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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network-0.md
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title: "Constant-resistance network"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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A constant-resistance network in electrical engineering is a network whose input resistance does not change with frequency when correctly terminated. Examples of constant resistance networks include:
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Zobel network
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Lattice phase equaliser
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Boucherot cell
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Bridged T delay equaliser
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== References ==
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title: "Contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributors_to_the_mathematical_background_for_general_relativity"
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category: "reference"
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This is a list of contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity. For ease of readability, the contributions (in brackets) are unlinked but can be found in the contributors' article.
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== B ==
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Luigi Bianchi (Bianchi identities, Bianchi groups, differential geometry)
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== C ==
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Élie Cartan (curvature computation, early extensions of GTR, Cartan geometries)
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Elwin Bruno Christoffel (connections, tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry)
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Clarissa-Marie Claudel (Geometry of photon surfaces)
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== D ==
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Tevian Dray (The Geometry of General Relativity)
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== E ==
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Luther P. Eisenhart (semi-Riemannian geometries)
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Frank B. Estabrook (Wahlquist-Estabrook approach to solving PDEs; see also parent list)
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Leonhard Euler (Euler-Lagrange equation, from which the geodesic equation is obtained)
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== G ==
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Carl Friedrich Gauss (curvature, theory of surfaces, intrinsic vs. extrinsic)
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== K ==
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Martin Kruskal (inverse scattering transform; see also parent list)
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== L ==
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Joseph Louis Lagrange (Lagrangian mechanics, Euler-Lagrange equation)
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Tullio Levi-Civita (tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry; see also parent list)
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André Lichnerowicz (tensor calculus, transformation groups)
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== M ==
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Alexander Macfarlane (space analysis and Algebra of Physics)
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Jerrold E. Marsden (linear stability)
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== N ==
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Isaac Newton (Newton's identities for characteristic of Einstein tensor)
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== R ==
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Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro (Ricci tensor, differential geometry)
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Georg Bernhard Riemann (Riemannian geometry, Riemann curvature tensor)
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== S ==
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Richard Schoen (Yamabe problem; see also parent list)
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Corrado Segre (Segre classification)
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== W ==
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Hugo D. Wahlquist (Wahlquist-Estabrook algorithm; see also parent list)
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Hermann Weyl (Weyl tensor, gauge theories; see also parent list)
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Eugene P. Wigner (stabilizers in Lorentz group)
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== See also ==
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Contributors to differential geometry
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Contributors to general relativity
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards"
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title: "List of CERN Scientific Committees"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CERN_Scientific_Committees"
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category: "reference"
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Proposals for experiments are made at CERN and have to go through the correct channels in order to be approved. One of the last steps in the process is to submit the proposal to an appropriate CERN Scientific Committee. The committees will discuss the proposal and then pass on their recommendations to the Research Board (previously the Nuclear Physics Research Committee) for the final decision. Proposals approved become part of the CERN experimental programme.
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In 1960, John Adams, the Director General, created three committees to manage experiments for each bubble chamber experimental technique used at CERN. These replaced the previous Advisory and Bubble Chamber committees. At the end of the bubble chamber period, the system was again changed and based on machine, rather than experimental technique. The committees were changed and merged in order to accommodate to this. Since then, the committees have changed based on the creation and decommissioning of facilities and accelerators.
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== Current committees ==
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== Past committees ==
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Feynman_diagrams-0.md
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title: "List of Feynman diagrams"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Feynman_diagrams"
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category: "reference"
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This is a list of common Feynman diagrams. His first published diagram appeared in Physical Review in 1949. Unless otherwise specified, the shown diagrams can assumed to be the leading order representation of the interaction.
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== Standard model diagrams ==
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== Speculative or hypothetical diagrams ==
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums-0.md
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums-0.md
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title: "List of Foucault pendulums"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums"
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This is a list of Foucault pendulums in the world.
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== Europe ==
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== Africa ==
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== North America ==
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== South America ==
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== Asia ==
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== Oceania, Antarctic ==
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== General Sources ==
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=== Books ===
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Baker, Gregory L. (2005). The Pendulum: A Case Study in Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198567545.
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Crease, Robert P. (2004). The Prism and the Pendulum: The Ten Most Beautiful Experiments in Science. ISBN 978-0812970623.
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=== Web ===
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"Academy Pendulum Sales（Academy Pendulums）". Archived from the original on 2025-02-24. Retrieved 2025-07-09.
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"Foucault-féle ingakísérletek Szombathelyen 1880–2014" (PDF). Retrieved 2025-07-09.
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"Entierra Gobierno el proyecto educativo del Centro de Ciencias; será museo". Retrieved 2025-07-09.
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"Yale Peabody Museum:Facebook". Retrieved 2025-12-10.
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"Pendule Foucault în România și Republica Moldov" (pdf). Retrieved 2025-07-09.
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"展示装置納入実績（木下製作所）". Archived from the original on 2019-08-24. Retrieved 2019-07-09.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_fossils-0.md
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title: "List of U.S. state fossils"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_fossils"
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Most states in the US have designated a state fossil, many during the 1980s. It is common to designate a fossilized species, rather than a single specimen or a category of fossils. State fossils are distinct from other state emblems like state dinosaurs, state stones, state minerals, state gemstones or state rocks and a state may designate one, a few, or all of those. For example, in Arizona, the state stone is turquoise and the state dinosaur is Sonorasaurus thompsoni yet the state fossil is petrified wood.
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The two first states to designate a state fossil were Nebraska and North Dakota, both in 1967.
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Six states and the District of Columbia as of March 10th, 2026 still lack an explicit state fossil:
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Arkansas: There is no state fossil in Arkansas, though the state designated Arkansaurus as its state dinosaur.
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District of Columbia: Capitalsaurus is the state dinosaur of Washington D.C., but the District has not chosen a state fossil.
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Florida: There is no state fossil in Florida, though agatised coral, which is a fossil, is the state stone.
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Hawaii: In history, Hawaii is too young to have many fossils, and its igneous composition makes fossils harder to find. The government has not officially declared any of its existing fossils a state fossil.
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Iowa: The crinoid was proposed in 2018, though it was not officially accepted.
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New Hampshire: The American mastodon (Mammut americanum) was considered in 2015.
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Texas: There is no state fossil, though the state dinosaur is Sauroposeidon proteles.
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== Table of state fossils ==
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== See also ==
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List of U.S. state dinosaurs
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List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, and gemstones
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Lists of U.S. state insignia
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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List of U.S. state fossils, from National Park Service
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title: "List of accelerators in particle physics"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics"
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A list of particle accelerators used for particle physics experiments. Some early particle accelerators that more properly did nuclear physics, but existed prior to the separation of particle physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for experiments are listed.
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== Early accelerators ==
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These all used single beams with fixed targets. They tended to have very briefly run, inexpensive, and unnamed experiments.
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=== Cyclotrons ===
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[1] The magnetic pole pieces and return yoke from the 60-inch cyclotron were later moved to UC Davis and incorporated into a 76-inch isochronous cyclotron which is still in use today
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=== Other early accelerator types ===
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=== Synchrotrons ===
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== Fixed-target accelerators ==
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More modern accelerators that were also run in fixed target mode; often, they will also have been run as colliders, or accelerated particles for use in subsequently built colliders.
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=== High intensity hadron accelerators (Meson and neutron sources) ===
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=== Electron and low intensity hadron accelerators ===
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== Colliders ==
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=== Electron–positron colliders ===
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=== Hadron colliders ===
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=== Electron–proton colliders ===
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== Light sources ==
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== Hypothetical accelerators ==
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Besides the real accelerators listed above, there are hypothetical accelerators often used
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as hypothetical examples or optimistic projects by particle physicists.
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Eloisatron (Eurasiatic Long Intersecting Storage Accelerator) was a project of INFN headed by Antonio Zichichi at the Ettore Majorana Foundation and Centre for Scientific Culture in Erice, Sicily. The center-of-mass energy was planned to be 200 TeV, and the size was planned to span parts of Europe and Asia.
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Fermitron was an accelerator sketched by Enrico Fermi on a notepad in the 1940s proposing an accelerator in stable orbit around the Earth.
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The undulator radiation collider is a design for an accelerator with a center-of-mass energy around the GUT scale. It would be light-weeks across and require the construction of a Dyson swarm around the Sun.
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Planckatron is an accelerator with a center-of-mass energy of the order of the Planck scale. It is estimated that the radius of the Planckatron would have to be roughly the radius of the Milky Way. It would require so much energy to run that it could only be built by at least a Kardashev Type II civilization.
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Arguably also in this category falls the Zevatron, a hypothetical source for observed ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.
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== See also ==
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List of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities
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List of synchrotron radiation facilities
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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Judy Goldhaber. October 9, 1992. Bevalac Had 40-Year Record of Historic Discoveries Archived 2011-05-14 at the Wayback Machine
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High-energy collider parameters from the Particle Data Group
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Particle accelerators around the world
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Lawrence and his laboratory Archived 2018-01-18 at the Wayback Machine – a history of the early years of accelerator physics at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
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A brief history and review of accelerators (11 pgs, PDF file)
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SLAC beamlines over time
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Accelerators and detectors named Mark at SLAC
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Lawson, J. D. (1997), "Early British Synchrotrons, An Informal History", [accessed 17 May 2009]
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A FEW QUICK FACTS ABOUT THE TRIUMF CYCLOTRON
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title: "List of automobile drag coefficients"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_automobile_drag_coefficients"
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This is a list of automobile drag coefficients (Cd) and drag areas (CdA) for production, limited-production, and concept or experimental vehicles. The drag coefficient is a dimensionless measure of aerodynamic resistance used in automotive design; a lower value indicates a more streamlined vehicle that passes through the air with less resistance. The drag area (CdA) is the product of the drag coefficient and the vehicle's frontal reference area, and represents the total aerodynamic drag force per unit of dynamic pressure — making it a more complete measure of real-world aerodynamic performance than the drag coefficient alone.
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Entries are grouped first by drag coefficient and then by drag area. Within each grouping, production vehicles and concept or experimental vehicles are listed separately. Unless otherwise noted, figures given are for the base model of a vehicle in a standard configuration. Measurements can vary by up to 5% depending on the wind tunnel and test methodology used.
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== Drag coefficients ==
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The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle. Various other characteristics affect the coefficient of drag as well, and are taken into account in these examples. Some sports cars have a surprisingly high drag coefficient (such as the Ariel Atom at 0.40), but this is to compensate for the amount of lift the vehicle generates, while others use aerodynamics to their advantage to gain speed and as a result have much lower drag coefficients.
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Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model, which may not be available in some markets. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires, extra spoilers and larger cooling systems as many basic/low power models have half size radiators with the remaining area blanked off to reduce cooling and engine bay drag.
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The Cd of a given vehicle will vary depending on which wind tunnel it is measured in. Variations of up to 5% have been documented and variations in test technique and analysis can also make a difference. So if the same vehicle with a drag coefficient of Cd=0.30 was measured in a different tunnel it could be anywhere from Cd=0.285 to Cd=0.315.
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=== Production cars ===
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=== Concept and experimental cars ===
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== Drag areas ==
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The drag area (CdA) is the product of the drag coefficient (Cd) and the vehicle's frontal reference area. It provides a single value that directly determines the aerodynamic drag force at a given speed, making it a more complete basis for comparison than Cd alone. In 2003, Car and Driver magazine adopted this metric as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles. Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8 sq ft (0.74 m2). Reported drag areas range from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.1 sq ft (0.47 m2) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.5 sq ft (2.46 m2). The drag area of a bicycle (and rider) is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m2).
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=== Production cars ===
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=== Limited production cars ===
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=== Concept and experimental cars ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Automobile drag coefficient
|
||||
Automotive aerodynamics
|
||||
Drag (physics)
|
||||
Drag equation
|
||||
Drag area
|
||||
Fuel efficiency in transportation
|
||||
67
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons-0.md
Normal file
67
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of baryons"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:06.625794+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Baryons are composite particles made of three quarks, as opposed to mesons, which are composite particles made of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks. Baryons and mesons are both hadrons, which are particles composed solely of quarks or both quarks and antiquarks. The term baryon is derived from the Greek "βαρύς" (barys), meaning "heavy", because, at the time of their naming, it was believed that baryons were characterized by having greater masses than other particles that were classed as matter.
|
||||
Pentaquarks are exotic baryons composed of four quarks and one antiquark. In 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN definitively reported the observation of pentaquark states in the decay of bottom lambda baryons (Λ0b). Since then, additional pentaquark states have been discovered, including new observations in 2019 and 2022. While primarily created in laboratory conditions, pentaquarks might also form naturally during neutron star formation.
|
||||
Since baryons are composed of quarks, they participate in the strong interaction. Leptons, on the other hand, are not composed of quarks and as such do not participate in the strong interaction. The best known baryons are protons and neutrons, which make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe, whereas electrons, the other major component of atoms, are leptons. Each baryon has a corresponding antiparticle, known as an antibaryon, in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks. For example, a proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while its corresponding antiparticle, the antiproton, is made of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Baryon properties ==
|
||||
These lists detail all known and predicted baryons in total angular momentum J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations with positive parity.
|
||||
|
||||
Baryons composed of one type of quark (uuu, ddd, ...) can exist in J = 3/2 configuration, but J = 1/2 is forbidden by the Pauli exclusion principle.
|
||||
Baryons composed of two types of quarks (uud, uus, ...) can exist in both J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations.
|
||||
Baryons composed of three types of quarks (uds, udc, ...) can exist in both J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations. Two J = 1/2 configurations are possible for these baryons.
|
||||
The symbols encountered in these lists are: I (isospin), J (total angular momentum), P (parity), u (up quark), d (down quark), s (strange quark), c (charm quark), b (bottom quark), Q (charge), B (baryon number), S (strangeness), C (charm), B′ (bottomness), as well as a wide array of subatomic particles (hover for name). (See Baryon for a detailed explanation of these symbols.)
|
||||
Antibaryons are not listed in the tables; however, they simply would have all quarks changed to antiquarks, and Q, B, S, C, B′, would be of opposite signs. Particles with † next to their names have been predicted by the Standard Model but not yet observed. Values in parentheses have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== JP = 1/2+ baryons ===
|
||||
|
||||
†^ Particle has not yet been observed.
|
||||
[a] ^ The masses of the proton and neutron are known with much better precision in daltons (Da) than in MeV/c2. In atomic mass units, the mass of the proton is 1.0072764665789(83) Da whereas that of the neutron is 1.00866491606(40) Da.
|
||||
[b] ^ At least 1035 years. See Proton decay.
|
||||
[c] ^ For free neutrons; in most common nuclei, neutrons are stable.
|
||||
[d] ^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== JP = 3/2+ baryons ===
|
||||
|
||||
†^ Particle has not yet been observed.
|
||||
[h] ^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Baryon resonance particles ===
|
||||
This table gives the name, quantum numbers (where known), and experimental status of baryon resonances confirmed by the PDG. Baryon resonance particles (including all not in the above two tables) are excited baryon states with short half lives and higher masses. Despite significant research, the fundamental degrees of freedom behind baryon excitation spectra are still poorly understood. The spin-parity JP (when known) is given with each particle. For the strongly decaying particles, the JP values are considered to be part of the names, as is the mass for all resonances.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Baryons
|
||||
Eightfold way (physics)
|
||||
List of mesons
|
||||
List of particles
|
||||
Resonance (particle physics)
|
||||
Roper resonance
|
||||
Timeline of particle discoveries
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bibliography ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Particle Data Group: The Review of Particle Physics; – Baryon Summary Table
|
||||
Georgia State University – HyperPhysics
|
||||
Baryons made thinkable, an interactive visualisation allowing physical properties to be compared
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of books on popular physics concepts"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:07.857060+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of books which talk about things related to current day physics or physics as it would be in the future.
|
||||
There a number of books that have been penned about specific physics concepts, e.g. quantum mechanics or kinematics, and many other books which discuss physics in general, i.e. not focussing on a single topic. There are also books that encourage beginners to enjoy physics by making them look at it from different angles.
|
||||
|
||||
Capra, Fritjof (1999). The Tao of physics : an exploration of the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism (4th, updated ed.). Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-519-0.
|
||||
Chandrasekhar, S. (1958). An introduction to the study of stellar structure. [Republication]. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0486604138. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
|
||||
Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (2009). The Feynman lectures on physics : the definitive and extended edition (2nd ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805390452.
|
||||
— (1997). "Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!" : adventures of a curious character (1st Norton pbk. ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393316049.
|
||||
Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (1. Vintage Books ed.). New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0375708114.
|
||||
— (2004). The fabric of the cosmos : space, time, and the texture of reality (1st Vintage Books ed.). New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0375727207.
|
||||
— (2011). The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos (1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0307265630.
|
||||
— (2008). Icarus at the Edge of Time (1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0307268884.
|
||||
Gribbin, John (1984). In search of Schrödinger's cat : quantum physics and reality. Toronto: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553341034.
|
||||
— (1995). Schrödinger's kittens and the search for reality : solving the quantum mysteries. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0316328197.
|
||||
Hawking, Stephen (1993). Hawking On the Big Bang and Black Holes. Singapore; New Jersey: World Scientific. ISBN 978-9810210793.
|
||||
— (1996). A Brief History of Time (Updated and expanded tenth anniversary ed.). New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553380163.
|
||||
— (2001). The Universe in a Nutshell. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 055380202X.
|
||||
— (2006). The theory of everything: the origin and fate of the universe (Special anniversary ed.). Mumbai: Jaico Pub. House. ISBN 978-8179925911.
|
||||
—; Mlodinow, Leonard (2008). A briefer history of time (Bantam trade pbk. ed.). New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553385465.
|
||||
—; Mlodinow, Leonard (2012). The grand design (2012 Bantam Books trade pbk. ed.). New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553384666.
|
||||
Kaku, Michio (1995). Hyperspace : a scientific odyssey through parallel universes, time warps, and the tenth dimension. illustrations by Robert O'Keefe (1st Anchor Books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0385477055.
|
||||
—; Thompson, Jennifer (1999). Beyond Einstein : the cosmic quest for the theory of the universe (Rev. and updated ed.). Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192861962.
|
||||
— (2006). Parallel worlds : a journey through creation, higher dimensions, and the future of the cosmos (1st Anchor Books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-1400033720.
|
||||
— (2009). Physics of the impossible : a scientific exploration into the world of phasers, force fields, teleportation, and time travel (1st Anchor Books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0307278821.
|
||||
— (2012). Physics of the future : how science will shape human destiny and our daily lives by the year 2100 (1st Anchor Books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0307473332.
|
||||
Krauss, Lawrence M. A Universe from Nothing: Why There is Something Rather Than Nothing (1st Free Press hardcover ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4516-2445-8.
|
||||
Kumar, Manjit (2009). Quantum : Einstein, Bohr, and the great debate about the nature of reality. Gurgaon: Hachette India. ISBN 978-93-80143-10-1.
|
||||
Lewin, Walter; Warren Goldstein. For the love of physics : from the end of the rainbow to the edge of time-- a journey through the wonders of physics (1st Free Press hardcover ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 1439108277.
|
||||
Talbot, Michael (1988). Beyond the quantum. Toronto: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553344806.
|
||||
— (1992). Mysticism and the new physics (Rev. and updated ed.). London: Arkana. ISBN 978-0140193282.
|
||||
Walker, Jearl (2007). The Flying Circus of Physics (2nd. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-76273-7.
|
||||
132
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids-0.md
Normal file
132
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of centroids"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:09.084865+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of centroids of various two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects. The centroid of an object
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
X
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle X}
|
||||
|
||||
in
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle n}
|
||||
|
||||
-dimensional space is the intersection of all hyperplanes that divide
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
X
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle X}
|
||||
|
||||
into two parts of equal moment about the hyperplane. Informally, it is the "average" of all points of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
X
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle X}
|
||||
|
||||
. For an object of uniform composition, or in other words, has the same density at all points, the centroid of a body is also its center of mass. In the case of two-dimensional objects shown below, the hyperplanes are simply lines.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 2-D Centroids ==
|
||||
For each two-dimensional shape below, the area and the centroid coordinates
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
y
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ({\bar {x}},{\bar {y}})}
|
||||
|
||||
are given:
|
||||
|
||||
Where the centroid coordinates are marked as zero, the coordinates are at the origin, and the equations to get those points are the lengths of the included axes divided by two, in order to reach the center which in these cases are the origin and thus zero.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 3-D Centroids ==
|
||||
For each three-dimensional body below, the volume and the centroid coordinates
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
y
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
z
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ({\bar {x}},{\bar {y}},{\bar {z}})}
|
||||
|
||||
are given:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of moments of inertia
|
||||
List of second moments of area
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
http://www.engineering.com/Library/ArticlesPage/tabid/85/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/109/Centroids-of-Common-Shapes.aspx
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of common physics notations"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_physics_notations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:12.855715+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of common physical constants and variables, and their notations. Note that bold text indicates that the quantity is a vector.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Latin characters ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Greek characters ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other characters ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of letters used in mathematics and science
|
||||
Glossary of mathematical symbols
|
||||
List of mathematical uses of Latin letters
|
||||
Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
|
||||
Physical constant
|
||||
Physical quantity
|
||||
International System of Units
|
||||
ISO 31
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of commonly used taxonomic affixes"
|
||||
chunk: 1/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of common affixes used when scientifically naming species, particularly extinct species for whom only their scientific names are used, along with their derivations.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of commonly used taxonomic affixes"
|
||||
chunk: 2/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
a-, an-: Pronunciation: /ə/, /a/, /ən/, /an /. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀ-, ἀν- (a, an-). Meaning: a prefix used to make words with a sense opposite to that of the root word; in this case, meaning 'without' or '-less'. This is usually used to describe organisms without a certain typical characteristic, as well as organisms in which that characteristic may not be immediately obvious. Examples: Anurognathus ('tailless jaw'); Apus ('footless'); Apteryx ('wingless'); Pteranodon ('wings without teeth'); Anura ('tailless'); Anophthalmus ('eyeless'); Aceros ('hornless'); Agnatha ('jawless'); Aceratherium ('hornless beast'); Arrhinoceratops ('noseless horned face'); Apterodon ('teeth without wings')
|
||||
-acanth, acantho-: Pronunciation: /eɪkænθ/, /eɪkænθoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἄκανθα (ákantha). Meaning: spine, thorn. Examples: Acanthodes ('spiny base'); Acanthostega ('spine roof'); coelacanth ('hollow spine'); Acrocanthosaurus ('high-spined lizard'); Acanthoderes ('spiny neck'); Acanthamoeba ('spiny amoeba'); Metriacanthosaurus ('moderately-spined lizard'); Holacanthus ('full spine'); Triacanthus ('three spine'); Acanthaster ('spine star'); Acanthocephala ('spine head'), Anisacanthus ('unequal spine'); Acanthoceras ('spine horn'): Acanthogeophilus ('spiny earth-lover'); Acanthosicyos ('spiny gourd'); Acanthophis ('spiny snake'); Acanthomyrmex ('spiny ant')
|
||||
aeto-: Pronunciation: /aɛto/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀετός (aetós). Meaning: eagle. Examples: Aetonyx ('eagle claw'); Aetobatus ('eagle ray'); Aetosauria ('eagle lizard'); Ichthyaetus ('fish eagle')
|
||||
afro-: Pronunciation: /ˈafro/. Origin: Latin: afro-. Meaning: African. Examples: Afrovenator (African hunter); Afropithecus (African ape); Afrotheria (African beasts)
|
||||
-ales: Pronunciation: /ˈa.lis/. Origin: Latin: -ālis. Meaning: Used to form taxonomic names of orders for plants and fungi. Examples: Enterobacterales ('Intestinal bacteria order'); Nitrosomonadales ('Nitrogen fixing bacteria order'); Fabales ('legume order'); Caryophyllales ('carnation plant order'); Myrtales ('myrtle order'); Malvales ('mallow order'); Agaricales ('agaric order'); Ranunculales ('buttercup order'); Lactobacillales ('lactic acid bacteria order'); Brassicales ('cabbage order'); Ophioglossales ('snake-tongue order'); Asterales ('aster order'); Apiales ('celery order'); Cucurbitales ('gourd order'); Celastrales ('staff-vine order'); Ginkgoales ('Ginkgo order'); Nymphaeales ('water lily order'); Fagales ('beech order'); Geastrales ('earthstar order'); Phallales ('stinkhorn order'); Rosales ('rose order'); Boletales ('porcino order'); Poales ('grass order'); Picramniales ('bitterbush order')
|
||||
amphi-: Pronunciation: /amfiː/, /amfɪ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀμφί (amphí). Meaning: both. Examples: Amphibia ('two types of life'); Amphicoelias ('hollow at both ends'); Amphicyon ('ambiguous dog')
|
||||
aniso-: Pronunciation: /əˌnaɪsə(ʊ)/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἄνισος (ánisos). Meaning: unequal. Examples: Anisodon ('unequal teeth'); Anisoptera ('unequal wing'); Polanisia ('many unequalities'), Anisacanthus ('unequal spine')
|
||||
-anthus, antho-: Pronunciation: /anθəs/, /anθoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἄνθος (ánthos). Meaning: flower. Examples: Helianthus ('sunflower'); Anthophila ('flower-loving'); Dianthus ('Zeus flower'/'godly flower'); Anthodon ('flower teeth')
|
||||
arch-, archi-, archo-, -archon, -archus: Pronunciation: /ark/, /arkoʊ/, /arkɪ/, /arkɒn/, /arkəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀρχός (arkhós), meaning: ruler; ἀρχικός (arkhikós), meaning: ruling. Used for exceptionally large or widespread animals. Examples: Archelon ('ruling turtle'); Architeuthis ('ruling squid'); Thalattoarchon ('sea ruler'); Archosauria ('ruling lizard'); Andrewsarchus ('ruler of Andrews')
|
||||
archaeo-: Pronunciation: /arkiːɒ/, /arkiːoʊ/ . Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos). Meaning: ancient. Used for early versions of animals and plants. Examples: Archaeopteryx ('ancient wing'); Archaeoindris ('ancient Indri'); Archaeopteris ('ancient fern'); Archaeanthus ('ancient flower'); Archaeopotamus ('ancient of the river')
|
||||
-arctos, arcto-: Pronunciation: /arktoʊz/, /arktoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἄρκτος (árktos). Meaning: bear. Examples: Phascolarctos ('pouch bear'); Arctodus ('bear tooth'); Arctocyon ('bear dog')
|
||||
arthro-: /arθroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἄρθρον (árthron). Meaning: joint. Often used for animals with exoskeletons. Examples: Arthrospira ('jointed coil'); Arthropleura ('jointed rib'); Arthropoda ('jointed foot')
|
||||
aspido-, -aspis: Pronunciation: /aspɪdoʊ/, /aspɪs/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀσπίς (aspís). Meaning: shield. The suffix '-aspis' is used to describe armored fish. Examples: Cephalaspis ('head shield'); Sacabambaspis ('shield from Sacabamba'); Brindabellaspis ('shield from the Brindabella Ranges'; Aspidorhynchus ('shield snout')
|
||||
-aster: Pronunciation: /asˈtir/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀστήρ (astḗr). Meaning: star. Used to create genera relating to stars; most commonly applied to echinoderms such as sea stars and brittle stars. Examples: Acanthaster ('spine star'); Ophidiaster ('snake star'); Heliaster ('sun star'); Odontaster ('tooth star'); Asterozoa ('star animals'); Iranoaster ('star from Iran'); Asteroceras ('star horn'); Geastrum ('earth star')
|
||||
-avus: Pronunciation: /avus/. Origin: Latin: avus. Meaning: grandfather. Examples: Coelurosauravus ('hollow lizard grandfather'); Plateosauravus ('grandfather of Plateosaurus')
|
||||
-avis: Pronunciation: /əvɪs/. Origin: Latin: avis. Meaning: bird. Examples: Protoavis ('first bird'); Argentavis ('bird from Argentina'); Eoalulavis ('little-winged dawn bird')
|
||||
-bates: Pronunciation: /bætiz/. Origin: Ancient Greek: βάτης. Meaning: wanderer, one that treads. Examples: Hylobates ('forest wanderer'); Dendrobates ('tree wanderer')
|
||||
brachi-, brachy-: pronunciation: /brækɪ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: βραχύς, βραχίων (brakhús, brakhíōn). Meaning: short, and the short part of the arm, or upper arm, respectively. Used in its original meaning, and also to mean 'arm'. Examples: Brachylophosaurus ('short-crested lizard'); Brachiosaurus ('arm lizard'); Brachyceratops ('short-horned face'); Brachyura ('short tail'); Brachiopoda ('arm foot')
|
||||
bronto-: Pronunciation: /brɒntoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: βροντή (brontḗ). Meaning: thunder. Used for large animals. Examples: Brontosaurus ('thunder lizard'), Brontotherium ('thunder beast'), Brontoscorpio ('thunder scorpion'); Brontochelys ('thunder turtle')
|
||||
-canth, cantho-: see -acanth, acantho-. carcharo-: Pronunciation: /kərkæroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: κάρχαρος (kárkharos). Meaning: sharp, jagged; extended via Ancient Greek: καρχαρίας (karkharías) to mean 'shark'. Examples: Carcharodon ('jagged tooth'), Carcharocles ('glorious shark'), Carcharodontosaurus ('shark toothed lizard')
|
||||
-cephalus, cephalo-, -cephale, -cephalian: Pronunciation: /sɛfələs/, /sɛfəloʊ̯/, /sɛfəli:/ /sɛfeɪliːən/. Origin: Ancient Greek: κεφαλή (kephalḗ). Meaning: head. Examples: Sclerocephalus ('hard head'); Euoplocephalus ('well-armored head'), Pachycephalosaurus ('thick headed lizard'), Amtocephale ('head from Amtgai'); Therocephalia ('beast-headed'); Cephalocarida ('head shrimp'); Lagocephalus ('hare head'); Pachycephala ('thick head'); Acanthocephala ('spine head')
|
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-ceras, cerat-, -ceratus: Pronunciation: /sɛrəs/, /sɛrət/, /sɛrətəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek: κέρας (kéras). Meaning: horn. Used for many horned animals, but most notably ceratopsians. Examples: Stegoceras ('roof horn'); Triceratops ('three-horned face'), Orthoceras ('straight horn'); Megaloceras ('big horn'); Ceratosaurus ('horned lizard'); Microceratops ('small horned face'); rhinoceros ('nose horn'); Albertoceras ('horn from Alberta'); Aepyceros ('high horn'); Lophoceros ('crest horn'); Buceros ('ox horn'); Dinocerata ('terrible horn'); Cameroceras ('chamber horn'); Endoceras ('inner horn'); Didymoceras ('twin horn'); Diceros ('two horn'); Megaloceros ('great horn'); Asteroceras ('star horn'); Acanthoceras ('spine horn')
|
||||
cetio-, -cetus: Pronunciation: /sɛtɪoʊ/, /siːtəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek κῆτος (kētos). Meaning: sea-monster. The suffix '-cetus' is used for whales or whale ancestors, while the prefix 'cetio-' is used for whale-like or large animals. Examples: Peregocetus ('travelling whale'); Cetiosaurus ('whale lizard'); Ambulocetus ('walking whale'); Pakicetus ('whale from Pakistan'), Perucetus ('whale from Peru'); Pachycetus ('thick whale'); Eocetus ('dawn whale'); Orycterocetus ('burrowing whale')
|
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-cheirus, chiro-: Pronunciation: /kaɪrəs/, /kaɪroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: χείρ (kheír). Meaning: hand. Examples: Deinocheirus ('terrible hand'); Ornithocheirus ('bird hand'); Austrocheirus ('southern hand'); Haplocheirus ('simple hand'); Chiroptera ('hand wing'); Chiropotes ('hand drinker')
|
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-chelys, chelo-, -chelon: Pronunciation: /kəlɪs/, /kəlo/, /kəlon/. Origin: Ancient Greek: χέλυς, χελώνη (chelys, chelone ). Meaning: tortoise. Used for both tortoises and turtles. Examples: Megalochelys ('big tortoise'); Archelon ('ruling turtle'); Archelosauria ('Ruling tortoises and lizards')
|
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chloro-: Pronunciation: /kloroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: χλωρός (khlōrós). Meaning: green. Examples: Chlorophyta ('green plant'); Chlorophyll ('green leaf'); Chlorospingus ('green finch'); Chlorophonia ('green song')
|
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choer-, choero-: Pronunciation: /koɪr/, /koɪroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: χοίρος (koíros). Meaning: pig. Examples: Choeroichthys ('pig-fish'); Choerophryne ('frog pig'); Choerodon ('pig tooth'); Hydrochoerus ('water pig'); Choeropotamus ('river pig'); Choeropsis ('pig resembler')
|
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coel-: Pronunciation: /siːl/ or /sɛl/ . Origin: Ancient Greek: κοῖλος (koîlos). Meaning: hollow. Examples: coelacanth ('hollow spine'); Coelodonta ('hollow tooth'); Coelophysis ('hollow form'); Amphicoelias ('hollow at both ends')
|
||||
cyan-, cyano-: Pronunciation: /saɪæno/. Origin: Ancient Greek: κυάνεος (kuáneos). Meaning: dark blue, blue, dark blue-green. Examples: Cyanocitta ('blue jay'); Cyanobacteria ('blue bacteria'); Cyanocorax ('blue raven')
|
||||
cyclo-: Pronunciation: /saɪkloʊ/ (or /saɪklɒ/). Origin: Ancient Greek: κύκλος (kúklos). Meaning: circle. Examples: Cyclomedusa ('circle Medusa'); Cyclostomata ('circle mouth')
|
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cyn-, -cyon: Pronunciation: /saɪn/, /saɪɒn/. Origin: Ancient Greek: κύων (kúon). Meaning: dog. Used for dogs or dog-like creatures. Examples: Cynodontia ('dog tooth'); Cynognathus ('dog jaw'); Cynopterus ('dog wing'); Arctocyon ('bear dog'); Procyon ('before the dog'); Cynocephalus ('dog head'); Xenocyon ('strange dog'); Hesperocyon ('western dog')
|
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-dactyl, -dactylus: Pronunciation: /dæktəl/, /dæktələs/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δάκτυλος (dáktulos). Meaning: finger, toe.
|
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|
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---
|
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title: "List of commonly used taxonomic affixes"
|
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chunk: 3/6
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00"
|
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instance: "kb-cron"
|
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---
|
||||
|
||||
Examples: Artiodactyla ('even toe'); Pterodactylus ('wing finger'); Perissodactyla ('uneven toe'); Ctenodactylus ('comb finger'); Phyllodactylus ('leaf finger'); Hemiphyllodactylus ('half leaf finger'); Odontodactylus ('tooth finger'); Stenodactylus ('narrow finger')
|
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-deres, -dira: Origin: Ancient Greek: δέρη (dére). Meaning: neck, collar. Examples: Acanthoderes ('spiny neck'); Cryptodira ('hidden neck'); Pleurodira ('rib neck')
|
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-derm: Pronunciation: /dɜrm/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δέρμα (dérma). Meaning: animal hide. Used for skin. Examples: Placodermi ('plated skin'); Echinodermata ('hedgehog skin'); Ostracodermi ('shell skin'); Pachydermata ('thick skin')
|
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-delphys, -delphis, delpho-: Pronunciation: /dɜlfɪs/, /dɜlfʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δελφύς ( delphis). Meaning: womb. Used for therian mammals. Examples: Sinodelphys ('Chinese womb'); Didelphis ('two womb'); Didelphodon ('two-womb [ie opossum] tooth'); Delphinus ('with a womb'); Monodelphis ('one womb')
|
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dendro-, -dendron, -dendrum: Pronunciation: /dɛn.dɹoʊ/, /ˈdɛndɹən/, /dɛndɹəm/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δένδρον (déndron). Meaning: tree. Examples: Rhododendron ('rose tree'); Liriodendron ('lily tree'); Dendrocnide ('tree nettle'); Epidendrum ('above tree'); Lepidodendron ('scaled tree'); Dendrobates ('tree climber'); Dendrocolaptes ('tree chiseller')
|
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di-: Pronunciation: /daɪ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δίς (dís). Meaning: twice. Used to indicate two of something. Examples: Dilophosaurus ('two crested lizard'); Diceratops ('two-horned face'); diapsid ('two arches'); Didelphis ('two womb'); Dichrostigma ('two-colored brand'); Diprotodon ('two front teeth'); Diceros ('two horn'); Dipus ('two foot')
|
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dino-, deino-: Pronunciation: /daɪnoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δεινός (deinós). Meaning: 'terrible', 'formidable'. Used for presumably fearfully large or dangerous animals or animal parts. Examples: dinosaur ('terrible lizard'), Dinofelis ('terrible cat'), Dinornis ('terrible bird'); Deinonychus ('terrible claw'), Deinocheirus ('terrible hand'); Dinodocus ('terrible beam'); Deinosuchus ('terrible crocodile'), Dinohippus ('terrible horse'), Dinosorex ('terrible shrew'); Deinococcus ('terrible grannule'); Dinocerata ('terrible horn')
|
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diplo-: Pronunciation: /dɪploʊ/, /dɪplo/. Origin: Ancient Greek: διπλόος, διπλοῦς (diplóos, diploûs). Meaning: double. Examples: Diplodocus ('double beam'); Diplopoda ('double feet'); Diplomonad ('double unit'); Diplovertebron ('double vertebra')
|
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-don, -dont, -donto-: see -odon, -odont, -odonto-. draco-, -draco: Pronunciation: /dreɪkoʊ/ Origin: Latin draco. Meaning: dragon. Examples: Dracophyllum ('dragon leaf'); Dracocephalum ('dragon head'); Dracaena ('female dragon'), Tethydraco ('Tethys dragon'), Phosphatodraco ('phosphates dragon'). dromaeo-, dromeo-, -dromeus: Pronunciation: /droʊmɪoʊ/, /droʊmɪəs/ Origin: Ancient Greek: δρομαῖος (dromaîos). Meaning: runner. Examples: Dromaeosaurus ('running lizard'); Kulindadromeus ('runner from Kulinda'); Thalassodromeus ('sea runner'); Eodromaeus ('dawn runner'); Oryctodromeus ('burrowing runner')
|
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elasmo-: Pronunciation: /əl:æzːmoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἐλασμός (elasmos). Meaning: plate. Examples: Elasmobranchii ('plated gill'); Elasmosaurus ('plated lizard'); Elasmotherium ('plated beast')
|
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-ensis, -ense: Meaning: living in; originating from
|
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Examples: Saimiri boliviensis ('from Bolivia'); Myotis chiloensis ('from Chile'); Anomalocaris canadensis ('from Canada')
|
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eo-: Pronunciation: /iːoʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἠώς (ēṓs). Meaning: dawn. Used for very early appearances of animals in the fossil record. Examples: Eohippus ('dawn horse'); Eomaia ('dawn Maia'); Eoraptor ('dawn thief'); Eolactoria ('dawn Lactoria'); Eotyrannus ('dawn tyrant'); Eocetus ('dawn whale')
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-erpeton: Pronunciation: /ɜrpətɒn/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἑρπετόν (herpetón). Meaning: reptile (literally, 'creeping thing'); used for amphibians. Examples: Hynerpeton ('creeper from Hyner'); Greererpeton ('creeper from Greer'); Arizonerpeton ('creeper from Arizona'); Albanerpeton ('creeper of La Grive Saint Alban')
|
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eu-: Pronunciation: /iːu̟/. Origin: Ancient Greek: εὖ (eû). Meaning: 'good', 'well'; also extended via Neo-Latin to mean 'true'. Used in a variety of ways, often to indicate well-preserved specimens, well-developed bones, 'truer' examples of fossil forms, or simply admiration on the part of the discoverer. Examples: Euparkeria ('good one of Parker's'); Euhelopus ('good marsh foot'); Eustreptospondylus ('well-curved vertebrae'); Eucoelophysis ('truly hollow form'); Eubrachyura ('truly short tail'); Eumillipes ('true thousand-foot'); Euphonia ('of good song'); Eudyptes ('well diver')
|
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-felis: Pronunciation: /fiːlɪs/. Origin: Latin: felis, feles. Meaning: cat. Felis alone is the genus name for the group that includes the domestic cat. Examples: Dinofelis ('terrible cat'); Eofelis ('dawn cat'); Pardofelis ('leopard cat')
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-form, -formes: Pronunciation: /foʊrm/, /foʊrms/. Origin: Latin: forma. Meaning: shape, form. Used for large groups of animals that share similar characteristics; also used in names of bird and fish orders. Examples: Galliformes ('chicken form'); Anseriformes ('goose form'); Squaliformes ('shark form'); Tetraodontiformes ('four-tooth form'); Macropodiformes ('big-foot form'); Octopodiformes ('eight-foot form'); Vombatiformes ('wombat form'); Caniformia ('dog form'); Feliformia ('cat form'); Scarabaeiformia ('beetle form'); Bucerotiformes ('ox-horn form'); Elephantiformes ('elephant form'); Lemuriformes ('lemur form'); Mammaliaformes ('mammal form'); Decapodiformes ('ten-foot form'); Psittaciformes ('parrot form'); Coelacanthiformes ('hollow-spine form'); Thylacosmiliformes ('pouched knife form'); Cucujiformia ('Cucujus form'); Struthioniformes ('ostrich form')
|
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giga-, gigant-, giganto-: Pronunciation: /gi:gə/, /d͡ʒaɪgænt/, /d͡ʒaɪgæntoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: γίγας, γῐ́γᾰντος (gígas, gigantos). Meaning: giant, of a giant, respectively. Used for large species. Examples: Giganotosaurus ('giant southern lizard'); Gigantopithecus ('giant ape'); Gigantoraptor ('giant seizer'); Gigantopterus ('giant fin'); Gigantspinosaurus ('giant-spined lizard')
|
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-gnath-, gnatho-, -gnathus: Pronunciation: /neɪθ/, /neɪθoʊ/, /neɪθəs/ (or /gneɪθəs/). Origin: Ancient Greek: γνάθος (gnáthos). Meaning: jaw. Examples: Caenagnathasia ('recent jaw from Asia'); Gnathostoma ('jaw mouth'); Cynognathus ('dog jaw'); Compsognathus ('elegant jaw'); Gnathosaurus ('jaw lizard'); Gnathostomata ('jaw mouth'); Entognatha ('inner jaw'); Oedignathus ('swollen jaw'); Agnatha ('jawless'); Anurognathus ('tailless jaw')
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haplo-: Pronunciation: /hæplə/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἁπλός (haplós). Meaning: simple. Examples: Haplorhini ('simple nose'); Haplocheirus ('simple hand')
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hemi-: Pronunciation: /hɛmi/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἡμι- (hēmi-). Meaning: half. Examples: Hemicyon ('half-dog'); Hemichordata ('half-chordate'); Hemiptera ('half-wing'); Hemispingus ('half-finch'); Hemiphyllodactylus ('half-leaf finger')
|
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hespero-: Pronunciation: /hɛspəroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἕσπερος (hésperos). Meaning: western (originally, 'evening'). Examples: Hesperornis ('western bird'); Hesperocyon ('western dog'); Hesperosaurus ('western lizard')
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hippus, hippo-: Pronunciation: /hɪpəs/, /hɪpoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἵππος (híppos). Meaning: horse. Examples: Eohippus ('dawn horse'); Hippodraco ('horse dragon'); Hippopotamus ('river horse'); Hippocampus ('sea-monster horse'); Hippophae ('horse light'); Merychippus ('ruminant horse')
|
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hyl-, hylo-: Pronunciation: /haɪl/, /haɪloʊ/ (or /haɪlɒ/). Origin: Ancient Greek: ὕλη ('húlē'). Meaning: wood, forest. Examples: Hylonomus ('forest dweller'); Hylobates ('forest walker'); Hylarana ('forest frog')
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-ia: Pronunciation: /iːə/. Origin: Ancient Greek: -ια, -εια (-ia, -eia). Meaning: an abstraction usually used as an honorific for a person or place. Examples: Dickinsonia ('for Dickinson'); Cooksonia ('for Cookson'); Coloradia ('for Colorado'); Edmontonia ('for Edmonton'); Thomashuxleya ('for Thomas Huxley'); Superstitionia ('for Superstition Mountains'); Bolivaria ('for Bolivar'); Macadamia ('for John Macadam'); Pikaia ('for Pika Peak'); Leanchoilia ('for Leanchoil Station'); Opabinia ('for Opabin pass')
|
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ichthyo-, -ichthys: Pronunciation: /ɪkθioʊs/, /ɪkθis/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἰχθύς (ikhthús). Meaning: fish. The suffix '-ichthys' is used for fish, while the prefix 'ichthyo-', while used for fish, is also used for fish-like creatures. Examples: Ichthyosauria ('fish lizard'); Leedsichthys ('fish from Leeds'); Haikouichthys ('fish from Haikou'); Ichthyostega ('fish roof'); Osteichthyes ('bony fish'); Chondrichthyes ('cartilaginous fish'); Tripodichthys ('three-foot fish); Choeroichthys ('pig-fish'); Trachichthys ('rough fish'); Ichthyotitan ('fish Titan'); Ichthyaetus ('fish eagle'); Ichthyolestes ('fish robber'); Ichthyophaga ('fish eater')
|
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-lania, Pronunciation: /læniːə/, Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀλαίνειν (alaínein): Meaning: to wander. Used for animals that are found in most places around continents. Examples: Meiolania ('weak wanderer'); Megalania ('great wanderer')
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leo-: Pronunciation: /lɛʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: λέων (léon): Meaning: lion. Examples: Leopardus ('spotted lion'); Leontopodium ('lion foot'); Leontopithecus ('lion ape'); Myrmeleon ('ant lion'); chameleon ('earth lion')
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lio-: Pronunciation: /liː.oː/. Origin: Ancient Greek: λειόω (leióō): Meaning: Make smooth
|
||||
Examples: Liogramma ('smooth writing'); Liopleurodon ('smooth-sided teeth')
|
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-lepis, lepido-: Pronunciation: /lɛpɪs/ /lɛpɪdoʊ/ (or /lɛpɪdɒ/). Origin: Ancient Greek: λεπίς (lepis). Meaning: scale. Examples: Mongolepis ('Mongolian scale'); Stagonolepis ('ornamented scale'); Polymerolepis ('many part scale'); Lepidosauria ('scaled lizards'); Lepidoptera ('scaled wing'); Lepidodendron ('scaled tree')
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-lestes: Pronunciation: /lɛstiːz/. Origin: Ancient Greek: λῃστής (lēistḗs). Meaning: robber. Examples: Carpolestes ('fruit robber'); Ornitholestes ('bird robber'); Sarcolestes ('flesh robber'); Necrolestes ('grave robber'); Ichthyolestes ('fish robber')
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long: Pronunciation: /lʊng/. Origin: simplified Chinese: 龙; traditional Chinese: 龍. Meaning: dragon. Used for dinosaur finds in China. Examples: Mei long ('sleeping dragon'); Bolong ('small dragon'); Zuolong ('dragon of Zuo'); Shaochilong ('shark toothed dragon')
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-lopho-, -lophus: Pronunciation: /lɒfoʊ/, /ləfəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek: λόφος (lóphos). Meaning: A bird's crest. Used for animals with crests on their heads.
