Scrape wikipedia-science: 728 new, 22 updated, 773 total (kb-cron)

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+title: "List of mathematics-based methods"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+---
+
+This is a list of mathematics-based methods.
+
+Adams' method (differential equations)
+Akra–Bazzi method (asymptotic analysis)
+Bisection method (root finding)
+Brent's method (root finding)
+Condorcet method (voting systems)
+Coombs' method (voting systems)
+Copeland's method (voting systems)
+Crank–Nicolson method (numerical analysis)
+D'Hondt method (voting systems)
+D21 – Janeček method (voting system)
+Discrete element method (numerical analysis)
+Domain decomposition method (numerical analysis)
+Epidemiological methods
+Euler's forward method
+Explicit and implicit methods (numerical analysis)
+Finite difference method (numerical analysis)
+Finite element method (numerical analysis)
+Finite volume method (numerical analysis)
+Highest averages method (voting systems)
+Method of exhaustion
+Method of infinite descent (number theory)
+Information bottleneck method
+Inverse chain rule method (calculus)
+Inverse transform sampling method (probability)
+Iterative method (numerical analysis)
+Jacobi method (linear algebra)
+Largest remainder method (voting systems)
+Level-set method
+Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method (molecular orbitals)
+Method of characteristics
+Least squares method (optimization, statistics)
+Maximum likelihood method (statistics)
+Method of complements (arithmetic)
+Method of moving frames (differential geometry)
+Method of successive substitution (number theory)
+Monte Carlo method (computational physics, simulation)
+Newton's method (numerical analysis)
+Pemdas method (order of operation)
+Perturbation methods (functional analysis, quantum theory)
+Probabilistic method (combinatorics)
+Romberg's method (numerical analysis)
+Runge–Kutta method (numerical analysis)
+Sainte-Laguë method (voting systems)
+Schulze method (voting systems)
+Sequential Monte Carlo method
+Simplex method
+Spectral method (numerical analysis)
+Variational methods (mathematical analysis, differential equations)
+Welch's method
+
+
+== See also ==
+Automatic basis function construction
+List of graphical methods
+Scientific method

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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_technology-0.md

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+title: "Mature technology"
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+---
+
+A mature technology is a technology that has been in use for long enough that most of its initial faults and inherent problems have been removed or reduced by further development. In some contexts, it may also refer to technology that has not seen widespread use, but whose scientific background is well understood. Its performance characteristics are also expected to be well understood with well-established design specifications.
+One of the key indicators of a mature technology is the ease of use for both non-experts and professionals. Another indicator is a reduction in the rate of new breakthrough advances related to it—whereas inventions related to a (popular) immature technology are usually rapid and diverse, and may change the whole use paradigm—advances to a mature technology are usually incremental improvements only.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+
+The QWERTY keyboard design is an example of mature technology because its performance characteristics such as typing speeds and error rates have been established in various describable situations. Additionally, the basic key organization of this technology has remained the same over the last century.  Another example is the barcode, a technology that also satisfies all the previously cited indicators. It is widely used since when it was first introduced it was an open technology made available in the public domain where anyone had access.
+Other mature technologies include the following:
+
+Farming, most advances are in slight improvements of breeds or in pest reduction.
+Telephone, though considered mature, mobile phones showed a rare potential for substantial changes even in such technologies.
+Watch, most ordinary watch movements have the same or very similar components.  Most advances are with additional complications in the movement or with sub-dials and other aesthetics on the dial.
+Bicycle, a mature form of transport in that it is easy to learn, simple, affordable, and improves a person's ability to travel without inhibiting others' ability to do so
+
+
+=== Technologies not yet fully mature ===
+Motor vehicle, widely used by non-experts, but require significant infrastructure and sacrifices to public space.
+Internet, with still partly conflicting technological and human standards.
+Computers, becoming more mature due to advances in user-friendly operating systems and the decline of Moore's law.
+Economic models, still shows high failure rates in economic prediction.
+Distributed ledger technology is currently used in a limited number of applications mainly being blockchains, though ongoing research and potential use cases are currently being explored.
+
+
+=== Immature technologies ===
+Nanotechnology, actual industrial applications limited so far.
+Biotechnology, which still does not solve most health and ecologic human challenges.
+Quantum computers, so far mostly a theoretical concept.
+Nuclear fusion power, mainly theoretical due to the containment energy expenditure thus far outweighs yielded energy in practice.
