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+---
+title: "Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:18.810905+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–86) is a six-volume work published by 18th-century British polymath Joseph Priestley which reports a series of his experiments on "airs" or gases, most notably his discovery of the oxygen gas (which he called "dephlogisticated air").
+
+== Airs ==
+While working as a companion for Lord Shelburne, Priestley had a great deal of free time to engage in scientific investigations. The Earl even set up a laboratory for him. Priestley's experiments during his years in Calne were almost entirely confined to "airs" and from this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the theory of four elements; as one early biographer writes: "taken collectively, [Priestley] did more than those of any one of his contemporaries to uproot and destroy the only generalisation by which his immediate predecessors had sought to group and connect the phenomena of chemistry", however "he was wholly unable to perceive this fact." Priestley's work on "airs" is not easily classified. As historian of science Simon Schaffer points out, it "has been seen as a branch of physics, or chemistry, or natural philosophy, or some highly idiosyncratic version of Priestley's own invention." Also, the volumes were both a scientific and a political enterprise for Priestley; he argued in them that science could destroy "undue and usurped authority," writing that the government has "reason to tremble even at an air pump or an electrical machine."
+
+Priestley's first volume of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air outlined several important discoveries: experiments that would eventually lead to the discovery of photosynthesis and the discovery of several airs: "nitrous air" (nitric oxide, NO), "vapor of spirit of salt" (later called "acid air" or "marine acid air"; anhydrous hydrochloric acid, HCl), "alkaline air" (ammonia, NH3), "diminished" or "dephlogisticated nitrous air" (nitrous oxide, N2O), and "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen, O2). Priestley also developed the "nitrous air test", which tested for the "goodness of air": using a "pneumatic trough", he would mix nitrous air with a test sample, over water or mercury, and measure the decrease in volume—the principle of eudiometry. After a small history of the study of airs, he explained his own experiments in an open and sincere style: "whatever he knows or thinks he tells: doubts, perplexities, blunders are set down with the most refreshing candour." He also invented and described cheap and easy-to-assemble experimental apparatus. His colleagues therefore believed that they could easily reproduce Priestley's experiments to verify them or to answer the questions that had puzzled him.
+Although many of his results puzzled him, Priestley used phlogiston theory to resolve the difficulties. This theory, however, led him to conclude that there were only three types of "air": "fixed", "alkaline", and "acid". Priestley ignored the burgeoning chemistry of his day, indeed dismissing it in these volumes. Instead, he focused on gases and the "changes in their sensible properties", as had natural philosophers before him. He isolated carbon monoxide (CO) but seems not to have realised that it was a separate "air" from the others that he had discovered.
+
+=== Discovery of oxygen ===
+After the publication of the first volume of Experiments and Observations, Priestley undertook another set of experiments. In August 1774 he isolated an "air" that appeared to be completely new, but he did not have an opportunity to pursue the matter because he was about to tour Europe with Shelburne. While in Paris, however, Priestley managed to replicate the experiment for others, including Antoine Lavoisier. After returning to Britain in January 1775, he continued his experiments and discovered vitriolic acid air (sulphur dioxide, SO2). In March he wrote to several people regarding the new "air" that he had discovered several months earlier. One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society, and he published a paper in Philosophical Transactions titled "An Account of further Discoveries in Air." Priestley called the new substance "dephlogisticated air" and described it as "five or six times better than common air for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and, I believe, every other use of common atmospherical air." He had discovered oxygen gas (O2). As revised for Experiments and Observations, his paper begins:
+
+The contents of this section will furnish a very striking illustration of the truth of a remark which I have more than once made in my [natural] philosophical writings … that more is owing to what we call chance—that is, philosophically speaking, to the observations of events rising from unknown causes than to any proper design or preconceived theory in this business. … For my own part, I will frankly acknowledge that at the commencement of my experiments recited in this section I was so far from having formed any hypothesis that led to the discoveries I made in pursuing them that they would have appeared very improbable to me had I been told of them; and when the decisive facts did at length obtrude themselves upon my notice it was very slowly, and with great hesitation as Iroquois Ridge High School gets shamed, that I yielded to the evidence of my senses. [emphasis Priestley's]
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+---
+title: "Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:18.810905+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of Experiments and Observations on Air and published it in 1776. He does not emphasise his discovery of "dephlogisticated air" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argues in the preface how important such discoveries are to rational religion. His paper narrates the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements. Thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley "discovered" oxygen. Such dating is significant as Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele both have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been first to describe it as purified "air itself entire without alteration" (not "dephlogisticated air").