|
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---
|
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title: "List of commonly used taxonomic affixes"
|
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chunk: 4/6
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes"
|
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category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Examples: Dilophosaurus ('two-crested lizard'); Brachylophosaurus ('short-crested lizard'); Saurolophus ('lizard crest'); Teinolophos ('extended crest'); Lophoceros ('crest horn')
|
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lyco-: Pronunciation: /lɪkoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: λύκος (lýkos). Meaning: wolf. Examples: Lycopodium ('wolf foot'); Lycodon ('wolf tooth'); Lycoperdon ('wolf fart')
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macro-: Pronunciation: /mækroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μακρός (makrós). Meaning: (correctly) long; (usually) large. Examples: macropod ('big foot'); Macrodontophion ('big tooth snake'); Macrogryphosaurus ('big enigmatic lizard')
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-maia, maia-: Pronunciation: /meiə/ Origin: Ancient Greek: Μαῖα (Maîa). Meaning: Originally the mother of Hermes in Greek mythology and the goddess of growth in Roman mythology, alternatively spelled Maja. Frequently used to indicate maternal roles, this word should not be construed as translating directly to 'mother' (Latin māter; Ancient Greek μήτηρ mḗtēr); aside from being a proper name, in Ancient Greek 'maîa' can translate to 'midwife' or 'foster mother' and was used as an honorific address for older women, typically translated into English as 'Good Mother'. Examples: Maiasaura ('Good Mother/Maia's lizard'); Eomaia ('dawn Maia'); Juramaia ('Jurassic Maia'); Maiacetus ('mother whale')
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mega-, megalo-: Pronunciation: /mɛga/, /mɛgaloʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μέγας, μεγάλη (mégas, megálē). Meaning: big/great. Examples: Megarachne ('great spider'); Megalosaurus ('great lizard'); megalodon ('great tooth'); Megaloceros ('great horn')
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micro-: Pronunciation: /maɪkroʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μικρός (mikrós). Meaning: 'small'. Examples: Microraptor ('small thief'); Microvenator ('small hunter'); Microceratops ('small horned face')
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mimo-, -mimus: /maɪmoʊ̯/, /maɪməs/. Origin: Latin: mimus. Meaning: actor. Used for creatures that resemble others. Examples: Struthiomimus; ('ostrich mimic'); Ornithomimus ('bird mimic'); Gallimimus ('chicken mimic'); Ornithomimosauria ('bird mimic lizard')
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-monas, -monad: Pronunciation: /moʊnas/, /monas/, /moʊnad/, /monad/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μονάς (monás). Meaning: unit. Used for single-celled organisms. Examples: Chlamydomonas ('cloak unit'); Pseudomonas ('false unit'); Metamonad ('encompassing unit')
|
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-morph: Pronunciation: /moʊrf/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μορφή (morphḗ). Meaning: form, shape. Used for large groups of animals which share a common genetic lineage
|
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Examples: Crocodylomorpha ('crocodile form'); Sauropodomorpha ('sauropod form'); Muscomorpha ('fly form'); Dimorphodon ('two shaped teeth'); Didelphimorphia ('two-womb form'); Hystricomorpha ('porcupine form'); Lagomorpha ('hare form'); Batomorphi ('ray form'); Squalomorphi ('shark form'); Dasyuromorphia ('hairy-tail form'); Scolopendromorpha ('thorn-earthworm form'); Lithobiomorpha ('stone-life form'); Geophilomorpha ('earth-loving form')
|
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-nax, -anax-: Pronunciation: /nax/, /ænax/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἄναξ (ánax). Meaning: king. Examples: Lythronax ('gore lord'); Saurophaganax ('lizard eating lord')
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-noto-: Pronunciation: /notoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: νότος. Meaning: south, southern wind. Used for organisms found in the Southern Hemisphere. Examples: Giganotosaurus ('giant southern lizard'); Notosuchus ('southern crocodile'); Notopalaeognathae ('southern old jaws')
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-nych, nycho-, -nyx: see -onych, onycho-, -onyx. -odon, -odont, -odonto-, -odus: Pronunciation: /oʊdɒn/, /oʊdɒnt/, /oʊdɒntoʊ/, /oʊdəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ὀδούς, ὀδόντος (odoús, odontos). Meaning: tooth, of a tooth, respectively. Examples: Dimetrodon ('two-measures of teeth'), cynodont ('dog tooth'); Carcharodontosaurus ('shark tooth lizard'), Otodus ('ear tooth'), Arctodus ('bear tooth'); Tetraodon ('four teeth'); Octodon ('eight teeth'); Anisodon ('unequal teeth'); Monodon ('one tooth'); Hexaprotodon ('six forward teeth'); Diprotodontia ('two forward teeth'); Odontodactylus ('tooth finger'); Anthodon ('flower teeth'); Thrinaxodon ('trident teeth'); Zanclodon ('scythe teeth'); Xiphodon ('sword tooth'); Solenodon ('channel tooth')
|
||||
-oides, -odes: Pronunciation: /oiːdiːz/, /oʊːdiːz/. Origin: Ancient Greek: εἶδος (eîdos). Meaning: likeness. Used for species that resemble other species. Examples: Hypocnemoides ('like Hypocnemis'); Aetobarbakinoides ('like the long-legged buzzard'); Callianthemoides ('like Callianthemum'); Argyrodes ('like silver')
|
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onycho-, -onychus, -onyx: /ɒnikoʊ/, /ɒnikəs/ (or /ɒnaɪkoʊ/, ɒnaɪkəs/), /ɒniks/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ὄνυξ (ónux). Meaning: claw. Examples: Deinonychus ('terrible claw'); Euronychodon ('European claw tooth'); Nothronychus ('sloth claw'), Baryonyx ('heavy claw')
|
||||
ophi-: Pronunciation: /ɒfɪs/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ὄφις (óphis). Meaning: snake. Used for Ophidia or snake-like animals. Examples: Ophiacodon ('snake tooth'); Ophisaurus ('snake lizard'); Ophiopogon ('snake beard'); Ophiuroidea ('like snake-tail'); Ophidiaster ('snake star'); Ophioglossum ('snake tongue')
|
||||
-ops: Pronunciation: /ɒps/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ὄψ (óps). Meaning: face, eye. Examples: Triceratops ('three-horned face'); Lycaenops ('wolf face'); Moschops ('calf face'); Spinops ('spine face'); Triops ('three eyes'); Brachyceratops ('short-horned face')
|
||||
-ornis, ornith-, ornitho-: Pronunciation: /oʊ̯rnɪs/, /oʊ̯rnɪθ/, /oʊ̯rnɪθoʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ὄρνις, ὄρνιθος (órnis, órnithos). Meaning: bird, of a bird respectively. 'ornith-' and 'ornitho-' are generally used for animals with birdlike characteristics; the suffix '-ornis' is generally applied to fossil bird species. Examples: Ornithischia ('bird-hipped'); Ornithocheirus ('bird hand'); Eoconfuciusornis ('dawn bird of Confucius'); Ornithorhynchus ('bird snout'); Ornithopoda ('bird foot'); Ornithoptera ('bird wing'); Ornitholestes ('bird robber')
|
||||
orth-, ortho-: Pronunciation: /oʊ̯rθ/, /oʊ̯rθoʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ὄρθος (órthos). Meaning: straight. Examples: Orthocone ('straight cone'); Orthoceras ('straight horn'); Orthacanthus ('straight spine'); Orthopus ('straight foot')
|
||||
oryctero-, orycto-: Pronunciation: /ohr-ik-ter-oh/, /ohr-ik-toh/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ὀρυκτήρ (oruktḗs). Meaning: burrower. Examples: Oryctodromeus ('burrowing runner'); Oryctolagus ('burrowing hare'); Orycteropus ('burrowing foot'); Oryctorhynchus ('burrowing snout'); Oryctocephalus ('burrowing head'); Orycterocetus ('burrowing whale')
|
||||
pachy-: Pronunciation: /pæki/ Origin: Ancient Greek: παχύς (pakhús). Meaning: thick. Examples: Pachycephalosaurus ('thick-headed lizard'); Pachylemur ('thick lemur'); Pachyuromys ('thick tailed mouse'); Pachydermata ('thick skin'); Pachycetus ('thick whale'); Pachypodium ('thick foot'); Pachypanthera ('thick panther')
|
||||
para-: Pronunciation: /pærɑː/ Origin: Ancient Greek: παρά (pará). Meaning: near. Used for species that resemble previously named species. Examples: Paranthodon ('nearly flower tooth'); Pararhabdodon ('near fluted tooth'); Parasaurolophus ('near lizard crest'); Paraceratherium ('near hornless beast'); Parameles ('near badger')
|
||||
-pelta: Pronunciation: /pɛltə:/ Origin: Ancient Greek: πέλτη (péltē). Meaning: shield. Frequently used for ankylosaurs. Examples: Sauropelta ('lizard shield'); Dracopelta ('dragon shield'); Cedarpelta ('shield from the Cedar Mountains')
|
||||
-phagus, -phagan-: Pronunciation: /feɪgəs/, /feɪgən/. Origin: Ancient Greek: φάγος (phágos). Meaning: eater, eating, glutton. Used for organisms perceived as eating a particular type of thing. Examples: Saurophaganax ('lord of the lizard-eaters'); Ophiophagus ('snake-eater'); Myrmecophaga ('ant-eater'); Oophaga ('egg-eater'); Musophaga ('banana-eater'); Meliphaga ('honey-eater'); Polyphaga ('many-eater'); Phytophaga ('plant-eater'); Myxophaga ('mucus-eater'); Ichthyophaga ('fish eater')
|
||||
-philus, -phila, philo-: Pronunciation: /fiːləs/, /fiːlə/, /fiːloʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: φίλος (phílos). Meaning: dear, beloved, loving. Used for organisms perceived as having a fondness for a particular thing. Examples: Sarcophilus ('flesh-loving'); Drosophila ('dew-loving'); Anthophila ('flower-loving'); Philodendron ('loving tree'); Geophilus ('earth-loving'); Cnemophilus ('slope lover'); Spermophilus ('seed-loving')
|
||||
-phyton, -phyta, phyto-, -phyte: Pronunciation: /faɪtən/, /faitə/, /faɪtoʊ/, /faɪt/. Origin: Ancient Greek: φυτόν (phutón). Meaning: plant. Examples: Spermatophyte ('seed plant'); Rhyniophyte ('plant of the Rhynie chert'); Phytophthora ('plant destroyer'); Phytolacca ('plant lac'); Chlorophyta ('green plant')
|
||||
-pithecus, pitheco-: Pronunciation: /piθəkəs/, /piθəkoʊ/, //piθəkə/. Origin: Ancient Greek: πίθηκος (píthēkos). Meaning: ape, monkey. Examples: Australopithecus ('southern ape'); Ardipithecus ('floor ape'); Gigantopithecus ('giant ape'); Leontopithecus ('lion monkey'); Pithecellobium ('monkey earring'); Rhinopithecus ('nose monkey')
|
||||
platy-: Pronunciation: /ˈplætɪ/. Origin: Ancient Greek πλατύς (platús). Meaning: flat. Used for creatures that are flat or have flat parts. Examples: Platyhelminthes ('flat worm'); Platybelodon ('flat spear-tusk'); Platycodon ('flat bell'); Platypus ('flat foot'); Uroplatus ('flat tail')
|
||||
plesio-, plesi-: Pronunciation: /pliːziːoʊ/, /pliːz/ (or pliːʒ/). Origin: Ancient Greek πλησίον (plēsíon). Meaning: near. Used for species that bear similarities to other species. Examples: Plesiosaurus ('near lizard'); Plesiorycteropus ('near burrowing-foot'); Plesiobaena ('near Baena'); Plesiadapis ('near Adapis')
|
||||
-pod, podo-, -pus: Pronunciation: /pɒd/, /pɒdoʊ/, /pʊs/. Origin: Ancient Greek πούς, ποδός (poús, podós). Meaning: foot, of the foot, respectively. Examples: Ornithopoda ('bird foot'); Brachypodosaurus ('short footed lizard'); Moropus and Bradypus ('slow foot'); Octopus ('eight foot'); Platypus ('flat foot'); Orycteropus ('burrowing foot'); Decapoda ('ten foot'); Gastropoda ('belly foot'); Hexapoda ('six foot'); Erectopus ('forward foot'); Orthopus ('straight foot'); Tylopoda ('calloused foot'); Onychopoda ('claw foot'); Cephalopoda ('head foot'); Ailuropoda ('cat foot'); Hymenopus ('membrane foot'); Uropoda ('tail foot')
|
||||
-prion: Pronunciation: /prɪɒn/. Origin: Ancient Greek πριὢν. Meaning: saw. Examples: Helicoprion ('spiral saw'); Ornithoprion ('bird saw'); Onychoprion ('claw saw'); Suchoprion ('crocodile saw'). Prions are a subfamily of saw-beaked petrels. pro-, protero-: pronunciation: /proʊ̯/, /proʊ̯tεroʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek πρό, πρότερος (pró, próteros). Meaning: before. Usually used for ancestral forms. Examples: Proterosuchus ('early crocodile'); Procompsognathus ('early elegant jaw'); Prosaurolophus ('early lizard crest'); Proteroctopus ('early eight-foot')
|
||||
proto-: Pronunciation: /proʊtoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek πρῶτος (prōtos). Meaning: first.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of commonly used taxonomic affixes"
|
||||
chunk: 5/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Used for early appearances in the fossil record. Examples: Protoceratops ('first horned face'); Protognathosaurus ('first jaw lizard'); Protohadros ('first hadrosaur')
|
||||
psittaco-, -psitta: Pronunciation: /sitɑːkoʊ/, /psitə/. Origin: Ancient Greek ψιττακός (psittakós). Meaning: parrot. 'Psittaco-' is used for parrot-like creatures, while the suffix 'psitta' is used for parrots. Examples: Psittacosaurus ('parrot lizard'); Cyclopsitta ('Cyclops parrot'); Xenopsitta ('strange parrot'); Psittaciformes ('parrot form')
|
||||
pter-, ptero-, -pterus, pteryg-, -ptera, -pteryx. Pronunciation: /ter/, /teroʊ/, /pterəs/, /terɪg/, /pterə/, /pterɪx/. Origin: Ancient Greek πτέρυξ, πτέρυγος (pterux, ptérugos). Meaning: wing, of a wing, respectively. Used for many winged creatures, but also expanded to mean 'fin', and used for many undersea arthropods. The suffix '-ptera' is also used in orders of winged insects. Examples: Brachypterygius ('short finned'); Brachyptera ('short wing'); Pteranodon ('toothless wing'); Pterodactylus ('winged finger'); Eurypterus ('wide wing' or fin); Pterygotus ('winged' or finned); Coleoptera ('sheathed wing'); Camaroptera ('arched wing'); Archaeopteryx ('ancient wing'); Stenopterygius ('narrow finned'); Lepidoptera ('scaled wing'); Chiroptera ('hand wing'); Dermoptera ('skin wing'); Raphidioptera ('needle wing'); Rhomboptera ('rhombus wing'); Orthoptera ('straight wing'); Mecoptera ('long wing'); Delphinapterus ('dolphin fin'); Megaloptera ('great wing'); Megaptera ('great fin'); Neopterygii ('new fin'); Titanoptera ('Titan wing'); Sarcopterygii ('flesh fin'); Actinopterygii ('ray fin'); Neuroptera ('net wing')
|
||||
-pus: see -pod, -podo-, -pus. -raptor, raptor-: Pronunciation: /ræptər/. Origin: Latin raptor. Meaning: 'robber, thief'. Frequently used for dromaeosaurids or similar animals. The term 'raptor' by itself may also be used for a dromeosaurid, a Velociraptor, or originally, a bird of prey. Examples: Velociraptor ('speedy thief'); Utahraptor ('thief from Utah'); Raptorex ('thief king')
|
||||
-rex: Pronunciation: /rεks/. Origin: Latin rex. Meaning: king. Often used for large or impressive animals. Examples: Raptorex ('thief king'); Dracorex ('dragon king'); Tyrannosaurus rex ('tyrant lizard king')
|
||||
-rhina, rhino-, -rhinus: Pronunciation: /raɪnə/ /raɪnoʊ̯/, /raɪnəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek ῥίς (rhís). Meaning: nose. Examples: Altirhinus ('high nose'); Pachyrhinosaurus ('thick-nosed lizard'); Lycorhinus ('wolf nose'); Arrhinoceratops ('noseless horned face'); Cretoxyrhina ('Cretaceous sharp nose'); Rhinoceros ('nose horn'); Burhinus ('ox nose'); Rhinopithecus ('nose monkey'); Pachyrhinus ('thick nose')
|
||||
rhodo-: Pronunciation: /roʊdoʊ/, /rodoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek ῥόδον (rhódon). Meaning: 'rose'. Used for red-colored or otherwise rose-like organisms. Examples: Rhododendron ('rose tree'); Rhodophyta ('rose plant'); Rhodomonas ('rose unit')
|
||||
rhyncho-, -rhynchus: Pronunciation: /rɪnkoʊ/, /rɪnkəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek ῥύγχος (rhúnkhos). Meaning: 'beak', 'snout'. Examples: Rhamphorhynchus ('beak snout'); Aspidorhynchus ('shield snout'); Ornithorhynchus ('bird snout'); Rhynchosauria ('beaked lizard'); Rhynchocephalia ('beaked head'); Oncorhynchus ('bent snout'); Scaphirhynchus ('shovel snout'); Oryctorhynchus ('burrowing snout'); Thalattorhynchus ('sea snout'); Xiphorhynchus ('sword snout'); Kinorhyncha ('moving snout')
|
||||
sarco-: Pronunciation: /sɑːrkʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek σάρξ (sárx). Meaning: flesh. Used for flesh-eating animals or animals and plants with fleshy parts
|
||||
Examples: Sarcophilus ('flesh-loving'); Sarcopterygii ('fleshy fin'); Sarcosuchus ('flesh crocodile')
|
||||
saur, sauro-, -saurus, -saura: Pronunciation: /sɔər/, /sɔəroʊ/, /sɔərəs/, /sɔəra/. Origin: Ancient Greek σαῦρος (saûros). Meaning: lizard. Used for dinosaurs and other extinct reptiles. Examples: Dinosaur ('terrible lizard'); Mosasaur ('lizard from the Meuse River'), Tyrannosaurus ('tyrant lizard'), Allosaurus ('other lizard'), Sauroposeidon ('lizard of Poseidon'), Maiasaura ('caring mother lizard'), Bonitasaura ('lizard from La Bonita'), Pleurosaurus ('rib lizard'); Chlamydosaurus ('cloak lizard')
|
||||
sin-, sino-: Pronunciation; /sɪn/, /saɪnoʊ̯/. Origin: Latin: Sina. Meaning: from China. Examples: Sinornithosaurus; ('Chinese bird-lizard'); Sinosauropteryx ('Chinese lizard wing'); Sinoceratops ('Chinese horned face'); Sinraptor ('Chinese thief'); Sinomammut ('Chinese mammoth')
|
||||
smilo-, -smilus: Pronunciation: /smaɪloʊ/, /smaɪləs/. Origin: Ancient Greek σμίλη (smílē). Meaning: a carving knife or chisel. Used for animals with sabre teeth. Examples: Smilodon ('knife tooth'); Smilosuchus ('knife crocodile'); Thylacosmilus ('pouched knife'); Xenosmilus ('strange knife')
|
||||
spino-, -spino-, -spinax, -spinus: Pronunciation: /spaɪnə/, /spaɪnæks/, /spaɪnəs/. Origin: Latin: spīna. Meaning: a thorn, a spine. Examples: Altispinax ('with high spines'); Gigantspinosaurus ('giant-spined lizard'); Iberospinus ('Iberian spine'); Spinops ('spine face'); Spinosaurus ('spine lizard')
|
||||
-spondylus: Pronunciation: /spɒndələs/. Origin: Ancient Greek σπόνδυλος (spóndulos). Meaning: vertebra. Examples: Streptospondylus ('curved vertebrae'); Massospondylus ('massive vertebrae'); Bothriospondylus ('excavated vertebrae')
|
||||
squali-, squalo-: Pronunciation: /skweɪlɪ/, /skweɪloʊ/ . Origin: Latin squalus. Meaning: a kind of sea fish. Used for shark-like creatures. Examples: Squalodon ('shark tooth'); Squaliformes ('shark form'); Squalicorax ('shark raven'); Squalomorphi ('shark shape')
|
||||
stego-, -stega: Pronunciation: /stɛgoʊ/, /stɛgə/. Origin: Ancient Greek στέγη (stégē). Meaning: roof. Used for armoured or plated animals. Examples: Stegosaurus ('roofed lizard'); Ichthyostega ('roofed fish'); Acanthostega ('spine roof')
|
||||
strepto-: Pronunciation: /streptoʊ/, /strepto/. Origin: Ancient Greek στρεπτός (streptós). Meaning: twisted, bent. Examples: Streptophyta ('twisted plant'); Streptococcus ('twisted granule'); Streptospondylus ('twisted vertebrae'); Streptomyces ('twisted fungus'); Streptocarpus ('twisted fruit')
|
||||
-stoma, -stome, -stomus: Pronunciation: /stoʊma/, /stoʊm/, /stoʊməs/. Origin: Ancient Greek στόμα (stóma). Meaning: mouth. Examples: Deuterostomia ('second mouth'); Gnathostoma ('jaw mouth'); Anastomus ('on mouth'); Cyclostomi ('circle mouth'); Aulostomus ('flute mouth')
|
||||
sucho-, -suchus: Pronunciation: /sjuːkoʊ/, /sjuːkəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek σούχος (soúkhos). Meaning:: Originally the Ancient Greek name for the Ancient Egyptian crocodile-headed god, Sobek. Used to denote crocodilians or crocodile-like animals. Examples: Deinosuchus ('terrible crocodile'); Anatosuchus ('duck crocodile'); Suchomimus ('crocodile mimic'); Sarcosuchus ('flesh crocodile'); Thalattosuchus ('sea crocodile'); Pseudosuchia ('false crocodile')
|
||||
tauro-: /taərəs/. Origin: Latin: taurus. Meaning: bull. Examples: Taurotragus ('male goat-bull'); Taurovenator ('bull hunter'); Carnotaurus ('meat bull')
|
||||
-teuthis: Pronunciation: /tjuːθɪs/. Origin: Ancient Greek τευθίς (teuthís). Meaning: squid. Used for squids and similar cephalopods. Examples: Gonioteuthis ('narrow squid'); Architeuthis ('ruling squid'); Vampyroteuthis ('vampire squid'); Cylindroteuthis ('cylindrical squid'); Opisthoteuthis ('back squid')
|
||||
thalatto-. Pronunciation: /θəlatoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek θᾰ́λᾰττᾰ (thálatta). Meaning: sea. Examples: Thalattosaurus ('sea lizard'); Thalattoarchon ('sea ruler'); Thalattosuchus ('sea crocodile'); Thalattorhynchus ('sea snout')
|
||||
thero-, -therium. Pronunciation: /θɛroʊ/, /θiːrɪəm/. Origin: Ancient Greek θηρίον (theríon). Meaning: beast. Used for supposedly monstrous animals. The suffix '-therium' is often used to denote extinct mammals. Examples: Theropoda ('beast foot'), Deinotherium ('terrible beast'); Megatherium ('big beast'); Brontotherium ('thunder beast'); Uintatherium ('beast from the Uinta Mountains'); Anthracotherium ('coal beast'); Nototherium ('southern beast'); Arsinoitherium ('beast of Arsinoe II'); Elasmotherium ('plated beast'); Chalicotherium ('gravel beast'); Paraceratherium ('near hornless beast'); Aceratherium ('hornless beast'); Ceratotherium ('horned beast'); Boreoeutheria ('true northern beast'); Pyrotherium ('fire beast')
|
||||
thylac-: Pronunciation: /θaɪlæk/. Origin: Ancient Greek θύλακος (thúlakos). Meaning: a sack. In the sense of 'pouch', used for marsupials. Examples: Thylacine ('pouched one'); Thylacoleo ('pouched lion'); Thylacosmilus ('pouched knife'); Thylacocephala ('pouch head')
|
||||
tri-: Pronunciation: /traɪ/. Origin: Ancient Greek τρία (tría). Meaning: three. Examples: Triceratops ('three-horned face'); Triconodon ('three coned teeth'); Trilobita ('three lobes'); Triops ('three eyes'); Triacanthus ('three spine'); Trilobozoa ('three-lobed animals')
|
||||
titano-, -titan: Pronunciation: /taɪtænoʊ/, /taɪtən/. Origin: Ancient Greek Τιτάν, Τιτᾶνος (Titán, Titânos). Meaning: Titan, of the Titan, respectively. Used for large animals. Examples: Titanosaurus ('Titan lizard'); Giraffatitan ('giraffe Titan'); Anatotitan ('duck Titan'); Titanotherium ('Titan beast'); Titanoboa ('Titan boa'); Titanomyrma ('Titan ant'); Titanoceratops ('Titan horned face'); Titanoptera ('Titan wing'); Ichthyotitan ('fish Titan')
|
||||
tyranno-, -tyrannus: Pronunciation: /taɪrænoʊ/, /taɪrænəs/. Origin: Ancient Greek τύραννος (túrannos). Meaning: tyrant. Used for animals similar to Tyrannosaurus. Examples: Zhuchengtyrannus ('tyrant from Zhucheng'); Tyrannosaurus ('tyrant lizard'); Nanotyrannus ('dwarf tyrant'); Tyrannotitan ('Titanic tyrant'); Sinotyrannus ('Chinese tyrant'); Suskityrannus ('coyote tyrant'); Eotyrannus ('dawn tyrant')
|
||||
-urus, -uro-: Pronunciation: /uːrəs/, /uːroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: οὐρά (ourá). Meaning: tail. Examples: Dasyurus ('hairy tail'); Coelurosauria ('hollow tail lizards'); Uromastyx ('tail scourge'); Ophiura ('snake tail'); Anurognathus ('tailless jaw'); Brachyura ('short tail'); Anura ('tailless'); Uroplatus ('flat tail'); Urodela ('conspicuous tail'); Xiphosura ('sword tail'); Uropoda ('tail foot')
|
||||
veloci-: Pronunciation: /vəlɑsɪ/. Origin: Latin velox. Meaning: speed. Example: Velociraptor ('speedy thief'); Velocisaurus ('speedy lizard')
|
||||
-venator: Pronunciation: /vɛnətər/. Origin: Latin venator. Meaning: hunter. Examples: Afrovenator ('African hunter'); Juravenator ('hunter from the Jura Mountains'); Scorpiovenator ('scorpion hunter'); Neovenator ('new hunter'); Concavenator ('hunter from Cuenca'); Taurovenator ('bull hunter'); Ichthyovenator ('fish hunter')
|
||||
xeno-: Pronunciation: /zinoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek ξένος (xénos). Meaning: strange, stranger. Used for organisms that exhibit unusual traits for their class.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of commonly used taxonomic affixes"
|
||||
chunk: 6/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Examples: Xenosmilus ('strange knife'); Xenotarsosaurus ('strange ankled lizard'); Xenopsitta ('strange parrot'); Xenocyon ('strange dog'); Xenokeryx ('strange horn'); Xenostega ('strange roof'); Xenozancla ('strange animal'); Xenodermus ('strange skin'); Xenopus ('strange foot'); Xenops ('strange face')
|
||||
-zoon, -zoa: Pronunciation: /zoʊɑːn/, /zoʊə/. Origin: Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōion). Meaning: animal. Used for broad categories of animals, or in certain names of animals. Examples: Metazoa ('encompassing animals'); Parazoa ('near animals'); Ecdysozoa ('moulting animals'); Yunnanozoon ('animal from Yunnan'); Yuyuanozoon ('animal from Yu Yuan'); Hydrozoa ('water animals'); Spermatozoon ('seed animal'); Echinozoa ('hedgehog animals'); Asterozoa ('star animals'); Trilobozoa ('three-lobed animals'); Placozoa ('plate animals'); Amoebozoa ('amoeba animals')
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
|
||||
List of Greek and Latin roots in English
|
||||
List of Latin words with English derivatives
|
||||
List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of computational physics software"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_physics_software"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:36.006023+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of computational physics software which includes programs used to model, simulate, and analyze physical systems across electromagnetics, fluid dynamics, astrophysics, particle physics, and Monte Carlo simulations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Computational electromagnetics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Computational fluid dynamics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Computational particle physics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Computational astrophysics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Monte Carlo simulation ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Others ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
High-performance computing
|
||||
List of computational chemistry software
|
||||
List of computer simulation software
|
||||
List of computer physics engines and List of open-source physics engines
|
||||
List of computational materials science software
|
||||
List of computational physics journals
|
||||
List of computer-aided engineering software
|
||||
List of finite element software packages
|
||||
List of mathematical software
|
||||
List of physicists
|
||||
List of plasma physics software
|
||||
List of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software
|
||||
List of software for astronomy research and education
|
||||
List of software for nanostructures modeling
|
||||
List of software for nuclear engineering
|
||||
Multiphysics simulation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
"Best Open Source Physics Software 2025". sourceforge.net. Retrieved December 17, 2025.
|
||||
"GitHub - wbierbower/awesome-physics: 🌌 A collaborative list of awesome software for exploring Physics concepts". github.com. Retrieved December 17, 2025.
|
||||
"Top Multiphysics Simulation Software in 2025". slashdot.org. Retrieved December 17, 2025.
|
||||
WIPL-D
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of contributors to general relativity"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:16.610349+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a dynamic list of persons who have made major contributions to the (mainstream) development of general relativity, as acknowledged by standard texts on the subject. Some related lists are mentioned at the bottom of the page.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Peter C. Aichelburg (Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost, generalized symmetries),
|
||||
Miguel Alcubierre (numerical relativity, Alcubierre drives),
|
||||
Richard L. Arnowitt (ADM formalism),
|
||||
Abhay Ashtekar (Ashtekar variables, dynamical horizons)
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
Robert M L Baker, Jr. (high-frequency gravitational waves),
|
||||
James M. Bardeen (Bardeen vacuum, black hole mechanics, gauge-invariant linear perturbations of Friedmann-Lemaître cosmologies),
|
||||
Barry Barish (LIGO builder, gravitational-waves observation),
|
||||
Robert Bartnik (existence of ADM mass for asymptotically flat vacuums, quasilocal mass),
|
||||
Jacob Bekenstein (black hole entropy),
|
||||
Vladimir A. Belinsky (BKL conjecture, inverse scattering transform solution generating methods),
|
||||
Peter G. Bergmann (constrained Hamiltonian dynamics),
|
||||
Bruno Bertotti (Bertotti–Robinson electrovacuum, post-Minskowskian expansions),
|
||||
Jiří Bičák (exact solutions of the Einstein field equations),
|
||||
Heinz Billing (prototype of laser interferometric gravitational-wave detector),
|
||||
George David Birkhoff (Birkhoff's theorem),
|
||||
Hermann Bondi (gravitational radiation, Bondi radiation chart, Bondi mass–energy–momentum, LTB dust, maverick models),
|
||||
William B. Bonnor (Bonnor beam solution),
|
||||
Robert H. Boyer (Boyer–Lindquist coordinates),
|
||||
Vladimir Braginsky (gravitational-wave detector, quantum nondemolition (QND) measurement)
|
||||
Carl H. Brans (Brans–Dicke theory),
|
||||
Hubert Bray (Riemannian Penrose inequality),
|
||||
Hans Adolph Buchdahl (Buchdahl fluid, Buchdahl theorem),
|
||||
Claudio Bunster (BTZ black hole, Surface terms in Hamiltonian formulation),
|
||||
Alessandra Buonanno (effective one-body formalism),
|
||||
William L. Burke (Burke potential, textbook)
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
Bernard Carr (self-similarity hypothesis, primordial black holes),
|
||||
Brandon Carter (no-hair theorem, Carter constant, black-hole mechanics, variational principle for Ernst vacuums),
|
||||
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (Chandrasekhar limit, colliding plane waves, quasinormal modes, relativistic stars, monograph),
|
||||
Jean Chazy (Chazy-Curzon vacuum),
|
||||
Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat (formerly Yvonne Bruhat; local existence and uniqueness of solutions to the vacuum Einstein equations, initial value formulations, textbook),
|
||||
Demetrios Christodoulou (naked singularity in LTB dust, stability of Minkowski vacuum),
|
||||
Orest Chwolson (gravitational lensing),
|
||||
Alejandro Corichi (fundamental contributions to quantum gravity and loop quantum gravity)
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
Thibault Damour (effective one-body formalism),
|
||||
Georges Darmois (matching conditions, Darmois vacuum),
|
||||
Stanley Deser (ADM initial value formulation, effective field theory),
|
||||
Bryce DeWitt (Wheeler–DeWitt equation),
|
||||
Robert H. Dicke (Brans–Dicke theory, parametrized post-Newtonian (PPN) formalism, background radiation),
|
||||
Paul A.M. Dirac (graviton, monograph),
|
||||
Tevian Dray (asymptotic structure, gravitational shock waves),
|
||||
Ronald Drever (LIGO, gravitational-wave detectors and observation)
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
|
||||
Arthur Stanley Eddington (early treatises, relativistic stars, Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates, role of curvature, post-Newtonian expansions, early tests and popularization of general relativity),
|
||||
Jürgen Ehlers (Ehlers vacuum family, symmetries of pp waves, spacetime view of gravitational lensing, Newtonian limit),
|
||||
Albert Einstein (creator of general relativity, principle of equivalence, Einstein field equations, gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift, gravitational lensing, gravitational waves, perihelion of Mercury, cosmological constant, Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations, Einstein–Rosen bridge),
|
||||
George F. R. Ellis (relativistic cosmological models, classification of curvature singularities, averaging problem in cosmology, gauge-invariant linear perturbations of spatially homogeneous cosmologies, "small universes," monograph, Virbhadra–Ellis lens equation),
|
||||
Frederick J. Ernst (Ernst vacuum family, Ernst equation, solution generating methods, Ernst–Wild electrovacuum),
|
||||
Loránd Eötvös (Eötvös experiment)
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
|
||||
Enrico Fermi (Fermi coordinates, Fermi–Walker transport),
|
||||
Richard Feynman (sticky bead argument [as 'Mr. Smith'], supermassive stars, derivation of the Einstein field equations from quantum field theory, Feynman Lectures on Gravitation),
|
||||
David Finkelstein (Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates),
|
||||
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock (textbook, harmonic coordinates),
|
||||
Robert L. Forward (gravitational-wave detectors),
|
||||
William A. Fowler (relativistic stellar models, gravitational collapse),
|
||||
Alexander Friedmann (Friedmann cosmological models)
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Robert P. Geroch (Geroch group, singularity theorems, GHP formalism),
|
||||
Kurt Gödel (Gödel dust solution, closed timelike curves),
|
||||
Robert H. Gowdy (Gowdy solutions),
|
||||
Marcel Grossmann (taught Einstein the necessary mathematical tools for general relativity),
|
||||
Allvar Gullstrand (Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates)
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
|
||||
Yusuke Hagihara (Schwarzschild geodesics),
|
||||
Mustafa Halilsoy Nutku-Halil solution for colliding waves, On the Nutku—Halil solution for colliding impulsive gravitational waves
|
||||
James Hartle (quantum cosmology, textbook),
|
||||
Stephen Hawking (Hawking-Penrose singularity theorems, Hawking radiation, black-hole thermodynamics, monograph, Gibbons-Hawking-York boundary term),
|
||||
Charles W. Hellaby (cosmological models),
|
||||
David Hilbert (Hilbert's action principle),
|
||||
Banesh Hoffmann (EIH approximation),
|
||||
Fred Hoyle (steady-state cosmology),
|
||||
Russell Hulse (Hulse–Taylor pulsar)
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Leopold Infeld (Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations),
|
||||
Richard A. Isaacson (energy–momentum complex),
|
||||
James A. Isenberg (initial value formulations, gluing construction),
|
||||
Werner Israel (no-hair theorem, tidal forces around black hole singularities, black hole interiors and mass inflation)
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Theodore Jacobson (thermodynamic derivation of Einstein's field equation),
|
||||
Jørg Tofte Jebsen (Birkhoff's theorem),
|
||||
George Barker Jeffery (Baldwin–Jeffery plane wave),
|
||||
Pascual Jordan (Jordan–Brans–Dicke theory)
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
|
||||
Niky Kamran (wave equations in black hole space-times),
|
||||
Ronald Kantowski (Kantowski-Sachs fluids),
|
||||
Anders Karlhede (Cartan–Karlhede classification),
|
||||
Edward Kasner (Kasner dust solution),
|
||||
Roy Patrick Kerr (Kerr vacuum, Kerr–Schild metrics, use of Lie groups in relativity, Kerr–Farnsworth ansatz),
|
||||
Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov (BKL conjecture),
|
||||
William Morris Kinnersley (photon rocket),
|
||||
Sergiu Klainerman (global stability of Minkowski vacuum),
|
||||
Oskar Klein (Klein fluid, Kaluza–Klein theories),
|
||||
Arthur Komar (Komar energy–momentum integrals),
|
||||
Erich Kretschmann (Kretschmann invariant),
|
||||
Martin Kruskal (Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates for Schwarzschild vacuum),
|
||||
Wolfgang Kundt (EK classification of symmetries of pp waves)
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
|
||||
Cornelius Lanczos (Lanczos tensor, Lanczos–van Stockum dust),
|
||||
Lev D. Landau (Landau–Lifshitz formulation, textbook),
|
||||
Georges-Henri Lemaître (cosmological model, LTB dust, Lemaître chart on Schwarzschild vacuum),
|
||||
Josef Lense (Lense–Thirring precession),
|
||||
Tullio Levi-Civita (static vacuums, C-metric; see also related list below),
|
||||
André Lichnerowicz (3+1 formalism, matching conditions, Lichnerowicz equation),
|
||||
Evgeny M. Lifshitz (Landau–Lifschitz gravitational energy–momentum complex, BKL conjecture, textbook),
|
||||
Alan P. Lightman (problem book),
|
||||
Casey Lilly (gravitational wave theory in general relativity)
|
||||
Hendrik Lorentz (Hamilton's principle, coordinate-free formulation),
|
||||
David Lovelock (Lovelock theory, Lovelock's theorem)
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
|
||||
Donald Marolf (black hole firewall paradox, shock singularity)
|
||||
R. G. McLenaghan (CM invariants),
|
||||
Reinhard Meinel (Neugebauer–Meinel dust disk solution),
|
||||
Hermann Minkowski (Minkowski spacetime),
|
||||
Charles W. Misner (mixmaster model, ADM initial value formulation, ADM mass, textbook)
|
||||
John Moffat (various classical gravitation theories)
|
||||
Vincent Moncrief (global properties of spatially compact dynamical vacuum spacetimes),
|
||||
C. Møller (energy–momentum complex),
|
||||
Moustafa Mosharafa (relation of radiation, mass and energy)
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of contributors to general relativity"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:16.610349+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Gernot Neugebauer (Neugebauer–Meinel dust disk solution),
|
||||
Ezra Ted Newman (Newman–Penrose formalism, Kerr–Newman black hole solution, Janis–Newman–Winicour solution, NUT vacuum, RT spacetimes, relation of lensing to Weyl tensor),
|
||||
Gunnar Nordström (Reissner–Nordström metric),
|
||||
Kenneth Nordtvedt (Nordtvedt effect, PPN formalism),
|
||||
Igor D. Novikov (Novikov chart in Schwarzschild vacuum, no-hair theorem, accretion disks around black holes, monograph)
|
||||
Yavuz Nutku Nutku-Halil solution for colliding waves, On the Nutku—Halil solution for colliding impulsive gravitational waves
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Robert Oppenheimer (gravitational collapse, Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation, Oppenheimer–Snyder model),
|
||||
Amos Ori (black hole interiors, mass inflation, shock singularity, time machines, radiation reaction, gravitational collapse)
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
|
||||
Achilles Papapetrou (chart for Ernst vacuum family, Majumdar–Papapetrou electrovacuums, Dixon–Papapetrou equations),
|
||||
Paul Painlevé (Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates),
|
||||
Roger Penrose (Hawking–Penrose singularity theorems, Penrose diagrams, techniques from algebraic geometry and differential topology, Penrose limits, cosmic censorship hypotheses, Penrose inequalities, geometry of gravitational plane waves, impulsive waves, Penrose–Khan colliding plane wave, Newman–Penrose formalism, Weyl curvature hypothesis, highly influential monograph),
|
||||
Alexei Zinovievich Petrov (Petrov classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor),
|
||||
Tsvi Piran (gravitational collapse),
|
||||
Felix A. E. Pirani (gravitational radiation, Petrov–Pirani classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor),
|
||||
Jerzy F. Plebański (Plebanski vacuum, Plebanski action),
|
||||
Eric Poisson (black hole interiors, mass inflation, post-Newtonian approximation, monographs),
|
||||
William H. Press (gravitational-wave astronomy, problem book),
|
||||
Frans Pretorius (numerical relativity simulation),
|
||||
Richard H. Price (Price's theorem, books)
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
|
||||
George Yuri Rainich (Rainich conditions),
|
||||
A. K. Raychaudhuri (Raychaudhuri equation),
|
||||
Tullio Regge (Regge calculus),
|
||||
Hans Reissner (Reissner–Nordström metric),
|
||||
Wolfgang Rindler (Rindler chart for Minkowski vacuum),
|
||||
Hans Ringström (strong cosmic censorship holds for T3-Gowdy vacuums),
|
||||
Howard Percy Robertson (role of curvature, parametrized post-Newtonian formalism, Robertson–Walker metric),
|
||||
Ivor Robinson (Bel–Robinson tensor, Bertotti–Robinson electrovacuum),
|
||||
Alfonso Romero (research on Lorentzian and semi-Riemannian geometry)
|
||||
Nathan Rosen (Erez–Rosen solution, Einstein–Rosen bridge, Einstein–Rosen gravitational waves),
|
||||
Remo Ruffini (particle motion in black holes, textbook)
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
|
||||
Rainer K. Sachs (peeling theorem, optical scalars, Kantowski–Sachs fluid solutions, Sachs–Wolfe effect, Bondi–Metzner–Sachs group),
|
||||
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (vacuum fluctuations),
|
||||
Alfred Schild (Kerr–Schild metrics, Schild's ladder),
|
||||
Leonard Isaac Schiff (PPN formalism, textbook),
|
||||
Richard Schoen (positive energy theorem, gravitational shielding),
|
||||
Engelbert Schücking (Ozsváth–Schücking plane wave),
|
||||
Bernard F. Schutz (gravitational-wave detectors, textbook),
|
||||
Karl Schwarzschild (Schwarzschild solution, Schwarzschild radius, Event horizon, Schwarzschild vacuum, Schwarzschild fluid),
|
||||
Dennis William Sciama (Einstein–Cartan theory, role in legitimizing black hole concept),
|
||||
Roman Ulrich Sexl (Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost),
|
||||
Irwin I. Shapiro (Shapiro effect, observational tests),
|
||||
Harlow Shapley (rotating cosmologies),
|
||||
Willem de Sitter (de Sitter space, de Sitter precession),
|
||||
Hartland Snyder (Oppenheimer–Snyder model),
|
||||
Hans Stephani (Stephani dust solution, monograph, textbook),
|
||||
Willem Jacob van Stockum (Lanczos–van Stockum dust),
|
||||
John Lighton Synge (global structure of Schwarzschild vacuum, world function, O'Brien–Synge matching conditions),
|
||||
George Szekeres (Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates for Schwarzschild vacuum)
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
|
||||
Abraham Haskel Taub (Taub plane symmetric vacuum, Taub–NUT vacuum, vacuum solutions foliated by Bianchi manifolds, relativistic hydrodynamics),
|
||||
Joseph Taylor (Hulse–Taylor pulsar),
|
||||
Saul Teukolsky (Teukolsky's equations, numerical relativity, problem book),
|
||||
Hans Thirring (Lense–Thirring precession),
|
||||
Kip Thorne (relativistic multipoles, relativistic stars, hoop conjecture, membrane paradigm, gravitational-wave detectors, textbook, wormholes, properties of black holes),
|
||||
Frank J. Tipler (classification of curvature singularities, Tipler cylinder),
|
||||
Richard Chase Tolman (Tolman surface brightness test, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) equation, Tolman dust solutions, LTB dust),
|
||||
Andrzej Trautman (RT spacetimes)
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
William G. Unruh (Unruh radiation)
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
P. C. Vaidya (Vaidya metric, Vaidya–Patel metric),
|
||||
K. S. Virbhadra (Virbhadra–Ellis lens equation, relativistic images [1], photon surfaces [2], observational test for the weak cosmic censorship hypothesis [3][4]),
|
||||
George Volkoff (Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation)
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
|
||||
Robert M. Wald (textbook, black-hole perturbations, black-hole thermodynamics, electric fields outside a black hole, quantum field theory in curved spacetimes),
|
||||
Arthur Geoffrey Walker (Fermi–Walker derivatives, Robertson–Walker metric),
|
||||
Mu-Tao Wang (quasilocal mass-energy),
|
||||
Joseph Weber (gravitational-wave detectors),
|
||||
Rainer Weiss (LIGO, gravitational-waves observation),
|
||||
Peter Westervelt (indirect evidence for gravitational waves),
|
||||
Hermann Weyl (Weyl vacuums; see also related list below),
|
||||
John Archibald Wheeler (coined the terms "black holes" and "wormholes," geometrodynamics, relativistic stars, Zerilli–Wheeler equation, Wheeler–DeWitt equation, textbook),
|
||||
Paul S. Wesson (relativistic cosmology, Kaluza–Klein theory)
|
||||
Clifford Martin Will (parametrized post-Newtonian expansions, relativistic astrophysics, textbook),
|
||||
Edward Witten (positive energy theorem),
|
||||
Louis Witten (Witten electrovacuum solutions)
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
Basilis C. Xanthopoulos (Chandrasekhar–Xanthopoulos colliding plane wave)
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Shing-Tung Yau (positive energy theorem),
|
||||
James W. York (initial value formulation, Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term)
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Vladimir E. Zakharov (inverse scattering transform solution generating method),
|
||||
Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich (early evidence for no-hair theorem, early evidence of black-hole radiation, relativistic astrophysics)
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity
|
||||
List of cosmologists
|
||||
List of loop quantum gravity researchers
|
||||
List of quantum gravity researchers
|
||||
Introduction to general relativity
|
||||
Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity
|
||||
158
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conversion_factors-0.md
Normal file
158
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conversion_factors-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,158 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of conversion factors"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conversion_factors"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:19.219007+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This article gives a list of conversion factors for several physical quantities. A number of different units (some only of historical interest) are shown and expressed in terms of the corresponding SI unit.