+Virtual reality, whilst practical systems exist, the potential roadmap is estimated to require a lifetime of advances in many fields.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Business cycle
+Technology lifecycle
+Technology readiness level
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mertonian_norms-0.md

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+title: "Mertonian norms"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mertonian_norms"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+---
+
+In 1942, Robert K. Merton described four aspects of science that later came to be called Mertonian norms: "four sets of institutional imperatives taken to comprise the ethos of modern science... communism, universalism, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism". The subsequent portion of his book, The Sociology of Science, elaborated on these principles at "the heart of the Mertonian paradigm—the powerful juxtaposition of the normative structure of science with its institutionally distinctive reward system".
+
+== Description and motivation ==
+Merton defines this 'ethos'  with reference to Albert Bayet's 1931 work La Morale de la Science, which "abandons description and analysis for homily" as "that affectively toned complex of values and norms which is held to be binding on the man of science". He attempted to clarify it, given that previously it had not been 'codified'; Merton uses Bayet's remark that 'this scientific ethos [morale] does not have its theoreticians, but it has its artisans. It does not express its ideals, but serves them: it is implicated in the very existence of science'.
+
+ The norms are expressed in the form of prescriptions, proscriptions, preferences, and permissions. They are legitimatized in terms of institutional values. These imperatives, transmitted by precept and example and reenforced by sanctions are in varying degrees internalized by the scientist, thus fashioning his scientific conscience or, if one prefers the latter-day phrase, his super-ego…  [This scientific ethos] can be inferred from the moral consensus of scientists as expressed in use and wont, in countless writings on the scientific spirit and in moral indignation directed toward contraventions of the ethos.
+An examination of the ethos of modern science is only a limited introduction to a larger problem: the comparative study of the institutional structure of science. Although detailed monographs assembling the needed comparative materials are few and scattered, they provide some basis for the provisional assumption that "science is afforded opportunity for development in a democratic order which is integrated with the ethos of science." This is not to say that the pursuit of science is confined to democracies.
+His attempt at 'codification' sought to determine which social structure[s] "provide an institutional context for the fullest measure of [scientific] development", i.e. lead to scientific achievement rather than only "potentialities".  He saw these "institutional imperatives (mores)" as being derived from the [institutional] "goal of science" ("the extension of certified knowledge") and "technical methods employed [to] provide the relevant definition of knowledge: empirically confirmed and logically consistent statements of regularities (which are, in effect, predictions)".
+
+ The entire structure of technical and moral norms implements the final objective. The technical norm of empirical evidence, adequate and reliable, is a prerequisite for sustained true prediction; the technical norm of logical consistency, a prerequisite for systematic and valid prediction.  The mores of science possess a methodologic rationale but they are binding, not only because they are procedurally efficient, but because they are believed right and good. They are moral as well as technical prescriptions.
+
+== Four Mertonian norms ==
+The four Mertonian norms (often abbreviated as the CUDO-norms) can be summarised as:
+
+communism: all scientists should have common ownership of scientific goods (intellectual property), to promote collective collaboration; secrecy is the opposite of this norm.
+universalism: scientific validity is independent of the sociopolitical status/personal attributes of its participants.
+disinterestedness: scientific institutions act for the benefit of a common scientific enterprise, rather than for specific outcomes or the resulting personal gain of individuals within them.
+organized skepticism: scientific claims should be exposed to critical scrutiny before being accepted: both in methodology and institutional codes of conduct.
+
+=== Communism (communality) ===
+Communism in science requires a strong opposition to the commodification of scientific research to serve capitalistic interests. Instead, it advocates for commonly owned scientific knowledge.
+Common ownership of scientific goods is integral to science: "a scientists' claim to 'his' intellectual 'property' is limited to that of recognition and esteem".
+
+The substantive findings of science are a product of social collaboration and are assigned to the community. They are a common heritage in which the equity of the individual producer is severely limited... rather than exclusive ownership of the discoverer and their heirs.
+Communism is used sometimes in quotation marks, yet elsewhere scientific products are described without them as communized. Merton states the "communism of the scientific ethos" is flatly incompatible with "the definition of technology as 'private property' in a capitalistic economy", noting the claimed right of an inventor to withhold information from the public as demonstrated in the case of the U.S. v. American Bell Telephone Co.
