diff --git a/_index.db b/_index.db index 11856c665..26196b5e1 100644 Binary files a/_index.db and b/_index.db differ diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..957c87052 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Committee on the Public Understanding of Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:00.114474+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Committee on the Public Understanding of Science or Copus was founded in 1985 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS), the Royal Institution and the Royal Society. Copus came about as a result of the 'Bodmer Report' by the eminent geneticist Walter Bodmer. The aim of Copus was to interpret scientific advances and make them more accessible to non-scientists. +It played a part in developing the public understanding of science it establishing standards for communicating science and technology +The Copus Grant Schemes was set up in 1987 and the last round of grants was for 2003/4. The scheme was funded by the Office of Science and Technology and the Royal Society. 25 grants worth a total of over £750,000 were awarded in 2003/2004. +In 2000 The new Copus Council was formed to be a more inclusive partnership for science communication in the UK. In 2002 following a report commissioned by the Office of Science and Technology the Copus Council was discontinued. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42b7046d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "Conversazione" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:01.319518+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science. + +It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the conversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.) + + +== Origin == +The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione". + + +== Historical usage in Britain == + +In Italy, the term generally refers to a gathering for conversation; and was first used in English to identify the sort of private social gathering more generally known today as an "At Home". +In England, however, it soon came to be far more widely used to denote the gatherings of a far more intellectual character and was applied in the more specific sense of a scientific, artistic, or literary assembly/soirée, generally held at night. + +A conversazione like everything else has undergone conspicuous development in these days.Formerly the word was applicable only to a meeting of cognoscenti, who were themselves proficient in some art or science which might be the immediate subject of learned interest.At the present time the materials for discussion are supplied by the proficients, and the general public are invited to provide the talk or the criticism.Moreover a "conversation" of this kind is not limited to a specific subject, but may comprise topics incidental to any branch of science and art whatever. (New Zealand Herald, 17 September 1880.) +In its report on the first conversazione ever conducted by the Lambeth Literary Institution (on 22 June 1836), The Gentleman's Magazine noted that, + +the principal object [of the Lambeth Literary Institution's inaugural conversazione] has been—by the collection of articles of virtù, antiquity, science, or art, and by the reading of original papers, conversation, and music,— to unite its members, at stated periods, into one focus of neighbourly community; where all may be on a footing of social equality,—the aristocracy of mind, united with urbanity of manners, alone maintaining its ascendancy here; where the high attainments of the classical scholar,—the lofty imaginings of the poet,—the deep researches of the man of science,—and the sturdy intelligence of the skilful artizan [sic], may all be amalgamated under one roof; and the rough energies of manly intellect be thus softened and refined by the amenities of the social circle. + + +== Knowledge dissemination == +According to Yeates (2018): + +In Victorian England, the conversazione was one of the most important educational, cultural, and recreational means through which scientific knowledge was disseminated and explanations of technical innovation were delivered to the general public.Conducted by individuals, institutions, or learned bodies, a (usually mixed amateur/expert, male/female) audience was enlightened by explanations, two-way interactions with participants, experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and/or the exhibition of specimens (see Alberti, 2003; and Plunkett & Sullivan, 2012).The conversazione’s lectures/explanations delivered knowledge by description, and its experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and exhibition of specimens delivered knowledge by acquaintance (with the concomitant psychological ownership of the knowledge so-acquired). + + +== Other uses == + + +=== University of Cambridge === +The intellectual society at Cambridge University known as the Apostles was founded in 1820 as the Conversazione Society by George Tomlinson. +The Cambridge University Natural History Society continues to call its annual public exhibition a Conversazione. + + +=== Conversazione.org === +The arts-orientated social media website Conversazione.org takes its name from the English meaning. + + +== See also == +Le Conversazioni – an anglophone literary festival held on the island of Capri, Italy +Public awareness of science +Science communication +The Cambridge Apostles also known as the Cambridge Conversazione Society +Sacra conversazione – (holy or sacred conversation), a genre developed in Italian Renaissance painting, with a depiction of the Virgin and Child amidst a group of saints + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Alberti, Samuel J.M.M. (2003), "Conversaziones and the Experience of Science in Victorian England". Journal of Victorian Culture 8.2): 208-30. doi:10.3366/jvc.2003.8.2.208 +de Clerq, Peter (2003), "Scientific instruments displayed at the Royal Society conversazioni or soirées in the nineteenth century", in Marco Beretta, Paolo Galluzzi and Carlo Triarico (eds.), Musa Musaei: Studies on Scientific Instruments and Collections in Honour of Mara Miniati, (Florence), Biblioteca di Nuncius Studi e Testi XLIX, pp.395–405. +Hartrick, Elizabeth (2008), "'Curiosities and rare scientific instruments': Colonial conversazioni in Australia and New Zealand in the 1870s and 1880s", pp.11.1–11.19 in Seize the Day: Exhibitions, Australia and the World, edited by Kate Darian-Smith, Richard Gillespie, Caroline Jordan, and Elizabeth Willis, Elizabeth, Monash University ePress, (Melbourne). +Plunkett, J., & Sullivan, J.A. (2012), "Fetes, Bazaars and Conversaziones: Science, Entertainment and Local Civic Elites", in J. Kember, J. Plunkett, and J.A. Sullivan (eds.), Popular Exhibitions, Science and Showmanship, 1840-1910, (pp.41–60). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. +Wood, Jane (2006), "A Culture of Improvement: Knowledge, Aesthetic Consciousness, and the Conversazione", Nineteenth Century Studies, Vol.20, pp.79-97. +Yeates, Lindsay B., "James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid’s Crucial Experiment, and Braid’s Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism", Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis, Vol.40, No.1, (Autumn 2018), pp.40-92. + + +== External links == + +Martz, Teal (8 March 2013). "The repository: Women of the conversazioni". blogs.royalsociety.org. Royal Society. Retrieved 9 July 2020. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a68b97345 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Cosmology@Home" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:02.448859+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cosmology@Home was a volunteer computing project that used the BOINC platform and was formerly run at the Departments of Astronomy and Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The project has moved to the Institut Lagrange de Paris and the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris, both of which are located in the Pierre and Marie Curie University. + + +== Goals == +The goal of Cosmology@Home is to compare theoretical models of the universe to the data measured to date and search for the model that best matches it. Other goals may include: + +results from Cosmology@Home can help design future cosmological observations and experiments. +results from Cosmology@Home can help prepare for the analysis of future data sets, e.g. from the Planck spacecraft. + + +== Science == +The goal of Cosmology@Home is to search for the model that best describes our Universe and to find the range of models that agree with the available astronomical and particle physics data. The models generated by Cosmology@Home can be compared to measurements of the universe's expansion speed from the Hubble Space Telescope as well as fluctuations in the Cosmic microwave background as measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. + + +== Method == +Cosmology@Home uses an innovative way of using machine learning to effectively parallelize a large computational task that involves many inherently sequential calculations over a substantial number of distributed computers. +For any given class of theoretically possible models of the Universe, Cosmology@Home generates tens of thousands of example Universes and packages the cosmological parameters describing these Universes as work units. Each work unit represents a single Universe. When the work unit is requested by a participating computer, this computer simulates this Universe from the Big Bang until today. The result of this simulation is a list of observable properties of this Universe. +This result is then sent back and archived at the Cosmology@Home server. When a sufficient number of example Universes have been simulated, a machine learning algorithm called Pico, which was developed by the project scientists of Cosmology@Home for this purpose, learns from these example calculations how to do the simulation for any Universe similar to the example Universes. The difference is that Pico takes a few milliseconds per calculation rather than several hours. Training Pico on 20,000 examples takes about 30 minutes. Once Pico is trained, it can run a full comparison of the class of models (which involves hundreds of thousands of model calculations) with the observational data in a few hours on a standard CPU. +The Cosmology@Home application is proprietary. + + +== Milestones == +2007-06-30 Project launches for closed alpha testing - invitation only. +2007-08-23 Project opens registration for public alpha testing. +2007-11-05 