|
||||
Conversions between units in the metric system are defined by their prefixes (for example, 1 kilogram = 1000 grams, 1 milligram = 0.001 grams) and are thus not listed in this article. Exceptions are made if the unit is commonly known by another name (for example, 1 micron = 10−6 metre). Within each table, the units are listed alphabetically, and the SI units (base or derived) are highlighted.
|
||||
The following quantities are considered: length, area, volume, plane angle, solid angle, mass, density, time, frequency, velocity, volumetric flow rate, acceleration, force, pressure (or mechanical stress), torque (or moment of force), energy, power (or heat flow rate), action, dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, electric current, electric charge, electric dipole, electromotive force (or electric potential difference), electrical resistance, capacitance, magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, inductance, temperature, information entropy, luminous intensity, luminance, luminous flux, illuminance, radiation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Length ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Area ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Volume ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Plane angle ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Solid angle ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mass ==
|
||||
Notes:
|
||||
|
||||
See Weight for detail of mass/weight distinction and conversion.
|
||||
Avoirdupois is a system of mass based on a pound of 16 ounces, while Troy weight is the system of mass where 12 troy ounces equals one troy pound.
|
||||
The symbol g0 is used to denote standard gravity in order to avoid confusion with the (upright) g symbol for gram.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Density ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Time ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Frequency ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Speed or velocity ==
|
||||
|
||||
A velocity consists of a speed combined with a direction; the speed part of the velocity takes units of speed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Flow (volume) ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Acceleration ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Force ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Pressure or mechanical stress ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Torque or moment of force ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Energy ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Power or heat flow rate ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Action ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dynamic viscosity ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Kinematic viscosity ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Electric current ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Electric charge ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Electric dipole ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Electromotive force, electric potential difference ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Electrical resistance ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Capacitance ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Magnetic flux ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Magnetic flux density ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Inductance ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Temperature ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Information entropy ==
|
||||
|
||||
Modern standards (such as ISO 80000) prefer the shannon to the bit as a unit for a quantity of information entropy, whereas the (discrete) storage space of digital devices is measured in bits. Thus, uncompressed redundant data occupy more than one bit of storage per shannon of information entropy. The multiples of a bit listed above are usually used with this meaning.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Luminous intensity ==
|
||||
The candela is the preferred nomenclature for the SI unit.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Luminance ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Luminous flux ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Illuminance ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Radiation ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radiation – source activity ===
|
||||
|
||||
Although becquerel (Bq) and hertz (Hz) both ultimately refer to the same SI base unit (s−1), Hz is used only for periodic phenomena (i.e. repetitions at regular intervals), and Bq is only used for stochastic processes (i.e. at random intervals) associated with radioactivity.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radiation – exposure ===
|
||||
|
||||
The roentgen is not an SI unit and the NIST strongly discourages its continued use.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radiation – absorbed dose ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radiation – equivalent dose ===
|
||||
|
||||
Although the definitions for sievert (Sv) and gray (Gy) would seem to indicate that they measure the same quantities, this is not the case. The effect of receiving a certain dose of radiation (given as Gy) is variable and depends on many factors, thus a new unit was needed to denote the biological effectiveness of that dose on the body; this is known as the equivalent dose and is shown in Sv. The general relationship between absorbed dose and equivalent dose can be represented as
|
||||
|
||||
H = Q ⋅ D
|
||||
where H is the equivalent dose, D is the absorbed dose, and Q is a dimensionless quality factor. Thus, for any quantity of D measured in Gy, the numerical value for H measured in Sv may be different.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dualities"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:13:59.079468+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:20.415568+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of experiments in physics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments_in_physics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:22.807305+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of notable experiments in physics. The list includes only experiments with Wikipedia articles. For hypothetical experiments, see thought experiment.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Historical experiments ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Articles on several experiments ==
|
||||
Bell tests
|
||||
BICEP and Keck Array
|
||||
Coincidence method
|
||||
Discovery of the neutron
|
||||
Large Hadron Collider experiments
|
||||
List of Super Proton Synchrotron experiments
|
||||
Precision tests of QED
|
||||
Tests of special relativity
|
||||
Tests of relativistic energy and momentum
|
||||
Modern searches for Lorentz violation
|
||||
Measurements of neutrino speed
|
||||
Tests of general relativity
|
||||
Experimental testing of time dilation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== On-going experiments ==
|
||||
Collider Detector at Fermilab
|
||||
China Dark Matter Experiment
|
||||
Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment
|
||||
General antiparticle spectrometer
|
||||
GlueX
|
||||
The E and B Experiment
|
||||
VIP2 experiment
|
||||
VITO experiment
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of accelerators in particle physics
|
||||
49
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_extinct_rodents-0.md
Normal file
49
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_extinct_rodents-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of extinct rodents"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_extinct_rodents"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:23.473516+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list is of rodent species that are extinct − no longer alive.
|
||||
Species from related groups such as Lagomorpha (rabbits and hares) are not included.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Before 1500 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Extinct after 1500 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 16th century ===
|
||||
Oriente cave rat
|
||||
Torre's cave rat
|
||||
Imposter hutia
|
||||
Montane hutia
|
||||
Megaoryzomys
|
||||
Cuban coney
|
||||
Hispaniolan edible rat
|
||||
Conilurus capricornensis
|
||||
Samaná hutia
|
||||
Buhler's coryphomys
|
||||
Noronhomys
|
||||
Pennatomys nivalis
|
||||
Desmarest's hutia
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 17th century ===
|
||||
Insular cave rat
|
||||
Puerto Rican hutia
|
||||
Verhoeven's giant tree rat
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Extinct rodents – all periods
|
||||
Prehistoric rodents
|
||||
Rodent extinctions since 1500
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
223
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_parks-0.md
Normal file
223
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_parks-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of fossil parks"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_parks"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:31.281395+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Following is a list of protected areas where fossils are preserved, known as fossil parks or fossil reserves, worldwide by country.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Africa ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Egypt ===
|
||||
Wadi Al-Hitan - Valley of The Whales, Fayyoum, Western Desert
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== South Africa ===
|
||||
West Coast Fossil Park, Langebaanweg, Western Cape
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Tanzania ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Asia ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== India ===
|
||||
|
||||
There are two geological parks maintained by the Geological Survey of India:
|
||||
|
||||
Dinosaur Fossils National Park, Dhar, Madhya Pradesh
|
||||
Shivalik Fossil Park, Saketi, H.P.
|
||||
Salkhan Fossils Park, Sonbhadra, U.P.
|
||||
Mandla Plant Fossils National Park
|
||||
Indroda Dinosaur and Fossil Park, Gandhinagar, Gujarat
|
||||
National Fossil Wood Park, Tiruvakkarai
|
||||
National Fossil Wood Park, Sathanur
|
||||
Akal Wood Fossil Park, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
|
||||
Amkhoi Fossil Park, West Bengal.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Japan ===
|
||||
Sendai City Tomizawa Site Museum houses a fossilized forest and human artifacts
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Thailand ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Australia ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Australia ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Victoria ====
|
||||
Dinosaur Dreaming
|
||||
Dinosaur Cove
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Queensland ====
|
||||
Riversleigh
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== South Australia ====
|
||||
Lake Callabonna Fossil Reserve
|
||||
Lake Ngapakaldi to Lake Palankarinna Fossil Area
|
||||
Maslin Bay - Aldinga Bay Geological Site
|
||||
Naracoorte Caves National Park
|
||||
Nilpena Ediacara National Park
|
||||
Willalinchina Sandstone Fossil Flora site, near Woomera
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== North America ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Canada ===
|
||||
Ancient Echoes Interpretive Centre, Saskatchewan
|
||||
Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta
|
||||
Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park, British Columbia
|
||||
Yoho National Park (Burgess Shale) UNESCO site, British Columbia
|
||||
Joggins Fossil Cliffs UNESCO site, Nova Scotia
|
||||
McAbee Fossil Beds Heritage Site
|
||||
Parc national de Miguasha UNESCO site, Quebec
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== United States ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Arizona ====
|
||||
Petrified Forest National Park
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== California ====
|
||||
La Brea Tar Pits
|
||||
Petrified Forest, Calistoga CA
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Colorado ====
|
||||
Dinosaur National Monument, in Northwest Colorado and North-East Utah.
|
||||
Dinosaur Ridge
|
||||
Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Connecticut ====
|
||||
Dinosaur State Park and Arboretum
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Florida ====
|
||||
Windley Key Fossil Reef Geological State Park
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Idaho ====
|
||||
Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Indiana ====
|
||||
Falls of the Ohio State Park
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Iowa ====
|
||||
Fossil and Prairie Park
|
||||
Fossilized leaves are one of many found here.
|
||||
|
||||
Devonian Fossil Gorge at Coralville Lake
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Maryland ====
|
||||
Dinosaur Park
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Massachusetts ====
|
||||
Dinosaur Footprints
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Michigan ====
|
||||
Rockport Quarry, an abandoned limestone quarry near Alpena open to collecting
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Mississippi ====
|
||||
Mississippi Petrified Forest
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Nebraska ====
|
||||
Agate Fossil Beds National Monument
|
||||
Ashfall State Historical Park
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Nevada ====
|
||||
Tule Springs Fossil Beds National Monument
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== New Jersey ====
|
||||
Poricy Park
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== New Mexico ====
|
||||
Clayton Lake State Park
|
||||
Prehistoric Trackways National Monument
|
||||
New York
|
||||
Penn Dixie Fossil Park & Nature Reserve
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ohio ====
|
||||
Hueston Woods State Park
|
||||
Trammel Fossil Park, Sharonville, Ohio
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Oregon ====
|
||||
John Day Fossil Beds National Monument
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== South Dakota ====
|
||||
The Mammoth Site
|
||||
Fossil Cycad National Monument (No longer exists)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Texas ====
|
||||
Dinosaur Valley State Park
|
||||
Ladonia Fossil Park, Ladonia, Texas
|
||||
Mineral Wells Fossil Park, Mineral Wells, Texas
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Utah ====
|
||||
Dinosaur National Monument
|
||||
Escalante Petrified Forest State Park
|
||||
Prehistoric Trackways National Monument
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Wyoming ====
|
||||
Fossil Butte National Monument
|
||||
Red Gulch Dinosaur Tracksite
|
||||
Yellowstone National Park
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== South America and Central America ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Argentina ===
|
||||
Ischigualasto is located in San Juan province
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bolivia ===
|
||||
Cal Orcko in Sucre
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Brazil ===
|
||||
Paleorrota Geopark is located in Rio Grande do Sul.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Paleontology
|
||||
Prehistoric life
|
||||
Timeline of geography, paleontology, biology
|
||||
Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy
|
||||
Fossil Parks of India
|
||||
List of fossil sites
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:02.485793+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:32.506792+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:24.989338+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:27.083461+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:24.989338+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:27.083461+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:26.225585+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:28.406475+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
113
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles-0.md
Normal file
113
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of hypothetical particles"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:48.926351+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of hypothetical particles.
|
||||
Hypothetical particles are proposed subatomic or composite entities arising in theoretical particle physics and cosmology that have not been experimentally confirmed. They are typically introduced to address limitations of the Standard Model, unify fundamental interactions, or explain unresolved observations such as dark matter, neutrino masses, baryon asymmetry, or cosmic inflation. Many are mathematically well defined within quantum field theory or its extensions and serve as mediators or constituents in speculative but testable frameworks beyond the Standard Model.
|
||||
Prominent classes include gauge or symmetry-related particles such as the graviton or graviphoton in quantum gravity and extra-dimensional theories, and supersymmetric partners (e.g., neutralinos or charginos) predicted by supersymmetry. Others address specific phenomena, including hidden-sector bosons such as dark photons or light force carriers proposed to explain nuclear anomalies.
|
||||
Hypothetical particles also encompass predicted bound states (e.g., glueballs), topological objects such as magnetic monopoles, and unconventional statistical entities such as anyons or tachyons. Collectively, they form a central component of theoretical model building, guiding experimental searches for physics beyond currently known particles.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Elementary particles ==
|
||||
|
||||
Some theories predict the existence of additional elementary bosons and fermions that are not found in the Standard Model.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Particles predicted by supersymmetric theories ===
|
||||
Supersymmetry predicts the existence of superpartners to particles in the Standard Model, none of which have been confirmed experimentally. The sfermions (spin is 0) include:
|
||||
|
||||
Another hypothetical sfermion is the saxion, superpartner of the axion. It forms a supermultiplet, together with the axino and the axion, in supersymmetric extensions of Peccei–Quinn theory.
|
||||
The predicted bosinos (spin 1⁄2) are
|
||||
|
||||
Just as the photon, Z and W± bosons are superpositions of the B0, W0, W1, and W2 fields, the photino, zino, and wino± are superpositions of the bino0, wino0, wino1, and wino2. No matter if one uses the original gauginos or this superpositions as a basis, the only predicted physical particles are neutralinos and charginos as a superposition of them together with the Higgsinos.
|
||||
Other superpartner categories include:
|
||||
|
||||
Charginos, superpositions of the superpartners of charged Standard Model bosons: charged Higgs boson and W boson. The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) predicts two pairs of charginos.
|
||||
Neutralinos, superpositions of the superpartners of neutral Standard Model bosons: neutral Higgs boson, Z boson and photon. The lightest neutralino is a leading candidate for dark matter. The MSSM predicts four neutralinos.
|
||||
Goldstinos are fermions produced by the spontaneous breaking of supersymmetry; they are the supersymmetric counterpart of Goldstone bosons.
|
||||
Sgoldstino, superpartners of goldstinos.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dark energy candidates ==
|
||||
|
||||
The following hypothetical particles have been proposed to explain dark energy:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dark matter candidates ==
|
||||
|
||||
The following categories are not unique or distinct: For example, either a WIMP or a WISP is also a FIP.
|
||||
|
||||
Hidden sector theories have also proposed forces that only interact with dark matter, like dark photons.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== From experimental anomalies ==
|
||||
These hypothetical particles were claimed to be found or hypothesized to explain unusual experimental results. They relate to experimental anomalies but have not been reproduced independently or might be due to experimental errors (in chronological order):
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Others ==
|
||||
Cosmon, hypothetical state containing the observable universe before the Big Bang.
|
||||
Diproton (2He), nuclei consisting of two protons and no neutrons. Observed, but without sufficient evidence.
|
||||
Diquark, hypothetical state of two quarks grouped inside a baryon.
|
||||
Geons, electromagnetic or gravitational waves which are held together in a confined region by the gravitational attraction of their own field of energy.
|
||||
Kaluza–Klein towers of particles, predicted by some models of extra dimensions. The extra-dimensional momentum is manifested as extra mass in four-dimensional spacetime.
|
||||
Pomerons, used to explain the elastic scattering of hadrons and the location of Regge poles in Regge theory. A counterpart to odderons.
|
||||
True muonium, atom composed of a muon and an anti-muon. Yet unobserved.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== By type ===
|
||||
Branons, scalar fields predicted in brane world models.
|
||||
Composite Higgs, models that consider the Higgs boson to be a composite particle.
|
||||
Higgs doublets are hypothesized by some theories of physics beyond the Standard Model.
|
||||
Continuous spin particle are hypothetical massless particles related to the classification of the representations of the Poincaré group.
|
||||
Cryptons, any particle from the dark sector of string theory landscape.
|
||||
Elementary particles that are not bosons or fermions:
|
||||
Paraparticles, exotic particles that can survive in a 3D-space and follow parastatistics
|
||||
Plektons, particles that follow Braid statistics
|
||||
Exotic particles, particles with exotic properties like negative mass or complex mass.
|
||||
Exotic hadrons, particles composed of unusual combinations of quarks and gluons.
|
||||
Exotic mesons
|
||||
Exotic baryons
|
||||
Glueball, hypothetical particle that consist of only gluons.
|
||||
Quark bound states beyond the pentaquark, like hexaquarks and heptaquarks.
|
||||
Leptoquark, hypothetical particles that are neither bosons or fermions but carry lepton and baryon numbers.
|
||||
Magnetic monopole is a generic name for particles with non-zero magnetic charge. They are predicted by Grand Unification Theories. These may include:
|
||||
Dirac monopoles, monopole that would allow charge quantization.
|
||||
't Hooft–Polyakov monopoles, Dirac monopole but without Dirac strings.
|
||||
Wu–Yang monopoles, point-like monopole with potential of the form 1/r.
|
||||
Dyons, extensions of the idea of a magnetic monopole.
|
||||
Majorana fermions, fermions that are their own anti-particle
|
||||
Mesonic molecule, two mesons bound together by strong force.
|
||||
Micro black hole, sub-atomic sized black holes.
|
||||
Black hole electron, microscopic black hole with the properties of an electron.
|
||||
Virtual black hole, microscopic black holes produced by fluctuations of space-time
|
||||
Minicharged particle are hypothetical subatomic particles charged with a tiny fraction of the electron charge.
|
||||
Mirror particles are predicted by theories that restore parity symmetry.
|
||||
Neutronium, hypothetical nuclei consisting only of neutrons (more than one). Examples include the tetraneutron.
|
||||
Primons, particles with statistics related to the distribution of prime numbers
|
||||
Preons were suggested as subparticles of quarks and leptons, but modern collider experiments have all but ruled out their existence.
|
||||
Rishons, particles from the Rishon model of preons.
|
||||
From superseded and obsolete theories
|
||||
Caloric rays used until the 19th century to explain thermal radiation.
|
||||
Light corpuscles, hypothetical classical particles used to explain optical phenomena.
|
||||
Phlogiston, hypothetical combustible content in matter used to explain thermodynamics before the 18th century.
|
||||
Ultramundane corpuscles, from Le Sage's theory of gravitation, used to explain gravitational phenomena.
|
||||
Strangelet, hypothetical particle that could form matter consisting of strange quarks.
|
||||
R-hadron, bound particle of a quark and a supersymmetric particle.
|
||||
T meson, hypothetical mesons composed of a top quark and one additional subatomic particle. Examples include the theta meson, formed by a top and an anti-top.
|
||||
Tachyons is a hypothetical particle that travels faster than the speed of light so they would paradoxically experience time in reverse (due to inversion of the theory of relativity) and would violate the known laws of causality. A tachyon has an imaginary rest mass.
|
||||
Unparticles, hypothetical particles that are massless and scale invariant.
|
||||
Weyl fermions, hypothetical spin-1/2 massless particles, only found as a quasiparticle.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
63
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lagerstätten-0.md
Normal file
63
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lagerstätten-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of lagerstätten"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lagerstätten"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:36.097809+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The list of Lagerstätten is a documentation of Lagerstätte fossils sites around the world, arranged by geologic age. These are characterized by exceptional preservation of fossil organisms, regularly including many well-preserved animals and their soft tissue remains. The extent of Lagerstätten deposits can range from a select site or stratigraphic layer to a whole formation or group. Some sites that one author calls a single Lagerstätte may be called multiple by another (such as the Jehol Biota and the Yixian/Jiufotang Formations). This list attempts to note this in the text and provide the formation or stratigraphic unit from which a site came.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Criteria ==
|
||||
Sites on the list must either:
|
||||
|
||||
Be referred to as a Lagerstätte within the main text of at least one scientific publication. Similar terms, such as 'exceptional preservation', do not qualify.
|
||||
Have fossils that fulfill the criteria of Konservat-Lagerstätte as set within Kimmig & Julien (2024): Konservat-Lagerstätten are characterized by exceptional preservation, and at least 5% of the fossils recovered from a site must preserve either soft tissue remains or nearly complete individuals, preferably both.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Precambrian ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cambrian ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ordovician ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Silurian ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Devonian ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Carboniferous ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Permian ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Triassic ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Jurassic ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cretaceous ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Paleogene ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Neogene ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Quaternary ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
109
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_articles-0.md
Normal file
109
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_articles-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of laser articles"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_articles"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:32.200147+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of laser topics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Ion laser
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Janus laser
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
KALI (laser)
|
||||
Kerr-lens modelocking
|
||||
Kerr effect
|
||||
Keyence
|
||||
Krasnopol (Weapon)
|
||||
Krypton fluoride laser
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
X-ray
|
||||
X-ray laser
|
||||
Xenon chloride laser
|
||||
Xerox
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Yb:LuVO4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
ZETA (fusion reactor)
|
||||
ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System)
|
||||
Zeeman slower
|
||||
Zerona
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineering"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:15:24.614221+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:33.417347+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lost_fossil_sites-0.md
Normal file
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lost_fossil_sites-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of lost fossil sites"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lost_fossil_sites"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:39.936510+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list of lost fossil sites is a list of localities in which abundant, well-preserved, or scientifically significant fossils were once found but are no longer available due to the destruction, inaccessibility or overcollection of the fossils preserved therein.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== The list ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of lost, damaged, or destroyed dinosaur specimens
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of mathematical physics journals"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_physics_journals"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:38.366967+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of peer-reviewed scientific journals published in the field of Mathematical Physics.
|
||||
|
||||
Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics
|
||||
Annales Henri Poincaré
|
||||
Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis
|
||||
Communications in Mathematical Physics
|
||||
General Relativity and Gravitation
|
||||
International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics
|
||||
Journal of Geometry and Physics
|
||||
Journal of Mathematical Physics
|
||||
Journal of Mathematical Physics, Analysis, Geometry
|
||||
Journal of Modern Dynamics
|
||||
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics
|
||||
Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical
|
||||
Journal of Statistical Physics
|
||||
Letters in Mathematical Physics
|
||||
Mathematics and Mechanics of Complex Systems
|
||||
Open Communications in Nonlinear Mathematical Physics
|
||||
Probability and Mathematical Physics
|
||||
Reports on Mathematical Physics
|
||||
Reviews in Mathematical Physics
|
||||
The Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics
|
||||
Középiskolai Matematikai és Fizikai Lapok
|
||||
SIGMA (Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications)
|
||||
Teoreticheskaya i Matematicheskaya Fizika (Theoretical and Mathematical Physics), Steklov Mathematical Institute
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of mathematics journals
|
||||
List of physics journals
|
||||
List of scientific journals
|
||||
List of statistics journals
|
||||
69
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons-0.md
Normal file
69
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of mesons"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:41.487001+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list is of all known and predicted scalar, pseudoscalar and vector mesons. See list of particles for a more detailed list of particles found in particle physics.
|
||||
This article contains a list of mesons, unstable subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark. They are part of the hadron particle family—particles made of quarks. The other members of the hadron family are the baryons—subatomic particles composed of three quarks. The main difference between mesons and baryons is that mesons have integer spin (thus are bosons) while baryons are fermions (half-integer spin). Because mesons are bosons, the Pauli exclusion principle does not apply to them. Because of this, they can act as force mediating particles on short distances, and thus play a part in processes such as the nuclear interaction.
|
||||
Since mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. They are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity, and various other properties such as C-parity and G-parity. While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments. They are also typically less massive than baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and will exhibit higher-energy phenomena sooner than baryons would. For example, the charm quark was first seen in the J/Psi meson (J/ψ) in 1974, and the bottom quark in the upsilon meson (ϒ) in 1977. The top quark (the last and heaviest quark to be discovered to date) was first observed at Fermilab in 1995.
|
||||
Each meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson) where quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice versa. For example, a positive pion (π+) is made of one up quark and one down antiquark; and its corresponding antiparticle, the negative pion (π−), is made of one up antiquark and one down quark. Although tetraquarks with two quarks and two antiquarks can be considered mesons they are not listed here.
|
||||
The symbols encountered in these lists are: P (parity), C (C-parity), G (G-parity), u (up quark), d (down quark), s (strange quark), c (charm quark), b (bottom quark), I (isospin), J (total angular momentum), Q (charge), B (baryon number), S (strangeness), C (charm), and B′ (bottomness), as well as a wide array of subatomic particles (hover mouse for name).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Summary table ==
|
||||
Because this table was initially derived from published results and many of those results were preliminary, as many as 64 of the mesons in the following table may not exist or have the wrong mass or quantum numbers.
|
||||
|
||||
Mesons named with the letter "f" are scalar mesons (as opposed to a pseudo-scalar meson), and mesons named with the letter "a" are axial-vector mesons (as opposed to an ordinary vector meson) a.k.a. an isoscalar vector meson, while the letters "b" and "h" refer to axial-vector mesons with positive parity, negative C-parity, and quantum numbers IG of 1+ and 0− respectively.
|
||||
The, "f", "a", "b" and "h" mesons are not listed in the tables below and their internal structure and quark content is a matter of ongoing investigation.
|
||||
The particle described in the table above as f0(500) has historically been known by two other names: f0(600) and σ (sigma).
|
||||
A complete set of meson naming conventions is set forth in a 2017 review article for the Particle Data Group which also contains a table mapping pre-2016 common names to the new Particle Data Group standard naming conventions for XYZ mesons.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Meson properties ==
|
||||
The following lists details for all known and predicted pseudoscalar (JP = 0−) and vector (JP = 1−) mesons.
|
||||
The properties and quark content of the particles are tabulated below; for the corresponding antiparticles, simply change quarks into antiquarks (and vice versa) and flip the sign of Q, B, S, C, and B′. Particles with † next to their names have been predicted by the Standard Model but not yet observed. Values in red have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pseudoscalar mesons ===
|
||||
|
||||
[a] ^ Makeup inexact due to non-zero quark masses.
|
||||
[b] ^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.
|
||||
[c] ^Strong eigenstate. No definite lifetime (see kaon notes below)
|
||||
[d] ^ The mass of the K0L and K0S are given as that of the K0. However, it is known that a difference between the masses of the K0L and K0S on the order of 2.2×10−11 MeV/c2 exists.
|
||||
[e] ^Weak eigenstate. Makeup is missing small CP–violating term (see notes on neutral kaons below).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Vector mesons ===
|
||||
|
||||
[f] ^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.
|
||||
[g] ^ The exact value depends on the method used. See the given reference for detail.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Notes on neutral kaons ===
|
||||
There are two complications with neutral kaons:
|
||||
|
||||
Due to neutral kaon mixing, the K0S and K0L are not eigenstates of strangeness. However, they are eigenstates of the weak force, which determines how they decay, so these are the particles with definite lifetime.
|
||||
The linear combinations given in the table for the K0S and K0L are not exactly correct, since there is a small correction due to CP violation. See CP violation in kaons.
|
||||
Note that these issues also exist in principle for other neutral flavored mesons; however, the weak eigenstates are considered separate particles only for kaons because of their dramatically different lifetimes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of baryons
|
||||
List of particles
|
||||
Timeline of particle discoveries
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bibliography ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Particle Data Group: The Review of Particle Physics; pdgLive – Meson Summary Table
|
||||
Mesons made thinkable, an interactive visualisation allowing physical properties to be compared
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_by_optical_properties"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:34.547407+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:42.717193+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
82
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia-0.md
Normal file
82
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of moments of inertia"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:45.115428+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The moment of inertia, denoted by I, measures the extent to which an object resists rotational acceleration about a particular axis; it is the rotational analogue to mass (which determines an object's resistance to linear acceleration). The moments of inertia of a mass have units of dimension ML2 ([mass] × [length]2). It should not be confused with the second moment of area, which has units of dimension L4 ([length]4) and is used in beam calculations. The mass moment of inertia is often also known as the rotational inertia or sometimes as the angular mass.
|
||||
For simple objects with geometric symmetry, one can often determine the moment of inertia in an exact closed-form expression. Typically this occurs when the mass density is constant, but in some cases, the density can vary throughout the object as well. In general, it may not be straightforward to symbolically express the moment of inertia of shapes with more complicated mass distributions and lacking symmetry. In calculating moments of inertia, it is useful to remember that it is an additive function and exploit the parallel axis and the perpendicular axis theorems.
|
||||
This article considers mainly symmetric mass distributions, with constant density throughout the object, and the axis of rotation is taken to be through the center of mass unless otherwise specified.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Moments of inertia ==
|
||||
The following are scalar moments of inertia. In general, the moment of inertia is a tensor; see below.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of 3D inertia tensors ==
|
||||
This list of moment of inertia tensors is given for principal axes of each object.
|
||||
To obtain the scalar moments of inertia I above, the tensor moment of inertia I is projected along some axis defined by a unit vector n according to the formula:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
⋅
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
⋅
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
≡
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbf {n} \cdot \mathbf {I} \cdot \mathbf {n} \equiv n_{i}I_{ij}n_{j}\,,}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where the dots indicate tensor contraction and the Einstein summation convention is used. In the above table, n would be the unit Cartesian basis ex, ey, ez to obtain Ix, Iy, Iz respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of second moments of area
|
||||
Parallel axis theorem
|
||||
Perpendicular axis theorem
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The inertia tensor of a tetrahedron
|
||||
Tutorial on deriving moment of inertia for common shapes
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,203 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of nanotechnology organizations"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nanotechnology_organizations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:07.294375+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of organizations involved in nanotechnology.
|
||||
|
||||
== Government ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Brazil ===
|
||||
Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory
|
||||
|
||||
=== China ===
|
||||
National Center for Nanoscience and Technology
|
||||
|
||||
=== Canada ===
|
||||
National Institute for Nanotechnology
|
||||
Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology
|
||||
|
||||
=== European Union ===
|
||||
EU Seventh Framework Programme
|
||||
Action Plan for Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies 2005-2009
|
||||
|
||||
=== India ===
|
||||
MEMS, Microfluidics and Nanoelectronics Lab (BITS Pilani)
|
||||
Centre for Nanotechnology Research (Vellore Institute of Technology)
|
||||
Institute of Nano Science and Technology
|
||||
Indian Nano-Biologist Association
|
||||
Centre for Nano and Soft Matter Sciences
|
||||
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science
|
||||
S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences
|
||||
National Chemical Laboratory
|
||||
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research
|
||||
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics
|
||||
Center For Converging Technologies (University of Rajasthan)
|
||||
Center For Nano Science and Engineering (Indian Institute of Science)
|
||||
Special Centre for Nano Sciences (Jawaharlal Nehru University)
|
||||
Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (Jamia Millia Islamia)
|
||||
Department of Nano Science and Technology (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University)
|
||||
Department of Nanotechnology (University of Kashmir)
|
||||
Parul University Micro-Nano Research & Development Center (Parul University)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Iran ===
|
||||
Iranian Nanotechnology Laboratory Network
|
||||
Iran Nanotechnology Initiative Council (INIC)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ireland ===
|
||||
Collaborative Centre for Applied Nanotechnology
|
||||
|
||||
=== Russia ===
|
||||
Russian Nanotechnology Corporation
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sri Lanka ===
|
||||
Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology
|
||||
|
||||
=== Thailand ===
|
||||
National Nanotechnology Center (NanoTec)
|
||||
|
||||
=== United States ===
|
||||
National Cancer Institute
|
||||
Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer
|
||||
National Institutes of Health
|
||||
Nanomedicine Roadmap Initiative
|
||||
American National Standards Institute Nanotechnology Panel (ANSI-NSP)
|
||||
NanoNed
|
||||
National Nanotechnology Initiative
|
||||
|
||||
=== Venezuela ===
|
||||
Instituto Zuliano de Investigaciones Tecnológicas (INZIT)
|
||||
|
||||
== Advocacy and information groups ==
|
||||
Indian Nano-Biologist Association
|
||||
Nanotechnology Industries Association (NIA)
|
||||
International Institute for Nanotechnology
|
||||
American Nano Society
|
||||
International Association of Nanotechnology
|
||||
Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology, Rice University
|
||||
CMC Microsystems, Canada
|
||||
Foresight Institute (FI)
|
||||
Nano Science and Technology Institute (NSTI)
|
||||
Center for Responsible Nanotechnology
|
||||
Nanotechnology Industries
|
||||
Project On Emerging Nanotechnologies
|
||||
The Nanoethics Group
|
||||
American Chemistry Council Nanotechnology Panel
|
||||
Materials Research Society
|
||||
International Council on Nanotechnology (ICON) at Rice University
|
||||
Schau-Platz NANO, Munich, Germany
|
||||
National Nanomanufacturing Network (NNN)
|
||||
National Nanotechnology Manufacturing Center (NNMC)
|
||||
Institute of Occupational Medicine, Scotland, UK
|
||||
Safenano, Europe's Centre of Excellence on Nanotechnology Hazard and Risk
|
||||
Institute of Nanotechnology, Stirling, Scotland, UK
|
||||
Nanoworld, Russian Society of Scanning Probe Microscopy and Nanotechnology
|
||||
Nano Science and Technology Consortium (NSTC)
|
||||
Biological Applications of Nanotechnology (BANTech), University of Idaho
|
||||
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST)
|
||||
Intelligent Testing Strategies for Engineered Nanomaterials (ITS-NANO)
|
||||
Bangladesh Nano Society (BNS)
|
||||
|
||||
== Publishers ==
|
||||
American Chemical Society - Nano Letters
|
||||
Institute of Physics - Nanotechnology
|
||||
Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
|
||||
NanoTrends - A Journal of Nanotechnology and its Applications
|
||||
SPIE—International Society for Optics and Photonics - Journal of Nanophotonics
|
||||
|
||||
== Higher education and Research Institutes ==
|
||||
See also Nanotechnology education for a listing of universities with nanotechnology degree programs.
