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+title: "Alessandro Volta"
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+Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (18 February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was an Italian chemist and physicist who was a pioneer of electricity and power, and is credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the discoverer of methane. He invented the voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in a two-part letter to the president of the Royal Society in London, which was published in 1800. With this invention, Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments, which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry.
+Volta drew admiration from Napoleon Bonaparte for his invention, and was invited to the Institute of France to demonstrate his invention to the members of the institute. Throughout his life, Volta enjoyed a certain amount of closeness with the emperor who conferred upon him numerous honours. Volta held the chair of experimental physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years and was widely idolised by his students. Despite his professional success, Volta was inclined towards domestic life and this was more apparent in his later years when he tended to live secluded from public life and more for the sake of his family. He died in 1827 from a series of illnesses which began in 1823. The SI unit of electric potential is named the volt in his honour.
+
+== Early life and marriage ==
+Volta was born in Como, a town in northern Italy, on 18 February 1745. His father, Filippo Volta, was of noble lineage. His mother, Donna Maddalena, came from the family of the Inzaghis. In 1794, Volta married an aristocratic lady also from Como, Teresa Peregrini, with whom he raised three sons: Zanino, Flaminio, and Luigi.
+
+== Career ==
+In 1774, he became a professor of physics at the Royal School in Como. A year later, he improved and popularised the electrophorus, a device that produced static electricity. His promotion of it was so extensive that he is often credited with its invention, even though a machine operating on the same principle was described in 1762 by the Swedish experimenter Johan Wilcke. In 1777, he travelled through Switzerland, where he befriended the physicist and mountaineer H. B. de Saussure.
+In the years between 1776 and 1778, Volta studied the chemistry of gases. He researched and discovered methane after reading a paper by Benjamin Franklin of the United States on "flammable air". In November 1776, he found methane in the marshes of Angera on Lake Maggiore, and by 1778 he managed to isolate it. He devised experiments such as the ignition of methane by an electric spark in a closed vessel.
+Volta also studied what we now call electrical capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential difference (V) and charge (Q), and discovering that for a given object, they are proportional. This is called Volta's Law of Capacitance, and for this work, the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt.
+In 1779, he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Pavia, a chair that he occupied for almost 40 years. Volta's lectures were so crowded with students that the subsequent emperor Joseph II ordered the construction (based on a project by Leopold Pollack) of a new "physical theatre", today the "Aula Volta". Furthermore, the emperor granted Volta substantial funding to equip the physics cabinet with instruments, purchased by Volta in England and France. At the University History Museum of the University of Pavia there are 150 of them, used by Alessandro Volta.
+
+== Volta and Galvani ==
+
+Luigi Galvani, an Italian physicist, discovered something he named "animal electricity" when two different metals were connected in series with a frog's leg and to one another. Volta realised that the frog's leg served as both a conductor of electricity (what we would now call an electrolyte) and as a detector of electricity. He also understood that the frog's legs were irrelevant to the electric current, which was caused by the two differing metals. He replaced the frog's leg with brine-soaked paper and detected the flow of electricity by other means familiar to him from his previous studies. In this way, he discovered the electrochemical series, and the law that the electromotive force (emf) of a galvanic cell, consisting of a pair of metal electrodes separated by electrolyte, is the difference between their two electrode potentials (thus, two identical electrodes and a common electrolyte give zero net emf). This may be called Volta's Law of the electrochemical series.
+In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by Galvani, Volta invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and copper. Initially, he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The voltaic pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine.
+
+== Early battery ==

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+title: "Alessandro Volta"
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+
+In announcing his invention of the voltaic pile, Volta paid tribute to the influences of William Nicholson, Tiberius Cavallo, and Abraham Bennet.
+The battery made by Volta is credited as one of the first electrochemical cells. It consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is either sulphuric acid mixed with water or a form of saltwater brine. The electrolyte exists in the form 2 H+ and SO2−4. Zinc metal, which is higher in the electrochemical series than both copper and hydrogen, is oxidized to zinc cations (Zn2+) and creates electrons that move to the copper electrode. The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons from the copper electrode, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H2. This makes the zinc rod the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode. Thus, there are two terminals, and an electric current will flow if they are connected. The chemical reactions in this voltaic cell are as follows:
+
+Zinc:
+Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
+Sulphuric acid:
+2H+ + 2e−  →  H2
+Copper metal does not react, but rather it functions as a catalyst for the hydrogen-gas formation and an electrode for the electric current. The sulphate anion (SO2−4) does not undergo any chemical reaction either, but migrates to the zinc anode to compensate for the charge of the zinc cations formed there. However, this cell also has some disadvantages. It is unsafe to handle, since sulphuric acid, even if diluted, can be hazardous. Also, the power of the cell diminishes over time because the hydrogen gas is not released. Instead, it accumulates on the surface of the copper electrode and forms a barrier between the metal and the electrolyte solution.
+
+== Last years and retirement ==
+
+In 1809, Volta became an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In honour of his work, Volta was made a count by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1810.
+Volta retired in 1819 to his estate in Camnago, a frazione of Como, Italy, now named "Camnago Volta" in his honour. He died there on 5 March 1827, just after his 82nd birthday. Volta's remains were buried in Camnago Volta.
+
+=== Legacy ===
+Volta's legacy is celebrated by the Tempio Voltiano memorial located in the public gardens by the lake. There is also a museum that was built in his honour, which exhibits some of the equipment that Volta used to conduct experiments. Nearby stands the Villa Olmo, which houses the Voltian Foundation, an organization promoting scientific activities. Volta carried out his experimental studies and produced his first inventions near Como. 
+In the Old Campus of the University of Pavia, there is the classroom (Aula Volta) commissioned by Emperor Joseph II to Leopoldo Pollack in 1787 for the lectures of Alessandro Volta, while in the University History Museum there are many scientific instruments that belonged to Volta.
+In 1927, an international physics conference, the Como Conference was held at Lake Como for the 100th anniversary of his death.
+His image was depicted on the Italian Lire 10,000 note (1990–1997) along with a sketch of his voltaic pile.
+In late 2017, Nvidia announced a new workstation-focused GPU microarchitecture called Volta.
+The electric eel species Electrophorus voltai, described in 2019 as the strongest bioelectricity producer in nature, was named after Volta.
+
+== Religious beliefs ==
+Volta was raised as a Catholic and for all of his life continued to maintain his belief. Because he was not ordained a clergyman as his family expected, he was sometimes accused of being irreligious and some people have speculated about his possible unbelief, stressing that "he did not join the Church", or that he virtually "ignored the church's call". Nevertheless, he cast out doubts in a declaration of faith in which he said:
+
+ 
+I do not understand how anyone can doubt the sincerity and constancy of my attachment to the religion which I profess, the Roman, Catholic and Apostolic religion in which I was born and brought up, and of which I have always made confession, externally and internally. I have, indeed, and only too often, failed in the performance of those good works which are the mark of a Catholic Christian, and I have been guilty of many sins: but through the special mercy of God I have never, as far as I know, wavered in my faith... In this faith I recognise a pure gift of God, a supernatural grace; but I have not neglected those human means which confirm belief, and overthrow the doubts which at times arise. I studied attentively the grounds and basis of religion, the works of apologists and assailants, the reasons for and against, and I can say that the result of such study is to clothe religion with such a degree of probability, even for the merely natural reason, that every spirit unperverted by sin and passion, every naturally noble spirit must love and accept it. May this confession which has been asked from me and which I willingly give, written and subscribed by my own hand, with authority to show it to whomsoever you will, for I am not ashamed of the Gospel, may it produce some good fruit!
+
+== Publications ==
+
+De vi attractiva ignis electrici, ac phaenomenis inde pendentibus [The attractive force of an electric fire and the resulting phenomena] (in Latin). Novo Comi: Typis Octavii Staurenghi. 1769. OCLC 1419897.
+
+=== Lesser known collections ===
+Briefe über thierische elektricität (1900) (Letters about animal electricity, Available through Worldcat.org libraries, Leipzig, W. Engelmann, publisher)
+Untersuchungen über den Galvanismus, 1796 bis 1800 (Studies on Galvanism, Available through Worldcat.org libraries)
+Del modo di render sensibilissima la più debole elettricità sia naturale, sia artificiale (Of the method of rendering very sensible the weakest natural or artificial electricity By Alexander Volta, Professor Of Experimental Philosophy In Como, &c. Read at the Royal Society, 14 March 1782, Held in WorldCat libraries)
+
+== See also ==
+Armstrong effect
+Electrophorus
+History of the battery
+History of the internal combustion engine
+Lemon battery
+Mercury beating heart
+Thermoelectric effect
+Volta (lunar crater)
+Volta Prize
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Notes ===
+
+=== Citations ===
+
+== External links ==
+
+Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Alessandro Volta" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
+Volta and the "Pile"
+Alessandro Volta Archived 2 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine
+Count Alessandro Volta
+Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Volta, Alessandro" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 198.
+Electrical units history.
+Life of Alessandro Volta: Biography; Inventions; Facts
+Alessandro Volta | Biography, Facts, Battery, & Invention | Britannica