Project enters beta testing stage. +2016-12-15 Project moved to the Institut Lagrange de Paris and the Institut d'astrophysique de Paris, both of which are located at the Pierre and Marie Curie University. + + +== See also == +List of volunteer computing projects +Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a770c85bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Denialism" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:03.621726+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the sciences and in historiography, denialism is the rejection of basic facts and concepts that are undisputed, well-supported parts of the scientific consensus or historical record on a subject, in favor of ideas that are radical, controversial, or fabricated. Examples include Holocaust denial, AIDS denialism, and climate change denial. The forms of denialism present the common feature of the person rejecting overwhelming evidence and trying to generate political controversy in attempts to deny the existence of consensus. +In psychology, denialism is a person's choice to deny reality as a way to avoid believing in an uncomfortable truth. Denialism is an essentially irrational human behavior that withholds the validation of a historical experience or event when a person refuses to accept an empirically verifiable reality. +The motivations and causes of denialism include religion, self-interest (economic, political, or financial), and defence mechanisms meant to protect the psyche of the denialist against mentally disturbing facts and ideas; such disturbance is called cognitive dissonance. + +== Definition and tactics == +Anthropologist Didier Fassin distinguishes between denial, defined as "the empirical observation that reality and truth are being denied", and denialism, which he defines as "an ideological position whereby one systematically reacts by refusing reality and truth". Persons and social groups who reject propositions on which there exists a mainstream and scientific consensus engage in denialism when they use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of argument and legitimate debate, when there is none. It is a process that operates by employing one or more of the following five tactics to maintain the appearance of legitimate controversy: + +Conspiracy theories – Dismissing the data or observation by suggesting opponents are involved in "a conspiracy to suppress the truth". +Cherry picking – Selecting an anomalous critical paper supporting their idea, or using outdated, flawed, and discredited papers to make their opponents look as though they base their ideas on weak research. Diethelm and McKee (2009) note, "Denialists are usually not deterred by the extreme isolation of their theories, but rather see it as an indication of their intellectual courage against the dominant orthodoxy and the accompanying political correctness." +False experts – Paying an expert in the field, or another field, to lend supporting evidence or credibility. This goes hand-in-hand with the marginalization of real experts and researchers. +Moving the goalposts – Dismissing evidence presented in response to a specific claim by continually demanding some other (often unfulfillable) piece of evidence (aka Shifting baseline) +Other logical fallacies – Usually one or more of false analogy, appeal to consequences, straw man, or red herring. +Common tactics to different types of denialism include misrepresenting evidence, false equivalence, half-truths, and outright fabrication. South African judge Edwin Cameron notes that a common tactic used by denialists is to "make great play of the inescapable indeterminacy of figures and statistics". Historian Taner Akçam states that denialism is commonly believed to be negation of facts, but in fact "it is in that nebulous territory between facts and truth where such denialism germinates. Denialism marshals its own facts and it has its own truth." +Focusing on the rhetorical tactics through which denialism is achieved in language, in Alex Gillespie (2020) of the London School of Economics has reviewed the linguistic and practical defensive tactics for denying disruptive information. These tactics are conceptualized in terms of three layers of defence: + +Avoiding – The first line of defence against disruptive information is to avoid it. +Delegitimizing – The second line of defence is to attack the messenger, by undermining the credibility of the source. +Limiting – The final line of defence, if disruptive information cannot be avoided or delegitimized, is to rationalize and limit the impact of the disruptive ideas. +In 2009, author Michael Specter defined group denialism as "when an entire segment of society, often struggling with the trauma of change, turns away from reality in favor of a more comfortable lie". + +== Prescriptive and polemic perspectives == +If one party to a debate accuses the other of denialism they are framing the debate. This is because an accusation of denialism is both prescriptive and polemic: prescriptive because it carries implications that there is truth to the denied claim; polemic since the accuser implies that continued denial in the light of presented evidence raises questions about the other's motives. Edward Skidelsky, a lecturer in philosophy at Exeter University writes that "An accusation of 'denial' is serious, suggesting either deliberate dishonesty or self-deception. The thing being denied is, by implication, so obviously true that the denier must be driven by perversity, malice or wilful blindness." He suggests that, by the introduction of the word denier into further areas of historical and scientific debate, "One of the great achievements of The Enlightenment – the liberation of historical and scientific enquiry from dogma – is quietly being reversed". +Some people have suggested that because denial of the Holocaust is well known, advocates who use the term denialist in other areas of debate may intentionally or unintentionally imply that their opponents are little better than Holocaust deniers. However, Robert Gallo et al. defended this latter comparison, stating that AIDS denialism is similar to Holocaust denial since it is a form of pseudoscience that "contradicts an immense body of research". + +== Politics and science == + +=== Climate change === + +=== HIV/AIDS === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f82136fe7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Denialism" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:03.621726+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +AIDS denialism is the denial that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS denialism has been described as being "among the most vocal anti-science denial movements". Some denialists reject the existence of HIV, while others accept that the virus exists but say that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS. Insofar as denialists acknowledge AIDS as a real disease, they attribute it to some combination of recreational drug use, malnutrition, poor sanitation, and side effects of antiretroviral medication, rather than infection with HIV. However, the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive and the scientific community rejects and ignores AIDS-denialist claims as based on faulty reasoning, cherry picking, and misrepresentation of mainly outdated scientific data. With the rejection of these arguments by the scientific community, AIDS-denialist material is now spread mainly through the Internet. +Thabo Mbeki, former president of South Africa, embraced AIDS denialism, proclaiming that AIDS was primarily caused by poverty. About 365,000 people died from AIDS during his presidency; it is estimated that around 343,000 premature deaths could have been prevented if proper treatment had been available. + +=== COVID-19 === + +The term "COVID-19 denialism" or merely "COVID denialism" refers to the thinking of those who deny the reality of the COVID-19 pandemic, at least to the extent of denying the scientifically recognized COVID mortality data of the World Health Organization. The claims that the COVID-19 pandemic has been faked, exaggerated, or mischaracterized are pseudoscience. Some famous people who have engaged in COVID-19 denialism include Elon Musk, U.S. President Donald Trump, and former Brazilian President Bolsonaro. + +=== Evolution === + +Religious beliefs may prompt an individual to deny the validity of the scientific theory of evolution. Evolution is considered an undisputed fact within the scientific community and in academia, where the level of support for evolution is essentially universal, yet this view is often met with opposition by biblical literalists. The alternative view is often presented as a literal interpretation of the Book of Genesis's creation myth. Many fundamentalist Christians teach creationism as if it were fact under the banners of creation science and intelligent design. Beliefs that typically coincide with creationism include the belief in the global flood myth, geocentrism, and the belief that the Earth is only 6,000–10,000 years old. These beliefs are viewed as pseudoscience in the scientific community and are widely regarded as erroneous. + +=== Flat Earth === + +The superseded belief that the Earth is flat, and denial of all of the overwhelming evidence that supports an approximately spherical Earth that rotates around its axis and orbits the Sun, persists into the 21st century. Modern proponents of flat-Earth cosmology (or flat-Earthers) refuse to accept any kind of contrary evidence, dismissing all spaceflights and images from space as hoaxes and accusing all organizations and even private citizens of conspiring to "hide the truth". They also claim that no actual satellites are orbiting the Earth, that the International Space Station is fake, and that these are lies from all governments involved in this grand cover-up. Some even believe other planets and stars are hoaxes. +Adherents of the modern flat-earth model propose that a dome-shaped firmament encloses a disk-shaped Earth. They may also claim, after Samuel Rowbotham, that the Sun is only 3,000 miles (4,800 km) above the Earth and that the Moon and the Sun orbit above the Earth rather than around it. Modern flat-earthers believe that Antarctica is not a continent but a massive ice floe, with a wall 150 feet (46 m) or higher, which circles the perimeter of the Earth and keeps everything (including all the oceans' water) from falling off the edge. +Flat-Earthers also assert that no one is allowed to fly over or explore Antarctica, despite contrary evidence. According