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== United States ====
|
||||
Biological Applications of Nanotechnology at University of Idaho
|
||||
Birck Nanotechnology Center at Purdue University
|
||||
California Institute of Nanotechnology
|
||||
California Nanosystems Institute at University of California, Los Angeles and University of California, Santa Barbara
|
||||
Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology at Rice University
|
||||
Center for Hierarchical Manufacturing at University of Massachusetts Amherst
|
||||
Center for Integrative Nanotechnology Sciences at University of Arkansas at Little Rock
|
||||
Center for Nanostructure Characterization and Fabrication at the Georgia Institute of Technology
|
||||
Center for Nanotechnology in Society at Arizona State University
|
||||
Center for Nanotechnology in Society at University of California, Santa Barbara
|
||||
Center of Integrated Nanomechanical Systems and Berkeley Nanosciences and Nanoengineering Institute at University of California, Berkeley
|
||||
College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering at SUNY Albany
|
||||
Cornell NanoScale Science & Technology Facility (CNF) at Cornell University
|
||||
Institute for Micromanufacturing at Louisiana Tech University
|
||||
Institute for NanoBioTechnology at Johns Hopkins University
|
||||
Institute for Nanoscale and Quantum Scientific and Technological Advanced Research (nanoSTAR) at University of Virginia
|
||||
Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT
|
||||
International Institute for Nanotechnology at Northwestern University
|
||||
Kavli Institute at Cornell for Nanoscale Science
|
||||
Kavli Institute for Bionano Science and Technology at Harvard University
|
||||
Kavli Nanoscience Institute at Caltech
|
||||
Nanofabrication Facility at Carnegie Mellon University
|
||||
Nanofabrication Facility at University of Delaware
|
||||
Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center at Columbia University
|
||||
NanoScience Technology Center at University of Central Florida
|
||||
Nanostructured Fluids and Particles at MIT
|
||||
Nano/Bio Interface Center at University of Pennsylvania
|
||||
Nebraska Center for Materials and Nanoscience University of Nebraska–Lincoln
|
||||
Network for Computational Nanotechnology at Purdue University hosting
|
||||
Petersen Institute of Nanoscience and Engineering (PINSE) at University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering
|
||||
Pittsburgh Quantum Institute
|
||||
Richard E Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University
|
||||
Textiles Nanotechnology Laboratory at Cornell University
|
||||
Davis Nano Group at Brigham Young University
|
||||
Vanderbilt Institute of Nanoscale Science and Engineering at Vanderbilt University
|
||||
Nano Institute of Utah at University of Utah
|
||||
Singh Center for Nanotechnology at University of Pennsylvania
|
||||
|
||||
==== Canada ====
|
||||
4D LABS at Simon Fraser University
|
||||
Microsystems and Nanotechnology Research Group at The University of British Columbia
|
||||
Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology at University of Waterloo
|
||||
BioNano Laboratory at University of Guelph
|
||||
Canadian Nano Society at nanosociety.ca
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Denmark ====
|
||||
DTU Nanotech Department of Micro and Nanotechnology at Technical University of Denmark
|
||||
|
||||
==== European Union ====
|
||||
ePIXnet Nanostructuring Platform for Photonic Integration EU funded Framework 6 ePIXnet project
|
||||
|
||||
==== France ====
|
||||
Minatec
|
||||
CEA Léti
|
||||
Institut Néel
|
||||
Institut des nanotechnologies de Lyon
|
||||
Institut des Nanosciences de Paris
|
||||
|
||||
==== Germany ====
|
||||
Center for Applied Nanotechnology (CAN)
|
||||
Center for Nanotechnology at University of Münster
|
||||
Institute of Nanotechnology at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
|
||||
Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
|
||||
|
||||
==== Hungary ====
|
||||
Research Institute for Technical Physics and Materials Science at Hungarian Academy of Sciences
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ireland ====
|
||||
Collaborative Centre for Applied Nanotechnology
|
||||
|
||||
==== Netherlands ====
|
||||
Kavli Institute of Nanoscience at Delft University of Technology
|
||||
MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology at University of Twente
|
||||
|
||||
==== Poland ====
|
||||
Center for Nanotechnology at Gdańsk University of Technology
|
||||
|
||||
==== Portugal ====
|
||||
International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory
|
||||
|
||||
==== Spain ====
|
||||
Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2)
|
||||
Molecular Nanotechnology Lab, University of Alicante
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of nanotechnology organizations"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nanotechnology_organizations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:07.294375+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
==== Switzerland ====
|
||||
Swiss Nanoscience Institute (SNI)
|
||||
|
||||
==== United Kingdom ====
|
||||
Bristol Centre for Functional Nanomaterials at University of Bristol
|
||||
London Centre for Nanotechnology
|
||||
James Watt Nanofabrication Centre at University of Glasgow
|
||||
Manufacturing Engineering Centre at Cardiff University
|
||||
Nanoscale Science & Nanotechnology Group at Newcastle University
|
||||
Southampton Nanofabrication Centre at University of Southampton
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== India ====
|
||||
Institute of Nano Science and Technology
|
||||
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology
|
||||
Srinivas Institute of Technology
|
||||
Centre for Nano and Soft Matter Sciences
|
||||
Centre for Nano Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
|
||||
Nano-Materials Research Lab, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
|
||||
Center for Excellence in Nano-Electronics, Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Bombay
|
||||
Nanoscale Research Facility, IIT Delhi
|
||||
Sophisticated Analytical Instrumentation Facility, DST Unit of Nanoscience, IIT Madras
|
||||
Thematic Unit of Excellence, IIT Kanpur
|
||||
K.B Chandrashekar Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Anna University
|
||||
Department of Physics, Banaras Hindu University
|
||||
Department of Technology, Savitribai Phule Pune University
|
||||
Centre for Research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, University of Calcutta
|
||||
National Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, University of Madras
|
||||
School Of Material Science and Nanotechnology, Jadavpur University
|
||||
Nanotechnology Research Center, SRM University
|
||||
Centre for Nanotechnology Research, VIT University
|
||||
Amrita Centre for Nanoscience and Molecular Medicine, Cochin
|
||||
Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Hyderabad
|
||||
Centre for Converging Technologies, University of Rajasthan
|
||||
National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
|
||||
Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh
|
||||
University Centre of Instrumentation and Microelectronics, Punjab University
|
||||
Nano Cellulose Research Lab, Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology
|
||||
Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Sathyabama University
|
||||
|
||||
Post Graduate Department of Nanoscience and Technology, Mount Carmel College, Bengaluru.
|
||||
School of Nanoscience and Technology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, 416004 Maharashtra
|
||||
Centre for nanoscience and technology, pondicherry university
|
||||
Centre for Research of Nanotechnology, University of Kashmir
|
||||
|
||||
==== Israel ====
|
||||
Tel Aviv University Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
|
||||
|
||||
==== Japan ====
|
||||
Frontier Research Center, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama
|
||||
National Institute for Materials Science
|
||||
International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics
|
||||
|
||||
==== Jordan ====
|
||||
Center for Nanotechnology Research and Development at Jordan University of Science and Technology
|
||||
|
||||
==== Pakistan ====
|
||||
Preston Institute of Nanoscience and Technology
|
||||
|
||||
==== Saudi Arabia ====
|
||||
Nanofabrication Core Lab at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)
|
||||
|
||||
==== South Korea ====
|
||||
Nano-Biomedicine & Imaging Laboratory at Chungju National University
|
||||
|
||||
==== Turkey ====
|
||||
Materials Science and Nanotechnology Program at Bilkent University
|
||||
National Nanotechnology Research Center
|
||||
Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine Program at Hacettepe University
|
||||
SUNUM Nanotechnology Research and Application Center at Sabanci University
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oceania ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Australia ====
|
||||
Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science & Technology at Flinders University in South Australia
|
||||
The University of Sydney Nano Institute (Sydney Nano), at The University of Sydney in Sydney, NSW
|
||||
Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology at University of Queensland in Queensland
|
||||
Nanotechnology in Victoria Consortium joint investment with Monash University and Swinburne University of Technology
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Egypt ====
|
||||
Naqaa Nanotechnology Network NNN, an affiliate of Naqaa foundation for Scientific Research, Technology and Development
|
||||
NanoTech Egypt
|
||||
Egypt Nanotechnology Center
|
||||
Center for Nanotechnology (CNT) at Nile University
|
||||
NBE Institute for Nanoscience and Informatics (INI) at Zewail City of Science and Technology
|
||||
Yousef Jameel Science and Technology Research Center at American University in Cairo
|
||||
|
||||
=== South America ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Mexico ====
|
||||
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Center at National Autonomous University of Mexico
|
||||
Nanotechnology Cluster of Nuevo Leon, AC
|
||||
|
||||
== Manufacturers ==
|
||||
Cerion Advanced Materials, United States
|
||||
CytoViva, inc., United States
|
||||
Genisphere, United States
|
||||
nanoComposix, United States
|
||||
Nanos scientificae, Slovenia
|
||||
nanoCLO (SMC-Pvt) Ltd., Pakistan
|
||||
Nano Group, Serbia
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of nanotechnology topics
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of national and international statistical services"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_and_international_statistical_services"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:12.391292+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of national and international statistical services.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Central national statistical services ==
|
||||
Nearly every country in the world has set a central public sector unit entirely devoted to the production, harmonisation and dissemination of official statistics that the public sector and the national community need to run, monitor and evaluate their operations and policies. This central statistical organisation does not produce every official statistic as other public sector organisations, like the national central bank or ministries in charge of agriculture, education or health, may be charged with producing and disseminating sector policy oriented statistical data. The statistical legislation and regulation generally attribute responsibilities and authorities according to statistical domains or functions in addition to those of the central unit.
|
||||
The table below lists these central statistical organisations by country. The United States has no central producing unit, but several units (also listed below) have been given responsibility over various federal statistics domains (see also: Federal Statistical System of the United States).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Americas ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
(Institutions from countries marked with * are members of Eurostat's European Statistical System (ESS).)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oceania ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Autonomous statistical services at sub-national level ==
|
||||
Some countries are politically organised as federations of states or of autonomous regions; also a specific territory might have been given a partial autonomy. Several of these sub-national regional units have set their own quasi-independent statistical department. A list is presented in Sub-national autonomous statistical services
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== International statistical services ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== United Nations organisations ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Intergovernmental Development and Central Banks ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Regional intergovernmental organisations ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other organisations ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Official statistics
|
||||
Statistics
|
||||
List of statistical topics
|
||||
List of academic statistical associations
|
||||
National agencies responsible for GDP measurement
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
World Bank directory of national statistic sites
|
||||
OECD Worldwide statistical sources
|
||||
UN Statistics Division Information on National Statistical Systems
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of non-Dinosauria fossil trackway articles"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-Dinosauria_fossil_trackway_articles"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:37.267674+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of articles relating to fossil trackways that are outside the category of the numerous fossil dinosaur articles – that refer to tracks or trackways.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of non-Dinosauria fossil trackway articles ==
|
||||
Archaeotherium
|
||||
Arthropleura
|
||||
Chirotherium; (only a related species known)
|
||||
Climactichnites
|
||||
Cruziana
|
||||
Dromornithidae
|
||||
Eurypterid
|
||||
Hibbertopterus
|
||||
Laetoli
|
||||
Laetoli footprints
|
||||
Pterosaur
|
||||
Tetrapod
|
||||
Trace fossil
|
||||
Trilobite
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Location, site articles ===
|
||||
Chuckanut Formation
|
||||
Coconino Sandstone
|
||||
Ipolytarnóc
|
||||
Minas Basin; "fish-fin" trackway
|
||||
Valentia Island
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Protichnites
|
||||
Trace fossil
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of organizations for women in science"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organizations_for_women_in_science"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:19.065845+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of notable organizations for women in science and, more generally; science, technology, engineering, and math.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== General STEM-oriented groups ==
|
||||
International groups who cover the general topics of science, technology, engineering, and math.
|
||||
|
||||
500 Women Scientists
|
||||
American Association of University Women (AAUW)
|
||||
AnitaB.org
|
||||
Association for Women in Science (AWIS)
|
||||
European Platform of Women Scientists
|
||||
Girl Geek Dinners
|
||||
Graduate Women in Science (GWIS; formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon)
|
||||
International Network of Women in Engineering and Sciences
|
||||
Kovalevskaia Fund
|
||||
Laboratoria
|
||||
Outreachy
|
||||
Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World
|
||||
Stemettes
|
||||
Systers
|
||||
Women in Technology International
|
||||
WomenTech Network
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Subject-specific groups ==
|
||||
International groups who focus on specific topics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Computing and Information Technology ===
|
||||
AnitaB.org
|
||||
Association for Computing Machinery Committee on Women
|
||||
Association for Women in Computing
|
||||
BCSWomen, a specialist group of the British Computer Society
|
||||
Black Girls Code
|
||||
BlogHer
|
||||
Center for Women in Technology
|
||||
Committee on Widening Participation in Computing Research (CRA-WP)
|
||||
DC Web Women
|
||||
Django Girls
|
||||
Girl Geek Dinners
|
||||
Girls Who Code
|
||||
Ladies of Code
|
||||
LinuxChix
|
||||
National Center for Women & Information Technology (NCWIT)
|
||||
Native Girls Code
|
||||
Portland Women in Technology (PDX WIT)
|
||||
Pyladies
|
||||
R-Ladies
|
||||
Systers
|
||||
Tech LadyMafia
|
||||
Women in Data
|
||||
Women in Technology International
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Earth & Geosciences ===
|
||||
Association for Women Geoscientists
|
||||
Society of Woman Geographers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Engineering ===
|
||||
Society of Women Engineers (US)
|
||||
Women's Engineering Society (UK)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mathematics ===
|
||||
African Women in Mathematics Association
|
||||
Association for Women in Mathematics
|
||||
European Women in Mathematics
|
||||
Femmes et Mathématiques
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Medical sciences ===
|
||||
American Association for Women in Radiology
|
||||
American Medical Women's Association
|
||||
Association of Women Surgeons
|
||||
Kappa Epsilon (founded 1921 to promote woman pharmacists)
|
||||
Medical Women's International Association (est. 1919)
|
||||
National Association of Women Pharmacists
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Physics ===
|
||||
Working Group on Women in Physics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sociology ===
|
||||
Sociologists for Women in Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Statistics ===
|
||||
Caucus for Women in Statistics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Location-specific organizations ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Rwanda ====
|
||||
Starlight Africa
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Nigeria ====
|
||||
Medical Women's Association of Nigeria
|
||||
Women's Technology Empowerment Centre
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== South Africa ====
|
||||
Women'sNet (South African support for women activists using technology)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Uganda ====
|
||||
WOUGNET (Women of Uganda Network)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Philippines ====
|
||||
WomensHub (Philippines support for women activists using technology)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
European Platform of Women Scientists
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ireland ====
|
||||
Teen Turn
|
||||
Women in Technology and Science
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== United Kingdom ====
|
||||
BCSWomen
|
||||
GlamSci (organization)
|
||||
WISE Campaign
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Scotland =====
|
||||
Equate Scotland
|
||||
Girl Geek Scotland
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== United States ====
|
||||
American Association of University Women (AAUW; founded 1881)
|
||||
Association for Women in Science (AWIS)
|
||||
Girl Develop It
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== California =====
|
||||
San Francisco Women on the Web
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Nevada =====
|
||||
The Diana Initiative
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Washington, D.C. =====
|
||||
DC Web Women
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pacific ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Australia ====
|
||||
Victorian Medical Women's Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Inactive organizations ==
|
||||
Ada Initiative (closed 2015)
|
||||
Women Who Code (closed in 2024)
|
||||
WorldWIT (closed in 2007)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Events ==
|
||||
ACM-W
|
||||
African Summit on Women and Girls in Technology
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
African-American women in computer science
|
||||
African women in engineering
|
||||
American Association of University Women
|
||||
|
||||
Diversity in computing
|
||||
Gender disparity in computing
|
||||
History of women in engineering
|
||||
History of women in engineering in the United Kingdom
|
||||
Index of women scientists articles
|
||||
International Day of Women and Girls in Science
|
||||
List of female Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female scientists before the 20th century
|
||||
List of female scientists in the 21st century
|
||||
List of female scientists in the 20th century
|
||||
List of prizes, medals, and awards for women in science
|
||||
List of African-American women in STEM fields
|
||||
List of inventions and discoveries by women
|
||||
List of women's organizations
|
||||
List of women in mathematics
|
||||
Matilda effect
|
||||
Occupational sexism
|
||||
STEM pipeline
|
||||
Structural inequality in education
|
||||
Timeline of women in science
|
||||
Timeline of women in science in the United States
|
||||
UKRC
|
||||
Women in archaeology
|
||||
Women in climate change
|
||||
Women in chemistry
|
||||
Women in computing
|
||||
Women in engineering
|
||||
Women in engineering in the United States
|
||||
Women in medicine
|
||||
Women in physics
|
||||
Women in science
|
||||
Women in STEM fields
|
||||
Women in the workforce
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Earth Science Women's Network
|
||||
IEEE Women in Engineering
|
||||
Girls into Geoscience
|
||||
SONAC: Sisterhood of Native American Coders
|
||||
PyLadies
|
||||
R-Ladies
|
||||
Women in Geospatial
|
||||
Women in GIS
|
||||
Women's Engineering Society
|
||||
Women Who Code
|
||||
WomenTech Network
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleontologists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:44.782013+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:46.992705+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of paleotempestology records"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleotempestology_records"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:38.755428+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Paleotempestology is the study of past tropical cyclone activity by means of geological proxies as well as historical documentary records. The term was coined by American meteorologist Kerry Emanuel.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Examples ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Non-tropical examples ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Tropical cyclone
|
||||
Tropical cyclone observation
|
||||
Tropical cyclones and climate change
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Citations ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== General sources ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Elsner, James B.; Kara, A. Birol (1999). Hurricanes of the North Atlantic: Climate and Society. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 49–51, 378. ISBN 978-0-19-512508-5.
|
||||
Huang, Yun (2009-01-01). "Sediment records of modern and prehistoric hurricane strikes in Weeks Bay, Alabama". LSU Master's Theses. doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.1922. S2CID 135330841.
|
||||
Kar, Devyani (2010-01-01). "Integration of paleotempestology with coastal risk and vulnerability assessment: case studies from the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua". LSU Doctoral Dissertations. doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.2009. S2CID 134409924.
|
||||
Knowles, Jason (2004-01-01). "Coastal lake-sediment records of prehistoric hurricane strikes in Honduras and Turks and Caicos Islands of the Caribbean basin". LSU Master's Theses. doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.3433. S2CID 134921929.
|
||||
Liu, Kam-biu (2004). "Paleotempestology: Principles, Methods, and Examples from Gulf Coast Lake Sediments". In Murnane, R. J.; Liu, Kam-biu (eds.). Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 13–57. ISBN 978-0-231-12388-4.
|
||||
Liu, Kam-biu (2007). "Paleotempestology". In Elias, Scott A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 1978–1986. ISBN 978-0-444-51922-1.
|
||||
Nott, Jonathan (2004). "Palaeotempestology: the study of prehistoric tropical cyclones—a review and implications for hazard assessment". Environment International. 30 (3): 433–447. Bibcode:2004EnInt..30..433N. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2003.09.010. PMID 14987874.
|
||||
Revkin, Andrew C. (July 24, 2001). "Experts Unearth a Stormy Past". The New York Times.
|
||||
Pouzet, Pierre; Maanan, Mohamed (2020). "Climatological influences on major storm events during the last millennium along the Atlantic coast of France". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 12059. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1012059P. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69069-w. PMC 7374694.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Western North Atlantic Basin 8,000 Year palaeotempestology Database 2018
|
||||
palaeotempestology Resource Center
|
||||
Shipwrecks, tree rings and hurricanes
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of philosophical organizations"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_organizations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:54.796861+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of philosophical organizations and societies.
|
||||
|
||||
Academia Analitica
|
||||
American Association of Philosophy Teachers
|
||||
American Catholic Philosophical Association
|
||||
American Ethical Union
|
||||
American Philosophical Association
|
||||
American Philosophical Society
|
||||
American Society for Aesthetics
|
||||
American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy
|
||||
Animal Rights Cambridge
|
||||
Arché (research center)
|
||||
Aristotelian Society
|
||||
Association for Logic, Language and Information
|
||||
Association for Symbolic Logic
|
||||
Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness
|
||||
Australasian Association of Philosophy
|
||||
Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy
|
||||
British Philosophical Association
|
||||
British Society for Ethical Theory
|
||||
British Society of Aesthetics
|
||||
Café Philosophique
|
||||
Cambridge Philosophical Society
|
||||
Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics
|
||||
Canadian Philosophical Association
|
||||
Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of Mathematics
|
||||
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs
|
||||
Center for Ethics at Yeshiva University
|
||||
Center for Religion, Ethics and Social Policy
|
||||
Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions
|
||||
Centre de Recherche en Epistémologie Appliquée
|
||||
Centre for Applied Ethics
|
||||
Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE)
|
||||
Centre for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds
|
||||
Charity International
|
||||
Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington
|
||||
Commission on Federal Ethics Law Reform
|
||||
Committee on Publication Ethics
|
||||
Computer Ethics Institute
|
||||
Concerned Philosophers for Peace
|
||||
Conscious enterprise
|
||||
CPNSS
|
||||
Cumberland School of Law's Center for Biotechnology, Law, and Ethics
|
||||
District of Columbia Board of Elections and Ethics
|
||||
Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission
|
||||
Ethics and Democracy Network
|
||||
Ethics and Excellence in Journalism Foundation
|
||||
Ethics and Public Policy Center
|
||||
Ethics Commission
|
||||
Ethics Committee (European Union)
|
||||
Ethics Resource Center
|
||||
European Society for Analytic Philosophy
|
||||
European Society for Philosophy and Psychology
|
||||
Federal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology
|
||||
Foundation for Thought and Ethics
|
||||
German Society for Philosophy of Science
|
||||
Hegel Society of America
|
||||
Hegel Society of Great Britain
|
||||
Houston Philosophical Society
|
||||
Human Genetics Commission
|
||||
Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
|
||||
Institute for Global Ethics
|
||||
Institute for Science, Ethics and Innovation
|
||||
Institutional review board
|
||||
International Association for Computing and Philosophy
|
||||
International Association for Philosophy and Literature
|
||||
International Association for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy
|
||||
International Association of Empirical Aesthetics
|
||||
International Bioethics Committee
|
||||
International Federation of Philosophical Societies
|
||||
International Humanist and Ethical Union
|
||||
International Society for Environmental Ethics
|
||||
International Society for Philosophy of Music Education
|
||||
International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science
|
||||
International Society for the History of Rhetoric
|
||||
Jeffersonville Ethics Commission
|
||||
John Dewey Society
|
||||
John Locke Society
|
||||
John Stuart Mill Institute
|
||||
Karl Jaspers Society of North America
|
||||
Kenan Institute for Ethics
|
||||
Kennedy Institute of Ethics
|
||||
Kurt Gödel Society
|
||||
Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne
|
||||
Maguire Center for Ethics
|
||||
Malaysian Philosophy Society
|
||||
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society
|
||||
Markkula Center for Applied Ethics
|
||||
Melbourne School of Continental Philosophy
|
||||
Metaphysical Society
|
||||
Metaphysical Society of America
|
||||
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research
|
||||
Nevada Commission on Ethics
|
||||
Oklahoma Ethics Commission
|
||||
Pennsylvania State Ethics Commission
|
||||
Phi Sigma Tau
|
||||
Philomatic society
|
||||
Philosophy Documentation Center
|
||||
Philosophy of Science Association
|
||||
Philosophy Sharing Foundation
|
||||
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues
|
||||
Royal Institute of Philosophy
|
||||
Royal Institution of South Wales
|
||||
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow
|
||||
Saturday Club (Boston, Massachusetts)
|
||||
Semiotic Society of America
|
||||
Shalom Hartman Institute
|
||||
Society for Applied Philosophy
|
||||
Society for Business Ethics
|
||||
Society for Ethics and Philosophy
|
||||
Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy
|
||||
Society for Philosophical Inquiry
|
||||
Society for Philosophy and Psychology
|
||||
Society of Christian Philosophers
|
||||
Socrates Cafe
|
||||
St James Ethics Centre
|
||||
Swiss Center for Affective Sciences
|
||||
Telos Institute
|
||||
Tennessee Philosophical Association
|
||||
Texas Ethics Commission
|
||||
The British Society for the Philosophy of Religion
|
||||
The Internationale Hegel-Gesellschaft
|
||||
The Internationale Hegel-Vereinigung
|
||||
The Metaphysical Club
|
||||
The Philosophical Society of England
|
||||
Thomas-Institut
|
||||
United States House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct
|
||||
United States Office of Government Ethics
|
||||
United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics
|
||||
University Philosophical Society (Trinity College, Dublin)
|
||||
Van Leer Jerusalem Institute
|
||||
VERITAS/ philosophy students
|
||||
Wesleyan Philosophical Society
|
||||
York virtuosi
|
||||
Yorkshire Philosophical Society
|
||||
351
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-0.md
Normal file
351
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,351 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of philosophies"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:56.166227+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of philosophies, schools of thought and philosophical movements.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Absurdism –
|
||||
Academic skepticism – Accelerationism -
|
||||
Achintya Bheda Abheda –
|
||||
Action, philosophy of –
|
||||
Actual idealism –
|
||||
Actualism –
|
||||
Advaita Vedanta –
|
||||
Aesthetic Realism –
|
||||
Aesthetics –
|
||||
African philosophy –
|
||||
Afrocentrism –
|
||||
Agential realism –
|
||||
Agnosticism –
|
||||
Agnostic theism –
|
||||
Ajātivāda –
|
||||
Ājīvika –
|
||||
Ajñana –
|
||||
Alexandrian school –
|
||||
Alexandrists –
|
||||
Ambedkarism –
|
||||
American philosophy –
|
||||
Analytical Thomism –
|
||||
Analytic philosophy –
|
||||
Anarchism –
|
||||
Ancient philosophy –
|
||||
Animism –
|
||||
Anomalous monism –
|
||||
Anthropocentrism –
|
||||
Antinatalism –
|
||||
Antinomianism –
|
||||
Antipositivism –
|
||||
Anti-psychiatry –
|
||||
Anti-realism –
|
||||
Antireductionism –
|
||||
Applied ethics –
|
||||
Archaeology, philosophy of –
|
||||
Aristotelianism –
|
||||
Arithmetic, philosophy of –
|
||||
Artificial intelligence, philosophy of –
|
||||
Art, philosophy of –
|
||||
Asceticism –
|
||||
Atheism –
|
||||
Atomism –
|
||||
Augustinianism –
|
||||
Australian realism –
|
||||
Authoritarianism –
|
||||
Averroism –
|
||||
Avicennism –
|
||||
Axiology –
|
||||
Aztec philosophy
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Baptists –
|
||||
Bayesianism –
|
||||
Behaviorism –
|
||||
Bioconservatism –
|
||||
Biology, philosophy of –
|
||||
Biosophy –
|
||||
Bluestocking –
|
||||
Brahmoism –
|
||||
British idealism –
|
||||
Budapest School –
|
||||
Buddhist atomism –
|
||||
Buddhist philosophy –
|
||||
Business philosophy
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Cambridge Platonists –
|
||||
Cambridge Ritualists –
|
||||
Capitalism –
|
||||
Carlyleanism –
|
||||
Carolingian Renaissance –
|
||||
Cartesianism –
|
||||
Categorical imperative –
|
||||
Chance, Philosophy of –
|
||||
Changzhou School of Thought –
|
||||
Charvaka –
|
||||
Chinese naturalism –
|
||||
Christian existentialism –
|
||||
Christian humanism –
|
||||
Christian neoplatonism –
|
||||
Christian mysticism –
|
||||
Christian philosophy –
|
||||
Chinese philosophy –
|
||||
Classical Marxism –
|
||||
Cognitivism –
|
||||
Collegium Conimbricense –
|
||||
Color, philosophy of –
|
||||
Common Sense, philosophy of –
|
||||
Communism –
|
||||
Communitarianism –
|
||||
Compatibilism and incompatibilism –
|
||||
Computationalism –
|
||||
Conceptualism –
|
||||
Confirmation holism –
|
||||
Confucianism –
|
||||
Connectionism –
|
||||
Consequentialism –
|
||||
Conservatism –
|
||||
Constructivist epistemology –
|
||||
Continental philosophy –
|
||||
Cosmicism –
|
||||
Cosmopolitanism –
|
||||
Critical rationalism –
|
||||
Critical realism –
|
||||
Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences) –
|
||||
Critical theory –
|
||||
Culture, philosophy of –
|
||||
Cyberfeminism –
|
||||
Cynicism –
|
||||
Cyrenaics –
|
||||
Czech philosophy
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Danish philosophy –
|
||||
Daoism –
|
||||
Deconstruction –
|
||||
Deep ecology –
|
||||
Deism –
|
||||
Denialism –
|
||||
Deontology –
|
||||
Depressionism –
|
||||
Design, philosophy of –
|
||||
Determinism –
|
||||
Dialectic –
|
||||
Dialectical materialism –
|
||||
Dialogue, philosophy of –
|
||||
Didacticism –
|
||||
Digital physics –
|
||||
Discordianism –
|
||||
Doubting Antiquity School –
|
||||
Dualistic cosmology –
|
||||
Dvaita –
|
||||
Dvaitadvaita
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Eating, philosophy of –
|
||||
Ecocentrism –
|
||||
Economics, philosophy of –
|
||||
Ecumenism –
|
||||
Education, philosophy of –
|
||||
Egalitarianism –
|
||||
Egocentrism –
|
||||
Egoism –
|
||||
Egoist anarchism –
|
||||
Eleatics –
|
||||
Eliminative materialism –
|
||||
Emanationism –
|
||||
Emergentism –
|
||||
Emotivism –
|
||||
Empiricism –
|
||||
Engineering, philosophy of –
|
||||
Ephesian school –
|
||||
Epicureanism –
|
||||
Epiphenomenalism –
|
||||
Epistemological nihilism –
|
||||
Epistemology –
|
||||
Eretrian school –
|
||||
Esotericism –
|
||||
Essentialism –
|
||||
Eternalism –
|
||||
Ethics –
|
||||
Ethiopian philosophy –
|
||||
Eudaimonism –
|
||||
Existentialism –
|
||||
Externalism
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Fallibilism –
|
||||
Familialism –
|
||||
Fascism –
|
||||
Fatalism –
|
||||
Feminist philosophy –
|
||||
Fictionalism –
|
||||
Fideism –
|
||||
Filial piety –
|
||||
Film, philosophy of –
|
||||
Formalism (literature) –
|
||||
Formalism (philosophy) –
|
||||
Foundationalism –
|
||||
Frankfurt School –
|
||||
Free will –
|
||||
Fugitives (poets) –
|
||||
Fundamentalism –
|
||||
Futility, philosophy of
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gaia philosophy –
|
||||
Gandhism –
|
||||
Gaudiya Vaishnavism –
|
||||
Geographical philosophy –
|
||||
German historical school –
|
||||
German idealism –
|
||||
German philosophy –
|
||||
Gnosticism –
|
||||
Greek philosophy
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Haskalah –
|
||||
Healthcare, philosophy of –
|
||||
Hedonism –
|
||||
Hegelianism –
|
||||
Hellenistic philosophy –
|
||||
Henotheism –
|
||||
Hermeticism –
|
||||
Heterophenomenology –
|
||||
Hindu philosophy –
|
||||
Historical materialism –
|
||||
Historicism –
|
||||
History of religions school –
|
||||
History, philosophy of –
|
||||
Holism –
|
||||
Homaranismo-
|
||||
Hongaku –
|
||||
Huang–Lao –
|
||||
Humanism –
|
||||
Humanistic naturalism –
|
||||
Hylozoism
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Idealism –
|
||||
Identityism –
|
||||
Ideological criticism –
|
||||
Ignosticism –
|
||||
Illegalism –
|
||||
Illuminationism –
|
||||
Indian logic –
|
||||
Indian philosophy –
|
||||
Indigenous American philosophy –
|
||||
Individualism –
|
||||
Indonesian philosophy –
|
||||
Inductionism –
|
||||
Induction /
|
||||
Informal logic –
|
||||
Information, philosophy of –
|
||||
Innatism –
|
||||
Instrumentalism –
|
||||
Instrumental rationality –
|
||||
Intellectualism –
|
||||
Interactionism (philosophy of mind) –
|
||||
Internalism and externalism –
|
||||
Intuitionism –
|
||||
Ionian school
|
||||
- Iranian philosophy – Irrealism (philosophy) - Irrealism (the arts) – Islamic ethics –
|
||||
Islamic philosophy – Italian school
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Jainism –
|
||||
Japanese philosophy –
|
||||
Jewish philosophy –
|
||||
Jingoism –
|
||||
Juche –
|
||||
Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) –
|
||||
Just war theory
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
Kabbalah –
|
||||
Kantianism –
|
||||
Keynesianism –
|
||||
Kaozheng –
|
||||
Korean philosophy –
|
||||
Krausism –
|
||||
Kyoto school
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Lamarckism –
|
||||
Language, philosophy of –
|
||||
Law, philosophy of –
|
||||
Lawsonomy –
|
||||
Legal positivism –
|
||||
Legal realism –
|
||||
Legalism (Chinese philosophy) –
|
||||
Leninism –
|
||||
Liberalism –
|
||||
Liberal naturalism –
|
||||
Libertarianism –
|
||||
Libertarianism (metaphysics) –
|
||||
Libertinism –
|
||||
Linguistics, philosophy of –
|
||||
Logic –
|
||||
Logical atomism –
|
||||
Logical positivism –
|
||||
Logicians –
|
||||
Logic in China –
|
||||
Logic in Islamic philosophy –
|
||||
Logicism –
|
||||
Logic, philosophy of –
|
||||
Love, philosophy of –
|
||||
Luddism –
|
||||
Lwów–Warsaw school –
|
||||
Lysenkoism
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Madhyamaka –
|
||||
Mahayana Buddhism-
|
||||
Manichaeism –
|
||||
Maoism –
|
||||
Marburg school –
|
||||
Marxism –
|
||||
Marxist humanism –
|
||||
Marxism–Leninism –
|
||||
Marxism–Leninism–Maoism –
|
||||
Marxist philosophy of nature –
|
||||
Materialism –
|
||||
Mathematicism –
|
||||
Mathematics education, philosophy of –
|
||||
Mathematics, philosophy of –
|
||||
Maxim (philosophy) –
|
||||
Mechanism –
|
||||
Medical ethics –
|
||||
Medievalism –
|
||||
Medieval philosophy –
|
||||
Megarian school –
|
||||
Mentalism –
|
||||
Mereological nihilism –
|
||||
Merism –
|
||||
Meta-ethics –
|
||||
Meta-philosophy –
|
||||
Metaphysics –
|
||||
Milesian school –
|
||||
Mimamsa –
|
||||
Mind-body dualism –
|
||||
Mind, philosophy of –
|
||||
Misology –
|
||||
Mitogaku –
|
||||
Modern Islamic philosophy –
|
||||
Modernism –
|
||||
Modistae –
|
||||
Mohism –
|
||||
Molinism –
|
||||
Monism –
|
||||
Moral absolutism –
|
||||
Moral realism –
|
||||
Moral relativism –
|
||||
Moral skepticism –
|
||||
Motion, philosophy of –
|
||||
Music, philosophy of –
|
||||
Mysticism
|
||||
289
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-1.md
Normal file
289
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,289 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of philosophies"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:56.166227+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Naïve realism –
|
||||
Naturalism –
|
||||
Natural Science, philosophy of –
|
||||
Natural Supernaturalism –
|
||||
Nature, philosophy of –
|
||||
Nazism –
|
||||
Negative utilitarianism –
|
||||
Neo-Confucianism –
|
||||
Neoconservatism –
|
||||
Neo-Hegelianism –
|
||||
Neohumanism –
|
||||
Neoliberalism –
|
||||
Neo-Luddism –
|
||||
Neo-Kantianism –
|
||||
Neo-Marxism –
|
||||
Neo-medievalism –
|
||||
Neoplatonism –
|
||||
Neopositivism –
|
||||
Neopragmatism –
|
||||
Neopythagoreanism –
|
||||
Neoromanticism –
|
||||
Neo-Scholasticism –
|
||||
Neostoicism –
|
||||
Neotaoism –
|
||||
Neo Vedanta –
|
||||
Neuroethics –
|
||||
Neurophilosophy –
|
||||
Neuroscience, philosophy of –
|
||||
Neurotheology –
|
||||
Neutral monism –
|
||||
New Age –
|
||||
New Criticism –
|
||||
New Culture Movement –
|
||||
New Formalism –
|
||||
New humanism (literature) –
|
||||
New Life Movement –
|
||||
New realism –
|
||||
New Thought –
|
||||
Nichiren Buddhism –
|
||||
Nihilism –
|
||||
Nominalism –
|
||||
Non-cognitivism –
|
||||
Nondualism –
|
||||
Non-philosophy –
|
||||
Non-theism –
|
||||
Nyaya
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Objective idealism –
|
||||
Objectivism –
|
||||
Occamism –
|
||||
Occasionalism –
|
||||
Olympism –
|
||||
Ontology –
|
||||
Ontotheology –
|
||||
Open individualism –
|
||||
Organicism –
|
||||
Oxford Calculators –
|
||||
Oxford Franciscan school
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Paganism –
|
||||
Pakistani philosophy –
|
||||
Panbabylonism –
|
||||
Pancasila –
|
||||
Pancritical rationalism –
|
||||
Pandeism –
|
||||
Panentheism –
|
||||
Panpsychism –
|
||||
Pantheism –
|
||||
Pataphysics –
|
||||
Perception, philosophy of –
|
||||
Perennial philosophy –
|
||||
Perfectionism –
|
||||
Peripatetic school –
|
||||
Personalism –
|
||||
Perspectivism –
|
||||
Pessimism –
|
||||
Phenomenalism –
|
||||
Phenomenology –
|
||||
Philosophes –
|
||||
Philosophical anthropology –
|
||||
Philosophy, philosophy of –
|
||||
Physicalism –
|
||||
Physical ontology –
|
||||
Physics, philosophy of –
|
||||
Platonic epistemology –
|
||||
Platonic idealism –
|
||||
Platonic realism –
|
||||
Platonism –
|
||||
Pluralism –
|
||||
Pluralism (Presocratic) –
|
||||
Political philosophy –
|
||||
Populism –
|
||||
Port-Royal schools –
|
||||
Posadism –
|
||||
Positivism –
|
||||
Postanalytic philosophy – Postgenderism -
|
||||
Posthumanism –
|
||||
Post-materialism –
|
||||
Post-modernism –
|
||||
Postpositivism –
|
||||
Post-structuralism –
|
||||
Practical reason –
|
||||
Pragmatism –
|
||||
Praxis School –
|
||||
Presentism –
|
||||
Pre-Socratic philosophy –
|
||||
Probabilism –
|
||||
Process philosophy –
|
||||
Progressivism –
|
||||
Property dualism –
|
||||
Pseudophilosophy –
|
||||
Psychiatry, philosophy of –
|
||||
Psychological egoism –
|
||||
Psychology, philosophy of –
|
||||
Pure practical reason –
|
||||
Pure reason –
|
||||
Pyrrhonian skepticism –
|
||||
Pyrrhonism –
|
||||
Pythagoreanism
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Qingtan –
|
||||
Quantum mysticism –
|
||||
Quietism
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Radical behaviorism –
|
||||
Raëlism –
|
||||
Rastafari –
|
||||
Rationalism –
|
||||
Realism –
|
||||
Reconstructivism –
|
||||
Reductionism –
|
||||
Reductive materialism –
|
||||
Reformational philosophy –
|
||||
Relationalism –
|
||||
Relativism –
|
||||
Relevance logic –
|
||||
Reliabilism –
|
||||
Religion, philosophy of –
|
||||
Religious language, philosophy of –
|
||||
Religious humanism –
|
||||
Religious philosophy –
|
||||
Renaissance humanism –
|
||||
Representationalism –
|
||||
Romanian philosophy –
|
||||
Romanticism –
|
||||
Russian cosmism – Religious Zionism –
|
||||
Russian formalism –
|
||||
Russian philosophy
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Sabellianism –
|
||||
Sanatan Dharma –
|
||||
Sankhya –
|
||||
Sarvastivada –
|
||||
Sautrantika –
|
||||
Scholasticism –
|
||||
School of Names –
|
||||
School of Salamanca –
|
||||
School of the Sextii –
|
||||
Science, philosophy of –
|
||||
Scientism –
|
||||
Scotism –
|
||||
Scottish common sense realism –
|
||||
Scottish philosophy –
|
||||
Secular humanism –
|
||||
Secularism –
|
||||
Self, philosophy of –
|
||||
Semantic holism –
|
||||
Sensualism –
|
||||
Sexism –
|
||||
Sex, philosophy of –
|
||||
Sexualism –
|
||||
Shamanism –
|
||||
Shaktism -
|
||||
Shaykhism –
|
||||
Shuddhadvaita –
|
||||
Sikhism –
|
||||
Singularitarianism –
|
||||
Situationist theory –
|
||||
Skeptical theism –
|
||||
Skepticism –
|
||||
Socialism –
|
||||
Social liberalism –
|
||||
Social philosophy –
|
||||
Social science, philosophy of –
|
||||
Solipsism –
|
||||
Sophism –
|
||||
Southern Agrarians –
|
||||
Space and time, philosophy of –
|
||||
Speculative realism –
|
||||
Spiritualism –
|
||||
Spiritual philosophy –
|
||||
Sport, philosophy of –
|
||||
Statistics, philosophy of –
|
||||
Stoicism –
|
||||
Structuralism –
|
||||
Subjective idealism –
|
||||
Subjectivism –
|
||||
Sufi metaphysics –
|
||||
Sufi philosophy –
|
||||
Śūnyatā –
|
||||
Supersessionism –
|
||||
Synoptic philosophy –
|
||||
Systems philosophy
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Taoism –
|
||||
Teleology –
|
||||
Tetralemma –
|
||||
Theism –
|
||||
Theistic finitism –
|
||||
Thelema –
|
||||
Theology –
|
||||
Theosophy –
|
||||
Theravada Buddhism –
|
||||
Thermal and statistical physics, philosophy of –
|
||||
Thomas Carlyle, philosophy of –
|
||||
Thomism –
|
||||
Traditionalist School –
|
||||
Transcendental idealism –
|
||||
Transcendentalism –
|
||||
Transcendent theosophy –
|
||||
Transhumanism –
|
||||
Transmodernism –
|
||||
Tridemism –
|
||||
Type physicalism
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Ubuntu –
|
||||
Universalism –
|
||||
Universality –
|
||||
Utilitarian bioethics –
|
||||
Utilitarianism –
|
||||
Utopian socialism
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Vaibhashika –
|
||||
Value pluralism –
|
||||
Value theory –
|
||||
Vedanta –
|
||||
Verificationism –
|
||||
Verism –
|
||||
Vienna Circle –
|
||||
Virtue ethics –
|
||||
Vishishtadvaita –
|
||||
Vitalism –
|
||||
Voluntarism –
|
||||
Voluntaryism –
|
||||
Vivartavada
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Wahdat-ul-Shuhud –
|
||||
Wahdat-ul-Wujood –
|
||||
War, philosophy of –
|
||||
Weimar Classicism –
|
||||
Western philosophy –
|
||||
Wu wei
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
Xenofeminism –
|
||||
Xueheng School
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Yogachara –
|
||||
Young Hegelians
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Zen –
|
||||
Zoroastrianism –
|
||||
Zurvanism
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Glossary of philosophy
|
||||
List of philosophical organizations
|
||||
86
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants-0.md
Normal file
86
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of physical constants"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:15.339487+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The constants listed here are known values of physical constants expressed in SI units; that is, physical quantities that are generally believed to be universal in nature and thus are independent of the unit system in which they are measured. Many of these are redundant, in the sense that they obey a known relationship with other physical constants and can be determined from them.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Table of physical constants ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Uncertainties ==
|
||||
While the values of the physical constants are independent of the system of units in use, each uncertainty as stated reflects our lack of knowledge of the corresponding value as expressed in SI units, and is strongly dependent on how those units are defined. For example, the atomic mass constant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
u
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{\text{u}}}
|
||||
|
||||
is exactly known when expressed using the dalton (its value is exactly 1 Da), but the kilogram is not exactly known when using these units, the opposite of when expressing the same quantities using the kilogram.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Technical constants ==
|
||||
Some of these constants are of a technical nature and do not give any true physical property, but they are included for convenience. Such a constant gives the correspondence ratio of a technical dimension with its corresponding underlying physical dimension. These include the Boltzmann constant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
k
|
||||
|
||||
B
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}}
|
||||
|
||||
, which gives the correspondence of the dimension temperature to the dimension of energy per degree of freedom, and the Avogadro constant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
N
|
||||
|
||||
A
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle N_{\text{A}}}
|
||||
|
||||
, which gives the correspondence of the dimension of amount of substance with the dimension of count of entities (the latter formally regarded in the SI as being dimensionless). By implication, any product of powers of such constants is also such a constant, such as the molar gas constant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle R}
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of mathematical constants
|
||||
Mathematical constant
|
||||
Physical constant
|
||||
List of particles
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
96
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_conferences-0.md
Normal file
96
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_conferences-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of physics conferences"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_conferences"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:08.439068+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of academic conferences in physics and astronomy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== On specific lectures ==
|
||||
This section includes only events that have a link within Wikipedia
|
||||
|
||||
1959 Richard Feynman's There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, American Physical Society meeting
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== On singular or limited events ==
|
||||
This section includes only events that have a link within Wikipedia
|
||||
|
||||
1798 European congress of astronomers
|
||||
1900 International Congress of Physics
|
||||
1927 Como Conference
|
||||
1935–1947 Washington Conferences on Theoretical Physics
|
||||
1947 Shelter Island Conference
|
||||
1948 Pocono Conference
|
||||
1949 Oldstone Conference
|
||||
1952–1958 Sherwood conferences by Project Sherwood
|
||||
1959 Chapel Hill Conference
|
||||
1987 American Physical Society meeting, also known as the Woodstock of physics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Recurring events ==
|
||||
|
||||
European Conference on the Dynamics of Molecular Systems
|
||||
International Colloquium on Group Theoretical Methods in Physics
|
||||
International Conference of Laser Applications by the Society for Optical and Quantum Electronics
|
||||
International Conference of Physics Students by the International Association of Physics Students (IAPS)
|
||||
International Conference on
|
||||
Cold Fusion
|
||||
Defects in Semiconductors
|
||||
Differential Geometric Methods in Theoretical Physics
|
||||
Electronic Properties of Two-Dimensional Systems
|
||||
High Energy Physics, by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP), also known as the Rochester Conferences
|
||||
Low Temperature Physics by the IUPAP
|
||||
Neutrino Physics and Astrophysics
|
||||
Nitride Semiconductors
|
||||
Photonic, Electronic and Atomic Collisions
|
||||
Physics of Light–Matter Coupling in Nanostructures
|
||||
Radiation Effects in Insulators
|
||||
Surface Plasmon Photonics
|
||||
the Physics of Semiconductors
|
||||
X-Ray Microscopy
|
||||
International Congress on Mathematical Physics by the International Association of Mathematical Physics
|
||||
International Cosmic Ray Conference by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP)
|
||||
International Society for the Study of Time
|
||||
International Workshop on 1 & 2 Dimensional Magnetic Measurement and Testing
|
||||
International Workshop on Nitride Semiconductors
|
||||
International Youth Nuclear Congress
|
||||
International Symposium on Small Particles and Inorganic Clusters
|
||||
Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings
|
||||
Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
|
||||
Macarthur Astronomy Forum
|
||||
Middle European Cooperation in Statistical Physics
|
||||
Minkowski Meetings on the Foundations of Spacetime Physics by the Institute of Foundational Studies Hermann Minkowski
|
||||
National Astronomy Meeting
|
||||
Pacific Coast Gravity Meeting
|
||||
Poincaré Seminars
|
||||
SigmaPhi International Conference on Statistical Physics
|
||||
Snowmass Process by the American Physical Society (APS)
|
||||
Soft Magnetic Materials Conference
|
||||
Solvay Conference by the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry
|
||||
STATPHYS by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP)
|
||||
Strings (conference)
|
||||
Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics
|
||||
Workshop on Geometric Methods in Physics by the University of Białystok.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Proceedings ==
|
||||
This section includes only publications related to conferences that have a link within Wikipedia
|
||||
|
||||
AIP Conference Proceedings by the American Institute of Physics (AIP)
|
||||
Journal of Physics: Conference Series by IOP Publishing
|
||||
Proceedings of SPIE
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of physics journals
|
||||
List of important publications in physics
|
||||
List of physics awards
|
||||
List of computer science conferences
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
142
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_journals-0.md
Normal file
142
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_journals-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of physics journals"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_journals"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:30.911563+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of physics journals with existing articles on Wikipedia. The list is organized by subfields of physics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== By subject ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== General ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Astrophysics ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Atomic, molecular, and optical physics ===
|
||||
European Physical Journal D
|
||||
Journal of Physics B
|
||||
Laser Physics
|
||||
Molecular Physics
|
||||
Physical Review A
|
||||
International Journal of Modern Physics B
|
||||
Modern Physics Letters B
|
||||
Physics Letters A
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Plasmas ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Measurement ===
|
||||
Measurement Science and Technology
|
||||
Metrologia
|
||||
Review of Scientific Instruments
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Nuclear and particle physics ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Optics ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Computational physics ===
|
||||
Computational Materials Science
|
||||
Computer Physics Communications
|
||||
International Journal of Modern Physics C (computational physics, physical computations)
|
||||
Journal of Computational Physics
|
||||
Physical Review E, section E13
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Condensed matter and materials science ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Low temperature physics ===
|
||||
Journal of Low Temperature Physics
|
||||
Low Temperature Physics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Chemical physics ===
|
||||
Chemical Physics Letters
|
||||
Journal of Chemical Physics
|
||||
Journal of Physical Chemistry A
|
||||
Journal of Physical Chemistry B
|
||||
Journal of Physical Chemistry C
|
||||
Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
|
||||
Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Soft matter physics ===
|
||||
European Physical Journal E
|
||||
Journal of Polymer Science Part B
|
||||
Soft Matter
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Medical physics ===
|
||||
Australasian Physical & Engineering Sciences in Medicine
|
||||
BMC Medical Physics
|
||||
Bioelectromagnetics
|
||||
Health Physics
|
||||
Journal of Medical Physics
|
||||
Magnetic Resonance in Medicine
|
||||
Medical Physics
|
||||
Physics in Medicine and Biology
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Biological physics ===
|
||||
Annual Review of Biophysics
|
||||
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
|
||||
Biophysical Journal
|
||||
Biophysical Reviews and Letters
|
||||
Doklady Biochemistry and Biophysics
|
||||
European Biophysics Journal
|
||||
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
|
||||
Physical Biology
|
||||
Radiation and Environmental Biophysics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Statistical and nonlinear physics ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Theoretical and mathematical physics ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Quantum information ===
|
||||
Quantum
|
||||
Journal of Quantum Information Science
|
||||
International Journal of Quantum Information
|
||||
npj Quantum Information
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geophysics and planetology ===
|
||||
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
|
||||
Geophysical & Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics formerly Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
|
||||
Geophysical Journal International formerly Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
|
||||
Geophysical Research Letters
|
||||
Icarus
|
||||
Journal of Geophysical Research
|
||||
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
|
||||
Planetary and Space Science
|
||||
Reviews of Geophysics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Acoustics ===
|
||||
Journal of Sound and Vibration
|
||||
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
|
||||
Journal of Theoretical and Computational Acoustics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of scientific journals
|
||||
List of fluid mechanics journals
|
||||
List of materials science journals
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
EPS recognized physics journals
|
||||
129
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_mnemonics-0.md
Normal file
129
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_mnemonics-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of physics mnemonics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_mnemonics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:43.935223+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a categorized list of physics mnemonics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mechanics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Work: formula ===
|
||||
"Lots of Work makes me Mad!":
|
||||
Work = Mad:
|
||||
M=Mass
|
||||
a=acceleration
|
||||
d=distance
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Thermodynamics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ideal gas law ===
|
||||
"Pure Virgins Never Really Tire":
|
||||
PV=nRT
|
||||
The equation PV = nRT represents the ideal gas law, where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, R is the universal gas constant, and T is the temperature.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gibbs's free energy formula ===
|
||||
"Good Honey Tastes Sweet":
|
||||
(delta)G = H - T(delta)S.