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+title: "Clergy Letter Project"
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+category: "reference"
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+
+The Clergy Letter Project is a project that maintains statements in support of the teaching of evolution  and collects signatures in support of letters from American Christian, Jewish,  Unitarian Universalist, Buddhist, and Humanist clergy. The letters make reference to points raised by intelligent design proponents. There are five separate letters: A Christian Clergy Letter, a Rabbi Letter, a Unitarian Universalist Clergy Letter, a Buddhist Clergy Letter, and a Humanist Clergy Letter. As of October, 2022, there were 15,679 signatures from Christian clergy, 839 signatures from Jewish rabbis, 688 signatures from Unitarian Universalist clergy, 75 signatures from Buddhist clergy, and 58 signatures from Humanist clergy.
+This effort was initiated in 2004 by the biologist Michael Zimmerman, past vice president for academic affairs and provost at Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington. The letter was written by John McFadden, pastor of the First Congregational United Church of Christ in Appleton, Wisconsin.
+The project also encourages congregations to participate in Religion and Science Weekend by sponsoring events in which clergy and congregations are encouraged to learn about and discuss the positive intersections of religion and science. The weekend chosen is the closest Sunday to Charles Darwin's birthday, February 12. Evolution Sunday events first took place in 2006 and the project changed from "Sunday" to "Weekend" in 2008 to be more inclusive, and in 2022 changed Evolution to Religion and Science. The Clergy Letter Project states that Religion and Science Weekend activities are "an opportunity for serious discussion and reflection on the relationship between religion and science" and in an effort "to elevate the quality of the discussion on this critical topic, and to show that religion and science are not adversaries." The project states that events are specifically intended to emphasize that "Religious people from many diverse faith traditions and locations around the world understand that evolution is quite simply sound science; and for them, it does not in any way threaten, demean, or diminish their faith in God. In fact, for many, the wonders of science often enhance and deepen their awe and gratitude towards God."
+
+== Statement ==
+The letters are entitled An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science. The four letters have somewhat distinct texts.
+
+The Clergy Letter - from American Christian Clergy – An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science
+Within the community of Christian believers there are areas of dispute and disagreement, including the proper way to interpret Holy Scripture. While virtually all Christians take the Bible seriously and hold it to be authoritative in matters of faith and practice, the overwhelming majority do not read the Bible literally, as they would a science textbook. Many of the beloved stories found in the Bible – the Creation, Adam and Eve, Noah and the ark – convey timeless truths about God, human beings, and the proper relationship between Creator and creation expressed in the only form capable of transmitting these truths from generation to generation. Religious truth is of a different order from scientific truth. Its purpose is not to convey scientific information but to transform hearts.
+
+We the undersigned, Christian clergy from many different traditions, believe that the timeless truths of the Bible and the discoveries of modern science may comfortably coexist. We believe that the theory of evolution is a foundational scientific truth, one that has stood up to rigorous scrutiny and upon which much of human knowledge and achievement rests. To reject this truth or to treat it as "one theory among others" is to deliberately embrace scientific ignorance and transmit such ignorance to our children. We believe that among God's good gifts are human minds capable of critical thought and that the failure to fully employ this gift is a rejection of the will of our Creator. To argue that God's loving plan of salvation for humanity precludes the full employment of the God-given faculty of reason is to attempt to limit God, an act of hubris. We urge school board members to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of the theory of evolution as a core component of human knowledge. We ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion, two very different, but complementary, forms of truth.
+In addition to English, the Christian version of the project has also been translated to Spanish, Portuguese, and French.
+Rabbi Letter
+
+The Clergy Letter - from American Rabbis – An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science
+As rabbis from various branches of Judaism, we the undersigned, urge public school boards to affirm their commitment to the teaching of the science of evolution. Fundamentalists of various traditions, who perceive the science of evolution to be in conflict with their personal religious beliefs, are seeking to influence public school boards to authorize the teaching of creationism. We see this as a breach in the separation of church and state. Those who believe in a literal interpretation of the Biblical account of creation are free to teach their perspective in their homes, religious institutions and parochial schools. To teach it in the public schools would be to assert a particular religious perspective in an environment which is supposed to be free of such indoctrination.
+
+The Bible is the primary source of spiritual inspiration and of values for us and for many others, though not everyone, in our society. It is, however, open to interpretation, with some taking the creation account and other content literally and some preferring a figurative understanding. It is possible to be inspired by the religious teachings of the Bible while not taking a literalist approach and while accepting the validity of science including the foundational concept of evolution. It is not the role of public schools to indoctrinate students with specific religious beliefs but rather to educate them in the established principles of science and in other subjects of general knowledge.
+Unitarian Universalist Letter

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+title: "Clergy Letter Project"
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+
+The Clergy Letter - from Unitarian Universalist Clergy – An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science
+As Unitarian Universalists, we draw from many sources, including "Wisdom from the world's religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life," and "Humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit." While most Unitarian Universalists believe that many sacred scriptures convey timeless truths about humans and our relationship to the sacred, we stand in solidarity with our Christian and Jewish brothers and sisters who do not read the Bible literally, as they would a science textbook. We believe that religious truth is of a different order from scientific truth. Its purpose is not to convey scientific information but to transform hearts.
+Fundamentalists of various traditions, who perceive the science of evolution to be in conflict with their personal religious beliefs, are seeking to influence public school boards to authorize the teaching of creationism. We see this as a breach in the separation of church and state. Those who believe in a literal interpretation of the Biblical account of creation are free to teach their perspective in their homes, religious institutions and parochial schools. To teach it in the public schools would be to assert a particular religious perspective in an environment which is supposed to be free of such indoctrination.
+
+We the undersigned, Unitarian Universalist clergy, believe that the timeless truths of the Bible and other scriptures may comfortably coexist with the discoveries of modern science. We believe that the theory of evolution is a foundational scientific truth, one that has stood up to rigorous scrutiny and upon which much of human knowledge and achievement rests. To reject this truth or to treat it as "one theory among others" is to deliberately embrace scientific ignorance and transmit such ignorance to our children. We urge school board members to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of the theory of evolution as a core component of human knowledge. We ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion, two very different, but complementary, forms of truth.
+Buddhist Clergy Letter
+
+The Clergy Letter - from American Buddhist Clergy – An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science
+"If scientific analysis were conclusively to demonstrate certain claims  in Buddhism to be false, then we must accept the findings of science and  abandon those claims or adopt them as metaphor."
+The Universe in a Single Atom
+Tenzin Gyatso - The Dalai Lama
+
+As the above quote indicates, the Buddhist tradition is  primarily a rational religion. The earliest Buddhist teachings are intended to  help all sentient beings to live a life of integrity in harmony with reality. While  the specific science of evolution is not explicitly taught in our faith, it is  implicit in the core teaching of interdependent origination, which demonstrates  that all things are interconnected and contingent upon one another for their  form and development. Likewise, a creator deity is not relied upon for a  creation story. The ancient Indian fables of the Buddha’s various incarnations from animal to human are readily  understood not as a literal history but as metaphor describing the evolving  nature of life. In fact, the concept of Buddha itself is best understood as a  symbol for humanity’s evolutionary potential. For all of these reasons, we admonish public school boards to affirm their  commitment to teaching the science of evolution. We understand the role of public schools is to  educate students in the established principles of science and in other subjects  of general knowledge.Humanist Clergy Letter
+The Clergy Letter - from American Humanist Clergy – An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science
+As Humanists, we have adopted a lifestance that is guided by reason, inspired by compassion, and informed by experience. Humanism is not anti-religious. It embraces a progressive philosophy which affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity. Humanist clergy serve a growing number of individuals who variously identify as Humanists, agnostics, non-religious, and atheists, and their allies, by providing leadership, moral guidance, rites of passage, and life celebration services in a similar fashion to the clergies of other traditions.
+Fundamentalists of various religions who perceive the science of evolution to be in conflict with their sectarian beliefs are seeking to influence public education authorities to require or authorize the teaching of creationism or to deprecate the teaching of evolution. We see this as a breach of the separation of church and state. Those who believe in a literal interpretation of the biblical or other religious accounts of creation are free to teach their perspectives in their homes, religious institutions, and private religious schools. But to teach creationism in its various forms, or to compromise the teaching of evolution to placate religious sensibilities, in the public schools would be to assert a particular religious perspective in an environment which is supposed to be free of such indoctrination.
+We, the undersigned Humanist clergy, stand in agreement with the global scientific community that the evidence of cosmological, geological, and biological evolution is overwhelming. This consensus is in no way particular to Humanism, and we stand in solidarity with our colleagues of the Christian, Jewish, Unitarian Universalist, Muslim, and Buddhist faiths who have also embraced evolution as a vital scientific concept essential to public science education curricula. Teaching evolution in a public science classroom is no more an endorsement of Humanism than it would be of any of these otherwise disparate religious orientations..

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+title: "Clergy Letter Project"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy_Letter_Project"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:34.537066+00:00"
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+
+We believe that evolution is a foundational scientific truth, one that has stood up to rigorous scrutiny and upon which much of human knowledge and achievement rests. Omitting evolution from science teaching, or treating it dismissively as “only a theory,” miscommunicates its centrality in modern biology and threatens students’ understanding of the very nature of science. Along with our religious allies of other traditions, we ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion. We urge public education authorities to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of evolutionary theory as a core component of human knowledge. 
+
+== History ==
+The project was organized in 2004 by Michael Zimmerman, then a biology professor and dean of the College of Science and Letters at University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh. He was motivated to create a petition by the actions of the school board in Grantsburg, Wisconsin, which had passed some anti-evolution policies in the summer of 2004. Zimmerman was a veteran of similar disputes in Ohio, when he was a professor at Oberlin College. After Zimmerman watched Christian fundamentalist clergy from Dover, Pennsylvania, on the television program Nightline insisting that decisions about teaching evolution in schools was equivalent to a choice between heaven and hell, he recruited the husband of the head of the university Psychology Department, John McFadden, pastor of the First Congregational United Church of Christ in Appleton, Wisconsin, to write a letter describing how science and religion can co-exist.
+Zimmerman worked with local clergy in Wisconsin to get clergy to sign this letter, and within a few weeks he had collected almost 200 clergy signatures. The signed letter was delivered to the Grantsburg School Board on December 16, 2004. This effort, together with those of other concerned groups of educators, citizens and scientists, lead the Grantsburg School Board to rescind its policies.
+After this success, Zimmerman was encouraged to organize a nationwide campaign and gather more signatures. By September 12, 2005, the Clergy Letter Project had collected more than 7,500 signatures. By the beginning of December 2005, the project had amassed more than 10,000 signatures. Most of the clergy who signed are Protestant, an artifact of the way that people were originally invited to sign the letter. Email invitations were sent; it was easier to get email addresses for some churches and denominations than others.
+The clergy letter was at first limited to Christian clergy, and Zimmerman declined offers from Jewish and Muslim clergy. Zimmerman stated that "Since it is fundamentalist Christian ministers who have been shouting to the American people that they must choose between religion and science, it seemed reasonable to have thousands upon thousands of Christian clergy assert otherwise. It simply wouldn't be very persuasive to have leaders of other religions saying to Christians that Christian fundamentalist ministers are not speaking for all Christians...the Clergy Letter Project and Evolution Sunday are not designed to change the minds of fundamentalists. Rather, our goal is to educate the vast majority of Christians who, if told they have to choose between religion and modern science, are likely to opt for religion."
+More recently, four additional statements have been added to the project: a Jewish rabbi letter, a Unitarian Universalist clergy letter, a Buddhist clergy letter, and a Humanist clergy letter.
+
+== Evolution Weekend and related activities ==
+Zimmerman and the Clergy Letter Project also organize "Evolution Weekend," an annual movement to encourages churches to discuss the role of science and religion in sermons, discussion groups, seminars, and other activities on the weekend nearest to February 12, the birthday of Charles Darwin (Darwin Day). The day began in 2006 as "Evolution Sunday," gaining attention from The New York Times. In 2008, it was renamed "Evolution Weekend" to incorporate more faith traditions. In 2011, 652 congregations from all 50 states and the District of Columbia as well as 13 countries participated in Evolution Weekend activities.
+Zimmerman and the Clergy Letter Project maintain a list of 1,052 scientists from all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and 32 countries, who have agreed to serve as "technical consultants to clergy members who have questions about the science associated with all aspects of evolution." The project states that "The very existence of this list clearly demonstrates the willingness of scientists to work collaboratively with clergy members. Together, scientists and clergy members demonstrate that religion and science can have a complementary and positive relationship with one another."
+Evolution Weekend often gained attention from several news outlets, with participating clergy being interviewed in local publications.