+A corollary to the need for common ownership of scientific knowledge is the imperative for "full and open" communication, which he saw in J. D. Bernal's 1939 book The Social Function of Science, as opposed to secrecy, which he saw espoused in the work of Henry Cavendish, "selfish and anti-social".
+
+=== Universalism ===
+The two aspects of Merton's universalism are expressed in the statements that "objectivity precludes particularism" and "free access to scientific pursuits is a functional imperative".
+Firstly, all scientists' claims ("truth-claims") should be subjected to the same "pre-established impersonal criteria" regardless of their source ("personal or social attributes of their protagonist"), i.e. regardless of race, nationality, culture, or gender. He saw universalism as "rooted deep in the impersonal character of science", and yet also saw the institution of science itself as part of a larger social structure which, paradoxically, was "not always integrated" into the societal structure.  This could cause friction and be detrimental to the scientific project:
+
+Particularly in times of international conflict, when the dominant definition of the situation is such as to emphasize national loyalties, the man of science is subjected to conflicting imperatives of scientific universalism and ethnocentric particularism.

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+
+Secondly, to restrict scientific careers for any reason other than incompetence was to "prejudice the furtherance of knowledge". Merton again noted how the ethos of science may be inconsistent with that of society, but insists that "however inadequately it may be put into practice, the ethos of democracy includes universalism as a dominant guiding principle". He predicted that this inadequacy of laissez-faire democratic processes would lead ultimately to false differential accumulation and  increasing regulation of science under political authority, which must be counteracted through "new technical forms of organization" towards equality of opportunity.
+
+=== Disinterestedness ===
+Distinct from altruism, scientists should act for the benefit of a common scientific enterprise rather than for specific outcomes. Merton reasoned that an individual's scientific motivation may be easily influenced and without institutional enforcement of disinterestedness, and the "seeming virtual absence of fraud" could not be explained by unusually high moral integrity of individuals alone.
+Merton observed a low rate of fraud in science ("virtual absence … which appears exceptional"), which he believed stemmed from the  intrinsic need for "verifiability" in science and expert scrutiny by peers ("rigorous policing, to a degree perhaps unparalleled in any other field of activity") as well as the "public and testable character" of science.
+Self-interest (in the form of self-aggrandisement and/or exploitation of "the credulity, ignorance, and dependence of the layman") is the logical opposite of disinterestedness and may be appropriated by authority "for interested purposes." Merton points to "totalitarian spokesmen on race or economy or history" as examples and describes science as enabling such "new mysticisms" that "borrow prestige."
+
+=== Organized skepticism ===
+Skepticism (i.e. "temporary suspension of judgement", and 'detached' critical scrutiny) is central to both scientific methodology and institutions.
+
+== Later variants ==
+Later work has added "originality", and shortened 'organized scepticism' to 'scepticism', producing the acronym 'CUDOS' (sometimes these 5 concepts are misleadingly named 'Mertonian norms'). Other works additionally replace 'communism' with 'communalism' (e.g. Ziman 2000)  or 'Communality' (e.g. Anderson et al., 2010).
+
+=== Counter norms ===
+Ian Mitroff, in a study of  the Apollo moon scientists, provided evidence  for the influence of what he called "counternorms". These counter norms are a one to one opposition of Mertonian norms.
+
+Communality (originally called communism) is countered by "Secrecy": "Scientists protect their newest findings to ensure priority in publishing, patenting, or applications."
+Universalism is countered by "Particularism": "Scientists assess new knowledge and its applications based on the reputation and past productivity of the individual or research group."
+Disinterestedness is countered by "Self-interestedness": "Scientists compete with others in the same field for funding and recognition of their achievements."
+Organized skepticism is countered by "Organized dogmatism": "Scientists invest their careers in promoting their own most important findings, theories, or innovations."
+
+== See also ==
+Open science data
+Philosophy of science
+Research § Research ethics
+Scientific consensus
+Scientific method
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003), Theory and Reality, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7
+Merton, Robert K. (1973) [1942], "The Normative Structure of Science", in Merton, Robert K. (ed.), The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 267–278, ISBN 978-0-226-52091-9, OCLC 755754
+Mitroff, Ian I. (1974), "Norms and Counter-Norms in a Select Group of the Apollo Moon Scientists: A Case Study of the Ambivalence of Scientists", American Sociological Review, 39 (4): 579–595, doi:10.2307/2094423, JSTOR 2094423
+Ziman, John (2000), Real Science: what it is, and what it means, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-77229-7, OCLC 41834678

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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+---
+
+The Meta-Research Center at Tilburg University is a metascience research center within the School of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the Dutch Tilburg University. They were profiled in a September 2018 article in Science.