+
+== Scientific work on Airs ==
+In this section, a list of all Priestley's scientific books on Airs has been compiled. The list doesn't include any of the several scientific papers, that he also wrote to various journals on the subject (see: List of works by Joseph Priestley).
+Books from 1772 to 1790:
+
+Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air. London, 1772.
+Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London, 1774.
+Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.2. London, 1775.
+Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.3. London, 1777.
+Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, Vol.1. [Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.4]. London, 1779.
+Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, Vol.2. [Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.5]. Birmingham, 1781.
+Experiments Relating to Phlogiston. London, 1784.
+Experiments and Observations relating to various Branches of Natural Philosophy, Vol.3. [Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.6]. Birmingham, 1786.
+Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1–6. In 3 volumes, being the former 6 abridged and methodised, with many additions. Birmingham, 1790.
+Books from 1791 to 1803:
+
+Experiments on the Generation of Air from Water; to which are prefixed, Experiments relating to the Decomposition of Dephlogisticated and Inflammable Air. London, 1793.
+Heads of Lectures on a Course of Experimental Philosophy; delivered at the New College in Hackney. [First 10 of 36 lectures are about Airs]. London, 1794.
+Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston and the Decomposition of Water. Philadelphia, 1796.
+Experiments and Observations relating to the Analysis of Atmospherical Air; also farther Experiments relating to the Generation of Air from Water. [Red before the American Philosophical Society, Feb.5th and 19th in 1796, and printed in their Transactions. To which are added, Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston, and the Decomposition of Water, addressed to Messrs. Berthollet &c]. London, 1796.
+Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston and the Decomposition of Water, Part II. Philadelphia, 1797.
+Doctrine of Phlogiston established and that of the Composition of Water refuted. Northumberland, 1800.
+Doctrine of Phlogiston established, with Observations on the Conversion of Iron into Steel, in a Letter to Mr. Nicholson. Printed in 1803.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Fruton, Joseph S.  Methods and Styles in the Development of Chemistry. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2002. ISBN 0-87169-245-7
+Gibbs, F. W. Joseph Priestley: Adventurer in Science and Champion of Truth. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1965.
+Jackson, Joe, A World on Fire: A Heretic, An Aristocrat and the Race to Discover Oxygen. New York: Viking, 2005. ISBN 0-670-03434-7.
+Kramnick, Isaac. "Eighteenth-Century Science and Radical Social Theory: The Case of Joseph Priestley's Scientific Liberalism." Journal of British Studies 25 (1986): 1–30.
+Kuhn, Thomas.  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, third edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0-226-45808-3.
+Schaffer, Simon. "Priestley Questions: An Historiographic Survey." History of Science 22.2 (1984): 151–83.
+Schofield, Robert E. The Enlightenment of Joseph Priestley: A Study of his Life and Work from 1733 to 1773. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-271-01662-0.
+Schofield, Robert E. The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-271-02459-3.
+Thorpe, T.E. Joseph Priestley. London: J. M. Dent, 1906.
+Uglow, Jenny. The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. ISBN 0-374-19440-8.
+
+== External links ==
+
+archive.org:
+full text (1772)
+full text (2nd edition, 1774)
+ Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air public domain audiobook at LibriVox
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md
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+---
+title: "Experiments and Observations on Electricity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:19.991116+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Experiments and Observations on Electricity is a treatise by Benjamin Franklin based on letters that he wrote to Peter Collinson, who communicated Franklin's ideas to the Royal Society. The letters were published as a book in England in 1751, and over the following years the book was reissued in four more editions containing additional material, the last in 1774. Science historian I. Bernard Cohen crafted an edition with historical commentary that was published in 1941.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+"Experiments and Observations, [April 1751]". Founders Online. National Archives. Original source: Labaree, Leonard W., ed. (1961). The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 4, July 1, 1750, through June 30, 1753. Yale University Press. pp. 125–130.
+Watson, William (1751). "An Account of Mr. Benjamin Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published, Intituled, Experiments and Observations on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in America; By Wm. Watson, F. R. S.". Philosophical Transactions. 47: 202–211. JSTOR 105044.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America (1751), scanned from a copy in Franklin's personal library with his own handwritten notes, at the Internet Archive
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science-0.md
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+---
+title: "Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:21.317067+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science (1957)—originally published in 1952 as In the Name of Science: An Entertaining Survey of the High Priests and Cultists of Science, Past and Present—was Martin Gardner's second book. A survey of what it described as pseudosciences and cult beliefs, it became a founding document in the nascent scientific skepticism movement. Michael Shermer said of it: "Modern skepticism has developed into a science-based movement, beginning with Martin Gardner's 1952 classic".