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+
+== Reaction from creationists ==
+The creationist Discovery Institute, which arranged its own anti-evolution petition called A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism in 2001 criticized the project. Discovery Institute communications director Rob Crowther asserted that the disputes about evolution was "purely a scientific debate" and that clergy petitions are irrelevant, stating that clergy "don't make any difference," since "We don't think there is anything religious at all to the theory of intelligent design." Zimmerman described this argument as part of the problem, as intelligent design tried to undermine science by changing it from a study of the natural world to include supernatural explanations, and it was important for clergy to defend science against these attacks.
+Ken Ham and Mark Looy of the creationist organization Answers in Genesis have repeatedly condemned Evolution Sunday/Evolution Weekend activities as a "Darwin praise service" and expressing dismay that "over 10,200 clergy had signed this awful letter." Ham and Looy also criticized Zimmerman's fundraising efforts through the Christian Alliance for Progress. Answers in Genesis published a list of "modern scientists who have accepted the biblical account of creation." The majority are not biologists. The group has also organized "Creation Sunday" in response to Evolution Weekend, and has promoted the Creation Letter Project in response to Clergy Letter Project.
+Jonathan Dudley, a divinity student at Yale University and author of the book Broken Words: The Abuse of Science and Faith in American Politics (2011), wrote approvingly of Evolution Sunday in the Yale Daily News on January 24, 2007, while still worrying that congregations were not being taught to think for themselves with this current campaign, any more than subscribing to fundamentalist Christian Biblical literalist doctrines. This caused Discovery Institute fellow Jonathon Wells to write a scathing article in the Yale Daily News about Evolution Sunday, "Darwinism," and Zimmerman. Wells repeated creationist objections to evolution by claiming that there is no evidence of evolution and condemning evolution for not being in agreement with the views of 40% of the American public. Zimmerman responded to Wells' attack with a column in the Yale Daily News pointing out the copious errors of fact in Wells' article. Wells followed this with a letter to the editor in the Yale Daily News. Wells brushed over the points Zimmerman had raised, and focused on whether the word "Darwinism" is appropriate or not. Wells also responded with vigor to two others who had written letters to the editor critical of his original article. Finally, Wells claimed that the only reason to stage Evolution Sunday is because evolution is not "scientifically sound or religiously neutral," and that it is "promoting an anti-religious philosophy disguised as empirical science." University of Iowa faculty member Tara C. Smith noted several other responses to this episode in her blog, Aetiology.
+
+== See also ==
+A Scientific Support for Darwinism
+Creation and evolution in public education in the United States
+Creation–evolution controversy
+Level of support for evolution
+Project Steve
+Theistic evolution
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Citations ===
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

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+---
+title: "Henry Fox Talbot"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:21.239999+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+William Henry Fox Talbot (; 11 February 1800 – 17 September 1877) was an English scientist, inventor, and photography pioneer who invented the salted paper and calotype processes, precursors to photographic processes of the later 19th and 20th centuries. His work in the 1840s on photomechanical reproduction led to the creation of the photoglyphic engraving process, the precursor to photogravure. He was the holder of a controversial patent that affected the early development of commercial photography in Britain. He was also a noted photographer who contributed to the development of photography as an artistic medium. He published The Pencil of Nature (1844–1846), which was illustrated with original salted paper prints from his calotype negatives and made some important early photographs of Oxford, Paris, Reading, and York.
+A polymath, Talbot was elected to the Royal Society in 1831 for his work on the integral calculus, and researched in optics, chemistry, electricity and other subjects such as etymology, the decipherment of cuneiform, and ancient history.
+
+== Early life ==
+Talbot was born in Melbury House in Dorset and was the only child of William Davenport Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham, Wiltshire, and his wife Lady Elisabeth Fox Strangways, daughter of the 2nd Earl of Ilchester. His governess was Agnes Porter who had also educated his mother. Talbot was educated at Rottingdean and at Harrow School. During this period he developed an interest in botany, especially mosses, which he studied with several members of his family, and was supported and encouraged by the botanists Lewis Weston Dillwyn, James Dalton and William Jackson Hooker. He was later educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was awarded the Porson Prize in Classics in 1820, and graduated as twelfth wrangler in 1821. From 1822 to 1872, he communicated papers to the Royal Society, many of them on mathematical subjects. At an early period, he began optical research, which later bore fruit in connection with photography. To the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1826 he contributed a paper on "Some Experiments on Coloured Flame"; to the Quarterly Journal of Science in 1827 a paper on "Monochromatic Light"; and to the Philosophical Magazine papers on chemical subjects, including one on "Chemical Changes of Colour".
+
+== Photographic inventions ==
+
+Talbot invented a process for creating reasonably light-fast and permanent photographs that was the first made available to the public; however, his was neither the first such process invented nor the first one publicly announced.
+Shortly after Louis Daguerre's invention of the daguerreotype was announced in early January 1839, without details, Talbot asserted priority of invention based on experiments he had begun in early 1834. At a Friday Evening Discourse at the Royal Institution on 25 January 1839, Talbot exhibited several paper photographs he had made in 1835. Within a fortnight, he communicated the general nature of his process to the Royal Society, followed by more complete details a few weeks later. Daguerre did not publicly reveal any useful details until mid-August, although by the spring it had become clear that his process and Talbot's were very different.
+Talbot's early "salted paper" or "photogenic drawing" process, used writing paper bathed in a weak solution of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride), dried, then brushed on one side with a strong solution of silver nitrate, which created a tenacious coating of very light-sensitive silver chloride that darkened where it was exposed to light. Whether used to create shadow image photograms by placing objects on it and setting it out in the sunlight, or to capture the dim images formed by a lens in a camera, it was a "printing out" process, meaning that the exposure had to continue until the desired degree of darkening had been produced. In the case of camera images, that could require an exposure of an hour or two if something more than a silhouette of objects against a bright sky was wanted. Earlier experimenters such as Thomas Wedgwood and Nicéphore Niépce had captured shadows and camera images with silver salts years before, but they could find no way to prevent their photographs from fatally darkening all over when exposed to daylight. Talbot devised several ways of chemically stabilizing his results, making them sufficiently insensitive to further exposure that direct sunlight could be used to print the negative image produced in the camera onto another sheet of salted paper, creating a positive.
+
+== The Calotype ==

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+---
+title: "Henry Fox Talbot"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:21.239999+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The "calotype", or "talbotype", was a "developing out" process, Talbot's improvement of his earlier photogenic drawing process by the use of a different silver salt (silver iodide instead of silver chloride) and a developing agent (gallic acid and silver nitrate) to bring out an invisibly slight "latent" image on the exposed paper. This reduced the required exposure time in the camera to only a minute or two for subjects in bright sunlight. The translucent calotype negative made it possible to produce as many positive prints as desired by simple contact printing, whereas the daguerreotype was an opaque direct positive that could be reproduced only by being copied with a camera. On the other hand, the calotype, despite waxing of the negative to make the image clearer, still was not pin-sharp like the metallic daguerreotype, because the paper fibres blurred the printed image. The simpler salted paper process was normally used when making prints from calotype negatives.
+Talbot announced his calotype process in 1841, and in August he licensed Henry Collen, the miniature painter, as the first professional calotypist. The most celebrated practitioners of the process were Hill & Adamson. Another notable calotypist was Levett Landon Boscawen Ibbetson.
+In 1842, Talbot received the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society for his photographic discoveries.
+In 1852, Talbot discovered that gelatine treated with potassium dichromate, a sensitiser introduced by Mungo Ponton in 1839, is made less soluble by exposure to light. This later provided the basis for the important carbon printing process and related technologies. Dichromated gelatine is still used for some laser holography.
+Talbot's later photographic work was concentrated on photomechanical reproduction methods. In addition to making the mass reproduction of photographic images more practical and much less expensive, rendering a photograph into ink on paper, known to be permanent on a scale of hundreds if not thousands of years, was clearly one sure way to avoid the problems with fading that had soon become apparent in early types of silver image paper prints. Talbot created the photoglyphic (or "photoglyptic") engraving process, later perfected by others as the photogravure process.
+
+== Patenting controversy ==
+
+Daguerre's work on his process had commenced at about the same time as Talbot's earliest work on his salted paper process. In 1839, Daguerre's agent applied for English and Scottish patents only a matter of days before France, having granted Daguerre a pension for it, declared his invention "free to the world." The United Kingdom, along with the British Empire, therefore became the only places where a licence was legally required to make and sell daguerreotypes. This exception is now usually regarded as both an expression of old national animosities, still smouldering just 24 years after Waterloo, and a reaction to Talbot's patent. Talbot never attempted to patent any part of his printed-out silver chloride "photogenic drawing" process and his calotype patent was not registered in Scotland.
+In February 1841, Talbot obtained an English patent for his developed-out calotype process. At first, he sold individual patent licences for £20 each; later, he lowered the fee for amateur use to £4. Professional photographers, however, had to pay up to £300 annually. In a business climate where many patent holders were attacked for enforcing their rights, and an academic world that viewed the patenting of new discoveries as a hindrance to scientific freedom and further progress, Talbot's behaviour was widely criticised. On the other hand, many scientists supported his patent and they gave expert evidence in later trials. In addition, the calotype method was free for scientific uses, an area that Talbot himself pioneered, such as photomicrography. One reason Talbot later gave for vigorously enforcing his rights was that he had spent, according to his own reckoning, about £5,000 on his various photographic endeavours over the years and wanted to at least recoup his expenses.
+
+In 1844, Talbot helped set up an establishment in Russell Terrace (now Baker Street), Reading, for mass-producing salted paper prints from his calotype negatives. The Reading Establishment, as it was known, also offered services to the public, making prints from others' negatives, copying artwork and documents, and taking portraits at its studio. The enterprise was not a success.
+In 1851, the year of Daguerre's death, Frederick Scott Archer publicised the wet collodion process, which made it practical to use glass instead of paper as the support for making the camera negative. The lack of detail often criticised in prints made from calotype negatives was overcome, and sharp images, comparable in detail to daguerreotypes, could finally be provided by convenient paper prints. The collodion process soon replaced the calotype in commercial use, and by the end of the decade, the daguerreotype was virtually extinct as well.
+Asserting a very broad interpretation of his patent rights, Talbot declared that anyone using the collodion process would still need to get a calotype licence.
+In August 1852, The Times published an open letter by Lord Rosse, the president of the Royal Society, and Charles Lock Eastlake, the president of the Royal Academy, who called on Talbot to relieve the patent pressure that was perceived as stifling the development of photography. Talbot agreed to waive licensing fees for amateurs, but he continued to pursue professional portrait photographers, having filed several lawsuits.
+In 1854, Talbot applied for an extension of the 14-year patent. At that time, one of his lawsuits, against photographer Martin Laroche, was heard in court. The Talbot v. Laroche case proved to be pivotal. Laroche's side argued that the patent was invalid, as a similar process had been invented earlier by Joseph Reade, and that using the collodion process did not infringe the calotype patent in any case, because of significant differences between the two processes. In the verdict, the jury upheld the calotype patent but agreed that Laroche was not infringing upon it by using the collodion process. Disappointed by the outcome, Talbot chose not to extend his patent.
+
+== 1844 calotype of Thomas Moore and the Talbot household ==