to them, all photos and videos of ships sinking under the horizon and of the bottoms of city skylines and clouds below the horizon, revealing the curvature of the Earth, have been manipulated, computer-generated, or somehow faked. Therefore, regardless of any scientific or empirical evidence provided, flat-Earthers conclude that it is fabricated or altered in some way. +When linked to other observed phenomena such as gravity, sunsets, tides, eclipses, distances and other measurements that challenge the flat earth model, claimants replace commonly accepted explanations with piecemeal models that distort or over-simplify how perspective, mass, buoyancy, light or other physical systems work. These piecemeal replacements rarely conform with each other, finally leaving many flat-Earth claimants to agree that such phenomena remain "mysteries" and more investigation is to be done. In this conclusion, adherents remain open to all explanations except the commonly accepted globular Earth model, shifting the debate from ignorance to denialism. + +=== Genetically modified foods === + +There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from genetically modified crops (GM) poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. +Psychological analyses indicate that over 70% of GM food opponents in the US are "absolute" in their opposition, experience disgust at the thought of eating GM foods, and are "evidence insensitive". + +=== Statins === +Statin denialism is a rejection of the medical worth of statins, a class of cholesterol-lowering drugs. Cardiologist Steven Nissen at Cleveland Clinic has commented "We are losing the battle for the hearts and minds of our patients to Web sites..." promoting unproven medical therapies. Harriet Hall sees a spectrum of statin denialism ranging from pseudoscientific claims to the understatement of benefits and overstatement of side effects, all of which is contrary to the scientific evidence. + +=== Mental illness denial === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..235add205 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Denialism" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:03.621726+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mental illness denial or mental disorder denial is where a person denies the existence of mental disorders. Serious analysts, as well as pseudoscientific movements, question the existence of certain disorders. A minority of professional researchers see disorders such as depression from a sociocultural perspective and argue that the solution to it is fixing a dysfunction in society, not in the person's brain. Some people may also deny that they have a mental illness after being diagnosed, and certain analysts argue this denialism is usually fueled by narcissistic injury. Anti-psychiatry movements such as Scientology promote mental illness denial by having alternative practices to psychiatry. + +=== Election denial === + +Election denial is baseless rejection of the outcome of a fair election. Since the 2020 United States presidential election, there has been an ongoing narrative asserting that it was fraudulent. Similar events have occurred in different countries: Brazil in 2022 when former president Jair Bolsonaro after his defeat in the 2022 Brazilian general election, questioning the accuracy of the country's electronic voting system. In the 2021 Peruvian general election, presidential candidate Keiko Fujimori alleged fraud and irregularities in the voting count which were disproved by election authorities and international observers. + +== Historiography == + +Historical negationism, the denialism of widely accepted historical facts, is a major source of concern among historians and it is frequently used to falsify or distort accepted historical events. In attempting to revise the past, negationists are distinguished by the use of techniques inadmissible in proper historical discourse, such as presenting known forged documents as genuine, inventing ingenious but implausible reasons for distrusting genuine documents, attributing conclusions to books and sources that report the opposite, manipulating statistical series to support the given point of view, and deliberately mistranslating texts. +Some countries, such as Germany, have criminalized the negationist revision of certain historical events, while other countries take a more cautious position for various reasons, such as the protection of free speech. Others mandate negationist views, such as California, where schoolchildren have been explicitly prevented from learning about the California genocide. + +=== Armenian genocide denialism === + +=== Holocaust denialism === + +Holocaust denial refers to the denial of the murder of 5 to 6 million Jews by the Nazis in Europe during World War 2. In this context, the term is a subset of genocide denial, which is a form of politically motivated denialism. + +=== Nakba denialism === + +Nakba denial refers to attempts to downgrade, deny and misdescribe the ethnic cleansing of Palestinians during the Nakba, in which four-fifths of all Palestinians were driven off their lands and into exile. + +=== Srebrenica massacre denialism === + +Sonja Biserko, president of the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia, and Edina Bečirević, the Faculty of Criminalistics, Criminology and Security Studies of the University of Sarajevo have pointed to a culture of denial of the Srebrenica massacre in Serbian society, taking many forms and present in particular in political discourse, the media, the law and the educational system. + +== See also == + +== Notes == + +== References == + +=== Works cited === + +== Further reading == + +=== Articles === +Holtcamp, W. (2012). "Flavors of uncertainty: The difference between denial and debate". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (8): a314–a319. doi:10.1289/ehp.120-a314 (inactive January 6, 2026). PMC 3440096. PMID 22854265.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2026 (link) +Kahn-Harris, Keith (August 3, 2018). "Denialism: what drives people to reject the truth". The Guardian. +Oreskes, Naomi, "History Matters to Science: It helps to explain how cynical actors undermine the truth", Scientific American, vol. 323, no. 6 (December 2020), p. 81. "In our 2010 book, Merchants of Doubt, Erik M. Conway and I showed how the same arguments [as those used to cast doubt on the link between tobacco use and lung cancer] were used to delay action on acid rain, the ozone hole and climate change – and this year [2020] we saw the spurious "freedom" argument being used to disparage mask wearing [during the COVID-19 pandemic]." +Rees, M. (2013). "Denial of catastrophic risks". Science. 339 (6124): 1123. Bibcode:2013Sci...339.1123R. doi:10.1126/science.1236756. PMID 23471373. +Rosenau, J. (2012). "Science denial: A guide for scientists". Trends in Microbiology. 20 (12): 567–569. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2012.10.002. PMID 23164600. +Sharot, T.; Korn, C.W.; Dolan, R.J. (2011). "How unrealistic optimism is maintained in the face of reality". Nature Neuroscience. 14 (11): 1475–1479. doi:10.1038/nn.2949. PMC 3204264. PMID 21983684. + +=== Books === +Gorman, Sara E.; Gorman, Jack M. (2016). Denying to the Grave: Why We Ignore the Facts That Will Save Us. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-939660-3. +McIntyre, Lee (2019). The Scientific Attitude: Defending Science from Denial, Fraud and Pseudoscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 149–166. ISBN 978-0-262-53893-0. +Norgaard, Kari Marie (2011). Living In Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51585-6. +Specter, Michael (2009). Denialism: How Irrational Thinking Hinders Scientific Progress, Harms the Planet, and Threatens Our Lives. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-230-8. + +== External links == + +Denialism Blog +"Refusing Flu Shots? Maybe You're A 'Denialist'" National Public Radio \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01ca85c52 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Docking@Home" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:04.853096+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Docking@Home was a volunteer computing project hosted by the University of Delaware and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It models protein-ligand docking using the CHARMM program. Volunteer computing allows an extensive search of protein-ligand docking conformations and selection of near-native ligand conformations are achieved by using ligand based hierarchical clustering. The ultimate aim was the development of new pharmaceutical drugs. +The project was retired on May 23, 2014. + + +== See also == +List of volunteer computing projects + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +"Computer Idle? Now You Can Donate Its Time to Find a Cure for Major Diseases". Newswise. June 16, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-27. + + +== External links == +Official website +Docking@Home screensaver video on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bcc92cbd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "EOn" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:07.277588+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +eOn was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, which uses theoretical chemistry techniques to solve problems in condensed matter physics and materials science. It was a project of the Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences at the University of Texas. +Traditional molecular dynamics can accurately model events that occur within a fraction of a millisecond. In order to model events that take place on much longer timescales, Eon combines transition state theory with kinetic Monte Carlo. The result is a combination of classical mechanics and quantum methods like density functional theory. +Since the generation of new work units depended on the results of previous units, the project could only give each host a few units at a time. +On May 26, 2014, it was announced that eOn would be retiring from BOINC. + + +== See also == +List of volunteer computing projects + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f5180241e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Einstein@Home" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:06.070620+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Einstein@Home is a volunteer computing project that searches for signals from spinning neutron stars in data from gravitational-wave detectors, from large radio