|
||||
Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic state function that measures the energy available for a system to do work, and is given by the formula G = H – TS, where H is enthalpy, T is temperature, and S is entropy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Electrodynamics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ohm's law ===
|
||||
"Virgins Are Rare":
|
||||
Volts = Amps x Resistance
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Relation between Resistance and Resistivity ===
|
||||
REPLAY
|
||||
Resistance = ρ (Length/Area)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Inductive and Capacitive circuits ===
|
||||
Once upon a time, the symbol E (for electromotive force) was used to designate voltages. Then, every student learned the phrase
|
||||
ELI the ICE man
|
||||
as a reminder that:
|
||||
|
||||
For an inductive (L) circuit, the EMF (E) is ahead of the current (I)
|
||||
While for a capactive circuit (C), the current (I) is ahead of the EMF (E).
|
||||
And then they all lived happily ever after.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Open and Short circuits ===
|
||||
"There are zero COVS grazing in the field!"
|
||||
This is a mnemonic to remember the useful fact that:
|
||||
|
||||
The Current through an Open circuit is always zero
|
||||
The Voltage across a Short circuit is always zero
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Order of rainbow colors ===
|
||||
|
||||
ROYGBIV (in reverse VIBGYOR) is commonly used to remember the order of colors in the visible light spectrum, as seen in a rainbow.
|
||||
Richard of York gave battle in vain"
|
||||
|
||||
(red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet).
|
||||
Additionally, the fictitious name Roy G. Biv can be used as well.
|
||||
|
||||
(red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Speed of light ===
|
||||
The phrase "We guarantee certainty, clearly referring to this light mnemonic." represents the speed of light in meters per second through the number of letters in each word: 299,792,458.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Electromagnetic spectrum ===
|
||||
In the order of increasing frequency or decreasing wavelength of electromagnetic waves;
|
||||
|
||||
Road Men Invented Very Unique Xtra Gums
|
||||
Ronald McDonald Invented Very Unusual & eXcellent Gherkins.
|
||||
Remember My Instructions Visible Under X-Ray Glasses
|
||||
Raging (or Red) Martians Invaded Venus Using X-ray Guns.
|
||||
Rahul's Mother Is Visiting Uncle Xavier's Garden.
|
||||
Ryann May I Visit YoUr eX-Girlfriend?
|
||||
Rich Men In Vegas Use eXpensive Gadgets
|
||||
Rich Men In Vegas Use X-ray Glasses
|
||||
Royal Magicians Interested Viewing Untied X-mas Gifts
|
||||
Retention of Migrant & Immigrant data Varies Under eXternal GDPR
|
||||
In the order of increasing wavelength;
|
||||
|
||||
Good Xylophones Use Very Interesting Musical Rhythms.
|
||||
Godzilla-X Using Violence In Meeting Room.
|
||||
Granddad Xavier Unfortunately Vomitted In My Room.
|
||||
Grandma's X-Large Underwear Visible In My Room.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Microwave frequency bands ===
|
||||
|
||||
Microwave frequency bands ordered by increasing wavelengths (decreasing frequencies):
|
||||
King Xerxes Can Seduce Lovely (princesses)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radium series (or uranium series) ===
|
||||
To remember the decay chain of 238U, commonly called the "radium series" (sometimes "uranium series"). Beginning with naturally occurring uranium-238;
|
||||
|
||||
A Bitty Bitty Ant Asked Another Ant About Bitty Bitty Ants' Bitty Bitty Aunts
|
||||
A = alpha decay
|
||||
B = beta decay
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of electronic color code mnemonics
|
||||
List of chemistry mnemonics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
249
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks-0.md
Normal file
249
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of research parks"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:09.778701+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of science park, technology parks and biomedical parks of the world, organized by continent.
|
||||
|
||||
== Asia ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== China ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Mainland China ====
|
||||
Shanghai Pudong Software Park (Shanghai)
|
||||
Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park (aka Zhangjiang Drug Valley) (Shanghai)
|
||||
Shenzhen Hi-Tech Industrial Park (Shenzhen)
|
||||
Suzhou BioBay (Suzhou)
|
||||
Suzhou Industrial Park (Suzhou)
|
||||
Zhongguancun (aka Beijing Zhong-guan-cun Life Science Park) (Beijing)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Hong Kong ====
|
||||
Cyberport
|
||||
Hong Kong Science Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== India ===
|
||||
Genome Valley
|
||||
Alexandria Knowledge Park
|
||||
Alexandria Center for Science and Innovation
|
||||
IKP Knowledge Park
|
||||
Rajiv Gandhi Infotech Park
|
||||
IITB Aspire, Mumbai
|
||||
Life Science Hub, Mumbai
|
||||
IIT Madras Research Park
|
||||
IIT Bhubaneswar Research & Entrepreneurship Park
|
||||
National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Trivandrum
|
||||
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Trivandrum*
|
||||
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Trivandrum
|
||||
National Centre for Earth Science Studies, Trivandrum
|
||||
Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research, Trivandrum
|
||||
Institute of Advanced Virology, Kerala, Trivandrum
|
||||
KIIT Technology Business Incubator
|
||||
Electropreneur Park Bhubaneswar
|
||||
O Hub
|
||||
Bhubaneswar City Knowledge Innovation Cluster
|
||||
CSRI-IMMT InTEC & CRTDH
|
||||
IIT Hyderabad Research Park and Incubation Park ( Both are different areas )
|
||||
|
||||
=== Indonesia ===
|
||||
Bandung Techno Park
|
||||
Cimahi Techno Park
|
||||
Solo Techno Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Iran ===
|
||||
|
||||
Isfahan Science and Technology Town Archived 25 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Qazvin Science & Technology Park
|
||||
Pardis Technology Park
|
||||
Kurdistan Science and Technology Town
|
||||
Pardis Technology Park
|
||||
Science & Technology Park-IASBS
|
||||
Khorasan Science and Technology Park
|
||||
Sheikh Bahai Technology Park
|
||||
Guilan Science and Technology Park
|
||||
Semnan Science and Technology Park - SSTP
|
||||
East Azarbaijan Science and Technology Park
|
||||
Yazd Province Technology Park
|
||||
Markazi Province Technology Park
|
||||
Fars Province Technology Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Israel ===
|
||||
Silicon Wadi
|
||||
Startup Village - Yokneam
|
||||
Matam - Haifa
|
||||
Jerusalem Technology Park
|
||||
Har Hotzvim, Jerusalem
|
||||
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot
|
||||
Tamar Science Park (Rehovot)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Japan ===
|
||||
Kansai Science City
|
||||
Kyoto Research Park (KRP)
|
||||
Tokyo Bay Biotech cluster
|
||||
Tsukuba Science City
|
||||
Yokosuka Research Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Malaysia ===
|
||||
Cyberjaya (near Kuala Lumpur)
|
||||
Technology Park Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur)
|
||||
UTM Technovation Park (University of Technology Malaysia, Johor)
|
||||
Sciences & Arts Innovation Space - SAINS@USM (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pakistan ===
|
||||
National Science and Technology Park (NSTP) - Islamabad
|
||||
Kahuta Research Laboratories, (Military research complex, Kahuta)
|
||||
National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad
|
||||
Arfa Karim Technology Park (former Software Technology Park) - Lahore
|
||||
IT Media City - Karachi
|
||||
Silicon Village- Islamabad
|
||||
|
||||
=== Philippines ===
|
||||
Light Industry and Science Park of the Philippines II, Laguna
|
||||
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
|
||||
Calamba Premiere International Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Qatar ===
|
||||
Qatar Science & Technology Park (Doha)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Saudi Arabia ===
|
||||
KAUST Research Park
|
||||
King Abdullah Science Park at KFUPM
|
||||
Wadi Makkah
|
||||
Riyadh Techno Valley
|
||||
|
||||
=== Singapore ===
|
||||
Biopolis
|
||||
Singapore Science Park (Singapore)
|
||||
|
||||
=== South Korea ===
|
||||
Daedeok Science Town
|
||||
Digital Media City
|
||||
Gumi Research Park
|
||||
Pohang Research Centre
|
||||
Changwon Industrial Park
|
||||
Ulsan Industrial Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Taiwan ===
|
||||
Hsinchu Science Park (Hsinchu City)
|
||||
Central Taiwan Science Park (Taichung City)
|
||||
Southern Taiwan Science Park (Tainan City)
|
||||
Tainan Science Park (Tainan City)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Thailand ===
|
||||
Thailand Science Park (north of Bangkok)
|
||||
Prince of Songkla University Science Park
|
||||
Chiangmai University Science Park
|
||||
Khonkean University Science Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Turkey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Hacettepe Teknokent (Hacettepe TECHNOPOLIS) (Ankara)
|
||||
Yildiz Teknopark (Istanbul)
|
||||
METU Technopolis (METUTECH) (Ankara)
|
||||
İYTE Teknopark (İzmir)
|
||||
İ.T.Ü. ARI Teknokent Technology Development Zone (Istanbul)
|
||||
Teknopark Istanbul (Istanbul)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Vietnam ===
|
||||
Hoa Lac High-Tech Park, Hanoi
|
||||
Saigon Hi-Tech Park, Ho Chi Minh City
|
||||
Da Nang Hi-Tech Park, Da Nang
|
||||
|
||||
== Europe ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Belarus ===
|
||||
Belarus High Technologies Park (Minsk)
|
||||
China-Belarus Industrial Park (Minsk)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Belgium ===
|
||||
Louvain-la-Neuve Science Park
|
||||
Arenberg Research-Park
|
||||
Aéropole Science Park
|
||||
Crealys Science Park
|
||||
Al Camino Research Park
|
||||
Zwijnaarde science park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bulgaria ===
|
||||
Sofia Tech Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Czech Republic ===
|
||||
Czech Technology Park (Brno)
|
||||
Palacký University Scientific-Technical Park (Olomouc)
|
||||
Vědeckotechnický park (Plzeň)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Denmark ===
|
||||
INCUBA Science Park (Aarhus)
|
||||
Scion DTU (Hørsholm near Copenhagen)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Estonia ===
|
||||
Tartu Science Park
|
||||
Tallinn Science Park Tehnopol
|
||||
PAKRI Science and Industrial Park – Synergy for greentech companies; unique physical environment and testing with PAKRI Smart Industrial City and its own PAKRI Smart Grid 75 MW renewable power network, which combined enables total control of energy prices.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Finland ===
|
||||
Hermia (Tampere)
|
||||
Otaniemi Science Park - the largest technology hub in the Nordic countries
|
||||
Turku Science Park
|
||||
Technology Centre Teknia & Kuopio Science Park (Kuopio)
|
||||
Technopolis Group - one of the largest technology center operators in Europe
|
||||
|
||||
=== France ===
|
||||
Paris-Saclay
|
||||
Eurasante Bio-business Park (Lille)
|
||||
Sophia Antipolis (Nice)
|
||||
Villeneuve d'Ascq
|
||||
Polygone Scientifique (Grenoble)
|
||||
Inovallée (Meylan)
|
||||
Rennes Atalante
|
||||
|
||||
=== Germany ===
|
||||
Wissenschaftspark Leipzig, Leipzig
|
||||
WISTA (Science and Technology Park in Berlin-Adlershof)
|
||||
Bayer CoLaborator (Berlin)
|
||||
Biotechnologiepark Luckenwalde GmbH (Luckenwalde, Brandenburg)
|
||||
Expo Park Hannover (Hannover)
|
||||
Softwarezentrum Böblingen/Sindelfingen - biggest research park focussing on information technology in Europe (Böblingen near Stuttgart)
|
||||
Technologiepark Dortmund (Dortmund)
|
||||
Technologiepark Paderborn (Paderborn)
|
||||
Technologie- und Gewerbezentrum Schwerin/Wismar (Schwerin and Wismar)
|
||||
Technologiezentrum Vorpommern (Greifswald and Stralsund)
|
||||
Technologiezentrum Warnemünde (Rostock-Warnemünde)
|
||||
Innovation Campus Lemgo
|
||||
Transferzentrum für angepasste Technologien (Rheine)
|
||||
Triple Z Essen - Gründungs- und Unternehmenszentrum ZukunftsZentrumZollverein (Essen)
|
||||
Weinberg Campus (Halle (Saale))
|
||||
|
||||
=== Hungary ===
|
||||
Infopark (Budapest)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Italy ===
|
||||
Kilometro Rosso in (Bergamo, Lombardy, Northern Italy)
|
||||
AREA Science Park (Trieste near the Slovenian border)
|
||||
Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero (Canavese near Turin in the north of Italy)
|
||||
Erzelli High-Tech Park (Genova near Genoa Airport in the north-west of Italy, on the Mediterranean Sea)
|
||||
Milan Innovation District (in northwest Milan)
|
||||
VEGA (Venezia)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Netherlands ===
|
||||
Science Park Amsterdam (Amsterdam)
|
||||
Utrecht Science Park (Utrecht)
|
||||
Leiden Bio Science Park (Leiden)
|
||||
Technopolis Delft (Delft)
|
||||
HighTech Campus Eindhoven (Eindhoven)
|
||||
Science Park Maastricht (Maastricht)
|
||||
Pivot Park (Oss)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Poland ===
|
||||
Jagiellonian Center of Innovation (Kraków)
|
||||
Bionanopark (Łódź)
|
||||
Lower Silesian Technology Park T-Park (Dolnośląski Park Technologiczny "T-Park")
|
||||
Pomeranian Science and Technology Park (Gdynia)
|
||||
Poznański Park Naukowo-Technologiczny - Poznan Science and Technology Park (Poznań)
|
||||
Startup Hub Poland (Warsaw)
|
||||
Szczeciński Park Naukowo-Technologiczny (Szczecin)
|
||||
Wrocławski Park Technologiczny, (Wrocław)
|
||||
Bialystok Science and Technology Park
|
||||
250
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks-1.md
Normal file
250
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,250 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of research parks"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:09.778701+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Portugal ===
|
||||
Avepark (Caldas das Taipas)
|
||||
Biocantpark (Cantanhede)
|
||||
Brigantia Eco Park (Bragança)
|
||||
Coimbra iParque
|
||||
Feirapark (Porto)
|
||||
Gaia Park (Vila Nova de Gaia)
|
||||
iParque (Coimbra)
|
||||
Instituto Pedro Nunes (Coimbra)
|
||||
Lispólis (Lisbon)
|
||||
Madan Parque de Ciência (Caparica)
|
||||
Madeira Tecnopólo (Funchal)
|
||||
Óbidos Terra Digital (Óbidos)
|
||||
Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia da Universidade do Porto (Porto)
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico da Mutela (Almada)
|
||||
Polo Tecnológico do Algarve (Faro)
|
||||
Portuspark (Porto)
|
||||
Parkurbis (Covilhã)
|
||||
Régia-Douro Park (Vila Real)
|
||||
Sanjotec (São João da Madeira)
|
||||
Tecmaia (Maia)
|
||||
Tagos Valley (Abrantes)
|
||||
Taguspark (Oeiras)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Russia ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Research parks ====
|
||||
SPbU Research Park (Saint Petersburg)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Technological parks ====
|
||||
High Technology park IT Park
|
||||
Dubna Technopark
|
||||
Khanty-Mansiisk Technopark
|
||||
Novosibirsk Technopark
|
||||
Sarov Technopark
|
||||
IDEA Innovative Technopark in Tatarstan
|
||||
|
||||
==== Special economic zones of technical innovation type ====
|
||||
Dubna SEZ of Technical Innovation Type
|
||||
Saint Petersburg SEZ of Technical Innovation Type
|
||||
Tomsk SEZ of Technical Innovation Type
|
||||
Zelenograd SEZ of Technical Innovation Type
|
||||
|
||||
==== Innovation centers ====
|
||||
Skolkovo Innovation Center
|
||||
|
||||
=== Slovakia ===
|
||||
Vedecko-technologicky park Žilina (Žilina)
|
||||
Comenius University Science Park (Bratislava)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Spain ===
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico de Vizcaya (Bilbao)
|
||||
Parc de Recerca UAB (Barcelona)
|
||||
Barcelona Science Park (Barcelona)
|
||||
Barcelona Biomedical Research Park (Barcelona)
|
||||
Parc Tecnològic del Vallès (Barcelona)
|
||||
Tecnológico de Boecillo (Valladolid)
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico de Andalucía (Málaga)
|
||||
Cartuja93 (Seville)
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico de León (León)
|
||||
Parc Científic i Tecnològic Universitat de Girona (Girona)
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico TechnoPark MotorLand (Alcañiz)
|
||||
PCiTAL Parc Cientific i Tecnològic de Lleida "Parc Cientific i Tecnologic Agroalimentari de Lleida" (in Spanish). Retrieved 26 August 2023. (Lleida)
|
||||
Parc Científic de la Universitat de València (Valencia)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sweden ===
|
||||
Ideon Science Park (Lund)
|
||||
Kista Science City (Stockholm)
|
||||
Lindholmen Science Park (Gothenburg)
|
||||
Luleå Science Park
|
||||
Mjärdevi Science Park (Linköping)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Turkey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Hacettepe Teknokent (Hacettepe TECHNOPOLIS) (Ankara)
|
||||
Yildiz Teknopark (Istanbul)
|
||||
METU Technopolis (METUTECH) (Ankara)
|
||||
İYTE Teknopark (İzmir)
|
||||
İ.T.Ü. ARI Teknokent Technology Development Zone (Istanbul)
|
||||
Teknopark Istanbul (Istanbul)
|
||||
|
||||
=== United Kingdom ===
|
||||
|
||||
Milton Park (Oxfordshire)
|
||||
MSP - Manchester Science Partnerships (Manchester & Alderley Park, Cheshire)
|
||||
Adastral Park, (Ipswich)
|
||||
Bath and Bristol Science Park
|
||||
Cambridge Science Park (Cambridge)
|
||||
Norwich Research Park (NRP) (Colney, South Norfolk)
|
||||
Peel Park (East Kilbride)
|
||||
Surrey Research Park
|
||||
Wavertree Technology Park (near Liverpool)
|
||||
University of Warwick Science Park (Coventry)
|
||||
The Surrey Research Park (University of Surrey, Guildford)
|
||||
Colworth Science Park
|
||||
Harwell Science and Innovation Campus
|
||||
Heriot Watt University Research Park (Heriot Watt University), (Edinburgh)
|
||||
|
||||
== North America ==
|
||||
There are approximately 170 university research parks in North America today.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Canada ===
|
||||
Alberta
|
||||
|
||||
Edmonton Research Park
|
||||
UCalgary University Research Park
|
||||
|
||||
==== British Columbia ====
|
||||
BC Research BC Research Technology Innovation and Commercialization Centre
|
||||
Simon Fraser University Burnaby Mountain Science Park
|
||||
University of British Columbia
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ontario ====
|
||||
Blueline Bioscience (Toronto)
|
||||
David Johnston Research + Technology Park (Waterloo, Ontario)
|
||||
MaRS Discovery District (aka MaRS Center) (Toronto)
|
||||
University of Western Ontario Research Parks (London, Ontario)
|
||||
Kanata Research Park (Ottawa)
|
||||
McMaster Innovation Park (Hamilton, Ontario)
|
||||
Cleantech Commons (Trent University, Peterborough) https://cleantechcommons.ca/
|
||||
|
||||
==== Saskatchewan ====
|
||||
Innovation Place Research Park (2 parks: Regina & Saskatoon)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mexico ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Nuevo León ====
|
||||
Parque de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica, PIIT (Monterrey)
|
||||
|
||||
=== United States ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Alabama ====
|
||||
Cummings Research Park (Huntsville)
|
||||
UAB Oxmoor
|
||||
Tuskegee University Research Park (Tuskegee)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Arizona ====
|
||||
Arizona State University Research Park
|
||||
Tech Parks Arizona
|
||||
|
||||
==== California ====
|
||||
California Institute for Biomedical Research
|
||||
California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences
|
||||
Bayer CoLaborator (San Francisco)
|
||||
Innovation Village Research Park at Cal Poly Pomona
|
||||
Stanford Research Park
|
||||
UCSC Monterey Bay Education, Science & Technology Center (UC MBEST)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Connecticut ====
|
||||
Science Park at Yale (New Haven, CT)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Florida ====
|
||||
Central Florida Research Park (Orlando)
|
||||
Miami Civic Center (Miami)
|
||||
Research Park at Florida Atlantic University (Boca Raton and Deerfield Beach)
|
||||
Florida Gulf Coast University Innovation Hub (Fort Myers)
|
||||
Innovation Park (Tallahassee)
|
||||
Medical City at Lake Nona, (Orlando)
|
||||
Progress Corporate Park (Gainesville)
|
||||
Sid Martin Biotechnology Incubator (Alachua)
|
||||
Treasure Coast Research Park (Fort Pierce)
|
||||
USF Research Park (Tampa)
|
||||
Florida Network of Research, Science and Technology Parks
|
||||
Foundation Park (Alachua)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Georgia ====
|
||||
Rowen (Atlanta Metro Region)
|
||||
Georgia Tech Research Institute (Atlanta)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Illinois ====
|
||||
The Illinois Science & Technology Park (Skokie, IL)
|
||||
University Technology Park at IIT (Chicago, IL)
|
||||
Research Park at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (Champaign, IL)
|
||||
Illinois Technology and Research Corridor
|
||||
Southern Illinois University Research Park (Carbondale, IL)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Indiana ====
|
||||
Purdue Research Park (West Lafayette)
|
||||
16 Tech Innovation District (Indianapolis, Indiana)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Iowa ====
|
||||
BioVentures Center (University of Iowa)
|
||||
Iowa State University Research Park
|
||||
|
||||
==== Kansas ====
|
||||
KU Innovation Park
|
||||
Wichita State University Innovation Campus
|
||||
|
||||
==== Kentucky ====
|
||||
University of Kentucky Coldstream Research Campus
|
||||
|
||||
==== Louisiana ====
|
||||
LSU Innovation Park (Baton Rouge, Louisiana)
|
||||
National Cyber Research Park (Bossier City, Louisiana)
|
||||
University of New Orleans Research and Technology Park
|
||||
|
||||
==== Maryland ====
|
||||
University of Maryland Research Park (Discovery District) (College Park, MD)
|
||||
Science & Technology Park at Johns Hopkins (Baltimore, MD)
|
||||
University of Maryland BioPark (Baltimore, MD)
|
||||
Johns Hopkins University Montgomery County Campus (Rockville, MD)
|
||||
bwtech@UMBC Research and Technology Park (Baltimore, MD)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Massachusetts ====
|
||||
BioSquare at Boston University (Boston, MA)
|
||||
LabCentral (Cambridge)
|
||||
University Park at MIT - Cambridge, MA
|
||||
|
||||
==== Michigan ====
|
||||
TechTown at Wayne State University - Detroit, MI
|
||||
University Corporate Research Park at Michigan State University - Lansing, MI
|
||||
|
||||
==== Minnesota ====
|
||||
Minnesota Innovation Park (Formerly Minnesota Innovation Center) In Planning Stages - Minneapolis, MN
|
||||
|
||||
==== Mississippi ====
|
||||
The MS e-Center at Jackson State University - Jackson, MS
|
||||
|
||||
==== Montana ====
|
||||
Montana State University Innovation Campus - Bozeman, MT
|
||||
|
||||
==== Nebraska ====
|
||||
Nebraska Technology Park - Lincoln, NE
|
||||
Nebraska Innovation Campus - Lincoln, NE
|
||||
|
||||
==== New York ====
|
||||
Rensselaer Technology Park at RPI
|
||||
Metrotech Center at New York University Tandon School of Engineering
|
||||
|
||||
==== North Carolina ====
|
||||
Research Triangle Park (Raleigh-Durham)
|
||||
University Research Park (University City - Charlotte)
|
||||
North Carolina Research Campus (Kannapolis)
|
||||
NC State University Centennial Campus (Raleigh)
|
||||
Gateway University Research Park (Greensboro, North Carolina)
|
||||
Innovation Quarter (downtown Winston-Salem)
|
||||
Intersect East (East Carolina University - Greenville, North Carolina)
|
||||
|
||||
==== North Dakota ====
|
||||
North Dakota State University Research Technology Park (Fargo)
|
||||
119
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks-2.md
Normal file
119
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of research parks"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_parks"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:09.778701+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ohio ====
|
||||
Miami Valley Research Park, Kettering - in the Greater Dayton area
|
||||
Mound Advanced Technology Center Miamisburg, OH
|
||||
Russ Research Center, Beavercreek, Ohio - in the Greater Dayton area
|
||||
Science & Technology Campus Corporation, Columbus, Ohio
|
||||
|
||||
==== Oregon ====
|
||||
Riverfront Research Park, University of Oregon
|
||||
|
||||
==== Pennsylvania ====
|
||||
University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (U-PARC), Harmarville
|
||||
Pittsburgh Technology Center, Pittsburgh
|
||||
Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory, West Mifflin
|
||||
University City Science Center, Philadelphia
|
||||
Innovation Park, State College, Pennsylvania
|
||||
Spring House Innovation Park, Spring House, Pennsylvania in Lower Gwynedd
|
||||
|
||||
==== South Carolina ====
|
||||
Clemson ICAR International Center for Automobile Research, Greenville, South Carolina
|
||||
Clemson University Innovation Campus and Technology Park (CUICAT), Anderson, South Carolina
|
||||
The University of South Carolina's Innovista next to The Vista District in downtown, Columbia, South Carolina.
|
||||
Carolina Research Park, Columbia, SC.
|
||||
|
||||
==== South Dakota ====
|
||||
South Dakota State University Innovation Campus Research Science Technology Park (Brookings)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Texas ====
|
||||
Baylor Research and Innovation Collaborative (Waco)
|
||||
Research Forest (The Woodlands)
|
||||
Rice University-The Ion (Houston)
|
||||
Southwest Research Institute (San Antonio)
|
||||
Texas A&M University Research Park (College Station)
|
||||
Texas Research Park (San Antonio)
|
||||
University of Houston Technology Bridge (Houston)
|
||||
University of North Texas Research Park (Denton)
|
||||
Texas State University Science, Technology, and Advanced Research Park (San Marcos)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Utah ====
|
||||
University of Utah Research Park (Salt Lake City, Utah)
|
||||
Vivint Innovation Center (Lehi, Utah)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Virginia ====
|
||||
Fontaine Research Park (Charlottesville)
|
||||
University of Virginia Research Park (Charlottesville)
|
||||
Virginia Tech Corporate Research Center (Blacksburg)
|
||||
Virginia BioTechnology Research Park (Richmond)
|
||||
Innovation Technology Park @Prince William (Prince William County)
|
||||
Wallops Research Park (Wallops Island)
|
||||
|
||||
==== West Virginia ====
|
||||
West Virginia Regional Technology Park (South Charleston)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Wisconsin ====
|
||||
Milwaukee County Research Park (Wauwatosa, Wisconsin)
|
||||
University Research Park at University of Wisconsin–Madison
|
||||
Innovation Campus at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (Wauwatosa, Wisconsin)
|
||||
|
||||
== South America ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Argentina ===
|
||||
Parque Industrial Agropecuario y Tecnológico Ciudad de Famaillá Tucumán
|
||||
Mendoza TIC Parque Tecnológico
|
||||
Parque Biotecnológico y Energías Renovables de la Universidad Nacional de Cuyo
|
||||
Parque Tecno-Industrial Albardón
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico Industrial y Playa de Transferencia de Cargas
|
||||
Parque Industrial y Tecnológico de Villa María
|
||||
Parque Industrial y Tecnológico Las Varillas
|
||||
Parque Industrial y Tecnológico de Villa Dolores
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico del Litoral Centro S.A.P.E.M.
|
||||
Parque Industrial Tecnológico Aeronáutico Morón
|
||||
|
||||
=== Brazil ===
|
||||
(anchor) Biominas Foundation (Belo Horizonte)
|
||||
(anchor) Butantan Institute (São Paulo)
|
||||
(anchor) Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Rio de Janeiro)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Colombia ===
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico Guatiguará
|
||||
|
||||
=== Chile ===
|
||||
Parque Científico y Tecnológico Laguna Carén, University of Chile, (Pudahuel, Santiago)
|
||||
Parque Científico y Tecnológico Pacyt Bío Bío, University of Concepción, (Concepción)
|
||||
Centro Antártico Internacional, Instituto Antártico Chileno, (Punta Arenas)
|
||||
Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso (Valparaíso)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Panama ===
|
||||
International Technopark of Panama at the City of Knowledge
|
||||
|
||||
== Oceania ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Australia ===
|
||||
Australian Technology Park (Sydney)
|
||||
Technology Park Adelaide (Mawson Lakes, South Australia)
|
||||
Macquarie Park, Sydney, NSW (including the Research Park - Macquarie University)
|
||||
Canberra Technology Park (Canberra)
|
||||
Technology Park (Bentley, Western Australia)
|
||||
Silicon Mallee Adelaide, South Australia
|
||||
Innovation Campus
|
||||
Silicon Mallee Adelaide, South Australia
|
||||
|
||||
=== New Zealand ===
|
||||
Innovation Waikato (Hamilton)
|
||||
NZ Central Technology Park (Wellington)
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of technology centers
|
||||
Research-intensive clusters
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of science centers in the United States"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_centers_in_the_United_States"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:16.362844+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of science centers in the United States. American Alliance of Museums (AAM) and Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC) member centers are granted institutional benefits and may offer benefits to individuals through purchased or granted individual memberships as well. ASTC offers a "passport" that allows for free general entry at all other participating ASTC member centers outside of a 90-mile radius of home. AAM offers a similar program that offers benefits to individuals.
|
||||
AAM accredited museums have obtained a seal of approval from the AAM Accreditation Program that ensures a museum's "commitment to excellence, accountability, high professional standards and continued institutional improvement."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of museums in the United States
|
||||
List of natural history museums in the United States
|
||||
List of science museums
|
||||
List of university museums in the United States
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_museums"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:02:59.375462+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:06.030683+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_museums"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:02:59.375462+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:06.030683+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of science parks in the United Kingdom"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_parks_in_the_United_Kingdom"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:11.080228+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of science parks in the United Kingdom.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== England ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== South West ===
|
||||
Bristol and Bath Science Park – Emersons Green, Bristol
|
||||
Electronics & Photonics Innovation Centre (EPIC) – Paignton, Devon
|
||||
Exeter Science Park – Exeter
|
||||
Future Space – Stoke Gifford, Bristol
|
||||
Plymouth Science Park – Plymouth
|
||||
Porton Down – Porton, Wiltshire
|
||||
Dorset Innovation Park – Winfrith, Dorset
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== South East ===
|
||||
Begbroke Science Park – Begbroke, near Oxford
|
||||
Culham Science Centre – Culham, Oxfordshire
|
||||
Discovery Park – Sandwich, Kent
|
||||
Harwell Science and Innovation Campus – Harwell, Oxfordshire
|
||||
Kent Science Park – Sittingbourne
|
||||
Langstone Technology Park – Havant, Hampshire
|
||||
Milton Park – South Oxfordshire
|
||||
Oxford Science Park – Oxford
|
||||
Surrey Research Park – Guildford
|
||||
University of Reading Science & Technology Centre – Reading
|
||||
Southampton Science Park – Southampton
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Greater London ===
|
||||
Brunel Science Park – Uxbridge
|
||||
Lee Valley Technopark – Tottenham
|
||||
South Bank Technopark – Southwark
|
||||
The London Science Park at The Bridge – Dartford
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== East Anglia ===
|
||||
Allia Future Business Centre – Cambridge, Peterborough and East London
|
||||
Babraham Research Campus – Cambridge
|
||||
BioPark – Welwyn Garden City
|
||||
Cambridge Research Park – Cambridge
|
||||
Cambridge Science Park – Cambridge
|
||||
Cambridge Bio-Medical Campus – Cambridge
|
||||
Chesterford Research Park – Saffron Walden, Essex
|
||||
Colworth Science Park – Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire
|
||||
Cranfield Technology Park – Cranfield, Bedfordshire
|
||||
Granta Park – Cambridge
|
||||
Norwich Research Park – Colney, Norwich
|
||||
Papworth Bioincubator – Cambridge
|
||||
St John's Innovation Centre – Cambridge
|
||||
The University of Essex Research Park – Colchester
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== East Midlands ===
|
||||
BioCity Nottingham – Nottingham
|
||||
MediCity Nottingham – Nottingham
|
||||
Loughborough University Science & Enterprise Park – Loughborough
|
||||
Nottingham Science and Technology Park – Nottingham
|
||||
University of Nottingham Innovation Park – Nottingham
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== West Midlands ===
|
||||
Birmingham Research Park Ltd – Birmingham
|
||||
Birmingham Science Park Aston – Aston, Birmingham
|
||||
Coventry University Technology Park – Coventry
|
||||
Keele University Science Park – Keele, Staffordshire
|
||||
Malvern Hills Science Park – Malvern, Worcestershire
|
||||
Staffordshire Technology Park – Stafford, Staffordshire
|
||||
University of Warwick Science Park – Coventry
|
||||
University Science Park, Pebble Mill – Edgbaston, Birmingham
|
||||
Wolverhampton Science Park – Wolverhampton
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== North West ===
|
||||
Alderley Park – Cheshire
|
||||
The Heath Business and Technical Park – Runcorn, Cheshire
|
||||
Lancaster Science Park – Lancaster
|
||||
Liverpool Innovation Park – Liverpool
|
||||
Liverpool Science Park – Liverpool
|
||||
Manchester Science Park Ltd – Manchester
|
||||
MerseyBio – Liverpool
|
||||
Sci-Tech Daresbury – Cheshire
|
||||
Westlakes Science & Technology Park – Cumbria
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Yorkshire ===
|
||||
Advanced Manufacturing Park – Rotherham
|
||||
Leeds Innovation Centre – Leeds
|
||||
Newlands Science Park – Kingston upon Hull
|
||||
Sheffield Technology Parks – Sheffield
|
||||
York Science Park – York
|
||||
National Agri-Food Innovation Campus – York
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== North East ===
|
||||
NETPark – The North East Technology Park – Sedgefield, County Durham
|
||||
Sunderland Science Park – Sunderland
|
||||
Wilton Centre – North Yorkshire
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Scotland ==
|
||||
Aberdeen Science Parks – Aberdeen
|
||||
Ayrshire Innovation Centre – Irvine
|
||||
BioCity Glasgow - Glasgow
|
||||
BioQuarter – Edinburgh
|
||||
Dundee Medipark – Dundee
|
||||
Dundee Technology Park – Dundee
|
||||
Edinburgh Technopole – Edinburgh
|
||||
Elvingston Science Centre – East Lothian
|
||||
Heriot-Watt University Research Park – Edinburgh
|
||||
Hillington Park Innovation Centre – Glasgow
|
||||
Pentlands Science Park – Midlothian
|
||||
Roslin BioCentre – Midlothian
|
||||
Scottish Enterprise Technology Park – East Kilbride
|
||||
Stirling University Innovation Park – Stirling
|
||||
Tweed Horizons – Melrose
|
||||
West of Scotland Science Park – Glasgow
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Wales ==
|
||||
M-SParc (Menai Science Park) – Anglesey
|
||||
Cardiff Business Technology Centre – Cardiff
|
||||
Cardiff Edge - Cardiff
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Northern Ireland ==
|
||||
AURIL – Belfast
|
||||
Catalyst – Belfast
|
||||
Ulster Science & Technology Park – Derry
|
||||
University of Ulster Science Research Parks – Derry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
127
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_second_moments_of_area-0.md
Normal file
127
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_second_moments_of_area-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of second moments of area"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_second_moments_of_area"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:03.792918+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of second moments of area of some shapes. The second moment of area, also known as area moment of inertia, is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with respect to an arbitrary axis. The unit of dimension of the second moment of area is length to fourth power, L4, and should not be confused with the mass moment of inertia. If the piece is thin, however, the mass moment of inertia equals the area density times the area moment of inertia.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Second moments of area ==
|
||||
Please note that for the second moment of area equations in the below table:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
∬
|
||||
|
||||
A
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
y
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
y
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle I_{x}=\iint _{A}y^{2}\,dx\,dy}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
y
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
∬
|
||||
|
||||
A
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
y
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle I_{y}=\iint _{A}x^{2}\,dx\,dy.}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Parallel axis theorem ==
|
||||
|
||||
The parallel axis theorem can be used to determine the second moment of area of a rigid body about any axis, given the body's second moment of area about a parallel axis through the body's centroid, the area of the cross section, and the perpendicular distance (d) between the axes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
A
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle I_{x'}=I_{x}+Ad^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of moments of inertia
|
||||
List of centroids
|
||||
Second polar moment of area
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of small shelly fossil taxa"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_small_shelly_fossil_taxa"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:48.210973+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of small shelly fossils of prehistoric marine animals, ordered by their type.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Whole-organism ==
|
||||
|
||||
Namacalathus
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Monoplacophoran-like ==
|
||||
Yochelsoniella
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Scleritome elements ==
|
||||
Elements of a scleritome, resembling Halkieria:
|
||||
|
||||
Halkieria
|
||||
Probable palaeoscolecid worm sclerites:
|
||||
|
||||
Palaeoscolex
|
||||
Maikhanella
|
||||
Tomotiid-like sclerites:
|
||||
|
||||
Micrina
|
||||
Eccentrotheca
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Conical ==
|
||||
Problematic cones:
|
||||
|
||||
Cyrtochites
|
||||
Paradoxiconus
|
||||
Probable Lobopodian sclerites:
|
||||
|
||||
Rhombocorniculum
|
||||
Rushtonites
|
||||
Mongolitubulus
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Net-like ==
|
||||
Microdictyon
|
||||
Onychodictyon
|
||||
Quadrataporata
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Sponge spicule-like ==
|
||||
Chancelloria
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Tubular ==
|
||||
Sinotubulites
|
||||
Anabarites
|
||||
Hyolithellus
|
||||
Torellella
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Prehistoric marine animals
|
||||
Fossil record of animals
|
||||
Paleontology lists
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Inline citations ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Resources referenced ===
|
||||
A further list available in Li, G.; Steiner, M.; Zhu, X.; Yang, A.; Wang, H.; Erdtmann, B. D. (2007). "Early Cambrian metazoan fossil record of South China: Generic diversity and radiation patterns". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 254 (1–2): 229–249. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.017.