+The book debunks what it characterises as pseudoscience and the pseudo-scientists who propagate it.
+
+== Contents ==
+
+=== Synopsis ===
+Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science starts with a brief survey of the spread of the ideas of "cranks" and "pseudo-scientists", attacking the credulity of the popular press and the irresponsibility of publishing houses in helping to propagate these ideas. Cranks often cite historical cases where ideas were rejected which are now accepted as right. Gardner acknowledges that such cases occurred, and describes some of them, but says that times have changed: "If anything, scientific journals err on the side of permitting questionable theses to be published".  Gardner acknowledges that "among older scientists ... one may occasionally meet with irrational prejudice against a new point of view", but adds that "a certain degree of dogma ... is both necessary and desirable" because otherwise "science would be reduced to shambles by having to examine every new-fangled notion that came along."
+Gardner says that cranks have two common characteristics. The first "and most important" is that they work in almost total isolation from the scientific community. Gardner defines the community as an efficient network of communication within scientific fields, together with a co-operative process of testing new theories. This process allows for apparently bizarre theories to be published—such as Einstein's theory of relativity, which initially met with considerable opposition; it was never dismissed as the work of a crackpot, and it soon met with almost universal acceptance. But the crank "stands entirely outside the closely integrated channels through which new ideas are introduced and evaluated. He does not send his findings to the recognized journals or, if he does, they are rejected for reasons which in the vast majority of cases are excellent."
+The second characteristic of the crank (which also contributes to his or her isolation) is the tendency to paranoia. There are five ways in which this tendency is likely to be manifested.
+
+The pseudo-scientist considers himself a genius.
+He regards other researchers as stupid, dishonest or both.
+He believes there is a campaign against his ideas, a campaign comparable to the persecution of Galileo or Pasteur. He may attribute his "persecution" to a conspiracy by a scientific "masonry" who are unwilling to admit anyone to their inner sanctum without appropriate initiation.
+Instead of side-stepping the mainstream, the pseudo-scientist attacks it head-on: The most revered scientist is Einstein, so Gardner writes that Einstein is the most likely establishment figure to be attacked.
+He has a tendency to use complex jargon, often making up words and phrases. Gardner compares this to the way that schizophrenics talk in what psychiatrists call "neologisms", "words which have meaning to the patient, but sound like Jabberwocky to everyone else."
+These psychological traits are in varying degrees demonstrated throughout the remaining chapters of the book, in which Gardner examines particular "fads" he labels pseudo-scientific. His writing became the source book from which many later studies of pseudo-science were taken (e.g. Encyclopedia of Pseudo-science).
+
+=== Chapters ===
+As per the subtitle of the book, "The curious theories of modern pseudoscientists and the strange, amusing and alarming cults that surround them" are discussed in the chapters as listed.
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+---
+title: "Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:21.317067+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the Name of Science
+the introductory chapter
+Flat and Hollow
+the Flat Earth theory of Wilbur Glenn Voliva
+the Hollow Earth theories of John Cleves Symmes, Jr. and Cyrus Reed Teed
+Monsters of Doom
+Immanuel Velikovsky’s Worlds in Collision
+William Whiston’s A New Theory of the Earth
+Ignatius Donnelly’s Ragnarok; Hanns Hörbiger’s Welteislehre and Hörbiger’s disciple Hans Schindler Bellamy.
+The Forteans
+Charles Fort, Tiffany Thayer and the Fortean Society
+The Hutchins-Adler Great Books Movement: "most of them regard scientists, on the whole, as a stupid lot."
+Flying Saucers
+Kenneth Arnold, the Mantell UFO Incident
+Raymond Palmer, Richard Shaver, Donald Keyhoe, Frank Scully, Gerald Heard and the Unidentified flying object movement.
+Zig-Zag-and-Swirl
+Alfred Lawson and his "Lawsonomy"
+Down with Einstein!
+Joseph Battell, Thomas H. Graydon, George Francis Gillette, Jeremiah J. Callahan and others.