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+---
+title: "Henry Fox Talbot"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:21.239999+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Talbot was a friend and neighbour in Wiltshire of the famed Irish poet and writer Thomas Moore. Dated April 1844, Talbot made a calotype of Moore as a visitor standing with members of his own household.
+The distinctive curls identify Talbot's half sister Henrietta Horatia Fielding standing to his left.  Eliza Frayland, the nursemaid at the far left, had come into the family's employ with the birth of Charles Henry Talbot in 1842.  Arranged in the front are Matilda Caroline (later Gilchrist-Clark, age 5); Ela Theresa (age 9);  Rosamond Constance Talbot (age 7).  The woman at the right is possibly Moore's wife Bessy.
+Moore took an early interest in Talbot's photogenic drawings. Talbot, in turn, took images of Moore's hand-written poetry possibly for inclusion in facsimile in an edition of The Pencil of Nature.
+
+== Spectroscopic and optical investigations ==
+
+Talbot was one of the earliest researchers into the field of spectral analysis. He showed that the spectrum of each of the chemical elements was unique and that it was possible to identify the chemical elements from their spectra. Such analysis was to become important in examining the light from distant stars, and hence inferring their atomic composition. He also investigated the polarization of light using tourmaline crystals and iceland spar or calcite crystals, and pioneered the design and use of the polarizing microscope, now widely used by geologists for examining thin rock sections to identify minerals within them.
+
+Talbot allowed free use of the calotype process for scientific applications, and he himself published the first known photomicrograph of a mineral crystal. Another photomicrograph shows insect wings as seen in the "solar microscope" he and others developed for projecting images onto a large screen of tiny objects using sunlight as a light source. The large projections could then be photographed by exposure to sensitized paper. He studied the diffraction of light using gratings and discovered a new phenomenon, now known as the Talbot effect.
+Talbot was very keen on applying the calotype method to recording natural phenomena, such as plants for example, as well as buildings and landscapes. The calotype technique was offered free by Talbot for scientific and amateur use. He was aware that the visible spectrum comprised a very small part of what we now know as electromagnetic radiation, and that powerful and invisible light beyond the violet was capable of inducing chemical effects, a type of radiation we now call ultra-violet radiation.
+
+== Other activities ==
+
+Talbot was active in politics, being a moderate Reformer who generally supported the Whig Ministers. He served as member of parliament for Chippenham between 1832 and 1835 when he retired from parliament. He also held the office of High Sheriff of Wiltshire in 1840.
+While engaged in his scientific researches, Talbot devoted much time to archaeology. He had a 20-year involvement in the field of Assyriology, the study of the history, archaeology and culture of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). With Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks he shares the honour of having been one of the first decipherers of the cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh.  He published Hermes, or Classical and Antiquarian Researches (1838–39), and Illustrations of the Antiquity of the Book of Genesis (1839). He was also the author of English Etymologies (1846).
+
+== Selected works ==
+Hermes, or Classical and Antiquarian Researches (1838–39)
+Illustrations of the Antiquity of the Book of Genesis (1839)
+The Pencil of Nature (1844–46)
+Sun pictures in Scotland (1845)
+Loch Katrine (c. 1845) Salt print from calotype negative | 8x9 in. Birmingham Museum of Art
+English Etymologies (1846)
+
+== Posthumous recognition ==
+In 1966 Talbot was inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Talbot, William Henry Fox". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 368.
+"Talbot, William Henry Fox" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
+Andrews, Martin (2014). Fox Talbot and the Reading Establishment. Reading: Two Rivers. ISBN 978-1-901677-98-0.
+Booth, Arthur H. (1965). William Henry Fox Talbot: father of photography. London: Arthur Barker.
+Brusius, Mirjam; Dean, Katrina; Ramalingam, Chitra, eds. (2013). William Henry Fox Talbot: beyond photography. New Haven: Yale Center for British Art. ISBN 978-0-300-17934-7.
+Maimon, Vered (2015). Singular Images, Failed Copies: William Henry Fox Talbot and the Early Photograph. Minneapolis: Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-9471-6.
+Schaaf, Larry J. (2000). The Photographic Art of William Henry Fox Talbot. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05000-7.
+Schaaf, Larry J. (2004). "Talbot, William Henry Fox (1800–1877)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/26946. (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.)
+Stenton, Michael, ed. (1976). Who's Who of Members of Parliament: Volume I 1832–1885. Hassocks: Harvester Press. ISBN 0-391-00613-4.
+Watson, Roger; Rappaport, Helen (2013). Capturing the Light. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4472-1258-4.
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Henry Fox Talbot at Wikimedia Commons
+Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by William Fox Talbot
+Fox Talbot Museum
+The correspondence of William Henry Fox Talbot
+`Talbot' vs. `Fox Talbot'
+The Calotype Patent Lawsuit of Talbot v. Laroche, 1854, by R. D. Wood
+Talbot and Photogenic Drawing
+Talbot materials in the Digital Collections of the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, Mass.
+"William Henry Fox Talbot's Open Door: Picture of the day", The Guardian, 10 December 2012
+O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Henry Fox Talbot", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
+Works by Henry Fox Talbot at Project Gutenberg
+Works by or about Henry Fox Talbot at the Internet Archive
+Works by Henry Fox Talbot at Open Library
+The William Henry Fox Talbot Catalogue Raisonné: online exhibit created by the Bodleian Library

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+---
+title: "John Wilkinson (chemist)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(chemist)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:26.142636+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+John Wilkinson (born 1961) is an English independent scientist specialising primarily in organic chemistry, phytochemistry, pharmacognosy, and synergism in botanical medicines, botanical foods and ecological biochemistry, and who led the first European degree course (Bachelor of Science with Honours) for herbal medicine, at Middlesex University in the United Kingdom in 1994.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+
+
+=== Early life ===
+Wilkinson was born in Croydon, Surrey, UK, in 1961, from a working-class background. By the time he was 12 years old he had his own private laboratory and still does to this day. He was inspired and encouraged by Dr Phillips, a gifted science teacher at Stanley Technical High School, to pursue his dream of becoming a chemist when he demonstrated that he knew the answers to "A level" chemistry exams and above despite being only 14 years of age.  He was also inspired by a chemistry teacher, Mr Neil Miller at Croydon College, and then went on to study Chemistry – by – thesis at Sussex University where he undertook a three-year research programme, remarkably as an undergraduate, on the chemistry of bioluminescence under the supervision of Professor Frank McCapra.
+From 1985 to 1987, Wilkinson worked for Wellcome Research Laboratories and Beecham in the area of drug discovery. He was one of the first graduate scientists to be given 20% of his work time to develop his own research ideas.
+Wilkinson was awarded a Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC) Instant award which was then later funded by ICI and obtained his PhD from Imperial College London (1987–1990) working with Professor William Motherwell.
+Wilkinson was then awarded the prestigious SERC-NATO post-doctoral fellowship to work with the Nobel Prize–winning Professor George Olah in Los Angeles, California, (1991–1992), where he worked on, among other things, natural products chemistry, organic chemistry and Buckminsterfullerenes.
+Following his post-doctoral work in the United States, Wilkinson returned to the UK and became a visiting research fellow in Phytochemistry at the University of Exeter in 1993, with Professor Stan Roberts, and was also a visiting lecturer at The School of Phytotherapy in East Sussex with the eminent medical herbalist and scientist, Hein Zeylstra (1928–2001). He was also an academic as senior lecturer in phytochemistry and pharmacognosy from 1994 to 2004 developing a new academic discipline and evolving over that time to become an independent scientist. He continues to do research, teaching and act as an adviser on an international basis to universities and companies around the World.
+
+
+=== Herbal medicine and Middlesex University ===
+In 1994, Wilkinson programme led the first herbal medicine degree course in Europe, from its beginnings in 1994 at Middlesex University. He was also appointed as a senior lecturer in phytochemistry and pharmacognosy, where he remained until 2004.
+During his tenure at Middlesex University, Wilkinson founded the Herbal Research Laboratories in 1996. He became head of the Phytochemistry Discovery Group and led a team of 10 post-doctoral scientists, research assistants and other staff members. He was also a guest lecturer at Oxford University Medical School where he taught medical undergraduates the scientific aspects of herbal medicines.
+He began a natural product research and regulatory consultancy company in 2001. Despite leaving Middlesex University in 2004, he ran the company until 2012, while undertaking research as an independent scientist. He then established "Dr John Wilkinson Consultancy" as a business and also a vehicle for conducting and funding research as an independent scientist. His research funded by individuals, companies and through "crowd funding" focuses on several areas: 
+
+Research on molecular synergy effects in botanical extracts, herbal medicines and essential oils (the latter with reference to their use in improvements and maintenance of memory functioning)
+Biochemical ecology – synergism in nature
+New exotic fruits and their unique nutritional properties
+Dr Wilkinson obtained the first novel food approval in the European Union for a nutraceutical based on a safe history of use rather than conventional toxicological studies. This approval effectively broke the trade barriers and opened the European Union to new fruits, vegetables and nutraceuticals from developing countries. 
+Dr Wilkinson continues to work in the area of regulatory approval for health claims on food labels, novel foods, herbal medicines and food supplements in the EU, the US and elsewhere.
+
+
+=== Other achievements ===
+Wilkinson has been approached by TV, radio and newspapers for interviews and opinions concerning these types of food and medicinal based products. Wilkinson has published a number of articles during his academic career presented at conferences and trade shows related to natural products. He has also published material for inclusion in a number of books.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Alvah_Traylor_Jr.-0.md