|
||||
More in Steiner, M.; Li, G.; Qian, Y.; Zhu, M. (2004). "Lower Cambrian Small Shelly Fossils of northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi (China), and their biostratigraphic importance". Geobios. 37 (2): 259. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2003.08.001.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,160 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of systems sciences organizations"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_sciences_organizations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:13.603964+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Systems science is the interdisciplinary field of science surrounding systems theory, cybernetics, the science of complex systems. It aims to develop interdisciplinary foundations, which are applicable in a variety of areas, such as engineering, biology, medicine and social sciences. Systems science and systemics are names for all research related to systems theory. It is defined as an emerging branch of science that studies holistic systems and tries to develop logical, mathematical, engineering and philosophical paradigms and frameworks in which physical, technological, biological, social, cognitive and metaphysical systems can be studied and developed.
|
||||
This list of systems sciences organizations gives an overview of global and local organizations in the field of systems science. This list shows all kinds of organizations and institutes listed thematically.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Awards ==
|
||||
Richard E. Bellman Control Heritage Award
|
||||
George B. Dantzig Prize
|
||||
Donald P. Eckman Award
|
||||
IEEE Simon Ramo Medal: award for exceptional achievement in systems engineering and systems science
|
||||
John von Neumann Theory Prize
|
||||
Rufus Oldenburger Medal
|
||||
A. M. Turing Award
|
||||
UKSS Gold Medallists by the United Kingdom Systems Society
|
||||
The Hellenic Society for Systemic Studies Medal
|
||||
Senior Researcher Award of the Complex Systems Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Research centers ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== General ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== America ====
|
||||
International Institute for General Systems Studies (IIGSS): an American non-profit scholastic organization for studies and education in Systems science in Pennsylvania, US
|
||||
International Systems Institute (ISI): a non-profit, public benefit scientific and educational corporation in Carmel, California, US
|
||||
Mental Research Institute: a center for systems theory and psychotherapy located in Palo Alto, California, US
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Europe ====
|
||||
Institut für Unternehmenskybernetik, Germany
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Asia ====
|
||||
Center of Excellence in Systems Science, IIT Jodhpur
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Systems biology ===
|
||||
Department of Systems Biology
|
||||
Institute for Systems Biology
|
||||
Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Systems ecology ===
|
||||
ETH Zurich, Terrestrial Systems Ecology
|
||||
University of Amsterdam, Systems Ecology Department
|
||||
University of Florida, Systems Ecology program
|
||||
State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Systems Ecology Lab
|
||||
Stockholm University, Systems Ecology Department
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Systems engineering ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== United States ====
|
||||
GTRI Electronic Systems Laboratory (ELSYS) at the Georgia Tech Research Institute, Atlanta, Georgia, US
|
||||
GTRI Aerospace, Transportation and Advanced Systems Laboratory at the Georgia Tech Research Institute, Atlanta, Georgia, US
|
||||
Western Transportation Institute at Montana State University, Montana, US
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Europe ====
|
||||
Hasso Plattner Institute related to the University of Potsdam, Germany
|
||||
University of Reading Business School: Informatics Research Centre, Reading, Berkshire, England, UK
|
||||
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne: I2S – Institut d'ingénierie des systèmes in Lausanne, Switzerland
|
||||
University of the West of England CEMS, Systems Engineering Estimation and Decision Support (SEED) Bristol, England, UK
|
||||
University of Bristol, Systems Centre, Bristol, England, UK
|
||||
Technical University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
|
||||
Mullard Space Science Laboratory: UCL Centre for Systems Engineering (UCLse), the London, England, UK
|
||||
Research Centre for Automatic Control (CRAN), joint research unit with Nancy-Université and CNRS, Nancy, France
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Educational ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
Bristol Centre for Complexity Sciences, UK
|
||||
Institute for Complex Systems Simulation, University of Southampton, UK
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Australia ===
|
||||
The University of Sydney offers a Master of Complex Systems
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Societies ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Worldwide ===
|
||||
IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society (IEEE SMCS)
|
||||
International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)
|
||||
International Federation for Systems Research (IFSR)
|
||||
International Society for the Systems Sciences (ISSS)
|
||||
World Organisation of Systems and Cybernetics (WOSC)
|
||||
IEEE Systems Council
|
||||
Complex Systems Society (CSS)
|
||||
The International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences, an honor society initially created by the IFSR
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== America ===
|
||||
American Society for Cybernetics
|
||||
Asociacion Mexicana de Systemas y Cibernetica
|
||||
Grupo de Estudio de Sistemas Integrados (GESI) (Study Group of Integrated Systems), Argentina
|
||||
Instituto Andino de Sistemas (IAS), Peru
|
||||
International Systems Institute (US), California, San Francisco
|
||||
Los Alamos National Laboratory
|
||||
System Dynamics Society: a non-profit organization for further research into system dynamics and systems thinking based in Albany, New York, US
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
International Society of Knowledge and Systems Science (ISKSS), Japan
|
||||
Japan Association for Social and Economic Systems Studies (JASESS)
|
||||
Korean Society for Systems Science Research, Korea
|
||||
Systems Engineering Society of China
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Australia ===
|
||||
Australia and New Zealand Systems Group (ANZSYS)
|
||||
COSNet: An Australian-based network for Complex Open Systems research
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
Association Francaise d'Ingénierie Système (French association for Systems Engineering), France
|
||||
Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca (AIR) (Italian Research Society)
|
||||
Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sui Sistemi (AIRS) (Italian Systems Research Society)
|
||||
Bulgarian Society for Systems Research (BSSR), Bulgaria
|
||||
Centre for Hyperincursion and Anticipation in Ordered Systems (CHAOS)
|
||||
Croatian Interdisciplinary Society: a non-governmental organization for interdisciplinary education and research in complex systems in Croatia
|
||||
Cybernetics Society, London, UK
|
||||
Dutch Systems Group of Systemsgroep Nederland, The Netherlands
|
||||
Evolution, Complexity and Cognition group, subsumed within Center Leo Apostel (CLEA), VUB Free University of Brussels, Belgium
|
||||
Hellenic Society for Systemic Studies (HSSS) Ελληνική Εταρεία Συστημικών Μελετών
|
||||
Gesellschaft für Wirtschafts- und Sozialkybernetik e.V. (GWS), Germany
|
||||
Learned Society of Praxiology, Poland
|
||||
MSSI - Management Science Society of Ireland
|
||||
Österreichische Studiengesellschaft für Kybernetik (OSGK)(Austrian Society for Cybernetic Studies), Austria
|
||||
Polish Systems Society, Poland
|
||||
Slovenian Society for Systems Research (SDSR)
|
||||
Systemic Design Association (SDA): a non-profit scholarly association for research and practice in design for complex systems, based in Norway with international membership
|
||||
Sociedad Española de Systemas Generales, Spain
|
||||
United Kingdom Systems Society, UK
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of journals in systems science
|
||||
List of information systems journals
|
||||
List of systems engineering at universities
|
||||
List of systems engineers
|
||||
List of systems scientists
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
80
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-0.md
Normal file
80
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of technology centers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:15.012774+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list some of technology centers throughout the world. Government planners and business networks often incorporate "silicon" or "valley" into place names to describe their own areas as a result of the success of Silicon Valley in California. Metrics may be applied to measure qualitative differences between these places, including:
|
||||
|
||||
How much and to what extent public and/or private research and development (R&D) funds are spent in the zones
|
||||
What percentage of local employment is technology related
|
||||
If the zone is mainly government funded or is mainly corporate driven (or is it a mix of both)
|
||||
If mainly corporate, how much revenue and profit and which corporations have headquarters there
|
||||
If mainly corporate, how much venture capital has been made available to companies in the zone
|
||||
What supporting higher educational institutions (e.g., universities or colleges) are located nearby
|
||||
|
||||
== Globally prominent clusters ==
|
||||
Silicon Valley: Originating in Stanford University (Palo Alto and Menlo Park), and spreading south towards San Jose, California, and suburbs. San Francisco and nearby areas including Berkeley and Oakland are technically not part of Silicon Valley but have seen growth in industries such as web development since the 90s and venture capital. Silicon Valley, home to three of the five primary Big Tech companies—Alphabet (Google), Apple, and Meta—has maintained dominance for decades in core industries such as microprocessor development as well as software and apps development
|
||||
Greater Seattle: one of the largest tech clusters in the world and home to the remaining two of the five primary Big Tech firms: Amazon and Microsoft. Companies such as Boeing, Nintendo, and most other major tech players have at least some economic presence in Greater Seattle. The University of Washington and Puget Sound vicinity is also home to a large numbers of notable companies & startups in life sciences, biotechnology, medical, video/online game, aerospace, aviation, fintech, technology investment, funds, venture capital, as well as various research & technology centers
|
||||
Cambridge Cluster: The name given to the region around Cambridge, England, which is home to a large cluster of high-tech businesses focusing on software, electronics and biotechnology, among others AstraZeneca. Many of these businesses have connections with the University of Cambridge, and the area is now one of the most important technology centres in Europe
|
||||
IT cluster Rhine-Main-Neckar, Germany: Europe's largest software cluster, is globally dominant in business software, IT security research and biopharmaceuticals
|
||||
Shenzhen-Hong Kong Greater Bay Area: Asia's largest technology cluster, is globally dominant in tech manufacturing, consumer software, research, serving global and largest tech consumer market. Home to some of the largest global tech companies, such as Tencent and others
|
||||
Geneva, Switzerland is globally dominant in particle physics at CERN and various frontier scientific & technology research
|
||||
Greater Shanghai, including Hangzhou and others in Yangtze River Delta, is globally dominant technology cluster with companies such as Alibaba, Apple, Amazon and Tesla global manufacturing
|
||||
Dulles Technology Corridor in the Washington, D.C. suburbs of Northern Virginia is globally dominant in telecom, satellite, and defense industries
|
||||
Hsinchu Science Park: Greater Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Taiwan is the dominant area worldwide for pure-play semiconductor foundry market
|
||||
Silicon Alley is a portion of Manhattan, New York City, that encompasses Broadway, the Flatiron District, SoHo, and TriBeCa technology centers
|
||||
Silicon Wadi: An area with a high concentration of high-tech industries in the coastal plain in Israel.
|
||||
Eindhoven, The Netherlands is a leading area in technology, stems from Eindhoven University of Technology, ASML and Philips.
|
||||
Toronto and Waterloo Region is a globally prominent technology corridor with companies such as BlackBerry, Desire2Learn and research centers including the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics and MaRS Discovery District.
|
||||
Kista, Stockholm: is one of continental Europe's leading hubs for the technology industry; this influential industry is based in Kista, a suburb in northern Stockholm which is Europe's largest Informations and Technology cluster. Stockholm has the second most unicorns per capita in the world, after Silicon Valley; the city also has one of the highest startup rates in Europe.
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
Cameroon
|
||||
Silicon Mountain: most innovative startups in Buea
|
||||
|
||||
Kenya
|
||||
Konza Technology City: launched in 2013, and set to host business process outsourcing (BPO) ventures, a science park, and other facilities
|
||||
Mauritius
|
||||
Ebene Cyber City
|
||||
Morocco
|
||||
Casablanca: Casablanca Technopark
|
||||
Nigeria
|
||||
Lagos: Yabacon Valley
|
||||
South Africa
|
||||
Cape Town is widely considered to be Africa's tech hub, and is referred to as the "Startup Capital of Africa". Home to hundreds of tech firms, the city is popular among digital nomads, and is the most economically attractive metro in South Africa for local and foreign investors.
|
||||
Silicon Cape, Western Cape
|
||||
Technopark Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch
|
||||
Zambia
|
||||
National Technology Business Centre (NTBC): Lusaka
|
||||
Eurecat, Baccilon
|
||||
|
||||
=== Middle East ===
|
||||
Egypt
|
||||
Smart Village Egypt: part of Greater Cairo
|
||||
Maadi Technology Park
|
||||
Silicon Waha Technology Parks
|
||||
Iran
|
||||
|
||||
Pardis Technology Park in Pardis, Iran's Silicon Valley
|
||||
Israel
|
||||
Tel Aviv/Mediterranean Coastal Region: referred to as Silicon Wadi, an area with a high concentration of high-tech industries in the coastal plain in Israel. Israel as a whole country has a strong high-tech sector. The Silicon Wadi area covers much of the country, although especially high concentrations of hi-tech industry can be found in Tel Aviv and its metropolitan area, known as Gush Dan, including small clusters around the cities of Ra'anana, Petah Tikva, Herzliya, Netanya, the academic city of Rehovot and its neighbor Rishon LeZion. In addition, hi-tech clusters can be found in Haifa and Caesarea. Jerusalem also has significant high-tech establishments (Technology Park, Malha, Har Hotzvim and JVP Media Quarter in Talpiot). Another notable high-tech park is the Startup Village in Yokneam Illit. Yehud hosts Hewlett Packard Enterprise's software campus and other IT and high-tech companies.
|
||||
Palestine
|
||||
Rawabi
|
||||
Qatar
|
||||
Qatar Science & Technology Park, Ar Rayyan
|
||||
Saudi Arabia
|
||||
Riyadh Techno Valley, Riyadh
|
||||
Dhahran Techno-Valley, Dhahran
|
||||
King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh
|
||||
United Arab Emirates
|
||||
Dubai Internet City, Dubai
|
||||
Dubai Silicon Oasis, Dubai
|
||||
Dubai Media City, Dubai
|
||||
Masdar City, Abu Dhabi
|
||||
171
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-1.md
Normal file
171
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of technology centers"
|
||||
chunk: 2/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:15.012774+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Americas ===
|
||||
Bolivia
|
||||
Urubó (Santa Cruz de la Sierra)
|
||||
Brazil
|
||||
Florianópolis
|
||||
Campinas, São Paulo, São José dos Campos, São Carlos: The Silicon Valley of Brazil
|
||||
Porto Digital: Recife
|
||||
Porto Alegre TecnoPuc: Porto Alegre
|
||||
BH – São Pedro Valley: Belo Horizonte
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico Aberto de Santa Rita do Sapucaí: Santa Rita do Sapucaí
|
||||
Parque Científico e Tecnológico da UNICAMP: Campinas
|
||||
Feevale Techpark: Porto Alegre
|
||||
ORION Parque Tecnológico: Lages
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico Botucatu: Botucatu
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico UFRJ: Rio de Janeiro
|
||||
Parque Tecnológico da Bahia: Salvador
|
||||
Parque de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico Universidade Federal do Ceará: Fortaleza
|
||||
Sergipe Parque Tecnológico: São Cristóvão
|
||||
Fundação Parque Tecnológico da Paraíba: Campina Grande
|
||||
Canada
|
||||
Canada's Technology Triangle with Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario: home to BlackBerry (formerly Research in Motion), Open Text, Kik Messenger, Desire2Learn, and the Canadian head office of Google; home to the Communitech HUB start-up incubator
|
||||
Greater Vancouver, British Columbia: home to Sony Pictures Imageworks, PMC-Sierra, Telus, Hootsuite, EA Canada, Vision Critical, MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates, Westport Innovations, Slack Technologies, Teradici and D-Wave Systems
|
||||
Silicon Valley North: the National Capital Region around Ottawa, Ontario, Bayview Yards,—home to Mitel, Shopify, DragonWave, Alcatel Lucent, and Halogen Software
|
||||
Markham, Ontario: home to the Canadian head offices of Sony, Avaya, IBM, Motorola, Toshiba, Lucent, Sun Microsystems, American Express and AMD Graphics Product Group
|
||||
Greater Toronto Area: specifically Toronto, Mississauga, Brampton, Markham
|
||||
Cité Multimédia, Montreal
|
||||
Technoparc Montreal
|
||||
Chile
|
||||
Parque Científico y Tecnológico Laguna Carén, Pudahuel, Santiago
|
||||
Parque Científico y Tecnológico Pacyt Bío Bío, Concepción
|
||||
Centro Antártico Internacional, Punta Arenas
|
||||
Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Valparaíso
|
||||
Guatemala
|
||||
Guatemala City
|
||||
Mexico
|
||||
Guadalajara
|
||||
Mexico City
|
||||
Monterrey
|
||||
Querétaro
|
||||
Tijuana
|
||||
Cancún
|
||||
United States
|
||||
Automation Alley: Metropolitan Detroit, primarily Oakland County, Michigan
|
||||
Cummings Research Park: Huntsville, Alabama
|
||||
Denver Tech Center: Denver, Colorado
|
||||
Dulles Technology Corridor: Northern Virginia near Washington Dulles Airport
|
||||
Greater Seattle
|
||||
Greater Reno, Nevada
|
||||
I-270 Technology Corridor (also known as "DNA Alley"): Area in central Montgomery County, Maryland, in the northern suburbs of Washington, D.C.
|
||||
Illinois Technology and Research Corridor: DuPage County, Illinois
|
||||
New Mexico Technology Corridor: Los Alamos to Las Cruces, centered on Albuquerque metropolitan area
|
||||
Optics Valley: Tucson, Arizona
|
||||
Research Triangle: Raleigh–Durham–Chapel Hill, North Carolina, centered on Research Triangle Park
|
||||
Route 128: Eastern Massachusetts
|
||||
Silicon Alley: New York City
|
||||
Silicon Beach: Playa Vista in West Los Angeles
|
||||
Silicon Hills: Austin, Texas and its suburbs
|
||||
Silicon Forest: Portland, Oregon
|
||||
Silicon Peach: Atlanta
|
||||
Silicon Prairie: Metropolitan Dallas (primarily the northern region and its suburbs)
|
||||
Silicon Slopes: Salt Lake City, Utah including Utah County (Provo, Utah) and Summit County (Park City, Utah) and surrounding areas.
|
||||
Silicon Speedway: Indianapolis, Indiana
|
||||
Silicon Valley
|
||||
Tech Coast: broadly Southern California, Silicon Beach refers to emergent Santa Monica–LAX tech cluster.
|
||||
Tech Valley: The Capital District area of Albany, New York
|
||||
Telecom Corridor (an area in the Silicon Prairie): Richardson, suburb of Dallas, Texas
|
||||
Texas Medical Center: Houston, Texas
|
||||
Research Forest: The Woodlands, Texas
|
||||
Uruguay
|
||||
Zonamerica, Metropolitan Area of Montevideo: The Silicon Valley of Uruguay
|
||||
Parque de las Ciencias, Canelones, Canelones, Uruguay
|
||||
WTC Montevideo, Buceo, Montevideo
|
||||
Aguada Park, Aguada, Montevideo
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
|
||||
China
|
||||
Jing-Jin-Ji: Beijing-Tianjin-Shijiazhuang Hi-Tech Industrial Belt
|
||||
Zhongguancun, Haidian District, Beijing
|
||||
Chengdu, Sichuan: Chengdu Tianfu Software Park
|
||||
Dalian, Liaoning: Dalian Hi-tech Zone, Dalian Software Park
|
||||
Shenyang: Hunnan New Area
|
||||
Shenzhen: Shenzhen Hi-Tech Industrial Park
|
||||
Shanghai: Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park
|
||||
Wuhan: Donghu New Technology Development Zone
|
||||
Cyberport: Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong
|
||||
Hong Kong Science Park: New Territories, Hong Kong
|
||||
India
|
||||
|
||||
Chennai: DLF Cyber City, Mahindra World City, Ramanujan IT City, SIPCOT IT Park, TIDEL Park, Olympia Tech Park, One Indiabulls Park, International Tech Park, Information Technology Investment Region, Ambattur Industrial Estate, Guindy Industrial Estate, EMS Corridor, SEZ Corridor, Entertainment Corridor, IT Corridor, Automotive Corridor
|
||||
Bangalore: Electronic City, International Tech Park, Manyata Embassy Business Park, Bagmane Tech Park, Global Village Tech Park
|
||||
Bengaluru: IoT OpenLab
|
||||
Thiruvananthapuram: Technopark, Technocity, Thiruvananthapuram
|
||||
Kochi: Cyber City, InfoPark, SmartCity, Muthoot Technopolis
|
||||
Hyderabad: HITEC City, Genome Valley
|
||||
Pune: Cyber City Hinjawadi, Magarpatta
|
||||
Kolkata: Salt Lake Electronics Complex, ITC Infotech, Candor Tech Space, Bengal Sillicon Valley, Mani Casdona, TCS Sanchayita Tech Park, TCS GItanjali Park, Infosys campus, DLF IT Park 1, DLF IT park 2, Godrej Waterside, Wipro Sez, TCS DElta Park Cognigant IT park, Technopolis
|
||||
Delhi: Delhi IT Park
|
||||
Gurgaon: Cyber City
|
||||
Noida: DLF IT Park
|
||||
Lucknow: IT City
|
||||
Navi Mumbai: Dhirubhai Ambani Knowledge City
|
||||
Alappuzha: Infopark, Cherthala
|
||||
Kozhikode: Cyberpark
|
||||
Kollam: Technopark
|
||||
Thrissur: InfoPark
|
||||
Tirupati: Sri City
|
||||
Coimbatore: KCT Tech Park
|
||||
Tiruchirappalli: ELCOT IT Park
|
||||
Bhubaneswar: Info Valley, Odisha Biotech Park
|
||||
Indonesia
|
||||
Bali
|
||||
Bandung
|
||||
Batam
|
||||
Bekasi
|
||||
Cimahi
|
||||
Jakarta
|
||||
Malang
|
||||
Solo
|
||||
South Tangerang
|
||||
Yogyakarta
|
||||
Japan
|
||||
Kansai Science City (Keihanna Science City), on the borders of Kyoto, Osaka and Nara Prefectures
|
||||
Tsukuba Science City, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki Prefecture
|
||||
Yokosuka Research Park (YRP), Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture
|
||||
Malaysia
|
||||
Technology Park Malaysia (TPM), Kuala Lumpur
|
||||
Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) / Cyberjaya, Selangor
|
||||
Selangor Science Park, Selangor
|
||||
Selangor Science Park 2, Selangor
|
||||
Subang Hi-Tech Industrial Park, Selangor
|
||||
FRIM-MTDC Technology Centre, Selangor
|
||||
UPM-MTDC Technology Centre, Selangor
|
||||
UKM-MTDC Technology Centre. Selangor
|
||||
UITM-MTDC Technology Centre. Selangor
|
||||
Bayan Lepas Free Industrial Zone, George Town, Penang
|
||||
Creative Digital District, George Town, Penang
|
||||
Penang Cybercity, George Town, Penang
|
||||
Batu Kawan Industrial Park, Seberang Perai, Penang
|
||||
Penang Science Park, Seberang Perai, Penang
|
||||
MSC Cyberport, Johor
|
||||
Johor Technology Park, Johor
|
||||
Nusajaya Tech Park, Johor
|
||||
UTM-MTDC Technology Centre, Technovation Park, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Johor
|
||||
Kulim Hi-Tech Park (KHTP), Kedah
|
||||
Myanmar
|
||||
Yadanabon Cyber City
|
||||
Pakistan
|
||||
National Science and Technology Park (NSTP)
|
||||
Arfa Karim Technology Park (former Software Technology Park): Lahore
|
||||
IT Media City: Karachi
|
||||
National Science Park: Islamabad
|
||||
Software Technology Park (1, 2, 3)
|
||||
Philippines
|
||||
Light Industry and Science Park of the Philippines I & II, Laguna
|
||||
Light Industry and Science Park of the Philippines III, Batangas
|
||||
Light Industry and Science Park of the Philippines III, Batangas
|
||||
Light Industry and Science Park of the Philippines IV, Bataan
|
||||
Cebu Light Industry Park, Cebu
|
||||
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
|
||||
Calamba Premiere International Park
|
||||
224
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-2.md
Normal file
224
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of technology centers"
|
||||
chunk: 3/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:15.012774+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Singapore
|
||||
Singapore Science Park: Southwestern Singapore
|
||||
South Korea
|
||||
Daedeok Science Town, Daejeon
|
||||
Digital Media City, Seoul
|
||||
LG Science Park, Seoul
|
||||
Pangyo Techno Valley, Gyeonggi
|
||||
Samsung Town, Seoul
|
||||
Gumi Technology Industrial Park, Gumi, North Gyeongsang
|
||||
Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, North Gyeongsang
|
||||
Changwon Industrial Park, South Gyeongsang
|
||||
Ulsan technological park, South Gyeongsang
|
||||
Songdo, Incheon, Gyeonggi-do
|
||||
Teheran Valley, Seoul
|
||||
Taiwan
|
||||
|
||||
Central Taiwan Science Park: Changhua County, Nantou County, Taichung City and Yunlin County
|
||||
Southern Taiwan Science Park: Kaohsiung City and Tainan City
|
||||
Nankang Software Park: Taipei City
|
||||
Neihu High Tech Science Park: Taipei City
|
||||
Hsinchu Science Park: Hsinchu City
|
||||
Thailand
|
||||
Thailand Science Park, north of Bangkok
|
||||
Software Park Thailand, Bangkok
|
||||
Uzbekistan
|
||||
IT-Park, Tashkent
|
||||
Vietnam
|
||||
Hoa Lac Hi-tech Park, Hanoi
|
||||
Saigon Hi-Tech Park
|
||||
Quang Trung Software City
|
||||
Danang Hi-tech Park
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
Austria
|
||||
Softwarepark Hagenberg: Hagenberg, Upper Austria
|
||||
VRVis Research Center: Vienna
|
||||
Belarus
|
||||
Belarus High Technologies Park: Minsk
|
||||
Belgium
|
||||
BioWin: The Health Cluster of Wallonia
|
||||
Bulgaria
|
||||
Sofia Tech Park: Sofia
|
||||
|
||||
Czech Republic
|
||||
South Moravian Innovation Centre (Czech: Jihomoravské inovační centrum, JIC) is a Czech association of legal entities in Brno, Czech Republic that supports companies and connects them with universities and research institutions.
|
||||
Vědeckotechnický park (Plzeň)
|
||||
Finland
|
||||
Otaniemi: near Helsinki
|
||||
France
|
||||
Paris-Saclay
|
||||
GIANT: Grenoble (electronics, nanotechnology, particle physics, bioscience, robotics and renewable energy)
|
||||
Metz Science Park: Metz Technopole
|
||||
Toulouse: Toulouse Sud-Est: Agrobiopole, Labège-Innopole, Aerospace Valley
|
||||
Valbonne: Sophia Antipolis
|
||||
Villeneuve-d'Ascq: Technopôle Lille Métropole
|
||||
Rennes: Atalante
|
||||
|
||||
Germany
|
||||
Leading Edge Technology Cluster it's OWL (Intelligent Technical Systems Ostwestfalen-Lippe), Bielefeld, Lemgo, Paderborn
|
||||
IT-Cluster Rhein-Main-Neckar, Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Rhine-Neckar
|
||||
Berlin: known as Silicon Allee, one of Europe's most dynamic technology, IT and startup centers
|
||||
Dresden (Silicon Saxony)
|
||||
Kaiserslautern (Silicon Woods)
|
||||
Dortmund (Ruhr Valley)
|
||||
Karlsruhe
|
||||
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania: BioCon Valley for its life science and biotechnology clusters
|
||||
Munich (Isar Valley)
|
||||
Western Pomerania (IT Lagoon)
|
||||
WISTA (Science and Technology Park in Berlin-Adlershof)
|
||||
Hungary
|
||||
Infopark: Budapest
|
||||
|
||||
Ireland
|
||||
Dublin (known as "Silicon Docks" or "The European Silicon Valley", due to its high number of technological EMEA centres)
|
||||
Italy
|
||||
Apple iOS Developer Academy: Naples
|
||||
AREA Science Park: Trieste
|
||||
FabriQ: Milan
|
||||
GREAT Campus: Genoa
|
||||
Milan Innovation District (MIND): Milan
|
||||
VEGA: Venice
|
||||
|
||||
Netherlands
|
||||
Amsterdam Science Park: Amsterdam
|
||||
Biotech Campus Delft: Delft
|
||||
Delftechpark: Delft
|
||||
High Tech Campus Eindhoven: Eindhoven
|
||||
Leiden Bio Science Park: Leiden and Oegstgeest
|
||||
Novio Tech Campus: Nijmegen
|
||||
Technopolis Innovation Park Delft: Delft
|
||||
Utrecht Science Park: Utrecht
|
||||
Zernike Campus: Groningen
|
||||
|
||||
Portugal
|
||||
Taguspark
|
||||
Instituto Pedro Nunes: Coimbra
|
||||
Russia
|
||||
Russian naukograds:
|
||||
Akademgorodok, Novosibirsk
|
||||
Skolkovo Innovation Center, Skolkovo, Moscow Oblast
|
||||
Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology
|
||||
Biysk, Altai region
|
||||
Dubna, Zhukovsky, Korolev, Protvino, Pushchino, Reutov, Troitsk, Fryazino, Chernogolovka, Skolkovo in Moscow region
|
||||
Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region
|
||||
Michurinsk, Tambov region
|
||||
Obninsk, Kaluga region
|
||||
Petergof near St. Petersburg
|
||||
Sirius near Sochi
|
||||
Innopolis, near Kazan'
|
||||
Romania
|
||||
Bucharest
|
||||
Grozăvești including Politehnica Campus, Regie Campus, Sema Park, Afi Park and Orhideea Offices
|
||||
Pipera including Pipera Park, Aviației Offices and Piața Pipera Offices
|
||||
Măgurele including the European laser technology institute
|
||||
Romexpo including Expozitiei Offices, Tipografiei Offices and Jiului Offices
|
||||
Militari including West Gate Offices
|
||||
Cluj-Napoca
|
||||
Între Lacuri start-up offices
|
||||
Jucu technology park
|
||||
Iași
|
||||
Palas-Sfântul Andrei Offices
|
||||
Craiova
|
||||
S200 technology park including Universitatea Campus
|
||||
Ford automotive park
|
||||
Timișoara
|
||||
Openville
|
||||
Vox Technology Park
|
||||
Pitești
|
||||
Dacia automotive park
|
||||
Serbia
|
||||
Science Technology Park Belgrade
|
||||
NTP Novi Sad
|
||||
Slovakia
|
||||
Kosice IT Valley: Košice
|
||||
|
||||
Spain
|
||||
Impact Hub, The Cube : Madrid
|
||||
22@, Barcelona Science Park: Barcelona
|
||||
University of Valencia Science Park Valencia
|
||||
Andalusia Technology Park: Málaga
|
||||
Bizkaia Science and Technology Park: Biscay
|
||||
Cartuja 93: Seville
|
||||
|
||||
Sweden
|
||||
Kista: Stockholm
|
||||
Ideon Science Park: Lund
|
||||
Mjärdevi Science Park: Linköping
|
||||
Switzerland
|
||||
Crypto Valley: Zug
|
||||
Turkey
|
||||
ITU Arı Technopolis: (Istanbul)
|
||||
METU Technopolis: Ankara
|
||||
Hacettepe Technopolis: Ankara
|
||||
IT Valley (Turkish: Bilişim Vadisi)
|
||||
United Kingdom
|
||||
Oxford Science Park: Oxford
|
||||
Silicon Corridor: M4 corridor, Reading, Berkshire
|
||||
Silicon Fen: Cambridge
|
||||
Silicon Glen: in Central Scotland
|
||||
Silicon Gorge: Bristol
|
||||
Silicon Roundabout: London
|
||||
Silicon Spa: Leamington Spa
|
||||
Cambridge Norwich Tech Corridor
|
||||
Ukraine
|
||||
UNIT.city: Kyiv
|
||||
Uzbekistan
|
||||
IT PARK Headquarters: Tashkent
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oceania ===
|
||||
Australia
|
||||
South Eveleigh, Sydney, New South Wales
|
||||
Digital Harbour, Docklands, Melbourne, Victoria
|
||||
Macquarie Park, Sydney, New South Wales (including the Research Park, Macquarie University)
|
||||
Technology Park Bentley, Perth, Western Australia (adjacent to Curtin University)
|
||||
|
||||
== Places with "Silicon" names ==
|
||||
The following list contains places with "Silicon" names, that is, places with nicknames inspired by the Silicon Valley nickname given to part of the San Francisco Bay Area:
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
Silicon Cape: Cape Town, South Africa
|
||||
Silicon Lagoon: Lagos, Nigeria
|
||||
Silicon Mountain: Buea, Cameroon
|
||||
Silicon Savannah: Nairobi, Kenya
|
||||
|
||||
=== Middle East ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Israel ====
|
||||
Silicon Wadi, Israel
|
||||
|
||||
==== United Arab Emirates ====
|
||||
|
||||
Dubai Silicon Oasis: Dubai, United Arab Emirates
|
||||
|
||||
=== Americas ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Brazil ====
|
||||
Brazilian Silicon Valley: Campinas, Brazil
|
||||
Silicon Island: Florianópolis, Brazil
|
||||
|
||||
==== Canada ====
|
||||
Silicon Alley North (Silicon Sentier West): Montreal, Quebec, Canada's largest French-speaking technology centers due to many French companies in Quebec.
|
||||
Canada's Technology Triangle: Waterloo, Ontario, a growing technology centre hub started by the creation of BlackBerry.
|
||||
Silicon Valley North: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada's largest concentration of technology companies and technology employees.
|
||||
Silicon Vineyard: Okanagan Valley, British Columbia
|
||||
|
||||
==== Chile ====
|
||||
Chilecon Valley: Santiago, Chile. The name was first coined by The Economist. Santiago is home of Start-Up Chile, the most important government sponsored accelerator worldwide.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Costa Rica ====
|
||||
Silicon Paradise: Southern Nicoya Peninsula: Santa Teresa de Cobano, Delicias, Montezuma.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Mexico ====
|
||||
Mexican Silicon Valley/Silicon Valley South: Jalisco, Mexico
|
||||
Silicon Border: Mexicali, Mexico
|
||||
142
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-3.md
Normal file
142
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of technology centers"
|
||||
chunk: 4/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technology_centers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:15.012774+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
==== United States ====
|
||||
Philicon Valley (also known as "Silicon Valley Forge"): Area close to Philadelphia, in the suburbs of Valley Forge and Wayne
|
||||
Silicon Alley: Originally a portion of Manhattan in New York City, specifically Broadway, the Flatiron District, SoHo, and TriBeCa. Now encompasses the general NYC tech sphere.
|
||||
Silicon Anchor: Norfolk–Virginia Beach metropolitan area
|
||||
Silicon Basin: Columbus, Ohio
|
||||
Silicon Bayou: New Orleans, Louisiana
|
||||
Silicon Beach: Santa Monica, California and the Westside area of the Los Angeles metro, more specifically Culver City, Venice Beach, Westwood, Manhattan Beach, Malibu, Playa del Rey, and Marina del Rey; also used to refer to the San Diego area in the name of the 1980s software developer Silicon Beach Software. There is also Silicon Beach in South Florida in the Miami area.
|
||||
Silicon Coast: Orange County, California
|
||||
Silicon Desert: Chandler, Arizona
|
||||
Silicon Forest: Portland, Oregon
|
||||
Silicon Harbor: Charleston, South Carolina
|
||||
Silicon Hill: Washington, D.C.
|
||||
Silicon Hills: Austin, Texas
|
||||
Silicon Hollar: Boone, North Carolina
|
||||
Silicon Mountain: Front Range Urban Corridor, Colorado (Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Colorado Springs)
|
||||
Silicon Peach: Atlanta home to Georgia Institute of Technology as well as VMware Airwatch, Google ATL, Kabbage, Pindrop Security, and many venture capital firms
|
||||
Silicon Prairie
|
||||
Dallas-Fort Worth Silicon Prairie: Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex, Texas
|
||||
Illinois Silicon Prairie: Chicago and Urbana–Champaign
|
||||
Midwest Silicon Prairie: Omaha, St. Louis, Des Moines, Kansas City
|
||||
Wyoming Silicon Prairie, also called the "Silicon Range": Jackson Hole
|
||||
Silicon Sandbar: Cape Cod, Massachusetts
|
||||
Silicon Shire: Eugene, Oregon
|
||||
Silicon Shore: Santa Barbara, California
|
||||
Silicon Slopes: Utah County and southern Salt Lake County, Utah
|
||||
Silicon Surf: Santa Cruz, California
|
||||
Silicon Valley: San Jose, California (the original "Silicon" namesake)
|
||||
Silicon Valley North: Seattle, Washington
|
||||
Silicon Valley of the Sierras: Nevada County, California
|
||||
Silicotton Valley: Huntsville, Alabama
|
||||
Silicon Spuds: Idaho Falls, Idaho
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
Silicon Harbor: Hong Kong, China
|
||||
Silicon Island: Kyushu, Japan
|
||||
Silicon Peninsula: Dalian, China
|
||||
Silcion Valley of South Korea: Gumi, Gyeongbuk
|
||||
China's Silicon Valley: Shenzhen or Zhongguancun, Haidian District, Beijing, People's Republic of China (PRC).
|
||||
Silicon Valley of India (sometimes referred to as Silicon Plateau): Bangalore
|
||||
Silicon Valley of Indonesia (also known as Subang Valley): Subang, Subang, West Java, Indonesia
|
||||
Silicon Valley of Taiwan: Hsinchu, Taiwan
|
||||
Silicon Valley of Hong Kong: Cyberport and Hong Kong Science Park
|
||||
Silicon Valley of the East: Bayan Lepas Free Industrial Zone, George Town, Penang, Malaysia
|
||||
Silicon Island, George Town, Penang, Malaysia
|
||||
Silicon Wadi: The coastal plain of Israel, stretching from Haifa to Tel Aviv and Rehovot and expanding inland to Jerusalem
|
||||
Teheran Valley: Gangnam District, Seoul, South Korea
|
||||
Pangyo Techno Valley: Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== France ====
|
||||
Silicon Valley, Grenoble-Grésivaudan
|
||||
Silicon Valley, Paris-Saclay
|
||||
Silicon Valley, Sophia Antipolis
|
||||
Silicon Sentier: Paris, France
|
||||
|
||||
==== Germany ====
|
||||
|
||||
BioCon Valley: Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania
|
||||
Isar Valley: Munich, Bavaria
|
||||
Medical Valley: Erlangen, Bavaria
|
||||
Silicon Allee (English: Silicon Avenue): Berlin (incl. WISTA)
|
||||
Silicon Saxony: Dresden, Saxony, Elbe river valley around the city
|
||||
Silicon Woods: Kaiserslautern, Rhineland-Palatinate
|
||||
|
||||
==== Greece ====
|
||||
Silicon Islands: Patras with past and present companies like Atmel, Samsung, Citrix, Dialog Semiconductor, Think Silicon and Intel
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ireland ====
|
||||
Silicon Docks: Dublin, Ireland. Contains the European headquarters of companies like Facebook, Twitter, Google, LinkedIn, and many others.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Italy ====
|
||||
Silicon Moda: Milan, Italy.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Norway ====
|
||||
SiliconFjord: Oslofjord region
|
||||
Silicon Harbor: Trondheim, Norway.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Russia ====
|
||||
|
||||
Russian Silicon Valley:
|
||||
Innopolis
|
||||
Skolkovo innovation center
|
||||
Zelenograd, Moscow
|
||||
Silicon Sloboda: Moscow
|
||||
Silicon Taiga: Akademgorodok
|
||||
|
||||
==== Switzerland ====
|
||||
Ticino Valley: Technology cluster in the Lugano area
|
||||
|
||||
==== United Kingdom ====
|
||||
|
||||
Cwm Silicon (Newport, Wales)
|
||||
Silicon Alley (Pink Lane, Newcastle Upon Tyne, England)
|
||||
Silicon Beach (Bournemouth, England)
|
||||
Silicon Canal (Birmingham, England): the area along the Digbeth Branch Canal from Aston Science Park, through Millennium Point to Digbeth.