telescopes, and from a gamma-ray telescope. Neutron stars are detected by their pulsed radio and gamma-ray emission as radio and/or gamma-ray pulsars. They also might be observable as continuous gravitational wave sources if they are rapidly spinning and non-axisymmetrically deformed. The project was officially launched on 19 February 2005 as part of the American Physical Society's contribution to the World Year of Physics 2005 event. +Einstein@Home searches data from the LIGO gravitational-wave detectors. The project conducts the most sensitive all-sky searches for continuous gravitational waves. While no such signal has yet been detected, the upper limits set by Einstein@Home analyses provide astrophysical constraints on the galactic population of spinning neutron stars in our Milky Way galaxy. +Einstein@Home also searches radio telescope data from the Arecibo Observatory, and has in the past analyzed data from Parkes Observatory. On 12 August 2010, the first discovery by Einstein@Home of a previously undetected radio pulsar J2007+2722, found in data from the Arecibo Observatory, was published in Science. This was the first data-based discovery by a volunteer computing project. As of December 2023, Einstein@Home had discovered 55 radio pulsars. +The project also analyses data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope to discover gamma-ray pulsars. On 26 November 2013, the first Einstein@Home results of the Fermi data analysis was published: the discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in data from Fermi's Large Area Telescope (LAT). As of December 2023, Einstein@Home has discovered 39 previously unknown gamma-ray pulsars in data from the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The Einstein@Home search makes use of novel and more efficient data-analysis methods and discovered pulsars missed in other analyses of the same data. +The project runs on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform and uses free software released under the GNU General Public License, version 2. Einstein@Home is hosted by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (Albert Einstein Institute, Hannover, Germany) and the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. The project is supported by the Max Planck Society (MPG), the American Physical Society (APS), and the US National Science Foundation (NSF). The Einstein@Home project director is Bruce Allen. +Einstein@Home uses the power of volunteer computing in solving the computationally intensive problem of analyzing a large volume of data. Such an approach was pioneered by the SETI@home project, which is designed to look for signs of extraterrestrial life by analyzing radio wave data. Einstein@Home runs through the same software platform as SETI@home, the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC). As of December 2023, more than 492,000 volunteers in 226 countries had participated in the project, making it the third-most-popular active BOINC application. Users regularly contribute about 7.7 petaFLOPS of computational power, which would rank Einstein@Home among the top 105 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers. + +== Scientific objectives == +The Einstein@Home project was originally created to perform all-sky searches for previously unknown continuous gravitational-wave (CW) sources using data from the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) detector instruments in Washington and Louisiana, USA. The best understood potential CW sources are rapidly spinning neutron stars (including pulsars) which are expected to emit gravitational waves due to a deviation from Rotational symmetry. Besides validating Einstein's theory of General Relativity, direct detection of gravitational waves would also constitute an important new astronomical tool. As most neutron stars are electromagnetically invisible, gravitational-wave observations might also reveal completely new populations of neutron stars. A CW detection could potentially be extremely helpful in neutron-star astrophysics and would eventually provide unique insights into the nature of matter at high densities, because it provides a way of examining the bulk motion of the matter. +Since March 2009, part of the Einstein@Home computing power has also been used to analyze data taken by the PALFA Consortium at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. This search effort is designed to find radio pulsars in tight binary systems. It is expected that there is one radio pulsar detectable from Earth in an orbital system with a period of less than one hour. A similar search has also been performed on two archival data sets from the Parkes Multi-beam Pulsar Survey. The Einstein@Home radio pulsar search employs mathematical methods developed for the search for gravitational waves. +Since July 2011, Einstein@Home is also analyzing data from the Large Area Telescope (LAT), the primary instrument on Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope to search for pulsed gamma-ray emission from spinning neutron stars (gamma-ray pulsars). Some neutron stars are only detectable by their pulsed gamma-ray emission, which originates in a different area of the neutron star magnetosphere than the radio emission. Identifying the neutron star's rotation rate is computationally difficult, because for a typical gamma-ray pulsar only thousands of gamma-ray photons will be detected by the LAT over the course of billions of rotations. The Einstein@Home analysis of the LAT data makes use of methods initially developed for the detection of continuous gravitational waves. + +== Gravitational-wave data analysis and results == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f495bab4e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Einstein@Home" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:06.070620+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Einstein@Home has carried out many analysis runs using data from the LIGO instruments. Since its first search run in 2005, the sensitivity of the LIGO detectors has been improved in a series of steps and upgrades. This is continuing with the current Advanced LIGO detectors. At the same time, Einstein@Home search algorithms have also improved. Together these have increased the search sensitivity by several orders of magnitude. Einstein@Home's first analysis used data from the "third science run" (S3) of LIGO. Processing of the S3 data set was conducted between 22 February 2005 and 2 August 2005. This analysis employed 60 segments from the LIGO Hanford 4-km detector, totaling ten hours of data each. Each 10-hour segment was analyzed for CW signals by the volunteers' computers using a matched-filtering technique. When all matched-filtering results were returned, the results from different segments were then combined in a "post-processing step" on Einstein@Home servers via a coincidence scheme to further enhance search sensitivity. Results were published on the Einstein@Home webpages. Work on the S4 data set (LIGO's fourth science run) was started via interlacing with the S3 calculations and finished in July 2006. This analysis used 10 segments of 30 hours each from the LIGO Hanford 4-km detector and 7 segments of 30 hours each from the LIGO Livingston 4-km detector. Besides the S4 data being more sensitive, a more sensitive coincidence combination scheme was also applied in the post-processing. The results of this search have led to the first scientific publication of Einstein@Home in Physical Review D. Einstein@Home gained considerable attention in the international volunteer computing community when an optimized application for the S4 data set analysis was developed and released in March 2006 by project volunteer Akos Fekete, a Hungarian programmer. Fekete improved the official S4 application and introduced SSE, 3DNow! and SSE3 optimizations into the code improving performance by up to 800%. Fekete was recognized for his efforts and was afterward officially involved with the Einstein@Home team in the development of the new S5 application. As of late July 2006, this new official application had become widely distributed among Einstein@Home users. The app created a large surge in the project's total performance and productivity, as measured by floating point speed (or FLOPS), which over time has increased by approximately 50% compared to non-optimized S4 applications. The first Einstein@Home analysis of the early LIGO S5 data set, where the instruments initially reached their design sensitivity, began on 15 June 2006. This search used 22 segments of 30 hours each from the LIGO Hanford 4-km detector and six segments of 30 hours from the LIGO Livingston 4-km detector. This analysis run (code name "S5R1"), employing the search methodology as Einstein@Home, was very similar to the previous S4 analysis. However, the search results were more sensitive due to the use of more data of better quality compared to S4. Over large parts of the search parameter space, these results, which also appeared in Physical Review D, are the most exhaustive published to date. The second Einstein@Home search of LIGO S5 data (code name "S5R3") constituted a further major improvement regarding search sensitivity. As opposed to previous searches, the ensuing results were already combined on the volunteers' computers via a Hough transform technique. This method matched-filtered results from 84 data segments of 25 hours each, parameters from which came from both 4-km LIGO Hanford and Livingston instruments. On 7 May 2010, a new Einstein@Home search (code name "S5GC1"), which uses a significantly improved search method, launched. This program analyzed 205 data segments of 25 hours each, using data from both 4-km LIGO Hanford and Livingston instruments. It employed a technique which exploited global parameter-space correlations to efficiently combine the matched-filtering results from the different segments. Results from an Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO S5 data were published on 13 February 2013. In the most sensitive frequency band of the search (a half-Hertz band at 152.5 Hertz), the presence of periodic gravitational waves with strain amplitude larger than 7.6×10−25 could be excluded at 90% confidence. Overall, the search was 3 times as sensitive as previous Einstein@Home searches in LIGO S5 data. Details of the two-stage follow-up procedure for signal candidates used in this study were published on 25 June 2014. A search for high-frequency (1249 Hertz to 1499 Hertz) continuous gravitational waves in LIGO S5 data by Einstein@Home, published on 