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+---
+title: "Melvin Alvah Traylor Jr."
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Alvah_Traylor_Jr."
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:22.592513+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Melvin Alvah Traylor Jr. (December 16, 1915 – February 11, 2008) was an American ornithologist.
+He was the son of Chicago banker Melvin Alvah Traylor and Mrs. Dorothy Y. Traylor. Traylor was Lieutenant with the marines and served on Guadalcanal during World War II in 1942 where he was awarded with the Silver Star medal. As a Marine Corps officer, Mel was severely injured during the Battle of Tarawa in the Pacific theatre, where he lost one eye and suffered arm and upper body wounds during the famous beach assault. After the war Traylor continued his work for the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, which he had started in 1937. He made expeditions to Africa (in collaboration with Austin L. Rand), to South America, and to Asia. In 1960 he was among the members of the World Book Encyclopedia Scientific Expedition to the Himalaya led by Sir Edmund Hillary. In 1956 Traylor became assistant curator of birds in the Field Museum. Since his retirement in the 1980s he was working as curator emeritus for the Field Museum.
+Traylor was among the authors (alongside Raymond A. Paynter, Ernst Mayr, G. William Cottrell, and James Lee Peters) of Check-list of Birds of the World, a standard reference work with sixteen volumes published between 1931 and 1987. Traylor described species like the Tana River cisticola and the Colombian screech-owl, and the genus Zimmerius. He made further revisions of the family Tyrannidae. The orange-eyed flycatcher (Tolmomyias traylori) is named in his honour. Traylor and Paynter were awarded with the Elliott Coues Award by the American Ornithologists' Union in 2001.
+
+
+== Publications (selected) ==
+1947: Subspecies of Aratinga acuticaudata (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 31, part 21; Pub. no.608)
+1948: New Birds from Peru and Ecuador (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 31, part 24; Pub. no.619)
+1949: Notes on Some Veracruz Birds (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 31, part 32; Pub. no.635)
+1951: Notes on Some Peruvian Birds (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 31, part 51; Pub. no.676)
+1952: Notes on Birds from the Marcapata Valley, Cuzco, Peru (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 34, part 3; Pub. no.691)
+1958: Birds of Northeastern Peru (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 35, part 5; Pub. no.844)
+1959: Three New Birds from West Africa (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 39, part 25; Pub. no.865) (with A. L. Rand)
+1961: Notes on Nepal Birds (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 35, part 8; Pub. no.917)
+1962: New Birds from Barotseland (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 44, part 12; Pub. no.955)
+1964: Further Notes on Nepal Birds (Chicago Natural History Museum)
+1967: A Collection of Birds from Szechwan, 1967 (Chicago Natural History Museum, Fieldiana: Zoology, Volume 53, Number 1: pages 1–67 with 1 map figure)
+1967: Collection of Birds from the Ivory Coast (Fieldiana. Zoology: Volume 51, part 7; Pub. no.1033)
+1968: Distributional Notes on Nepal Birds, 1968 (Chicago Natural History Museum, Fieldiana: Zoology, Volume 53, Number 3: pages 147–203)
+1977: A Classification of the Tyrant Flycatchers (Tyrannidae), 1977 (Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Volume 148, Number 4: pages 129–184 with 10 figures and 4 tables)
+1977: Ornithological Gazetteer of Ecuador (with Raymond A. Paynter)
+1982: Notes on Tyrant Flycatchers (Aves: Tyrannidae) (Fieldiana. New Series Zoology: Volume 13; Pub. no.1338)
+1988: Geographic Variation and Evolution in South American Cistothorus platensis (Aves: Troglodytidae) (Fieldiana. New Series Zoology: Volume 48; Pub. no.1392)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+History - The Zoological Department of the Field Museum
+Nancy Traylor Falls to Death in New York (with a short note about Traylor's time on Guadalcanal)
+Elliott Coues Award, 2001: Raymond A. Paynter, Jr., and Melvin A Traylor, Jr
+Chicago Tribune Obituary
+Chicago Tribune News Obituary

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram-0.md

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+---
+title: "Stephen Wolfram"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:27.374894+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Stephen Wolfram ( WUUL-frəm; born 29 August 1959) is a British-American computer scientist, physicist, and businessman. He is known for his work in computer algebra and theoretical physics. In 2012, he was named a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. 
+As a businessman, Wolfram is the founder and CEO of the software company Wolfram Research, where he works as chief designer of Mathematica and the Wolfram Alpha answer engine.
+
+== Early life ==
+
+=== Family ===
+Stephen Wolfram was born in London in 1959 to Hugo and Sybil Wolfram, both German Jewish refugees to the United Kingdom. His maternal grandmother was British psychoanalyst Kate Friedlander.
+Wolfram's father, Hugo Wolfram, was a textile manufacturer and served as managing director of the Lurex Company—makers of the fabric Lurex. Wolfram's mother, Sybil Wolfram, was a Fellow and Tutor in Philosophy at Lady Margaret Hall at University of Oxford from 1964 to 1993.
+Wolfram is married to a mathematician. They have four children together.
+
+=== Education ===
+Wolfram was educated at Eton College, but left prematurely in 1976. As a young child, Wolfram had difficulties learning arithmetic. He entered St. John's College, Oxford, at age 17 and left in 1978 without graduating to attend the California Institute of Technology the following year, where he received a PhD in particle physics in 1980. Wolfram's thesis committee was composed of Richard Feynman, Peter Goldreich, Frank J. Sciulli, and Steven Frautschi, and chaired by Richard D. Field.
+
+== Early career ==
+Wolfram, at the age of 15, began research in applied quantum field theory and particle physics and published scientific papers in peer-reviewed scientific journals; by the time he left Oxford, he had published ten such papers. Following his PhD, Wolfram joined the faculty at Caltech and became the youngest recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship in 1981, at age 21.
+
+== Later career ==
+
+=== Complex systems and cellular automata ===
+In 1983, Wolfram left for the School of Natural Sciences of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. By that time, he was no longer interested in particle physics. Instead, he began pursuing investigations into cellular automata, mainly with computer simulations. He produced a series of papers investigating the class of elementary cellular automata, conceiving the Wolfram code, a naming system for one-dimensional cellular automata, and a classification scheme for the complexity of their behaviour. He conjectured that the Rule 110 cellular automaton might be Turing complete, which a research assistant to Wolfram, Matthew Cook, later proved correct. Wolfram sued Cook and temporarily blocked publication of the work on Rule 110 for allegedly violating a non-disclosure agreement until Wolfram could publish the work in his controversial book A New Kind of Science. Wolfram's cellular-automata work came to be cited in more than 10,000 papers.
+In the mid-1980s, Wolfram worked on simulations of physical processes (such as turbulent fluid flow) with cellular automata on the Connection Machine alongside Richard Feynman and helped initiate the field of complex systems. In 1984, he was a participant in the Founding Workshops of the Santa Fe Institute, along with Nobel laureates Murray Gell-Mann, Manfred Eigen, and Philip Warren Anderson, and future laureate Frank Wilczek. In 1986, he founded the Center for Complex Systems Research (CCSR) at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign. In 1987, he founded the journal Complex Systems.
+
+=== Symbolic Manipulation Program ===
+
+Wolfram led the development of the computer algebra system SMP (Symbolic Manipulation Program) in the Caltech physics department during 1979–1981. A dispute with the administration over the intellectual property rights regarding SMP—patents, copyright, and faculty involvement in commercial ventures—eventually led him to resign from Caltech. SMP was further developed and marketed commercially by Inference Corp. of Los Angeles during 1983–1988.
+
+=== Mathematica ===
+
+In 1986, Wolfram left the Institute for Advanced Study for the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, where he had founded their Center for Complex Systems Research, and started to develop the computer algebra system Mathematica, which was released on 23 June 1988, when he left academia. In 1987, he founded Wolfram Research, which continues to develop and market the program.
+
+=== A New Kind of Science ===
+
+From 1992 to 2002, Wolfram worked on his controversial book A New Kind of Science, which presents an empirical study of simple computational systems. Additionally, it argues that for fundamental reasons these types of systems, rather than traditional mathematics, are needed to model and understand complexity in nature. Wolfram's conclusion is that the universe is discrete in its nature, and runs on fundamental laws that can be described as simple programs. He predicts that a realization of this within scientific communities will have a revolutionary influence on physics, chemistry, biology, and most other scientific areas, hence the book's title. The book was met with skepticism and criticism that Wolfram took credit for the work of others and made conclusions without evidence to support them.
+
+=== Wolfram Alpha computational knowledge engine ===
+
+In March 2009, Wolfram announced Wolfram Alpha, an answer engine. Wolfram Alpha launched in May 2009, and a paid-for version with extra features launched in February 2012 that was met with criticism for its high price, which later dropped from $50 to $2. The engine is based on natural language processing and a large library of rules-based algorithms. The application programming interface allows other applications to extend and enhance Wolfram Alpha. 
+
+=== Touchpress ===
+
+In 2010, Wolfram co-founded Touchpress with Theodore Gray, Max Whitby, and John Cromie. The company specialised in creating in-depth premium apps and games covering a wide range of educational subjects designed for children, parents, students, and educators. Touchpress published more than 100 apps. The company is no longer active.
+
+=== Wolfram Language ===

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+---
+title: "Stephen Wolfram"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:27.374894+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In March 2014, at the annual South by Southwest (SXSW) event, Wolfram officially announced the Wolfram Language as a new general multi-paradigm programming language, though it was previously available through Mathematica and not an entirely new programming language. The documentation for the language was pre-released in October 2013 to coincide with the bundling of Mathematica and the Wolfram Language on every Raspberry Pi computer with some controversy because of the proprietary nature of the Wolfram Language. While the Wolfram Language has existed for over 30 years as the primary programming language used in Mathematica, it was not officially named until 2014, and is not widely used. 
+
+=== Wolfram Physics Project ===
+
+In April 2020, Wolfram announced the "Wolfram Physics Project" as an effort to reduce and explain all the laws of physics within a paradigm of a hypergraph that is transformed by minimal rewriting rules that obey the Church–Rosser property. The effort is a continuation of the ideas he originally described in A New Kind of Science. Wolfram claims that "From an extremely simple model, we're able to reproduce special relativity, general relativity and the core results of quantum mechanics."
+Physicists are generally unimpressed with Wolfram's claim, and say his results are non-quantitative and arbitrary.
+
+== Personal interests and activities ==
+Wolfram has a log of personal analytics, including emails received and sent, keystrokes made, meetings and events attended, recordings of phone calls, and even physical movement dating back to the 1980s. In the preface of A New Kind of Science, he noted that he recorded over 100 million keystrokes and 100 mouse miles. He has said that personal analytics "can give us a whole new dimension to experiencing our lives."
+Wolfram was a scientific consultant for the 2016 film Arrival. He and his son Christopher Wolfram wrote some of the code featured on screen, such as the code in graphics depicting an analysis of the alien logograms, for which they used the Wolfram Language.
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Stephen Wolfram (2025). Towards a Computational Formalization for Foundations of Medicine. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-108-7.
+Stephen Wolfram (2025). What's Really Going On in Machine Learning? Some Minimal Models. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-107-0.
+Stephen Wolfram (2025). On the Nature of Time. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-103-2.
+Stephen Wolfram (2024). Predicting the Eclipse: A Multimillennium Tale of Computation. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-087-5.
+Stephen Wolfram (2023). The Second Law: Resolving the Mystery of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-083-7.
+Stephen Wolfram (2023). What Is ChatGPT Doing ... and Why Does It Work?. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-081-3.
+Stephen Wolfram (2022). Twenty Years of A New Kind of Science. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-049-3.
+Stephen Wolfram (2022). Metamathematics: Foundations & Physicalization. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-076-9.
+Stephen Wolfram (2021). Combinators: A Centennial View. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-043-1.
+Stephen Wolfram (2020). A Project to Find the Fundamental Theory of Physics. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-035-6.
+Stephen Wolfram (2019). Adventures of a Computational Explorer. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-026-4.
+Stephen Wolfram (2016). Idea Makers: Personal Perspectives on the Lives & Ideas of Some Notable People. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-57955-003-5. 
+Stephen Wolfram (2015). An Elementary Introduction to the Wolfram Language. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1-944183-05-9. 
+Stephen Wolfram (2003). The Mathematica Book (5th ed.). Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1579550226.
+Stephen Wolfram (2002). A New Kind of Science. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media. ISBN 978-1579550080. OCLC 47831356.
+Stephen Wolfram (1994). Cellular Automata and Complexity: Collected Papers. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0201626643.
+Stephen Wolfram (1991). Mathematica: A System for Doing Mathematics by Computer. Redwood City, California: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0201515022.
+Stephen Wolfram, ed. (1986). Theory and Applications of Cellular Automata: Including Selected Papers, 1983–1986. Singapore: World Scientific. ISBN 978-9971501235.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website
+Wolfram Foundation
+Stephen Wolfram at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
+Stephen Wolfram at IMDb
+Stephen Wolfram at TED 
+Stephen Wolfram   on Charlie Rose
+Works by Stephen Wolfram at Open Library 
+Interview of Stephen Wolfram by David Zierler on March 18 and April 17, 2021, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD USA, www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/46902