|
||||
Silicon Corridor (the M4 corridor)
|
||||
Silicon Dock (Belfast)
|
||||
Silicon Fen (Cambridge, England)
|
||||
Silicon Forest (Newark, Nottinghamshire): Silicon Forest consists of various businesses from in and around the Newark and Sherwood area that specialise in technology and innovation.
|
||||
Silicon Glen (Central Belt, Scotland)
|
||||
Silicon Gorge (Bristol, England)
|
||||
Silicon Mall (London, England): the area between Pall Mall and Victoria in London
|
||||
Silicon Pier (Brighton, England)
|
||||
Silicon Roundabout: the area around Old Street Roundabout in London (East London Tech City)
|
||||
Silicon Shipyard (Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead, Middlesbrough)
|
||||
Silicon Spa (Leamington Spa, Warwickshire): Notable for a relatively high concentration of video game developers.
|
||||
Silicon Walk (Edinburgh, Scotland)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oceania ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Australia ====
|
||||
Silicon Mallee (Adelaide, Australia; Mallee, an Australian aboriginal word for the land area around Adelaide covered by low, scrubby dwarf eucalyptus "mallee" vegetation)
|
||||
Silicon St, Sydney" An inner city colloquial district including Ultimo/Pyrmont along Harris St spanning 10 km2 from UTS to Google including Fishburners
|
||||
Silicon Beach: A term used by those in the Australian startup community to refer to the startup ecosystem within Australian cities, in particular by Meetup groups like Silicon Beach Sydney and Silicon Beach Adelaide
|
||||
|
||||
==== New Zealand ====
|
||||
Silicon Welly (Wellington in New Zealand)
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Technopole
|
||||
List of research parks
|
||||
Research-intensive clusters
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Kerr, William R., and Frederic Robert-Nicoud. 2020. "Tech Clusters." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34 (3): 50–76.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Comprehensive list of "Silicon" names
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of textbooks in electromagnetism"
|
||||
chunk: 1/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The study of electromagnetism in higher education, as a fundamental part of both physics and electrical engineering, is typically accompanied by textbooks devoted to the subject. The American Physical Society and the American Association of Physics Teachers recommend a full year of graduate study in electromagnetism for all physics graduate students. A joint task force by those organizations in 2006 found that in 76 of the 80 US physics departments surveyed, a course using John Jackson's Classical Electrodynamics was required for all first year graduate students. For undergraduates, there are several widely used textbooks, including David Griffiths' Introduction to Electrodynamics and Electricity and Magnetism by Edward Purcell and David Morin. Also at an undergraduate level, Richard Feynman's classic Lectures on Physics is available online to read for free.
|
||||
|
||||
== Physics ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Undergraduate (introductory and intermediate) ===
|
||||
There are several widely used undergraduate textbooks in electromagnetism, including David Griffiths' Introduction to Electrodynamics as well as Electricity and Magnetism by Edward Purcell and David Morin. Richard Feynman's Lectures on Physics also include a volume on electromagnetism that is available to read online for free, through the California Institute of Technology. In addition, there are popular physics textbooks that include electricity and magnetism among the material they cover, such as David Halliday and Robert Resnick's Fundamentals of Physics.
|
||||
|
||||
Davidson PA, An Introduction to Electrodynamics, Oxford University, 2019.
|
||||
Feynman RP, Leighton RB, Sands M, Electromagnetism and Matter, Basic Books, 2010.
|
||||
Grant IS, Phillips WR, Electromagnetism, 2nd ed, Wiley, 1990.
|
||||
Griffiths DJ, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 5th ed, Cambridge University, 2024.
|
||||
Halliday D, Resnick R, Walker J, Fundamentals of Physics, Extended 12th ed, Wiley, 2022.
|
||||
Heald MA, Marion JB, Classical Electromagnetic Radiation, 3rd ed, Dover, 2012.
|
||||
Müller-Kirsten HJW, Electrodynamics, 3rd ed, World Scientific, 2026.
|
||||
Ohanian HC, Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd ed, Jones & Bartlett, 2006.
|
||||
Pauli W, Electrodynamics, Dover, 2000.
|
||||
Pollack GL, Stump DR, Electromagnetism, Addison-Wesley, 2002.
|
||||
Purcell EM, Morin DJ, Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed, Cambridge University, 2013.
|
||||
Reitz JR, Milford FJ, Christy RW, Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory, 4th ed, Pearson, 2009.
|
||||
Saslow W, Electricity Magnetism and Light, Academic, 2002.
|
||||
Schwartz M, Principles of Electrodynamics, Dover, 1987.
|
||||
Tamm IE, Fundamentals of the Theory of Electricity, Mir, 9th ed, 1979.
|
||||
Vanderlinde J, Classical Electromagnetic Theory, 2nd ed, Springer, 2004.
|
||||
Wangsness RK, Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd ed, Wiley, 1986.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Graduate ===
|
||||
A 2006 report by a joint taskforce between the American Physical Society and the American Association of Physics Teachers found that 76 of the 80 physics departments surveyed require a first-year graduate course in John Jackson's Classical Electrodynamics. This made Jackson's book the most popular textbook in any field of graduate-level physics, with Herbert Goldstein's Classical Mechanics as the second most popular with adoption at 48 universities. James Russ, professor of physics at Carnegie Mellon University, claims Jackson's textbook has been "[t]he classic electrodynamics text for the past four decades" and that it is "the book from which most current-generation physicists took their first course." In addition to Jackson's textbook there are other classic textbooks like Classical Electricity and Magnetism by Pief Panofsky and Melba Phillips, and Electrodynamics of Continuous Media by Lev Landau, Evgeny Lifshitz, and Lev Pitaevskii, both pre-dating Jackson's book. Among the textbooks published after Jackson's book, Julian Schwinger's 1970s lecture notes is a mentionable book first published in 1998 posthumously. Due to the domination of Jackson's textbook in graduate physics education, even physicists like Schwinger became frustrated competing with Jackson and because of this, the publication of Schwinger's book was postponed so that it was finally completed and published by his colleagues.
|
||||
In addition to the mentioned classic books, in recent years there have been a few well-received electromagnetic textbooks published for graduate studies in physics, with one of the most notable being Modern Electrodynamics by Andrew Zangwill published in 2013, which has been praised by many physicists like John Joannopoulos, Michael Berry, Rob Phillips, Alain Aspect, Roberto Merlin, Shirley Chiang, Roy Schwitters but also well received in the electrical engineering community. Another notable textbook is Classical Electromagnetism in a Nutshell by Anupam Garg published in 2012, which has been also praised by physicists like Anthony Zee, Ramamurti Shankar, Jainendra Jain, John Belcher.
|
||||
Here is the list of some important textbooks that discuss generic physical areas of electromagnetism.
|
||||
|
||||
Brau CA, Modern Problems in Classical Electrodynamics, Oxford University, 2004.
|
||||
Chaichian M, Merches I, Radu D, Tureanu A, Electrodynamics: An Intensive Course, Springer, 2016.
|
||||
Di Bartolo B, Classical Theory of Electromagnetism, 3rd ed, World Scientific, 2018.
|
||||
Franklin J, Classical Electromagnetism, 2nd ed, Dover, 2017.
|
||||
Freeman R, King J, Lafyatis G, Electromagnetic Radiation, Oxford University, 2019.
|
||||
Garg A, Classical Electromagnetism in a Nutshell, Princeton University, 2012.
|
||||
Good RH, Nelson TJ, Classical Theory of Electric and Magnetic Fields, Academic, 1971.
|
||||
Jackson JD, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed, Wiley, 1999.
|
||||
Jentschura UD, Advanced Classical Electrodynamics: Green Functions, Regularizations, Multipole Decompositions, World Scientific, 2017.
|
||||
Landau LD, Lifshitz EM, Pitaevskii LP, Electrodynamics of Continuous Media, 2nd ed, Pergamon, 1984.
|
||||
Maggiore M, A Modern Introduction to Classical Electrodynamics, Oxford University, 2023.
|
||||
Melia F, Electrodynamics, University of Chicago, 2001.
|
||||
Milton KA, Schwinger J, Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd ed, CRC, 2024.
|
||||
Panofsky WKH, Phillips M, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd ed, Dover, 2005.
|
||||
Sommerfeld A, Electrodynamics, Academic, 1952.
|
||||
Wald RM, Advanced Classical Electromagnetism, Princeton University, 2022.
|
||||
Wilcox W, Thron C, Macroscopic Electrodynamics: An Introductory Graduate Treatment, 2nd ed, World Scientific, 2024.
|
||||
Zangwill A, Modern Electrodynamics, Cambridge University, 2013.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Specialized ===
|
||||
Here is the list of some important graduate textbooks that discuss particular physical areas of electromagnetism.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of textbooks in electromagnetism"
|
||||
chunk: 2/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Barut AO, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles, Dover, 1980.
|
||||
Baylis WE, Electrodynamics: A Modern Geometric Approach, Birkhäuser, 1999.
|
||||
Böttcher CJF, Bordewijk P, Van Belle OC, Rip A, Theory of Electric Polarization, 2nd ed, 2 vols, Elsevier, 1973, 1978.
|
||||
Clemmow PC, Dougherty JP, Electrodynamics of Particles and Plasmas, CRC, 2018.
|
||||
Cullity DB, Stock SR, Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, 3rd ed, Pearson, 2014.
|
||||
Eringen AC, Maugin GA, Electrodynamics of Continua, 2 vols, Springer, 1990.
|
||||
Ginzburg VL, The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasmas, 2nd ed, Pergamon, 1970.
|
||||
Hehl FW, Obukhov YN, Foundations of Classical Electrodynamics: Charge, Flux, and Metric, Springer, 2003.
|
||||
Landau LD, Lifshitz EM, The Classical Theory of Fields, 4th ed, Pergamon, 1975.
|
||||
Lechner K, Classical Electrodynamics: A Modern Perspective, Springer, 2018.
|
||||
Oppenheimer JR, Lectures on Electrodynamics, Gordon & Breach, 1970.
|
||||
Post EJ, Formal Structure of Electromagnetics: General Covariance and Electromagnetics, Dover, 1997.
|
||||
Rohrlich F, Classical Charged Particles, 3rd ed, World Scientific, 2007.
|
||||
Rybicki GB, Lightman AP, Radiative Processes in Astrophysics, Wiley, 1979.
|
||||
|
||||
== Electrical engineering ==
|
||||
According to a 2011 review of analytical and computational textbooks in electromagnetism by David Davidson, Julius Stratton's Electromagnetic Theory remains the classic text in electromagnetism and is still regularly cited. Davidson goes on to point out that Constantine Balanis' Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics and Roger Harrington's Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields are standard references at the post-graduate level. Also for advanced undergraduate level, the textbook Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics by Simon Ramo, John Whinnery, and Theodore Van Duzer is considered as standard reference.
|
||||
Many of the important and classic graduate electromagnetic textbooks related to electrical engineering listed here are published or reissued by IEEE under the name of The IEEE Press Series on Electromagnetic Wave Theory.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Undergraduate (introductory and intermediate) ===
|
||||
Cheng DK, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd ed, Addison-Wesley, 1989.
|
||||
Hammond P, Electromagnetism for Engineers: An Introductory Course, 4th ed, Oxford University, 1997.
|
||||
Haus HA, Melcher JR, Electromagnetic Fields and Energy, Prentice Hall, 1989.
|
||||
Hayt WH, Buck JA, Engineering Electromagnetics, 9th ed, McGraw Hill, 2018.
|
||||
Ida N, Engineering Electromagnetics, 4th ed, Springer, 2021.
|
||||
Johnk CTA, Engineering Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, 2nd ed, Wiley, 1991.
|
||||
Jordan EC, Balmain KG, Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems, 2nd ed, Prentice Hall, 1968.
|
||||
Kraus JD, Fleisch DA, Russ SH, Electromagnetics with Applications, 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 1999.
|
||||
Lorrain P, Corson DR, Lorrain F, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves: Including Electric Circuits, 3rd ed, WH Freeman, 1988.
|
||||
Ramo S, Whinnery JR, Van Duzer T, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, 3rd ed, Wiley, 1994.
|
||||
Sadiku MNO, Elements of Electromagnetics, 7th ed, Oxford University, 2018.
|
||||
Strangeway RA, Holland SS, Richie JE, Electromagnetics and Transmission Lines: Essentials for Electrical Engineering, 2nd ed, Wiley, 2022.
|
||||
Ulaby FT, Ravaioli U, Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics, 8th ed, Pearson, 2020.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Graduate ===
|
||||
Balanis CA, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics, 3rd ed, Wiley, 2024.
|
||||
Chew WC, Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous Media, IEEE, 1995.
|
||||
Collin RE, Field Theory of Guided Waves, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 1991.
|
||||
Felsen LB, Marcuvitz N, Radiation and Scattering of Waves, Wiley-IEEE, 2003.
|
||||
Harrington RF, Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields, Wiley-IEEE, 2001.
|
||||
Ishimaru A, Electromagnetic Wave Propagation, Radiation, and Scattering: From Fundamentals to Applications, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 2017.
|
||||
Jones DS, The Theory of Electromagnetism, Pergamon, 1964.
|
||||
Kong JA, Electromagnetic Wave Theory, 3rd ed, EMW, 2008.
|
||||
Schelkunoff SA, Electromagnetic Waves, Van Nostrand, 1943.
|
||||
Smythe WR, Static and Dynamic Electricity, 3rd ed, Hemisphere, 1989.
|
||||
Stratton JA, Electromagnetic Theory, Wiley-IEEE, 2007.
|
||||
Van Bladel J, Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 2007.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Specialized ===
|
||||
Beckmann P, Spizzichino A, The Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves from Rough Surfaces, Artech House, 1987.
|
||||
Dudley DG, Mathematical Foundations for Electromagnetic Theory, Wiley-IEEE, 1994.
|
||||
Hanson GW, Yakovlev AB, Operator Theory for Electromagnetics: An Introduction, Springer, 2002.
|
||||
Idemen MM, Discontinuities in the Electromagnetic Field, Wiley-IEEE, 2011.
|
||||
Ishimaru A, Wave Propagation and Scattering in Random Media, IEEE-Oxford University, 1997.
|
||||
Kazimierczuk MK, High-Frequency Magnetic Components, 2nd ed, Wiley, 2014.
|
||||
Lindell IV, Methods for Electromagnetic Field Analysis, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 1996.
|
||||
McNamara DA, Pistotius CWI, Malherbe JAG, Introduction to Uniform Geometrical Theory of Diffraction, Artech House, 1990.
|
||||
Mittra R, Lee SW, Analytical Techniques in the Theory of Guided Waves, Macmillan, 1971.
|
||||
Senior TBA, Volakis JL, Approximate Boundary Conditions in Electromagnetics, IEE 1995.
|
||||
Tai CT, Dyadic Green Functions in Electromagnetic Theory, 2nd ed, IEEE, 1994.
|
||||
Tsang L, Kong JA, Ding KH, Ao CO, Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves, 3 vols, Wiley, 2001.
|
||||
Ufimtsev PY, Fundamentals of the Physical Theory of Diffraction, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 2014.
|
||||
Van Bladel J, Singular Electromagnetic Fields and Sources, Wiley-IEEE, 1991.
|
||||
Wait JR, Electromagnetic Waves in Stratified Media, 2nd ed, IEEE-Oxford University, 1996.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radio-frequency ===
|
||||
Balanis CA, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 4th ed, Wiley, 2016.
|
||||
Collin RE, Foundations for Microwave Engineering, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 2001.
|
||||
Elliott RS, Antenna Theory and Design, Wiley-IEEE, 2003.
|
||||
Garg R, Bhartia P, Bahl I, Ittipiboon A, Microstrip Antenna Design Handbook, Artech House, 2001.
|
||||
Kraus JD, Marhefka RJ, Khan AS, Antennas and Wave Propagation, 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 2017.
|
||||
Marcuvitz N, Waveguide Handbook, IET, 2009.
|
||||
Milligan TA, Modern Antenna Design, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE 2005.
|
||||
Paul CR, Scully RC, Steffka MA, Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility, 3rd ed, Wiley, 2023.
|
||||
Pozar DM, Microwave Engineering, 4th ed, Wiley, 2012.
|
||||
Rizzi PA, Microwave Engineering: Passive Circuits, Prentice Hall, 1988.
|
||||
Ruck GT, Barrick DE, Stuart WD, Krichbaum CK, Radar Cross Section Handbook, 2 vols, Kluwer-Plenum, 1970.
|
||||
Stutzman WL, Thiele GA, Antenna Theory and Design, 3rd ed, Wiley, 2013.
|
||||
Tsang L, Kong JA, Shin RT, Theory of Microwave Remote Sensing, Wiley, 1985.
|
||||
Ulaby FT, Moore RK, Fung AK, Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive, 3 vols, Artech House, 1981, 1982, 1986.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of textbooks in electromagnetism"
|
||||
chunk: 3/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Metamaterials ===
|
||||
Caloz C, Itoh T, Electromagnetic Metamaterials: Transmission Line Theory and Microwave Applications (The Engineering Approach), Wiley-IEEE, 2006.
|
||||
Capolino F, (Ed), Metamaterials Handbook, 2 vols, CRC, 2009.
|
||||
Cui TJ, Smith DR, Liu R, (Eds), Metamaterials: Theory, Design, and Applications, Springer, 2010.
|
||||
Eleftheriades GV, Balmain KG, (Eds), Negative-Refraction Metamaterials: Fundamental Principles and Applications, Wiley-IEEE, 2005.
|
||||
Engheta N, Ziolkowski RW, (Eds), Metamaterials: Physics and Engineering Explorations, Wiley-IEEE, 2006.
|
||||
Marqués R, Martín F, Sorolla M, Metamaterials with Negative Parameters: Theory, Design, and Microwave Applications, Wiley, 2008.
|
||||
Munk BA, Frequency Selective Surfaces: Theory and Design, Wiley, 2000.
|
||||
Munk BA, Metamaterials: Critique and Alternatives, Wiley, 2009.
|
||||
Ramakrishna SA, Grzegorczyk TM, Physics and Applications of Negative Refractive Index Materials, CRC, 2008.
|
||||
Sarychev AK, Shalaev VM, Electrodynamics of Metamaterials, World Scientific, 2007.
|
||||
Tretyakov S, Analytical Modeling in Applied Electromagnetics, Artech House, 2003.
|
||||
Yang F, Rahmat-Samii Y, Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures in Antenna Engineering, Cambridge University, 2009.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Computational ===
|
||||
Booton RC, Computational Methods for Electromagnetics and Microwaves, Wiley, 1992.
|
||||
Chew WC, Jin JM, Michielssen E, Song J, (Eds), Fast and Efficient Algorithms in Computational Electromagnetics, Artech House, 2001.
|
||||
Gibson WC, The Method of Moments in Electromagnetics, 3rd ed, CRC, 2022.
|
||||
Harrington RF, Field Computation by Moment Methods, Wiley-IEEE, 2000.
|
||||
Itoh T, (Ed), Numerical Techniques for Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Passive Structures, Wiley, 1989.
|
||||
Jin JM, The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics, 3rd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 2014.
|
||||
Jones DS, Methods in Electromagnetic Wave Propagation, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 1994.
|
||||
Kunz KS, Luebbers RJ, The Finite Difference Time Domain Method for Electromagnetics, CRC, 1993.
|
||||
Peterson AF, Ray SL, Mittra R, Computational Methods for Electromagnetics, Wiley-IEEE, 1997.
|
||||
Sadiku MNO, Computational Electromagnetics with MATLAB, 4th ed, CRC, 2019.
|
||||
Silvester PP, Ferrari RL, Finite Elements for Electrical Engineers, 3rd ed, Cambridge University, 1996.
|
||||
Taflove A, Hagness SC, (Eds), Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 3rd ed, Artech House, 2005.
|
||||
|
||||
== Optics ==
|
||||
There are also many outstanding and notable textbooks published in optics which is a branch of electromagnetism dealing with interactions of light or visible spectrum electromagnetism with matter. Here is the list of some important textbooks in different areas of classical optics. These textbooks are suitable for both physics and electrical engineering studies depending on the context.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Generic ===
|
||||
Born M, Wolf E, Principles of Optics, 7th ed, Cambridge University, 2019.
|
||||
Fowles GR, Introduction to Modern Optics, 2nd ed, Dover, 1989.
|
||||
Guenther BD, Modern Optics, 2nd ed, Oxford University, 2015.
|
||||
Hecht E, Optics, 5th ed, Pearson, 2017.
|
||||
Iizuka K, Engineering Optics, 4th ed, Springer, 2019.
|
||||
Jenkins FA, White HE, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th ed, McGraw Hill, 2001.
|
||||
Lipson A, Lipson SG, Lipson H, Optical Physics, 4th ed, Cambridge University, 2010.
|
||||
Shiell R, McNab I, Pedrottis' Introduction to Optics, 4th ed, Cambridge University, 2024.
|
||||
Smith WJ, Modern Optical Engineering: The Design of Optical Systems, 4th ed, McGraw Hill, 2008.
|
||||
Sommerfeld A, Optics, Academic, 1954.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Specialized ===
|
||||
Agrawal GP, Fiber-Optic Communication Systems, 5th ed, Wiley, 2021.
|
||||
Agrawal GP, Nonlinear Fiber Optics, 6th ed, Elsevier, 2019.
|
||||
Boyd RW, Nonlinear Optics, 4th ed, Elsevier, 2020.
|
||||
Goodman JW, Introduction to Fourier Optics, 4th ed, WH Freeman, 2017.
|
||||
Goodman JW, Statistical Optics, 2nd ed, Wiley, 2015.
|
||||
Haus HA, Waves and Fields in Optoelectronics, Prentice Hall, 1984.
|
||||
Luneburg RK, Mathematical Theory of Optics, University of California, 1964.
|
||||
Maier SA, Plasmonics: Fundamentals and Applications, Springer, 2007.
|
||||
Novotny L, Hecht B, Principles of Nano-Optics, 2nd ed, Cambridge University, 2012.
|
||||
Saleh BEA, Teich MC, Fundamentals of Photonics, 3rd ed, Wiley, 2019.
|
||||
Shen YR, Principles of Nonlinear Optics, Wiley, 1984.
|
||||
Yariv A, Yeh P, Photonics: Optical Electronics in Modern Communications, 6th ed, Oxford University, 2007.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Light scattering ===
|
||||
Berne BJ, Pecora R, Dynamic Light Scattering: With Applications to Chemistry, Biology, and Physics, Dover, 2000.
|
||||
Bohren CF, Huffman DR, Absorption and Scattering of Light by Small Particles, Wiley, 2004.
|
||||
Kerker M, The Scattering of Light and Other Electromagnetic Radiation, Academic, 1969.
|
||||
Mishchenko MI, Travis LD, Lacis AA, Scattering, Absorption, and Emission of Light by Small Particles, NASA-Cambridge University, 2006.
|
||||
van de Hulst HC, Light Scattering by Small Particles, Dover, 1981.
|
||||
Yeh P, Optical Waves in Layered Media, Wiley, 1988.
|
||||
|
||||
== Magnetism ==
|
||||
Another branch of electromagnetism that has been developed separately is magnetism, which is about studying magnetic properties of different materials and their interactions with electromagnetic fields. There are also many classic textbooks published in magnetism which some of them are listed here and they could be used in both physics and electrical engineering studies depending on the context.
|
||||
|
||||
Aharoni A, Introduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism, 2nd ed, Oxford University, 1996.
|
||||
Blundell S, Magnetism in Condensed Matter, Oxford University, 2001.
|
||||
Bozorth RM, Ferromagnetism, Wiley-IEEE, 2003.
|
||||
Chikazumi S, Physics of Ferromagnetism, 2nd ed, Oxford University, 1997.
|
||||
Coey JMD, Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Cambridge University, 2009.
|
||||
Cullity BD, Graham CD, Introduction to Magnetic Materials, 2nd ed, Wiley-IEEE, 2009.
|
||||
Dunlop DJ, Özdemir Ö, Rock Magnetism: Fundamentals and Frontiers, Cambridge University, 1997.
|
||||
Jiles D, Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, 3rd ed, CRC, 2016.
|
||||
Krishnan KM, Fundamentals and Applications of Magnetic Materials, Oxford University, 2016.
|
||||
Morrish AH, The Physical Principles of Magnetism, Wiley-IEEE, 2001.
|
||||
O'handley RC, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications, Wiley, 2000.
|
||||
Spaldin NA, Magnetic Materials: Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd ed, Cambridge University, 2010.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of textbooks in electromagnetism"
|
||||
chunk: 4/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Magnetohydrodynamics ==
|
||||
Magnetohydrodynamics is an interdisciplinary branch of physics that uses continuum mechanics to describe the interaction of electromagnetic fields with fluids that are conductive. It combines classical electromagnetism with fluid mechanics by combination of Maxwell equations with Navier-Stokes equations. This relatively new branch of physics was first developed by Hannes Alfvén in a 1942 paper published in Nature titled Existence of Electromagnetic-Hydrodynamic Waves. In 1950 Alfvén published a textbook titled Cosmical Electrodynamics which considered as the seminal work in the field of magnetohydrodynamics. There are also two closely related fields to the traditional field of magnetohydrodynamics which are called electrohydrodynamics and ferrohydrodynamics. Electrohydrodynamics deals with interaction of electromagnetic fields with weakly conductive fluids and ferrohydrodynamics deals with interaction of electromagnetic fields with magnetic fluids. Today magnetohydrodynamics and its related fields have many applications in plasma physics, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, astrophysics, geophysics and many other scientific branches. Here is the list of some important textbooks in different areas of electro-magneto-ferro-hydrodynamics.
|
||||
|
||||
Alfvén H, Fälthammar CG, Cosmical Electrodynamics: Fundamental Principles, 2nd ed, Oxford University, 1963.
|
||||
Biskamp D, Magnetohydrodynamic Turbulence, Cambridge University, 2003.
|
||||
Biskamp D, Nonlinear Magnetohydrodynamics, Cambridge University, 1993.
|
||||
Blums E, Cebers A, Maiorov MM, Magnetic Fluids, De Gruyter, 1996.
|
||||
Castellanos A, (Ed), Electrohydrodynamics, Springer, 1998.
|
||||
Cowling TG, Magnetohydrodynamics, 2nd ed, Adam Hilger, 1976.
|
||||
Davidson PA, Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics, 2nd ed, Cambridge University, 2017.
|
||||
Moreau R, Magnetohydrodynamics, Springer, 1990.
|
||||
Priest E, Magnetohydrodynamics of the Sun, Cambridge University, 2014.
|
||||
Priest E, Forbes T, Magnetic Reconnection: MHD Theory and Applications, Cambridge University, 2000.
|
||||
Roberts PH, An Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics, Elsevier, 1967.
|
||||
Rosensweig RE, Ferrohydrodynamics, Dover, 2014.
|
||||
Sutton GW, Sherman A, Engineering Magnetohydrodynamics, Dover, 2006.
|
||||
|
||||
== Historical ==
|
||||
There are many important books in electromagnetism which are generally considered as historical classics and some of them are listed here.
|
||||
|
||||
Abraham M, Becker R, The Classical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 8th ed, Blackie & Son, 1932.
|
||||
Green G, An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism, T Wheelhouse, 1828.
|
||||
Heaviside O, Electromagnetic Theory, 3rd ed, 3 vols, The Electrician, 1893, 1899, 1912.
|
||||
Hertz H, Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action with Finite Velocity through Space, Macmillan, 1893.
|
||||
Jeans JH, The Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 5th ed, Cambridge University, 1927.
|
||||
Macdonald HM, Electric Waves, Cambridge University, 1902.
|
||||
Maxwell JC, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed, 2 vols, Clarendon, 1891.
|
||||
Planck M, Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd ed, Macmillan, 1932.
|
||||
Schott GA, Electromagnetic Radiation and the Mechanical Reactions Arising from It, Cambridge University, 1912.
|
||||
Thomson JJ, Elements of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 4th ed, Cambridge University, 1909.
|
||||
Whittaker ET, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, 2nd ed, 2 vols, Thomas Nelson, 1951.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:13:06.136598+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:11.578852+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of types of interferometers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_interferometers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:29.608857+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An interferometer is a device for extracting information from the superposition of multiple waves.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Field and linear interferometers ==
|
||||
Air-wedge shearing interferometer
|
||||
Astronomical interferometer / Michelson stellar interferometer
|
||||
Classical interference microscopy
|
||||
Bath interferometer (common path)
|
||||
Cyclic interferometer
|
||||
Diffraction-grating interferometer (white light)
|
||||
Double-slit interferometer
|
||||
Dual-polarization interferometry
|
||||
Fabry–Pérot interferometer
|
||||
Fizeau interferometer
|
||||
Fourier-transform interferometer
|
||||
Fresnel interferometer (e.g. Fresnel biprism, Fresnel mirror or Lloyd's mirror)
|
||||
Fringes of Equal Chromatic Order interferometer (FECO)
|
||||
Gabor hologram
|
||||
Gires–Tournois etalon
|
||||
Heterodyne interferometer (see heterodyne)
|
||||
Holographic interferometer
|
||||
Jamin interferometer
|
||||
Laser Doppler vibrometer
|
||||
Linnik interferometer (microscopy)
|
||||
LUPI variant of Michelson
|
||||
Lummer–Gehrcke interferometer
|
||||
Mach–Zehnder interferometer
|
||||
Martin–Puplett interferometer
|
||||
Michelson interferometer
|
||||
Mirau interferometer (also known as a Mirau objective) (microscopy)
|
||||
Moiré interferometer (see moiré pattern)
|
||||
Multi-beam interferometer (microscopy)
|
||||
Near-field interferometer
|
||||
Newton interferometer (see Newton's rings)
|
||||
Nomarski interferometer
|
||||
Nonlinear Michelson interferometer / Step-phase Michelson interferometer
|
||||
N-slit interferometer
|
||||
Phase-shifting interferometer
|
||||
Planar lightwave circuit interferometer (PLC)
|
||||
Photon Doppler velocimeter interferometer (PDV)
|
||||
Polarization interferometer (see also Babinet–Soleil compensator)
|
||||
Point diffraction interferometer
|
||||
Rayleigh interferometer
|
||||
Sagnac interferometer
|
||||
Schlieren interferometer (phase-shifting)
|
||||
Shearing interferometer (lateral and radial)
|
||||
Twyman–Green interferometer
|
||||
Talbot–Lau interferometer
|
||||
Watson interferometer (microscopy)
|
||||
White-light interferometer (see also Optical coherence tomography, White light interferometry, and Coherence Scanning Interferometry)
|
||||
White-light scatterplate interferometer (white-light) (microscopy)
|
||||
Young's double-slit interferometer
|
||||
Zernike phase-contrast microscopy
|
||||
ZWF interferometer (microscopy)(see https://doi.org/10.1117/1.OE.55.7.074110)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Intensity and nonlinear interferometers ==
|
||||
intensity interferometer
|
||||
intensity optical correlator
|
||||
frequency-resolved optical gating (FROG)
|
||||
Spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction (SPIDER)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Quantum optics interferometers ==
|
||||
Hong–Ou–Mandel interferometer (HOM) (see Hong–Ou–Mandel effect)
|
||||
Franson interferometer
|
||||
Hanbury–Brown Twiss interferometer
|
||||
Polariton interferometer
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Interferometers outside optics ==
|
||||
Acoustic interferometer
|
||||
Atom interferometer
|
||||
Neutron interferometer
|
||||
Ramsey interferometer
|
||||
Mini grail interferometer
|
||||
Aharonov–Bohm effect
|
||||
Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar (a radar-based 3-d surface mapping)
|
||||
Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)
|
||||
White–Juday warp-field interferometer
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Atacama Large Millimeter Array
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of vertebrate fauna of the Campanian stage"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vertebrate_fauna_of_the_Campanian_stage"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:20.913864+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is an incomplete list that briefly describes vertebrates that were extant during the Campanian, a stage of the Late Cretaceous Period which extended from 83.6 to 72.1 million years before present. Animals that lived in the Campanian include:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Cartilaginous fish ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Chimaeriformes ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== †Hybodontiformes ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Selachimorpha ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Batoidea ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Actinopterygii ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Chondrostei ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Holostei ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Teleosteomorpha ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Actinistia ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dipnoi ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Amphibians ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Lepidosaurs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Testudines ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== †Plesiosaurs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== †Choristoderans ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Crocodylomorphs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== †Pterosaurs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dinosaurs ==
|
||||
During the Campanian age, a radiation among dinosaur species occurred. In North America, for example, the number of known dinosaur genera rises from 4 at the base of the Campanian to 48 in the upper part. This development is sometimes referred to as the "Campanian Explosion". However, it is not yet clear if the event is artificial, i.e. the low number of genera in the lower Campanian can be caused by a lower preservation chance for fossils in deposits of that age. The generally warm climates and large continental area covered in shallow sea during the Campanian probably favoured the dinosaurs. In the following Maastrichtian stage, the number of North American dinosaur genera found is 30% less than in the upper Campanian.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== †Ornithischia ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Ankylosaurs ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Thescelosaurids ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Ceratopsians ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Pachycephalosaurs ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Ornithopods ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== †Sauropoda ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Theropoda ===
|
||||
David J. Varrichio observes that during the late Campanian Alberta and Montana had very similar theropods despite significant differences in the types of herbivorous dinosaur faunas.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Avialae ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mammals ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of fossil sites (with link directory)
|
||||
List of vertebrate fauna of the Maastrichtian stage
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of vertebrate fauna of the Maastrichtian stage"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vertebrate_fauna_of_the_Maastrichtian_stage"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:22.223337+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is an incomplete list that briefly describes vertebrates that were extant during the Maastrichtian, a stage of the Late Cretaceous Period which extended from 72.1 to 66 million years before present. This was the last time period in which non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs existed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Amphibians ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dinosaurs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== †Ornithischians ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Ankylosaurs ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Parksosauridae ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Ornithopoda ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Ceratopsians ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Pachycephalosaurs ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== †Sauropods ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== †Theropods (non-maniraptoran) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== †Maniraptora (non-avian) ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Avialans (avian theropods) =====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Cartilaginous fish ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Crocodylomorphs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Ray-finned fish ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mammals ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== †Plesiosaurs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== †Pterosaurs ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Squamates ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Turtles ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== †Choristoderes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of fossil sites (with link directory)
|
||||
Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
|
||||
List of vertebrate fauna of the Campanian stage
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:04:52.539742+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:17.820222+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:33.899571+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== By location ==
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Africa
|
||||
List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Asia
|
||||
List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the Caribbean
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Europe
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in North America
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Canada
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the United States
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Oceania
|
||||
Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South America
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== By preserved taxon ==
|
||||
List of dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic units
|
||||
List of phytosaur-bearing stratigraphic units
|
||||
List of plesiosaur-bearing stratigraphic units
|
||||
List of pterosaur-bearing stratigraphic units
|
||||
List of thalattosuchian-bearing stratigraphic units
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of fossil sites
|
||||
Paleontology lists
|
||||
Paleontological sites
|
||||
Stratigraphy
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:40.707353+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:21.604017+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish-0.md
Normal file
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lists of prehistoric fish"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:26.884768+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Prehistoric fish are early fish that are known only from fossil records. They are the earliest known vertebrates, and include the first and extinct fish that lived through the Cambrian to the Quaternary. The study of prehistoric fish is called paleoichthyology. A few living forms, such as the coelacanth are also referred to as prehistoric fish, or even living fossils, due to their current rarity and similarity to extinct forms. Fish which have become recently extinct are not usually referred to as prehistoric fish.
|
||||
Lists of various prehistoric fishes include:
|
||||
|
||||
List of prehistoric jawless fish
|
||||
List of placoderms
|
||||
List of acanthodians
|
||||
List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish
|
||||
List of prehistoric bony fish
|
||||
List of indeterminate prehistoric percomorph genera
|
||||
List of sarcopterygians
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Evolution of fish
|
||||
Prehistoric life
|
||||
Vertebrate paleontology
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Janvier, Philippe (1998) Early Vertebrates, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854047-7
|
||||
Long, John A. (1996) The Rise of Fishes: 500 Million Years of Evolution, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5438-5
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Fossil Fish
|
||||
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_science-0.md
Normal file
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_science-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Ministry of science"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_science"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:04.763411+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A science ministry or department of science is a ministry or other government agency responsible for governing scientific activities. The ministry is often headed by a minister specialising in scientific matters.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of ministries of science ==
|
||||
Many countries have a ministry of science or ministry of science and technology:
|
||||
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Technology and Productive Innovation (Argentina)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Bangladesh)
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (Brazil)
|
||||
Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Technology, Knowledge and Innovation (Chile)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (China)
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (Cuba)
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Denmark
|
||||
Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Culture (East Timor)
|
||||
Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany)
|
||||
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (Iceland)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (India)
|
||||
Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Indonesia)
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Research and Technology (Iran)
|
||||
Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science (Ireland)
|
||||
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)
|
||||
Ministry of Education and Science (Lithuania)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Malaysia)
|
||||
Ministry of Education and Science (Mongolia)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Myanmar)
|
||||
Ministry of Education and Science (North Macedonia)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)
|
||||
Department of Science and Technology (Philippines)
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (Portugal)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia)
|
||||
Ministry of Education and Science (Somaliland)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and ICT (South Korea)
|
||||
Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Spain)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Sri Lanka)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan)
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Thailand)
|
||||
Ministry of Industry and Technology (Turkey)
|
||||
Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (United Kingdom)
|
||||
Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine
|
||||
Ministry of Science and Technology (Vietnam)
|
||||
Ministry of Technology and Science (Zambia)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Ministers of Science ==
|
||||
This is a list of Ministers who have a policy responsibility over Science.
|
||||
|
||||
Brazil: Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (Brazil): Marcos César Pontes
|
||||
Canada: Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry: Navdeep Bains
|
||||
Manitoba: Minister of Energy, Science and Technology (No longer used)
|
||||
China: Minister of Science and Technology: Yin Hejun
|
||||
Ireland: Minister for Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science: Simon Harris
|
||||
Japan: Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology: Kōichi Hagiuda
|
||||
Philippines: Secretary of Science and Technology: Fortunato dela Peña
|
||||
United Kingdom: Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology: Liz Kendall
|
||||
Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation: Patrick Vallance
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,539 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Optical properties of water and ice"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:46.430867+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The refractive index of water at 20 °C for visible light is 1.33. The refractive index of normal ice is 1.31 (from List of refractive indices). In general, an index of refraction is a complex number with real and imaginary parts, where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength. In the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, the imaginary part of the refractive index is very small. However, water and ice absorb in infrared and close the infrared atmospheric window, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect.
|
||||
The absorption spectrum of pure water is used in numerous applications, including light scattering and absorption by ice crystals and cloud water droplets, theories of the rainbow, determination of the single-scattering albedo, ocean color, and many others.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Quantitative description of the refraction index ==
|
||||
Over the wavelengths from 0.2 to 1.2 μm, and over temperatures from −12 to 500 °C (261 to 773 K), the real part of the index of refraction of water can be calculated from the following empirical expression:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
5
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
UV
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
IR
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
7
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\frac {n^{2}-1}{n^{2}+2}}{\frac {1}{\bar {\rho }}}=a_{0}+a_{1}{\bar {\rho }}+a_{2}{\bar {T}}+a_{3}{\bar {\lambda }}^{2}{\bar {T}}+{\frac {a_{4}}{{\bar {\lambda }}^{2}}}+{\frac {a_{5}}{{\bar {\lambda }}^{2}-{\bar {\lambda }}_{\text{UV}}^{2}}}+{\frac {a_{6}}{{\bar {\lambda }}^{2}-{\bar {\lambda }}_{\text{IR}}^{2}}}+a_{7}{\bar {\rho }}^{2},}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
∗
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\bar {T}}=T/T^{*},}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
∗
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\bar {\rho }}=\rho /\rho ^{*},}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
∗
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\bar {\lambda }}=\lambda /\lambda ^{*},}
|
||||
|
||||
and the constants are
|
||||
|
||||
In the above expression, T is the absolute temperature of water,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \lambda }
|
||||
|
||||
is the wavelength of light,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \rho }
|
||||
|
||||
is the density of the water, and n is the real part of the index of refraction of water.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Volumic mass of water ==
|
||||
In the above formula, the density of water also varies with temperature and is described by
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
5
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \rho (t)=a_{5}\left(1-{\frac {(t+a_{1})^{2}(t+a_{2})}{a_{3}(t+a_{4})}}\right)}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
with t in °C and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle a_{1}}
|
||||
|
||||
= −3.983035 °C,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle a_{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
= 301.797 °C,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle a_{3}}
|
||||
|
||||
= 522528.9 °C2,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle a_{4}}
|
||||
|
||||
= 69.34881 °C,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
5
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle a_{5}}
|
||||
|
||||
= 999.974950 kg/m3.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Refractive index (real and imaginary parts) for liquid water ==
|
||||
|
||||
The total refractive index of water is given as m = n + ik. The absorption coefficient α' is used in the Beer–Lambert law with the prime here signifying base e convention. Values are for water at 25 °C and were obtained through various sources in the cited literature review.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
|
||||
Atmospheric radiative transfer codes
|
||||
Color of water
|
||||
Electromagnetic absorption by water
|
||||
Ocean color
|
||||
Ocean optics
|
||||
List of refractive indices
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
85
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-0.md
Normal file
85
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of physics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to physics:
|
||||
|
||||
Physics – natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
|
||||
|
||||
== What type of subject is physics? ==
|
||||
Physics can be described as all of the following:
|
||||
|
||||
An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals.
|
||||
A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published.
|
||||
A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods.
|
||||
A physical science – one that studies non-living systems.
|
||||
A biological science – one that studies the role of physical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biophysics.
|
||||
|
||||
== Branches ==
|
||||
Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).
|
||||
Astrodynamics – application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.
|
||||
Astrometry – the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.
|
||||
Astrophysics – the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects.
|
||||
Celestial mechanics – the branch of theoretical astronomy that deals with the calculation of the motions of celestial objects such as planets.
|
||||
Extragalactic astronomy – the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside the Milky Way.
|
||||
Galactic astronomy – the study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents.
|
||||
Physical cosmology – the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe, and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.
|
||||
Planetary science – the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the solar system and the processes that form them.
|
||||
Stellar astronomy – natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation).