+
+
+== Research ==
+
+Meta-research aims to improve reproducibility by studying how science is practiced and published and developing better ways for the scientific community to operate.
+The research institute has published a large statistical meta-analysis of studies on the effect of Stereotype threat on girls' mathematics performance. They also use methods for estimating  publication bias.
+The research institute has developed an R based software tool called Statcheck that can detect incorrect statistical methods used in research articles. A large amount of statistical errors were detected in a sample of 50 000 psychology research articles. The use of it was perceived negatively by some of the researchers. The data mining practices of the research center have been in conflict with the policies of scientific publisher Elsevier.
+A scientific misconduct case in the field of social psychology at Tilburg University has been a contributing factor in establishing the research center.
+
+
+== Advocacy ==
+The research center makes recommendations for other researchers about how to avoid publication bias and to improve the statistical strength of results. They have stated support for pre-registration of studies and open sharing of research data.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Meta-research
+Scientometrics
+Addressing the replication crisis
+List of metascience research centers and organisations
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"Meta-Research Center". Retrieved 2017-02-22. School of Social and Behavioral Sciences

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+title: "Nursing process"
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+
+The nursing process is a modified scientific method that is a fundamental part of nursing practices in many countries around the world. Nursing practice was first described as a four-stage nursing process by Ida Jean Orlando in 1958. It should not be confused with nursing theories or health informatics. The diagnosis phase was added later.
+The nursing process uses clinical judgement to strike a balance of epistemology between personal interpretation and research evidence in which  critical thinking may play a part to categorize the clients issue and course of action. Nursing offers diverse patterns of knowing. Nursing knowledge has embraced pluralism since the 1970s.
+Evidence based practice (EBP) 
+Evidence based practice is a process that is used in the healthcare field to used as a problem-solving approach to make clinical decisions. This is collected by reviewing, analyzing, and forming the best sources for the patient-care. EBP assist with the nursing process by providing credible information that helps nurses make the knowledgeable choice. 
+Person-centered care 
+The nursing process helps orchestrate the nurses' decisions with the patient’s participation needed for recovery. Nurses utilize person-centered care (PCC), which focuses on identifying and addressing a patient's unique needs and preferences. PCC aligns well with the nursing process, as it supports the development of individualized care plans that are specific to meet each patient's specific requirements and desires."   
+
+
+== Phases ==
+
+The nursing process is goal-oriented method of caring that provides a framework to nursing care. It involves seven major steps:
+
+A
+Assess (what data is collected?) Patient vital signs (Temperature, Pulse, Blood pressure, Respirations, and Pulse oximeter), Medical history, Allergies, or Pain assessment.
+D
+Diagnose (what is the problem?) Identify patient strengths and potential health problems and needs.
+O
+Outcome Identification - (Was originally a part of the Planning phase, but has recently been added as a new step in the complete process).
+P
+Plan (how to manage the problem) creating a care plan for that meets the needs of patient goals and related outcomes.
+I
+Implement (putting plan into action)
+E
+Evaluate (did the plan work?) Analyzing the outcomes of the plan of care in terms of patient goal achievement.
+
+
+=== Assessing phase ===
+
+The nurse completes a holistic nursing assessment of the needs of the individual/family/community, regardless of the reason for the encounter. The nurse collects subjective data and objective data using a nursing framework, such as Marjory  Gordon's functional health patterns.
+
+
+==== Models for data collection ====
+Nursing assessments provide the starting point for determining nursing diagnoses. It is vital that a recognized nursing assessment framework is used in practice to identify the patient's* problems, risks and outcomes for enhancing health. The use of an evidence-based nursing framework such as Gordon's Functional Health Pattern Assessment should guide assessments that support nurses in determination of NANDA-I nursing diagnoses. For accurate determination of nursing diagnoses, a useful, evidence-based assessment framework is best practice.
+
+
+===== Methods =====
+Client Interview
+Physical Examination
+Obtaining a health history (including dietary data)
+Family history/report
+
+
+=== Diagnosing phase ===
+
+Nursing diagnoses represent the nurse's clinical judgment about actual or potential health problems/life process occurring with the individual, family, group or community. The accuracy of the nursing diagnosis is validated when a nurse is able to clearly identify and link to the defining characteristics, related factors and/or risk factors found within the patients assessment. Multiple nursing diagnoses may be made for one client.