+Sir Isaac Babson
+Roger Babson and the Gravity Research Foundation.
+Dowsing Rods and Doodlebugs
+Solco Walle Tromp and radiesthesia
+Kenneth Roberts, Henry Goss and their dowsing.
+Under the Microscope
+Andrew Crosse, Henry Charlton Bastian, Charles Wentworth Littlefield and others who claimed to observe spontaneous generation of living forms.
+Geology versus Genesis
+Philip Henry Gosse and his Omphalos
+George McCready Price and The New Geology
+Mortimer Adler’s writings on evolution.
+Hilaire Belloc’s debate with H. G. Wells.
+Lysenkoism
+Lamarck and Lamarckism; Lysenko and Lysenkoism
+Apologists for Hate
+Hans F. K. Günther and “nordicism”
+Charles Carroll, Madison Grant, Lothrop Stoddard, and “scientific racism”.
+Atlantis and Lemuria
+Ignatius Donnelly (again), Lewis Spence and Atlantis
+Madame Blavatsky, James Churchward and Lemuria
+The Great Pyramid
+John Taylor, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Charles Taze Russell and others with their theories about the Great Pyramid of Giza.
+Medical Cults
+Samuel Hahnemann, The Organon of the Healing Art, and homeopathy.
+Naturopathy, with iridiagnosis, zone therapy and Alexander technique.
+Andrew Taylor Still and osteopathy.
+Daniel D. Palmer and chiropractic.
+Medical Quacks
+Elisha Perkins
+Albert Abrams and his defender Upton Sinclair.
+Ruth Drown
+Dinshah Pestanji Framji Ghadiali
+color therapy
+Gurdjieff
+Aleister Crowley
+Edgar Cayce
+(in the Appendix) Hoxsey Therapy and Krebiozen
+Food Faddists
+Horace Fletcher and Fletcherism
+William Howard Hay and the Dr. Hay diet
+Vegetarianism ("We need not be concerned here with the ethical arguments...")
+J. I. Rodale and organic farming
+Rudolf Steiner, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer, anthroposophy and biodynamic agriculture.
+Gayelord Hauser
+Nutrilite
+Dudley J. LeBlanc and Hadacol
+Throw Away Your Glasses!
+William Horatio Bates, the Bates method, Aldous Huxley, The Art of Seeing.
+Eccentric Sexual Theories
+Arabella Kenealy
+Bernarr Macfadden
+John R. Brinkley
+Frank Harris
+John Humphrey Noyes and the Oneida Community
+Alice Bunker Stockham and “karezza”
+Orgonomy
+Wilhelm Reich and “orgone”
+Dianetics
+L. Ron Hubbard, Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. (The term Scientology had only just been introduced when Gardner's book was published.)
+General Semantics, Etc.
+Alfred Korzybski, Samuel I. Hayakawa and “general semantics”
+Jacob L. Moreno and “psychodrama”
+From Bumps to Handwriting
+Francis Joseph Gall and phrenology
+physiognomy; palmistry
+graphology
+ESP and PK
+Joseph Banks Rhine, extra-sensory perception and psychokinesis
+Nandor Fodor
+Upton Sinclair (again) and Mental Radio
+Max Freedom Long
+ Bridey Murphy and Other Matters
+Morey Bernstein and Bridey Murphy
+A final plea for orthodoxy and responsibility in publishing
+
+== History ==
+The 1957 Dover publication is a revised and expanded version of In the Name of Science, which was published by G. P. Putnam's Sons in 1952.  The subtitle boldly states the book's theme: "The curious theories of modern pseudoscientists and the strange, amusing and alarming cults that surround them. A study in human gullibility". As of 2005, it had been reprinted at least 30 times.
+The book was expanded from an article first published in the Antioch Review in 1950, and in the preface to the first edition, Gardner thanks the Review for allowing him to develop the article as the starting point of his book. Not all material in the article is carried over to the book. For example, in the article, Gardner writes:
+
+The reader may wonder why a competent scientist does not publish a detailed refutation of Reich's absurd biological speculations. The answer is that the informed scientist doesn't care, and would, in fact, damage his reputation by taking the time to undertake such a thankless task.