26 September 2016, was the only such search in LIGO data. No signal candidates were identified. The search excluded neutron stars with spin frequencies between 625 Hertz and 770 Hertz and with ellipticities greater than 2.8×10−7 closer than 100 parsec to Earth. Data from LIGO 6th science run (S6) were analyzed by Einstein@Home and the results were published on 18 November 2016. No signal was found and the search set the most stringent upper limits for an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves at the time of publication. In the most sensitive frequency band between 170.5 Hertz and 171 Hertz there were (with 90% confidence) no continuous gravitational waves with a strain amplitude of more than 5.5×10−25 detected. At frequencies of 230 Hertz, the search results exclude neutron stars with ellipticities greater than 10−6 within 100 parsecs of Earth. Einstein@Home conducted a directed search for continuous gravitational waves from the central object in the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A. It used data from the LIGO S6 run and searched over a range of frequencies from 50 Hertz to 1000 Hertz, because the spin frequency of the central object is unknown. No signal was found. The upper limits on gravitational-wave emission from Cassiopeia A were the most stringent at the time of publication, about a factor two lower than previous upper limits. On 28 December 2016 results from a follow-up of the all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO S6 data were published. Out of a total of 3.8 × 1010 signal candidates from the earlier search, the 16 million most promising were analyzed using a four-stage hierarchical process. No candidate was found to be consistent with an astrophysical source of continuous gravitational waves. In the frequency band between 170.5 Hertz and 171 Hertz the upper limit (90% confidence) on the strain amplitude was 4.3×10−25, a factor 1.3 lower than in the previous search. Searches for continuous gravitational waves are limited by the available computing power. Within the project, research on improving the sensitivity of the searches with new methods is conducted. In late 2017 two publications were published, describing improved methods of candidate clustering in the hierarchical searches and new "veto" methods that distinguish between astrophysical continuous gravitational waves and detector artifacts mimicking them. Both these new methods were employed in the first Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in Advanced LIGO data from the first observing run (O1), the results of which were published on 8 December 2017. The first part of the search investigated the lower end of the LIGO frequency band between 20 Hertz and 100 Hertz. No signals were found. The most stringent upper limit (90% confidence) on the gravitational-wave strain amplitude set by the search was 1.8×10−25 at a frequency of 100 Hertz. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..334ca5dcd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Einstein@Home" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:06.070620+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An Einstein@Home study on how to optimally use the limited computing power for directed searches (where prior information on the target object such as the sky position is available) was published on 31 January 2018. It describes the design of searches for continuous gravitational waves over a wide frequency range from three supernova remnants (Vela Jr, Cassiopeia A, and G347.3). The results from the directed Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 July 2019. It covered a frequency range from 20 Hertz to 1500 Hertz and used data from LIGO's first observing run O1. No signal was found and the most stringent upper limit at the time of publication were set, improving earlier results by a factor of two for all three targets. A follow-up of the Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 June 2020. It investigated the most promising 10,000 candidates from the previous search and followed them up in two stretches of data from LIGO's second observing run (O2). A single candidate associated with G347.3 remained as a possible signal after the follow-up, but was not conclusively confirmed based on gravitational-wave data. Archival X-ray data were searched for pulsations at the putative rotation frequency of the neutron star and its integer multiples. No signal was found. It is expected that data from LIGO's third observing run (O3) will suffice to shed light on the nature of this potential candidate. On 8 March 2021 results from an Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO O2 data were published. It used an eight-stage follow-up process and covered a frequency range from 20 Hertz to 585 Hertz and reached the highest sensitivity for any all-sky survey below 500 Hertz. Six candidates were found after all follow-up stages. They are consistent with and caused by validation hardware injections in the LIGO instruments. No other signal was found. The most stringent upper limit (90% confidence) was set in a 0.5 Hertz band at 163 Hertz at a gravitational-wave strain amplitude of 1.3×10−25. The results begin to probe neutron star astrophysics and population properties. They exclude neutron stars with rotation frequencies above 200 Hertz with ellipticities larger than 10−7 (which are predicted by some models of neutron star crusts) closer than 100 parsec. Results from a dedicated Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central object of the supernova remnant G347.3 was published on 5 August 2021. In the analysed frequency range between 20 Hertz and 400 Hertz no signal was found. The derived upper limits correspond to ellipticities of less than 10−6 for most of the frequency band. In the most sensitive frequency band at 166 Hertz the upper limit (90% confidence) on gravitational-wave strain is 7.0×10−26. In July 2023, the results of an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in the public LIGO O3 data were published. The search was the most sensitive at that time for gravitational waves with frequencies between 2o Hertz and 800 Hertz and with spin-downs of up to −2.6×10−9 Hz s−1. No astrophysical gravitational-wave signal was identified, and all candidate signals could be attributed to artificial signals injected into the LIGO data for validation purposes. The results exclude the existence of isolated neutron stars spinning at rotational frequencies of more than 200 Hertz with ellipticities larger than 5×10−8 closer than 100 parsec. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6905653ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Einstein@Home" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:06.070620+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Radio data analysis and results == +On 24 March 2009, it was announced that the Einstein@Home project was beginning to analyze data received by the PALFA Consortium at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. +On 26 November 2009, a CUDA-optimized application for the Arecibo Binary Pulsar Search was first detailed on official Einstein@Home webpages. This application uses both a regular CPU and an NVIDIA GPU to perform analyses faster (in some cases up to 50% faster). +On 12 August 2010, the Einstein@Home project announced the discovery of a new disrupted binary pulsar, PSR J2007+2722; it may be the fastest-spinning such pulsar discovered to date. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers Chris and Helen Colvin and Daniel Gebhardt observed PSR 2007+2722 with the highest statistical significance. +On 1 March 2011, the Einstein@Home project announced their second discovery: a binary pulsar system PSR J1952+2630. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers from Russia and the UK observed PSR J1952+2630 with the highest statistical significance. +By 15 May 2012 a new application for ATI/AMD graphic cards had been released. Using OpenCL, the new application was ten times faster than running on a typical CPU. +On 22 July 2013, an Android application version of the radio pulsar search was announced. Like the CPU application, the Android application processes data from Arecibo Observatory. +On 20 August 2013, the discovery of 24 pulsars in data from the Parks Multi-beam Pulsar Survey was published. The re-analysis of the data found these pulsars, which were missed by previous analyses and re-analyses of the data. Six of the discovered pulsars are in binary systems. +The discovery of a double neutron star binary in PALFA data by the project was published on 4 November 2016. PSR J1913+1102 is in a 4.95 hour orbit with a neutron star partner. By measuring the relativistic periastron advance, the total mass of the system was determined to 2.88 solar masses, similar to the mass of the most massive double neutron star, B1913+16. +Timing analysis of 13 radio pulsars discovered by Einstein@Home were published by the PALFA Consortium in August 2021. +On 31 October 2023 the project announced the launch of a new Zooniverse project called "Pulsar Seekers". In this project, citizen scientists visually inspect and classify sets of diagnostic plots for pulsar candidates produced from the Einstein@Home analysis of observations from the large Arecibo telescope's PALFA pulsar survey. The goal is to identify new pulsars in these data. +As of December 2023, the Einstein@Home project had discovered a total of 55 radio pulsars: 24 using Parkes Multibeam Survey data and 31 using Arecibo radio data (including two from the Arecibo Binary Radio Pulsar Search and 29 using data from the PALFA Mock spectrometer data from Arecibo Observatory). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ddb9d459c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Einstein@Home" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:06.070620+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Gamma-ray data analysis and results == +On 1 July 2011 the project announced a new application to search for pulsars in data from the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. +On 26 November 2013, the discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in LAT data by the Einstein@Home project was published. All four pulsars are located in the plane of our Galaxy and have spin frequencies of less than 10 Hertz and characteristic ages between 35,000 and 56,000 years. No radio waves were detected from any of the pulsars. +The discovery of the gamma-ray pulsar PSR J1906+0722 was published on 4 August 2015. The discovery confirmed the pulsar nature of the object which had been suspected since 2012 based on the energy distribution of the gamma-ray photons observed by the LAT. The pulsar is young and energetic. In August 2009 it suffered one of the largest glitches observed from a gamma-ray pulsar. No radio pulsations were detected in any follow-up search, making PSR J1906+0722 likely radio-quiet. Advanced methods of timing the arrival times of gamma-ray pulsations were introduced to improve the parameter inference of astrophysical properties. +On 16 November 2016 the discovery and timing measurements of PSR J1208−6238, the youngest known radio-quiet gamma-ray pulsar, were published. Even though the inferred age is 2,700 years, no associated supernova remnant or pulsar wind nebula could be identified. +On 11 January 2017, the first results from a survey of 118 unidentified pulsar-like sources from the Fermi-LAT Catalog were published. A total of 13 new pulsars were found. Most of them are young and were formed in supernovae several tens to hundreds of thousands of years ago. The discoveries and the methods used in the survey were published in the first of two associated papers. The second paper reports faint radio pulsations from two of the 13 gamma-ray pulsars, and presents modeling of the gamma-ray and radio pulse profiles with different geometric emission models. +The discovery of two millisecond pulsars discovered by Einstein@Home through their pulsed gamma radiation was published on 28 February 2018. PSR J1035−6720, spinning at 348 Hertz, has detectable radio pulsations which were found in follow-up searches. The other discovery PSR J1744−7619 is the first radio-quiet millisecond pulsar ever discovered. The project also announced that it was searching for gamma-ray pulsars in binary systems, which are more difficult to find due to the additional orbital parameters. +The first Einstein@Home discovery of a gamma-ray pulsar in a binary system was published on 22 October 2020. PSR J1653-0158, a neutron star with about two solar masses and one of the highest known rotation frequencies of 508 Hertz, orbits the common center of mass with a companion of only 1% of the Sun's mass. The orbital period is 75 minutes, shorter than that of any comparable binary systems. The discovery was made using a GPU-accelerated version of a modified gamma-ray pulsar search code, which included binary orbital parameters. No radio waves were found in follow-up searches. A search for gravitational waves from the pulsar discovered no such emission. The pulsar is from a class known as black widow pulsars. The pulsar evaporates its companion with its energetic radiation and a particle wind. The ablated material fills the binary system with a cloud of plasma absorbing radio waves, but not gamma radiation. +A second discovery of a gamma-ray pulsar in an unusual binary system was reported on 2 February 2021. It was thought to be a "redback" millisecond pulsar system, but no pulsations from the neutron star had been observed. Optical observations of the pulsar companion were used to constrain the orbital parameters of the system. A thus targeted search for gamma-ray pulsations with Einstein@Home found a low-mass pulsar spinning at 377 Hertz in a 5.5 hour orbit with a companion of about a fifth of a solar mass. Precision timing of the gamma-ray pulsations revealed unpredictable changes in the orbital period of up to ten milliseconds. They might be linked to changes in the mass distribution of the companion caused by its magnetic activity, which in turn would affect the pulsar orbit through the changing external gravitational field. +The discovery of 14 previously unknown gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi-LAT data was announced by the project on 15 June 2021. +In November 2023 the Third Fermi Large Area Telescope Catalog of Gamma-Ray Pulsars was published. The catalog lists 39 pulsars discovered with Einstein@Home and 14 with Einstein@Home methods implemented on a large compute cluster. The catalog also includes 13 candidate spider pulsar systems, that could be targets for future searches for their gamma-ray pulsations with Einstein@Home. +As of December 2023, the Einstein@Home project had discovered a total of 39 gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi LAT data. + +== See also == +Gravitational wave +Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) +List of volunteer computing projects + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..56b4940ec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Einstein@Home" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:06.070620+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Scientific Publications == +Clark, C. J.; et al. (2016). "The Braking Index of a Radio-quiet Gamma-ray Pulsar". The Astrophysical Journal. 832 (1): L15. arXiv:1611.01292. Bibcode:2016ApJ...832L..15C. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/832/1/L15. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 54531854. +Clark, Colin J.; et al. (2016). "The Einstein@Home Gamma-ray Pulsar Survey I: Search Methods, Sensitivity and Discovery of New Young Gamma-ray Pulsars". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 106. arXiv:1611.01015. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..106C. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/106. S2CID 5750104. +Lyne, A. G.; Stappers, B. W.; Bogdanov, S.; Freire, P. C. C.; Kaspi, V. M.; et al. (2016). "Timing of 29 Pulsars Discovered in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 137. arXiv:1608.09007. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..137L. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/137. S2CID 53639204. +Papa, M. A.; Eggenstein, H.-B.; Walsh, S.; Di Palma, I.; Allen, B.; et al. (2016). "Hierarchical follow-up of sub-threshold candidates of an all-sky Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves on LIGO sixth science run data". Physical Review D. 94 (12) 122006. arXiv:1608.08928. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94l2006P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.122006. S2CID 4595158. +Lazarus, P.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home discovery of a Double-Neutron Star Binary in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 831 (2): 150. arXiv:1608.08211. Bibcode:2016ApJ...831..150L. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/831/2/150. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 20833657. +Zhu, Sylvia J.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from Cassiopeia A". Physical Review D. 94 (8) 082008. arXiv:1608.07589. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94h2008Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.082008. ISSN 2470-0010. S2CID 118479596. +Singh, Avneet; et al. (2016). "Results of an all-sky high-frequency Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO's fifth science run". 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Retrieved 2005-09-11. + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3875b8383 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects research" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:08.535539+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The acronyms ELSI (in the United States) and ELSA (in Europe) refer to research activities that anticipate and address ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) or aspects (ELSA) of emerging sciences, notably genomics and nanotechnology. ELSI was conceived in 1988 when James Watson, at the press conference announcing his appointment as director of the Human Genome Project (HGP), suddenly and somewhat unexpectedly declared that the ethical and social implications of genomics warranted a special effort and should be directly funded by the National Institutes of Health. + + +== Spread == +Various ELSI or ELSA programs have been developed, in Canada, Europe and the Far East. Overview: + +U.S.A.: Ethical, ....Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding agency: NIH, 1990) +Canada: Genomics-related Ethical, Environmental, Economic, Legal and Social Aspects (GE3LS) (funding agency: Genome Canada, 2000) +South-Korea: Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding: Government of South-Korea, 2001) +United Kingdom: ESRC Genomics Network (EGN), including: Cesagen, Innogen, Egenis, Genomics Forum (funding agency: ESRC 2002) +Netherlands: Centre for Society and the Life Sciences (CSG) (funding agency: Netherlands Genomics Initiative, 2002); more recently the ELSA labs programme related to Artificial Intelligence +Norway: ELSA Program (funding agency: Research Council of Norway, 2002) +Germany, Austria, Finland: ELSAGEN Transnational Research Programme (funding agencies: GEN-AU, FFG, DFG, Academy of Finland, 2008) + + +== Features == +At least four features seem typical for an ELSA approach, namely: + +proximity (closeness to or embedding in large-scale scientific programs); +early anticipation (of societal issues and potential controversies); +interactivity (encouraging stakeholders and publics to assume an active role in co-designing research agendas); +interdisciplinarity (bridging boundaries between research communities such as for instance bioethics and STS). + + +== Reception == +The ELSA approach has been widely endorsed by academics studying the societal impact of science and technology, but also criticized. Michael Yesley, responsible for the US Department of Energy (DOE) part of the ELSI programme, claims that the ELSI Program was in fact a discourse of justification, selecting topics of ethics research that will facilitate rather than challenge the advance of genetic technology. In other words, ELSA genomics as the handmaiden of genomics research. In Europe, in the context of the Horizon 2020 program, ELSA-style research is now usually framed as Responsible Research and Innovation. +Examples of academic journals open to publishing ELSA research results are New Genetics and Society (Taylor and Francis) and Life Sciences, Society and Policy (SpringerOpen). + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8e2ef8819 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Ethnoscience" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:09.704400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ethnoscience has been defined as an attempt "to reconstitute what serves as science for others, their practices of looking after themselves and their bodies, their botanical knowledge, but also their forms of classification, of making connections, etc." (Augé, 1999: 118). + +== Origins == +Ethnoscience has not always focused on ideas distinct from those of "cognitive anthropology", "component analysis", or "the New Ethnography"; it is a specialization of indigenous knowledge-systems, such as ethno-botany, ethno-zoology, ethno-medicine, etc. (Atran, 1991: 595). According to Scott Atran, ethnoscience looks at culture with a scientific perspective (1991: 650), although most anthropologists abhor this definition. Ethnoscience helps to understand how people develop with different forms of knowledge and beliefs, and focuses on the ecological and historical contributions people have been given (Atran, 1991: 650). Tim Ingold describes ethnoscience as a cross-discipline (2000: 160). He writes that ethnoscience is based on increased collaboration between social sciences and the humanities (e.g., anthropology, sociology, psychology, and philosophy) with natural sciences such as biology, ecology, or medicine (Ingold, 2000: 406–7). At the same time, ethnoscience is increasingly transdisciplinary in its nature (Ingold, 2000: 407). +Of course, naturally over time, the ways in which data has been collected and studied has changed and the field has evolved, becoming more detailed and specific (Urry, 1972: 45). The ideas, mechanics, and methods of ethnoscience evolved from something else - a combination of several things. This pretext amalgamation of theories, processes, and –isms led to the evolution of today's ethnoscience. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7afc2278 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Ethnoscience" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:09.704400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Early approaches == +Early on, Franz Boas established cultural relativism as an approach to understanding indigenous scientific practices (Uddin, 2005: 980). Cultural relativism identifies people's differences and shows how they are a result of the social, historical, and geographical conditions (Uddin, 2005: 980). Boas is known for his work in Northern Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, working with the Kwakwaka'wakw Indians, which is where he established the importance of culture (Uddin, 2005: 980). Lévi-Strauss' structuralism was a strong contributor to the ideas of ethnoscience (Uddin, 2005: 980). It, itself, was the leading idea of providing structure to the research and a guide to organizing and relating different cultures. "Ethnoscience refers to a 'reduction of chaos' achieved by a particular culture, rather than to the 'highest possible and conscious degree' to which such chaos may be reduced"; basically, the ethnoscience of a society creates its culture (Sturtevant, 1964: 100). Much of the influence of anthropology, e.g., geographical determinism, was through the contributions of Jean Bodin (Harris, 1968: 42). In his text, he tried to explain why "northern people were faithful, loyal to the government, cruel, and sexually uninterested, compared to why southern people were malicious, craft, wise, expert in science but ill-adapted to political activity (Harris, 1968: 52)." The Greek historian, Polybius, asserted "we mortals have an irresistible tendency to yield to climatic influences; and to this cause, and no other, may be traced the great distinctions that prevail among us in character, physical formation, complexion, as well as in most of our habits..." (quoted in Harris, 1968: 41). +Another aspect of anthropology prior to ethnoscience is enculturation. Newton and Newton described enculturation as a process whereby the novice, or "outsider", learns what is important to the "insider" (1998). Marvin Harris writes, "One of [enculturation's] most important technical expressions is the doctrine of 'psychic unity,' the belief that in the study of sociocultural differences, hereditary (genetic) differences cancel each other out, leaving 'experience' as the most significant variable" (Harris, 1968: 15). This is one of the many starts of people opening up to the idea that just because people are different, does not mean they are wrong in their thinking. Harris describes how religious beliefs hinder and affect the progress of anthropology and ethnography. The moral beliefs and restrictions of religion fought against anthropological ideas, possibly due to (especially at the time) to the newly hyped idea of evolutionism and Darwinism (Harris, 1968). +Bronislaw Malinowski was one of many who contributed heavily to the precursor of ethnoscience. His earlier work brought attention to sociological studies; his earliest publication focused on a family in Australia, using a sociological study perspective (Harris, 1968: 547). After the First World War, anthropological work was at a standstill; nothing had evolved, if not regressed (Urry, 1972: 54). This allowed him to start from scratch, and rebuild his ideas and methods (Harris, 1968: 547). +Later, however, Malinowski branched out to political evolution during World War II. The period after World War II is what led to ethnoscience; anthropologists learned their skills could be applied to problems that were affecting modern societies (Mead, 1973: 1). Malinowski said "... with his tables of kinship terms, genealogies, maps, plans and diagrams, proves an extensive and big organization, shows the contribution of the tribe, of the clan, of the family, and he gives a picture of the natives subjected to a strict code of behavior and good manners, to which in comparison the life at the Court of Versailles or Escurial was free and easy" (1922: 10). After World War II, there was an extreme amount of growth in the anthropological field, not only with research opportunities but academically, as well (Mead, 1973: 2). +The anthropologist Robin Horton, who taught at several Nigerian universities, considered the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples as incorporated within conceptual world views that bear certain similarities to, and differences from, the modern scientific worldview. Like modern science, traditional thought provides a theoretical structure that "places things in a causal order wider than that provided by common sense" (Horton, 1967, p. 53). In contrast to modern science, he saw traditional thought as having a limited awareness of theoretical alternatives and, consequently, displaying "an absolute acceptance of the established theoretical tenets" (Horton, 1967, pp. 155–6). +There are dozens, if not hundreds, of related methods and processes that preceded ethnoscience. Ethnoscience is just another way to study the human culture and the way people interact in society. Taking a look at the ideas and analyses prior to ethnoscience can help understand why it was developed in the first place. Although, it is not widely used and there is criticism on both ends, ethnoscience allows for a more comprehensive way to collect data and patterns of a people. This is not to say the process is its best or that there will be nothing better. That is the best part: everything evolves, even thought. Just as the ideas did in the past, they can improve over time and regress over time but change is inevitable. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..95d650440 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Ethnoscience" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:09.704400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Development == +Ethnoscience is a new term and study that came into anthropological theory in the 1960s. Often referred to as 'indigenous' or 'traditional' knowledge, ethnoscience introduces a perspective based on native perceptions. It is based on a complete emic perspective, which excludes all observations, interpretations and or any personal notions belonging to the ethnographer. The taxonomy and classification of indigenous systems, to name a few, used to categorize plants, animals, religion and life is adapted from a linguistic analysis. The concept of "Native Science" is also related to the understanding the role of the environment intertwined with the meaning humans place upon their lives. Understanding the language and the native people's linguistic system is one method to understand a native people's system of knowledge of organization. Not only is there categorization for things pertaining to nature and culture thought language, but more importantly and complex is the relationship between environment and culture. Ethnoscience looks at the intricacies of the connection between culture and its surrounding environment. There are also potential limitations and shortcomings in interpreting these systems of knowledge as a dictation of culture and behavior. +Since an ethnographer is not able to physically enter inside an indigenous person's mind, it is essential to not only create a setting or question-answer format to understand perspective but to analyze semantics and word order of given answer to derive an emic understanding. The main focus on a particular component of the languages is placed on its lexicon. The terms "etic" and "emic" are derived from the linguistic terms of "phonetic" and "phonemic". +As introduced by Gregory Cajete, some limitations the concept of indigenous knowledge, is the potential to bypass non-indigenous knowledge as pertinent and valuable. The labels of "indigenous" are overly accepted by those who seek more support by outsiders to further their cause. There might also be an unequal distribution of knowledge amongst a tribe or peoples. There is also the idea that culture is bound by environment. Some theorists conclude that indigenous people's culture is not operated by mental concentrations but solely by the earth that surrounds them. Some theorists go the extent to state that biological processes are based upon the availability, of lack thereof, environmental resources. The methods for sustainability are founded through the workings of the land. These techniques are exercised from the basis of tradition. The importance of the combination of ecological process, social structures, environmental ethics and spiritual ecology are crucial to the expression of the true connection between the natural world and "ecological consciousness". +The origin of Ethnoscience began between the years 1960 to 1965; deriving from the concept of "ethno- + science". Ethno- a combining form meaning "race", "culture", "people", used in the formation of compound words: ethnography. The two concepts later emerged into "ethno-science". The origin of the word 'science' involves the empiric observation of measurable quantities and the testing of hypotheses to falsify or support them. +"Ethnoscience refers to the system