+
+
+=== Planning phase ===
+
+In agreement with the client, the nurse addresses each of the problems identified in the diagnosing phase. When there are multiple nursing diagnoses to be addressed, the nurse prioritizes which diagnoses will receive the most attention first according to their severity and potential for causing more serious harm. The most common terminology for standardized nursing diagnosis is that of the evidence-based terminology developed and refined by NANDA International, the oldest and one of the most researched of all standardized nursing languages. For each problem a measurable goal/outcome is set. For each goal/outcome, the nurse selects nursing interventions that will help achieve the goal/outcome, which are aimed at the related factors (etiologies) not merely at symptoms (defining characteristics). A common method of formulating the expected outcomes is to use the evidence-based Nursing Outcomes Classification to allow for the use of standardized language which improves consistency of terminology, definition and outcome measures.  The interventions used in the Nursing Interventions Classification again allow for the use of standardized language which improves consistency of terminology, definition and ability to identify nursing activities, which can also be linked to nursing workload and staffing indices. The result of this phase is a nursing care plan.
+
+
+=== Implementing phase ===
+The nurse implements the nursing care plan, performing the determined interventions that were selected to help meet the goals/outcomes that were established. Delegated tasks and the monitoring of them is included here as well.
+Activities
+
+pre-assessment of the client-done before just carrying out implementation to determine if it is relevant
+determine need for assistance
+implementation of nursing orders
+delegating and supervising-determines who to carry out what action
+
+
+=== Evaluating phase ===
+The nurse evaluates the progress toward the goals/outcomes identified in the previous phases. If progress towards the goal is slow, or if regression has occurred, the nurse must change the plan of care accordingly. Conversely, if the goal has been achieved then the care can cease. New problems may be identified at this stage, and thus the process will start all over again.
+
+
+== Characteristics ==
+The nursing process is a cyclical and ongoing process that can end at any stage if the problem is solved. The nursing process exists for every problem that the individual/family/community has. The nursing process not only focuses on ways to improve physical needs, but also on social and emotional needs as well.
+
+Cyclic and dynamic
+Goal directed and client centered
+Interpersonal and collaborative
+Universally applicable
+Systematic
+The entire process is recorded or documented in order to inform all members of the health care team.
+
+
+== Nursing process and mental health ==
+Nurses apply the nursing process to patients with depressive disorders by systematically assessing, diagnosing, planning, implementing, and evaluating care. During assessment, nurses gather data on mood, behavior, symptoms, suicidal indicators, and risk factors. 
+Based on this information, they develop nursing diagnoses commonly related to depression, such as risk for suicide, hopelessness, ineffective coping, self-care deficits, and disturbed sleep patterns. 
+Planning involves creating interventions aimed at promoting safety, encouraging participation in activities, and enhancing therapeutic communication. Nurses then implement these interventions to address the patient's needs.
+Evaluation involves determining whether goals have been met, such as improved mood, increased participation in activities, and reduced depressive symptoms. If expected outcomes are not achieved, nurses adjust the care plan accordingly to better meet the patient’s needs. Care plans focus on safety, activity engagement, and communication.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Long, Rosemary (1981) Systematic Nursing Care. London: Faber ISBN 0571116159
+McFarlane, Jean & Castledine, George (1982) A Guide to the Practice of Nursing using the Nursing Process. London: Mosby ISBN  9780801632785

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation-0.md

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+---
+title: "Observation"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:16:25.446377+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Observation in the natural sciences refers to the active acquisition of information from a primary source. It involves the act of noticing or perceiving phenomena and gathering data based on direct engagement with the subject of study.
+In living organisms, observation typically occurs through the senses. In science, it often extends beyond unaided perception, involving the use of scientific instruments to detect, measure, and record data. This enables the observation of phenomena not accessible to human senses alone.
+Observations in science are typically categorized as either qualitative or quantitative:
+
+Qualitative observations describe characteristics that are not expressed numerically, such as color, texture, or behavior.
+Quantitative observations involve numerical measurements, obtained through counting or using instruments to assign values to observed phenomena.
+The term observation may refer both to the process of observing and to the information recorded as a result of that process.