+
+And comments in a footnote:
+
+It is not within the scope of this paper, however, to discuss technical criteria by which hypotheses are given high, low, or negative degrees of confirmation. Our purpose is simply to glance at several examples of a type of scientific activity which fails completely to conform to scientific standards, but at the same time is the result of such intricate mental activity that it wins temporary acceptance by many laymen insufficiently informed to recognize the scientist's incompetence. Although there obviously is no sharp line separating competent from incompetent research, and there are occasions when a scientific "orthodoxy" may delay the acceptance of novel views, the fact remains that the distance between the work of competent scientists and the speculations of a Voliva or Velikovsky is so great that a qualitative difference emerges which justifies the label of "pseudo-science." Since the time of Galileo the history of pseudo-science has been so completely outside the history of science that the two streams touch only in the rarest of instances.
+
+While in the book, Gardner writes:
+
+If someone announces that the moon is made of green cheese, the professional astronomer cannot be expected to climb down from his telescope and write a detailed refutation.  “A fairly complete textbook of physics would be only part of the answer to Velikovsky,” writes Prof. Laurence J. Lafleur, in his excellent article on "Cranks and Scientists" (Scientific Monthly, Nov., 1951), "and it is therefore not surprising that the scientist does not find the undertaking worth while."
+
+And in the wrap-up of the chapter:
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+---
+title: "Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:21.317067+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Just as an experienced doctor is able to diagnose certain ailments the instant a new patient walks into his office, or a police officer learns to recognize criminal types from subtle behavior clues which escape the untrained eye, so we, perhaps, may learn to recognize the future scientific crank when we first encounter him.
+
+== Reception ==
+A contemporary review in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette particularly welcomed Gardner's critical remarks about Hoxsey Therapy and about Krebiozen, both of which were being advanced as anti-cancer measures at that time. The review concluded that the book "should help to counteract some amusing and some positively harmful cults, the existence of which is all too often promoted by irresponsible journalism."
+The work has often been mentioned in subsequent books and articles. Louis Lasagna, in his book The Doctors' Dilemmas, considered it to be a "superb account of scientific cults, fads, and frauds" and wrote that "This talented writer combines solid fact with a pleasing style."
+
+Sociologist of religion Anson D. Shupe took in general a positive attitude, and praises Gardner for his humor. But he says
+If there is a single criticism to be made of Gardner ... it is that he accepts too comfortably the conventional wisdom, or accepted social reality, of current twentieth-century science and middle-class American Christianity. Somehow it is evident (to me at least) that he is implicitly making a pact with the reader to evaluate these fringe groups in terms of their own shared presumptions about what is "normal". Thus he is quite confident throwing around labels like "quack", "crank" and "preposterous". In science the use of such value judgments can be quite time-bound; likewise in religions where today's heresy may become tomorrow's orthodoxy. The odds of course are always on the side of the writer criticizing fringe groups because statistically speaking so few of them survive. However, when a group does weather its infancy and go on to prosper, invariably its original detractors look a bit more arbitrary than they did initially, and then the shoe is on the other foot.
+In the 1980s a fierce interchange took place between Gardner and Colin Wilson.  In The Quest for Wilhelm Reich Wilson wrote of this book(Gardner) writes about various kinds of cranks with the conscious superiority of the scientist, and in most cases one can share his sense of the victory of reason. But after half a dozen chapters this non-stop superiority begins to irritate; you begin to wonder about the standards that make him so certain he is always right. He asserts that the scientist, unlike the crank, does his best to remain open-minded. So how can he be so sure that no sane person has ever seen a flying saucer, or used a dowsing rod to locate water? And that all the people he disagrees with are unbalanced fanatics? A colleague of the positivist philosopher A. J. Ayer once remarked wryly "I wish I was as certain of anything as he seems to be about everything". Martin Gardner produces the same feeling. By Wilson's own account, up to that time he and Gardner had been friends, but Gardner took offence. In February 1989 Gardner wrote a letter published in The New York Review of Books describing Wilson as "England’s leading journalist of the occult, and a firm believer in ghosts, poltergeists, levitations, dowsing, PK (psychokinesis), ESP, and every other aspect of the psychic scene". Shortly afterwards, Wilson replied, defending himself and adding "What strikes me as so interesting is that when Mr. Gardner—and his colleagues of CSICOP—begin to denounce the 'Yahoos of the paranormal,' they manage to generate an atmosphere of such intense hysteria ...". Gardner in turn replied quoting his own earlier description of Wilson: "The former boy wonder, tall and handsome in his turtleneck sweater, has now decayed into one of those amiable eccentrics for which the land of Conan Doyle is noted. They prowl comically about the lunatic fringes of science ..."