of knowledge and cognition typical of a given culture...to put it another way a culture itself amounts to the sum of a given society's folk classifications, all of that society's ethnoscience, its particular ways of classifying its material and social universe" (Sturtevant 1964: 99–100). The aim of ethnoscience is to gain a more complete description of cultural knowledge. Ethnoscience has been successfully used on several studies of given cultures relating to their linguistics, folk taxonomy, and how they classify their foods, animals and plants. + +=== Ethnolinguistics === +Ethnoscience is the examination of the perceptions, knowledge, and classifications of the world as reflected in their use of language, which can help anthropologists understand a given culture. By using an ethnographic approach to studying a culture and learning their lexicon and syntax they are able to gain more knowledge in understanding how a particular culture classifies its material and social universe. In addition, this approach "adopted provides simultaneously a point at which the discipline of linguistics, or at least some of its general attitudes, may sensibly be used in anthropology and as a means of gaining insight not only into the nature of man but also into the nature of culture" (Videbeck and Pia, 1966). +Researchers can use linguistics to study what a given culture considers important in a given situation or unforeseen event, and can rank those potential situations in terms of their likelihood to recur. In addition, "understanding the contingencies is helpful in the task of comprehending folk taxonomies on the one hand, and, on the other, an understanding of the taxonomy is required for a full scale appreciation of criteria considered relevant in a given culture (Videbeck and Pia, 1966). + +=== Taxonomy and classification === +Ethnoscience can be used to analyze the kinship terminology of a given culture, using their language and according to how they view members of their society. Taxonomies "are models of analysis whose purpose is the description of particular types of hierarchical relationships between members of a given set of elements" (Perchonock and Werner, 1969). For example, in our society we classify family groups by giving members the title of father, mother, sister, daughter, brother, son, grandfather, grandmother, etc. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9478441ab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Ethnoscience" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:09.704400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== System of classification – among cultures === +Ethnoscience deals with how a given culture classifies certain principles in addition to how it is express through their language. By understanding a given culture through how they view the world, anthropologists attempt to eliminate any bias through translation as well as categorized their principles in their own ways. "The new methods, which focus on the discovery and description of folk systems, have come to be known as Ethnoscience. Ethnoscience analysis has thus far concentrated on systems of classification within such cultural and linguistic domains as colors, plants, and medicines" (Perchonock and Werner, 1969). An ethnoscientific approach can be used to better understand a given culture and their knowledge of their culture. Using an ethnographic approach can help anthropologists understand how that given culture views and categorizes their own foods, animal kingdom, medicines, as well as plants. + +=== Contemporary research === +Ethnoscience can be effectively summed up as a classification system for a particular culture in the same way that a botanist would use a taxonomic system for the classification of plant species. Everything from class levels, food consumption, clothing, and material culture objects would be subjected to a taxonomic classification system. In essence, ethnoscience is a way of classifying cultural systems in a structured order to better understand the culture. +The roots of ethnoscience can be traced back to influential anthropologists such as Franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski, and Benjamin Whorf who attempted to understand other cultures from an insider's perspective. Ward Goodenough is accredited for bringing ethnoscience to the stage when he define cultural systems of knowledge by stating: + +"A societies culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members. Culture is not a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, behavior, or emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. It is the form of things that people have in mind, their models for perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them." + +(Goodenough 1957:167) +In order to properly put ethnoscience in context we must first understand the definition of ethnoscience. it is defined as "an attempt at cultural description from a totally emic perspective (a perspective in ethnography that uses the concepts and categories that are relevant and meaningful to the culture that is insider analysis) standpoint, this eliminating all of the ethnographer's own categories" (Morey and Luthans 27). Ethnoscience is also a way of learning and understanding how an individual or group perceive their environment and how they fit in with their environment as reflected in their own words and actions. +Ethnoscience has many techniques when applied to an emic perspective. Ethnosemantics, ethnographic semantics, ethnographic ethnoscience, formal analysis, and componential analysis are the terms that apply to the practice of ethnoscience. Ethnosemantics looks at the meaning of words in order to place them in context of the culture being studied. It allows for taxonomy of a certain part of the culture being looked at so that there is a clear breakdown which in turn leads to a deeper understanding of the subject at hand. Ethnographic semantics are very similar to cognitive anthropology in that its primary focus is the intellectual and rational perspectives of the culture being studied. Ethnographic semantics specifically looks at how language is used throughout the culture. Lastly, ethnographic ethnoscience is related to ethnosemantics such that, it uses a taxonomic system to understand how cultural knowledge is accessible through language. Ethnographic ethnoscience uses similar classification systems for cultural domains like ethnobotany and ethnoanatomy. Again, ethnoscience is a way of understanding a how a culture sees itself through its own language. Understanding the cultural language allows the ethnographer to have a deeper and more intimate understanding of the culture. + +== See also == +ethno- +astronomy +biology +botany +chemistry +ecology +mathematics +medicine +pharmacy +zoology +musicology +'traditional' +knowledge +medicine + +== References == +Atran, Scott (1991). "Social Science Information / Sur Les Sciences Sociales". Ethnoscience Today. 30 (4): 595–662. doi:10.1177/053901891030004001. S2CID 144923237. +Augé, Marc. 1999. The war of dreams: exercises in ethno-fiction, London: Pluto Press, 1999 +Cajete, Gregory. 2000. "Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence."Santa Fe, N.M.: Clear Light Publishers. +Harris, Marvin. 1968. The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A history of Theories of Culture. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. +Horton, Robin (1967), "African Traditional Thought and Western Science", Africa, 37: 50–71, 155–187, doi:10.2307/1157195, JSTOR 1157195, S2CID 145507695 +Ingold, Tim. 2000. The Perception of The Environment: Essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill. London, UK: Routledge. +Malinowski, BC. 1922. Argonauts of the western pacific. London, UK: Routledge. +Mead, Margaret (1973). "Changing Styles of Anthropological Work". Annual Review of Anthropology. 2: 1–16. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.02.100173.000245. +Meehan, Peter M. 1980. Science, ethnoscience, and agricultural knowledge utilization. In: Warren DM, Brokensha D, Werner O (Eds). Indigenous knowledge systems and development. Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America. p 383–91. +Newton, DP; Newton, LD (1998). "Enculturation and understanding: Some differences between sixth formers' and graduates' conceptions of understanding in history and science". Teaching in Higher Education. 3 (3): 339–64. doi:10.1080/1356215980030305. +Perchonock, Norma; Werner, Oswald (1969). "Navaho Systems of Classifications: Some Implications for Ethnoscience". Ethnology. 8 (3): 229–242. doi:10.2307/3772753. JSTOR 3772753. +Sturtevant, William C (1964). "Studies in Ethnoscience". American Anthropologist. 66 (3): 99–131. doi:10.1525/aa.1964.66.3.02a00850. +Urry, James (1972). "Notes and Queries on Anthropology". Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1972: 45–57. doi:10.2307/3031732. JSTOR 3031732. +Videbeck, R. and J. Pia. 1966. Plans for Coping: An Approach to Ethnoscience. Syracuse University. Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 8, No. 8. Ethnoscience: A Symposium Presented at the 1966 Meeting of the Central States Anthropological Society (Nov., 1966), pp. 71–77. +Werner, Oswald (1972). "Ethnoscience 1972". Annual Review of Anthropology. 1: 271–308. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.01.100172.001415. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..30ac65d58 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Evolution@Home" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:57:10.837406+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +evolution@home was a volunteer computing project for evolutionary biology, launched in 2001. The aim of evolution@home is to improve understanding of evolutionary processes. This is achieved by simulating individual-based models. The Simulator005 module of evolution@home was designed to better predict the behaviour of Muller's ratchet. +The project was operated semi-automatically; participants had to manually download tasks from the webpage and submit results by email using this method of operation. yoyo@home used a BOINC wrapper to completely automate this project by automatically distributing tasks and collecting their results. Therefore, the BOINC version was a complete volunteer computing project. yoyo@home has declared its involvement in this project finished. + + +== See also == +Artificial life +Digital organism +Evolutionary computation +Folding@home +List of volunteer computing projects + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file