+
+== Science ==
+The scientific method requires observations of natural phenomena to formulate and test hypotheses. The method involves an iterative series of steps intended to generate and refine scientific knowledge:
+
+Ask a question about a phenomenon
+Make observations of the phenomenon
+Formulate a hypothesis that tentatively answers the question
+Predict logical, observable consequences of the hypothesis that have not yet been investigated
+Test the hypothesis' predictions through experiments, observational study, field study, or simulations
+Draw a conclusion from the collected data, revise the hypothesis, or propose a new one, and repeat the process
+Write a descriptive method of observation and the results or conclusions reached
+Submit the findings for peer review by researchers experienced in the same area of study
+Each step depends on reliable and reproducible observations, which form the basis for scientific reasoning and validation of results.
+Observations play a role in both the second and fifth steps of the scientific method. However, the principle of reproducibility requires that observations made by different individuals be comparable and consistent.
+Human sense impressions are subjective and yield qualitative data, which are difficult to standardize, record, or compare across observers. To address this limitation, the use of measurement was developed as a means of producing objective, quantitative observations.
+Measurement involves comparing the observed phenomenon to a standard unit, which may be defined by an artifact, a process, or a shared convention. This standard must be reproducible and accessible to all observers. The result of the measurement process is a numerical value that represents the number of standard units corresponding to the observation.
+By reducing observations to numerical values, measurement enables consistent documentation and facilitates comparison. Two observations that yield the same measured value are considered equivalent within the resolution or precision of the process.
+Human senses are limited in range and accuracy and are subject to errors in perception, such as those caused by optical illusions. These limitations affect the reliability and precision of unaided observations in scientific inquiry.
+To overcome these limitations, various scientific instruments have been developed to extend and enhance human observational capabilities. Instruments such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders assist in making more accurate and consistent measurements of phenomena that are within the range of human perception.
+In addition, some instruments make it possible to detect and record phenomena that are otherwise imperceptible to the senses. These include devices like indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, Geiger counters, and radio receivers. Such tools enable scientists to observe events and processes occurring beyond the limits of natural human perception.
+One challenge encountered across scientific disciplines is that the act of observation can influence the process being observed, potentially altering the outcome. This phenomenon is known as the observer effect. For instance, measuring the air pressure in an automobile tire typically requires letting out a small amount of air, which in turn changes the pressure being measured.
+In many areas of science, the effects of observation can be minimized to negligible levels through the use of advanced and more precise instruments. These tools help ensure that the measurement process interferes as little as possible with the system under study.
+When considered as a physical process, all forms of observation—whether performed by humans or instruments—involve some form of amplification. As such, observation is a thermodynamically irreversible process that results in an increase in entropy.
+
+== Paradoxes ==
+In certain scientific fields, the results of observation vary depending on factors that are not typically significant in everyday experience. These variations are often illustrated through apparent "paradoxes", where an event appears different when observed from two distinct perspectives, seemingly contradicting "common sense".
+
+Relativity: In relativistic physics, which addresses phenomena at velocities close to the speed of light, different observers may record different values for properties such as length, time, and mass, depending on their relative velocity with respect to the object being observed. For example, in the twin paradox, one twin undertakes a high-speed journey and returns younger than the twin who remained on Earth. This outcome is consistent with the principles of relativity: time passes more slowly in reference frames moving at high velocities relative to an observer. In relativistic physics, all observations must be described in relation to the frame of reference of the observer.
+Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which examines systems at atomic and subatomic scales, it is fundamentally impossible to observe a system without influencing it. In this context, the observer becomes part of the system being measured. Quantum systems are described by a wave function, which often exists in a quantum superposition of multiple possible states. When an observation or measurement is made, the system is always found in a definite state—not in a mixture. The act of measurement appears to cause the wave function collapse, transitioning the system from a superposition to a single, determinate state. This process is referred to as observation or measurement, regardless of whether it is part of a deliberate experimental setup.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation-1.md

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+---
+title: "Observation"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:16:25.446377+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Biases ==
+Human senses do not function like an impartial recording device such as a video camcorder. Perception occurs through a complex, largely unconscious process of abstraction, in which certain elements of sensory input are selected and retained, while others are discarded. 
+This selection process depends on an internal model of the world—referred to in psychology as a schema—that is shaped by past experiences. Sensory information is interpreted and stored based on this schema. During recall, gaps in memory may be unconsciously filled with information consistent with the schema, a process known as reconstructive memory.