+In a review of a subsequent Gardner work, Paul Stuewe of the Toronto Star called Fads and Fallacies a "hugely enjoyable demolition of pseudo-scientific nonsense". Ed Regis, writing in The New York Times, considered the book to be "the classic put-down of pseudoscience". Fellow skeptic Michael Shermer called the book "the skeptic classic of the past half-century." He noted that the mark of popularity for the book came when John W. Campbell denounced the chapter on dianetics over the radio.
+Mark Erickson, author of Science, culture and society: understanding science in the twenty-first century, noted that Gardner's book provided "a flavour of the immense optimism surrounding science in the 1950s" and that his choice of topics were "interesting", but also that his attacks on "osteopathy, chiropractice, and the Bates method for correcting eyesight would raise eyebrows amongst medical practitioners today".
+Gardner's own response to criticism is given in his preface:
+
+The first edition of this book prompted many curious letters from irate readers. The most violent letters came from Reichians, furious because the book considered orgonomy alongside such (to them) outlandish cults as dianetics. Dianeticians, of course, felt the same about orgonomy. I heard from homeopaths who were insulted to find themselves in company with such frauds as osteopathy and chiropractic, and one chiropractor in Kentucky “pitied” me because I had turned my spine on God’s greatest gift to suffering humanity. Several admirers of Dr. Bates favored me with letters so badly typed that I suspect the writers were in urgent need of strong spectacles. Oddly enough, most of these correspondents objected to one chapter only, thinking all the others excellent.
+
+== See also ==
+Fads and Fallacies in the Social Sciences
+Survivorship bias
+The Demon-Haunted World
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+Gardner, Martin (1950). "The hermit scientist". The Antioch Review. 10 (4): 447–457. doi:10.2307/4609447. JSTOR 4609447.
+Gardner, Martin (1957), Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science (2nd, revised & expanded ed.), Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20394-8, retrieved 14 November 2010Originally published in 1952 by G.P. Putnam's Sons under the title In the Name of Science {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_Entomologica_Scandinavica-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_Entomologica_Scandinavica-0.md
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+---
+title: "Fauna Entomologica Scandinavica"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_Entomologica_Scandinavica"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:22.481881+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fauna Entomologica Scandinavica is a scientific book series of entomological identification manuals for insects (and other terrestrial arthropods) in North-West Europe, mainly  Fennoscandia and Denmark. The series is used by a number of groups, such as ecologists, biologists, and insect collectors. The books are in English, and published by the Dutch academic publishing house Brill.
+
+
+== Titles ==
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God-0.md
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+---
+title: "Finding Darwin's God"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:23.696063+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution is a 2000 book by the American cell biologist and Roman Catholic Kenneth R. Miller wherein he argues that evolution does not contradict religious faith. Miller argues that evolution occurred, that Earth is not young, that science must work based on methodological naturalism, and that evolution cannot be construed as an effective argument for atheism. He examines various views of God and evolution, before describing his own.
+
+== Content ==
+Darwin’s Apple discusses Miller’s first encounter with Darwin’s' On the Origin of Species. He summarizes the main points: “Breeders did draw upon the range of variation in domestic animals and plants to make new varieties. A similar range of variation did exist in nature. The conditions of life did place each individual in competition with others. And this competition clearly affected the range of variation that survived.” He quotes Thomas Huxley on first reading Origin: “How foolish of me not to have thought of it!”
+He asks: “Does evolution nullify all world views that depend upon the spiritual? Does it demand logical agnosticism as the price of scientific consistency? And does it rigorously exclude belief in God? These are questions I will explore in the pages that follow. My answer, in each and every case, is a resounding no. I do not say this, as you will see, because evolution is wrong. Far from it. The reason, as I hope to show, is because evolution is right."
+Eden’s Children looks at the nature of scientific evidence. He explains how spectroscopy allowed Gustav Kirchhoff to determine the chemical composition of the Sun and stars (and allowed J. Norman Lockyer to discover helium on the Sun before William Ramsay detected it on Earth.) Similarly, science allows us to determine trends in Earth’s history. Geologists starting with William Smith noticed patters in the geologic distribution of species. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Georges Cuvier proposed that life had changed over time but couldn’t explain how. Darwin provided a mechanism: natural selection.