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+title: "Thomas Young (scientist)"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:28.656184+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Thomas Young (13 June 1773 – 10 May 1829) was a British polymath who made notable contributions to the fields of vision, light, solid mechanics, energy, physiology, language, musical harmony, and Egyptology. He was instrumental in the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs, specifically the Rosetta Stone.
+Young's work influenced that of William Herschel, Hermann von Helmholtz, James Clerk Maxwell, and Albert Einstein. Young is credited with establishing Christiaan Huygens' wave theory of light, in contrast to the corpuscular theory of Isaac Newton. Young's work was subsequently supported by the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel.
+
+== Personal life ==
+Young belonged to a Quaker family of Milverton, Somerset, where he was born in 1773, the eldest of ten children. By the age of 14, Young had learned Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Syriac, Samaritan Hebrew, Arabic, Biblical Aramaic, Persian, Turkish, and Ge'ez.
+Young began to study medicine in London at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1792, moved to the University of Edinburgh Medical School in 1794, and a year later went to Göttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany, where he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine in 1796 from the University of Göttingen. In 1797 he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In the same year, he inherited the estate of his grand-uncle, Richard Brocklesby, which made him financially independent, and in 1799 he established himself as a physician at 48 Welbeck Street, London (now recorded with a blue plaque). Young published many of his first academic articles anonymously to protect his reputation as a physician.
+In 1801, Young was appointed professor of natural philosophy (mainly physics) at the Royal Institution. In two years, he delivered 91 lectures. In 1802, he was appointed foreign secretary of the Royal Society, of which he had been elected a fellow in 1794. He resigned his professorship in 1803, fearing that its duties would interfere with his medical practice. His lectures were published in 1807 in the Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and contain a number of anticipations of later theories.
+In 1811, Young became physician to St George's Hospital and, in 1814, he served on a committee appointed to consider the dangers involved in the general introduction of gas for lighting into London. In 1816, he was secretary of a commission charged with ascertaining the precise length of the seconds pendulum (the length of a pendulum whose period is exactly two seconds), and in 1818 he became secretary to the Board of Longitude and superintendent of the HM Nautical Almanac Office.
+Young was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822. A few years before his death he became interested in life insurance, and in 1827 he was chosen as one of the eight foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences. In the same year, he became a first class corresponding member, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In 1828, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
+In 1804, Young married Eliza Maxwell. They had no children.
+Young died in his 56th year in London on 10 May 1829, having suffered recurrent attacks of "asthma". His autopsy revealed atherosclerosis of the aorta. His body was buried in the graveyard of St Giles' Church at Farnborough, in the county of Kent. Westminster Abbey houses a white marble tablet in memory of Young, bearing an epitaph by Hudson Gurney:
+
+Sacred to the memory of Thomas Young, M.D., Fellow and Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society Member of the National Institute of France; a man alike eminent in almost every department of human learning. Patient of unintermitted labour, endowed with the faculty of intuitive perception, who, bringing an equal mastery to the most abstruse investigations of letters and of science, first established the undulatory theory of light, and first penetrated the obscurity which had veiled for ages the hieroglyphs of Egypt. Endeared to his friends by his domestic virtues, honoured by the World for his unrivalled acquirements, he died in the hopes of the Resurrection of the just. —Born at Milverton, in Somersetshire, 13 June 1773. Died in Park Square, London, 10 May 1829, in the 56th year of his age.
+Young was highly regarded by his friends and colleagues. He was said never to impose his knowledge, but if asked was able to answer even the most difficult scientific question with ease. Although very learned, he had a reputation for sometimes having difficulty communicating his knowledge. It was said by one of his contemporaries that, "His words were not those in familiar use, and the arrangement of his ideas seldom the same as those he conversed with. He was therefore worse calculated than any man I ever knew for the communication of knowledge."
+
+=== Religious views ===
+Though he sometimes dealt with religious topics of history in Egypt and wrote about the history of Christianity in Nubia, not much is known about Young's personal religious views. In George Peacock's account, Young never spoke to him about morals, metaphysics, or religion, though according to Young's wife, his attitudes showed that "his Quaker upbringing had strongly influenced his religious practices." Authoritative sources have described Young in terms of a cultural Christian Quaker.
+Hudson Gurney informed that before his marriage, Young had to join the Church of England, and was baptized later. Gurney stated that Young "retained a good deal of his old creed, and carried to his scriptural studies his habit of inquisition of languages and manners," rather than the habit of proselytism. Yet, the day before his death, Young participated in religious sacraments; as reported in David Brewster's Edinburgh Journal of Science:

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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:28.656184+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"After some information concerning his affairs, and some instructions concerning the hierographical papers in his hands, he said that, perfectly aware of his situation, he had taken the sacraments of the church on the day preceding. His religious sentiments were by himself stated to be liberal, though orthodox. He had extensively studied the Scriptures, of which the precepts were deeply impressed upon his mind from his earliest years; and he evidenced the faith which he professed; in an unbending course of usefulness and rectitude."
+
+== Research ==
+
+=== Wave theory of light ===
+
+In Young's own judgment, of his many achievements the most important was to establish the wave theory of light set out by Christiaan Huygens in his Treatise on Light (1690). To do so, he had to overcome the century-old view, expressed in the venerable Newton's Opticks, that light is a particle. In the early 19th century, Young put forth a number of theoretical reasons supporting the wave theory of light, and he developed two enduring demonstrations to support this viewpoint. With the ripple tank, he demonstrated the idea of interference in the context of water waves. With additional experiments, including the predecessor of the double-slit experiment, he demonstrated interference in the context of light as a wave.
+
+Young, speaking on 24 November 1803, to the Royal Society of London, began his now-classic description of the historic experiment:
+
+The experiments I am about to relate ... may be repeated with great ease, whenever the sun shines, and without any other apparatus than is at hand to every one.
+In his subsequent paper, titled Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics (1804), Young describes an experiment in which he placed a card measuring approximately 0.85 millimetres (0.033 in) in a beam of light from a single opening in a window and observed the fringes of colour in the shadow and to the sides of the card. He observed that placing another card in front or behind the narrow strip so as to prevent the light beam from striking one of its edges caused the fringes to disappear. This supported the contention that light is composed of waves.
+Young performed and analysed a number of experiments, including interference of light from reflection off nearby pairs of micrometre grooves, from reflection off thin films of soap and oil, and from Newton's rings. He also performed two important diffraction experiments using fibres and long, narrow strips. In his Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts (1807), he gives Grimaldi credit for first observing the fringes in the shadow of an object placed in a beam of light. Within ten years, much of Young's work was reproduced and then extended by Augustin-Jean Fresnel.
+
+=== Young's modulus ===
+
+Young described the characterization of elasticity that came to be known as Young's modulus, denoted as E, in 1807, and further described it in his Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts.
+However, the first use of the concept of Young's modulus in experiments was by Giordano Riccati in 1782—predating Young by 25 years.
+Furthermore, the idea can be traced to a paper by Leonhard Euler published in 1727, some 80 years before Thomas Young's 1807 paper.
+Young's modulus relates the stress (compression or decompression) in a body to its associated strain (fractional change in length); that is, stress = E × strain, for a uniaxially loaded specimen. Young's modulus is independent of the quantity under investigation; that is, it is an intensive property of the material. Young's Modulus allowed, for the first time, the prediction of the strain in a component subject to a known stress (and vice versa). Prior to Young's contribution, engineers were required to apply Hooke's F = kx relationship to identify the deformation (x) of a body subject to a known load (F), where the constant (k) is a function of both the geometry and material under consideration. Finding k required physical testing for any new component, as the F = kx relationship is a function of both geometry and material. Young's Modulus depends only on the material, not its geometry, thus allowing a revolution in engineering strategies.
+Young's problems in sometimes not expressing himself clearly were shown by his own definition of the modulus: "The modulus of the elasticity of any substance is a column of the same substance, capable of producing a pressure on its base which is to the weight causing a certain degree of compression as the length of the substance is to the diminution of its length." When this explanation was put to the Lords of the Admiralty, their clerk wrote to Young saying, "Though science is much respected by their Lordships and your paper is much esteemed, it is too learned ... in short it is not understood."
+
+=== Vision and colour theory ===
+Young has also been called the founder of physiological optics. In 1793 he explained the mode in which the eye accommodates itself to vision at different distances as depending on change of the curvature of the crystalline lens; in 1801 he was the first to describe astigmatism; and in his lectures he presented the hypothesis, afterwards developed by Hermann von Helmholtz, (the Young–Helmholtz theory), that colour perception depends on the presence in the retina of three kinds of nerve fibres. This foreshadowed the modern understanding of colour vision, in particular the finding that the eye does indeed have three colour receptors which are sensitive to different wavelength ranges.