+The degree of attention given to different aspects of a perceptual experience is influenced by an individual's internal value system, which prioritizes information based on perceived importance. As a result, two individuals observing the same event may remember it differently, potentially disagreeing on factual details. This subjectivity is a known limitation of eyewitness testimony, which research has shown to be frequently unreliable.
+In scientific practice, rigorous methods are employed to minimize such observational biases. These include careful documentation of experimental data, distinguishing clearly between raw observations and inferred conclusions, and implementing procedures such as blind and double blind experiment designs to control for subjective influence.
+Several of the more important ways observations can be affected by human psychology are given below.
+
+=== Streetlight effect ===
+
+=== Confirmation bias ===
+
+Human observations are biased toward confirming the observer's conscious and unconscious expectations and view of the world; we "see what we expect to see". In psychology, this is called confirmation bias.  Since the object of scientific research is the discovery of new phenomena, this bias can and has caused new discoveries to be overlooked; one example is the discovery of x-rays. It can also result in erroneous scientific support for widely held cultural myths, on the other hand, as in the scientific racism that supported ideas of racial superiority in the early 20th century.
+
+=== Processing bias ===
+Modern scientific instruments frequently perform extensive processing of "observations" before the results are presented to human observers. With the increasing use of computerized instruments, it can be difficult to determine the boundary between the act of observation and the interpretation or conclusion drawn from that data.
+This issue is particularly relevant in the context of digital image processing, where images used as experimental data in scientific publications are sometimes enhanced to emphasize specific features. While such enhancement can aid in highlighting relevant aspects of the data, it may also inadvertently reinforce the researcher's hypothesis, introducing a form of bias that is challenging to quantify.
+In response, some journals have established explicit guidelines regarding permissible types of image processing in published research. To safeguard against processing bias, many computerized systems are designed to store copies of the unprocessed or "raw" data captured by sensors. Likewise, scientific best practices require that original, unaltered images used as research data be preserved and made available upon request.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-label_trial-0.md

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+---
+title: "Open-label trial"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-label_trial"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:16:26.721782+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An open-label trial, or open trial, is a type of clinical trial in which information is not withheld from trial participants. In particular, both the researchers and participants know which treatment is being administered. This contrasts with a double-blinded trial, where information is withheld both from the researchers and the participants to reduce bias.
+Open-label trials may be appropriate for comparing two similar treatments to determine which is most effective, such as a comparison of different prescription anticoagulants, or possible relief from symptoms of some disorders when a placebo is given.
+An open-label trial may still be randomized. Open-label trials may also be uncontrolled (without a placebo group), with all participants receiving the same treatment. This would be a single-arm study design.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_No_Nonsense_Guide_To_Science-0.md

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+---
+title: "The No Nonsense Guide To Science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_No_Nonsense_Guide_To_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:16:23.083780+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The No Nonsense Guide to Science is a 2006 book on Post-normal science (PNS). It was written by American born British historian and philosopher of science Jerome Ravetz.
+
+
+== Main ==
+What should a young person do who aspires to make the world a better place and to make their way in science?
+
+This is how this work's ambition was summarized. Written in 2006 by one of the founding fathers of Post-normal Science - the other being Silvio Funtowicz - its 142 pages cover several themes, in part synthesizing previous works such as Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems,  The Merger of Knowledge with Power, and Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy (with Funtowicz), and introduces the ideas of Post-normal Science. Topics include:
+
+The problem of science being at once 'little' and big or 'mega', embedded in institutions and corporations
+The fallibility of science, against a possibly 'dogmatic' teaching of the power of science
+The democratization of science as a necessary and realistic antidote to its hubris
+The opportunity of forming extended peer communities - inclusive of whistle blowers and investigative journalists as well as academics and interested stakeholders, when science is called to answer conflicted policy questions.
+The relationship between science and society
+The book makes themes that are well known to philosophers and sociologists of science accessible to a larger, less specialized audience, including young scientists. The foreword was written by biochemist Tom Blundell, who approves of Ravetz' "direct and provocative" approach to describing science, inclusive of its self-destructive tendencies as well as of its hopes and promises.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+No Nonsense Guide to Science was translated and published in Japan in 2012. Ravetz's work has found use for teaching philosophy and ethics of science, e.g at the University of Copenhagen. The volume may help to develop the competencies that scientists need to perform ethically in postnormal research, by developing the ability to identify issues that fit postnormal settings where "facts are uncertain, values in dispute, stakes high and decision urgent".
+
+
+== References ==