|
||||
Atmospheric physics – the study of the application of physics to the atmosphere.
|
||||
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics – the study of how matter and light interact.
|
||||
Optics – the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
|
||||
Biophysics – interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics to study biological systems
|
||||
Neurophysics – branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system.
|
||||
Polymer physics – field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerization of polymers and monomers, respectively.
|
||||
Quantum biology – application of quantum mechanics to biological phenomenon.
|
||||
Chemical physics – the branch of physics that studies chemical processes.
|
||||
Computational physics – study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists.
|
||||
Condensed matter physics – the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.
|
||||
Electricity – the study of electrical phenomena.
|
||||
Electromagnetism – a branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles.
|
||||
Geophysics – the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods.
|
||||
Magnetism – the study of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic field.
|
||||
Mathematical physics – application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications, and the formulation of physical theories.
|
||||
Mechanics – the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.
|
||||
Aerodynamics – study of the motion of air.
|
||||
Biomechanics – the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells using the methods of mechanics.
|
||||
Classical mechanics – one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces.
|
||||
Kinematics – branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion.
|
||||
Homeokinetics – the physics of complex, self-organizing systems.
|
||||
Continuum mechanics – the branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles.
|
||||
Dynamics – the study of the causes of motion and changes in motion
|
||||
Fluid mechanics – the study of fluids and the forces on them.
|
||||
Fluid statics – study of fluids at rest
|
||||
Fluid kinematics – study of fluids in motion
|
||||
Fluid dynamics – study of the effect of forces on fluid motion
|
||||
Statics – the branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.
|
||||
Medical Physics – the branch of physics that deals with the application of physics in medicine – such as imaging exams (NMR, PET scans, and so on), radiotherapy, and nuclear medicine.
|
||||
Statistical mechanics – the branch of physics that studies any physical system that has a large number of degrees of freedom.
|
||||
Thermodynamics – the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.
|
||||
Nuclear physics – field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei.
|
||||
Particle physics – the branch of physics that studies the properties and interactions of the fundamental constituents of matter and energy.
|
||||
Psychophysics – quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.
|
||||
Plasma physics – the study of plasma, a state of matter similar to a gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized.
|
||||
Quantum physics – branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
|
||||
Quantum field theory – the application of quantum theory to the study of fields (systems with infinite degrees of freedom).
|
||||
Quantum information theory – the study of the information-processing capabilities afforded by quantum mechanics.
|
||||
Quantum foundations – the discipline focusing on understanding the counterintuitive aspects of the theory, including trying to find physical principles underlying them, and proposing generalisations of quantum theory.
|
||||
Quantum gravity – the search for an account of gravitation fully compatible with quantum theory.
|
||||
Relativity – theory of physics which describes the relationship between space and time.
|
||||
General Relativity – a geometric, non-quantum theory of gravitation.
|
||||
Special Relativity – a theory that describes the propagation of matter and light at high speeds.
|
||||
Other
|
||||
Agrophysics – the study of physics applied to agroecosystems
|
||||
Soil physics – the study of soil physical properties and processes.
|
||||
Cryogenics – cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123 K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.
|
||||
Econophysics – interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists to solve problems in economics
|
||||
Materials physics – use of physics to describe materials in many different ways, such as force, heat, light, and mechanics.
|
||||
Vehicle dynamics – dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles.
|
||||
Philosophy of physics – deals with conceptual and interpretational issues in modern physics, many of which overlap with research done by certain kinds of theoretical physicists.
|
||||
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-1.md
Normal file
66
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Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of physics"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
|
||||
History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force
|
||||
|
||||
Physics in the medieval Islamic world
|
||||
European science in the Middle Ages
|
||||
History of science and technology in China
|
||||
History of Indian science and technology
|
||||
|
||||
=== History of fields of physics ===
|
||||
History of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound)
|
||||
History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems
|
||||
History of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects
|
||||
History of astronomy – history of the studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).
|
||||
History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.
|
||||
History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.
|
||||
History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole.
|
||||
History of the Big Bang theory – origin of the universe
|
||||
History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.
|
||||
History of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them.
|
||||
History of stellar astronomy – history of the natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)
|
||||
History of atomic theory - history of models of the atom
|
||||
History of atomic, molecular, and optical physics – history of the study of how matter and light interact
|
||||
History of biophysics – history of the study of physical processes relating to biology
|
||||
History of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.
|
||||
History of econophysics – history of the interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics
|
||||
History of electromagnetism – history of the branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles.
|
||||
History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods
|
||||
History of gravitational theory – the earliest physics theory with application in daily life through cosmology
|
||||
History of mechanics – history of the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.
|
||||
History of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics.
|
||||
History of classical mechanics – history of one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces.
|
||||
History of variational principles in physics – mathematical basis of classical and quantum mechanics.
|
||||
History of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on them.
|
||||
History of quantum mechanics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
|
||||
History of quantum field theory – modern branch of quantum theory.
|
||||
History of string theory – branch of mathematics driven by open questions in quantum physics
|
||||
History of thermodynamics – history of the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.
|
||||
History of nuclear physics – history of the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei.
|
||||
History of nuclear fusion – mechanism powering stars and modern weapons of mass destruction.
|
||||
History of electromagnetism – electricity, magnets, and light from radio waves to gamma rays
|
||||
History of Maxwell's equations – classical field equation of electromagnetism
|
||||
History of materials science – From stones to silicon, understanding and manipulating matter.
|
||||
History of optics – history of the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
|
||||
History of spectroscopy – measuring the response of materials to energy dependent probes of light and matter.
|
||||
History of subatomic physics – history of the branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation.
|
||||
History of the periodic table – Tabular summary of the relationship between elements.
|
||||
History of psychophysics – history of the quantitative investigations of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.
|
||||
History of special relativity – history of the study of the relationship between space and time in the absence of gravity
|
||||
History of Lorentz transformations – deep dive into one mathematical aspect of special relativity
|
||||
History of general relativity – history of the non-quantum theory of gravity
|
||||
History of solid-state physics – history of the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy.
|
||||
History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses long enough to explain itself
|
||||
History of superconductivity – ultra-cold state of matter.
|
||||
|
||||
== General concepts ==
|
||||
138
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-2.md
Normal file
138
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@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of physics"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ingredients ===
|
||||
physical system - a collection of objects under study,
|
||||
physical observation - the study
|
||||
physical quantity - a quantified property of an object
|
||||
unit of measure - a standard quantity used to compare observations
|
||||
mathematical model - an abstract description of a system
|
||||
physical experiment - an intervention designed to test a model
|
||||
physical constant - a quantified property with no known model
|
||||
physical law - a broadly and thoroughly tested model
|
||||
|
||||
=== Basic principles ===
|
||||
Physics – branch of science that studies matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. Physics is one of the "fundamental sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include:
|
||||
|
||||
Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics etc.
|
||||
Newton's laws of motion
|
||||
Mass, force and weight (mass versus weight)
|
||||
Momentum and conservation of energy
|
||||
Gravity, theories of gravity
|
||||
Energy, work, and their relationship
|
||||
Motion, position, and energy
|
||||
Different forms of Energy, their inter-conversion and the inevitable loss of energy in the form of heat (thermodynamics)
|
||||
Energy conservation, conversion, and transfer.
|
||||
Energy source the transfer of energy from one source to work in another.
|
||||
Kinetic molecular theory
|
||||
Phases and states of matter, and phase transitions
|
||||
Temperature and thermometers
|
||||
Energy and heat
|
||||
Heat flow: conduction, convection, and radiation
|
||||
The four laws of thermodynamics
|
||||
The principles of waves and sound
|
||||
The principles of electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetism
|
||||
The principles, sources, and properties of light
|
||||
Basic quantities
|
||||
Acceleration
|
||||
Electric charge
|
||||
Energy
|
||||
Entropy
|
||||
Force
|
||||
Length
|
||||
Mass
|
||||
Matter
|
||||
Momentum
|
||||
Potential energy
|
||||
Space
|
||||
Temperature
|
||||
Time
|
||||
Velocity
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fundamental concepts ===
|
||||
Causality
|
||||
Symmetry
|
||||
Action
|
||||
Covariance
|
||||
Space
|
||||
Time
|
||||
Oscillations and Waves
|
||||
Physical field
|
||||
Physical interaction
|
||||
Statistical ensemble
|
||||
Quantum
|
||||
Particle
|
||||
|
||||
=== Measurement ===
|
||||
Measurement
|
||||
SI units
|
||||
Conversion of units
|
||||
Length
|
||||
Time
|
||||
Mass
|
||||
Density
|
||||
|
||||
=== Motion ===
|
||||
Motion
|
||||
Velocity
|
||||
Speed
|
||||
Acceleration
|
||||
Constant acceleration
|
||||
Newton's laws of motion
|
||||
|
||||
=== Overview ===
|
||||
This is a list of the primary theories in physics, major subtopics, and concepts.
|
||||
|
||||
Note: the Theory column below contains links to articles with infoboxes at the top of their respective pages which list the major concepts.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Concepts by field ===
|
||||
|
||||
== Lists ==
|
||||
Index of physics articles
|
||||
|
||||
List of common physics notations
|
||||
Lists of physics equations
|
||||
List of important publications in physics
|
||||
List of laws in science
|
||||
List of letters used in mathematics and science
|
||||
List of physicists
|
||||
List of physics journals
|
||||
List of scientific units named after people
|
||||
Variables commonly used in physics
|
||||
List of physics awards
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Category:Concepts in physics
|
||||
Category:Physics-related lists
|
||||
Elementary physics formulae
|
||||
Glossary of classical physics
|
||||
List of physics concepts in primary and secondary education curricula
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Works cited ===
|
||||
Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-02116-5. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
|
||||
Maxwell, J.C. (1878). Matter and Motion. D. Van Nostrand. ISBN 978-0-486-66895-6. matter and motion. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
AIP.org is the website of the American Institute of Physics
|
||||
IOP.org is the website of the Institute of Physics
|
||||
APS.org is the website of the American Physical Society
|
||||
SPS National is the website of the American Society of Physics Students
|
||||
CAP.ca is the website of the Canadian Association of Physicists
|
||||
EPS.org is the website of the European Physical Society
|
||||
Meta Institute for Computational Physics – Popular Talks
|
||||
ScienceMathMastery – Compilation of YouTube Physics Courses
|
||||
Physics | Channel | MIT Video
|
||||
"How to become a GOOD Theoretical Physicist", a website with outline of theoretical physics by Gerard 't Hooft
|
||||
The Feynman Lectures on Physics, 3 vols., free online, Caltech & The Feynman Lectures Website
|
||||
Resource recommendations – List of freely available physics books – Physics Stack Exchange
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Paleobiota of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Cañadón_Asfalto_Formation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:41.216146+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Cañadón Asfalto Formation is a geological formation which dates to the Toarcian age of the Early Jurassic period of Argentina. The rocks of the formation preserve a diverse biota, including plants, dinosaurs, invertebrates, mammals and pterosaurs, among others. The formation is divided into two members: the lower Las Chacritas Member, and the overlying Puesto Almada member, though the latter has also been assigned to the overlying Cañadón Calcáreo Formation by some authors. The members are typically composed of fluvial-lacustrine deposits consisting of sandstones and shales, with a limestone carbonate evaporitic sequence also being present in the lower of the two.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Invertebrates ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Demospongiae ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Crustacea ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mollusca ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Insecta ===
|
||||
Insect eggs of unknown affinity were reported from several layers of the Estancia Fossati locality.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Vertebrates ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fish ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Amphibians ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Turtles ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Lepidosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Crocodylomorpha ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pterosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dinosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Theropods ====
|
||||
During a campaign conducted in early 2021, remains of a large theropod dinosaur were found near the town of Las Chacritas. In 2020 a new fossil locality was found, named Cañadón de las Huellas, due to the large number of sauropods, and probably theropods, footprints on one of the canyon walls. In the same locality in 2021, articulated remains were recovered and represent at least one sauropod and one large theropod.
|
||||
At least four theropod morphotypes, including one with ceratosaur and another with Piatnitzkysauridae affinities, are known from the Cañadón Bagual.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sauropodomorphs ====
|
||||
A sediment tubular shaped mass enriched in organic matter, closely associated within the ventral area of articulated remains of a sauropod, was recovered at Cerro Condor, composed of a high concentration of pollen grains & cuticular fragments, mainly leaves of two morphotypes (Araucariaceae and Cheirolepidiaceae), probably representing the gut contents of the sauropod, inferring a conifer-based diet.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ornithischians ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mammals ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Fungi ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Plants ==
|
||||
According to a palynological study the dominant pollen was produced by the conifer families Cheirolepidiaceae (Classopollis) and Araucariaceae (mainly Araucariacites and Callialasporites), suggesting that warm-temperate and relatively humid conditions under highly seasonal climate prevailed during the depositional times of the unit. The abundance of Botryococcus supports the presence of a shallow lake with probably saline conditions. Locally, the Cañadón Asfalto represents a more poor record of the floras seen in the undeliying Lonco Tapial Formation, with its closest floras found on the Antarctic Peninsula Ellsworth Land Volcanic Group at Potter Peak, sharing Brachyphyllum spp. and Elatocladus confertus.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Phytoplankton ===
|
||||
Possible freshwater "calcareous algae", associated with conifer shoots and aquatic invertebrates, have been reported from Cerro Caracoles.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bryophyta ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Equisetales ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pteridophyta ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Peltaspermales ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cycadeoidopsida ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Czekanowskiales ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gnetopsida ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Coniferophyta ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Cañadón Asfalto Formation
|
||||
Cañadón Calcáreo Formation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Paleobiota of the Djadochta Formation"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Djadochta_Formation"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:42.425794+00:00"
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The Djadochta Formation (sometimes spelled Djadokhta, Djadokata, or Dzhadokhtskaya) is a geological formation in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. It dates to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous and is famous for its dinosaur fossils including Oviraptor, Protoceratops, and Velociraptor. It is also known for a high diversity of mammal and lizard fossils, and a complete catalogue of its fossil contents is shown below.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Vertebrates ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Amphibians ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Crocodylomorphs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Lizards ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mammals ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Multituberculates ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Therians ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pterosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Turtles ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dinosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ankylosaurids ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Marginocephalians ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ornithopods ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sauropods ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Theropods ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Alvarezsaurs =====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Birds =====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Dromaeosaurs =====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Non-maniraptoran theropods =====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Oviraptorosaurs =====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
===== Troodontids =====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Flora ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Fighting Dinosaurs
|
||||
Flaming Cliffs
|
||||
List of Asian dinosaurs
|
||||
List of pterosaur-bearing stratigraphic units
|
||||
List of stratigraphic units with dinosaur body fossils
|
||||
Paleobiota of the Yixian Formation
|
||||
Roy Chapman Andrews
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation"
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
|
||||
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||||
This is an overview of the fossil flora and fauna of the Maastrichtian-Danian Hell Creek Formation.
|
||||
|
||||
== Invertebrates ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Insects ===
|
||||
Insects from the groups Diptera, Zygoptera, and possibly Hemiphlebiidae have been unearthed in Hell Creek in amber. Fossils found in the Hell Creek Formation and the Fort Union Formation of these insects went extinct during the K-T Event.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Molluscs ===
|
||||
|
||||
== Amphibians ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Fish ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bony fish ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cartilaginous fish ===
|
||||
|
||||
== Dinosaurs ==
|
||||
A paleo-population study is one of the most difficult of analyses to conduct in field paleontology. Here is the most recent estimate of the proportions of the eight most common dinosaurian families in the Hell Creek Formation, based on detailed field studies by White, Fastovsky and Sheehan.
|
||||
|
||||
Ceratopsidae 61%
|
||||
Hadrosauridae 23%
|
||||
Ornithomimidae 5%
|
||||
Tyrannosauridae 4%
|
||||
Hypsilophodontidae 3%
|
||||
Dromaeosauridae 2%
|
||||
Pachycephalosauridae 1%
|
||||
Ankylosauridae 1%
|
||||
Troodontidae 1% (represented only by teeth)
|
||||
|
||||
Outcrops sampled by the Hell Creek Project were divided into three sections: lower, middle and upper slices. The top and bottom sections were the focus of the PLoS One report, and within each portion many remains of Triceratops, Edmontosaurus, and Tyrannosaurus were found. Triceratops was the most common in each section, but, surprisingly, Tyrannosaurus was just as common, if not slightly more common, than the hadrosaur Edmontosaurus. In the upper Hell Creek section, for example, the census included twenty two Triceratops, five Tyrannosaurus, and five Edmontosaurus.
|
||||
The dinosaurs Thescelosaurus, Ornithomimus, Pachycephalosaurus and Ankylosaurus were also included in the breakdown, but were relatively rare. Other dinosaurs, such as Sphaerotholus, Denversaurus, Torosaurus, Struthiomimus, Acheroraptor, Dakotaraptor, Pectinodon, Richardoestesia, Paronychodon, Anzu, Leptorhynchos and Troodon (more likely Pectinodon), were reported as being rare and are not included in the breakdown.
|
||||
The dinosaur collections made over the past decade during the Hell Creek Project yielded new information from an improved genus-level collecting schema and robust data set that revealed relative dinosaur abundances that were unexpected, and ontogenetic age classes previously considered rare. We recognize a much higher percentage of Tyrannosaurus than previous surveys. Tyrannosaurus equals Edmontosaurus in U3 and in L3 comprises a greater percentage of the large dinosaur fauna as the second-most abundant taxon after Triceratops, followed by Edmontosaurus. This is surprisingly consistent in (1) the two major lag deposits (MOR loc. HC-530 and HC-312) in the Apex sandstone and Jen-rex sand where individual bones were counted and (2) in two thirds of the formation reflected in L3 and U3 records of dinosaur skeletons only.
|
||||
Triceratops is by far the most common dinosaur at 40% (n = 72), Tyrannosaurus is second at 24% (n = 44), Edmontosaurus is third at 20% (n = 36), followed by Thescelosaurus at 8% (n = 15), Ornithomimus at 5% (n = 9), and Pachycephalosaurus and Ankylosaurus both at 1% (n = 2) are relatively rare.
|
||||
Fossil footprints of dinosaurs from the Hell Creek Formation are very rare. As of 2017, there is only one find of a possible Tyrannosaurus rex footprint, dating from 2007 and described a year later. A trackway made by mid-sized theropod, possibly a small tyrannosaurid individual, was discovered in South Dakota in 1997, and in 2014 these footprints were named Wakinyantanka styxi.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ornithischians ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ankylosaurs ====
|
||||
Indeterminate nodosaur remains have been unearthed in the Hell Creek Formation and other nearby areas.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Pachycephalosaurs ====
|
||||
An undescribed and unnamed pachycephalosaur is present in North Dakota. Pachycephalosaur remains have been unearthed in Montana as in the case of Platytholus and the now invalid genus Stenotholus kohleri, which is now a junior synonym of Pachycephalosaurus. Dracorex hogwartsia is agreed by paleontologists to be an ontogimorph of either Pachycephalosaurus or Stygimoloch, while the synonymy of Stygimoloch spinifer with Pachycephalosaurus wyomingensis remains uncertain due to difference in stratigraphic level.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ceratopsians ====
|
||||
Indeterminate ceratopsid teeth and some identifiable bones from Triceratops can be extremely common. 8.31% of all vertebrate remains from the Hell Creek Formation are unassigned ceratopsids, as well as dubious ceratopsians like Ugrosaurus olsoni. In 2012, a new unidentified species of chasmosaur ceratopsian with noticeable differences from Triceratops was unearthed in South Dakota by a fossil hunter named John Carter.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ornithopods and relatives ====
|
||||
Indeterminate hadrosaurid remains are very common in the Hell Creek Formation. Fossils of indeterminate lambeosaurs have been unearthed in Hell Creek, specifically in South Dakota and Montana.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Theropods ===
|
||||
Theropod tracks have been found in South Dakota. A trackway from South Dakota, named Wakinyantanka, was made by a mid-sized theropod with three slender toes, possibly a small tyrannosauroid or oviraptorosaur. A second footprint that may have been made by a specimen of Tyrannosaurus was first reported in 2007 by British paleontologist Phil Manning, from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. This second track measures 72 centimeters (28 in) long, shorter than the track described by Lockley and Hunt. Whether or not the track was made by Tyrannosaurus is unclear, though Tyrannosaurus is the only large theropod known to have existed in the Hell Creek Formation; albertosaurine remains have been reported but are misattributed Tyrannosaurus or Nanotyrannus. Theropod remains are very common in Hell Creek, some of which belong to indeterminate species on maniraptorans. Indeterminate and dubious tyrannosaur fossils are found here as in the case of Stygivenator.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Alvarezsaurs ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Tyrannosauroids ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ornithomimosaurs ====
|
||||
Ornithomimid remains are not uncommon in the Hell Creek Formation, and are known from both the lower and upper parts of the formation. Fifteen specimens from the Hell Creek Formation are undetermined ornithomimids.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Oviraptorosaurs ====
|
||||
Oviraptorosaur fossils have been found at the Hell Creek Formation for many years, most notably from isolated elements until the discovery of Anzu. In the past, oviraptorosaur fossils found were thought to have belonged to Leptorhynchos, Caenagnathus, Chirostenotes, and Elmisaurus. In 2021, a large-bodied caenagnathid specimen (ROM VP 65884) from Montana was referred to cf. Anzu wyliei.
|
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title: "Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation"
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chunk: 2/4
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
|
||||
|
||||
==== Eumaniraptorans ====
|
||||
Historically, numerous teeth have been attributed to various dromaeosaurid and troodontid taxa with known body fossils from only older formations, including Saurornithoides, Zapsalis, Dromaeosaurus, Saurornitholestes, and Troodon. However, in a 2013 study, Evans et al. concluded that there is little evidence for more than a single dromaeosaurid taxon, Acheroraptor, in the Hell Creek-Lance assemblages, which would render these taxa invalid for this formation. This was seemingly disproven in 2015, when DePalma et al., described the new genus Dakotaraptor, a large species of dromaeosaur. However, Dakotaraptor's validity has been called into question since, as the holotype may be a chimeric assemblage of various non-dromaeosaurid coelurosaurians. Fossilized teeth of various troodontids and coelurosaurs are common throughout the Hell Creek Formation; the best known examples include Paronychodon, Pectinodon and Richardoestesia, respectively. Teeth belonging to possible intermediate species of Dromaeosaurus and Saurornitholestes have been unearthed at the Hell Creek Formation and the nearby Lance Formation.
|
||||
|
||||
== Pterosaurs ==
|
||||
Undescribed pterosaur remains were reported from North Dakota. Undescribed pteranodontian specimen has also been mentioned in the supplementary material of Longrich et al. (2018).
|
||||
|
||||
== Crocodylomorphs ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Turtles ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Squamata ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Choristoderans ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Mammals ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Multituberculates ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Metatherians ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Eutherians ===
|
||||
|
||||
== Flora ==
|
||||
The Hell Creek Formation was a low floodplain at the time before the sea retreated, and in the wet ground of the dense woodland, the diversity of angiosperms and conifers were present. A diversity of herbaceous flowering plants, ferns and moss grew in the forest understory. On the exposed point bars of large river systems, there were shrubs and vines. The evidence of the forested environment is supported by petrified wood, rooted gley paleosols, and ubiquitous tree leaves. The presence of the simple and lobed leaves, combined with a high dicot diversity, extinct cycadeoid Nilssoniocladus, Ginkgo, many types of monocots, and several types of conifers is different from any modern plant community. There are numerous types of leaves, seeds, flowers and other structures from Angiosperms, or flowering plants. The Hell Creek Formation of this layer contains over 300 tablets, of which angiosperms are the most diverse and dominant flora of the population, about 90 percent, followed by about 5% of conifers, 4% of ferns, and others. Compared to today Hell Creek's flora which is prairie, then Hell Creek's flora was hardwood forest mixed with deciduous and evergreen forest. In sharp contrast to the Great Plains today, the presence of some thermophilous taxa such as palm trees and gingers meant the climate was warmer and wetter then.
|
||||
|
||||
The plants of the Hell Creek Formation generally represent angiosperm-dominated riparian forests of variable diversity, depending on stratigraphic position and sedimentary environment. There appears to be floral transitions visible on a stratigraphic range from the lower to the upper Hell Creek Formation. For this reason, Kirk Johnson and Leo Hickey divided it into five zones and described them as HCIa, HCIb, HCIIa, HCIIb, and HCIII as a reflection of floral change through time. For example, the HCIa zone is dominated by "Dryophyllum" subfalcatum, Leepierceia preartocarpoides, "Vitis" stantonii, and "Celastrus" taurenensis, and is located 55 to 105 meters below the K-Pg boundary layer. Although the HCIb zone is a very thin layer, about 5 meters of rock, it bears unusually high diversity of herbaceous and shrubby plants, including Urticaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, and Cannabaceae.
|
||||
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|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00"
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|
||||
|
||||
There is evidence of transitional floras in the middle of the Hell Creek Formation as shown by HCII and HCIII zones. The HCII flora represents a transitional period where taxa from the lower Hell Creek are replaced by the HCIII flora. The diversity of the HCIII zone is very high, and its composition is more uniform than that of HCII, many of which were rare or absent from the zones below, and some others that used to be common below became rarer in the HCIII zone. These forms include Elatides longifolia, "Dryophyllum" tennessensis, Liriodendrites bradacii, and many members of the Laurales including Bisonia niemii, "Ficus" planicostata, and Marmarthia trivialis, while "Celastrus" taurenensis, Leepierceia preartocarpoides, and many cupressaceous conifers became rarer. This phenomenon suggests that the global temperature was warming during the last 300,000-500,000 years of the Cretaceous period.
|
||||
There is no evidence of fern prairie in the Hell Creek Formation. However, there was high angiosperm diversity — common plane trees, "Dryophyllum" subfalcatum, Leepierceia preartocarpoides, and sabal palms — along with extinct cycadeoid Nilssoniocladus, Ginkgo, araucariaceous, Taxodiaceous, and cupressaceous conifers. This represents the mixed deciduous and evergreen broad-leaved forest of the Hell Creek landscape. The nature of these forests is uncertain because Johnson found that the majority of the angiosperm and conifer genera are now extinct. He also believes that, very roughly 80% of the terrestrial plant taxa died out in what is now Great Plains at the K-Pg boundary. On other hand, there is a great increase in the abundance of fossil fern spores in the two centimeters of rock that directly overlies the impact fallout layer (the famous K-Pg boundary layer). This increase in fern spore abundance is commonly referred as "the fern spike" (meaning that if the abundance of spores as a function of stratigraphic position were plotted out, the graph would show a spike just above the impact fallout layer).
|
||||
Many of the modern plant affinities in the Hell Creek Formation (e.g., those with the prefix "aff." or with quotes around the genus name) may not in reality belong to these genera; instead they could be entirely different plants that resemble modern genera. Therefore, there is some question regarding whether the modern Ficus or Juglans, as two examples, actually lived in the Late Cretaceous.
|
||||
Compared to the rich Hell Creek Formation fossil plant localities of the Dakotas, relatively few plant specimens have been collected from Montana. A few taxa were collected at Brownie Butte Montana by Shoemaker, but most plants were collected from North Dakota (Slope County) and from South Dakota. Among the localities, the Mud Buttes, located in Bowman County, North Dakota, is probably the richest megaflora assemblage known and the most diverse leaf quarry from the Hell Creek Formation. "TYPE" after the binomial means that it is represented by a type specimen found in the Yale-Peabody Museum collections. "YPM" is the prefix for the Yale-Peabody Museum specimen number; "DMNH" is for the Denver Museum of Nature & Science; "USNM" is for Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History; and so on. The majority of Hell Creek megafloral specimens are collected at the Denver Museum of Nature & Science.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Overview (from Johnson, 2002) ===
|
||||
302 plant morphotypes based on leaf only, including:
|
||||
|
||||
1 bryophyte (mosses and liverworts)
|
||||
11 ferns
|
||||
1 sphenopsid
|
||||
10 conifers
|
||||
1 ginkgo (uncommon)
|
||||
278 angiosperms (roughly 92% of all taxa found)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Paleoflora ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Liverworts ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ferns ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Cycadophytes ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Ginkgoales ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Conifers ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Angiosperms ====
|
||||
|
||||
=== Palynology ===
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of fossil sites (with link directory)
|
||||
Lists of dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic units
|
||||
Paleobiota of the Morrison Formation
|
||||
Lance fauna
|
||||
Cretaceous-Paleogene formations
|
||||
Tremp Formation, Spain
|
||||
Tremp Formation, Spain
|
||||
Lefipán Formation, Argentina
|
||||
López de Bertodano Formation, Antarctica
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
chunk: 4/4
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation"
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||||
category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bibliography ===
|
||||
General
|
||||
Broad, William J.; Chang, Kenneth (29 March 2019), "Fossil Site Reveals Day That Meteor Hit Earth and, Maybe, Wiped Out Dinosaurs", The New York Times
|
||||
Preston, Douglas (2019), "The Day the Dinosaurs Died", The New Yorker, p. 1, retrieved 2019-04-01
|
||||
U.S. National, Park Service (1966), National Natural Landmarks - National Natural Landmarks (U.S. National Park Service), www.nps.gov, p. 1, retrieved 2019-03-22
|
||||
Geology
|
||||
DePalma, Robert A.; Smit, Jan; Burnham, David A.; Kuiper, Klaudia; Manning, Phillip L.; Oleinik, Anton; Larson, Peter; Maurrasse, Florentin J.; Vellekoop, Johan; Richards, Mark A.; Gurche, Loren; Alvarez, Walter (2019), "A seismically induced onshore surge deposit at the K-Pg boundary, North Dakota", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116 (17): 8190–8199, Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.8190D, doi:10.1073/pnas.1817407116, PMC 6486721, PMID 30936306 Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.8190D
|
||||
Evans, D.C.; Larson, D.W.; Currie, P.J. (2013), "A new dromaeosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) with Asian affinities from the latest Cretaceous of North America", Naturwissenschaften, 100 (11): 1041–1049, Bibcode:2013NW....100.1041E, doi:10.1007/s00114-013-1107-5, PMID 24248432 Bibcode:2013NW....100.1041E
|
||||
Husson, D.; Galbrun, B.; Laskar, J.; Hinnov, L.A.; Thibault, N.; Gardin, S.; Locklair, R.E. (2011), "Astronomical calibration of the Maastrichtian (late Cretaceous)", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 305 (3): 328–340, Bibcode:2011E&PSL.305..328H, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.03.008 Bibcode:2011E&PSL.305..328H
|
||||
LeCain, Rebecca (2010), "Magnetostratigraphy of the Hell Creek and lower Fort Union formations in northeast Montana", Master's Theses and Capstones, p. 1, retrieved 2020-03-30
|
||||
Johnson, K.R.; Nichols, D.J.; Hartman, J.H. (2002), "Hell Creek Formation: A 2001 synthesis. The Hell Creek Formation and the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary in the northern Great Plains", Geological Society of America Special Paper, 361: 503–510
|
||||
Paleontology
|
||||
DePalma, Robert (2010), "Preliminary Notes on the First Recorded Amber Insects from the Hell Creek Formation", The Journal of Paleontological Sciences, retrieved 2019-02-21
|
||||
Boyd, Clint A.; Brown, Caleb M.; Scheetz, Rodney D.; Clarke, Julia A. (2009), "Taxonomic revision of the basal neornithischian taxa Thescelosaurus and Bugenasaura", Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 29 (3): 758–770, Bibcode:2009JVPal..29..758B, doi:10.1671/039.029.0328
|
||||
Longrich, N (2008), "A new, large ornithomimid from the Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation of Alberta, Canada: Implications for the study of dissociated dinosaur remains", Palaeontology, 54 (1): 983–996, Bibcode:2008Palgy..51..983L, doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00791.x
|
||||
Manning, P.L.; Ott, C.; Falkingham, P.L. (2008), "The first tyrannosaurid track from the Hell Creek Formation (Late Cretaceous), Montana, U.S.A", PALAIOS, 23 (10): 645–647, Bibcode:2008Palai..23..645M, doi:10.2110/palo.2008.p08-030r Bibcode:2008Palai..23..645M
|
||||
Bakker, R.T.; Sullivan, R.M.; Porter, V.; Larson, P.; Saulsbury, S.J. (2006), "Dracorex hogwartsia, n. gen., n. sp., a spiked, flat-headed pachycephalosaurid dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation of South Dakota in Lucas, S. G. and Sullivan, R. M., eds., Late Cretaceous vertebrates from the Western Interior" (PDF), New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 35: 331–354, archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17
|
||||
Henderson, M.D.; Peterson, J.E. (2006), "An azhdarchid pterosaur cervical vertebra from the Hell Creek Formation (Maastrichtian) of southeastern Montana" (PDF), Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 26 (1): 192–195, doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[192:AAPCVF]2.0.CO;2, JSTOR 4524549, S2CID 130751879
|
||||
Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka (2004), The Dinosauria, 2nd edition, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 1–880, ISBN 0-520-24209-2, retrieved 2019-02-21{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
|
||||
Pearson, D.A.; Schaefer, T.; Johnson, K.R.; Nichols, D.J.; Hunter, J.P. (2002), "The Hell Creek Formation and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in the northern Great Plains: An integrated continental record of the end of the Cretaceous", Vertebrate Biostratigraphy of the Hell Creek Formation in Southwestern North Dakota and Northwestern South Dakota, Geological Society of America, Special Paper 361: 145–167, ISBN 978-0-8137-2361-7, retrieved 2019-03-22{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
|
||||
Varricchio, D.J (2001), Late Cretaceous oviraptorosaur (Theropoda) dinosaurs from Montana, D. H. Tanke and K. Carpenter (eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press, Indianapolis, Indiana, pp. 42–57
|
||||
Currie, P.J.; Padian, K. (1997), The Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs, Academic Press, pp. 1–901, ISBN 978-0-122-26810-6, retrieved 2020-03-30
|
||||
Eberth, D.A. (1997). Edmonton Group. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 199–204. ISBN 978-0-122-26810-6.
|
||||
Lofgren, D.F. (1997). Hell Creek Formation. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 302–303. ISBN 978-0-122-26810-6.
|
||||
Breithaupt, B.H (1997). Lance Formation. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 394–395. ISBN 978-0-122-26810-6.
|
||||
Christophel, D.C. (1976), "Fossil floras from the Smoky Tower locality, Alberta, Canada", Palaeontographica, Abt. B, 157
|
||||
Chandrasekharam, A. (1974), "Megafossil flora from the Genesee locality, Alberta, Canada", Palaeontographica, Abt. A, 174
|
||||
Estes, R.; Berberian, P. (1970), "Paleoecology of a late Cretaceous vertebrate community from Montana", Breviora, 343: 1
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Cretaceous Hell Creek Faunal Facies provides a faunal list
|
||||
Phillip Bigelow, "Hell Creek life: Fossil Flora & Fauna, a Paleoecosystem"
|
||||
Paleobiology Database: MPM locality 3850 (Hell Creek Formation): Maastrichtian, Montana
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Paleobiota of the Yixian Formation"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Yixian_Formation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:45.785312+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Yixian Formation (simplified Chinese: 义县组; traditional Chinese: 義縣組; pinyin: Yìxiàn zǔ) is a geological formation in Jinzhou, Liaoning, People's Republic of China, that spans about 1.6 million years during the early Cretaceous period (Barremian-Aptian stage). It is known for its fossils, listed below.
|
||||
The Yixian Formation is divided into the following subunits: (ages from Zhong et al., 2021 unless otherwise noted)
|
||||
|
||||
Upper Yixian (124.1 Ma) ("Jingangshan Bed") ("Dawangzhangzi Bed")
|
||||
Upper Lava Unit
|
||||
Jianshangou Unit (125.46 Ma)
|
||||
Lower Lava Unit
|
||||
Lujiatun Unit (125.76–125.68 Ma)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Sauropods ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Ornithischians ==
|
||||
The dinosaurs listed below were compiled in a survey by Xu and Norell in 2006, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ankylosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ceratopsians ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ornithopods ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Theropods ==
|
||||
The dinosaurs listed below were compiled in a survey by Xu and Norell in 2006, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Avialans ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Compsognathids ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dromaeosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ornithomimosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oviraptorosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Therizinosaurs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Troodontids ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Tyrannosaurs and other theropods ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Pterosaurs ==
|
||||
The pterosaurs listed below were compiled in a survey by Wang and Zhou in 2006, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Misc. reptiles ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Choristoderans ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Lizards ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Turtles ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mammals ==
|
||||
|
||||
The mammals listed below were compiled in a survey by Meng and colleagues in 2006, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Amphibians ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Fish ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Invertebrate fauna of the Yixian Formation ==
|
||||
The invertebrate species listed below follow a survey by Chen and colleagues published in 2005, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Arachnids ===
|
||||
The arachnid species listed below follow a catalogue compiled by Dunlop, Penney and Jekel in 2010, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Beetles (Coleoptera) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Crustaceans ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dragonflies (Odonata) ===
|
||||
|
||||
The dragonfly species listed below follow a review compiled by Zhang, Ren and Panf in 2008, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Flies (Diptera) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Wasps (Hymenoptera) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other insects ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Molluscs ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Flora of the Yixian Formation ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Conifers ===
|
||||
The coniferous trees and shrubs listed below were compiled in a survey by Wang and colleagues in 2006, unless otherwise noted.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ferns ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Flowering plants ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ginkgos ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other plants ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
56
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Void_in_art_and_media-0.md
Normal file
56
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Void_in_art_and_media-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "The Void in art and media"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Void_in_art_and_media"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:57.417985+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Representation or portrayals of the notion of The Void can be found in popular culture: including visual art, performance art, music, literature and film and video games.
|
||||
In 2011, the Tate Museum in London presented an exhibition titled, Nothing Works: The Void, examining works that spanned over a century, including early 20th century works such as a 1918 work by the painter Kasimir Malevich, and a 1919 work by Marcel Duchamp, mid-century works by conceptual artist, Michael Asher, as well as late 20th century and early 21st-century contemporary artworks. In 2013, the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago hosted the exhibition, Destroy the Picture: Painting The Void, 1949-1962, featuring paintings that represented or referred to "the void." The exhibition included the work of 100 artists; the curatorial premise defined the concept of the void as "one of the most significant developments in contemporary abstract painting." The curators posit that artists were attracted to the subject as a result of an existential crisis after the use of the first atomic weapons in Japan during WWII. In 2020, the Museum of Modern Art, New York further developed the theme in the exhibition, Touching the Void, curated with works from the museum's permanent collection that explored "meditative possibilities of objectivity, challenging viewers to heighten their sensory perception."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Art ==
|
||||
Marina Abramović, Holding emptiness (2012).
|
||||
Lee Bontecou, Into the Void: Prints of Lee Bontecou exhibition held at the Art Institute of Chicago.
|
||||
Alberto Giacometti, Hands Holding the Void (Invisible Object) (1934).
|
||||
Anish Kapoor, has stated that, “That’s what I am interested in: the void, the moment when it isn’t a hole. It is a space full of what isn’t there.”
|
||||
Yves Klein, Le Vide (The Void) (1958) and "Leap Into the Void" (1960).
|
||||
Lee Ufan, Marking Infinity (2011).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Music ==
|
||||
Steve Roach, The Magnificent Void (1996).
|
||||
The Beatles, "Tomorrow Never Knows" (1966).
|
||||
Hole, The Void (1995)
|
||||
Nine Inch Nails, "Into the Void" (1999).
|
||||
Palaye Royale, "Love the Void" (2018).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Literature ==
|
||||
Albert Camus and absurdism.
|
||||
Mishima ou la vision du vide (Mishima: A Vision of the Void), an essay by Marguerite Yourcenar about the life and body of work of Yukio Mishima. Translated by Alberto Manguel in 2001 ISBN 0-226-96532-5)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Video games ==
|
||||
The Void, released in 2008
|
||||
The Dishonored franchise.
|
||||
EverQuest contains a zone called "The Void".
|
||||
Hollow Knight by Team Cherry, with Void being one of the main elements.
|
||||
Dark Souls contains an analogous concept known as "the Abyss."
|
||||
Rain World contains an acidic sea called "The Void Sea" which is capable of halting reincarnation
|
||||
Risk of Rain 2 has a realm called The Void and several enemies and locations therein.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Films ==
|
||||
2001: A Space Odyssey, a 1968 Science-fiction mystery film directed by Stanley Kubrick.
|
||||
Altered States, a 1980 American science-fiction horror film directed by Ken Russell.
|
||||
Crimes and Misdemeanors, a 1989 American existential comedy-drama film written and directed by Woody Allen.
|
||||
Nothing, a 2003 Canadian philosophical comedy-drama film directed by Vincenzo Natali.
|
||||
Beyond the Black Rainbow, a 2010 Canadian science fiction horror film written and directed by Panos Cosmatos.
|
||||
The Void, a 2016 Canadian Lovecraftian horror film written and directed by Steven Kostanski and Jeremy Gillespie.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_extinctions_in_the_Holocene"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:20:25.482172+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This article is a list of biological species, subspecies, and evolutionary significant units that are known to have become extinct during the Holocene, the current geologic epoch, ordered by their known or approximate date of disappearance from oldest to most recent.
|
||||
The Holocene is considered to have started with the Holocene glacial retreat around 11650 years Before Present (c. 9700 BC). It is characterized by a general trend towards global warming, the expansion of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) to all emerged land masses, the appearance of agriculture and animal husbandry, and a reduction in global biodiversity. The latter, dubbed the sixth mass extinction in Earth history, is largely attributed to increased human population and activity, and may have started already during the preceding Pleistocene epoch with the demise of the Pleistocene megafauna.
|
||||
The following list is incomplete by necessity, since the majority of extinctions are thought to be undocumented, and for many others there isn't a definitive, widely accepted last, or most recent record. According to the species-area theory, the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 10th millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 9th millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 8th millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 7th millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 6th millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 5th millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 4th millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 3rd millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 2nd millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1st millennium BC ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1st millennium CE ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 1st–5th centuries ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 6th–10th centuries ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 2nd millennium CE ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 11th-12th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 13th-14th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 15th-16th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 17th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 18th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 19th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1800s-1820s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1830s-1840s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1850s-1860s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1870s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1880s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1890s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 20th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1900s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1910s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1920s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1930s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1940s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1950s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1960s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1970s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1980s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1990s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 3rd millennium CE ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 21st century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 2000s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== 2010s ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of extinct animals
|
||||
Extinction event
|
||||
Quaternary extinction event
|
||||
Holocene extinction
|
||||
Timeline of the evolutionary history of life
|
||||
Timeline of environmental history
|
||||
Index of environmental articles
|
||||
List of environmental issues
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Some files were not shown because too many files have changed in this diff Show More
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Reference in New Issue
Block a user