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+title: "Thomas Young (scientist)"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:28.656184+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Young–Laplace equation ===
+In 1804, Young developed the theory of capillary phenomena on the principle of surface tension. He also observed the constancy of the angle of contact of a liquid surface with a solid, and showed how to deduce from these two principles the phenomena of capillary action. In 1805, Pierre-Simon Laplace, the French philosopher, discovered the significance of meniscus radii with respect to capillary action.
+In 1830, Carl Friedrich Gauss, the German mathematician, unified the work of these two scientists to derive the Young–Laplace equation, the formula that describes the capillary pressure difference sustained across the interface between two static fluids.
+Young was the first to define the term "energy" in the modern sense. He also did work on the theory of tides, paralleling that of Laplace and anticipating more well-known work by Airy.
+
+=== Young's equation and Young–Dupré equation ===
+
+Young's equation describes the contact angle of a liquid drop on a plane solid surface as a function of the surface free energy, the interfacial free energy, and the surface tension of the liquid. Young's equation was developed further, some 60 years later, by Dupré to account for thermodynamic effects, and this is known as the Young–Dupré equation.
+
+=== Medicine ===
+In physiology, Young made an important contribution to haemodynamics in the Croonian lecture for 1808 on the "Functions of the Heart and Arteries," where he derived a formula for the wave speed of the pulse. His medical writings included An Introduction to Medical Literature, including a System of Practical Nosology (1813) and A Practical and Historical Treatise on Consumptive Diseases (1815).
+Young devised a rule of thumb for determining a child's drug dosage. Young's Rule states that the child dosage is equal to the adult dosage multiplied by the child's age in years, divided by the sum of 12 plus the child's age.
+
+=== Languages ===
+In an appendix to his 1796 Göttingen dissertation De corporis humani viribus conservatricibus, there are four pages added proposing a universal phonetic alphabet (so as "not to leave these pages blank"; "Ne vacuae starent hae paginae, libuit e praelectione ante disputationem habenda tabellam literarum universalem raptim describere"). It includes 16 "pure" vowel symbols, nasal vowels, various consonants, and examples of these, drawn primarily from French and English.
+In his Encyclopædia Britannica article "Languages", Young compared the grammar and vocabulary of 400 languages. In a separate work in 1813, he introduced the term Indo-European languages, 165 years after the Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn proposed the grouping to which this term refers in 1647.
+
+=== Egyptian hieroglyphs ===
+
+Young made significant contributions to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian writing systems. He started his Egyptology work rather late, in 1813, when the work was already in progress among other researchers. He began by using an Egyptian demotic alphabet of 29 letters built up by Johan David Åkerblad in 1802 (14 turned out to be incorrect). Åkerblad was correct in stressing the importance of the demotic text in trying to read the inscriptions, but he wrongly believed that demotic was entirely alphabetic.
+By 1814, Young had completely translated the "enchorial" text of the Rosetta Stone (using a list with 86 demotic words), and then studied the hieroglyphic alphabet but initially failed to recognise that the demotic and hieroglyphic texts were paraphrases and not simple translations.
+There was considerable rivalry between Young and Jean-François Champollion while both were working on hieroglyphic decipherment. At first, they briefly cooperated in their work, but later, from around 1815, a chill arose between them. For many years, they kept details of their work away from each other. When Champollion finally published a translation of the hieroglyphs and the key to the grammatical system in 1822, Young (and many others) praised his work. Nevertheless, a year later, Young published an Account of the Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphic Literature and Egyptian Antiquities, with the aim of having his own work recognised as the basis for Champollion's system.
+Some of Young's conclusions appeared in the famous article "Egypt" he wrote for the 1818 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
+Young had correctly found the sound value of six hieroglyphic signs, but had not deduced the grammar of the language. Young himself acknowledged that he was somewhat at a disadvantage because Champollion's knowledge of the relevant languages, such as Coptic, was much greater.
+Several scholars have suggested that Young's true contribution to Egyptology was his decipherment of the demotic script. He made the first major advances in this area; he also correctly identified demotic as being composed of both ideographic and phonetic signs.
+Subsequently, Young felt that Champollion was unwilling to share the credit for the decipherment. In the ensuing controversy, strongly motivated by the political tensions of that time, the British tended to champion Young, while the French mostly championed Champollion. Champollion did acknowledge some of Young's contribution, but rather sparingly. However, after 1826, when Champollion was a curator in the Louvre, he did offer Young access to demotic manuscripts.
+In England, while Sir George Lewis still doubted Champollion's achievement as late as 1862, others were more accepting. For example, Reginald Poole, and Sir Peter Le Page Renouf both defended Champollion.
+
+=== Music ===
+Young developed Young temperament, a method of tuning musical instruments.
+
+== Legacy ==
+Later scholars and scientists have praised Young's work, although they may know him only through the achievements he made in their fields. His contemporary Sir John Herschel called him a "truly original genius". Albert Einstein praised him in the 1931 foreword to an edition of Isaac Newton's Opticks. Other admirers include physicist Lord Rayleigh and Nobel Physics laureate Philip Anderson.
+Thomas Young's name has been adopted as the name of the London-based Thomas Young Centre, an alliance of academic research groups engaged in the theory and simulation of materials.
+Young Sound in eastern Greenland was named in his honour by William Scoresby (1789–1857).
+
+== Selected writings ==
+A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts (1807, republished 2002 by Thoemmes Press).
+Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young, M.D., F.R.S. (1855, 3 volumes, editor John Murray, republished 2003 by Thoemmes Press).
+
+== See also ==
+Coandă effect
+Color space
+History of energy
+List of Egyptologists
+Refractive index
+Ultrahydrophobicity
+Thomas Young painting
+
+== References ==
+
+Works cited
+Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (2000). The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-019439-0.
+Thomasson, Fredrik (2013). The Life of J. D. Åkerblad: Egyptian Decipherment and Orientalism in Revolutionary Times. BRILL.
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Thomas Young (scientist) at Wikimedia Commons
+ Quotations related to Thomas Young (scientist) at Wikiquote
+Works by or about Thomas Young at Wikisource
+Thomas Young, the founder of wave theory Archived 19 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine
+Works by Thomas Young at the Biodiversity Heritage Library 
+Works by Thomas Young at Open Library 
+Works by or about Thomas Young at the Internet Archive

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+title: "Ulugh Beg"
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+
+Mīrzā Muhammad Tarāghāy bin Shāhrukh (Chagatay: میرزا محمد تراغای بن شاهرخ; Persian: میرزا محمد طارق بن شاهرخ), better known as Ulugh Beg (Persian: الغ‌بیک; 22 March 1394 – 27 October 1449), was a Timurid sultan, as well as an astronomer and mathematician.  
+Ulugh Beg was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical geometry, as well as his general interests in the arts and intellectual activities. It is thought that he spoke five languages: Arabic, Persian, Chaghatai Turkic, Mongolian, and a small amount of Chinese. During his rule (first as a governor, then outright) the Timurid Empire achieved the cultural peak of the Timurid Renaissance through his attention and patronage. Samarkand was captured and given to Ulugh Beg by his father Shah Rukh.
+He built the great Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand between 1424 and 1429. It was considered by scholars to have been one of the finest observatories in the Islamic world at the time and the largest in Central Asia. Ulugh Beg was subsequently recognized as the most important observational astronomer from the 15th century by many scholars. He also built the Ulugh Beg Madrasah (1417–1420) in Samarkand and Bukhara, transforming the cities into cultural centers of learning in Central Asia.
+However, Ulugh Beg's scientific expertise was not matched by his skills in governance. During his short reign, he failed to establish his power and authority. As a result, other rulers, including his family, took advantage of his lack of control, and he was subsequently overthrown and assassinated.
+
+== Early life ==
+He was a grandson of the great conqueror and king, Timur (Tamerlane) (1336–1405), and the oldest son of Shah Rukh, both of whom came from the Turkicized Mongol Barlas tribe of Transoxiana (now Uzbekistan). His mother was a noblewoman named Gawhar Shad, daughter of a member of the representative Turkic tribal aristocracy, Ghiyasuddin Tarkhan. 
+Ulugh Beg was born in Sultaniyeh during his grandfather's invasion of Persia. He was given the name Mīrzā Muhammad Tāraghay. Ulugh Beg, the name he was most commonly known by, was not truly a personal name, but rather a moniker, which can be loosely translated as "Great Ruler" (compare modern Turkish ulu, "great", and bey, "chief") and is the Turkic equivalent of Timur's Perso-Arabic title Amīr-e Kabīr. 
+As a child he wandered through a substantial part of the Middle East and India as his grandfather expanded his conquests in those areas. After Timur's death, Shah Rukh moved the empire's capital to Herat (in modern Afghanistan). Sixteen-year-old Ulugh Beg subsequently became the governor of the former capital of Samarkand in 1409. In 1411, he was named the sovereign ruler of the whole of Mavarannahr.
+
+== Science ==
+The young ruler set out to turn the city into an intellectual center for the empire. Between 1417 and 1420, he built a madrasa ("university" or "institute") on Registan Square in Samarkand (currently in Uzbekistan), and he invited numerous Islamic astronomers and mathematicians to study there. The madrasa building still survives. Ulugh Beg's most famous pupil in astronomy was Ali Qushchi (died in 1474). Qadi Zada al-Rumi was the most notable teacher at Ulugh Beg's madrasa and Jamshid al-Kashi, an astronomer, later came to join the staff.  
+
+=== Astronomy ===

