + +Because these denialist assertions are made in books and on the Internet rather than in the scientific literature, many scientists are either unaware of the existence of organized denial groups, or believe they can safely ignore them as the discredited fringe. And indeed, most of the HIV deniers' arguments were answered long ago by scientists. However, many members of the general public do not have the scientific background to critique the assertions put forth by these groups, and not only accept them but continue to propagate them. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..700dc6294 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Lay opinion and AIDS-related behaviors ==== +AIDS activists have expressed concern that denialist arguments about HIV's harmlessness may be responsible for an upsurge in HIV infections. Denialist claims continue to exert a significant influence in some communities; a survey conducted at minority gay pride events in four American cities in 2005 found that 33% of attendees doubted that HIV caused AIDS. Similarly, a 2010 survey of 343 people living with HIV/AIDS found that one in five of them thought that there was no proof that HIV caused AIDS, and that HIV treatments did more harm than good. +According to Stephen Thomas, director of the Center for Minority Health at University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, "people are focusing on the wrong thing. They're focusing on conspiracies rather than protecting themselves, rather than getting tested and seeking out appropriate care and treatment." African Americans are exceptionally likely to believe that HIV does not cause AIDS, partly because they sometimes perceive evidence of the role of HIV in the disease as part of a racist agenda. A 2012 survey of young adults in Cape Town, South Africa, found that belief in AIDS denialism was strongly related to an increased probability of engaging in unsafe sex. + +=== South Africa === + +HIV/AIDS denialist claims have had a major political, social, and public health impact in South Africa. The government of then President Thabo Mbeki was sympathetic to the views of HIV/AIDS denialists, with critics charging that denialist influence was responsible for the slow and ineffective governmental response to the country's massive AIDS epidemic. +Independent studies have arrived at almost identical estimates of the human costs of HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa. According to a paper written by researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health, between 2000 and 2005, more than 330,000 deaths and an estimated 35,000 infant HIV infections occurred "because of a failure to accept the use of available [antiretroviral drugs] to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS in a timely manner." Nicoli Nattrass of the University of Cape Town estimates that 343,000 excess AIDS-related deaths and 171,000 infections resulted from the Mbeki administration's policies, an outcome she refers to in the words of Peter Mandelson as "genocide by sloth". + +==== Durban Declaration ==== +In 2000, when the International AIDS Conference was held in Durban, Mbeki convened a Presidential Advisory Panel containing a number of HIV/AIDS denialists, including Duesberg and David Rasnick. The Advisory Panel meetings were closed to the general press; an invited reporter from the Village Voice wrote that Rasnick advocated that HIV testing be legally banned and denied that he had seen "any evidence" of an AIDS catastrophe in South Africa, while Duesberg "gave a presentation so removed from African medical reality that it left several local doctors shaking their heads." +In his address to the International AIDS Conference, Mbeki reiterated his view that HIV was not wholly responsible for AIDS, leading hundreds of delegates to walk out on his speech. Mbeki also sent a letter to a number of world leaders likening the mainstream AIDS research community to supporters of the apartheid regime. The tone and content of Mbeki's letter led diplomats in the U.S. to initially question whether it was a hoax. +AIDS scientists and activists were dismayed at the president's behavior and responded with the Durban Declaration, a document affirming that HIV causes AIDS, signed by over 5,000 scientists and physicians. + +==== Criticism of governmental response ==== +The former South African health minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang also attracted heavy criticism, as she often promoted nutritional remedies such as garlic, lemons, beetroot and olive oil, to people suffering from AIDS, while emphasizing possible toxicities of antiretroviral drugs, which she has referred to as "poison". The South African Medical Association has accused Tshabalala-Msimang of "confusing a vulnerable public". In September 2006, a group of over 80 scientists and academics called for "the immediate removal of Dr. Tshabalala-Msimang as minister of health and for an end to the disastrous, pseudoscientific policies that have characterized the South African government's response to HIV/AIDS." In December 2006, deputy health minister Nozizwe Madlala-Routledge described "denial at the very highest levels" over AIDS. +Former South African president Thabo Mbeki's government was widely criticized for delaying the rollout of programs to provide antiretroviral drugs to people with advanced HIV disease and to HIV-positive pregnant women. The national treatment program began only after the Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) brought a legal case against Government ministers, claiming they were responsible for the deaths of 600 HIV-positive people a day who could not access medication. South Africa was one of the last countries in the region to begin such a treatment program, and roll-out has been much slower than planned. +At the XVI International AIDS Conference, Stephen Lewis, UN special envoy for AIDS in Africa, attacked Mbeki's government for its slow response to the AIDS epidemic and reliance on denialist claims: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abd9cee12 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "HIV/AIDS denialism" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:05.729092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +It [South Africa] is the only country in Africa … whose government is still obtuse, dilatory and negligent about rolling out treatment… It is the only country in Africa whose government continues to promote theories more worthy of a lunatic fringe than of a concerned and compassionate state. +In 2002, Mbeki requested that HIV/AIDS denialists no longer use his name in their literature and stop signing documents with "Member of President Mbeki's AIDS Advisory Panel". This coincided with the South African government's statement accompanying its 2002 AIDS campaign, that "...in conducting this campaign, government's starting point is based on the premise that HIV causes AIDS". Mbeki continued to promote and defend AIDS-denialist claims. His loyalists attacked former President Nelson Mandela in 2002 when Mandela questioned the government's AIDS policy, and Mbeki attacked Malegapuru William Makgoba, one of South Africa's leading scientists, as a racist defender of "Western science" for opposing HIV/AIDS denialism. +In early 2005, former South African President Nelson Mandela announced that his son had died of complications of AIDS. Mandela's public announcement was seen as both an effort to combat the stigma associated with AIDS, and as a "political statement designed to… force the President [Mbeki] out of his denial." + +==== Post-Mbeki government in South Africa ==== +In 2008, Mbeki was ousted from power and replaced as President of South Africa by Kgalema Motlanthe. On Motlanthe's first day in office, he removed Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, the controversial health minister who had promoted AIDS-denialist claims and recommended garlic, beetroot, and lemon juice as treatments for AIDS. Barbara Hogan, newly appointed as health minister, voiced shame at the Mbeki government's embrace of HIV/AIDS denialism and vowed a new course, stating: "The era of denialism is over completely in South Africa." Since then, thanks to the introduction of fixed-dose combination and an increase in the eligibility antiretroviral therapy for South Africans, the number of South African people with HIV undergoing ART has increased to 91.5% and viral suppression in South Africans on ART has increased to 72% for women and 45.8% for men. + +== 2020s resurgence == + +Following COVID-19 conspiracy theories being widely-spread beginning in 2020, AIDS denialism is increasingly being spread. Suspicion of public health agencies during the COVID-19 pandemic has led to a resurgence of conspiracy theories surrounding HIV and AIDS. Social media companies like Twitter, Gab, Rumble, and Substack and companies like Amazon and Spotify are places where misinformation have been widely spread. The ideas that are increasingly circulated are often revived, debunked theories from the beginning of the epidemic. + +== See also == +Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories +Germ theory denialism +Misconceptions about HIV and AIDS +Vaccine hesitancy +General: + +Anti-intellectualism +List of global issues + +== Footnotes == + +== References == +Kalichman, Seth (2009). Denying AIDS: Conspiracy Theories, Pseudoscience, and Human Tragedy. New York: Copernicus Books; Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-79476-1. + +== Further reading == +Fourie, P (2006). The Political Management of HIV and AIDS in South Africa: One Burden Too Many?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-00667-6. +Steinberg, J (23 June 2009). "Five myths about HIV and AIDS". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 2 January 2010. +Nattrass, N (2012). The AIDS Conspiracy: Science Fights Back. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14912-9. + +== External links == +National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases pages: + +"The HIV-AIDS connection". Archived from the original on 9 September 2016 +"The evidence that HIV causes AIDS". Archived from the original on 9 September 2016. +"Series of articles in Science magazine examining denialist claims". Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. +"HIV Causes AIDS". Avert. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. +AidsTruth.org, an organization that advocates against AIDS denialism \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hail_cannon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hail_cannon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ca0fff03 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hail_cannon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Hail cannon" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hail_cannon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:52.515022+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A hail cannon is a shock wave generator claimed to disrupt the formation of hailstones in the atmosphere. +These devices frequently engender conflict between farmers and neighbors when used, because they are loudly and repeatedly fired every 1 to 10 seconds while a storm is approaching and until it has passed through the area, yet there is no scientific evidence for their effectiveness. + + +== Historical use == +In the French wine-growing regions, church-bells were traditionally rung in the face of oncoming storms and later replaced by firing rockets or cannons. + + +== Modern systems == +A mixture of acetylene and oxygen is ignited in the lower chamber of the machine. As the resulting blast passes through the neck and into the cone, it develops into a shock wave. This shock wave then travels through the cloud formations above, a disturbance which manufacturers claim disrupts the growth phase of hailstones. +Manufacturers claim that what would otherwise have fallen as hailstones then falls as slush or rain. It is said to be critical that the machine is running during the approach of the storm in order to affect the developing hailstones. One manufacturer claims that the radius of the effective area of their device is around 500 m (1,600 ft). + + +== Lack of scientific evidence == +There is no evidence in favor of the effectiveness of these devices. A 2006 review by Jon Wieringa and Iwan Holleman in the journal Meteorologische Zeitschrift summarized a variety of negative and inconclusive scientific measurements, concluding "the use of cannons or explosive rockets is a waste of money and effort". +There is also reason to doubt the efficacy of hail cannons from a theoretical perspective. For example, thunder is a much more powerful sonic wave, and is usually found in the same storms that generate hail, yet it does not seem to disturb the growth of hailstones. Charles Knight, a cloud physicist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, said in a July 10, 2008, newspaper article that "I don't find anyone in the scientific community who would validate hail cannons, but there are believers in all sorts of things. It would be very hard to prove they don't work, weather being as unpredictable as it is." + + +== See also == +Cloud seeding +Cloudbuster +Pseudoscience + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Hail Storms by NOAA on Google Maps +Changnon, Stanley A. Jr; Ivens, J. Loreena (March 1981). "History Repeated: The Forgotten Hail Cannons of Europe". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 62 (3). Champaign, Ill: Illinois State Water Survey: 368. Bibcode:1981BAMS...62..368C. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1981)062<0368:HRTFHC>2.0.CO;2. eISSN 1520-0477. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healy_device-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healy_device-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b670241fb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healy_device-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Healy device" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healy_device" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:54.884174+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Healy is a pseudoscientific device designed by Marcus Schmieke and Nuno Nina, that claims to function via bioresonance to enhance overall health. The device has been promoted via influencer marketing and multi-level marketing, while sellers make extreme healing claims without any proven benefits. + + +== Description == +Energy medicine devices are a class of pseudoscientific devices that originated with the work of Royal Rife, claiming to work via transferring energy to a person's energy field. The Healy claims to work using electricity to find a user's "personalized frequencies", an idea that has no scientific backing or mechanism. + + +== Criticism == + + +=== Lack of scientific evidence === +Critics of the Healy device, such as David H. Gorski, have highlighted the lack of scientific rigor behind the machine. Gorski argues that there is no good evidence to support the claim that injured tissue takes on a “different vibrational characteristic.” He strongly criticizes the belief in a mystical “life energy” that does no work and is undetectable by scientific instruments. + + +=== Disclaimers and misleading claims === +Stephen Barrett has noted that many of Healy's marketing materials carry disclaimers stating that “Healy and its applications are not acknowledged by orthodox medicine due to a lack of scientific proof in accordance with scientific standards.” However, Barrett points out that the claims for the Healy are not just unproven, but there is no logical reason to believe that the “frequencies” described are actual physical forces. + + +=== Marketing tactics === +The Healy has been criticized for its marketing tactics, particularly the use of influencer marketing and multi-level marketing schemes. These strategies have been seen as a way to promote the device despite its lack of proven benefits. The Office for Science and Society describes the Healy as a “triumph of marketing” due to its claims of using personalized frequencies, which make its claims “unfalsifiable.” + + +=== Placebo effect === +David R. Stukus, in an interview with Rolling Stone, commented that any research conducted by the company supporting Healy's efficacy is likely the result of the placebo effect. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical_engine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical_engine-0.md index 6704aa589..3ab9fcc81 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical_engine-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical_engine-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical_engine" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:14:26.804390+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:57.247684+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexagonal_water-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexagonal_water-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a8a1a1f7a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexagonal_water-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Hexagonal water" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexagonal_water" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:58.460410+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hexagonal water, also known as gel water, structured water, cluster water, H3O2 or H3O2 is a term used in a marketing scam that claims the ability to create a certain configuration of water that is better for the body. The term "hexagonal water" refers to a cluster of water molecules forming a hexagonal shape that supposedly enhances nutrient absorption, removes metabolic wastes, and enhances cellular communication, among other things. The scam takes advantage of the consumer's limited knowledge of chemistry, physics, and physiology. Gel water is referenced in the version of the hoax in which animal fascia or plants are said to create or contain a "fourth phase" of water with an extra hydrogen and an extra oxygen, despite the reality that this compound is neither water, nor stable. + + +== Incompatibilities with science == +The concept of hexagonal water clashes with several established scientific ideas. Although water clusters have been observed experimentally, they have a very short lifetime: the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at timescales shorter than 200 femtoseconds. +This contradicts the hexagonal water model's claim that the particular structure of water consumed is the same structure used by the body. Similarly, the hexagonal water model claims that this particular structure of water "resonates with energetic vibrations of the body to amplify life force". Although water molecules strongly absorb energy in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum, there is no scientific evidence that supports the claim that hexagon-shaped water polymers would be created through bombardment of energy of these frequencies. +Proponents of the hexagonal water model claim that the measurable differences between commercially available "hexagonal water" products and tap water under 17O nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy indicate hexagonal water's special properties. However, this technique shows no significant differences between the supposed "hexagonal water", ultrapure water, and human urine. +The experimental observation of water clusters requires spectroscopic tools such as Far-infrared (FIR) vibration-rotation-tunneling (VRT) spectroscopy (an infrared spectroscopy technique). + + +== See also == +Polywater +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Penta Water, another variation of "structured water" +The dihydrogen monoxide parody, which takes advantage of scientific illiteracy in describing some alarming properties of water + + +== External links == +Schmidt, Timothy (5 August 2022). "Don't fall for the snake oil claims of 'structured water'. A chemist explains why it's nonsense". UNSW Sites. Sydney: University of New South Wales. Retrieved 16 June 2023. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_machine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_machine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6bdd4c803 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_machine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Hieronymus machine" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_machine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:00.814632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A Hieronymus machine is any of the patented radionics devices invented by electrical engineer Thomas Galen Hieronymus (21 November 1895 – 21 February 1988). Hieronymus received a U.S. patent for his invention in 1949, which was described in the patent application title as a device for "detection of emanations from materials and measurement of the volumes thereof". +Skeptics and scientists consider the devices to be an example of pseudoscience and quackery. + + +== History == + + +=== Design and function === +The original "Radiation Analyzer" consisted of a chamber to hold a sample of material, a glass prism to refract the "eloptic" emanations coming from it, and a copper wire probe on a rotating armature to adjust the angle formed by the prism and the probe. Supposedly, "eloptic" emanations are refracted by the prism at different angles depending on the material. The detected "eloptic" signals were fed to a three-stage vacuum tube RF amplifier and conducted to a flat touch plate surrounded by a copper wire bifilar coil. By stroking the touch plate an operator could supposedly feel a sensation of "tingling" or "stickiness" when the "eloptic" energy was detected. As such, a human nervous system is considered to be necessary to operate a Hieronymus Machine. +Hieronymus subsequently designed solid-state versions of his Analyzers, substituting germanium transistors for crystal prisms and tunable capacitors for the rotating armature. He also designed and built various specialized devices designed for specific functions, including analysis of living organisms and production of homeopathic remedies. The most well-known Hieronymus Machine is the Eloptic Medical Analyzer, which supposedly analyzes and transmits "eloptic energy" to diagnose and treat medical conditions in plants and animals. +The theory of operation on which Hieronymus Machines are based is that all matter emits a kind of "radiation" that is not electromagnetic, but exhibits some of the characteristics of both light and electricity. The quality of this emanation is unique to every kind of matter, and therefore can be utilized for detection and analysis. Hieronymus coined the term "eloptic energy" to describe this radiation (from the words "electrical" and "optical"). All of his machines were designed to detect and manipulate this "eloptic energy". Eloptic emanations have never been detected by instruments designed to measure electromagnetic energies, no other evidence of their existence have been produced, and there is no mathematical theory of an eloptic field, so the theory is considered pseudoscientific and is not accepted by the scientific community. + + +=== John W. Campbell and Hieronymus machines === +The inventions of Hieronymus were championed by Astounding Science Fiction editor John W. Campbell in late 1950s and early 1960s editorials. A series of correspondences between the two men show that while Hieronymus was sure that someday his theories of eloptic energy would be proven and accepted by physical scientists, Campbell was convinced that the machines were based on psionics, related to the user's paranormal or ESP powers. +As an example, Campbell believed one could create an eloptic receiver or similar device with the prisms and amplifiers represented by their cardboard or even schematic representations. Through the use of mental powers, such a machine would function as well as its "real" equivalent. In his autobiography, Hieronymus wrote, "I appreciated Mr Campbell's interest in my work, but over the years since then, I have concluded that he set back the acceptance of my work at least a hundred years by his continual emphasis on what he termed the supernatural or 'magic' aspects of a mind-controlled device he built by drawing the schematic of my patented instrument with India ink. The energy flowed over the lines of this drawing because India ink is conducting, but it isn't worth a tinker's damn for serious research or actual treating." + + +== Scientific reception == +The claims of Hieronymus about "eloptic" emanations were heavily criticized by the scientific community as having no basis in reality. His machines have been compared to the quack devices of Albert Abrams and have also been described as an example of pseudoscience. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Campbell, John W. Jr. “Psionic Machine — Type One”, Astounding Science Fiction, June 1956, pp. 97–108. +Campbell, John W. Jr. “Correction and Further Data on the Hieronymous Machine”, Astounding Science Fiction, August 1956, pp. 112–114. +Goodavage, Joseph; “An Interview with T. Galen Hieronymus”, Analog Science Fiction, January 1977. +Hieronymus, T. Galen & Sarah (September 1976). The Eloptic Directory. Advanced Sciences and Research, Inc (documentation for the Hieronymus Eloptic Analyzer machine). +Hieronymus, T. Galen (January 1988). The Story of Eloptic Energy. Institute of Advanced Sciences, Inc. + + +== External links == +Hieronymus Tosh The Guardian. +Spooky Action at a Distance: The Strange Science of Radionics Popular Mechanics, Oct 2015 +Reconstructing the Aether: Building the Hieronymus Machine Aetheric Arts +In Search of Psi - The Hieronymus Machine Make Magazine, Vol. 9 +Building the Symbolic Hieronymus Machine Archived 2021-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Enigmatic Devices \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_salt-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_salt-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cd29c66d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_salt-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Himalayan salt" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_salt" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:01.965315+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Himalayan salt is rock salt (halite) mined from the Punjab region of Pakistan. The salt, which often has a pinkish tint due to trace minerals, is primarily used as a food additive to replace refined table salt but is also used for cooking and food presentation, decorative lamps, and spa treatments. The product is often promoted with unsupported claims that it has health benefits. + + +== Geology == + +Himalayan salt is mined from the Salt Range mountains, the southern edge of a fold-and-thrust belt that underlies the Pothohar Plateau south of the Himalayas in Pakistan. Himalayan salt comes from a thick layer of Ediacaran to early Cambrian evaporites of the Salt Range Formation. This geological formation consists of crystalline halite intercalated with potash salts, overlain by gypsiferous marl and interlayered with beds of gypsum and dolomite with infrequent seams of oil shale that accumulated between 600 and 540 million years ago. These strata and the overlying Cambrian to Eocene sedimentary rocks were thrust southward over younger sedimentary rocks, and eroded to create the Salt Range. + + +== History == +Local legend traces the discovery of the Himalayan salt deposits to the army of Alexander the Great. However, the first records of mining are from the Janjua clan in the 1200s. The salt is mostly mined at the Khewra Salt Mine in Khewra, Jhelum District, Punjab, Pakistan, which is situated in the foothills of the Salt Range hill system between the Indus River and the Punjab Plain. It is primarily exported in bulk, and processed in other countries for the consumer market. + + +== Mineral composition == +Himalayan salt is a table salt. There is a common misconception that Himalayan salt has lower sodium than conventional table salt, but the levels are similar. Analysis of a range of Khewra salt samples showed them to be between 96% and 99% sodium chloride, with trace presence of calcium, iron, zinc, chromium, magnesium, and sulfates, all at varying safe levels below 1%. +Some salt crystals from this region have an off-white to transparent color, while the trace minerals in some veins of salt give it a pink, reddish, or beet-red color. +Nutritionally, Himalayan salt is similar to common table salt. A study of pink salts in Australia showed Himalayan salt to contain higher levels of a range of trace elements compared to table salt, but that the levels were too low for nutritional significance without an "exceedingly high intake", at which point any nutritional benefit would be outweighed by the risks of elevated sodium consumption. An important exception is essential mineral iodine. Commercial table salt in many countries is supplemented with iodine, and this has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency. Himalayan salt does not provide this benefit, unless it is iodized. + + +== Uses == +Himalayan salt is used to flavor food. Due mainly to marketing costs, pink Himalayan salt is up to 20 times more expensive than table salt or sea salt. The impurities giving it its distinctive pink hue, as well as its unprocessed state and lack of anti-caking agents, have given rise to the unsupported belief that it is healthier than common table salt. There is no scientific basis for such claimed health benefits. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration warned a manufacturer of dietary supplements, including one consisting of Himalayan salt, to discontinue marketing the products using unproven claims of health benefits. +Slabs of salt are used as serving dishes, baking stones, and griddles, and it is also used to make tequila shot glasses. In such uses, small amounts of salt transfer to the food or drink and alter its flavor profile. + +It is also used to make salt lamps that radiate a pinkish or orangish hue, manufactured by placing a light source within the hollowed-out interior of a block of Himalayan salt. Claims that their use results in the release of ions that benefit health have no scientific foundation. Similar scientifically unsupported claims underlie the use of Himalayan salt to line the walls of spas, along with its use for salt-inhalation spa treatments. Salt lamps can be a danger to pets, who may suffer salt poisoning after licking them. + + +== Impact of India–Pakistan trade tensions == +In 2025, the trade of Himalayan pink salt faced a major disruption due to renewed geopolitical tensions between India and Pakistan. Following the April 2025 Pahalgam terror attack, in which 26 individuals – mostly Indian tourists – were killed, the Indian government imposed a ban on the import of all goods from Pakistan, including those routed via third countries. This measure led to an immediate halt in the cross-border trade of pink salt. +India had been one of the largest markets for Himalayan pink salt, traditionally sourced from Pakistan's Khewra Salt Mine. For decades, Indian importers had brought in thousands of tonnes quarterly to meet demand, with the salt widely used in culinary practices, wellness products, and religious rituals – particularly by Hindus during fasting periods due to its non-marine origin. +The ban not only disrupted supply chains in India but also resulted in significant economic losses for Pakistani exporters, many of whom relied heavily on Indian demand to sustain large-scale pink salt operations. + + +== See also == +Health effects of salt +List of edible salts +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Sea salt +Table salt + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Himalayan salt at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e9016656 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Hindu astrology" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:03.134743+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hindu astrology, also called Indian astrology, jyotisha (Sanskrit: ज्योतिष, romanized: jyotiṣa; from jyót 'light, heavenly body') and, more recently, Vedic astrology, is the traditional Hindu system of astrology. It is one of the six auxiliary disciplines in Hinduism that is connected with the study of the Vedas. +The Vedanga Jyotisha is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the Vedas. Some scholars believe that the horoscopic astrology practiced in the Indian subcontinent came from Hellenistic influences. However, this is a point of intense debate, and other scholars believe that Jyotisha developed independently, although it may have interacted with Greek astrology. +The scientific consensus is that astrology is a pseudoscience. + +== Etymology == +Jyotisha, states Monier-Williams, is rooted in the word Jyotish, which means light, such as that of the sun or the moon or a heavenly body. The term Jyotisha includes the study of astronomy, astrology, and the science of timekeeping using the movements of astronomical bodies. It aimed to keep time, maintain calendars, and predict auspicious times for Vedic rituals. + +== History and core principles == + +Jyotiṣa is one of the Vedāṅga, the six auxiliary disciplines used to support Vedic rituals. Early jyotiṣa is concerned with the preparation of a calendar to determine dates for sacrificial rituals, with nothing written regarding planets. There are mentions of eclipse-causing "demons" in the Atharvaveda and Chāndogya Upaniṣad, the latter mentioning Rāhu (a shadow entity believed responsible for eclipses and meteors). The Ṛigveda also mentions an eclipse-causing demon, Svarbhānu. However, the specific term graha was not applied to Svarbhānu until the later Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. +The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion of bandhu of the Vedas (scriptures), which is the connection between the microcosm and the macrocosm. The practice relies primarily on the sidereal zodiac, which differs from the tropical zodiac used in Western (Hellenistic) astrology in that an ayanāṃśa adjustment is made for the gradual precession of the vernal equinox. Hindu astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and prediction with elements not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of lunar mansions (Nakṣatra). It was only after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that the order of planets in India was fixed in that of the seven-day week. Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve zodiacal signs beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the ascendant. The first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is the Yavanajātaka which dates to the early centuries CE. The Yavanajātaka (lit. "Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by Yavaneśvara during the 2nd century CE, and is considered the first Indian astrological treatise in the Sanskrit language. However the only version that survives is the verse version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270. The first Indian astronomical text to define the weekday was the Āryabhaṭīya of Āryabhaṭa (born AD 476). +In the 300 years between the first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya, Indian astronomers likely focused on Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy, according to Michio Yano We no longer have the astronomical texts from these 300 years. The later Pañcasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century. Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy. +The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra, and Sārāvalī by Kalyāṇavarma. The Horāshastra is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the late 8th century. The Sārāvalī likewise dates to around 800 CE. N. N. Krishna Rau and V. B. Choudhari published English translations of these texts in 1963 and 1961, respectively. + +== Modern Hindu astrology == + +Astrology remains an important facet of folk belief in the contemporary lives of many Hindus. In Hindu culture, newborns are traditionally named based on their jyotiṣa charts (kundali), and astrological concepts are pervasive in the organization of the Hindu calendar and holidays and in making major decisions such as those about marriage, opening a new business, or moving into a new home. Many Hindus believe that heavenly bodies, including the planets, have an influence throughout the life of a human being, and these planetary influences are the "fruit of karma". The Navagraha, planetary deities, are considered subordinate to Ishvara (the Hindu concept of a supreme being) in the administration of justice. Thus, it is believed that these planets can influence earthly life. + +=== Astrology as a science === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1e4b068c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Hindu astrology" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:03.134743+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The scientific community has rejected astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. There is no mechanism proposed by astrologers through which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth. In spite of its status as a pseudoscience, in certain religious, political, and legal contexts, astrology retains a position among the sciences in modern India. +India's University Grants Commission and Ministry of Human Resource Development decided to introduce "Jyotir Vigyan" (i.e. jyotir vijñāna) or "Vedic astrology" as a discipline of study in Indian universities, stating that "vedic astrology is not only one of the main subjects of our traditional and classical knowledge but this is the discipline, which lets us know the events happening in human life and in universe on time scale" in spite of the complete lack of evidence that astrology actually does allow for such accurate predictions. The decision was backed by a 2001 judgment of the Andhra Pradesh High Court, and some Indian universities offer advanced degrees in astrology. +This was met with widespread protests from the scientific community in India and Indian scientists working abroad. A petition sent to the Supreme Court of India stated that the introduction of astrology to university curricula is "a giant leap backwards, undermining whatever scientific credibility the country has achieved so far". +In 2004, the Supreme Court dismissed the petition, concluding that the teaching of astrology did not qualify as the promotion of religion. In February 2011, the Bombay High Court referred to the 2004 Supreme Court ruling when it dismissed a case which had challenged astrology's status as a science. As of 2014, despite continuing complaints by scientists, astrology continues to be taught at various universities in India, and there is a movement in progress to establish a national Vedic University to teach astrology together with the study of tantra, mantra, and yoga. +Skeptics have thoroughly debunked the claims made by Indian astrologers. For example, although the planet Saturn is in the constellation Aries roughly every 30 years (e.g. 1909, 1939, 1968), the astrologer Bangalore Venkata Raman claimed that "when Saturn was in Aries in 1939 England had to declare war against Germany", ignoring all the other dates. Astrologers regularly fail in attempts to predict election results in India, and fail to predict major events such as the assassination of Indira Gandhi. Predictions by the head of the Indian Astrologers Federation about war between India and Pakistan in 1982 also failed. +In 2000, when several planets happened to be close to one another, astrologers predicted that there would be catastrophes, volcanic eruptions and tidal waves. This caused an entire sea-side village in the Indian state of Gujarat to panic and abandon their houses. The predicted events did not occur and the vacant houses were burgled. + +== Texts == + +The ancient extant text on Jyotisha is the Vedanga-Jyotisha, which exists in two editions, one linked to the Rigveda and other to Yajurveda. The Rigveda version consists of 36 verses, while the Yajurveda recension has 43 verses of which 29 verses are borrowed from the Rigveda. The Rigveda version is variously attributed to sage Lagadha and sometimes to sage Shuci. The Yajurveda version does not attribute credit to any specific sage, has endured into the modern era with a commentary by Somakara, and is considered the more studied version. +The Jyotisha text Brahma-siddhanta, probably composed in the 5th century CE, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar. This text also lists trigonometry and mathematical formulae to support its theory of orbits, predict planetary positions and calculate relative mean positions of celestial nodes and apsides. The text is notable for presenting very large integers, such as the lifetime of the current universe being 4.32 billion years. +The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss timekeeping and never mention astrology or prophecy. These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level. Technical horoscopes and astrology ideas in India came from Greece and developed in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. Later medieval era texts such as the Yavana-jataka and the Siddhanta texts are more astrology-related. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1ebc6871 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Hindu astrology" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:03.134743+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Evolution of Vedic timekeeping == +The field of Jyotisha deals with ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious days and times for Vedic rituals. The field of Vedanga structured time into Yuga, which was a 5-year interval, divided into multiple lunisolar intervals such as 60 solar months, 61 savana months, 62 synodic months and 67 sidereal months. A Vedic Yuga had 1,860 tithis (तिथि, dates), and it defined a savana-day (civil day) from one sunrise to another. +The Rigvedic version of Jyotisha may be a later insertion into the Veda, states David Pingree, possibly between 513 and 326 BCE, when the Indus Valley was occupied by the Achaemenid from Mesopotamia. The mathematics and devices for timekeeping mentioned in these ancient Sanskrit texts, proposes Pingree, such as the water clock, may also have arrived in India from Mesopotamia. However, Yukio Ohashi considers this proposal as incorrect, suggesting instead that the Vedic timekeeping efforts, for forecasting appropriate time for rituals, must have begun much earlier and the influence may have flowed from India to Mesopotamia. Ohashi states that it is incorrect to assume that the number of civil days in a year equals 365 in both the Hindu and Egyptian–Persian years. Further, adds Ohashi, the Mesopotamian formula is different from the Indian formula for calculating time, each can only work for their respective latitude, and either would make major errors in predicting time and calendar in the other region. According to Asko Parpola, the Jyotisha and luni-solar calendar discoveries in ancient India, and similar discoveries in China in "great likelihood result from convergent parallel development", and not from diffusion from Mesopotamia. +Kim Plofker states that while a flow of timekeeping ideas from either side is plausible, each may have instead developed independently, because the loan-words typically seen when ideas migrate are missing on both sides as far as words for various time intervals and techniques. Further, adds Plofker, and other scholars, that the discussion of timekeeping concepts is found in the Sanskrit verses of the Shatapatha Brahmana, a 2nd millennium BCE text. Water clocks and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra. Plofker suggests that the arrival of Greek astrology ideas in India may have led to a roundabout integration of Mesopotamian and Indian Jyotisha-based systems. +The Jyotisha texts present mathematical formulae to predict the length of daytime, sunrise and moon cycles. For example, + +The length of daytime = + + + + + ( + + 12 + + + + + 2 + 61 + + + n + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle \left(12+{\frac {2}{61}}n\right)} + + muhurtas +where n is the number of days after or before the winter solstice, and one muhurta equals 1⁄30 of a day (48 minutes). + +Water clockA prastha of water [is] the increase in day, [and] decrease in night in the [sun's] northern motion; vice versa in the southern. [There is] a six-muhurta [difference] in a half year. +— Yajurveda Jyotisha-vedanga 8, Translator: Kim Plofker + +== Elements == +There are sixteen Varga (Sanskrit: varga, 'part, division'), or divisional, charts used in Hindu astrology: + +=== Zodiac === + +The Nirayana, or sidereal zodiac, is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or tropical zodiac, is divided into 12 equal parts. Each part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or rāśi (Sanskrit: 'part'). Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western zodiacs differ in the method of measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa primarily uses the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the spring equinox). After two millennia, as a result of the precession of the equinoxes, the origin of the ecliptic longitude has shifted by about 30 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is roughly aligned with the constellations, while tropical astrology is based on the solstices and equinoxes. + +=== Nakṣhatras, or lunar mansions === + +The nakshatras or lunar mansions are 27 equal divisions of the night sky used in Hindu astrology, each identified by its prominent star(s). +Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. In modern astrology, a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras is generally used, each covering 13° 20′ of the ecliptic. The missing 28th nakshatra is Abhijeeta. Each nakṣatra is divided into equal quarters or padas of 3° 20′. +The junction of two Râshis as well as Nakshatras is known as Gandanta. + +=== Daśās – planetary periods === +The word dasha (Devanāgarī: दशा, Sanskrit, daśā, 'planetary period') means 'state of being' and it is believed that the daśā largely governs the state of being of a person. The Daśā system shows which planets may be said to have become particularly active during the period of the Daśā. The ruling planet (the Daśānātha or 'lord of the Daśā') eclipses the mind of the person, compelling him or her to act per the nature of the planet. +There are several dasha systems, each with its own utility and area of application. There are Daśās of grahas (planets) as well as Daśās of the Rāśis (zodiac signs). The primary system used by astrologers is the Viṁśottarī Daśā system, which has been considered universally applicable in the Kali Yuga to all horoscopes. +The first Mahā-Daśā is determined by the position of the natal Moon in a given Nakṣatra. The lord of the Nakṣatra governs the Daśā. Each Mahā-Dāśā is divided into sub-periods called bhuktis, or antar-daśās, which are proportional divisions of the maha-dasa. Further proportional sub-divisions can be made, but error margins based on accuracy of the birth time grow exponentially. The next sub-division is called pratyantar-daśā, which can in turn be divided into sookshma-antardasa, which can in turn be divided into praana-antardaśā, which can be sub-divided into deha-antardaśā. Such sub-divisions also exist in all other Daśā systems. + +=== Heavenly bodies === +The navagraha (Sanskrit: नवग्रह, romanized: navagraha, lit. 'nine planets') are the nine celestial bodies used in Hindu astrology: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3050794c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Hindu astrology" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:03.134743+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Surya (Sun) +Chandra (Moon) +Budha (Mercury) +Shukra (Venus) +Mangala (Mars) +Bṛhaspati or Guru (Jupiter) +Shani (Saturn) +Rahu (North node of the Moon) +Ketu (South node of the Moon) +The navagraha are said to be forces that capture or eclipse the mind and the decision making of human beings. When the grahas are active in their daśās, or periodicities they are said to be particularly empowered to direct the affairs of people and events. +Planets are held to signify major details, such as profession, marriage and longevity. +Of these indicators, known as Karakas, Parashara considers Atmakaraka most important, signifying broad contours of a person's life. +Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as the ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-bodied demon beheaded by the Sudarshan Chakra of Vishnu after attempting to swallow the sun. They are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as "shadow planets" because they are not visible in the night sky. Rahu and Ketu have an orbital cycle of 18 years and they are always retrograde in motion and 180 degrees from each other. + +=== Gocharas – transits === +A natal chart shows the position of the grahas at the moment of birth. Since that moment, the grahas have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas. This period of interaction is called gochara (Sanskrit: gochara, 'transit'). +The study of transits is based on the transit of the Moon (Chandra), which spans roughly two days, and also on the movement of Mercury (Budha) and Venus (Śukra) across the celestial sphere, which is relatively fast as viewed from Earth. The movement of the slower planets – Jupiter (Guru), Saturn (Śani) and Rāhu–Ketu — is always of considerable importance. Astrologers study the transit of the Daśā lord from various reference points in the horoscope. + +==== Yogas – planetary combinations ==== +In Hindu astronomy, yoga (Sanskrit: yoga, 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a specific relationship to each other. +Rāja yogas are perceived as givers of fame, status and authority, and are typically formed by the association of the Lord of Keṅdras ('quadrants'), when reckoned from the Lagna ('ascendant'), and the Lords of the Trikona ('trines', 120 degrees—first, fifth and ninth houses). The Rāja yogas are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets, such as Mars for Leo Lagna, do not need another graha (or Navagraha, 'planet') to create Rājayoga, but are capable of giving Rājayoga by themselves due to their own lordship of the 4th Bhāva ('astrological house') and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra ('angular house'—first, fourth, seventh and tenth houses) and Trikona Bhāva respectively. +Dhana Yogas are formed by the association of wealth-giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the 2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada (from dara, 'spouse' and pada, 'foot'—one of the four divisions—3 degrees and 20 minutes—of a Nakshatra in the 7th house), when reckoned from the Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth through the Lakṣmī Yoga. +Sanyāsa Yogas are formed due to the placement of four or more grahas, excluding the Sun, in a Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna. +There are some overarching yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga that can take precedence over Yamaha yogar planetary placements in the horoscope. + +=== Bhāvas – houses === +The Hindu Jātaka or Janam Kundali or birth chart, is the bhāva chakra (Sanskrit: 'division' 'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents a way of enacting the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated kāraka (Sanskrit: 'significator'), planets that can alter the interpretation of a particular house. Each bhāva spans an arc of 30° with twelve bhāvas in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic study since the bhāvas, understood as 'state of being', personalize the astrological signs to the native and each sign apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based on the bhāva occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed. +The meanings of the bhāvas are very similar to the triplicities in Western astrology. The houses are divided into four purusharthas (Sanskrit: 'aims in life') which point to mood or meaning of the house. These four purusharthas are Dharma (duty), Artha (resources), Kama (pleasure) and Moksha (liberation). They correspond to the 12 bhavas as follows: + +Dharma – 1st, 5th and 9th bhavas – The need to find a path and purpose. +Artha – 2nd, 6th and 10th bhavas – The need to acquire the necessary resources to fulfill that path. +Kama – 3rd, 7th and 11th bhavas – The need for pleasure and enjoyment. +Moksha – 4th, 8th and 12th bhavas – The need to attain liberation from the world. +These 4 aims of life are repeated in above sequence 3 times through the 12 bhavas: + +The first round, bhavas 1 through 4, show the process within the Individual. +The second round, bhavas 5 through 8, show the alchemy in relating to other people. +The third round, bhavas 9 through 12, show the universalization of the self. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f6528f100 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Hindu astrology" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:03.134743+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Dṛiṣṭis === +Drishti (Sanskrit: Dṛṣṭi, 'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. Grahas cast only forward aspects, with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Jupiter aspects the 5th, 7th and 9th house from its position, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house. +The principle of Drishti (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as deity and demon in a war field. Thus the Sun, a deity king with only one full aspect, is more powerful than the demon king Saturn, which has three full aspects. +Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance. +There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure: all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs aspect each other without exception. + +=== Planetary Aspects (Graha Dṛṣṭi) === +Each planet has a specific way of casting aspects (Drishti) on other houses from its position: + +Sun – Aspects the 7th house from its position. +Moon – Aspects the 7th house. +Mercury – Aspects the 7th house. +Venus – Aspects the 7th house. +Jupiter – Aspects the 5th, 7th, and 9th houses. +Mars – Aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses. +Saturn – Aspects the 3rd, 7th, and 10th houses. +Rahu – Aspects the 5th and 9th houses (some traditions). +Ketu – Aspects the 5th and 9th houses (some traditions). +These aspects are fixed and not based on degree differences like in Western astrology. The aspect strength depends on the planet and its position. + +== See also == + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Works cited === + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-0.md index 503fa7ffa..53251a535 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:24:18.805523+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:04.461719+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-1.md index d317bad48..9edea6a57 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:24:18.805523+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:04.461719+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..97483931e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Hollow Moon" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:07.020464+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Hollow Moon and the closely related Spaceship Moon are pseudoscientific hypotheses that propose that Earth's Moon is either wholly hollow or otherwise contains a substantial interior space. No scientific evidence exists to support the idea; seismic observations and other data collected since spacecraft began to orbit or land on the Moon indicate that it has a solid, differentiated interior, with a thin crust, extensive mantle, and a dense core which is significantly smaller (in relative terms) than Earth's. +While Hollow Moon hypotheses usually propose the hollow space as the result of natural processes, the related Spaceship Moon hypothesis holds that the Moon is an artifact created by an alien civilization; this belief usually coincides with beliefs in UFOs or ancient astronauts. This idea dates from 1970, when two Soviet authors published a short piece in the popular press speculating that the Moon might be "the creation of alien intelligence"; since then, it has occasionally been endorsed by conspiracy theorists like Jim Marrs and David Icke. +An at least partially hollow Moon has made many appearances in science fiction, the earliest being H. G. Wells' 1901 novel The First Men in the Moon, which borrowed from earlier works set in a Hollow Earth, such as Ludvig Holberg's 1741 novel Niels Klim's Underground Travels. +Both the Hollow Moon and Hollow Earth theories are now universally considered to be fringe or conspiracy theories. + +== Claims and rebuttals == + +=== Density === +The fact that the Moon is less dense than the Earth is advanced by conspiracy theorists as support for claims of a hollow Moon. The Moon's mean density is 3.3 g/cm3, whereas the Earth's is 5.5 g/cm3. Mainstream science argues this difference is due to the fact that the Earth's upper mantle and crust are less dense than its heavy, iron core. + +=== The Moon rang like a bell === +Between 1969 and 1977, seismometers installed on the Moon by the Apollo missions recorded moonquakes. The Moon was described as "ringing like a bell" during some of those quakes, specifically the shallow ones. This phrase was brought to popular attention in March 1970 in an article in Popular Science. +On November 20, 1969, Apollo 12 deliberately crashed the Ascent Stage of its Lunar Module onto the Moon's surface; NASA reported that the Moon rang 'like a bell' for almost an hour, leading to arguments that it must be hollow like a bell. Lunar seismology experiments since then have shown that the lunar body has shallow moonquakes that act differently from quakes on Earth, due to differences in texture, type and density of the planetary strata, but there is no evidence of any large empty space inside the body. + +=== Vasin-Shcherbakov "spaceship" conjecture === + +In 1970, Michael Vasin and Alexander Shcherbakov, of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, advanced a hypothesis that the Moon is a spaceship created by unknown beings. The article was titled "Is the Moon the Creation of Alien Intelligence?" and was published in Sputnik, the Soviet equivalent of Reader's Digest. The Vasin-Shcerbakov hypothesis was reported in the West that same year. +The authors reference earlier speculation by astrophysicist Iosif Shklovsky, who suggested that the Martian moon Phobos was an artificial satellite and hollow; this has since been shown not to be the case. Skeptical author Jason Colavito points out that all of their evidence is circumstantial, and that, in the 1960s, the atheistic Soviet Union promoted the ancient astronaut concept in an attempt to undermine the West's faith in religion. + +=== "Perfect" solar eclipses === +In 1965, author Isaac Asimov observed: "What makes a total eclipse so remarkable is the sheer astronomical accident that the Moon fits so snugly over the Sun. The Moon is just large enough to cover the Sun completely (at times) so that a temporary night falls and the stars spring out. […] The Sun's greater distance makes up for its greater size and the result is that the Moon and the Sun appear to be equal in size. […] There is no astronomical reason why Moon and Sun should fit so well. It is the sheerest of coincidence, and only the Earth among all the planets is blessed in this fashion." +Since the 1970s, conspiracy theorists have cited Asimov's observations on solar eclipses as evidence of the Moon's artificiality. Mainstream astronomers reject this interpretation. They note that the angular diameters of Sun and Moon vary by several percent over time and do not actually "perfectly" match during eclipses. Nor is Earth the only planet with such a satellite: Saturn's moon Prometheus has roughly the same angular diameter as the Sun when viewed from Saturn. +Some scholars have claimed that "the conditions required for perfect solar eclipses are the same conditions generally acknowledged to be necessary for intelligent life to emerge"; If so, the Moon's size and orbit might be best explained by the weak anthropic principle. + +== Scientific perspective == +Multiple lines of evidence demonstrate that the Moon is a solid body which formed from an impact between Earth and a planetoid. + +=== Origin of the Moon === + +Historically, it was theorized that the Moon originated when a rapidly-spinning Earth expelled a piece of its mass. This was proposed by George Darwin (son of the famous biologist Charles Darwin) in 1879 and retained some popularity until Apollo. The Austrian geologist Otto Ampferer in 1925 also suggested the emerging of the Moon as cause for continental drift. A second hypothesis argued the Earth and the Moon formed together as a double system from the primordial accretion disk of the Solar System. Finally, a third hypothesis suggested that the Moon may have been a planetoid captured by Earth's gravity. +The modern explanation for the origin of the Moon is usually the giant-impact hypothesis, which argues a Mars-sized body struck the Earth, making a debris ring that eventually collected into a single natural satellite, the Moon. The giant-impact hypothesis is currently the favored scientific hypothesis for the formation of the Moon. + +=== Internal structure === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b631c9e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Hollow Moon" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_Moon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:07.020464+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Multiple lines of evidence disprove that the Moon is hollow. One involves moment of inertia parameters; the other involves seismic observations. The moment of inertia parameters indicate that the core of the Moon is both dense and small, with the rest of the Moon consisting of material with nearly-constant density. Seismic observations have been made, constraining the thickness of the Moon's crust, mantle and core, demonstrating it could not be hollow. +Mainstream scientific opinion on the internal structure of the Moon overwhelmingly supports a solid internal structure with a thin crust, an extensive mantle and a small denser core. + +==== Moment of inertia factor ==== + +The moment of inertia factor is a number, ranging from 0 to .67, that represents the distribution of mass in a spherical body. A moment of inertia factor of 0 represents a body with all its mass concentrated at its central core, while a factor of .67 represents a perfectly hollow sphere. A moment of inertia factor of 0.4 corresponds to a sphere of uniform density, while factors less than 0.4 represent bodies with cores that are more dense than their surfaces. The Earth, with its dense inner core, has a moment of inertia factor of 0.3307 +In 1965, astronomer Wallace John Eckert attempted to calculate the lunar moment of inertia factor using a novel analysis of the Moon's perigee and node. His calculations suggested the Moon might be hollow, a result Eckert rejected as absurd. By 1968, other methods had allowed the Moon's moment of inertia factor to be accurately calculated at its accepted value. +From 1969 to 1973, five retroreflectors were installed on the Moon during the Apollo program (11, 14, and 15) and Lunokhod 1 and 2 missions. These reflectors made it possible to measure the distance between the surfaces of the Earth and the Moon using extremely precise laser ranging. True (physical) libration of the Moon measured via Lunar laser ranging constrains the moment of inertia factor to 0.394 ± 0.002. This is very close to the value for a solid object with radially constant density, which would be 0.4. + +==== Seismic activity ==== + +From 1969 through 1972, Apollo astronauts installed several seismographic measuring systems on the Moon and their data made available to scientists (such as those from the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package). The Apollo 11 instrument functioned through August of the landing year. The instruments placed by the Apollo 12, 14, 15, and 16 missions were functional until they were switched off in 1977. +The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers. Analysis of lunar seismic data has helped constrain the thickness of the crust (~45 km) and mantle, as well as the core radius (~330 km). + +==== Doppler Gravity Experiment ==== + +In 1998, the United States launched the Lunar Prospector, which hosted the Doppler Gravity Experiment (DGE) -- the first polar, low-altitude mapping of the lunar gravity field. The Prospector DGE obtained data constituted the "first truly operational gravity map of the Moon". The purpose of the Lunar Prospector DGE was to learn about the surface and internal mass distribution of the Moon. This was accomplished by measuring the Doppler shift in the S-band tracking signal as it reaches Earth, which can be converted to spacecraft accelerations. The accelerations can be processed to provide estimates of the lunar gravity field. Estimates of the surface and internal mass distribution give information on the crust, lithosphere, and internal structure of the Moon. + +== In popular culture == + +=== Fiction === +H.G. Wells, The First Men in The Moon (1901). Wells describes fictional insectoids who live inside a hollow Moon. +Edgar Rice Burroughs, The Moon Maid (1926). A fantasy story set in the interior of a postulated hollow Moon which had an atmosphere and was inhabited. +Nikolay Nosov, Dunno on the Moon (1965). A Russian fairytale novel with a hollow Moon. +Isaac Asimov, Foundation and Earth (1986). Science fiction in which robot R. Daneel Olivaw is depicted living inside a partially hollow Moon. +David Weber, Mutineers' Moon (1991). Science fiction in which the Moon is a giant spaceship, which arrived 50,000 years ago. +Moonfall (2022). Science fiction film portraying the Moon as a Dyson sphere enclosing a white dwarf. + +=== Conspiracy theory === +Don Wilson, Our Mysterious Spaceship Moon (1975) and Secrets of Our Spaceship Moon (1979). Inspired by Vasin-Shcherbakov, Wilson popularized the Spaceship Moon hypothesis. +George H. Leonard, Somebody Else Is On The Moon (1976). Argues the Moon is inhabited by an Alien race, but NASA has covered up this fact. +Fred Steckling, We Discovered Alien Bases on the Moon (1981) +Jim Marrs, Alien Agenda (1997). Long-time JFK conspiracy theorist Marrs embraced the Spaceship Moon conspiracy theory +Christopher Knight & Alan Butler, Who Built the Moon? (2005). They suggest humans from the future traveled into the past to build the Moon in order to safeguard human evolution. +David Icke, Human Race Get off Your Knees – The Lion Sleeps No More (2010). Icke suggests that the Moon is in fact a space station from which Reptilians manipulate human thought. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hologram_bracelet-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hologram_bracelet-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b24a4d6e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hologram_bracelet-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Hologram bracelet" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hologram_bracelet" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:08.212174+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A hologram bracelet or energy bracelet is a small rubber wristband supposedly fitted with a hologram. Manufacturers have said that the holograms supposedly "optimise the natural flow of energy around the body," and, "improve an athlete's strength, balance and flexibility". Only anecdotal evidence supports these claims and tests performed by the Australian Skeptics, the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, and the RMIT's School of Health Sciences have been unable to identify any effect on performance. + + +== Products == +Hologram bracelets include a small hologram which manufacturers say is "programmed" through an undisclosed process. Power Balance, who have manufactured the bracelets since 2007, say that the programming "mimics Eastern philosophies". The holograms are most usually installed in bracelets and wristbands but are also sold as pendants or necklaces, anklets, shoe inserts, pet tags, or separately for users to apply to the back of a watch, for example. +Manufacturers including Power Balance and EFX Performance make no claims on their websites for their products, but carry testimonials from users who say that they improve athletic performance. Until 2010, Power Balance said that their bracelets helped improve an athlete's strength, balance and flexibility because the holograms are embedded with an "electrical frequency" that restores the body's "electrical balance" on contact with its natural energy field. In December 2010, following a successful legal action by the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission, Power Balance admitted that there was no credible scientific evidence for these claims. + + +== Response == +Mark Hodgkinson, writing in The Daily Telegraph in 2010, called hologram bracelets a fad with many professional athletes seen wearing them and several actively endorsing them. Footballers David Beckham and Cristiano Ronaldo have worn them, and tennis players Sam Querrey and Mardy Fish both wore them during the final of the 2010 Queen's Club Championships. Endorsements for the Power Balance bracelet have come from Shaquille O'Neal, Rubens Barrichello, and the London Wasps rugby team, while ice hockey team the Cardiff Devils announced a partnership with Power Balance in early 2010. NASCAR reported in 2011 that many drivers wore EFX Performance bracelets with the Hendrick Motorsports and Stewart–Haas Racing teams entering into licensing deals. +Several groups have investigated the effects of hologram bracelets on athletic performance. A 2011 study by RMIT University's School of Health Sciences found that there was an overall decrease in the balance and stability of wearers, although it was not statistically significant, and the overall conclusion was that the bracelets did not affect performance. The Australian Skeptics group found that the bracelets have no more than a placebo effect. +Research by the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, commissioned by the BBC, also found that wearing the bracelets did not affect performance in standard sports industry tests, adding that neither the physiology nor the biology of wearers was changed. However, Dr Gareth Irwin, who carried out the tests, said that there may be changes in performance because of the placebo effect, a view which has been echoed by sports psychologists. Sports psychologist Victor Thompson says the bracelets play on superstition, simply giving people the expectation that they can improve their sporting performance. Cricket coach Jeremy Snape said he prefers that athletes have belief in themselves rather than in an external product, while Roberto Forzoni described the bracelets as "gimmicks" which allow athletes to avoid addressing real issues in their performance, with the high-profile endorsements giving the sense of belonging to an elite group of athletes. + + +== See also == +Amulet +Energy (esotericism) +Ionized bracelet +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Scientific skepticism +Magnet therapy +Mood ring +Quackery +Talisman + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..60faec904 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Homeopathy or homoeopathy is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine. It was conceived in 1796 by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann. Its practitioners, called homeopaths or homeopathic physicians, believe that a substance that causes symptoms of a disease in healthy people can cure similar symptoms in sick people; this doctrine is called similia similibus curentur, or "like cures like". +Homeopathic preparations are termed remedies and are made using homeopathic dilution. In this process, the selected substance is repeatedly diluted until the final product is indistinguishable from the diluent. Often not even a single molecule of the original substance can be expected to remain in the product. Between each dilution homeopaths may hit and/or shake the product, claiming this makes the diluent "remember" the original substance after its removal. Practitioners claim that such preparations, upon oral intake, can treat or cure disease. All relevant scientific knowledge about physics, chemistry, biochemistry and biology contradicts homeopathy. +Homeopathic remedies are typically biochemically inert, and have no effect on any known disease. Homeopathy's theory of disease, centered around principles Hahnemann termed miasms, is inconsistent with subsequent identification of viruses and bacteria as causes of disease. Clinical trials have been conducted and generally demonstrated no objective effect from homeopathic preparations. The fundamental implausibility of homeopathy as well as a lack of demonstrable effectiveness has led to it being characterized within the scientific and medical communities as quackery and fraud. +Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825, and the first American homeopathic school opened in 1835. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States. During this period, homeopathy was able to appear relatively successful, as other forms of treatment could be harmful and ineffective. By the end of the century the practice began to wane, with the last exclusively homeopathic medical school in the United States closing in 1920. During the 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback, with sales of some homeopathic products increasing tenfold. The trend corresponded with the rise of the New Age movement, and may be in part due to chemophobia, an irrational aversion to synthetic chemicals, and the longer consultation times homeopathic practitioners provided. +In the 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification. As a result, national and international bodies have recommended the withdrawal of government funding for homeopathy in healthcare. National bodies from Australia, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France, as well as the European Academies' Science Advisory Council and the Russian Academy of Sciences have all concluded that homeopathy is ineffective, and recommended against the practice receiving any further funding. The National Health Service in England no longer provides funding for homeopathic remedies and asked the Department of Health to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items. France removed funding in 2021, while Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies from health centers. + +== History == +Homeopathy was created in 1796 by Samuel Hahnemann. Hahnemann rejected the mainstream medicine of the late 18th century as irrational and inadvisable, because it was largely ineffective and often harmful. He advocated the use of single drugs at lower doses and promoted an immaterial, vitalistic view of how living organisms function. The term homeopathy was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in print in 1807. He also coined the expression "allopathic medicine", which was used to pejoratively refer to traditional Western medicine. + +=== Concept === + +Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a medical treatise by the Scottish physician and chemist William Cullen into German. Being sceptical of Cullen's theory that cinchona cured malaria because it was bitter, Hahnemann ingested some bark specifically to investigate what would happen. He experienced fever, shivering and joint pain: symptoms similar to those of malaria itself. From this, Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs produce symptoms in healthy individuals similar to those of the diseases that they treat. This led to the name "homeopathy", which comes from the Ancient Greek: ὅμοιος hómoios, "-like" and πάθος páthos, "suffering". +The doctrine that those drugs are effective which produce symptoms similar to the symptoms caused by the diseases they treat, called "the law of similars", was expressed by Hahnemann with the Latin phrase similia similibus curentur, or "like cures like". Hahnemann's law of similars is unproven and does not derive from the scientific method. An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by Oliver Wendell Holmes, published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported. Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains quinine, which kills the Plasmodium falciparum parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action is unrelated to Hahnemann's ideas. + +==== Provings ==== +Hahnemann began to test what effects various substances may produce in humans, a procedure later called "homeopathic proving". These tests required subjects to test the effects of ingesting substances by recording all their symptoms as well as the ancillary conditions under which they appeared. He published a collection of provings in 1805, and a second collection of 65 preparations appeared in his book, Materia Medica Pura (1810). +As Hahnemann believed that large doses of drugs that caused similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, he advocated for extreme dilutions. A technique was devised for making dilutions that Hahnemann claimed would preserve the substance's therapeutic properties while removing its harmful effects. Hahnemann believed that this process enhanced "the spirit-like medicinal powers of the crude substances". He gathered and published an overview of his new medical system in his book, The Organon of the Healing Art (1810), with a sixth edition published in 1921 that homeopaths still use today. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e127aad8f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Miasms and disease ==== +In the Organon, Hahnemann introduced the concept of "miasms" as the "infectious principles" underlying chronic disease and as "peculiar morbid derangement[s] of vital force". Hahnemann associated each miasm with specific diseases, and thought that initial exposure to miasms causes local symptoms, such as skin or venereal diseases. His assertion was that if these symptoms were suppressed by medication, the cause went deeper and began to manifest itself as diseases of the internal organs. Homeopathy maintains that treating diseases by directly alleviating their symptoms, as is sometimes done in conventional medicine, is ineffective because all "disease can generally be traced to some latent, deep-seated, underlying chronic, or inherited tendency". The underlying imputed miasm still remains, and deep-seated ailments can be corrected only by removing the deeper disturbance of the vital force. +Hahnemann's hypotheses for miasms originally presented only three local symptoms: psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease). Of these the most important was psora, described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin and was claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions. Hahnemann believed it to be the cause of such diseases as epilepsy, cancer, jaundice, deafness, and cataracts. Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing illnesses previously attributed to the psora, including tuberculosis and cancer miasms. +Hahnemann's miasm theory remains disputed and controversial within homeopathy even in modern times. The theory of miasms has been criticized as an explanation developed to preserve the system of homeopathy in the face of treatment failures, and for being inadequate to cover the many hundreds of sorts of diseases, as well as for failing to explain disease predispositions, as well as genetics, environmental factors, and the unique disease history of each patient. + +=== 19th century: rise to popularity and early criticism === + +Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825 by Hans Birch Gram, a student of Hahnemann. The first homeopathic school in the United States opened in 1835 and the American Institute of Homeopathy was established in 1844. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States, and by 1900, there were 22 homeopathic colleges and 15,000 practitioners in the United States. +Because medical practice of the time relied on treatments which were often ineffective and harmful, patients of homeopaths often had better outcomes than those being treated by medical practitioners. Though ineffective, homeopathic preparations are rarely detrimental, thus users were less likely to be harmed by the treatment that was supposed to be helping them. The relative success of homeopathy in the 19th century may have led to the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of bloodletting and purging and begun the move towards more effective, science-based medicine. One reason for the growing popularity of homeopathy was its apparent success in treating people suffering from infectious disease epidemics. During 19th-century epidemics of diseases such as cholera, death rates in homeopathic hospitals were often lower than in conventional hospitals, where the treatments used at the time were often harmful and did little or nothing to combat the diseases. +Even during its rise in popularity, homeopathy was criticized by scientists and physicians. Sir John Forbes, physician to Queen Victoria, said in 1843 that the extremely small doses of homeopathy were regularly derided as useless and considered it "an outrage to human reason". James Young Simpson said in 1853 of the highly diluted drugs: "No poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly." Nineteenth-century American physician and author Oliver Wendell Holmes was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and published an essay entitled Homœopathy and Its Kindred Delusions (1842). The members of the French Homeopathic Society observed in 1867 that some leading homeopaths of Europe not only were abandoning the practice of administering infinitesimal doses but were also no longer defending it. The last school in the United States exclusively teaching homeopathy closed in 1920. + +=== Revival in the 20th century === +According to academics Paul U. Unschuld and Edzard Ernst, the Nazi regime in Germany was fond of homeopathy, and spent large sums of money on researching its mechanisms, but without gaining a positive result. Unschuld also states that homeopathy never subsequently took root in the United States, but remained more deeply established in European thinking. In the United States, the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (sponsored by Royal Copeland, a Senator from New York and homeopathic physician) recognized homeopathic preparations as drugs. In the 1950s, there were only 75 solely homeopathic practitioners in the U.S. By the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback and the sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold. +Some homeopaths credit the revival to Greek homeopath George Vithoulkas, who conducted a "great deal of research to update the scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy" in the 1970s, but Ernst and Simon Singh consider it to be linked to the rise of the New Age movement. Bruce Hood has argued that the increased popularity of homeopathy in recent times may be due to the comparatively long consultations practitioners are willing to give their patients, and to a preference for "natural" products, which people think are the basis of homeopathic preparations. +Towards the end of the century, opposition to homeopathy began to increase again, with William T. Jarvis, the President of the National Council Against Health Fraud, saying that "Homeopathy is a fraud perpetrated on the public with the government's blessing, thanks to the abuse of political power of Sen. Royal S. Copeland." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34dbcbb69 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== 21st century: renewed criticism === +Since the beginning of the 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have further shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification. This had led to a decrease or suspension of funding by many governments. In a 2010 report, the Science and Technology Committee of the United Kingdom House of Commons recommended that homeopathy should no longer receive National Health Service (NHS) funding due its lack of scientific credibility; NHS funding for homeopathy ceased in 2017. They also asked the Department of Health in the UK to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items. +In 2015, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia found that "there are no health conditions for which there is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective". The federal government only ended up accepting three of the 45 recommendations made by the 2018 review of Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation. The same year the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) held a hearing requesting public comment on the regulation of homeopathic drugs. In 2017, the FDA announced it would strengthen regulation of homeopathic products. +The American non-profit Center for Inquiry (CFI) filed a lawsuit in 2018 against the CVS pharmacy for consumer fraud over its sale of homeopathic medicines. It claimed that CVS was selling homeopathic products on an easier-to-obtain basis than standard medication. In 2019, CFI brought a similar lawsuit against Walmart for "committing wide-scale consumer fraud and endangering the health of its customers through its sale and marketing of homeopathic medicines". They also conducted a survey in which they found consumers felt ripped off when informed of the lack of evidence for the efficacy of homeopathic remedies, such as those sold by Walmart and CVS. +In 2021, the French healthcare minister phased out social security reimbursements for homeopathic drugs. France has long had a stronger belief in the virtues of homeopathic drugs than many other countries and the world's biggest manufacturer of alternative medicine drugs, Boiron, is located in that country. Spain also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies. In 2016, the University of Barcelona cancelled its master's degree in Homeopathy citing "lack of scientific basis", after advice from the Spanish Ministry of Health. Shortly afterwards the University of Valencia announced the elimination of its Masters in Homeopathy. + +== Preparations and treatment == + +Homeopathic preparations are referred to as "homeopathic remedies". Practitioners rely on two types of reference when prescribing: Materia medica and repertories. A homeopathic materia medica is a collection of "drug pictures", organized alphabetically. A homeopathic repertory is a quick reference version of the materia medica that indexes the symptoms and then the associated remedies for each. In both cases different compilers may dispute particular inclusions in the references. The first symptomatic homeopathic materia medica was arranged by Hahnemann. The first homeopathic repertory was Georg Jahr's Symptomenkodex, published in German in 1835, and translated into English as the Repertory to the more Characteristic Symptoms of Materia Medica in 1838. This version was less focused on disease categories and was the forerunner to later works by James Tyler Kent. There are over 118 repertories published in English, with Kent's being one of the most used. + +=== Consultation === +Homeopaths generally begin with a consultation, which can be a 10–15 minute appointment or last for over an hour, where the patient describes their medical history. The patient describes the "modalities", or if their symptoms change depending on the weather and other external factors. The practitioner also solicits information on mood, likes and dislikes, physical, mental and emotional states, life circumstances, and any physical or emotional illnesses. This information (also called the "symptom picture") is matched to the "drug picture" in the materia medica or repertory and used to determine the appropriate homeopathic remedies. In classical homeopathy, the practitioner attempts to match a single preparation to the totality of symptoms (the simlilum), while "clinical homeopathy" involves combinations of preparations based on the illness's symptoms. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd3e3d3db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Preparation === +Homeopathy uses animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances in its preparations, generally referring to them using Latin names. Examples include arsenicum album (arsenic oxide), natrum muriaticum (sodium chloride or table salt), Lachesis muta (the venom of the bushmaster snake), opium, and thyroidinum (thyroid hormone). Homeopaths say this is to ensure accuracy. In the USA the common name must be displayed, although the Latin one can also be present. Homeopathic pills are made from an inert substance (often sugars, typically lactose), upon which a drop of liquid homeopathic preparation is placed and allowed to evaporate. +Isopathy is a therapy derived from homeopathy in which the preparations come from diseased or pathological products such as fecal, urinary and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue. They are called nosodes (from the Greek nosos, disease) with preparations made from "healthy" specimens being termed "sarcodes". Many so-called "homeopathic vaccines" are a form of isopathy. Tautopathy is a form of isopathy where the preparations are composed of drugs or vaccines that a person has consumed in the past, in the belief that this can reverse the supposed lingering damage caused by the initial use. There is no convincing scientific evidence for isopathy as an effective method of treatment. +Some modern homeopaths use preparations they call "imponderables" because they do not originate from a substance but some other phenomenon presumed to have been "captured" by alcohol or lactose. Examples include X-rays and sunlight. Another derivative is electrohomeopathy, where an electric bio-energy of therapeutic value is supposedly extracted from plants. Popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy is extremely pseudo-scientific. In 2012, the Allahabad High Court in Uttar Pradesh, India, handed down a decree stating that electrohomeopathy was quackery and no longer recognized it as a system of medicine. +Other minority practices include paper preparations, in which the terms for substances and dilutions are written on pieces of paper and either pinned to the patients' clothing, put in their pockets, or placed under glasses of water that are then given to the patients. Radionics, the use of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, can also be used to manufacture preparations. Such practices have been strongly criticized by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative, and verging upon magic and superstition. Flower preparations are produced by placing flowers in water and exposing them to sunlight. The most famous of these are the Bach flower remedies, which were developed by Edward Bach. + +=== Dilutions === + +Hahnemann claimed that undiluted doses caused reactions, sometimes dangerous ones, and thus that preparations be given at the lowest possible dose. A solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher "potency", and thus is claimed to be stronger and deeper-acting. The general method of dilution is serial dilution, where solvent is added to part of the previous mixture, but the "Korsakovian" method may also be used, whereby the vessel in which the preparations are manufactured is emptied and then refilled with solvent, with the amount of fluid adhering to the walls of the vessel deemed sufficient for the new batch. The Korsakovian method is sometimes referred to as K on the label of a homeopathic preparation. Another method is Fluxion, which dilutes the substance by continuously passing water through the vial. Insoluble solids, such as granite, diamond, and platinum, are diluted by grinding them with lactose ("trituration"). +Three main logarithmic dilution scales are in regular use in homeopathy. Hahnemann created the "centesimal" or "C scale", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each stage. There is also a decimal dilution scale (notated as "X" or "D") in which the preparation is diluted by a factor of 10 at each stage. The centesimal scale was favoured by Hahnemann for most of his life, although in his last ten years Hahnemann developed a quintamillesimal (Q) scale which diluted the drug to 1 part in 50,000. A 2C dilution has one part of the original substance in 10,000 parts of the solution. In standard chemistry, this produces a substance with a concentration of 0.01% (volume-volume percentage). A 6C dilution ends up with the original substance diluted by a factor of 100−6 (one part in one trillion). The end product is usually so diluted as to be indistinguishable from the diluent (pure water, sugar or alcohol). The greatest dilution reasonably likely to contain at least one molecule of the original substance is approximately 12C. +Hahnemann advocated dilutions of 1 part to 1060 or 30C. Hahnemann regularly used dilutions of up to 30C but opined that "there must be a limit to the matter". To counter the reduced potency at high dilutions he formed the view that vigorous shaking by striking on an elastic surface – a process termed succussion – was necessary. Homeopaths are unable to agree on the number and force of strikes needed, and there is no way that the claimed results of succussion can be tested. +Critics of homeopathy commonly emphasize the dilutions involved in homeopathy, using analogies. One mathematically correct example is that a 12C solution is equivalent to "a pinch of salt in both the North and South Atlantic Oceans". One-third of a drop of some original substance diluted into all the water on Earth would produce a preparation with a concentration of about 13C. The science animation YouTube channel Kurzgesagt: In a Nutshell notes that a dilution of 30C, a homeopathic pill with just a single atom of target substance would have to be so large that it would be as long as the distance from the Earth to the Sun and would collapse into a black hole under its own gravity. Robert L. Park points out that a 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name Oscillococcinum, would require 10320 universes worth of molecules to contain just one original molecule in the final substance. The high dilutions characteristically used are often considered to be the most controversial and implausible aspect of homeopathy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b2b73ce1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Provings === +Homeopaths claim that they can determine the properties of their preparations by following a method which they call "proving". As performed by Hahnemann, provings involved administering various preparations to healthy volunteers. The volunteers were then observed, often for months at a time. They were made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at specific times throughout the day. They were forbidden from consuming coffee, tea, spices, or wine for the duration of the experiment; playing chess was also prohibited because Hahnemann considered it to be "too exciting", though they were allowed to drink beer and encouraged to exercise in moderation. At first Hahnemann used undiluted doses for provings, but he later advocated provings with preparations at a 30C dilution, and most modern provings are carried out using ultra-dilute preparations. +Provings are claimed to have been important in the development of the clinical trial, due to their early use of simple control groups, systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first application of statistics in medicine. The lengthy records of self-experimentation by homeopaths have occasionally proven useful in the development of modern drugs: For example, evidence that nitroglycerin might be useful as a treatment for angina was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings, though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that time. The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796 Essay on a New Principle. His Fragmenta de Viribus (1805) contained the results of 27 provings, and his 1810 Materia Medica Pura contained 65. For James Tyler Kent's 1905 Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica, 217 preparations underwent provings and newer substances are continually added to contemporary versions. +Though the proving process has superficial similarities with clinical trials, it is fundamentally different in that the process is subjective, not blinded, and modern provings are unlikely to use pharmacologically active levels of the substance under proving. As early as 1842, Oliver Holmes had noted that provings were impossibly vague, and the purported effect was not repeatable among different subjects. + +== Evidence and efficacy == + +Outside of the alternative medicine community, scientists have long considered homeopathy a sham or a pseudoscience, and the medical community regards it as quackery. There is an overall absence of sound statistical evidence of therapeutic efficacy, which is consistent with the lack of any biologically plausible pharmacological agent or mechanism. Proponents argue that homeopathic medicines must work by some, as yet undefined, biophysical mechanism. No homeopathic preparation has been shown to be different from placebo. + +=== Lack of scientific evidence === +The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting its efficacy and its use of preparations without active ingredients have led to characterizations of homeopathy as pseudoscience and quackery, or, in the words of a 1998 medical review, "placebo therapy at best and quackery at worst". The Russian Academy of Sciences considers homeopathy a "dangerous 'pseudoscience' that does not work", and "urges people to treat homeopathy 'on a par with magic'". The Chief Medical Officer for England, Dame Sally Davies, has stated that homeopathic preparations are "rubbish" and do not serve as anything more than placebos. In 2013, Mark Walport, the UK Government Chief Scientific Adviser and head of the Government Office for Science said "homeopathy is nonsense, it is non-science." His predecessor, John Beddington, said that homeopathy "has no underpinning of scientific basis" but that his views as chief scientific adviser were being "fundamentally ignored" by the Government. +Jack Killen, acting deputy director of the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, says homeopathy "goes beyond current understanding of chemistry and physics". He adds: "There is, to my knowledge, no condition for which homeopathy has been proven to be an effective treatment." Ben Goldacre says that homeopaths who misrepresent scientific evidence to a scientifically illiterate public, have "... walled themselves off from academic medicine, and critique has been all too often met with avoidance rather than argument". Homeopaths often prefer to ignore meta-analyses in favour of cherry-picked positive results, such as by promoting a particular observational study (one which Goldacre describes as "little more than a customer-satisfaction survey") as if it were more informative than a series of randomized controlled trials. +In an article entitled "Should We Maintain an Open Mind about Homeopathy?" published in the American Journal of Medicine, Michael Baum and Edzard Ernst – writing to other physicians – wrote that "Homeopathy is among the worst examples of faith-based medicine... These axioms [of homeopathy] are not only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to them. If homeopathy is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and pharmacology must be incorrect...". + +=== Plausibility of dilutions === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c667bf830 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The exceedingly low concentration of homeopathic preparations, which often lack even a single molecule of the diluted substance, has been the basis of questions about the effects of the preparations since the 19th century. The laws of chemistry give this dilution limit, which is related to the Avogadro number, as being roughly equal to 12C homeopathic dilutions (1 part in 1024). James Randi and the 10:23 campaign groups have highlighted the lack of active ingredients by taking large 'overdoses'. None of the hundreds of demonstrators in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US were injured and "no one was cured of anything, either". +Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept of "water memory", according to which water "remembers" the substances mixed in it, and transmits the effect of those substances when consumed. This concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and water memory has never been demonstrated to have any detectable effect, biological or otherwise. Existence of a pharmacological effect in the absence of any true active ingredient is inconsistent with the law of mass action and the observed dose-response relationships characteristic of therapeutic drugs. Homeopaths contend that their methods produce a therapeutically active preparation, selectively including only the intended substance, though in reality any water will have been in contact with millions of different substances throughout its history, and homeopaths cannot account for the selected homeopathic substance being isolated as a special case in their process. +Practitioners also hold that higher dilutions produce stronger medicinal effects. This idea is also inconsistent with observed dose-response relationships, where effects are dependent on the concentration of the active ingredient in the body. Some contend that the phenomenon of hormesis may support the idea of dilution increasing potency, but the dose-response relationship outside the zone of hormesis declines with dilution as normal, and nonlinear pharmacological effects do not provide any credible support for homeopathy. + +=== Efficacy === + +No individual homeopathic preparation has been unambiguously shown by research to be different from placebo. The methodological quality of the early primary research was low, with problems such as weaknesses in study design and reporting, small sample size, and selection bias. Since better quality trials have become available, the evidence for efficacy of homeopathy preparations has diminished; the highest-quality trials indicate that the preparations themselves exert no intrinsic effect. A review conducted in 2010 of all the pertinent studies of "best evidence" produced by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that this evidence "fails to demonstrate that homeopathic medicines have effects beyond placebo." +In 2009, the United Kingdom's House of Commons Science and Technology Committee concluded that there was no compelling evidence of effect other than placebo. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council completed a comprehensive review of the effectiveness of homeopathic preparations in 2015, in which it concluded that "there were no health conditions for which there was reliable evidence that homeopathy was effective." The European Academies' Science Advisory Council (EASAC) published its official analysis in 2017 finding a lack of evidence that homeopathic products are effective, and raising concerns about quality control. In contrast a 2011 book was published, purportedly financed by the Swiss government, that concluded that homeopathy was effective and cost efficient. Although hailed by proponents as proof that homeopathy works, it was found to be scientifically, logically and ethically flawed, with most authors having a conflict of interest. The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health later released a statement saying the book was published without the consent of the Swiss government. +Meta-analyses, essential tools to summarize evidence of therapeutic efficacy, and systematic reviews have found that the methodological quality in the majority of randomized trials in homeopathy have shortcomings and that such trials were generally of lower quality than trials of conventional medicine. A major issue has been publication bias, where positive results are more likely to be published in journals. This has been particularly marked in alternative medicine journals, where few of the published articles (just 5% during the year 2000) tend to report null results. A systematic review of the available systematic reviews confirmed in 2002 that higher-quality trials tended to have less positive results, and found no convincing evidence that any homeopathic preparation exerts clinical effects different from placebo. The same conclusion was also reached in 2005 in a meta-analysis published in The Lancet. A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis found that the most reliable evidence did not support the effectiveness of non-individualized homeopathy. +Health organizations, including the UK's National Health Service, the American Medical Association, the FASEB, and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, have issued statements saying that there is no good-quality evidence that homeopathy is effective as a treatment for any health condition. In 2009, World Health Organization official Mario Raviglione criticized the use of homeopathy to treat tuberculosis and another WHO spokesperson stated that there was no evidence homeopathy would be an effective treatment for diarrhoea. They warned against the use of homeopathy for serious conditions such as depression, HIV and malaria. The American College of Medical Toxicology and the American Academy of Clinical Toxicology recommend that homeopathic treatment not be used for disease or as a preventive health measure. These organizations report that there is no evidence that homeopathic treatment is effective, but that there is evidence that using these treatments causes direct harm and can also lead to harm by delaying appropriate treatment. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..997cabfef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Purported effects in other biological systems === +While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including the growth of grain and enzyme reactions, such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed. In 2001 and 2004, Madeleine Ennis published a number of studies that reported that homeopathic dilutions of histamine exerted an effect on the activity of basophils. In response to the first of these studies, Horizon aired a programme in which British scientists attempted to replicate Ennis' results; they were unable to do so. A 2007 systematic review of high-dilution experiments found that none of the experiments with positive results could be reproduced by all investigators. +In 1988, French immunologist Jacques Benveniste published a paper in the journal Nature while working at INSERM. The paper purported to have discovered that basophils released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E antibody. Skeptical of the findings, Nature assembled an independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the research. After investigation the team found that the experiments were "statistically ill-controlled", "interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements in conflict with the claim", and concluded, "We believe that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their imperfections inadequately reported." + +== Ethics and safety == +The provision of homeopathic preparations has been described as unethical. Michael Baum, professor emeritus of surgery and visiting professor of medical humanities at University College London (UCL), has described homeopathy as a "cruel deception". Edzard Ernst, the first professor of complementary medicine in the United Kingdom and a former homeopathic practitioner, has expressed his concerns about pharmacists who violate their ethical code by failing to provide customers with "necessary and relevant information" about the true nature of the homeopathic products they advertise and sell. In 2013 the UK Advertising Standards Authority concluded that the Society of Homeopaths were targeting vulnerable ill people and discouraging the use of essential medical treatment while making misleading claims of efficacy for homeopathic products. In 2015 the Federal Court of Australia imposed penalties on a homeopathic company for making false or misleading statements about the efficacy of the whooping cough vaccine and recommending homeopathic remedies as an alternative.A 2000 review by homeopaths reported that homeopathic preparations are "unlikely to provoke severe adverse reactions". In 2012, a systematic review evaluating evidence of homeopathy's possible adverse effects concluded that "homeopathy has the potential to harm patients and consumers in both direct and indirect ways". A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that, in homeopathic clinical trials, adverse effects were reported among the patients who received homeopathy about as often as they were reported among patients who received placebo or conventional medicine. +Some homeopathic preparations involve poisons such as Belladonna, arsenic, and poison ivy. In rare cases, the original ingredients are present at detectable levels. This may be due to improper preparation or intentional low dilution. Serious adverse effects such as seizures and death have been reported or associated with some homeopathic preparations. Instances of arsenic poisoning have occurred. In 2009, the FDA advised consumers to stop using three discontinued cold remedy Zicam products because it could cause permanent damage to users' sense of smell. In 2016 the FDA issued a safety alert to consumers warning against the use of homeopathic teething gels and tablets following reports of adverse events after their use. A previous FDA investigation had found that these products were improperly diluted and contained "unsafe levels of belladonna" and that the reports of serious adverse events in children using this product were "consistent with belladonna toxicity". +Patients who choose to use homeopathy rather than evidence-based medicine risk missing timely diagnosis and effective treatment, thereby worsening the outcomes of serious conditions such as cancer. The Russian Commission on Pseudoscience has said homeopathy is not safe because "patients spend significant amounts of money, buying medicines that do not work and disregard already known effective treatment." Critics have cited cases of patients failing to receive proper treatment for diseases that could have been easily managed with conventional medicine and who have died as a result. They have also condemned the "marketing practice" of criticizing and downplaying the effectiveness of medicine. Homeopaths claim that use of conventional medicines will "push the disease deeper" and cause more serious conditions, a process referred to as "suppression". In 1978, Anthony Campbell, a consultant physician at the Royal London Homeopathic Hospital, criticized statements by George Vithoulkas claiming that syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the central nervous system. Vithoulkas' claims echo the idea that treating a disease with external medication used to treat the symptoms would only drive it deeper into the body; they conflict with scientific studies which indicate that penicillin treatment produces a complete cure of syphilis in more than 90% of cases. +The use of homeopathy as a preventive for serious infectious diseases, called homeoprophylaxis, is especially controversial. Some homeopaths, particularly those who are non-physicians, advise their patients against immunization. Others have suggested that vaccines be replaced with homeopathic "nosodes". While Hahnemann was opposed to such preparations, modern homeopaths often use them although there is no evidence to indicate they have any beneficial effects. Promotion of homeopathic alternatives to vaccines has been characterized as dangerous, inappropriate and irresponsible. In December 2014, the Australian homeopathy supplier Homeopathy Plus! was found to have acted deceptively in promoting homeopathic alternatives to vaccines. In 2019, an investigative journalism piece by the Telegraph revealed that homeopathy practitioners were actively discouraging patients from vaccinating their children. There have been cases of homeopaths advising against the use of anti-malarial drugs, putting visitors to the tropics in severe danger. +A 2006 review recommends that pharmacy colleges include a required course where ethical dilemmas inherent in recommending products lacking proven safety and efficacy data be discussed, and that students should be taught where unproven systems such as homeopathy depart from evidence-based medicine. + +== Regulation and prevalence == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d876faf74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Homeopathy is fairly common in some countries while being uncommon in others; is highly regulated in some countries and mostly unregulated in others. It is practiced worldwide and professional qualifications and licences are needed in most countries. A 2019 WHO report found that 100 out of 133 member states surveyed in 2012 acknowledged that their population used homeopathy, with 22 saying the practice was regulated and 13 providing health insurance coverage. In some countries, there are no specific legal regulations concerning the use of homeopathy, while in others licences or degrees in conventional medicine from accredited universities are required. In 2001 homeopathy had been integrated into the national health care systems of many countries, including India, Mexico, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the United Kingdom. + +=== Regulation === +Some homeopathic treatment is covered by the public health service of several European countries, including Scotland, and Luxembourg. It was covered in France until 2021. In other countries, such as Belgium, homeopathy is not covered. In Austria, the public health service requires scientific proof of effectiveness in order to reimburse medical treatments; homeopathy is listed as not reimbursable, but exceptions can be made, and private health insurance policies sometimes include homeopathic treatments. In 2018, Austria's Medical University of Vienna stopped teaching homeopathy. The Swiss government withdrew coverage of homeopathy and four other complementary treatments in 2005, stating that they did not meet efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria, but following a referendum in 2009 the five therapies were reinstated for a further 6-year trial period. In Germany, as of 2020, homeopathic treatments were covered by 70 percent of government medical plans, and available in almost every pharmacy. In January 2024, German health minister Karl Lauterbach announced plans to withdraw all statutory health insurance coverage for homeopathic and anthroposophic treatments, citing a lack of scientific evidence for their efficacy. +The English NHS recommended against prescribing homeopathic preparations in 2017. In 2018, prescriptions worth £55,000 (less than 0.001% of the total NHS prescribing budget) were issued in defiance of the guidelines. In 2016 the UK's Committee of Advertising Practice compliance team wrote to homeopaths in the UK to "remind them of the rules that govern what they can and can't say in their marketing materials". The letter told homeopaths to "ensure that they do not make any direct or implied claims that homeopathy can treat medical conditions" and asks them to review their marketing communications "including websites and social media pages" to ensure compliance. Homeopathic services offered at Bristol Homeopathic Hospital in the UK ceased in October 2015. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..03aa622ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Member states of the European Union are required to ensure that homeopathic products are registered, although this process does not require any proof of efficacy. In Spain, the Association for the protection of patients from pseudo-scientific therapies is lobbying to get rid of the easy registration procedure for homeopathic remedies. In Bulgaria, Hungary, Latvia, Romania and Slovenia homeopathy, by law, can only be practiced by medical practitioners. However, in Slovenia if doctors practice homeopathy their medical license will be revoked. In Germany, to become a homeopathic physician, one must attend a three-year training program, while France, Austria and Denmark mandate licences to diagnose any illness or dispense of any product whose purpose is to treat any illness. Homeopaths in the UK are under no legal regulations, meaning anyone can call themselves homeopaths and administer homeopathic remedies. +The Indian government recognizes homeopathy as one of its national systems of medicine; homeopathic remedies can be sold with medical claims. It has established the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The south Indian state of Kerala also has a cabinet-level AYUSH department. The Central Council of Homoeopathy was established in 1973 to monitor higher education in homeopathy, and the National Institute of Homoeopathy in 1975. Principles and standards for homeopathic products are covered by the Homoeopathic pharmacopoeia of India. A minimum of a recognized diploma in homeopathy and registration on a state register or the Central Register of Homoeopathy is required to practice homeopathy in India. +In the United States each state is responsible for the laws and licensing requirements for homeopathy. In 2015, the FDA held a hearing on homeopathic product regulation. At the hearing, representatives from the Center for Inquiry and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry summarized the harm that is done to the general public from homeopathics and proposed regulatory actions. In 2016 the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC) issued an "Enforcement Policy Statement Regarding Marketing Claims for Over-the-Counter Homeopathic Drugs" which specified that the FTC will apply the same standard to homeopathic drugs that it applies to other products claiming similar benefits. A related report concluded that claims of homeopathy effectiveness "are not accepted by most modern medical experts and do not constitute competent and reliable scientific evidence that these products have the claimed treatment effects." In 2019, the FDA removed an enforcement policy that permitted unapproved homeopathics to be sold. No homeopathic products are approved by the FDA. +Homeopathic remedies are regulated as natural health products in Canada. Ontario became the first province in the country to regulate the practice of homeopathy, a move that was widely criticized by scientists and doctors. Health Canada requires all products to have a licence before being sold and applicants have to submit evidence on "the safety, efficacy and quality of a homeopathic medicine". In 2015 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation tested the system by applying for and then receiving a government approved licence for a made-up drug aimed at children. +In Australia, the sale of homeopathic products is regulated by the Therapeutic Goods Administration. In 2015, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia concluded that there is "no reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective and should not be used to treat health conditions that are chronic, serious, or could become serious". They recommended anyone considering using homeopathy should first get advice from a registered health practitioner. A 2017 review into Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation recommended that products be banned from pharmacies; while noting the concerns the government did not adopt the recommendation. In New Zealand there are no regulations specific to homeopathy and the New Zealand Medical Association does not oppose the use of homeopathy, a stance that has been called unethical by some doctors. In September 2024 the government agreed a policy on the future of natural health products. + +=== Prevalence === +Homeopathy is one of the most commonly used forms of alternative medicines and it has a large worldwide market. The exact size is uncertain, but information available on homeopathic sales suggests it forms a large share of the medical market. +In 1999, about 1,000 UK doctors practiced homeopathy, most being general practitioners who prescribe a limited number of remedies. A further 1,500 homeopaths with no medical training are also thought to practice. Over ten thousand German and French doctors use homeopathy. In the United States a National Health Interview Survey estimated 5 million adults and 1 million children used homeopathy in 2011. An analysis of this survey concluded that most cases were self-prescribed for colds and musculoskeletal pain. Major retailers including Walmart, CVS, and Walgreens sell homeopathic products that are packaged to resemble conventional medicines. +The homeopathic drug market in Germany is worth about €650 million; a 2014 survey found that 60% of Germans reported trying homeopathy. A 2009 survey found that only 17 percent of respondents knew how homeopathic medicine was made. France spent more than US$408 million on homeopathic products in 2008. In the United States the homeopathic market is worth about US$3 billion per year, with $2.9 billion spent in 2007. Australia spent US$7.3 million on homeopathic medicines in 2008. +In India, a 2014 national health survey found that homeopathy was used by about 3% of the population. Homeopathy is used in China, although it arrived a lot later than in many other countries, partly due to the restriction on foreigners that persisted until late in the nineteenth century. Throughout Africa there is a high reliance on traditional medicines, which can be attributed to the cost of modern medicines and the relative prevalence of practitioners. Many African countries do not have any official training facilities. + +== Veterinary use == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..68c8445cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:09.663132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Using homeopathy as a treatment for animals is termed "veterinary homeopathy" and dates back to the inception of homeopathy; Hahnemann himself wrote and spoke of the use of homeopathy in animals other than humans. The use of homeopathy in the organic farming industry is heavily promoted. In humans there may be benefits following homeopathic treatment due to the placebo effect and the counseling aspects of the consultation; animals are not susceptible to these effects, eliminating these possible benefits. Studies have found that giving animals placebos can play active roles in influencing pet owners to believe in the effectiveness of a treatment which actually has no effect, so that animals given homeopathic remedies continue to suffer, prompting animal welfare concerns. +Little existing research on the subject is of a high enough scientific standard to provide reliable data on efficacy. A 2016 review of peer-reviewed articles from 1981 to 2014 by scientists from the University of Kassel, Germany, concluded that there is not enough evidence to support homeopathy as an effective treatment of infectious diseases in livestock. The UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has adopted a robust position against use of "alternative" pet preparations including homeopathy. The British Veterinary Association's position statement on alternative medicines says that it "cannot endorse" homeopathy, and the Australian Veterinary Association includes it on its list of "ineffective therapies". + +== See also == +Fringe science +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Scientific skepticism + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Homeopathy (NHS Choices, UK) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy_in_New_Zealand-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy_in_New_Zealand-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c57d0b2a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy_in_New_Zealand-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Homeopathy in New Zealand" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy_in_New_Zealand" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:10.878191+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Homeopathy practice is unregulated in New Zealand and homeopathic remedies are available at pharmacies, although there are calls to have them removed from sale. +A small-scale survey of homeopathic practitioners of New Zealand in 2008 showed that they all claimed to be able to treat asthma and ear infections, and statements such as "hundreds of remedies for ear infections and asthma" and "homeopaths have a success rate nearing 80%" were made. +Though large scale studies conducted across the world show that homeopathy is a pseudoscience and its remedies have been found to be no more effective than placebo. The New Zealand Medical Association does not oppose the use of alternative medical practices such as homeopathy if it can be shown that the patient can make an informed choice; however, this stance has been called unethical and may be in contravention of medical regulations. + + +== Belief and scepticism == +The New Zealand Skeptics organisation took part in the international 1023 campaign in 2011. Protests were held in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. +A 2012 survey showed that 51% of the New Zealand population had some degree of belief that homeopathic remedies were scientifically proven. + + +== Organisations == +The Auckland Homeopathic Hospital, with Carl Fisher as superintendent, operated from 1858 to 1862. For a half-yearly report of 1859 a total of 34 patients out of 55 were claimed to have been cured. +There are a number of training providers that teach homeopathy, and the New Zealand Qualifications Authority issues credits for homeopathy courses. +The New Zealand Council of Homeopaths, formed in 1999, acts as a representative for the industry. It was formed by the amalgamation of New Zealand Homoeopathic Society, the New Zealand Institute of Classical Homeopathy and the New Zealand Accreditation Board of Natural Therapies. Homoeopathica a journal published by the New Zealand Homoeopathic Society. + + +== Autism Cure Claims == +In 2019 18 New Zealand based Homeopathic practitioners advertised CEASE therapy as a cure for autism with Helen Petousis-Harris stating "CEASE therapy as a whole new level of homeopathic woo". Autism NZ chief executive Dane Dougan "knows of CEASE therapy but had not heard of it being used much in New Zealand, which he thinks is probably a good thing" and also said "some of the unproven therapies prey on some of the most vulnerable people in society". + + +== Measles Immunity claims == +In a measles outbreak in 2016, members of the public presented certificates of homeopathic prophylaxis as evidence of immunity from measles however, randomised studies have proven there is no immunity gained from homeopathic prophylaxis. + + +== Prosecutions == +The Commerce Commission, which administers the Fair Trading Act, has prosecuted companies for misleading claims about homeopathic products. +In 1997 SCI Natural (NZ) Ltd was to be prosecuted for claims that the Soft Seaweed Soap product would help people to lose weight. The Commerce Commission decided not to go ahead with the prosecution since a key individual had left New Zealand and the company went into liquidation. A Tauranga-based couple who specialised in homeopathic remedies pleaded guilty to 19 charges under the Fair Trading Act in 2008 for making misleading claims. as they claimed their anti-terror kit could protect or cure anthrax, botulism, smallpox, bird flu, the Sars virus and other conditions. + + +== Criticism == +To prove the lack of evidence and efficacy in Homeopathic remedies, in 2010 the NZ Skeptics planned a homeopathic overdose, with President Vicki Hyde stating the remedies "are based on “wishful thinking”" and nothing but “sham and sugar”. As part of a wider global protest across UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US, the protesters consumed large doses of homeopathic remedies with no reported overdosing or cure to existing conditions. + + +== See also == +Fringe science +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy +Health care in New Zealand + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Homeopathy and naturopathy at Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand +New Zealand Homoeopathic Society +Homeopathy Campaign at New Zealand Skeptics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md index 58006ca98..16a7abd0a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:12.102288+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md index 17ebba725..3bc33fe07 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:12.102288+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md index 415fdd321..317b742e6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:12.102288+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md index d7fedc29c..99f72b956 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:12.102288+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c28d9da22 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Horoscope" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:13.253289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A horoscope (or other commonly used names for the horoscope in English include natal chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, cosmogram, vitasphere, radical chart, radix, chart wheel or simply chart) is an astrological chart or diagram representing the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, astrological aspects and angles at the time of an event, such as the moment of a person's birth. The word horoscope is derived from the Greek words ōra and scopos meaning "time" and "observer" (horoskopos, pl. horoskopoi, or "marker(s) of the hour"). It is claimed by proponents of astrology that a horoscope can be used as a method of divination regarding events relating to the point in time it represents, and it forms the basis of the horoscopic traditions of astrology, although practices surrounding astrology have been recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century. Horoscope columns are often featured in print and online newspapers. +In common usage, horoscope often refers to an astrologer's interpretation, usually based on a system of solar Sun sign astrology, based strictly on the position of the Sun at the time of birth or on the calendar significance of an event, as in Chinese astrology. In particular, many newspapers and magazines carry predictive columns, written in prose that may be written more for increasing readership than tied directly to the Sun or other aspects of the Solar System, allegedly based on celestial influences in relation to the zodiacal placement of the Sun on the month of birth, cusp (two days before or after any particular sign, an overlap), or decant (the month divided into three ten-day periods) of the person's month of birth, identifying the individual's Sun sign or "star sign" based on the tropical zodiac. +In Hindu astrology, birth charts are called kundali, and they are claimed to be based on the movement of stars and the Moon. Auspicious events and rituals are started after checking a person's kundali, including marriage, in which the birth charts of the boy and girl are matched.The kundali further records tithi, rashi, nakshatra, and D-charts, which are analyzed to determine personality traits and to choose auspicious timings for important rituals and decisions +No scientific studies have shown support for the accuracy of horoscopes, and the methods used to make interpretations are considered examples of pseudoscience. In the modern scientific framework, no known interaction exists that could be responsible for the transmission of the alleged influence between a person and the position of stars in the sky at the moment of birth. In all tests completed, keeping strict methods to include a control group and proper blinding between experimenters and subjects, horoscopes have shown no effect beyond pure chance. Furthermore, some psychological tests have shown that it is possible to construct personality descriptions and foretelling generic enough to satisfy most members of a large audience simultaneously, referred to as the Forer or Barnum effect. + +== Introduction == +The horoscope serves as a stylized map of the heavens over a specific location at a particular moment in time. In most applications the perspective is geocentric (heliocentric astrology being one exception). The positions of the actual planets (including Sun and Moon) are placed in the chart, along with those of purely calculated factors such as the lunar nodes, the house cusps including the midheaven and the ascendant, zodiac signs, fixed stars and the lots. Angular relationships between the planets themselves and other points, called aspects, are typically determined. The emphasis and interpretation of these factors vary with tradition. This means however the stars were placed at the time of birth for a person shows their characteristics and personality, including weakness. + +== Etymology == +The Latin word horoscopus, ultimately from Greek ὡρόσκοπος "nativity, horoscope", "observer of the hour [of birth]", from ὥρα "time, hour" and σκόπος "observer, watcher". In Middle English texts from the 11th century, the word appears in the Latin form and is anglicized to horoscope in Early Modern English. The noun horoscopy for "casting of horoscopes" has been in use since the 17th century (OED). In Greek, ὡρόσκοπος in the sense of "ascendant" – not only of the time of someone's birth, but more generally of any significant event – and ὡροσκοπία "observation of the ascendant" has been in use since Ptolemy. + +== Concepts in Western astrology == + +The native is the subject of the event (a birth, for example) being charted at a particular time and place, and is considered to be at the centre of the celestial sphere. +The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere onto which the zodiac, constellations and planets are projected, loosely based on the view of the sky above from Earth. +The plane of the equator is the plane of the Earth's equator projected into space. +The plane of the ecliptic is defined by the orbits of the Earth and the Sun. For practical purposes, the plane of the equator and the plane of the ecliptic maintain a constant inclination to each other of approximately 23.5°. +The plane of the horizon is centred on the native, and is tangential to the Earth at that point. In a sphere whose radius is infinitely large, this plane may be treated as nearly equivalent to the parallel plane, with its centre at the Earth's centre. This greatly simplifies the geometry of the horoscope, but does not take into account that the native is in motion. Some writers on astrology have thus considered the effects of parallax, but most would agree that (apart from that of the Moon) they are relatively minor. + +=== Angles === +There are four primary angles in the horoscope which are thought to influence key areas and moments in a native's lifetime, or within a given day or time. These are, in order of power: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f35822a91 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Horoscope" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:13.253289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +First House (Ascendant, East Angle, rising sign, or ASC/AC) +Tenth House (Midheaven, Medi Coeli (midheaven), North Angle, MC) +Seventh House (Descendant, West Angle, setting sign, DSC/DC) +Fourth House (Imum Coeli – South Angle, lower-heaven, IC) +The ascendant is the easternmost (or sunrise point) where the ecliptic and horizon intersect; the ascendant and the midheaven are considered the most important angles in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. In most systems of house division, the ASC is the cusp of the 1st house and the MC is the cusp of the 10th house. +Generally, on an astrological chart, each of these four angles are roughly 90° from the next, forming a cross shape (two oppositions, 180° each, forming a 360° sphere). This cross formation is made up of the points of east-west, north-south, or 1st house-7th house, 10th house-4th house (give or take, based on speed of orbit and degree). A simplistic comparison would be a clock face, with the 1st house and 7th house being placed at 9 and 3 o'clock, and the 10th and 4th houses placed at 12 and 6 o'clock, respectively. The placement of the planetary ruler of the ascendant, called the Chart Ruler, is also considered to be significant; The point in the west diametrically opposing the ascendant is called the descendant, normally the cusp of the 7th house; and the point opposing the MC is the cusp of the 4th house, the northernmost point of the chart, called the Imum Coeli or IC. +In creating a horoscope, the ascendant is traditionally placed at the "nine o'clock" position on the left-hand side of the chart wheel (though traditional rectangular chart formats need not follow this convention). During the course of a day, because of the Earth's rotation, the entire circle of the ecliptic will pass through the ascendant and will be advanced by about 1°. In an astrological chart, the ascendant progresses and changes zodiac signs roughly every two hours (give or take), advancing about one degree every five minutes. This movement provides us with the term "rising" sign, which is the sign of the zodiac "rising" over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. This point is thought to affect how we are perceived by others, based on the zodiac sign on the ascendant at the time of birth. The point on the ecliptic that is 90° above the plane of the horizon at the time is called the Midheaven, or Medium Coeli (MC), placed at the "twelve o'clock position" effectively where the Sun would be if the birth time was midday. This area is thought to have greatest significance on one's career and public image. + +=== The Zodiac === + +The Zodiac, or "circle of animals" is a zone or belt in space projected onto the celestial sphere through which, from our viewpoint, the planets move. A symbolic geometric construction around 16 degrees wide, it is divided into 12 signs, each of 30 degrees longitude (making 360 degrees, a full circle), with the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun, as its middle line. The tropical zodiac used by most Western astrologers has its beginning at the exact moment that the Sun crosses the celestial equator and enters the zodiacal sign of Aries. Some Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac favored by Indian ("Jyotish") astrologers, which is based more closely on actual positions of constellations in the heavens, as opposed to the tropical zodiac, which is a moveable format based on the seasons. +The tropical zodiac defines the vernal point (the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere) as the first degree of Aries, but the sidereal zodiac allows it to precess. This difference may cause confusion among beginner and casual astrologers. Because of a "wobble" in the Earth's axis of rotation over a period of about 26,000 years (often called a "great year"), the rate at which the vernal equinox precesses in the heavens is approximately 0 deg, 0 min, 50.23 seconds a year, drifting by one degree every 72 years. Precession of the equinoxes thus occurs at a rate of roughly 5 arc minutes of a degree every 6 years. The tropical signs relate to the seasons and not the stars. Here is an example: a person born on, say August 28, 2002, would come to understand that their Sun sign was in Virgo according to Western astrology (conventional Sun sign dates August 23, to September 22, of every year), but Sun on that same calendar date of the year 2002 was in the constellation Leo (where it had been since August 10, 2002, and would remain until September 15, when it would then finally cross into Virgo). +The sidereal signs and the tropical signs are both geometrical conventions of 30° each, whereas the zodiacal constellations are pictorial representations of mythological figures projected onto the celestial sphere based on patterns of visible star groupings, none of which occupy precisely 30° of the ecliptic. So constellations and signs are not the same, although for historical reasons they might have the same names. +Some astrologers do not use the signs of the zodiac at all, focusing more instead on the astrological aspects and other features of the horoscope. The sun sign is the sign of the zodiac in which the Sun is located for the native. This is the single astrological fact familiar to most people. If an event occurs at sunrise the ascendant and sun sign will be the same; other rising signs can then be estimated at two-hour intervals from there. A cusp is the boundary between two signs or houses. For some, the cusp includes a small portion of the two signs or houses under consideration. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..072b20e70 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Horoscope" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:13.253289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology == +To create a horoscope, an astrologer first has to ascertain the exact time and place of the subject's birth, or the initiation of an event. The local standard time (adjusting for any daylight saving time or war time) is then converted into Greenwich Mean Time or Universal Time at that same instant. The astrologer then has to convert this into the local sidereal time at birth in order to be able to calculate the ascendant and midheaven. The astrologer will next consult a set of tables called an ephemeris, which lists the location of the Sun, Moon and planets for a particular year, date and sidereal time, with respect to the northern hemisphere vernal equinox or the fixed stars (depending on which astrological system is being used). The astrologer then adds or subtracts the difference between the longitude of Greenwich and the longitude of the place in question to determine the true local mean time (LMT) at the place of birth to show where planets would be visible above the horizon at the precise time and place in question. Planets hidden from view beneath the Earth are also shown in the horoscope. +Using the above process, practitioners of astrology commonly construct a composite chart when two people meet and form a relationship. According to astrologers, the composite chart will give clues as to the nature and function of the relationship. +The horoscope features 12 sectors around the circle of the ecliptic, starting from the eastern horizon with the ascendant or rising sign. These 12 sectors are called the houses and numerous systems for calculating these divisions exist. Tables of houses have been published since the 19th Century to make this otherwise demanding task easier. + +=== Houses === + +The chart thus begins with a framework of 12 houses. Upon this the signs of the zodiac are superimposed. In the equal house system the cusp between any two houses will fall at the same degree for each of them: at 12° of Leo, the second house will begin at 12° of Virgo, the third at 12° Libra, and so on. In house systems that take into consideration the effects of the angle of intersection between the planes of the horizon and the ecliptic, the calculations are more complicated. For these calculations it is essential to know the latitude of the event. Tables are available for these calculations, but they are now commonly calculated by computer. Most astrology computer programs allow the user to choose from a variety of house systems. + +=== Placements of the planets === + +Having established the relative positions of the signs in the houses, the astrologer positions the Sun, Moon, and planets at their proper celestial longitudes. Some astrologers also take note of minor planetary bodies, fixed stars, asteroids (for example, Chiron) and other mathematically calculated points and angles such as the vertex, equatorial ascendant, etc. Many astrologers also use what are commonly referred to as Arabic parts (or Greek Lots), the most common of which is the Part of Fortune (Pars Fortunae). + +=== Aspects === +To complete the horoscope the astrologer will consider the aspects or relative angles between pairs of planets. More exact aspects are considered more important. The difference between the exact aspect and the actual aspect is called the orb. Those generally recognized by the astrological community are Conjunction (0°), Opposition (180°), Square (90°), Trine (120°), Sextile (60°), Semi-Square (45°), Sesquisquare (135°), and Quincunx (150°). Understandably these aspects are more significant when they are exact, but they are considered to function within an orb of influence, the size of which varies according to the importance of each aspect. Thus conjunctions are believed to operate with a larger orb than sextiles. Most modern astrologers use an orb of 8° or less for aspects involving the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter and smaller orbs for the other points. Some astrologers, such as practitioners of Cosmobiology, and Uranian astrology, use minor aspects (15°, 22.5°, 67.5°, 72°, 75°, 105°, 112.5°, 157.5°, 165°) with much narrower orbs. +The major astrological system regarded universally is Vedic Hindu Astrology. As per this, all planets see just opposite i.e. 180 degree aspect. But Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have special aspects. Mars sees the houses 4th and 8 too from its place in the horoscope, Saturn sees the houses 3 and 10 too from its place, and Jupiter sees 5 and 9 from its place in the horoscope i.e. the house in which they are posited in the lagna chart. + +=== Ascendant === +The ascendant (ASC) is a point on the ecliptic that rises on the eastern horizon at sunrise and changes as the earth rotates on its axis. The ascendant is very important in astrological chart interpretation. It exerts more power than the Sun, Moon and planets because it infiltrates everything in the natal chart. +The ascendant is the first point of energy in the natal chart and it represents the way we view life. The sign on the ascendant characterises our expression of "who we are" when dealing with others, and our initial action when dealing with day-to-day concerns. Longitude is necessary in order to determine the position of the Ascendant because horoscopes use local time. Having constructed the horoscope, the astrologer can begin the task of interpreting the chart. This interpretation depends upon which branch of horoscopic astrology is being used. + +== Chinese horoscopes == + +In Chinese astrology, horoscopes are based on the symbolism of the Chinese zodiac, a system of elements and animals associated with each year according to a Sexagenary cycle. Chinese horoscopes often appear in horoscope sections in newspapers and magazine alongside Western horoscopes. + +== Criticism == +Interest in horoscopes and the zodiac sign have been very popular throughout history and today. There are many faithful followers, from celebrities to the general public. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61f316fff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Horoscope" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:13.253289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Psychological criticism === +Natal birth charts, or zodiac signs, are often used to predict a person's personality traits. However, the use of natal birth charts to predict personality is not valid or reliable. In a double-blind study that tested the zodiac's reliability to predict personality, an astrologer had to match a person's zodiac sign to their CPI (California Psychological Inventory) result. The CPI is a reliable method to determine an individual's personality. It was found that the astrologers were not able to correctly match the zodiac sign to the CPI result beyond random assignment. This means that astrology is no more than a test of chance and it is not a reliable way to predict personality. +Similarly, the zodiac sign can be used to create horoscopes that predict the events that will happen in an individual's life. However, like using the zodiac sign for personality traits, using it for horoscopes is also unreliable. One astrologer's prediction for a horoscope is typically completely unrelated to the prediction of another astrologer. However, many people still believe their horoscope perfectly aligns with the events in their lives. There are some possible explanations for this. Horoscopes have vague wording and are based on typical everyday activities. Due to this, it is easier for people to relate to these claims and increase their belief that it is a real science. Also, a person's expectations typically lead them to bias the way they perceive information, so their expectations are confirmed. In a study, participant's horoscopes were paired with the events of their previous day. When the horoscopes were presented with the participant's zodiac sign, other participants were more likely to report that the horoscope matched the previous day's events compared to when their zodiac sign was not present. This shows how individuals will bias their perceptions based on the expectations. This makes horoscopes seem reliable, when they are not valid. + +=== Scientific criticism === +Although it has its proponents, astrology has been rejected by the scientific community. Some horoscopes base their predictions on the "movement" of stars. However, this is inaccurate as stars actually do not move but appear to because the Earth rotates on its axis and orbits around the Sun. Furthermore, none of the answers given by astrology are actually based on science. According to American astronomer, the reason why people rely on horoscopes is explained by a psychological phenomenon known as "self-selection bias", which is the tendency of humans to look for interpretations or confirmations for what they already hope to be true. Hence, the reason why astrology may seem like it works is because human brains are wired to look for patterns, even when none exists. Many practitioners of astrology claim that astrology is indeed a science however, despite many trial and experiments, the effectiveness and scientific evidence of astrology is still yet to be demonstrated. In conclusion, astrology has no verifiable mechanism behind it and astrologers follow no sort of scientific method in their process hence it cannot be classified as science. + +=== Christian criticism === +In Christianity, many say that people should not use horoscopes or practice astrology in general, citing Deuteronomy 4:19, Deuteronomy 18:10–12, and Isaiah 47:13–14 from the Bible. Evangelist and minister Billy Graham said, "God did make the stars (as well as everything else in the universe), but he intended them to be a witness to his power and glory, not as a means to guide us or foretell the future." + +== See also == + +Forer Effect +Horology +Kundali +Synoptical horoscope +Mars Effect + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Numbers b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Numbers new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..472e0f13e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Hoxsey Therapy" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:15.673984+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hoxsey Therapy or Hoxsey Method is an alternative medical treatment promoted as a cure for cancer. The treatment consists of a caustic herbal paste for external cancers or a herbal mixture for "internal" cancers, combined with laxatives, douches, vitamin supplements, and dietary changes. Reviews by major medical bodies, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National Cancer Institute, the American Cancer Society, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, and Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, have found no evidence that Hoxsey Therapy is an effective treatment for cancer. The sale or marketing of the Hoxsey Method was banned in the United States by the FDA on September 21, 1960 as a "worthless and discredited" remedy and a form of quackery. +Currently, the Hoxsey Method is primarily marketed by the Bio-Medical Center in Tijuana, Mexico. Hoxsey Therapy is also marketed over the Internet; in June 2008, the FDA National Health Fraud Coordinator noted that "There is no scientific evidence that it has any value to treat cancer, yet consumers can go online right now and find all sorts of false claims that Hoxsey treatment is effective against the disease." + +== History == + +Hoxsey Therapy, a mixture of herbs, was first marketed as a purported cure for cancer in the 1920s by Harry Hoxsey, a former coal miner and insurance salesman, and Norman Baker, a radio personality. Hoxsey himself traced the treatment to his great-grandfather, who observed a horse with a tumor on its leg cure itself by grazing upon wild plants growing in the meadow. John Hoxsey gathered these herbs and mixed them with old home remedies used for cancer. Among the claims made in his book, he purports his therapy aims to restore "physiological normalcy" to a disturbed metabolism throughout the body, with emphasis on purgation, to help carry away wastes from the tumors he believed his herbal mixtures caused to necrotize. +Hoxsey initially opened a clinic in Taylorville, Illinois to sell his treatment, one of 17 clinics that he would eventually open. Dogged in many states by legal trouble for practicing medicine without a license, Hoxsey frequently shut down his clinics and reopened them in new locations. In 1930, Hoxsey was associated with controversial broadcaster Norman G. Baker in operating the Baker Institute in Muscatine, Iowa. The two fell out and numerous lawsuits followed, while Hoxsey was again enjoined from practicing medicine without a license. +In 1936, Hoxsey opened a clinic in Dallas, Texas which became one of the largest privately owned cancer centers in the world. At one point in the 1950s, Hoxsey's gross annual income reached $1.5 million from the treatment of 8,000 patients. Hoxsey published several books advertising his methods and clinics including "You Don't Have to Die: The Amazing Story of the Hoxsey Cancer Treatment" (1956), and received support from Gerald Winrod and H. L. Hunt. + +=== Independent evaluations === +The United States National Cancer Institute (NCI) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA), as well as the American Medical Association (AMA), began a series of efforts to restrict Hoxsey's clinic operations, viewing them as providing false cures and defrauding cancer sufferers. Regarding this campaign, NCI director John Heller wrote in 1953: + +Our efforts in cancer control are directed toward reduction of the intervals between onset and diagnosis of cancer, and between diagnosis and the application of effective treatment. People who fall victims to quacks are diverted from this narrow course for the best clinical management of cancer. +The American Medical Association condemned Hoxsey's "caustic pastes" and tonics as fraudulent. In 1949, Hoxsey sued the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) and its editors for libel and slander. Hoxsey won the case, but was awarded only $2; the judge concluded that since Hoxsey's promotion of his treatment depended largely upon claims that the AMA was persecuting him, he had suffered little or no damage from the JAMA articles. A review of 400 patients treated by Hoxsey found no verifiable cures. +In 1950, Hoxsey submitted case histories of 77 patients to the National Cancer Institute (NCI), claiming that they were "fully documented with clinical records and pathological reports" and that they would demonstrate his treatment's effectiveness. However, the NCI found that of these 77 reports, only 6 included actual tissue biopsies. Of the 2 biopsies from patients described by Hoxsey as having "internal cancer", neither showed any evidence of actual malignancy. The NCI concluded that Hoxsey's records did not contain sufficient information to evaluate his treatment. Hoxsey argued that it was the NCI's responsibility to seek out the information necessary to verify his case reports, and attributed the failure to do so to a conspiracy on the part of the NCI and AMA. +In 1956, the FDA sent an investigator to Hoxsey's clinic posing as a patient. The investigator was told by Hoxsey's clinic that he had cancer (he did not), and that it would take a "long time" to cure him. The U.S. government banned the sale of the Hoxsey herbal treatment in 1960. Hoxsey was also forced to close all of his U.S. clinics. In 1963, Mildred Nelson, a nurse who had worked closely with Hoxsey, established the Bio Medical Clinic in Tijuana, Mexico with Hoxsey's approval. Hoxsey himself chose this site in 1963, when his last operation in the US was shut down. Just before Nelson's death in 1999, the clinic was taken over by her sister, Liz Jonas. +In 1967, Hoxsey developed prostate cancer, and his own treatment failed to cure it. Because he failed to respond to his eponymous therapy, Hoxsey underwent surgery and standard medical treatment. He died seven years later, in 1974. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4d1f33095 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "Hoxsey Therapy" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxsey_Therapy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:15.673984+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Treatment == +Hoxsey herbal treatments include a topical paste of antimony, zinc and bloodroot, arsenic, sulfur, and talc for external treatments, and a liquid tonic of licorice, red clover, burdock root, Stillingia root, barberry, Cascara, prickly ash bark, buckthorn bark, and potassium iodide for internal consumption. +In addition to the herbs, the Hoxsey treatment now also includes antiseptic douches and washes, laxative tablets, and nutritional supplements. A mixture of procaine hydrochloride and vitamins, along with liver and cactus, is prescribed. During treatment, patients are asked to avoid consumption of tomatoes, vinegar, pork, alcohol, salt, sugar, and white flour products. +In 2005, the cost of initial evaluation and treatment with Hoxsey Therapy at the Bio-Medical Center in Tijuana, Mexico was reported to be between $3,900 and $5,100, though this price did not include the recommended purchase of an unspecified number of dietary supplements and 3 years of return visits. + +== Side-effects == +The topical paste is highly caustic, and can burn or scar the skin. +The oral treatment can cause: +nausea +vomiting +diarrhea +anxiety +trembling +abdominal cramps +heart block +Pokeweed has caused deaths in children. +Red clover may increase the risk of bleeding for people who take anticoagulants. It also mimics the behavior of the hormone estrogen, and thus is unsuitable for women with estrogen-responsive breast tumors. + +== Effectiveness == +No peer-reviewed medical or scientific research has been published which would allow any conclusions about the effectiveness of Hoxsey Therapy. The Bio-Medical Center in Tijuana, Mexico claims a success rate of 50–85% in their promotional material, though these figures have not been independently evaluated and the parameters of "treatment success" are undefined. Mildred Nelson, director of the Bio-Medical Center, has claimed an 80% success rate, and attributed treatment failures to a "bad attitude" on the part of the patient. + +=== Studies by major medical bodies === +The American Cancer Society and the National Cancer Institute do not advise the use of Hoxsey Therapy, as neither has found any objective evidence that the treatment provides tangible benefit to people with cancer. Reviews by the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and M. D. Anderson Cancer Center found no evidence that Hoxsey Therapy is effective as a treatment for cancer. A controlled experiment in lab mice did not find any difference in tumor growth between untreated mice and those given the Hoxsey tonic. An FDA review of 400 people claiming to have been cured by the Hoxsey method found that many of the patients never in fact had cancer, or had received successful medical treatment elsewhere before being treated with Hoxsey Therapy. Those who had cancer at the time they used Hoxsey Therapy were uniformly either deceased or alive with active cancer. There were no cases of actual cures among those promoted as such by the Hoxsey clinic. +In 1957, a group from the University of British Columbia visited Hoxsey's Mexican clinic and obtained records for 71 Canadian patients treated by Hoxsey. The University panel found that: + +For over one-half of the [cancer] patients from British Columbia, the result [of treatment with the Hoxsey method] has been either death or progression of the disease. In nearly one-quarter there was no proof that the patient ever had cancer. Nearly one in ten of the patients had curative treatment before going to the Hoxsey Clinic. In only one case, an external cancer, was there any evidence at all that the Hoxsey treatment had an effect on the disease; in that case, better results could have been obtained by orthodox means. +The panel reported that in the one case of demonstrable cure, a patient with a skin cancer of the ear, Hoxsey's treatment had resulted in disfigurement which could have been avoided with standard surgical excision. +In 1998, the Office of Technology Assessment issued a report on herbal cancer treatments. This group found that while many elements of Hoxsey Therapy had antitumor activity in vitro, the complete Hoxsey tonic had never been tested in animal models or in human clinical trials. + +== Notable cases == +The treatment gained wide press coverage in 2006 due to a court dispute between the family of Starchild Abraham Cherrix and Social Services of the State of Virginia. Cherrix had requested to undergo Hoxsey Therapy to treat a recurrence of Hodgkin disease. Because at the age of 16 he was still a minor, Social Services considered the parents to be negligent and sought to have Cherrix undergo conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy. On August 16, 2006, Circuit Judge Glen A. Tyler announced that both sides had reached an agreement that the parents did not act in a way that was medically neglectful. In addition, it stipulated that Starchild would be treated by an oncologist of his choice who was both board-certified in radiation therapy as well as interested in alternative methods to treat Hodgkin disease. Cherrix subsequently received radiation treatments from Arnold Smith, of Mississippi, and in September 2007, it appeared that his cancer was in remission. + +== See also == +List of ineffective cancer treatments + +== References == + +== External links == + +=== Scientific reviews === +American Cancer Society: Hoxsey Herbal Treatment +British Columbia Cancer Agency: Hoxsey's Herbal Tonic +Overview of Hoxsey Herbal Therapy from the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center +Overview of Hoxsey Therapy from M. D. Anderson Cancer Center + +=== Narratives === +Ausubel, Kenny (2000). When Healing Becomes a Crime. Rochester, Vermont: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 978-0-89281-925-6. +Hoxsey: How Healing Becomes a Crime (1987), 1987 documentary film written and directed by Ausubel +The Medical Messiahs: A Social History of Health Quackery in Twentieth-Century America, by James Harvey Young \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Design-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Design-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4147b8deb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Design-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Human Design" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:16.905171+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Human Design is a theory and practice described as a holistic self-knowledge system. It combines astrology, the Chinese I Ching, Judaic Kabbalah, Vedic philosophy, and modern physics. + + +== Origins and purpose == +Human Design was originated by Alan Robert Krakower, who published a book called The Human Design System under the pseudonym Ra Uru Hu in 1992. Krakower was previously an advertising executive and magazine publisher. Krakower developed the Human Design system following an alleged mystical experience in 1987. +It purports to be a self-knowledge method which does not have any specific religious dogma or affiliation. However, it has been described by theologian J. R. Hustwit as a "transreligious project" that is "breathtaking in scope" and synthesizes seven or more traditions. It has also been described as a psychological counseling instrument and "a comprehensive and personalized map of your unique energy and life blueprint, guiding you towards self-awareness, personal growth, and empowerment." It claims to facilitate "deep access to bodily, generational and inter-dimensional intelligence." + + +== Elements of Human Design == +Human Design maps nine energy centers in the body, represented in a chart called a bodygraph. An individual's bodygraph shows which centers are "defined," meaning consistent and reliable in their functioning. It also displays the 64 hexagrams of the I Ching at various body locations, sometimes overlaid on the 12 signs of the zodiac within a mandala. The system uses these elements to describe "self" and "not-self" themes intended to guide personal awareness and decision-making. +Human Design also divides people into four main types—Generator, Manifestor, Projector, and Reflector—and includes a fifth hybrid type, the Manifesting Generator, which combines features of Generators and Manifestors. + + +== Types == +Generator +Generators are described as having sustainable energy and are said to respond to external stimuli rather than initiate actions themselves. They are considered adept at completing long-term tasks and applying consistent effort in daily life. +Manifesting Generator +Manifesting Generators combine traits of both Generators and Manifestors. They are said to be able to respond to life while also initiating action. They are thought to manage multiple projects simultaneously and adapt flexibly to changing circumstances. +Manifestor +Manifestors are described as capable of independent action and initiating change. They are considered able to influence their environment and create new opportunities. +Projector +Projectors are said to lack consistent energy for sustained work and are not intended for constant labor. Instead, they are described as efficient and intelligent in guiding, advising, and directing the actions of others. +Reflector +Reflectors are described as having all nine centers undefined. They are said to be particularly sensitive to their environment and strongly influenced by the people and conditions around them. They are considered mirrors of their communities, noticing shifts in mood and circumstances more acutely. + + +=== Type distribution === + + +== Legal Controversy over Copyright == +On June 3, 2020, the Court of Florence issued an order stating that there can be no copyright over the Human Design system. +The order followed a lawsuit filed by Human Design Italia, an association claiming to hold exclusive copyright in Italy and in the Italian language, based on a license from Alan Krakower's (Ra Uru Hu) company, Jovian Archive. +Human Design Italia had sued an Italian publisher, Terra Nuova, following the June 2019 publication of the book Human Design – Scopri la Tua Vera Natura by Chetan Parkyn, arguing that no one other than Human Design Italia had the right to publish books on Human Design. +After a summary proceeding, the judge ruled otherwise. In the decision, the court stated that the plaintiffs had provided no evidence proving they held exclusive rights over “the Human Design system” or its teachings. These teachings involve ideas, procedures, and methods of representation that can be freely discussed, referenced, and illustrated by those who are not their authors, without this constituting a violation of intellectual property rights. Nor is it necessary to be authorized by a school or its founders in order to do so, as under Italian law, the expression of ideas is free and not subject to sectarian control. +The principle, established under U.S. law and accepted by the Berne Convention for all signatory countries (including Italy), affirms that no copyright can be recognized over “an idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described.” Therefore: “If Krakower cannot hold a general copyright over his ideas (as opposed to his specific works), then he cannot have transferred such a right to others.” + +As a result:“The object of the transfer [from Jovian Archive to Human Design Italia] cannot be the exploitation of a copyright that does not exist.”And further:“Neither [Jovian Archive] nor its successors can prevent others from publishing additional [works] on the ‘Human Design System.’” [Quotes translated from Court Order: Ordinanza del Tribunale di Firenze: Verbale di prima udienza n. cronol. 944/2020 del 03/06/2020 RG n. 2756/2020, Sezione Imprese, Giudice dott. Niccolò Calvani] + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bcb0125d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Human–dinosaur coexistence" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:18.101473+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The historical and ongoing coexistence of humans and avian dinosaurs (birds) is well established and documented. The coexistence of humans and non-avian dinosaurs, however, exists only as a recurring motif in speculative fiction, owing to the fact that humans and non-avian dinosaurs have never coexisted at any point in the history of Earth. +The notion that non-avian dinosaurs and humans actually coexisted at some time in the past or still coexist in the present is a belief rooted in pseudoscience and pseudohistory, and is common among Young Earth creationists, cryptozoologists, and some other groups. This belief often contradicts the scientific understanding of the fossil record and known geological events. Supposed evidence presented for the idea that non-avian dinosaurs persisted to modern times has often been determined to have been a hoax. Some proponents have tried to identify depictions of dinosaurs among ancient artwork or descriptions of cryptids, though such identifications are often based on outdated or incorrect ideas about dinosaur biology and life appearance and often ignore the cultural/artistic context. +Scientists consider the idea that non-avian dinosaurs survived to the present day to be untenable, with known cases of so-called "living fossils" (such as coelacanths) being far from analogous to large-bodied land vertebrates. It would require unprecedented ghost lineages without fossils for tens of millions of years and sharply contrast with the relatively good fossil record of dinosaurs and other groups in the Mesozoic. + +== Birds == + +Birds evolved from a group of theropod dinosaurs (Paraves) during the Jurassic period. Modern birds are cladistically and phylogenetically dinosaurs, and humanity has thus coexisted with avian dinosaurs since the first humans appeared on Earth. However, in a narrow and more colloquial sense, the term "dinosaur" often refers specifically to non-avian dinosaurs, all of which died out in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction about 66 million years ago, while the genus Homo emerged only about 3 million years ago, leaving a period of tens of millions of years between the last dinosaurs and the first humans. +The most massive birds known to have coexisted with humans are the moa of New Zealand and the elephant birds of Madagascar. The largest moa, the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), could reach heights of over 3.5 meters (11.5 feet). Both the moa and the elephant birds went extinct not long after humans arrived to their respective islands, likely as a result of human hunting. It is unclear if humans ever coexisted with the terror birds of South America since most (perhaps all) species appear to already have been extinct before humans arrived. The most massive dinosaur alive today is the ostrich and the smallest is the bee hummingbird, which is also the smallest known dinosaur. + +== Fiction and mythology == +Speculative fiction commonly portrays non-avian dinosaurs with humans. Examples include The Flintstones, in which Stone Age humans have dinosaurs as pets and transportation, and the comic series The Cavern Clan, in which the protagonist is a caveman who hunts dinosaurs, as well as in the comic strip Alley Oop. The coexistence has been present in works of alternative history in which dinosaurs do not go extinct, such as the 2015 Pixar film The Good Dinosaur and the fantasy book series Dinotopia. +Many Young Earth creationists believe that non-avian dinosaurs coexisted with humans. Since Young Earth creationists believe the Earth to only be a few thousand years old, their worldview is incompatible with the scientific understanding of geological history and the fossil record. Dinosaur fossils are by different groups of Young Earth creationists either interpreted as hoaxes, sometimes said to be orchestrated by Satan, or as the remains of creatures that cannot have lived as long ago as science has determined. The second explanation implies that dinosaurs would have coexisted with humans. Some creationists further believe that dinosaurs survived the Biblical flood since the Bible states that "every kind of land animal" did. Creationists also tend to reject the fossil evidence that many non-avian dinosaurs were feathered, since this is among the evidence that birds descended from them through evolution. +Some proponents have claimed that mythological reptiles such as dragons and the Behemoth are historical descriptions of dinosaurs. Although many modern depictions of dragons share certain similarities with dinosaurs, this is a recent artistic development spurred by the discovery of dinosaur fossils in the nineteenth century onwards. Earlier depictions of dragons tended to have far fewer such similarities, for instance being less bulky and more serpentine. + +== Historical artwork and artifacts == + +=== Misinterpretations === + +In some cases, historical artwork has been interpreted as depicting non-avian dinosaurs. Although there is artwork that in cases share superficial resemblances with some dinosaur species, identifying them as such often involves ignoring both the context of the artwork itself and dinosaur biology. Some examples of historical art, particularly from Ancient Rome and Egypt, that has been interpreted as dinosaurian by pseudoscientists are conventionally seen as depictions of crocodiles. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b5197a92 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Human–dinosaur coexistence" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human–dinosaur_coexistence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:18.101473+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An often cited example of a supposed non-avian dinosaur depicted in historical art is a hand-sized carving at Ta Prohm, allegedly of a stegosaur. The series of "plates" along the animal's back are however more likely to be stylized lotus leaves or petals, which are shown around numerous other animal and human figures in medieval Cambodian art, including in other carvings at the same temple. The creature is furthermore depicted with large ear flaps or horns, structures that are not known in stegosaurs.Another example is a creature referred to as a krokodilopardalis ("crocodile leopard") in the 1st century BCE Nile mosaic of Palestrina. Some creationists have identified this creature as a theropod dinosaur, though the krokodilopardalis looks virtually nothing like one; it has a quadrupedal stance and clearly mammalian paws. +Some proponents of human and non-avian dinosaur coexistence have equated the Mesopotamian mušḫuššu, a legendary chimeric creature, with dinosaurs. Robert Koldewey, the discoverer of the Ishtar Gate in Babylon (which contains depictions of this creature), apparently had such ideas and found it to be similar to how Iguanodon was conceptualized at the time. Even some cryptozoologists reject this idea however, given that the mušḫuššu clearly combines various features of different animals in an arrangement not actually reminiscent of a dinosaur. + +=== Hoaxes === + +==== Footprints ==== +One claim made by some proponents of human-dinosaur coexistence is that non-avian dinosaur footprints have been found together with human footprints, with one particular site of note being Paluxy River in Texas. The supposed human tracks in the rock have all been identified to consist of dinosaur tracks eroded to an elongated shape and deliberate hoaxes. There have been documented cases of Young Earth creationists covering up portions of the dinosaur tracks with sand, photographing them, and reproducing the (often low-quality) photographs in print and film. +During the Great Depression, some footprints carved to resemble human feet were sold to tourists in the vicinity of the Paluxy River tracksite; these were recognized as fakes by the paleontologist Roland T. Bird, though helped him to discover the original tracksite in 1940. + +==== Artifacts ==== +Many hoaxes have been presented as historical depictions of dinosaurs and have been used as evidence for the idea that non-avian dinosaurs coexisted with humans. Notable such "artifacts" include the Granby Stone Idol (a known hoax depicting a sauropod together with incorrectly rendered Chinese symbols), the Acámbaro figures (a large set of dinosaur-like figurines now known to have been made shortly before their supposed discovery), the Ica stones (stones with dinosaurs carved on them, admitted to have been hoaxed by their creator), and the Tucson artifacts (which include a sword inscribed with a dinosaur, exposed as a hoax for decades). +Even though virtually all such objects have been exposed as hoaxes, many continue to erroneously be used as "evidence". Several hoaxes depicting dinosaurs reflect outdated understandings of the animals. Among the dinosaurs on the Ica stones is for instance a Tyrannosaurus rex, though shown nearly upright with its tail dragging behind it on the ground. This depiction is in-line with how T. rex was depicted in the 1960s (when the stones were "found") but does not reflect current scientific understanding. + +== Cryptozoology == + +Many cryptids have been suggested by cryptozoologists to be living representatives or descendants of various extinct animals, including non-avian dinosaurs. The suggested scenarios for how such organisms are supposed to have survived are often highly flawed, contradicting the abundant data on known geological events and the fossil record. The supposed identifications are also often only based on reconstructions of extinct organisms, consequently limiting them to species often appearing in popular literature as well as views on them now considered to be outdated. As a general example, cryptozoological identifications of various supposed lake monsters often default to identifying them as living plesiosaurs, despite numerous other groups both extinct and extant being more similar in appearance and biology. +One of the more well-known "dinosaur cryptids" is Mokele-mbembe, said to dwell in the Congo River and identified by some cryptozoologists as a possible sauropod. Mokele-mbembe is said to be an amphibious swamp-dweller. This reflects outdated popular views of sauropods common in the twentieth century and presumably stems from artistic depictions in that time, though shares little resemblance with the lifestyle modern research suggests sauropods had. Some researchers have raised concerns that the idea of a "living dinosaur in darkest Africa" is intertwined with the racist ideologies that were once used to justify the colonization of the continent in that it paints Africa as a land still stuck in premodern times, ripe for exploration by more "scientifically advanced" foreigners. +Similarly, some cryptozoologists have also suggested that several Native American legends concerning horned water monsters are identifiable with crested hadrosaurs, with the horns equated with their crests. This identification derives from the outdated idea that hadrosaurs were amphibious, common in the twentieth century but now discredited. + +== See also == +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Cultural depictions of dinosaurs +Human uses of birds + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyland's-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyland's-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f26bba208 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyland's-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Hyland's" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyland's" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:19.251336+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hyland's is a brand of homeopathic products sold in the United States and Canada. Hyland's operates in the United States as Hyland's Inc and in Canada as Hyland's Homeopathic Canada Inc and is a division of Standard Homeopathic Co.. + + +== History == +The company was founded in 1903 in Los Angeles as Standard Homeopathic Pharmacy. It was purchased by George H. Hyland in 1910 and the name was changed to Standard Homeopathic Company. Hyland's began selling products in Canada in 1990. +In 2013, the FDA conducted a review of Hyland's labeling and marketing information which revealed numerous products misbranded in violation of sections 503 and 301 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) [21 U.S.C. §§ 353 and 331]. This review included the products for "Infant Earache Drops," "Restful Legs," "Teething Tablets," and other products. The products are marketed as over-the-counter for diagnoses and treatments that require a physician's consultation. + + +== Safety concerns == +In 2004, Hyland's Teething Tablets were the second most popular teething product. +The FDA warned consumers about Hyland's teething products in 2010, citing concern over the toxicity of its belladonna ingredient and lack of child proof caps. Hyland's voluntarily recalled its Hyland's Teething Tablets product after the 2010 warning in both the US and Canada. Hyland's began selling a reformulated version of the product with a child proof cap in 2011. +In 2016, Hyland's indicated it would stop selling its Hyland's Teething Tablets product in the U.S. after the FDA claimed it received reports of 10 child deaths and 400 adverse effects associated with the product. Hyland's calls the FDA's claims unsubstantiated. Hyland's suggests other possible causes, noting possible allergies and citing articles listing possible causes of seizures in children unrelated to the formulation of its product. The FDA confirmed in 2017 that inconsistent and sometimes excessive levels of belladonna had been found in the product. + + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ee3be8d5c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Hypnotherapy" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:21.542072+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hypnotherapy, also known as hypnotic medicine, is the use of hypnosis in psychotherapy. Hypnosis is a state of deep focus and openness to suggestion that usually begins with relaxation and guided instructions. Some people respond more strongly than others, and researchers explain that hypnosis is not a magical trance but a form of concentrated attention and expectation (Heap & Naish, 2012). Hypnotherapy is generally not considered to be based on scientific evidence, and is rarely recommended in clinical practice guidelines. + +== Definition == +The United States Department of Labor's Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) describes the job of the hypnotherapist:"Induces hypnotic state in client to increase motivation or alter behavior patterns: Consults with client to determine nature of problem. Prepares client to enter hypnotic state by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will experience. Tests subject to determine degree of physical and emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in client, using individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem. May train client in self-hypnosis conditioning." + +=== Traditional === +The form of hypnotherapy practiced by most Victorian hypnotists, including James Braid and Hippolyte Bernheim, mainly employed direct suggestion of symptom removal, with some use of therapeutic relaxation and occasionally aversion to alcohol, drugs, etc. + +=== Ericksonian === +In the 1950s, Milton H. Erickson developed a radically different approach to hypnotism, which has subsequently become known as "Ericksonian hypnotherapy" or "Neo-Ericksonian hypnotherapy." Based on his belief that dysfunctional behaviors were defined by social tension, Erickson coopted the subject's behavior to establish rapport, a strategy he termed "utilization." Once rapport was established, he made use of an informal conversational approach to direct awareness. His methods included complex language patterns and client-specific therapeutic strategies (reflecting the nature of utilization). He claimed to have developed ways to suggest behavior changes during apparently ordinary conversations. +This divergence from tradition led some, including Andre Weitzenhoffer, to dispute whether Erickson was right to label his approach "hypnosis" at all. Erickson's foundational paper, however, considers hypnosis as a mental state in which specific types of "work" may be done, rather than a technique of induction. +The founders of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), a method somewhat similar in some regards to some versions of hypnotherapy, claimed that they had modelled the work of Erickson extensively and assimilated it into their approach. Weitzenhoffer disputed whether NLP bears any genuine resemblance to Erickson's work. + +=== Solution-focused === +In the 2000s, hypnotherapists began to combine aspects of solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) with Ericksonian hypnotherapy to produce therapy that was goal-focused (what the client wanted to achieve) rather than the more traditional problem-focused approach (spending time discussing the issues that brought the client to seek help). A solution-focused hypnotherapy session may include techniques from NLP. + +=== Cognitive/behavioral === +Cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy (CBH) is an integrated psychological therapy employing clinical hypnosis and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). The use of CBT in conjunction with hypnotherapy may result in greater treatment effectiveness. A meta-analysis of eight different types of research revealed "a 70% greater improvement" for patients undergoing an integrated treatment than those using CBT only. +In 1974, Theodore X. Barber and his colleagues published a review of the research which argued, following the earlier social psychology of Theodore R. Sarbin, that hypnotism was better understood not as a "special state" but as the result of normal psychological variables, such as active imagination, expectation, appropriate attitudes, and motivation. Barber introduced the term "cognitive-behavioral" to describe the nonstate theory of hypnotism, and discussed its application to behavior therapy. +The growing application of cognitive and behavioral psychological theories and concepts to the explanation of hypnosis paved the way for closer integration of hypnotherapy with various cognitive and behavioral therapies. +Many cognitive and behavioral therapies were themselves originally influenced by older hypnotherapy techniques, e.g., the systematic desensitisation of Joseph Wolpe, the cardinal technique of early behavior therapy, was originally called "hypnotic desensitisation" and derived from the Medical Hypnosis (1948) of Lewis Wolberg. + +=== Curative === +Peter Marshall, author of A Handbook of Hypnotherapy, devised the Trance Theory of Mental Illness, which asserts that people suffering from depression, or certain other kinds of neuroses, are already living in a trance. He states that this means the hypnotherapist does not need to induce trance, but instead to make them understand this and lead them out of it. + +=== Mindful === +Mindful hypnotherapy is a therapy that incorporates mindfulness and hypnotherapy. A pilot study was made at Baylor University, Texas, and published in the International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. Gary Elkins, director of the Mind-Body Medicine Research Laboratory at Baylor University, called it "a valuable option for treating anxiety and stress reduction" and "an innovative mind-body therapy". The study showed a decrease in stress and an increase in mindfulness. + +=== Relationship to scientific medicine === +Hypnotherapy practitioners occasionally attract the attention of mainstream medicine. Attempts to instill academic rigor have been frustrated by the complexity of client suggestibility, which has social and cultural aspects, including the practitioner's reputation. Results achieved in one time and center of study have not been reliably transmitted to future generations. +In the 1700s, Anton Mesmer offered pseudoscientific justification for his practices, but a commission that included Benjamin Franklin debunked his rationalizations. + +== Effectiveness == + +According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists, "studies have shown that hypnotherapy can help to treat a range of physical and mental health conditions" and "In many cases, hypnotherapy and other uses of suggestion can provide fast, effective treatment". + +=== Menopause === +Hypnosis may be useful for treating some symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and night sweats. In 2023, the North American Menopause Society recommended using hypnosis for the nonhormonal management of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms. A 2024 review indicated that hypnosis has potential benefit for treating some symptoms of menopause. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad87c9fdf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Hypnotherapy" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:21.542072+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Irritable bowel syndrome === +The use of hypnotherapy in treating the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome is supported by research, including randomized controlled trials. Gut-directed hypnotherapy is recommended in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome by the American College of Gastroenterology clinical guideline for the management of IBS. + +=== Childbirth === +Hypnotherapy is often applied in the birthing process and the post-natal period, but there is insufficient evidence to determine if it alleviates pain during childbirth and no evidence that it is effective against post-natal depression. + +=== Bulimia nervosa === +Literature shows that a wide variety of hypnotic interventions have been investigated for the treatment of bulimia nervosa, with inconclusive effects. Similar studies have shown that groups suffering from bulimia nervosa, undergoing hypnotherapy, were more exceptional to no treatment, placebos, or other alternative treatments. + +=== Anxiety === +Hypnotherapy is shown to be comparable in effectiveness to other forms of therapy, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, that utilize relaxation techniques and imagery. It has also shown to be successful when used to reduce anxiety in those with dental anxiety and phobias. + +=== PTSD === + +Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its symptoms have been shown to improve due to the implementation of hypnotherapy, in both the long and short term. As research continues, hypnotherapy is being more openly considered as an effective intervention for those with PTSD. + +=== Depression === +Hypnotherapy is effective when used to treat long-term depressive symptoms. It is comparable to the efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy, and when used in tandem, efficacy seems to increase. + +=== Other uses === +Historically hypnotism was used therapeutically by some psychiatrists in the Victorian era, to treat the condition then known as hysteria. +Modern hypnotherapy has been used to treat certain habit disorders and control irrational fears, and addiction. + +A 2003 meta-analysis on the efficacy of hypnotherapy concluded that "the efficacy of hypnosis is not verified for a considerable part of the spectrum of psychotherapeutic practice." +In 2007, a meta-analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration found that the therapeutic effect of hypnotherapy was "superior to that of a waiting list control or usual medical management, for abdominal pain and composite primary IBS symptoms, in the short term in patients who fail standard medical therapy", with no harmful side effects. However, the authors noted that the quality of data available was inadequate to draw firm conclusions. +Two Cochrane reviews in 2012 concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support its efficacy in managing the pain of childbirth or post-natal depression. +A 2014 meta-analysis that focused on hypnotherapy's efficacy on irritable bowel syndrome found that it was beneficial for short-term abdominal pain and other gastrointestinal issues. +In 2016, a literature review published in La Presse Médicale found that there is not sufficient evidence to "support the efficacy of hypnosis in chronic anxiety disorders". +In 2016, an article was published on the efficacy of Hypnotherapy as an aide to stroke rehabilitation. +In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of a benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation and suggested that if there is, it is small at best. +A 2019 meta-analysis of hypnosis as a treatment for anxiety found that "the average participant receiving hypnosis reduced anxiety more than about 79% of control participants," also noting that "hypnosis was more effective in reducing anxiety when combined with other psychological interventions than when used as a stand-alone treatment." +A 2024 parallel randomized control trial of cognitive behavioral therapy and hypnotherapy that took hypnotic suggestibility into consideration for sustained smoking cessation showed that the two therapies were roughly equivalent in their efficacy. + +== Occupational accreditation == + +=== United States === +The laws regarding hypnosis and hypnotherapy vary by state and municipality. Some states, like Colorado, Connecticut, and Washington, have mandatory licensing and registration requirements, while many other states have no specific regulations governing the practice of hypnotherapy. + +=== United Kingdom === + +==== UK National Occupational Standards ==== +In 2002, the Department for Education and Skills developed National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy linked to National Vocational Qualifications based on the then National Qualifications Framework under the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. NCFE, a national awarding body, issues a level four national vocational qualification diploma in hypnotherapy. Currently, AIM Awards offers a Level 3 Certificate in Hypnotherapy and Counselling Skills at level 3 of the Regulated Qualifications Framework. + +==== UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations (UKCHO) ==== +The regulation of the hypnotherapy profession in the UK is at present the main focus of UKCHO, a non-profit umbrella body for hypnotherapy organisations. Founded in 1998 to provide a non-political arena to discuss and implement changes to the profession of hypnotherapy, UKCHO currently represents 9 of the UK's professional hypnotherapy organisations and has developed standards of training for hypnotherapists, along with codes of conduct and practice that all UKCHO-registered hypnotherapists are governed by. As a step towards the regulation of the profession, UKCHO's website now includes a National Public Register of Hypnotherapists who have been registered by UKCHO's Member Organisations and are therefore subject to UKCHO's professional standards. Further steps to regulate the hypnotherapy profession will be taken in consultation with the Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health. + +==== The National Council for Hypnotherapy (NCH) ==== +The National Council for Hypnotherapy is a Professional Association, established in 1973 to create a National Membership Organisation for independent Hypnotherapy Practitioners. The organisation is not for profit with a Board of 12-15 people composed of Executives and Directors, the latter usually 'in practice' Hypnotherapists and trainers of Hypnotherapy. The current Chair, Tracey Grist, has been in the position since 2016. +The NCH is a VO (Verifying organisation) for the CNHC, which means that NCH members meet the criteria to become CNHC registrants. +The NCH membership meets the national hypnotherapy training standards via the externally verified Hypnotherapy Practitioner Diploma (HPD) through the NCFE. +Members agree to follow the CECP; the NCH's ethical code of practice. All members are expected to be insured to practice, meet supervision requirements, and meet annual CPD expectations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba344dd48 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Hypnotherapy" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:21.542072+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Australia === +The Australian government does not regulate professional hypnotherapy and the use of the occupational titles hypnotherapist or clinical hypnotherapist. +In 1996, as a result of a three-year research project led by Lindsay B. Yeates, the Australian Hypnotherapists Association (founded in 1949), the oldest hypnotism-oriented professional organization in Australia, instituted a peer-group accreditation system for full-time Australian professional hypnotherapists, the first of its kind in the world, which "accredit[ed] specific individuals on the basis of their actual demonstrated knowledge and clinical performance; instead of approving particular 'courses' or approving particular 'teaching institutions'" (Yeates, 1996, p.iv; 1999, p.xiv). The system was further revised in 1999. +Australian hypnotism/hypnotherapy organizations (including the Australian Hypnotherapists Association) are seeking government regulation similar to other mental health professions. However, currently, hypnotherapy is not subject to government regulation through the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA). + +== See also == + +Abreaction – Psychoanalytical term +Astral projection – Interpretation of out-of-body experiences +Atavistic regression – Reversion to a more primitive mental state under hypnosis +Autogenic training – Relaxation technique +Automatic writing – Claimed psychic ability +Autosuggestion – Psychological technique related to the placebo effect +Confabulation – Recall of fabricated, misinterpreted or distorted memories +Doctor of Clinical Hypnotherapy – Unaccredited degree in hypnotherapy in the United States +False memory – Psychological occurrence +Hypnotherapy in the United Kingdom +Hypnosis – State of increased suggestibility +Hypnosurgery – Practice of using hypnosis for sedation during surgery +Hypnotic Ego-Strengthening Procedure – Hypnotherapeutic procedure +Ideomotor phenomenon – Concept in hypnosis and psychological research +Mind–body interventions – Health and fitness interventions +Nancy School of Hypnosis – French school of psychotherapy from 1866 +Polygraph – Pseudoscientific device that attempts to infer lying +Psychoneuroimmunology – Area of study within psychosomatic medicine +Psychosomatic medicine – Interdisciplinary medical field exploring various influences on bodily processes +Psychotherapy – Clinically applied psychology for desired behavior change +Recovered-memory therapy – Scientifically discredited form of psychotherapy +Regression (psychology) – Mental defence mechanism in psychoanalysis +Repressed memory – Theory that memory may be stored in the unconscious mind +Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism – 1784 French scientific bodies' investigations involving systematic controlled trials +Salpêtrière School of Hypnosis – French school of psychotherapy from 1882Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Scientific skepticism – Questioning of claims lacking empirical evidence +Source-monitoring error – Type of memory error +Subconscious mind – Part of the mind that is not currently of focal awarenessPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Suggestibility – Inclination to accept the suggestions of others +The Pregnant Man and Other Cases from a Hypnotherapist's Couch (book) – 2010 book by Deirdre Barrett +The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare – Academic journal devoted to pseudoscientific concepts +Unconscious mind – Mental processes not available to introspection + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID2020-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID2020-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c2196cee9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID2020-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "ID2020" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID2020" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:22.844050+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ID2020 is an American 501(c)(3) nongovernmental organization which advocates for digital ID for the billion undocumented people worldwide and under-served groups like refugees. Clive Smith succeeded founder Dakota Gruener as executive director in 2022. The NGO was relatively unknown before being publicized because of misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic by conspiracy theorists. + + +== History == +ID2020 was founded by John Edge on June 27, 2014, after being inspired by a screening of Meena. +On August 10, 2015, Dr. Alicia Carmona published a blog post on LinkedIn seeking input from her colleagues with examples where "identification/identity is at the core of a community problem." She noted that a new non-profit organization called Identification 2020 was soon to be formally launched. +On May 20, 2016, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, the inaugural ID2020 summit brought together over 400 people to discuss how to provide digital identity to all, a defined Sustainable Development Goal including to 1.5 billion people living without any form of recognized identification. Experts in blockchain and other cryptographic technology joined with representatives of technical standards bodies to identify how technology and other private sector expertise could achieve the goal. +The 2018 summit was held in September 2018, and focused on defining what constitutes a "good" digital ID. Sponsors for the event included the United Nations Office of Information Communications Technology (OICT), United Nations Refugee Agency, International Telecommunication Union and the Consulate General of Denmark in New York. +In 2019, ID2020 started a new digital identity program in collaboration with the government of Bangladesh and Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization. + + +== Mission == +ID2020 is a public-private consortium in service of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goal of providing legal identity for all people, including the world's most vulnerable populations. +ID2020 has published a ten-point mission statement, which includes: "We believe that individuals must have control over their own digital identities, including how personal data is collected, used, and shared." + + +== Participants == +Organizations currently or formerly participating in the ID2020 initiative include: + + +== COVID-19 conspiracy theory == +Conspiracy theorists falsely alleged that ID2020 and Bill Gates made plans for mandatory COVID-19 vaccination and the implantation of microchips into patients' bodies. As a result of these conspiracy theories, the staff at ID2020 received death threats. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +World Health Organization: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public: Myth busters +Coronavirus at Politifact \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..00e87ce59 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Indigenous Aryanism, also known as the Indigenous Aryans theory (IAT) and the Out of India theory (OIT), is the conviction that the Aryans are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, and that the Indo-European languages radiated out from a homeland in India into their present locations. It is a "religio-nationalistic" view of Indian history, and propagated as an alternative to the established migration model, which considers the Pontic–Caspian steppe to be the area of origin of the Indo-European languages. +Reflecting traditional Indian views based on the Puranic chronology, indigenists propose an older date than is generally accepted for the Vedic period, and argue that the Indus Valley civilisation was a Vedic civilisation. In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." +Support for the IAT mostly exists among a subset of Indian scholars of Hindu religion and the history and archaeology of India, and plays a significant role in Hindutva politics. It has no relevance or support in mainstream scholarship. + +== Background == + +The standard view on the origins of the Indo-Aryans is that of the Indo-Aryan migrations, which states that they entered north-western India at about 1500 BCE. The Puranic chronology, the timeline of events in ancient Indian history as narrated in the Mahabaratha, the Ramayana, and the Puranas, envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received thousands of years ago, and the start of the reign of Manu Vaivasvate, the Manu of the current kalpa (aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, may be dated as far back 7350 BCE. The Kurukshetra War, the background-scene of the Bhagavad Gita, which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at the heartland of Aryavarta, is dated in this chronology at ca. 3100 BCE. +Indigenists, reflecting traditional Indian views on history and religion, argue that the Aryans are indigenous to India, which challenges the standard view. In the 1980s and 1990s, the indigenous position has come to the foreground of the public debate. + +=== Indian homeland and Aryan Invasion theory === +In 19th century Indo-European studies, the language of the Rigveda was the most archaic Indo-European language known to scholars, indeed the only records of Indo-European that could reasonably claim to date to the Bronze Age. This primacy of Sanskrit inspired scholars such as Friedrich Schlegel, to assume that the locus of the proto-Indo-European homeland had been in India, with the other dialects spread to the west by historical migration. With the 20th-century discovery of Bronze Age attestations of Indo-European (Anatolian, Mycenaean Greek), Vedic Sanskrit lost its special status as the most archaic Indo-European language known. +In the 1850s, Max Müller introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, which migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively. Müller dichotomised the two groups, ascribing greater prominence and value to the western branch. Nevertheless, this "eastern branch of the Aryan race was more powerful than the indigenous eastern natives, who were easy to conquer." By the 1880s, his ideas had been adapted by racist ethnologists. For example, as an exponent of race science, colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley (1851–1911) used the ratio of nose width to height to divide Indian people into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes. +The idea of an Aryan "invasion" was fueled by the discovery of the Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation, which declined around the period of the Indo-Aryan migration, suggesting a destructive invasion. This argument was developed by the mid-20th century archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquests. He famously stated that the Vedic god "Indra stands accused" of the destruction of the Indus Civilisation. Scholarly critics have since argued that Wheeler misinterpreted his evidence and that the skeletons were better explained as hasty interments, not unburied victims of a massacre. + +=== Indo-Aryan migration theory === + +==== Migrations ==== + +The idea of an "invasion" has been discarded in mainstream scholarship since the 1980s, and replaced by more sophisticated models, referred to as the Indo-Aryan migration theory. It posits the introduction of Indo-Aryan languages into South Asia through migrations of Indo-European-speaking people from their Urheimat (original homeland) in the Pontic Steppes via the Central European Corded ware culture, and Eastern European/Central Asian Sintashta culture, through Central Asia into the Levant (Mitanni), south Asia, and Inner Asia (Wusun and Yuezhi). It is part of the Kurgan-hypothesis/Revised Steppe Theory, which further describes the spread of Indo-European languages into western Europe via migrations of Indo-European speaking people. +Historical linguistics provides the main basis for the theory, analysing the development and changes of languages, and establishing relations between the various Indo-European languages, including the time frame of their development. It also provides information about shared words, and the corresponding area of the origin of Indo-European, and the specific vocabulary which is to be ascribed to specific regions. The linguistic analyses and data are supplemented with archaeological and genetical data and anthropological arguments, which together provide a coherent model that is widely accepted. +In the model, the first archaeological remains of the Indo-Europeans is the Yamnaya culture, from which emerged the Central European Corded Ware culture, which spread eastward creating the Proto-Indo-Iranian Sintashta culture (2100–1800 BCE), from which developed the Andronovo culture (1800–1400 BCE). Around 1800 BCE, Indo-Aryan people split-off from the Iranian branches, and migrated to the BMAC (2300–1700 BCE), and further to the Levant, northern India, and possibly Inner Asia. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dec4da39c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Cultural continuity and adaptation ==== +The migration into northern India was not necessarily of a large population, but may have consisted of small groups, who introduced their language and social system into the new territory when looking for pasture for their herds. These were then emulated by larger groups, who adopted the new language and culture. Witzel also notes that "small-scale semi-annual +transhumance movements between the Indus plains and the Afghan and Baluchi highlands continue to this day." + +== Indigenous Aryanism == + +According to Bryant, Indigenists + +... share a conviction that the theory of an external origin of the Indo-Aryan speaking people on the Indian subcontinent has been constructed on flimsy or false assumptions and conjectures. As far as such scholars are concerned, no compelling evidence has yet been produced to posit an external origin of the Indo-Aryans [...] they have taken it upon themselves to oppose +the theory of Aryan invasions and migrations—hence the label Indigenous Aryanism. +The "Indigenist position" started to take shape after the discovery of the Harappan civilisation, which predates the Vedas. According to this alternative view, the Aryans are indigenous to India, the Indus Civilisation is the Vedic Civilisation, the Vedas are older than the second millennium BCE, there is no discontinuity between the (northern) Indo-European part of India and the (southern) Dravidian part, and the Indo-European languages radiated out from a homeland in India into their present locations. According to Bresnan, it is a natural response to the 19th century narrative of a superior Aryan race subjecting the native Indians, implicitly confirming the ethnocentric superiority of the European invaders of colonial times, instead supporting "a theory of indigenous development that led to the creation of the Vedas." + +=== Main arguments of the Indigenists === +The idea of "Indigenous Aryans" is supported with specific interpretations of archaeological, genetic, and linguistic data, and on literal interpretations of the Rigveda. Standard arguments, both in support of the "Indigenous Aryans" theory and in opposition the mainstream Indo-Aryan Migration theory, are: + +Questioning the Indo-Aryan Migration theory: +Presenting the Indo-Aryan Migration theory as an "Indo-Aryan Invasion theory", which was invented by 19th century colonialists to suppress the Indian people. +Questioning the methodology of linguistics; +Arguing for an indigenous cultural continuity, arguing there is a lack of archaeological remains of the Indo-Aryans in north-west India; +Questioning the genetic evidence +Contesting the possibility that small groups can change culture and languages in a major way; +Re-dating India's history by postulating a Vedic-Puranic chronology: +Arguing for ancient, indigenous origins of Sanskrit, dating the Rigveda and the Vedic people to the 3rd millennium BCE or earlier; This includes: +Identifying the Sarasvati River, described in the Rig Veda as a mighty river, with the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which had dried up c. 2000 BCE, arguing therefore for an earlier dating of the Rig Veda; +Arguing for the presence of horses and horse-drawn chariots before 2000 BCE; +Identifying the Vedic people with the Harappan civilisation; +Redating Indian history based on the Vedic-Puranic chronology. + +=== Questioning the Aryan Migration model === + +==== Rhetorics of "Aryan invasion" ==== +The outdated notion of an "Aryan invasion" has been used as a straw man to attack the Indo-Aryan Migration theory. According to Witzel, the invasion model was criticised by Indigenous Aryanists for being a justification for colonial rule: + +The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population. +While according to Koenraad Elst, a supporter of Indigenous Aryans: + +The theory of which we are about to discuss the linguistic evidence, is widely known as the "Aryan invasion theory" (AIT). I will retain this term even though some scholars object to it, preferring the term "immigration" to "invasion." ... North India's linguistic landscape leaves open only two possible explanations: either Indo-Aryan was native, or it was imported in an invasion. + +==== Linguistic methodology ==== +Indigenists question the methodology and results of linguistics. According to Bryant, OIT proponents tend to be linguistic dilettantes who either ignore the linguistic evidence completely, dismiss it as highly speculative and inconclusive, or attempt to tackle it with hopelessly inadequate qualifications; this attitude and neglect significantly minimises the value of most OIT publications. + +==== Archaeological finds and cultural continuity ==== + +In the 1960s, archaeological explanations for cultural change shifted from migration-models to internal causes of change. Given the lack of archaeological remains of the Indo-Aryans, Jim G. Shaffer, writing in the 1980s and 1990s, has argued for an indigenous cultural continuity between Harappan and post-Harappan times. According to Shaffer, there is no archaeological indication of an Aryan migration into northwestern India during or after the decline of the Harappan city culture. Instead, Shaffer has argued for "a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments." According to Shaffer, linguistic change has mistakenly been attributed to migrations of people. Likewise, Erdosy also notes the absence of evidence for migrations, and states that "Indo-European languages may well have spread to South Asia through migration," but that the Rigvedic aryas, as a specific ethno-linguistic tribe holding a specific set of ideas, may well have been indigenous people whose "set of ideas" soon spread over India. +Since the 1990s, attention has shifted back to migrations as an explanatory model. Pastoral societies are difficult to identify in the archaeological record, since they move around in small groups and leave little traces. In 1990, David Anthony published a defense of migratory models, and in his The Horse, the Wheel, and Language (2007), has provided an extensive overview of the archaeological trail of the Indo-European people across the Eurasian steppes and central Asia. The development and "revolutionary" improvement of genetic research since the early 2010s has reinforced this shift in focus, as it has unearthed previously unaccessible data, showing large-scale migrations in prehistoric times. + +==== Genetic evidence ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d5fb42b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +OIT-proponents have questioned the findings of genetic research, and some older DNA-research had questioned the Indo-Aryan migrations. Since 2015 however, genetic research has "revolutionarily" improved, and further confirmed the migration of Steppe pastoralists into Western Europe and South Asia, and "many scientists who were either sceptical or neutral about significant Bronze Age migrations into India have changed their opinions." + +==== Cultural change ==== +Indigenists contest the possibility that small groups can change culture and languages in a major way. Mainstream scholarship explains this by elite dominance and language shift. Small groups can change a larger cultural area, when an elite male group integrates in small indigenous groups which takes over the elite language, in this case leading to a language shift in northern India. Indo-Aryan languages were further disseminated with the spread of the Vedic-Brahmanical culture in the process of Sanskritisation. In this process, local traditions ("little traditions") became integrated into the "great tradition" of Brahmanical religion, disseminating Sanskrit texts and Brahmanical ideas throughout India, and abroad. This facilitated the development of the Hindu synthesis, in which the Brahmanical tradition absorbed "local popular traditions of ritual and ideology." + +=== Redating Indian history === + +==== Redating the Rig Veda and the Rig Vedic people ==== + +===== Sanskrit ===== +According to the mainstream view, Sanskrit arose in South Asia after Indo-Aryan languages had been introduced by the Indo-Aryans in the first half of the second millennium BCE. The most archaic form of Sanskrit is Vedic Sanskrit found in the Rig Veda, composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE. +Taking recourse to "Hindu astronomical lore" Indigenists argue for ancient, indigenous origins of Sanskrit, dating the Rigveda and the Vedic people to the 3rd millennium BCE or earlier. According to Subhash Kak, situating the arrival of the Aryans in the seventh millennium BCE, the hymns of the Rig Veda are organised in accordance with an astronomical code, supposedly showing "a tradition of sophisticated observational astronomy going back to events of 3000 or 4000 BCE." His ideas have been rejected by mainstream scholars. + +===== Horses and chariots ===== + +Several archaeological finds are interpreted as evidencing the presence of typical Indo-Aryan artefacts before 2000 BCE. Examples include the interpretation of animal bones from before 2000 BCE as horse-bones, and interpreting the Sinauli cart burials as chariots. While horse remains and related artifacts have been found in Late Harappan (1900-1300 BCE) sites, indicating that horses may have been present at Late Harappan times, horses did not play an essential role in the Harappan civilisation, in contrast to the Vedic period (1500-500 BCE). The earliest undisputed finds of horse remains in South Asia are from the Gandhara grave culture, also known as the Swat culture (c. 1400-800 BCE), related to the Indo-Aryans +Horse remains from the Harappan site Surkotada (dated to 2400-1700 BC) have been identified by A.K. Sharma as Equus ferus caballus. However, archaeologists like Meadow (1997) disagree, on the grounds that the remains of the Equus ferus caballus horse are difficult to distinguish from other equid species such as Equus asinus (donkeys) or Equus hemionus (onagers). +Bronze Age solid-disk wheel carts were found at Sinauli in 2018. They were related to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, and dated at ca. 2000-1800 BCE. They were interpreted by some as horse-pulled "chariots", predating the arrival of the horse-centered Indo-Aryans. According to Parpola, the carts were ox-pulled charts, and related to a first wave of Indo-Iranian migrations into the Indian subcontinent, noting that the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000-1500 BCE) shows similarities with both the Late Harappan culture and steppe-cultures. + +===== Sarasvati river ===== +In the Rig Veda, the goddess Sarasvati is described as a mighty river. Indigenists take these descriptions as references to a real river, the Sarasvati river, identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra, an eastern tributary to the Indus. Given the fact that the Ghaggar-Hakkra had dried-up at 2000 BCE, Indigenists argue that the Vedic people must therefore have been present much earlier. +Rig Vedic references to a physical river indicate that the Sarswati "had already lost its main source of water supply and must have ended in a terminal lake (samudra)," "depicting the present-day situation, with the Sarasvatī having lost most of its water." "Sarasvati" may also be identified with the Helmand or Haraxvati river in southern Afghanistan, the name of which may have been reused in its Sanskrit form as the name of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, after the Vedic tribes moved to the Punjab. Sarasvati of the Rig Veda may also refer to two distinct rivers, with the family books referring to the Helmand River, and the more recent 10th mandala referring to the Ghaggar-Hakra. + +==== Identifying the Vedic people with the Harappan civilisation ==== +Indigenists claim a continuous cultural evolution of India, denying a discontinuity between the Harappan and Vedic periods, identifying the IVC with the Vedic people. According to Kak, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." This identification is incompatible with the archaeological, linguistic and genetic data, and rejected by mainstream scholarship. + +==== Postulating a Puranic chronology ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..455d38431 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The idea of "Indigenous Aryanism" fits into traditional Hindu ideas of religious history, namely that Hinduism has timeless origins, with the Vedic Aryans inhabiting India since ancient times. The ideas Indigenist ideas are rooted in the chronology of the Puranas, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, which contain lists of kings and genealogies used to construct the traditional chronology of ancient India. "Indigenists" follow a "Puranic agenda", emphasising that these lists go back to the fourth millennium BCE. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the Maurya court at Patna at c. 300 BCE, reported to have heard of a traditional list of 153 kings that covered 6042 years, beyond the traditional beginning of the Kali Yuga in 3102 BCE. The royal lists are based on Sūta bardic traditions, and are derived from lists which were orally transmitted and constantly reshaped. +These lists are supplemented with astronomical interpretations, which are also used to reach an earlier dating for the Rigveda. Along with this comes a redating of historical personages and events, in which the Buddha is dated to 1100 BCE or even 1700 BCE, and Chandragupta Maurya (c. 300 BCE) is replaced by Chandragupta, the Gupta king. The Bharata War is dated at 3139–38 BCE, the start of the kali Yuga. + +== Indigenous Aryans scenarios == + +Michael Witzel identifies three major types of "Indigenous Aryans" scenarios: +1. A "mild" version that insists on the indigeneity of the Rigvedic Aryans to the North-Western region of the Indian subcontinent in the tradition of Aurobindo and Dayananda; +2. The "out of India" school that posits India as the Proto-Indo-European homeland, originally proposed in the 18th century, revived by the Hindutva sympathiser Koenraad Elst (1999), and further popularised within Hindu nationalism by Shrikant Talageri (2000); +3. The position that all the world's languages and civilisations derive from India, represented e.g. by David Frawley. +Kazanas adds a fourth scenario: +4.The Aryans entered the Indus Valley before 4500 BCE and got integrated with the Harappans, or might have been the Harappans. + +=== Aurobindo's Aryan world-view === +For Aurobindo, an "Aryan" was not a member of a particular race, but a person who "accepted a particular type of self-culture, of inward and outward practice, of ideality, of aspiration." Aurobindo wanted to revive India's strength by reviving Aryan traditions of strength and character. He denied the historicity of a racial division in India between "Aryan invaders" and a native dark-skinned population. Nevertheless, he did accept two kinds of culture in ancient India, namely the Aryan culture of northern and central India and Afghanistan, and the un-Aryan culture of the east, south and west. Thus, he accepted the cultural aspects of the division suggested by European historians. + +=== Out of India model === + +The "Out of India theory" (OIT), also known as the "Indian Urheimat theory," is the proposition that the Indo-European language family originated in Northern India and spread to the remainder of the Indo-European region through a series of migrations. It implies that the people of the Harappan civilisation were linguistically Indo-Aryans. + +==== Theoretical overview ==== +Koenraad Elst, in his Update in the Aryan Invasion Debate (1999), investigates "the developing arguments concerning the Aryan Invasion Theory". Elst notes: + +Personally, I don't think that either theory, of Aryan invasion and of Aryan indigenousness, can claim to have been proven by prevalent standards of proof; even though one of the contenders is getting closer. Indeed, while I have enjoyed pointing out the flaws in the AIT statements of the politicized Indian academic establishment and its American amplifiers, I cannot rule out the possibility that the theory which they are defending may still have its merits. +Edwin Bryant also notes that Elst's model is a "theoretical exercise:" + +...a purely theoretical linguistic exercise […] as an experiment to determine whether India can definitively be excluded as a possible homeland. If it cannot, then this further problematizes the possibility of a homeland ever being established anywhere on linguistic grounds. +And in Indo-Aryan Controversy Bryant notes: + +Elst, perhaps more in a mood of devil's advocacy, toys with the evidence to show how it can be reconfigured, and to claim that no linguistic evidence has yet been produced to exclude India as a homeland that cannot be reconfigured to promote it as such. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c98f0df2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== "The emerging alternative" ==== +Koenraad Elst summarises "the emerging alternative to the Aryan Invasion Theory" as follows. +During the 6th millennium BCE, Proto-Indo-Europeans lived in the Punjab region of northern India. As the result of demographic expansion, they spread into Bactria as the Kambojas. The Paradas moved further and inhabited the Caspian coast and much of central Asia while the Cinas moved northwards and inhabited the Tarim Basin in northwestern China, forming the Tocharian group of I-E speakers. These groups were Proto-Anatolian and inhabited that region by 2000 BCE. These people took the oldest form of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language with them and, while interacting with people of the Anatolian and Balkan region, transformed it into a separate dialect. While inhabiting central Asia they discovered the uses of the horse, which they later sent back to the Urheimat. Later on during their history, they went on to occupy western Europe and thus spread the Indo-European languages to that region. +During the 4th millennium BCE, civilisation in India started evolving into what became the urban Indus Valley civilisation. During this time, the PIE languages evolved to Proto-Indo-Iranian. Some time during this period, the Indo-Iranians began to separate as the result of internal rivalry and conflict, with the Iranians expanding westwards towards Mesopotamia and Persia, these possibly were the Pahlavas. They also expanded into parts of central Asia. By the end of this migration, India was left with the Proto-Indo-Aryans. At the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Sarasvati river began drying up and the remainder of the Indo-Aryans split into separate groups. Some travelled westwards and established themselves as rulers of the Hurrian Mitanni kingdom by around 1500 BCE (see Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni). Others travelled eastwards and inhabited the Gangetic basin while others travelled southwards and interacted with the Dravidian people. + +=== David Frawley === +In books such as The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India and In Search of the Cradle of Civilization (1995), Frawley criticises the 19th century racial interpretations of Indian prehistory, such as the theory of conflict between invading Caucasoid Aryans and Dravidians. In the latter book, Frawley, Georg Feuerstein, and Subhash Kak reject the Aryan Invasion theory and support Out of India. +Bryant commented that Frawley's historical work is more successful as a popular work, where its impact "is by no means insignificant", rather than as an academic study, +and that Frawley "is committed to channelling a symbolic spiritual paradigm through a critical empirico rational one". +Pseudo-historian Graham Hancock (2002) quotes Frawley's historical work extensively for the proposal of highly evolved ancient civilisations prior to the end of the last glacial period. including in India. Kreisburg refers to Frawley's "The Vedic Literature and Its Many Secrets". + +== Significance for colonial rule and Hindu politics == + +The Aryan Invasion theory plays an important role in Hindu nationalism, which favors Indigenous Aryanism. + +=== Colonial India === + +Curiosity and the colonial requirements of knowledge about their subject people led the officials of the East India Company to explore the history and culture of India in the late 18th century. When similarities between Sanskrit, Greek and Latin were discovered by William Jones, a suggestion of "monogenesis" (single origin) was formulated for these languages as well as their speakers. In the latter part of the 19th century, it was thought that language, culture and race were inter-related, and the notion of biological race came to the forefront The presumed "Aryan race" which originated the Indo-European languages was prominent among such races, and was deduced to be further subdivided into "European Aryans" and "Asian Aryans," each with their own homelands. +Max Mueller, who translated the Rigveda during 1849–1874, postulated an original homeland for all Aryans in central Asia, from which a northern branch migrated to Europe and a southern branch to India and Iran. The Aryans were presumed to be fair-complexioned Indo-European speakers who conquered the dark-skinned dasas of India. The upper castes, particularly the Brahmins, were thought to be of Aryan descent whereas the lower castes and Dalits ("untouchables") were thought to be the descendants of dasas. +The Aryan theory served politically to suggest a common ancestry and dignity between the Indians and the British. Keshab Chunder Sen spoke of British rule in India as a "reunion of parted cousins." Indian nationalist Bal Gangadhar Tilak endorsed the antiquity of Rigveda, dating it to 4500 BCE. He placed the homeland of the Aryans somewhere close to the North Pole. From there, Aryans were believed to have migrated south in the post-glacial age, branching into a European branch that relapsed into barbarism and an Indian branch that retained the original, superior civilisation. +Christian missionaries such as John Muir and John Wilson highlighted what they saw as the oppression of lower castes by upper castes, which they attributed to the Aryan invasions. Jyotiba Phule argued that the dasas and sudras were indigenous to the land, whereas Brahmins were Aryan and outsiders. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f08d9f6b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Hindu revivalism and nationalism === +In contrast to the mainstream views, the Hindu revivalist movements denied an external origin to Aryans. Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj (Society of Aryans), held that Vedas were the source of all knowledge and were revealed to the Aryans. The first man (an Aryan) was created in Tibet and, after living there for some time, the Aryans came down and inhabited India, which was previously empty. +The Theosophical Society held that the Aryans were indigenous to India, but that they were also the progenitors of the European civilisation. The Society saw a dichotomy between the spiritualism of India and the materialism of Europe. +According to Romila Thapar, the Hindu nationalists, eager to construct a Hindu identity for the nation, held that the original Hindus were the Aryans and that they were indigenous to India. There was no Aryan invasion and no conflict among the people of India. The Aryans spoke Sanskrit and spread the Aryan civilisation from India to the west. However, Hindutva creator V. D. Savarkar believed that Aryans migrated to South Asia. +Witzel traces the "indigenous Aryan" idea to the writings of M. S. Golwalkar. Golwalkar (1939) denied any immigration of "Aryans" to the subcontinent, stressing that all Hindus have always been "children of the soil", a notion which according to Witzel is reminiscent of the blood and soil of contemporary fascism. Witzel adds that Savarkar offered a religious and cultural definition of Hindu-ness which he called "Hindutva". It has different components: territorial, political, nationalisitic, ancestral, cultural and religious. Since these ideas emerged on the brink of the internationalist and socially oriented Nehru-Gandhi government, they lay dormant for several decades after the independence, and only rose to prominence in the 1980s. +Bergunder likewise identifies Golwalkar as the originator of the "Indigenous Aryans" notion, and Goel's Voice of India as the instrument of its rise to notability: + +The Aryan migration theory at first played no particular argumentative role in Hindu nationalism. […] This impression of indifference changed, however, with Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar (1906–1973), who from 1940 until his death was leader of the extremist paramilitary organization the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). […] In contrast to many other of their openly offensive teachings, the Hindu nationalists did not seek to keep the question of the Aryan migration out of public discourses or to modify it; rather, efforts were made to help the theory of the indigenousness of the Hindus achieve public recognition. For this the initiative of the publisher Sita Ram Goel (b. 1921) was decisive. Goel may be considered one of the most radical, but at the same time also one of the most intellectual, of the Hindu nationalist ideologues. […] Since 1981 Goel has run a publishing house named ‘Voice of India' that is one of the few which publishes Hindu nationalist literature in English which at the same time makes a 'scientific' claim. Although no official connections exist, the books of 'Voice of India' — which are of outstanding typographical quality and are sold at a subsidized price — are widespread among the ranks of the leaders of the Sangh Parivar. […] The increasing political influence of Hindu nationalism in the 1990s resulted in attempts to revise the Aryan migration theory also becoming known to the academic public. + +=== Present-day political significance === +Lars Martin Fosse notes the political significance of "Indigenous Aryanism". He notes that "Indigenous Aryanism" has been adopted by Hindu nationalists as a part of their ideology, which makes it a political matter in addition to a scholarly problem. The proponents of Indigenous Aryanism necessarily engage in "moral disqualification" of Western Indology, which is a recurrent theme in much of the indigenist literature. The same rhetoric is being used in indigenist literature and the Hindu nationalist publications like the Organiser. +According to Abhijith Ravinutala, the indigenist position is essential for Hindutva exclusive claims on India: + +The BJP considers Indo-Aryans fundamental to the party's conception of Hindutva, or "Hindu-ness": India is a nation of and for Hindus only. Only those who consider India their holy land should remain in the nation. From the BJP's point of view, the Indo-Aryan peoples were indigenous to India, and therefore were the first 'true Hindus'. Accordingly, an essential part of 'Indian' identity in this point of view is being indigenous to the land. +Repercussions of the disagreements about Aryan origins have reached Californian courts with the Californian Hindu textbook case, where according to The Times of India historian and president of the Indian History Congress, Dwijendra Narayan Jha in a "crucial affidavit" to the Superior Court of California: + +...[g]iving a hint of the Aryan origin debate in India, ... asked the court not to fall for the 'indigenous Aryan' claim since it has led to 'demonisation of Muslims and Christians as foreigners and to the near denial of the contributions of non-Hindus to Indian culture'. +According to Thapar, Modi's government and the BJP have "peddled myths and stereotypes", such as the insistence on "a single uniform culture of the Aryans, ancestral to the Hindu, as having prevailed in the subcontinent, subsuming all others", despite the scholarly evidence for migrations into India, which is "anathema to the Hindutva construction of early history". + +== Rejection by mainstream scholarship == +The Indigenous Aryans theory has no relevance, let alone support, in mainstream scholarship. According to Michael Witzel, the "indigenous Aryans" position is not scholarship in the usual sense, but an "apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking": \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f6b53696a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The "revisionist project" certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purāṇas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise ... The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the "truth" of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at "rewriting" history out of national pride or for the purpose of "nation building". +In her review of Bryant's The Indo-Aryan Controversy, which includes chapters by Elst and other "indigenists", Stephanie Jamison comments: + +... the parallels between the Intelligent Design issue and the Indo-Aryan "controversy" are distressingly close. The Indo-Aryan controversy is a manufactured one with a non-scholarly agenda, and the tactics of its manufacturers are very close to those of the ID proponents mentioned above. However unwittingly and however high their aims, the two editors have sought to put a gloss of intellectual legitimacy, with a sense that real scientific questions are being debated, on what is essentially a religio-nationalistic attack on a scholarly consensus. +Sudeshna Guha, in her review of The Indo-Aryan Controversy, notes that the book has serious methodological shortcomings, by not asking the question what exactly constitutes historical evidence. This makes the "fair and adequate representation of the differences of opinion" problematic, since it neglects "the extent to which unscholarly opportunism has motivated the rebirth of this genre of 'scholarship'". Guha: + +Bryant's call for accepting "the valid problems that are pointed out on both sides" (p. 500), holds intellectual value only if distinctions are strictly maintained between research that promotes scholarship, and that which does not. Bryant and Patton gloss over the relevance of such distinctions for sustaining the academic nature of the Indo-Aryan debate, although the importance of distinguishing the scholarly from the unscholarly is rather well enunciated through the essays of Michael Witzel and Lars Martin Fosse. +According to Bryant, OIT proponents tend to be linguistic dilettantes who either ignore the linguistic evidence completely, dismiss it as highly speculative and inconclusive, or attempt to tackle it with hopelessly inadequate qualifications; this attitude and neglect significantly minimises the value of most OIT publications. +Fosse notes crucial theoretical and methodological shortcomings in the indigenist literature. Analysing the works of Sethna, Bhagwan Singh, Navaratna and Talageri, he notes that they mostly quote English literature, which is not fully explored, and omitting German and French Indology. It makes their works in various degrees underinformed, resulting in a critique that is "largely neglected by Western scholars because it is regarded as incompetent". +According to Erdosy, the indigenist position is part of a "lunatic fringe" against the mainstream migrationist model. + +== See also == + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Sources == +Printed sources + +Web-sources + +== Further reading == +Overview +Edwin Bryant, a cultural historian, has given an overview of the various "Indigenist" positions in his PhD-thesis and two subsequent publications: + +Bryant, Edwin (1997). The indigenous Aryan debate (Thesis). Columbia University. +Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9. +Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L. (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. Routledge. +The Indigenous Aryan Debate and The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture are reports of his fieldwork, primarily interviews with Indian researchers, on the reception of the Indo-Aryan migration theory in India. The Indo-Aryan Controversy is a bundle of papers by various "indigenists", including Koenraad Elst, but also a paper by Michael Witzel. +Another overview has been given by Thomas Trautmann: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1911da258 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Aryanism" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:24.064555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Trautmann, Thomas (2005). The Aryan Debate. Oxford University Press. +Trautmann, Thomas (2006). Aryans and British India. Yoda Press. ISBN 9788190227216. +Literature by "indigenous Aryans" proponents +Elst, Koenraad (1999). Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-86471-77-4. Archived from the original on 2013-08-07. Retrieved 2006-12-21. +Kazanas, Nicholas (2002). "Indigenous Indo-Aryans and the Rigveda". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 30: 275–334. +Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak, David Frawley, In Search of the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India Quest Books (IL) (October, 1995) ISBN 0-8356-0720-8 +Lal, B. B. (2002), The Sarasvati flows on: The continuity of Indian culture, Aryan Books International, ISBN 81-7305-202-6. +Lal, B. B. (2015), The Rigvedic People: Invaders? Immigrants? or Indigenous?. See also Koenraad Elst, "Book Review: The Rig Vedic People Were Indigenous to India, Not Invaders" +Mukhyananda (1997). Vedanta: In the Context of Modern Science – A Comparative Study. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ASIN: B0000CPAAF. +N. S. Rajaram, The Politics of History: Aryan Invasion Theory and the Subversion of Scholarship (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1995) ISBN 81-85990-28-X. +Talageri, S. G., The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2000 ISBN 81-7742-010-0 [1] Archived 2006-06-16 at the Wayback Machine +Danino, Michel (April–June 2009). "A Brief Note on the Aryan Invasion Theory" (PDF). Pragati Quarterly Research Journal. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-03. Retrieved 2015-02-03. +Motwani, Jagat (2011). None but India (Bharat): The Cradle of Aryans, Sanskrit, Vedas, & Swastika – 'Aryan Invasion of India' and 'IE Family of Languages' Re-examined and Rebutted. iUniverse. +Bharat +Frawley, David (1993). Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Secrets of Ancient Civilization. Motilal Banarsidass. +Criticism +Shereen Ratnagar (2008), The Aryan homeland debate in India, in Philip L. Kohl, Mara Kozelsky, Nachman Ben-Yehuda "Selective remembrances: archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts", pp 349–378 +Suraj Bhan (2002), "Aryanization of the Indus Civilization" in Panikkar, KN, Byres, TJ and Patnaik, U (Eds), The Making of History, pp 41–55. +Thapar, Romila (2019), "They Peddle Myths and Call It History", New York Times +Other +Guichard, Sylvie (2010). The Construction of History and Nationalism in India: Textbooks, Controversies and Politics. Routledge. + +== External links == + +Thapar, Romila: The Aryan question revisited (1999) +Witzel, Michael: The Home of the Aryans +Witzel, Horseplay at Harappa, Harvard University +A tale of two horses – Frontline, 11–24 November 2000. +Linda Hess, The Indigenous Aryan Discussion on RISA-L: The Complete Text (to 10/28/96) +Thomas Trautmann (2005), The Aryan Debate: Introduction \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f07f0c9a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Indigo children" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:25.325201+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Indigo children, according to a pseudoscientific New Age concept, are children who are believed to possess special, unusual, and sometimes supernatural traits or abilities. The idea is based on concepts developed in the 1970s by Nancy Ann Tappe, who wrote that she had been noticing indigo children beginning in the late 1960s. Her ideas were further developed by Lee Carroll and Jan Tober. The concept of indigo children gained popular interest with the publication of a series of books in the late 1990s and the release of several films in the following decade. A variety of books, conferences, and related materials have been created surrounding belief in the idea of indigo children and their nature and abilities. The interpretations of these beliefs range from their being the next stage in human evolution to the belief that they are more empathetic and creative than their peers. +No scientific studies give credibility to the existence of indigo children or their traits. Some parents choose to label their children who have been diagnosed with learning disabilities as an indigo child to alternatively diagnose them. Critics view this as a way for parents to avoid considering pediatric treatment or a psychiatric diagnosis. Some lists of traits used to describe indigo children have also been criticized for being vague enough to be applied to most people, a form of the Forer effect. + +== Origins == +The term "indigo children" originated with parapsychologist and self-described synesthete and psychic Nancy Ann Tappe, who developed the concept in the 1970s. In 1982 Tappe published a comb-bound version which she expanded and republished in paperback in 1986 as Understanding Your Life Thru Color. In these works Tappe introduced the concept of "life colors", defined in Understanding Your Life Thru Color as "the single color of the aura that remains constant in most people from the cradle to the grave". The concept of "life colors" was popularized nationally by Tappe's student Barbara Bowers, who published What Color Is Your Aura?: Personality Spectrums for Understanding and Growth in 1989, and by Bowers' student Pamala Oslie, who published Life Colors: What the Colors in Your Aura Reveal in 1991. +Tappe stated that during the late 1960s and early 1970s she began noticing that many children were being born with indigo auras (or, in her terminology, with indigo as their "life color"). The idea was later popularized by the 1998 book The Indigo Children: The New Kids Have Arrived, written by husband and wife self-help lecturers Lee Carroll and Jan Tober. +In 2002, the first international conference on indigo children was held in Hawaii, drawing 600 attendees, and there have been subsequent conferences in Florida, Oregon, and elsewhere. Several films have been produced on the subject, including two films by New Age writer James Twyman: a 2003 feature film Indigo and a 2006 documentary The Indigo Evolution. +Sarah W. Whedon suggests in a 2009 article in Nova Religio that the social construction of indigo children is a response to an "apparent crisis of American childhood" in the form of increased youth violence and diagnoses of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Whedon believes parents label their children as "indigo" to provide an alternative explanation for their children's improper behavior, which is stemming from ADHD. + +== Attributed characteristics == +Descriptions of indigo children include that they: + +Are empathic, curious, and strong-willed +Are often perceived by friends and family as being strange +Possess a clear sense of self-definition and purpose +Show a strong innate subconscious spirituality from early childhood (which, however, does not necessarily imply a direct interest in spiritual or religious areas) +Have a strong feeling of entitlement, or deserving to be here +Other attributed traits include: + +High intelligence quotient +Inherent intuitive ability +Resistance to rigid, control-based paradigms of authority +According to Tober and Carroll, indigo children may function poorly in conventional schools due to their rejection of rigid authority, their being smarter or more spiritually mature than their teachers, and their lack of response to guilt-, fear- or manipulation-based discipline. +According to research psychologist Russell Barkley, the New Age movement has yet to produce empirical evidence of the existence of indigo children, as the traits most commonly attributed to them are closely aligned with the Forer effect—so vague that they could describe nearly anyone. Many critics see the concept of indigo children as made up of extremely general traits, a sham diagnosis that is an alternative to a medical diagnosis, with a complete lack of science or studies to support it. + +=== Indigo as an alternative to diagnosis === +Retired professor of philosophy and skeptic Robert Todd Carroll notes that many of the commentators on the indigo phenomenon are of varying qualifications and expertise, and parents may prefer labeling their child an indigo as an alternative to a diagnosis that implies poor parenting, narcissistic parenting, damage, or mental illness. This is a belief echoed by academic psychologists. Some mental health experts are concerned that labeling a disruptive child an "indigo" may delay proper diagnosis and treatment that could help the child or look into the parenting style that may be causing the behavior. Others have stated that many of the traits of indigo children could be more prosaically interpreted as simple unruliness and alertness. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c2e6da11 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Indigo children" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_children" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:25.325201+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Relationship to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder === +Many children labeled indigo by their parents are diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Tober and Carroll's book The Indigo Children linked the concept with diagnosis of ADHD. David Cohen points out that labeling a child an indigo is an alternative to a diagnosis that implies mental illness, which may appeal to many parents. Cohen has stated, "The view in medicine is that ADHD is a defect. It's a disorder. If you're a parent, the idea of 'gifted' is much more appealing than the idea of a disorder." Linking the concept of indigo children with the distaste for the use of Ritalin to control ADHD, Robert Todd Carroll states "The hype and near-hysteria surrounding the use of Ritalin has contributed to an atmosphere that makes it possible for a book like Indigo Children to be taken seriously. Given the choice, who wouldn't rather believe their children are special and chosen for some high mission rather than that they have a brain disorder?" Stephen Hinshaw, a professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, states that concerns regarding the overmedicalization of children are legitimate but even gifted children with ADHD learn better with more structure rather than less, even if the structure initially causes difficulties. Many labeled as indigo children are or have been home schooled. Many children labeled as indigo children have the same identifying criteria as those children who have experienced being raised by a narcissistic parent, and are considered to have been emotionally abused. +A 2011 study suggested parents of children with ADHD who label their children as "indigos" may perceive problematic behaviors emblematic of ADHD to be more positive and experience less frustration and disappointment, though they still experience more negative emotions and conflicts than parents of children without a diagnosis. + +=== Relation to autism === +Crystal children, a concept related to indigo children, has been linked to the autism spectrum. Proponents recategorize autistic symptoms as telepathic powers, and attempt to reconceptualize “the autistic traits associated with them as part of a positive identity". Autism researcher Mitzi Waltz states that there may be inherent dangers to these beliefs, leading parents to deny the existence of impairments, avoid proven treatments and spend considerable money on unhelpful interventions. Waltz states that "Parents may also transmit belief systems to the child that are self-aggrandizing, confusing, or potentially frightening". + +== Commercialization == + +The concept of indigo children has been criticized for being less about children and their needs, and more about the profits to be made by self-styled experts in book and video sales as well as lucrative counseling sessions, summer camps, conferences and speaking engagements. + +== Discussion as a new religious movement == +Nancy Ann Tappe originally noted that one type of Indigo child (the "interdimensional child"), despite being seen as a bully, was expected to lead new religious movements. +One pagan author, Lorna Tedder, anecdotally notes that every pagan woman she knew who had or was going to have a child believed their child was an Indigo child. +S. Zohreh Kermani states that "Despite their problems with authority, uncontrollable tempers, and overbearing egos, Indigo Children are many pagan parents' ideal offspring: sensitive, psychic, and strong willed", but also notes the concept is less about the child's psychic abilities than the parent's own hopes and desire for "distinction from the less-evolved masses." +Daniel Kline, in an essay titled "The New Kids: Indigo Children and New Age Discourse", notes that the magical belief that the innocence of children equates to spiritual powers has existed for centuries, and that the indigo child movement is rooted in a religious rejection of science-based medicine. In particular, he wrote that Nancy Ann Tappe derived some of her ideas from Charles Webster Leadbeater (her main innovation being emphasizing the connection between children and the color indigo), and that the New Age adoption of the concept is a reaction against diagnoses of ADHD and autism. Kline also discusses how Carroll and Tober have tried to distance themselves from religious beliefs about indigo children in order to maintain control of the concept (even recanting their previous affirmations about auras), and how skeptics and New Agers alike both make rhetorical appeals to science (despite the latter's rejection of it) to legitimize their ideological beliefs regarding the existence of indigo children. +At the 2014 University of Cambridge Festival of Ideas, anthropologist Beth Singler discussed how the term indigo children functioned as a new religious movement, along with Jediism. Singler's work focuses on the Indigo movement as a part of an overall discussion on "wider moral panics around children, parenting, the diagnosis of conditions such as ADHD and autism and conspiracy theories about Big Pharma and vaccinations." + +== See also == +Star people (New Age) + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Clarke, Arthur C. (1953). Childhood's End. Ballantine Books. OCLC 36566890. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_sauna-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_sauna-0.md index 3f71cb3d4..f6fcaec32 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_sauna-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_sauna-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_sauna" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:22:12.362767+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:26.582369+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3c2e87cda --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Institute for Creation Research" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:27.765353+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Institute for Creation Research (ICR) is a creationist apologetics institute in Dallas, Texas, that specializes in media promotion of pseudoscientific creation science and interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative as a historical event. The ICR adopts the Bible as an inerrant and literal documentary of scientific and historical fact as well as religious and moral truths, and espouses a Young Earth creationist worldview. It rejects evolutionary biology, which it views as a corrupting moral and social influence and threat to religious belief. The ICR was formed by Henry M. Morris in 1972 following an organizational split with the Creation Science Research Center (CSRC). +Its work in the field of creation science has been rejected by science, but has been significant in shaping creationist thought in the United States by introducing creation science through fundamentalist churches and religious schools, and by engaging in public debates against supporters of evolution. The ICR also offers unaccredited graduate level programs in Biblical Apologetics, including a minor in Creation Research. The ICR also operates the ICR Discovery Center for Science & Earth History museum in Dallas, Texas. + +== History == + +The origins of the ICR can be traced to the Creation Science Research Center set up by Henry M. Morris, along with Nell and Kelly Segraves, at the Christian Heritage College (now San Diego Christian College) in 1970. However, the Segraveses and Morris disagreed on the focus of the center, with the Segraveses favoring political and promotional activities, whilst Morris favored educational and scientific efforts. This led to the breakup of the center in 1972, with the Segraveses taking control of the center and severing ties with the university, with Morris reorganising the remaining staff into the Institute for Creation Research. +The ICR defined its work in terms of three ministries: research, writing and speaking. Historian of science Ronald L. Numbers states that "[d]espite its name, the institute for years conducted little research outside the confines of its modest library" and cites (founding member) Duane Gish as "explain[ing] apologetically in 1978, [that] the staff devoted much of its research effort to scouring the scientific literature for references favorable to creationism." Numbers does note that it engaged in a number of archaeological and geological expeditions, including two in search of the mythical Noah's Ark, with geologist Steven A. Austin, working as an "off and on" visiting scientist until taking a full staff position in 1979, single-handedly conducting most of its non-literary research. Influential scientific creationist Walter E. Lammerts complained that "[t]he main trouble is that Henry looks at this whole thing as a sort of 'missionary' effort rather than a scientific one." It maintained tax-exempt status as a religious institution carrying out "non-scientific research." +In the early 1980s, the ICR severed its ties with Christian Heritage College to downplay its religious connections and portray itself as secular scientific institution. Ken Ham, a speaker and former high school science teacher in Australia, once worked for the ICR producing a series of seminars "Back to Genesis". In 1994 Ham left ICR to found what would become Answers in Genesis (AiG). Currently, at least one ICR staff member is also on staff at AiG. +In 1985, the ICR helped Turkey's education minister Vehbi Dinçerler, introduce Islamic creationism in Turkish high schools. +In 1987, the ICR's statement of belief was cited in the U.S. Supreme Court ruling of Edwards v. Aguillard. Justice Lewis F. Powell Jr. wrote that "If no valid secular purpose can be identified, then the statute violates the Establishment Clause." He continued noting information on ICR and Creation Research Society including "a review of their goals and activities sheds light on the nature of creation science." He then explained, "the intent of the Louisiana Legislature was to promote a particular religious belief" and the court ruled that teaching creationism was unconstitutional. +In 1992, the ICR opened the Museum of Creation and Earth History. When the ICR moved from Santee, California to Dallas, Texas, the ICR sold the museum to the Life and Light Foundation, a non-profit ministry run by Tom Cantor, in 2008. +With the Creation Research Society, ICR released statements in 2005 about the RATE (Radioisotopes and the Age of The Earth) project, providing a young-Earth creationist perspective on dating techniques like radiometric dating. RATE claimed that evidence supported over 500 million years of radiometric decay at today's rates but that it also supported a young earth. It speculated that nuclear decay rates must have accelerated by a factor of approximately one billion on the first two days of the Creation week and during the Flood. Non-affiliated experts who have scrutinised the claims have unanimously rejected them as flawed, noting that the integrity of science was compromised in favor of a message affirming the reliability of the Bible. RATE was chaired by Larry Vardiman and included Steven A. Austin, John Baumgardner, Steven W. Boyd, Eugene F. Chaffin, Donald B. DeYoung, Russell Humphreys and Andrew Snelling. + +In 2007, the institute relocated from Santee, California, to Dallas, Texas. Morris, who died the previous year, said the move was intended to give the ICR a central national location, Dallas' proximity to a major airport, and a larger population for their ministry. For FYE 2007, the Institute had net assets of $7,613,461. In 2009, the ICR had a revenue of $8,042,283 with net assets of $9,857,656. +On September 2, 2019, the ICR opened the ICR Discovery Center for Science & Earth History museum in Dallas, Texas. +Morris's son, Henry M. Morris III, died on December 12, 2020. The younger Morris had been ICR's CEO. + +== Research and publications == + +In a 1995 review of work published by ICR researchers, Douglas J. Futuyma writes, "Neither in the creationist literature nor in the scientific literature have I found any reference to professional research by these individuals in genetics, paleontology, taxonomy, anatomy, or any of the other fields most relevant to the study of evolution." He found their work most often published instead by an overtly religious publishing house, Creation-Life Publishers. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e13e65d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Institute for Creation Research" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:27.765353+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Master Books == +Master Books is a division within Creation-Life Publishers, another enterprise Morris helped to found. It serves as the publishing arm of the Institute for Creation Research, and specializes in theology and creation science works. Master Books' anti-evolution books are in wide distribution, promoted by most of the large creationist organizations as well as the ICR. + +== School and accreditation == +In June 1981, the ICR received formal state approval in California to offer degree programs in science. In 1988, the ICR sought re-approval. A five-person committee from the California Department of Education sent to evaluate ICR's degree program found its graduate school consisted of only five full-time faculty and some courses were videotaped rather than professor-led instruction. The committee failed to grant re-approval by 3–2 vote, a move the ICR attributed to "religious intolerance" rather than criticisms of the quality of education it provided. This resulted in California's State Superintendent of Public Instruction barring the institute from granting master's degrees in science, which encompassed their existing graduate degree programs in the teaching of biology, geology, astrogeophysics and science. +ICR filed a lawsuit against California's State Superintendent, Bill Honig, and was awarded a settlement of $225,000 permission to continue its program until 1995, so long as it continued to teach evolution alongside creationism. The original agreement expired in 1995, and California Bureau for Private Postsecondary and Vocational Education (BPPVE) granted the ICR religious exemption from postsecondary school requirements in California. +In 1982, the ICR received accreditation from the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS), a private fundamentalist creationist schools accreditation agency. TRACS was officially recognized as an accreditor by the US Department of Education in 1991. Following the ICR's move to Dallas, in November 2007, TRACS terminated its accredited status. Texas does not recognize TRACS' accreditation. +The ICR's relocation to Texas required Texas state approval or accreditation by a regional accrediting agency, in this case Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). In 2007, the ICR applied for a temporary state certification there which would have allowed the institute to operate while it pursues accreditation through SACS. In December 2007, the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB) received an advisory committee recommendation to allow the ICR to start offering online master's degrees in science education. +The Board originally planned to decide on the issue at their January 2008 meeting. At the time it applied, ICR graduate school had approximately 30 to 50 students, most teachers from private Christian schools or home-schoolers, and four full-time faculty. +After seeking the advice from an independent panel, the Chairman of the Texas Board requested information about the research conducted by the faculty, how an on-line program would expose students to the experimental side of science, and asked why "[t]heir curriculum doesn't line up very well with the curriculum available in conventional master of science programs." Subsequently, the ICR asked the THECB to delay its decision until their next meeting to give them time to respond. Inside Higher Ed reported "lobbying — by scientists against the institute, and by others in its favor — is going strong." +The Dallas Morning News obtained some of the messages sent to the board and published a number of examples and summaries that illustrated how intense the debate had become. Following the response from the ICR to the Board, Steven Schafersman, of the Texas Citizens for Science, reported that the ICR sent out "prayer requests" and is currently arguing a creationist derived distinction of science in their application for approval. +On April 23, 2008, education board's Academic Excellence and Research Committee unanimously voted against allowing the ICR to issue science degrees citing "the institute's program is infused with creationism and runs counter to conventions of science that hold that claims of supernatural intervention are not testable and therefore lie outside the realm of science." On the following day the full Board unanimously voted against allowing the ICR to issue science degrees. The decision was "based the recommendation on two considerations: + +ICR failed to demonstrate that the proposed degree program meets acceptable standards of science and science education. +The proposed degree is inconsistent with Coordinating Board rules which require the accurate labeling or designation of programs … Since the proposed degree program inadequately covers key areas of science, it cannot be properly designated either as 'science' or 'science education.'" +The ICR said it would appeal the decision saying the Education Board was guilty of "viewpoint discrimination". Instead, in April 2009, the ICR sued the THECB in federal court for imposing "an unconstitutional and prejudicial burden against ICRGS's academic freedom and religious liberties" and asked for the ability to award science degrees. In June 2010, a judge ruled in favor of the Texas Higher Education saying the ICR "is entirely unable to file a complaint which is not overly verbose, disjointed, incoherent, maundering and full of irrelevant information." The judge concluded, "The Court simply comes to the conclusion, which is inescapable, that the [THECB] decision was rationally related to a legitimate state interest." In the September 2010 ICR newsletter, Henry Morris III, the ICR's chief executive officer, wrote "ICR's legal battle is over" after the Judge ruled in favor of the Texas Board. +In 2010, the ICR board of directors voted to close the ICR Graduate School and open a School of Biblical Apologetics, offering a Master of Christian Education degree with Creation Research being one of four minors. The ICR noted that "Due to the nature of ICR's School of Biblical Apologetics — a predominantly religious education school — it is exempt from licensing by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. + +== Criticism == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d048488e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Institute for Creation Research" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:27.765353+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Scientific criticism === +Young-earth creationism is rejected by nearly all scientists, including most scientists who hold to the Christian faith, with more than 45 science organizations having criticized creationism as not science. Professor Massimo Pigliucci, a professor of ecology and evolution at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, has criticized ICR for professing to present the same science as that taught in secular universities while at the same time requiring students and faculty to sign a statement of faith to ICR's fundamentalist religious mission, most notably in affirming conformity in all its work to Biblical doctrine. Pigliucci notes that any research conducted within the ICR's policy framework is prescribed at the outset by Biblical literalism, and thus antithetical to the methods and framework used by scientists. As examples, Pigliucci cites ICR scientist Harold Slusher resorting to non-Euclidean and non-Einsteinian explanations of light travel to reconcile the vast distances light travels in space with the brief timescale given in young earth creationism, and the association adopted by the ICR between the second principle of thermodynamics and the Bible's account of the fall of Adam. Pigliucci further claimed that "some of the historical claims found in the ICR museum are also stunning and show how easily ideology gets the better of accuracy." +On January 7, 2007, the National Center for Science Education reported that Grand Canyon: A Different View, edited by Tom Vail and published by Master Books, the publishing arm of the Institute for Creation Research, and described as promoting "a young-earth creationist view of the geology of the Grand Canyon," was facing new scrutiny by Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility (PEER) in December 2006. The Chief of the Park Service's Geologic Resources Division recommended its removal on grounds that it "does not use accurate, professional and scholarly knowledge; is not based on science but a specific religious doctrine; does not further the public's understanding of the Grand Canyon's existence; [and] does not further the mission of the National Park Service". A report by the National Center for Science Education, written by Chemist Karen Bartelt was critical of the ICR representatives and displays in the "museum". + +=== Criticism from old Earth creationists === +Old Earth creationists are opposed to the ICR. Gary North opposes the ICR on the grounds that they think the second principle of thermodynamics contradicts evolution, and John W. Robbins considers the ICR's activities a "fraud". The old-Earth creationist organization Answers In Creation criticizes the ICR, including a critical review by Kevin R. Henke of the ICR's dating claims. Henke concluded that the ICR's "research" was improperly conducted and "was unsuccessful in adequately separating the volcanic glass from the much older minerals". Another creationist opponent of ICR and its doctrine is Hugh Ross, who accepts the scientific consensus of a 4.54 billion year old Earth and is critical of ICR's cosmological models as well as their attempts to solve the starlight problem. + +=== Criticism over awarding degrees === +The ICR attracted much opposition when it sought approval (unsuccessfully) in Texas to operate a master's degree program in science education. An April 2008 survey by Texas Freedom Network showed the majority of science faculties in Texas are opposed to ICR's request to issue science degrees with 185 (95% of respondents) opposed to certifying the program and 6 (3%) in favor. Officials of the institute state their goal is to integrate Biblical creationism with science. Since their program is intended to prepare students who are or will become teachers, the developing program is controversial. In public statements, ICR officials said that scientific literacy would be emphasized, but science advocates critical of the ICR said the institute's true goal is to restore religious creationism to science classes in the public schools. Texas declined to accredit the ICR science program (see above). + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Numbers, Ronald (2006). The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, Expanded Edition. Harvard University Press. p. 624. ISBN 0674023390. + +== External links == +Institute for Creation Research – Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Noetic_Sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Noetic_Sciences-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4c9d70de9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Noetic_Sciences-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Institute of Noetic Sciences" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Noetic_Sciences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:28.991676+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS) is an American non-profit parapsychological research institute. It was co-founded in 1973 by former astronaut Edgar Mitchell, the sixth man to walk on the Moon, along with investor Paul N. Temple and others interested in psychic phenomena, in order to encourage and conduct research on noetics and human potentials. +The Institute conducts research on topics such as psychic abilities, channeling, mind matter interaction, energy healing, intention, consciousness, and spontaneous remission. They have a long history of studying meditation, alternative healing practices, consciousness-based healthcare, spirituality, human potential, psychokinesis and survival of consciousness after bodily death. The Institute maintains a free database, available on the Internet, with citations to more than 6,500 articles about whether physical and mental health benefits might be connected to meditation and yoga. +IONS is now headquartered in Novato, California, after previously being situated on a 200-acre (81 ha) campus in Petaluma that included offices, a research laboratory and a retreat center. Researchers associated with it include Dean Radin, Helané Wahbeh and Rupert Sheldrake. + + +== History == + +Edgar Mitchell has reported that on his return to Earth, after the 1971 Apollo 14 Moon landing, he had an experience comparable to savikalpa samādhi. He also says that he conducted ESP experiments with earthbound friends during spaceflight. In 1973, along with investor Paul N. Temple and some others, Mitchell co-founded the Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS). It was founded as a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization in 1973. Willis Harman served as president from 1975 until his death in 1997. +The word noetic derives from the Greek nous, meaning "mind or ways of knowing." Writing in The Huffington Post, the Institute's director of research pointed to philosopher William James' 1902 definition of the word as: + +... states of insight into depths of truth unplumbed by the discursive intellect. They are illuminations, revelations, full of significance and importance, all inarticulate though they remain; and as a rule they carry with them a curious sense of authority. ... +The Institute figures prominently in The Lost Symbol, a 2009 work of fiction by best-selling author Dan Brown. Twitter postings on the day before the book's release led Institute director Marilyn Schlitz to purchase the book and read it in one sitting. She told NPR that she found ten experiments conducted by the real-world Institute referred to in Brown's fictional account. NPR reported that after its publication "traffic to [the institute's] website ... increased twelvefold", applications for membership increased and "journalists from places like Dateline NBC — not to mention NPR ..." were seeking interviews with Schlitz. Also, noetic science is a major plot point in Brown's The Secret of Secrets. +The annual Linda G. O'Bryant Noetic Sciences Research Prize awards $100,000 to groundbreaking scientists. + + +== Research == +Projects sponsored by the Institute include a bibliography on the physical and psychological effects of meditation and yoga, and a spontaneous remission bibliography. The Institute has also conducted a number of parapsychological studies into extra-sensory perception, lucid dreaming, telekinesis, and presentiment. +According to The Roanoke Times, the Institute is "... devoted to exploring psychic phenomena and the role of consciousness in the cosmos." +The Roanoke Times also noted that co-founder Mitchell's assertions "... have often been criticized by skeptics." Told "your research goes into a number of territories that are regarded with skepticism in some circles", Mitchell replied: + +That's what's fun about it. We're breaking down barriers and finding things. That's what science is all about: new discovery. ... There's nothing that we have done or have demonstrated that doesn't have good science behind it. Skeptics be damned. +The Institute is listed on Stephen Barrett's Quackwatch website, for its research on fringe topics. + + +== Documentaries and publications == +In 1994, TBS broadcast a three-part, six-hour documentary based on work at the Institute, entitled The Heart of Healing and narrated by actress Jane Seymour. +Since 2009, the Institute has published a semi-annual bulletin, The Noetic Post. From 2003 to 2009, it published a quarterly magazine, Shift: At the Frontiers of Consciousness. +IONS continues to advance the field of scientific discovery through regularly publishing peer-reviewed papers in established journals. A comprehensive list can be viewed at https://noetic.org/science/publications/ + + +== See also == +Dean Radin + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Institute of Noetic Sciences official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_potentiation_therapy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_potentiation_therapy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01b34ffc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_potentiation_therapy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Insulin potentiation therapy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_potentiation_therapy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:30.202029+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Insulin potentiation therapy (IPT) is an unproven alternative cancer treatment using insulin as an adjunct to low-dose chemotherapy. It was promoted by a paper in the controversial and non-peer reviewed journal Medical Hypotheses. It is not an evidence-based cancer treatment, and the costs of IPT are not covered by health insurance. +According to Quackwatch, "Insulin Potentiation Therapy (IPT) is one of several unproven, dangerous treatments that is promoted by a small group of practitioners without trustworthy evidence that it works." + + +== History == +It was developed by Donato Perez Garcia, MD in 1930. Originally, Garcia targeted syphilis, and later tried the treatment for chronic degenerative diseases and some types of cancer. + + +== Method == +Generally, a dose of insulin is injected into a vein, followed by a much lower dose of a chemotherapy drug. Then sugar water is injected to stop the hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) caused by the insulin injection. + + +== Efficacy == +IPT has not been proven to work. Lab research indicates that there is not even a theoretical possibility of it being an effective treatment for most cancers. Research over the decades has proved that most cancers grow when exposed to more insulin. +One study of men with prostate cancer showed that survival was significantly shorter (11 months for men who received IPT vs 18.9 months for men on standard treatment). A second small trial showed that women with metastatic breast cancer were less likely to see short-term disease progression if they received IPT with low-dose methotrexate than if they received either insulin alone or low-dose methotrexate alone. (This study did not compare IPT against any of the proven multi-drug chemotherapy regimens.) + + +== Adverse effects == +The immediate risk is hypoglycemia. The main risk is that the person will die from cancer because IPT does not work. +The use of lower than normal doses of chemotherapy can cause drug resistance, which could make future treatment at standard, proven doses ineffective. For some cancers, especially breast and colon cancers, insulin may promote tumor growth. + + +== Mechanism of action == +Two main ideas about how it might work have been proposed over the years. The first idea, which has been proven wrong, is that insulin makes cells more permeable, so that the chemotherapy drugs are absorbed faster into cells. The other idea is that insulin might cause the cells to start dividing, which makes them more susceptible to destruction of many cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs. + + +== Cost == +Costs run up to US$2,000 per treatment session. Multiple sessions are normal. One business charges US$50,000 for the first two months. Patients pay the full cost out of pocket, because it is an unproven therapy that is not covered by health insurance. + + +== See also == +List of ineffective cancer treatments + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57f6e030d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The intelligent design movement is a neo-creationist religious campaign for broad social, academic and political change to promote and support the pseudoscientific idea of intelligent design (ID), which asserts that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection." Its chief activities are a campaign to promote public awareness of this concept, the lobbying of policymakers to include its teaching in high school science classes, and legal action, either to defend such teaching or to remove barriers otherwise preventing it. The movement arose out of the creation science movement in the United States, and is driven by a small group of proponents. The Encyclopædia Britannica explains that ID cannot be empirically tested and that it fails to solve the problem of evil; thus, it is neither sound science nor sound theology. + +== Purpose == +The overall goal of the intelligent design movement is to overthrow materialism and atheism. Its proponents believe that society has suffered "devastating" cultural consequences from adopting materialism and that science is the cause of the decay into materialism because it seeks only natural explanations, and is therefore atheistic. They believe that the scientific theory of evolution implies that humans have no spiritual nature, no moral purpose, and no intrinsic meaning. They seek to "reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview", represented by the theory of evolution, in favor of "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." +To achieve their goal of defeating a materialistic world view, advocates of intelligent design take a two-pronged approach. Alongside the promotion of intelligent design, proponents also seek to "Teach the Controversy"; discredit evolution by emphasizing perceived flaws in the theory of evolution, or disagreements within the scientific community and encourage teachers and students to explore non-scientific alternatives to evolution, or to critically analyze evolution and the controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution. But the world's largest general scientific society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, has stated that "There is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of evolution." and that "Evolution is one of the most robust and widely accepted principles of modern science." The ruling in the 2005 Dover Area School District trial; Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, where the claims of intelligent design proponents were considered by a United States federal court, stated that "evolution, including common descent and natural selection, is 'overwhelmingly accepted' by the scientific community." +The Discovery Institute (DI) is a religious think tank that drives the intelligent design movement. The Institute's Center for Science and Culture (CSC) counts most of the leading intelligent design advocates among its membership, most notably its former program advisor the now deceased Phillip E. Johnson. Johnson was the architect of the movement's key strategies, the wedge strategy and the "Teach the Controversy" campaign. The Discovery Institute and leading proponents represent intelligent design as a revolutionary scientific theory. The overwhelming majority of the scientific community, as represented by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Academy of Sciences and nearly all scientific professional organizations, firmly reject these claims, and insist that intelligent design is not valid science, its proponents having failed to conduct an actual scientific research program. This has led the movement's critics to state that intelligent design is merely a public relations campaign and a political campaign. +According to critics of the intelligent design movement, the movement's purpose is political rather than scientific or educational. They claim the movement's "activities betray an aggressive, systematic agenda for promoting not only intelligent design creationism, but the religious worldview that undergirds it." Intelligent design is an attempt to recast religious dogma in an effort to reintroduce the teaching of biblical creationism to public school science classrooms; the intelligent design movement is an effort to reshape American society into a theocracy, primarily through education. As evidence, critics cite the Discovery Institute's political activities, its wedge strategy and statements made by leading intelligent design proponents. The scientific community's position, as represented by the National Academy of Sciences and the National Center for Science Education (NCSE), is that intelligent design is not science, but creationist pseudoscience. Richard Dawkins, a biologist and professor at Oxford University, compares the intelligent design movement's demand to "teach the controversy" with the demand to teach flat Earthism; acceptable in terms of history, but not in terms of science. "If you give the idea that there are two schools of thought within science--one that says the earth is round and one that says the earth is flat--you are misleading children." + +== Philosophy == +At the 1999 "Reclaiming America for Christ Conference" called by Reverend D. James Kennedy of Coral Ridge Ministries, Phillip E. Johnson gave a speech called "How The Evolution Debate Can Be Won." In it he sums up the theological and epistemological underpinnings of intelligent design and its strategy for victory: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d8cd0daba --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +To talk of a purposeful or guided evolution is not to talk about evolution at all. That is "slow creation." When you understand it that way, you realize that the Darwinian theory of evolution contradicts not just the book of Genesis, but every word in the Bible from beginning to end. It contradicts the idea that we are here because a Creator brought about our existence for a purpose. That is the first thing I realized, and it carries tremendous meaning. +I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call "The Wedge," which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science. One very famous book that's come out of The Wedge is biochemist Michael Behe's book Darwin's Black Box, which has had an enormous impact on the scientific world. +Now, the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence, and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, "Well, where might you get truth?" When I preach from the Bible, as I often do at churches and on Sundays, I don't start with Genesis. I start with John 1:1, "In the beginning was the Word." In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right and the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.Darwin's Black Box, mentioned in the quote above, received harsh criticism from the scientific community, including negative reviews by evolutionary scientist Nathan Lents. + +== History of the movement == +The intelligent design movement grew out of a creationist tradition which argues against evolutionary theory from a religious standpoint, usually that of evangelical or fundamentalistic Christianity. Although intelligent design advocates often claim that they are arguing only for the existence of a designer who may or may not be God, all the movement's leading advocates believe that this designer is God. They frequently accompany their arguments with a discussion of religious issues, especially when addressing religious audiences, but elsewhere downplay the religious aspects of their agenda. + +=== Origins === +The modern use of the words "intelligent design," as a term intended to describe a field of inquiry, began after the Supreme Court of the United States, in the case of Edwards v. Aguillard (1987), ruled that creationism is unconstitutional in public school science curricula. A Discovery Institute report says that Charles Thaxton, editor of Of Pandas and People, had picked the phrase up from a NASA scientist, and thought "That's just what I need, it's a good engineering term." In drafts of the book over one hundred uses of the root word "creation," such as "creationism" and "creation science," were changed, almost without exception, to "intelligent design," while "creationists" was changed to "design proponents" or, in one instance, "cdesign proponentsists." [sic] In 1989, Of Pandas and People was published by the Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE), with the definition: + +"Intelligent design means that various forms of life began abruptly through an intelligent agency, with their distinctive features already intact. Fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, wings, etc." +Pandas was followed in 1991 by Darwin on Trial, a neo-creationist polemic by Phillip E. Johnson, that is regarded as a central text of the movement. Darwin on Trial mentioned Pandas as "'creationist' only in the sense that it juxtaposes a paradigm of 'intelligent design' with the dominant paradigm of (naturalistic) evolution," but his use of the term as a focus for his wedge strategy promoting "theistic realism" came later. The book was reviewed by evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould for Scientific American in July 1992, concluding that the book contains "... no weighing of evidence, no careful reading of literature on all sides, no full citation of sources (the book does not even contain a bibliography) and occasional use of scientific literature only to score rhetorical points." Gould's review led to the formation in 1992 or 1993 of an 'Ad Hoc Origins Committee' of Johnson's supporters, which wrote a letter, circulated to thousands of university professors, defending the book. Among the 39 signatories were nine who later became members of the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture (CRSC). +During the early 1990s Johnson worked to develop a 'big tent' movement to unify a wide range of creationist viewpoints in opposition to evolution. In 1992, the first formal meeting devoted to intelligent design was held in Southern Methodist University. It included a debate between Johnson and Michael Ruse (a key witness in McLean v. Arkansas (1982)) and papers by William A. Dembski, Michael Behe and Stephen C. Meyer. In 1993, Johnson organized a follow-up meeting, including Dembski, Behe, Meyer, Dean H. Kenyon (co-author of Pandas) and Walter Bradley (co-author with Thaxton and Kenyon of The Mystery of Life's Origin (1984)), as well as two graduate students, Paul A. Nelson and Jonathan Wells. + +=== Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d2f2ee139 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On December 6, 1993, an article by Meyer was published in The Wall Street Journal, drawing national attention to the controversy over Dean H. Kenyon's teaching of creationism. This article also gained the attention of Discovery Institute co-founder Bruce Chapman. On discovering that Meyer was developing the idea of starting a scientific research center in conversations with conservative political scientist John G. West, Chapman invited them to create a unit within the Discovery Institute called the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture (later renamed the Center for Science and Culture). This center was dedicated to overthrowing "scientific materialism" and "fomenting nothing less than a scientific and cultural revolution." +A 1995 conference, "The Death of Materialism and the Renewal of Culture," served as a blueprint for the center. By 1996 they had nearly a million dollars in grants, the largest being from Howard Ahmanson, Jr., with smaller but still large contributions coming from the Stewardship Foundation established by C. Davis Weyerhaeuser and the Maclellan Foundation, and appointed their first class of research fellows. + +=== The wedge strategy === + +The wedge strategy was formulated by Phillip E. Johnson to combat the "evil" of methodological naturalism. It first came to the general public's attention when a Discovery Institute internal memo now known as the "Wedge Document" (believed to have been written in 1998) was leaked to the public in 1999. However it is believed to have been an update of an earlier document to be implemented between 1996 and 2001. +The document begins with "The proposition that human beings are created in the image of God is one of the bedrock principles on which Western civilization was built." and then goes on to outline the movement's goal to exploit perceived discrepancies within evolutionary theory in order to discredit evolution and scientific materialism in general. Much of the strategy is directed toward the broader public, as opposed to the professional scientific community. The stated "governing goals" of the CSC's wedge strategy are: + +1. To defeat scientific materialism and its destructive moral, cultural and political legacies +2. To replace materialistic explanations with the theistic understanding that nature and human beings are created by God +Critics of intelligent design movement argue that the Wedge Document and strategy demonstrate that the intelligent design movement is motivated purely by religion and political ideology and that the Discovery Institute as a matter of policy obfuscates its agenda. The Discovery Institute's official response was to characterize the criticism and concern as "irrelevant," "paranoid," and "near-panic" while portraying the Wedge Document as a "fund-raising document." +Johnson in his 1997 book Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds confirmed some of the concerns voiced by the movement's gainsayers: + +If we understand our own times, we will know that we should affirm the reality of God by challenging the domination of materialism and naturalism in the world of the mind. With the assistance of many friends I have developed a strategy for doing this,...We call our strategy the "wedge." + +=== Kansas evolution hearings === + +The Kansas evolution hearings were a series of hearings held in Topeka, Kansas, from May 5 to May 12, 2005, by the Kansas State Board of Education and its State Board Science Hearing Committee to change how evolution and the origin of life would be taught in the state's public high school science classes. The hearings were arranged by the conservative Board with the intent of introducing intelligent design into science classes via the "Teach the Controversy" method. +The hearings raised the issues of creation and evolution in public education and were attended by all the major participants in the intelligent design movement but were ultimately boycotted by the scientific community over concern of lending credibility to the claim, made by proponents of intelligent design, that evolution is purportedly the subject of wide dispute within the scientific and science education communities. +The Discovery Institute, hub of the intelligent design movement, played a central role in starting the hearings by promoting its Critical Analysis of Evolution lesson plan which the Kansas State Board of Education eventually adopted over objections of the State Board Science Hearing Committee, and campaigning on behalf of conservative Republican candidates for the Board. +Local science advocacy group Kansas Citizens for Science organized a boycott of the hearings by mainstream scientists, who accused it of being a kangaroo court and argued that their participation would lend an undeserved air of legitimacy to the hearings. Board member Kathy Martin declared at the beginning of the hearings "Evolution has been proven false. ID (Intelligent Design) is science-based and strong in facts." At their conclusion she proclaimed that evolution is "an unproven, often disproven" theory. +"ID has theological implications. ID is not strictly Christian, but it is theistic," asserted Martin. The scientific community rejects teaching intelligent design as science; a leading example being the National Academy of Sciences, which issued a policy statement saying "Creationism, intelligent design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science because they are not testable by the methods of science." +On February 13, 2007, the Board voted 6 to 4 to reject the amended science standards enacted in 2005. + +=== Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District (2005) === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0972cb874 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the movement's sole major case, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, it was represented by the Thomas More Law Center, which had been seeking a test-case on the issue for at least five years. However conflicting agendas resulted in the withdrawal of a number of Discovery Institute Fellows as expert witnesses, at the request of DI director Bruce Chapman, and mutual recriminations with the DI after the case was lost. The Alliance Defense Fund briefly represented the Foundation for Thought and Ethics in its unsuccessful motion to intervene in this case, and prepared amicus curiae briefs on behalf of the DI and FTE in it. It has also made amicus curiae submissions and offered to pay for litigation, in other (actual and potential) creationism-related cases. On a far smaller scale, Larry Caldwell and his wife operate under the name Quality Science Education for All, and have made a number of lawsuits in furtherance of the movement's anti-evolution agenda. In 2005 they brought at least three separate lawsuits to further the intelligent design movement's agenda. One was later abandoned, two were dismissed. + +== Reception by the public == +An August 2005 poll from The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life showed 64% of Americans favoring the teaching of creationism along with evolution in science classrooms, though only 38% favored teaching it instead of evolution, with the results varying deeply by education level and religiosity. The poll showed the educated were far less attached to intelligent design than the less educated. Evangelicals and fundamentalists showed high rates of affiliation with intelligent design while other religious persons and the secular were much lower. + +== Reception by the scientific community == +Jason Rosenhouse summarized the prevailing attitude of the scientific community: "Scientists who have responded to ID arguments in print have generally done so with a tone of sneering contempt. This is understandable: ID supporters present fallacious arguments, use dishonest rhetoric, and often present non-contemptuous responses as evidence that their theories are gaining acceptance." +Intelligent design advocates realize that their arguments have little chance of acceptance within the mainstream scientific community, so they direct them toward politicians, philosophers and the general public. What prima facie "scientific" material they have produced has been attacked by critics as containing factual misrepresentation and misleading, rhetorical and equivocal terminology. A number of documentaries that promote their assertion that intelligent design as an increasingly well-supported line of scientific inquiry have been made for the Discovery Institute. The bulk of the material produced by the intelligent design movement, however, is not intended to be scientific but rather to promote its social and political aims. Polls indicate that intelligent design's main appeal to citizens comes from its link to religious concepts. +Scientists responding to a poll overwhelmingly said intelligent design is about religion, not science. A 2002 sampling of 460 Ohio science professors had 91% say it's primarily religion, 93% say there is not "any scientifically valid evidence or an alternate scientific theory that challenges the fundamental principles of the theory of evolution," and 97% say that they did not use intelligent design concepts in their own research. +In October and November 2001, the Discovery Institute advertised A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism in three national publications (The New York Review of Books, The New Republic and The Weekly Standard), listing what they claimed were "100 scientific dissenters" who had signed a statement that "We are skeptical of claims for the ability of random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life. Careful examination of the evidence for Darwinian theory should be encouraged." Shortly afterwards the National Center for Science Education described the wording as misleading, noting that a minority of the signatories were biologists and some of the others were engineers, mathematicians and philosophers, and that some signatories did not fully support the Discovery Institute's claims. The list was further criticized in a February 2006 article in The New York Times which pointed out that only 25% of the signatories by then were biologists and that signatories' "doubts about evolution grew out of their religious beliefs." In 2003, as a humorous parody of such listings the NCSE produced the pro-evolution Project Steve list of signatories, all with variations of the name Steve and most of whom are trained biologists. As of July 31, 2006, the Discovery Institute lists "over 600 scientists," while Project Steve reported 749 signatories; as of May 30, 2014, 1,338 Steves have signed the statement, while 906 have signed A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism as of April 2014. + +== Structure == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4628ceac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== The "big tent" strategy === +The movement's strategy as set forth by Phillip E. Johnson states the replacement of "materialist science" with "theistic science" as its primary goal; and, more generally, for intelligent design to become "the dominant perspective in science" and to "permeate our religious, cultural, moral and political life." This agenda is now being actively pursued by the Center for Science and Culture, which plays the leading role in the promotion of intelligent design. Its fellows include most of the leading intelligent design advocates: William A. Dembski, Michael Behe, Jonathan Wells and Stephen C. Meyer. +Intelligent design has been described by its proponents as a 'big tent' belief, one in which all theists united by having some kind of creationist belief (but of differing opinions as regards details) can support. If successfully promoted, it would reinstate creationism in the teaching of science, after which debates regarding details could resume. In his 2002 article in Christian Research Journal, Discovery Institute fellow Paul A. Nelson credits Johnson for the 'big tent' approach and for reviving creationist debate since the Edwards v. Aguillard decision. According to Nelson, "The promise of the big tent of ID is to provide a setting where Christians (and others) may disagree amicably, and fruitfully, about how best to understand the natural world, as well as Scripture." +In his presentation to the 1999 "Reclaiming America for Christ Conference," "How The Evolution Debate Can Be Won," Johnson affirmed this 'big tent' role for "The Wedge" (without using the term intelligent design): + +To talk of a purposeful or guided evolution is not to talk about evolution at all. That is "slow creation." When you understand it that way, you realize that the Darwinian theory of evolution contradicts not just the book of Genesis, but every word in the Bible from beginning to end. It contradicts the idea that we are here because a Creator brought about our existence for a purpose. That is the first thing I realized, and it carries tremendous meaning. +... +So did God create us? Or did we create God? That's an issue that unites people across the theistic world. Even religious, God-believing Jewish people will say, "That's an issue we really have a stake in, so let's debate that question first. Let us settle that question first. There are plenty of other important questions on which we may not agree, and we'll have a wonderful time discussing those questions after we've settled the first one. We will approach those questions in a better spirit because we have worked together for this important common end." +... + +[The Wedge is] inherently an ecumenical movement. Michael Behe is a Roman Catholic. The next book that is coming out from Cambridge University Press by one of my close associates is by an evangelical convert to Greek Orthodoxy. We have a lot of Protestants, too. The point is that we have this broad-based intellectual movement that is enabling us to get a foothold in the scientific and academic journals and in the journals of the various religious faiths. +The Discovery Institute consistently denies allegations that its intelligent design agenda has religious foundations, and downplays the religious source of much of its funding. In an interview of Stephen C. Meyer when World News Tonight asked about the Discovery Institute's many evangelical Christian donors the Institute's public relations representative stopped the interview saying "I don't think we want to go down that path." + +=== Obfuscation of religious motivation === +Phillip E. Johnson, largely regarded as the leader of the movement, positions himself as a "theistic realist" against "methodological naturalism" and intelligent design as the method through which God created life. Johnson explicitly calls for intelligent design proponents to obfuscate their religious motivations so as to avoid having intelligent design recognized "as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message." Hence intelligent design arguments are carefully formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid positing the identity of the designer. Johnson has stated that cultivating ambiguity by employing secular language in arguments which are carefully crafted to avoid overtones of theistic creationism is a necessary first step for ultimately introducing the Christian concept of God as the designer. Johnson emphasizes "the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion" and that "after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact" only then can "biblical issues" be discussed. In the foreword to Creation, Evolution, & Modern Science (2000) Johnson writes "The intelligent design movement starts with the recognition that 'In the beginning was the Word,' and 'In the beginning God created.' Establishing that point isn't enough, but it is absolutely essential to the rest of the gospel message." + +=== Organizations === + +==== The Center for Science and Culture ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5201a101d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Center for Science and Culture, formerly known as the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture, is a division of the Discovery Institute. The Center consists of a tightly knit core of people who have worked together for almost a decade to advance intelligent design as both a concept and a movement as necessary adjuncts of its wedge strategy policy. This cadre includes Phillip E. Johnson, Michael Behe, William A. Dembski and Stephen C. Meyer. They are united by a religious vision which, although it varies among the members in its particulars and is seldom acknowledged outside of the Christian press, is predicated on the shared conviction that America is in need of "renewal" which can be accomplished only by unseating "Godless" materialism and instituting religion as its cultural foundation. +In his keynote address at the "Research and Progress in intelligent design" (RAPID) conference held in 2002 at Biola University, William A. Dembski described intelligent design's "dual role as a constructive scientific project and as a means for cultural renaissance." In a similar vein, the movement's hub, the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture had until 2002 been the "Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture." Explaining the name change, a spokesperson for the CSC insisted that the old name was simply too long. However, the change followed accusations that the center's real interest was not science but reforming culture along lines favored by conservative Christians. +Critics of the movement cite the Wedge Document as confirmation of this criticism and assert that the movement's leaders, particularly Phillip E. Johnson, view the subject as a culture war: "Darwinian evolution is not primarily important as a scientific theory but as a culturally dominant creation story. ... When there is radical disagreement in a commonwealth about the creation story, the stage is set for intense conflict, the kind of conflict that is known as a 'culture war.'" +Recently the Center for Science and Culture has moderated its previous overtly theistic mission statements to appeal to a broader, more secular audience. It hopes to accomplish this by using less overtly theistic messages and language. Despite this, the Center for Science and Culture still states as a goal a redefinition of science, and the philosophy on which it is based, particularly the exclusion of what it calls the "unscientific principle of materialism," and in particular the acceptance of what it calls "the scientific theory of intelligent design." +Promotional materials from the Discovery Institute acknowledge that the Ahmanson family donated $1.5 million to the Center for Science and Culture, then known as the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture, for a research and publicity program to "unseat not just Darwinism but also Darwinism's cultural legacy." Mr. Ahmanson funds many causes important to the Christian religious right, including Christian Reconstructionism, whose goal is to place the US "under the control of biblical law." Until 1995, Ahmanson sat on the board of the Christian Reconstructionist Chalcedon Foundation. + +==== Other organizations ==== +The Access Research Network (ARN) has become a comprehensive clearinghouse for ID resources, including news releases, publications, multimedia products and an elementary school science curriculum. Its stated mission is "providing accessible information on science, technology and society issues from an intelligent design perspective." Its directors are Dennis Wagner and CSC Fellows Mark Hartwig, Stephen C. Meyer and Paul A. Nelson. Its 'Friends of ARN' is also dominated by CSC Fellows. +The Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE) is a Christian non-profit organization based in Richardson, Texas, that publishes textbooks and articles promoting intelligent design, abstinence, and Christian nationism. CSC Fellows Charles Thaxton and William A. Dembski have served as academic editors for the Foundation. The FTE has close associations with the Discovery Institute, hub of the intelligent design movement and other religious Christian groups. +The Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center (IDEA Center) is a Christian nonprofit organization formed originally as a student club promoting intelligent design at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD). There are about 25 active chapters of the organization in the United States, Kenya, Canada, Ukraine, and the Philippines. There have been 35 active chapters formed and several others are currently pending. Six out of the listed 32 chapters in the United States are located at high schools. In December 2008, biologist Allen MacNeill stated, on the basis of analysis of the webpages of the national organization and local chapters, that it appeared that the organization is moribund. +The Intelligent Design Network (IDnet) is a nonprofit organization formed in Kansas to promote intelligent design. It is based in Shawnee Mission, Kansas. The Intelligent Design Network was founded by John Calvert, a corporate finance lawyer with a bachelor's degree in geology and nutritionist William S. Harris. Together, Calvert and Harris have published the article in The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly. Calvert also has written a play about intelligent design in a high school biology class with Daniel Schwabauer. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..05ff85930 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Activism == +The intelligent design movement primarily campaigns on two fronts: a public relations campaign meant to influence the popular media and sway public opinion; and an aggressive lobbying campaign to cultivate support for the teaching of intelligent design amongst policymakers and the wider educational community. Both these activities are largely funded and directed by the Discovery Institute, from national to grassroots levels. The movement's first goal is to establish an acceptance of intelligent design at the expense of evolution in public school science; its long-term goal is no less than the "renewal" of American culture through the shaping of public policy to reflect conservative Christian values. As the Discovery Institute states, intelligent design is central to this agenda: "Design theory promises to reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview, and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." +The Discovery Institute has also relied on several polls to indicate the acceptance of intelligent design. A 2005 Harris poll identified ten percent of adults in the United States as taking what they called the intelligent design position, that "human beings are so complex that they required a powerful force or intelligent being to help create them." (64% agreed with the creationist view that "human beings were created directly by God" and 22% believed that "human beings evolved from earlier species." 49% accepted plant and animal evolution, while 45% did not.) Although some polls commissioned by the Discovery Institute show more support, these polls have been criticized as suffering from considerable flaws, such as having a low response rate (248 out of 16,000), being conducted on behalf of an organization with an expressed interest in the outcome of the poll, and containing leading questions. +Critics of intelligent design and its movement contend that intelligent design is a specific form of creationism, neo-creationism, a viewpoint rejected by intelligent design advocates. It was bolstered by the 2005 ruling in United States federal court that a public school district requirement for science classes to teach that intelligent design is an alternative to evolution was a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, United States District Judge John E. Jones III also ruled that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature. +In pursuing the goal of establishing intelligent design at the expense of evolution in public school science, intelligent design groups have threatened and isolated high school science teachers, school board members and parents who opposed their efforts. Responding to the well-organized curricular challenges of intelligent design proponents to local school boards have been disruptive and divisive in the communities where they've taken place. The campaigns run by intelligent design groups place teachers in the difficult position of arguing against their employers while the legal challenges to local school districts are costly and divert scarce funds away from education into court battles. Although these court battles have almost invariably resulted in the defeat of intelligent design proponents, they are draining and divisive to local schools. For example, as a result of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial, the Dover Area School District was forced to pay $1,000,011 in legal fees and damages for pursuing a policy of teaching the controversy - presenting intelligent design as an allegedly scientific alternative to evolution. + +Leading members of the intelligent design movement are also associated with denialism, both Phillip E. Johnson and Jonathan Wells have signed an AIDS denialism petition. + +=== Campaigns === + +The Discovery Institute, through its Center for Science and Culture, has formulated a number of campaigns to promote intelligent design, while discrediting evolutionary biology, which the Institute terms "Darwinism." +Prominent Institute campaigns have been to "Teach the Controversy" and, more recently, to allow Critical Analysis of Evolution. Other prominent campaigns have claimed that intelligent design advocates (most notably Richard Sternberg) have been discriminated against, and thus that Academic Freedom bills are needed to protect academics' and teachers' ability to criticise evolution, and that there is a link from evolution to ideologies such as Nazism and eugenics. These three claims are all publicised in the pro-ID movie Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (2008). Other campaigns have included petitions, most notably A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism. +The response of the scientific community has been to reiterate that the theory of evolution is overwhelmingly accepted as a matter of scientific consensus whereas intelligent design has been rejected by the overwhelming majority of the scientific community (see list of scientific societies explicitly rejecting intelligent design). + +=== Politics and public education === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5890d099b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The main battlefield for this culture war has been US regional and state school boards. Courts have also become involved as those campaigns to include intelligent design or weaken the teaching of evolution in public school science curricula are challenged on First Amendment grounds. In Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, the plaintiffs successfully argued that intelligent design is a form of creationism, and that the school board policy thus violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. +Intelligent design is an integral part of a political campaign by cultural conservatives, largely from evangelical religious convictions, that seek to redefine science to suit their own ideological agenda. Though numerically a minority of Americans, the politics of intelligent design is based less on numbers than on intensive mobilization of ideologically committed followers and savvy public relations campaigns. Political repercussions from the culturally conservative sponsorship of the issue has been divisive and costly to the effected communities, polarizing and dividing not only those directly charged with educating young people but entire local communities. +With a doctrine that calls itself science among non-scientists but is rejected by the vast majority of the real practitioners, an amicable coexistence and collaboration between intelligent design advocates and upholders of mainstream science education standards is rare. With mainstream scientific and educational organizations saying the theory of evolution is not "in crisis" or a subject doubted by scientists, nor intelligent design the emergent scientific paradigm or rival theory its proponents proclaim, "teaching the controversy" is suitable for classes on politics, history, culture, or theology they say, but not science. By attempting to force the issue into science classrooms, intelligent design proponents create a charged environment that forces participants and bystanders alike to declare their positions, which has resulted in intelligent design groups threatening and isolating high school science teachers, school board members and parents who opposed their efforts. +In a round table discussion entitled "Science Wars: Should Schools Teach Intelligent Design?" at the American Enterprise Institute on 21 October 2005 and televised on C-SPAN, the Discovery Institute's Mark Ryland and the Thomas More Law Center's Richard Thompson had a frank disagreement, in which Ryland claimed the Discovery Institute has always cautioned against the teaching of intelligent design, and Thompson responded that the Institute's leadership had not only advocated the teaching of intelligent design, but encouraged others to do so, and that the Dover Area School District had merely followed the Institute's calls for action. As evidence, Thompson cited the Discovery Institute's guidebook Intelligent Design in Public School Science Curricula written by the Institute's co-founder and first director, Stephen C. Meyer, and David K. DeWolf, a CSC Fellow, which stated in its closing paragraphs: "Moreover, as the previous discussion demonstrates, school boards have the authority to permit, and even encourage, teaching about design theory as an alternative to Darwinian evolution -- and this includes the use of textbooks such as Of Pandas and People that present evidence for the theory of intelligent design." + +=== Higher education === +In 1999, William A. Dembski was invited by Baylor University president Robert B. Sloan to form the Michael Polanyi Center, described by Dembski as "the first Intelligent Design think tank at a research university." Its creation was controversial with Baylor faculty, and in 2000 it was merged with the Institute for Faith and Learning. Dembski, although remaining as a research professor until 2005, was given no courses to teach. +Two universities have offered courses in intelligent design: Oklahoma Baptist University, where ID advocate Michael Newton Keas taught 'Unified Studies: Introduction to Biology,' and Biola University, host of the Mere Creation conference. Additionally, numerous Christian evangelical institutions have faculty with interests in intelligent design. These include Oral Roberts University and Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Patrick Henry College teaches creationism but also exposes its students to both Darwinian evolution and intelligent design. +In 2005, the American Association of University Professors issued a strongly worded statement asserting that the theory of evolution is nearly universally accepted in the community of scholars, and deploring requirements "to make students aware of an 'intelligent-design hypothesis' to account for the origins of life." It said that such requirements are "inimical to principles of academic freedom." + +=== The Web === +Much of the actual debate over intelligent design between intelligent design proponents and members of the scientific community has taken place on the Web, primarily blogs and message boards, instead of the scientific journals and symposia where traditionally much science is discussed and settled. In promoting intelligent design the actions of its proponents have been more like a political pressure group than like researchers entering an academic debate as described by movement critic Taner Edis. The movement lacks any verifiable scientific research program and concomitant debates in academic circles. +The Web continues to play a central role in the Discovery Institute's strategy of promotion of intelligent design and it adjunct campaigns. On September 6, 2006, on the Center's Evolution News & Views blog, Discovery Institute staffer Casey Luskin published a post entitled "Putting Wikipedia On Notice About Their Biased Anti-ID Intelligent Design Entries." In the post, Luskin reprinted a letter from a reader complaining that Wikipedia's coverage of ID to be "one sided" and that pro-intelligent design editors were censored and attacked. Along with the letter, Luskin published a Wikipedia email address for general information and urged readers "to contact Wikipedia to express your feelings about the biased nature of the entries on intelligent design." + +=== International === +Despite being primarily based in the United States, there have been efforts to introduce pro-intelligent design teaching material into educational facilities in other countries. In the United Kingdom, the group Truth in Science has used material from the Discovery Institute to create free teaching packs which have been mass-mailed to all UK schools. Shortly after this emerged, government ministers announced that they regarded intelligent design to be creationism and unsuitable for teaching in the classroom. They also announced that the teaching of the material in science classes was to be prohibited. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5aa1084b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Criticisms of the movement == +One of the most common criticisms of the movement and its leadership is that of intellectual dishonesty, in the form of misleading impressions created by the use of rhetoric, intentional ambiguity, and misrepresented evidence. It is alleged that its goal is to lead an unwary public to reach certain conclusions, and that many have been deceived as a result. Critics of the movement, such as Eugenie Scott, Robert T. Pennock and Barbara Forrest, claim that leaders of the intelligent design movement, and the Discovery Institute in particular, knowingly misquote scientists and other experts, deceptively omit contextual text through ellipsis, and make unsupported amplifications of relationships and credentials. Theologian and molecular biophysicist Alister McGrath has a number of criticisms of the Intelligent design movement, stating that "those who adopt this approach make Christianity deeply... vulnerable to scientific progress" and defining it as just another "god-of-the-gaps" theory. He went on to criticize the movement on theological grounds as well, stating "It is not an approach I accept, either on scientific or theological grounds." +Such statements commonly note the institutional affiliations of signatories for purposes of identification. But this statement strategically listed either the institution that granted a signatory's PhD or the institutions with which the individual is presently affiliated. Thus the institutions listed for Raymond G. Bohlin, Fazale Rana, and Jonathan Wells, for example, were the University of Texas, Ohio University, and the University of California, Berkeley, respectively, where they earned their degrees, rather than their current affiliations: Probe Ministries for Bohlin, Reasons to Believe ministry for Rana, and the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture for Wells. Similarly confusing lists of local scientists were circulated during controversies over evolution education in Georgia, New Mexico, Ohio, and Texas. In another instance, the Discovery Institute frequently mentions the Nobel Prize in connection with Henry F. Schaefer, III, a CSC Fellow, and chemist at the University of Georgia. Critics allege that Discovery Institute is inflating his reputation by constantly referring to him as a "five-time nominee for the Nobel Prize" because Nobel Prize nominations remain confidential for fifty years. +This criticism is not reserved only to the Institute; individual intelligent design proponents have been accused of using their own credentials and those of others in a misleading or confusing fashion. For example, critics allege William A. Dembski gratuitously invokes his laurels by boasting of his correspondence with a Nobel laureate, bragging that one of his books was published in a series whose editors include a Nobel laureate, and exulting that the publisher of the intelligent design book The Mystery of Life's Origin, Philosophical Library, also published books by eight Nobel laureates. Critics claim that Dembski purposefully omits relevant facts which he fails to mention to his audience that in 1986, during the Edwards v. Aguillard hearings, 72 Nobel laureates endorsed an amicus curiae brief that noted that the "evolutionary history of organisms has been as extensively tested and as thoroughly corroborated as any biological concept." +Another common criticism is that since no intelligent design research has been published in mainstream, peer-reviewed scientific journals, the Discovery Institute often misuses the work of mainstream scientists by putting out lists of articles that allegedly support their arguments for intelligent design drawing from mainstream scientific literature. Often, the original authors respond that their articles cited by the center don't support their arguments at all. Many times, the original authors have publicly refuted them for distorting the meaning of something they've written for their own purposes. +Sahotra Sarkar, a molecular biologist at the University of Texas, has testified that intelligent design advocates, and specifically the Discovery Institute, have misused his work by misrepresenting its conclusions to bolster their own claims, has gone on to allege that the extent of the misrepresentations rises to the level of professional malfeasance: + +"When testifying before the Texas State Board of Education in 2003 (in a battle over textbook adoption that we won hands down), I claimed that my work had been maliciously misused by members of the Discovery Institute. ... The trouble is that it says nothing of the sort that Meyer claims. I don't mention Dembski, ID, or "intelligent" information whatever that may be. I don't talk about assembly instructions. In fact what the paper essentially does is question the value of informational notions altogether, which made many molecular biologists unhappy, but which is also diametrically opposed to the "complex specified information" project of the ID creationists. ... Notice how my work is being presented as being in concordance with ID when Meyer knows very well where I stand on this issue. If Meyer were an academic, this kind of malfeasance would rightly earn him professional censure. Unfortunately he's not. He's only the Director of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture." +An October 2005 conference called "When Christians and Cultures Clash" was held in Christ Hall at Evangelical School of Theology in Myerstown, Pennsylvania. Attorney Randall L. Wenger, who is affiliated with the Alliance Defense Fund, and a close ally of the Discovery Institute, and one of the presenters at the conference advocated the use of subterfuge for advancing the movement's religious goals: "But even with God's blessing, it's helpful to consult a lawyer before joining the battle... For instance, the Dover area school board might have had a better case for the intelligent design disclaimer they inserted into high school biology classes had they not mentioned a religious motivation at their meetings... Give us a call before you do something controversial like that... I think we need to do a better job at being clever as serpents." +Critics state about the wedge strategy that its "ultimate goal is to create a theocratic state". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ffa763ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design movement" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Legacy == +In 2017, theoretical physicist Mano Singham wrote that since the ruling of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, "little" has been "heard from" the intelligent design movement, adding "Whereas before one heard of ID all over the place, now one has to seek them out by visiting the Discovery Institute which has become kind of a refuge for the last holdouts." + +== See also == +Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed +Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center +Intelligent design in politics +Intelligent design network +Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District +Wedge strategy + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == +Center for Science and Culture +Discovery Institute +"Intelligent Design vs. Evolution" (Flash Video). TVW. Olympia, WA. April 26, 2006. Retrieved 2014-06-06. — Debate between paleontologist Peter Ward and Stephen C. Meyer co-founder of the Discovery Institute +Understanding Evolution — A collaborative project of the University of California Museum of Paleontology and the National Center for Science Education +Annas, George J. (May 25, 2006). "Intelligent Judging — Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom". The New England Journal of Medicine. 354 (21). Waltham, MA: Massachusetts Medical Society: 2277–2281. doi:10.1056/NEJMlim055660. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 16723620. +Dennett, Daniel C. (August 28, 2005). "Show Me the Science". The New York Times (Op-ed). Retrieved 2014-06-06. +Forrest, Barbara (April 2002). "The Newest Evolution of Creationism". Natural History. Research Triangle Park, NC: 80. Retrieved 2014-06-06. +MacLeod, Donald (October 18, 2005). "Intelligent design opponents invoke US constitution". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2014-06-06. +Mooney, Chris (August 10, 2005). "Inferior Design". The American Prospect. Washington, D.C.: The American Prospect, Inc. ISSN 1049-7285. Retrieved 2014-06-06. +Pearcey, Nancy (July–August 1999). "Design & the Discriminating Public: Gaining a Hearing from Ordinary People". Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity. 12 (4). Chicago, IL: Fellowship of St. James. ISSN 0897-327X. Retrieved 2014-06-06. +Pennock, Robert T. (March 2002). "Should Creationism Be Taught in the Public Schools?" (PDF). Science & Education. 11 (2). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 111–133. Bibcode:2002Sc&Ed..11..111P. doi:10.1023/A:1014473504488. ISSN 0926-7220. S2CID 145629340. Retrieved 2014-06-06. +Orr, H. Allen (May 30, 2005). "Devolution". The New Yorker. New York: Condé Nast. Retrieved 2014-06-06. +Roach, John (April 27, 2005). "Does 'Intelligent Design' Threaten the Definition of Science?". National Geographic News. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on April 28, 2005. Retrieved 2014-06-06. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdimensional_UFO_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdimensional_UFO_hypothesis-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f3ba7e501 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdimensional_UFO_hypothesis-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Interdimensional UFO hypothesis" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdimensional_UFO_hypothesis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:32.609595+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The interdimensional UFO hypothesis (IUH) is the proposal that unidentified flying object (UFO) sightings are the result of experiencing other "dimensions" or "portals" that coexist separately alongside our own. +The hypothesis has been advanced by ufologists such as Meade Layne, John Keel, J. Allen Hynek, and Jacques Vallée. Proponents of the interdimensional hypothesis argue that UFOs are a modern manifestation of a phenomenon that has occurred throughout recorded human history, which in prior ages was ascribed to mythological or supernatural creatures. +Jeffrey J. Kripal, Chair in Philosophy and Religious Thought at Rice University, writes: "this interdimensional reading, long a staple of Spiritualism through the famous 'fourth dimension', would have a very long life within ufology and is still very much with us today". + + +== History == + + +=== Pre-modern history === +Concepts similar to ”other dimensions” exist amongst various religious and mystical traditions, such as Islamic mysticism known as Sufism. In this tradition, the concept al-ghayb refers to the hidden, unseen, and invisible, and encompasses a range of important phenomena in Islam and in the everyday lives of Muslims. +Within this mystical tradition, there is a concept of a hidden multilayered reality or world known as 'ālam al-mithāl, or “the world of similitude” which is considered to be an intermediary realm between the physical world (‘ālam al-shahada) and the purely spiritual world (‘ālam al-malakut). It is believed within this dominion exists everything unseen including intelligent non-human entities, known in Islam as jinn and angels. + + +=== Modern === +In the 19th century, various spiritualists believed in "other dimensions". In the late 19th century, the metaphysical term "planes" was popularized by H. P. Blavatsky, who propounded a complex cosmology consisting of seven "planes". Blavatsky adapted the word aether from Ancient Greek (via Victorian physics that would later be discredited) into the term "ether", which was subsequently incorporated into the writings of 19th-century occultists. +The "etheric plane" and the "etheric body" were introduced into Theosophy by Charles Webster Leadbeater and Annie Besant to represent a hypothetical 'fourth plane', above the "planes" of solids, liquids, and gases. The term "etheric" was later used by popular occult authors such as Alice Bailey, Rudolf Steiner, and numerous others. +The first use of the word, as inter-dimensional, is in a novel by Z Gale of 1906. + + +== Theory == + + +=== Meade Layne and 'Ether Ships' === + +On July 4, 1947, occultist Meade Layne claimed that flying discs were "etheric". Layne claimed to be in telepathic communication with "people in the saucers", arguing "it is possible for objects to pass from an etheric to a dense level of matter and will then appear to materialize. They then will return to an etheric conditions". Layne claimed that "These visitors are not excarnate humans but are human beings living in their own world. They come with good intent. They have some idea of experimenting with earth life." The prior year, it had been reported that Layne consulted a medium who relayed communications from a "space ship named Careeta" that came to Earth from 'an unidentified planet'. +According to one scholar, Layne coined the term "interdimensional hypostasis" to describe the sightings. Layne is regarded as the earliest proponent of the interdimensional hypothesis. + + +=== John Keel and 'Ultraterrestrials' === + +Keel created the term "ultraterrestrials" to describe UFO occupants he believed to be non-human entities "which exist in a wavelength of energy which we cannot detect". +In his 1970 book UFOs: Operation Trojan Horse, Keel argued that a non-human or spiritual intelligence source has staged whole events over a long period of time in order to propagate and reinforce certain erroneous belief systems. For example, monsters, ghosts and demons, the fairy faith in Middle Europe, vampire legends, mystery airships in 1897, mystery aeroplanes of the 1930s, mystery helicopters, anomalous creature sightings, poltergeist phenomena, balls of light, and UFOs; Keel conjectured that ultimately all of these anomalies are a cover for the real phenomenon. + + +=== Hynek and Vallée === + +J. Allen Hynek was an American astronomer who served as scientific advisor to the U.S. Air Force UFO studies: Project Sign, Project Grudge, and Project Blue Book. Hynek pioneered the "Close Encounter" classification system; Hynek had a cameo in Stephen Spielberg's film Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Jacques Vallée, a student of Hynek's, served as the inspiration for the French researcher portrayed by François Truffaut in the film. +In 1975's The Edge of Reality, Vallée and Hynek consider the possibility of what they call "interlocking universes": + +VALLÉE: What other wild hypotheses could we make?HYNEK: There could be other universe with different quantum rules or vibration rates if you want. Our own space-time continuum could be a cross-section through a universe with many more dimensions. ... Think what a hard time you would have convincing an aborigine that right now, through this room, TV pictures are passing! Yet they're here. You have to have a transducer to see them -- namely a TV set. Well, in the same sense there may be interlocking universes right here! We have this idea of space, we always think of another universe being someplace else. It may not. Maybe it's right here." +In his 'landmark' 1969 book Passport to Magonia: On UFOS, Folklore and Parallel Worlds, Vallée argues for a "parallel universe co-existing with our own". +The idea was reiterated in Vallée's subsequent writings. Vallée's summarized his objection in his 1990 paper "Five Arguments Against the Extraterrestrial Origin of Unidentified Flying Objects": + +unexplained close encounters are far more numerous than required for any physical survey of the earth; +the humanoid body structure of the alleged "aliens" is not likely to have originated on another planet and is not biologically adapted to space travel; +the reported behavior in thousands of abduction reports contradicts the hypothesis of genetic or scientific experimentation on humans by an advanced race; +the extension of the phenomenon throughout recorded human history demonstrates that UFOs are not a contemporary phenomenon; +the apparent ability of UFOs to manipulate space and time suggests radically different and richer alternatives. + + +== In popular culture == +The 2008 action-adventure film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull utilizes the interdimensional hypothesis and describes ancient aliens not flying into space but into ”the space between the spaces". +The 2014 movie Interstellar employs a mix of the interdimensional and the time-traveler hypotheses. The bulk-beings who built the tesseract inside the supermassive black hole Gargantua are later revealed to be future humans who have evolved to exist in five dimensions. + + +== See also == +Fallen angel +Multiverse +Spiritualism +String theory +Other hypotheses: +Demonic UFO hypothesis +Cryptoterrestrial hypothesis +Space animal hypothesis +Time-traveler hypothesis + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Algernon Blackwood A VICTIM OF HIGHER SPACE (5), www.hilobrow.com, June 26, 2022 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitive_eating-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitive_eating-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a085e63a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitive_eating-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Intuitive eating" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitive_eating" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:33.879930+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Intuitive eating is an approach to eating that focuses on the body's response to cues of hunger and satisfaction. It aims to foster a positive relationship with food as opposed to pursuing "weight control". Additionally, intuitive eating aims to change users' views about dieting, health, and wellness, instilling a more holistic approach. It also helps to create a positive attitude and relationship towards food, physical activity, and the body. +The term "intuitive eating", coined by registered dietitians Evelyn Tribole and Elyse Resch, first appeared in a 1990s peer-reviewed journal article. In 2012, Tribole's and Resch's book Intuitive Eating: A Revolutionary Program that Works was published, identifying ten components of intuitive eating and reviewing the scientific research that has been conducted on it. + + +== Characteristics == +Unlike most diets, intuitive eating does not try to ban or restrict certain foods, with its mindset being that food should not be looked at as "good or bad". Practitioners are instead encouraged to listen to their body and eat what feels right for them. +Intuitive eating follows 10 guidelines: + +Reject the diet mentality +Honor your hunger +Make peace with food +Challenge the food police +Feel your fullness +Discover the satisfaction factor +Cope with your emotions without using food +Respect your body +Exercise +Honor your health + + +== Research == + + +=== Weight loss and chronic disease control === +Intuitive eating is not designed with an intention to lose weight (as a HAES aligned approach); however, some studies suggest it may lead to some short-term weight loss, and to decrease weight significantly more than in control groups that had no diet intervention, most likely caused by healing relationship with food and reduced eating for non-physical hunger. Long-term weight loss from intuitive eating might be possible, but this possibility is not yet well-studied. +Based on observational studies, intuitive eating is associated with less frequent overeating and better self-regulation in terms of calorie consumption. Due to the methodology of those studies, causality cannot be inferred and intuitive eating could be a consequence of low body weight rather than its prerequisition. +Intuitive eating may be equally effective as a diabetes self-management education (DSME) and a lifestyle weight loss program, although further research is needed, as only similar approaches such as mindfulness eating were tested in clinical trials. +In overweight or obese pregnant women, mindfulness eating was shown to lower glucose levels. Whether these results can be extrapolate to the similar, but still different approach of intuitive eating, is unclear. +Intuitive eating may help to lower cholesterol and fasting glucose levels, improve HbA1C levels, and lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure. +In a study from 2022 a lifestyle intervention that focused on weight loss resulted in a similar increase in intuitive eating as the control group. Weight loss correlated with two out of four subdomains of intuitive eating (body–food choice congruence and unconditional permission to eat). However, this results leaves open whether stronger intuitive eating was a result of weight loss or its requirement. + + +=== Disordered eating and body acceptance === +Intuitive eating may help to decrease eating disorder symptoms and behaviors as well as decrease weight stigma and concerns about weight. +A 2022 review found that intuitive eating helped to decrease dieting. +A 2016 review found that it correlated with self-esteem and self-compassion. Another review found that it could lead to improved quality of life, body image, and body appreciation. +A 2019 study revealed that women who followed intuitive eating patterns were able to let go of the concepts of "good" and "bad" foods that are commonly promoted by diet culture, allowing them to eat a more balanced, sustainable, and non-restrictive diet. + + +== Drawbacks and limitations == +Intuitive eating has shown growth as a possible method for losing weight and yielding health benefits. However, researchers warn that there is not enough research to support that it can assist with weight loss long-term, or with maintaining weight loss. Furthermore, doctors and registered dietitians warn that this "non-diet" diet approach will yield different results for different people. +People with certain health conditions may be instructed by their doctor to follow a particular diet, eliminating the choice to follow an intuitive eating diet. Critics have also argued that because intuitive eating is so broad, with no given diet plan or food restrictions, it can be hard for some users to know what to eat and how much to eat. It can be a steep learning curve to accurately respond to one's hunger and fullness cues. + + +== See also == +Health at Every Size +Human nutrition +Body positivity + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized_jewelry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized_jewelry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d14818bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized_jewelry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Ionized jewelry" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized_jewelry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:35.075699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An Ionized bracelet, or ionic bracelet, is a type of metal bracelet jewelry purported to affect the chi of the wearer. No claims of effectiveness made by manufacturers have ever been substantiated by independent sources, and the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has found the bracelets are "part of a scheme devised to defraud". +Q-Ray, Balance, Bio-Ray, iRenew, Rayma, and Rico's Bio-Energy brand bracelets are considered to be of the "ionized" family. Other alternative health bracelets, such as magnetic or copper therapy bracelets, are considered a different type of product. + + +== History == +In October 1973, corporate websites claim, Manuel L. Polo began investigating the effects of different metals on humans, believing that some metals offered a benefit when worn. This led directly to his creation of the Bio-Ray (Biomagnetic Regulator), the first ionized bracelet. +In 1994, Andrew Park bought a Bio-Ray bracelet while visiting Barcelona, Spain. Believing that it had reduced his lower back pain, he was inspired to found QT Inc., which began manufacturing and selling Q-Ray bracelets in the United States by 1996. + + +=== Marketing claims === +Western interest in the Q-Ray Ionized Bracelet rose as a result of an infomercial campaign by QT Inc., which ran from August 2000 through June 11, 2003. During this time many marketing claims were made regarding the product's alleged effectiveness, most notably regarding relief from pain and arthritis due to manipulation of a body's chi. +In a Marketplace interview, Charles Park, president of Q-Ray Canada, explains that the term "ionized" does not mean the bracelets themselves are ionized, but rather that the term comes from their secret "ionization process" which, he asserts, affects the bracelets in undisclosed ways. + + +=== FTC action === +These claims were the topic of a 2003 injunction by the Federal Trade Commission and later a high-profile court ruling in 2006. The court was unable to find any basis for QT Inc.'s claims related to traditional Chinese medicine, concluding that it was "part of a scheme devised by QT Inc to defraud its consumers". + + +== Criticism == +Ionized jewelry, such as Q-Ray, has been heavily criticized based on multiple factors. + + +=== Pseudoscientific theory === +Alternative health bracelets such as ionized jewelry are currently characterized as pseudoscience. Q-Ray's theory is grounded in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and poses similar benefits to acupuncture, another practice designed to balance the flow of qi and is controversial in scientific communities regarding its efficacy. Their website claims to optimize your natural positive energy and restore balance. No scientific research supporting these claims is referenced anywhere on their website or store. Instead, they advertise and rely heavily on testimonials as anecdotal evidence. No currently available research from third parties has verified their claims. + + +=== Radioactivity === +Several wearable products marketed as "negative ion generators" have been found to contain radioactive thorium or uranium, apparently to generate negative ions as a result of radioactive decay. While the activity is typically low, adverse effects from cumulative exposure to the radioactivity in these products cannot be ruled out. + + +=== Research === +A placebo controlled randomized trial study published in the journal Mayo Clinic Proceedings compared the effect of an ionized bracelet produced by Q-ray to an identically appearing placebo bracelet. The study found no difference between the ionized bracelet and control with respect to musculoskeletal pain, suggesting the effects of the Q-ray bracelet were due to the placebo effect. + + +== See also == +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Quackery +Negative air ionization therapy +Power Balance +Hologram bracelet +Magnet therapy +Energy medicine + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d0e848b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Irano-Afghan race" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:21:36.208774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Irano-Afghan race or Iranid race is an obsolete racial classification of human beings based on a now-disproven theory of biological race. Some anthropologists of the 20th century classified the populations native to the Iranian plateau as belonging to this race, which was usually seen as a subrace of the Caucasian race or the Mediterranean racial subtype of that race, depending on the authority consulted. + + +== Physiognomy == +American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon described the Irano-Afghan race as a branch of the Mediterranean race, describing them as being long-faced, high-headed and leptorrhine (having long and narrow noses). By contrast, Swedish anthropologist Bertil Lundman postulates an "Iranid" subtype of his "Eastern Mediterranean" race. American anthropologist Earnest Hooton in 1946 describes the "Iranian Plateau type" as distinct from the Atlanto-Mediterranean one: + +particularly in its long, high-bridged, and boldly jutting nasal promontory. It has the same huge dolichocephalic head and massive, usually long face. The great nose may be either straight or convex, more often the latter. +According to Italian anthropologist Renato Biasutti the type was defined by: + +Brunet-white color, very dark hair and eyes, abundant pilosity; medium stature (165), slim body; very long (74) and high head with prominent occiput; long face; large and high nose with root at the level of the forehead, straight or convex spine, strongly curved nostrils (64); full lips, robust chin. +British anthropologist John Lawrence Angel, following Coon in 1971, discusses a "Nordic-Iranian type" in the following terms: + +D1 lies between Anglo-Saxon and Keltic area norms, and D2 is the earlier pre-Bronze Age Corded form which Coon identifies. Type D3, lighter and more hawk-nosed, is transitional to the Mediterranean type B4 and to type D4 (Iranian), which is the Proto-Iranian of Vallois, Irano-Afghan of others, and Proto-Nordic of Krogman, and which is more linear and more rugged than D3 and has a more tilted chewing plane, more nasal convexity, and deeper occiput. Type D5 approximates Coon's Danubian-Halstatt and successor Central European forms. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hidden_Messages_in_Water-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hidden_Messages_in_Water-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..952374312 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hidden_Messages_in_Water-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "The Hidden Messages in Water" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hidden_Messages_in_Water" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:20:59.664698+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Hidden Messages in Water is a 2004 New York Times Bestseller book, written by Masaru Emoto advancing the pseudoscientific idea that the molecular structure of water is changed by the presence of human consciousness nearby, backed by "exhaustive and wildly unscientific research" claiming to back this conjecture. + + +== Criticism == +William Reville, professor of biochemistry at University College Cork writing in the Irish Times, described The Hidden Messages in Water as a work of pseudoscience, and characterized the book as "an amalgam of science and mumbo-jumbo" with "no credible hypothesis as to causation, no development of the idea, no fruitfulness in the concept, and, above all, no clear scientific demonstration". He concluded by stating that "It is very unlikely that there is any reality behind Emoto's claims. A triple blind study of these claims failed to show any effect. Also, the phenomenon he describes has never been published in a peer reviewed science journal, which almost certainly means that the effect cannot be demonstrated under controlled conditions." Physicist Kenneth Libbrecht, an expert on snow, also saw the book as displaying confirmation bias, joking that "it's good to have an open mind, but not so open that your brains fall out!" +Harriet Hall wrote for the Skeptical Inquirer that the book "holds a place of honor on my bookshelves as the worst book I have ever read. It is about as scientific as Alice in Wonderland. Emoto took pictures of snowflakes and 'observed' that clean water made prettier crystals." Upon the book becoming a New York Times Bestseller, literary critic Dwight Garner wrote in The New York Times Book Review that "it was one of those 'head-scratchers' that made him question the sanity of the reading public." + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Emoto, Masaru (2005-09-20). Hidden Messages in Water. Atria Books. ISBN 978-0-7432-8980-1. \ No newline at end of file