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+
+Astronomy piqued Ulugh Beg's interest when he visited the Maragheh Observatory at a young age. This observatory, located in Maragheh, Iran, is where the well-known astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi practised.
+In 1428, Ulugh Beg built an enormous observatory, similar to Tycho Brahe's later Uraniborg as well as Taqi al-Din's observatory in Constantinople. Lacking telescopes to work with, he increased his accuracy by increasing the length of his sextant; the so-called Fakhri sextant had a radius of about 36 meters (118 feet) and the optical separability of 180" (seconds of arc). The Fakhri sextant was the largest instrument at the observatory in Samarkand (an image of the sextant is on the side of this article). There were many other astronomical instruments located at the observatory, but the Fakhri sextant is the most well-known instrument there. The purpose of the Fakhri sextant was to measure the transit altitudes of the stars. This was a measurement of the maximum altitude above the horizon of the stars. It was only possible to use this device to measure the declination of celestial objects. The image, which can be found in this article, shows the remaining portion of the instrument, which consists of the underground, lower portion of the instrument that was not destroyed. The observatory built by Ulugh Beg was the most pervasive and well-known observatory throughout the Islamic world.
+With the instruments located in the observatory in Samarkand, Ulugh Beg composed a star catalogue consisting of 1018 stars, which is eleven fewer stars than are present in the star catalogue of Ptolemy. Ulugh Beg utilized dimensions from al-Sufi and based his star catalogue on a new analysis that was autonomous from the data used by Ptolemy. Throughout his life as an astronomer, Ulugh Beg came to realize that there were multiple mistakes in the work and subsequent data of Ptolemy that had been in use for many years.
+Using it, he compiled the 1437 Zij-i-Sultani of 994 stars, generally considered the greatest star catalogue between those of Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe, a work that stands alongside Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi's Book of Fixed Stars. The serious errors which he found in previous Arabian star catalogues (many of which had simply updated Ptolemy's work, adding the effect of precession to the longitudes) induced him to redetermine the positions of 992 fixed stars, to which he added 27 stars from Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi's catalogue Book of Fixed Stars from the year 964, which were too far south for observation from Samarkand. This catalogue, one of the most original of the Middle Ages, was first edited by Thomas Hyde at Oxford in 1665 under the title Jadāvil-i Mavāzi' S̱avābit, sive, Tabulae Long. ac Lat. Stellarum Fixarum ex Observatione Ulugh Beighi and reprinted in 1767 by G. Sharpe. More recent editions are those by Francis Baily in 1843 in Vol. XIII of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, and by Edward Ball Knobel in Ulugh Beg's Catalogue of Stars, Revised from all Persian Manuscripts Existing in Great Britain, with a Vocabulary of Persian and Arabic Words (1917).
+In 1437, Ulugh Beg determined the length of the sidereal year as 365.2570370...d = 365d 6h 10m 8s (an error of +58 seconds). In his measurements over the course of many years he used a 50 m high gnomon. This value was improved by 28 seconds in 1525 by Nicolaus Copernicus, who appealed to the estimation of Thabit ibn Qurra (826–901), which had an error of +2 seconds. However, Ulugh Beg later measured another more precise value of the tropical year as 365d 5h 49m 15s, which has an error of +25 seconds, making it more accurate than Copernicus's estimate which had an error of +30 seconds. Ulugh Beg also determined the Earth's axial tilt as 23°30'17" in the sexagesimal system of degrees, minutes and seconds of arc, which in decimal notation converts to 23.5047°.
+
+=== Mathematics ===
+In mathematics, Ulugh Beg wrote accurate trigonometric tables of sine and tangent values correct to at least eight decimal places.
+
+== Foreign relations ==
+Once Ulugh Beg became governor of Samarqand, he fostered diplomatic relations with the Yongle emperor of the Ming dynasty. In 1416, Ming envoys Chen Cheng and Lu An presented silk and silver stuffs to Ulugh Beg on behalf of the Yongle emperor. In 1419, The Timurid sent his own emissaries, Sultan-Shah and Muhammad Bakhshi, to the Ming court. Ulugh Beg's emissaries came across Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh and other envoys representing Shah Rukh, Prince Baysunghur, and other Timurid authorities in Beijing; however, they stayed at separate hostelries. Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh even saw the Yongle emperor riding a black horse with white feet which had been gifted by Ulugh Beg. 

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+title: "Ulugh Beg"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:23.755017+00:00"
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+---
+
+Ulugh Beg led two major campaigns against his neighbours. This first one took place in 1425 and was directed against Moghulistan and its ruler Shir Muhammad. He was victorious but the impact of the campaign was limited and Shir Muhammad remained in power. A year later, Baraq, Khan of the Golden Horde and former protégé of Ulugh Beg, laid claim to Timurid possessions around the Syr Darya, including the town of Sighnaq. In response to that, in 1427 Ulugh Beg, accompanied by his brother Muhummad Juki, marched against Baraq. In a hill close to Sighnaq the Timurid army was surprised by a smaller enemy force but was soundly defeated. The humiliation suffered at the hands of Baraq was to have a lasting effect on Ulugh Beg. His campaign against the Golden Horde would be the last he would undertake against a neighbouring power. The armies he later sent against them would not win any resounding victories and by the end of his reign his territories would be raided by his northern and easterly foes.
+In 1439, the Zhengtong emperor ordered an artist to produce a painting of a black horse with white feet and a white forehead that had been sent by Ulugh Beg. Six years later, the Ming emperor sent a letter to Ulugh Beg in order to express his gratitude for all the "tribute"  from Samarqand.  The emperor sent "vessels made of gold and jade, a spear with a dragon's head, a fine horse with saddle, and variegated gold-embroidered silk stuffs" to Ulugh Beg, as well as silk stuffs and garments for the Timurid prince's family.
+
+== War of succession and death ==
+
+In 1447, upon learning of the death of his father Shah Rukh, Ulugh Beg went to Balkh. Here, he heard that Ala al-Dawla, the son of his late brother Baysunghur, had claimed the rulership of the Timurid Empire in Herat. Consequently, Ulugh Beg marched against Ala al-Dawla and met him in battle at Murghab. He defeated his nephew and advanced toward Herat, massacring its people in 1448. However, Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza, Ala al-Dawla's brother, came to the latter's aid and defeated Ulugh Beg.
+Ulugh Beg retreated to Balkh where he found that its governor, his oldest son Abdal-Latif Mirza, had rebelled against him. Another civil war ensued. Abdal-Latif recruited troops to meet his father's army on the banks of the Amu Darya river. However, Ulugh Beg was forced to retreat to Samarkand before any fighting took place, having heard news of turmoil in the city. Abdal-Latif soon reached Samarkand and Ulugh Beg involuntarily surrendered to his son. Abd-al-Latif released his father from custody, allowing him to make pilgrimage to Mecca. However, he ensured Ulugh Beg never reached his destination, having him, as well as his brother Abdal-Aziz assassinated in 1449. 
+Eventually, Ulugh Beg's reputation was rehabilitated by his nephew, Abdallah Mirza (1450–1451), who placed his remains at Timur's feet in the Gur-e-Amir in Samarkand, where they were found by Soviet archaeologists in 1941.
+
+== Marriages ==
+Ulugh Beg had sixteen consorts:
+
+Aka Begi, daughter of Muhammad Sultan Mirza bin Jahangir Mirza and Khan Sultan Khanika, mother of Habiba Sultan known as Khanzada Begum and another Khanzada Begum;
+Sultan Badi al-mulk Begum, daughter of Khalil Sultan bin Miran Shah and Shad Malik Agha;
+Aqi Sultan Khanika, daughter of Sultan Mahmud Khan Ogeday;
+Husn Nigar Khanika, daughter of Shams-i-Jahan Khan Chaghatay;
+Shukr Bi Khanika, daughter of Darwīsh Khan of the Golden Horde;
+Rukaiya Sultan Agha, an Arlat lady, and mother of Abdal-Latif Mirza, Ak Bash Begum and Sultan Bakht Begum;
+Mihr Sultan Agha, daughter of Tukal bin Sarbuka;
+Sa'adat Bakht Agha, daughter of Bayan Kukaltash, mother of Qutlugh Turkhan Agha;
+Daulat Sultan Agha, daughter of Khawand Sa'id;
+Bakhti Bi Agha, daughter of Aka Sufi Uzbek;
+Daulat Bakht Agha, daughter of Sheikh Muhammad Barlas;
+Sultanim Agha, mother of Abdul Hamid Mirza and Abdul Jabrar Mirza;
+Sultan Malik Agha, daughter of Nasir-al-Din, mother of Ubaydullah Mirza, Abdullah Mirza and another Abdullah Mirza;
+A daughter of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, khan of Uzbek Khanate;
+Khutan Agha;
+A daughter of Aqila Sultan;
+
+== Legacy ==
+
+The crater, Ulugh Beigh, on the Moon, was named after him by the German astronomer Johann Heinrich von Mädler on his 1830 map of the Moon.
+2439 Ulugbek, a main-belt asteroid which was discovered on 21 August 1977 by N. Chernykh at Nauchnyj, was named after him.
+The 2017 documentary The Man Who Unlocked The Universe is based on his life, with Lola Karimova-Tillyaeva as executive producer.
+The dinosaur Ulughbegsaurus was named after him in 2021.
+
+== Exhumation ==
+Soviet anthropologist Mikhail M. Gerasimov reconstructed the face of Ulugh Beg through the analysis of the remains that were exhumed from his tomb in 1941. Like his grandfather Timurlane, Ulugh Beg is close to the Mongoloid type with slightly Europoid features. His father Shah Rukh had predominantly Caucasoid features, with no obvious Mongoloid feature.
+
+== See also ==
+Aryabhata, ancient Indian astronomer
+Ulugh Beg Observatory and Museum
+Ulugh Beg Madrasa in Samarkand
+Ulugh beg Madrasa in Bukhara
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==

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+title: "Ulugh Beg"
+chunk: 4/4
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:07:23.755017+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Bibliography ==
+O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Ulugh Beg", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
+1839. L. P. E. A. Sedillot (1808–1875). Tables astronomiques d’Oloug Beg, commentees et publiees avec le texte en regard, Tome I, 1 fascicule, Paris. A very rare work, but referenced in the Bibliographie generale de l’astronomie jusqu’en 1880, by J.
+1847. L. P. E. A. Sedillot (1808–1875). Prolegomenes des Tables astronomiques d’Oloug Beg, publiees avec Notes et Variantes, et precedes d’une Introduction. Paris: F. Didot.
+1853. L. P. E. A. Sedillot (1808–1875). Prolegomenes des Tables astronomiques d’Oloug Beg, traduction et commentaire. Paris.
+Le Prince Savant annexe les étoiles, Frédérique Beaupertuis-Bressand, in Samarcande 1400–1500, La cité-oasis de Tamerlan : coeur d'un Empire et d'une Renaissance, book directed by Vincent Fourniau, éditions Autrement, 1995, ISSN 1157-4488.
+L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane, Antoine Gautier, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), December 2005, volume 119.
+L'observatoire du prince Ulugh Beg, Antoine Gautier, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), October 2008, volume 122.
+Le recueil de calendriers du prince timouride Ulug Beg (1394–1449), Antoine Gautier, in Le Bulletin, n° spécial Les calendriers, Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales, juin 2007, pp. 117–123. d
+Jean-Marie Thiébaud, Personnages marquants d'Asie centrale, du Turkestan et de l'Ouzbékistan, Paris, éditions L'Harmattan, 2004. ISBN 2-7475-7017-7.
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+Dalen, Benno van (2007). "Ulugh Beg: Muḥammad Ṭaraghāy ibn Shāhrukh ibn Tīmūr". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 1157–9. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
+
+== External links ==
+
+Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ulugh Beg" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
+Ulugh Beg: a short biography March 18. 2025
+The observatory and memorial museum of Ulugbek
+Bukhara Ulugbek Madrasah
+Registan the heart of ancient Samarkand.
+Biography by School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland
+Legacy of Ulug Beg Archived May 19, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
+BBC's History of the World in 100 Objects, jade dragon cup, discusses its patronage by Ulugh Beg