+He describes speciation in the fossil record, among Rhizoslenia and of our own species branching from Australopithecus. He looks at evolution as a creative force, noting that “Mutations are a continuing and inexhaustible source of variation, and they provide the raw material that is shaped by natural selection. Since mutations can duplicate, delete, invert, and rewrite any part of the genetic system in any organism, they can produce any change that evolution has documented.” 
+Tragic examples include the evolution of Staphylococcus and Streptococcus to resist penicillin, and of HIV to resist protease inhibitors. Evolution can be constructive, as evidenced by Willem P. C. Stemmer’s work on DNA shuffling. He writes that “Evolution is both a fact and a theory. It is a fact that evolutionary change took place. And evolution is also a theory that seeks to explain the detailed mechanism behind that change.”
+God the Charlatan examines Young Earth Creationism, and explains how multiple independent lines of evidence (uranium-lead dating, potassium-argon dating, rubidium-strontium dating) establish the true age of the earth. Some YECs argue that God deliberately gave these rocks the “appearance” of antiquity. Miller argues that “In order to defend God against the challenges they see from evolution, they have had to make Him into a schemer, a trickster, even a charlatan”, which Miller finds unnecessary and offensive.
+God the Magician examines Intelligent Design, whose advocates claim natural selection cannot produce the change seen in the fossil record. He cites David Reznick’s experiments with guppies. Reznick and his team “measured rates of change for various characteristics from 3,700 to 45,000 darwins.” This is faster than the change depicted in the fossil record: “The changes in tooth size among horses during the Tertiary, a period of rapid (in evolutionary terms) evolution well recorded in the fossil record, is around 0.04 darwins." The authors note the evolution they observed is “similar in magnitude to rates that have been obtained by artificial selection and four to seven orders of magnitude greater than those observed in the fossil record.”
+God the Mechanic examines the argument of irreducible complexity. He cites work from Barry Hall on the evolution of galactosidase in bacteria. He explains how gene duplication is involved in the evolution of complex systems, citing work by John M. Logsdon and Ford Doolittle.
+ID advocate Michael Behe claimed blood-clotting was too complex to have evolved, despite work by Russell Doolittle showing how it could have.
+The Gods of Disbelief examines those who have used evolution to advocate atheism, which Miller argues is unnecessary and counterproductive. While finding much to admire in the writings of Richard Dawkins, E. O. Wilson and Stephen Jay Gould, Miller argues that evolution does not necessitate a hard materialist worldview.
+Beyond Materialism explores quantum indeterminacy, and argues that it shows hard determinism to be wanting.
+The Road Back Home explores cosmology. Edwin Hubble’s discovery that the universe is expanding indicates that it was smaller in the past, and was once concentrated at a single point. This theory is corroborated by the cosmic microwave background. If the Universe had a beginning, perhaps it had a creator. He quotes Robert Jastrow: “At this moment it seems as though science will never be able to raise the curtain on the mystery of creation. For the scientist who has lived by his faith in the power of reason, the story ends like a bad dream. He has scaled the mountains of ignorance; he is about to conquer the highest peak; as he pulls himself over the final rock, he is greeted by a band of theologians who have been sitting there for centuries.” He explores the fine-tuned universe and the anthropic principle.
+Finding Darwin’s God considers the unlikely series of events that led to human evolution: “The special nature of the particular history that led to us can make us understand how truly remarkable we are, how rare is the gift of consciousness, how precious is the chance to understand, and to the believer, how great are the gifts and expectations of God’s love.” Miller says his students ask him what kind of God he believes in. He says he points them to the last lines of On the Origin of Species: “There is grandeur in this view of life; with its several powers having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being evolved.”
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God-1.md
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+---
+title: "Finding Darwin's God"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:23.696063+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Reception ==
+Kirkus Reviews called it a “well-reasoned, intelligent text describing why followers of mainstream religions can also embrace the theory of evolution.”
+Per Publishers Weekly, Miller “displays an impressive fairness, which he communicates in friendly, conversational prose. This is a book that will stir readers of both science and theology, perhaps satisfying neither, but challenging both to open their minds.”
+Liz Marlantes writes “Miller's scientific arguments are compelling, presented in terms that any layman could understand. He's never condescending or dull.”
+
+== References ==
+
+== Reviews ==
+Review of Finding Darwin's God by Henry E. Neufeld (theistic evolutionist)
+Review of Kenneth Miller's "Finding Darwin's God" by Michael Ruse for Metanexus Institute (agnostic)
+Yin and Yang of Kenneth Miller: How Professor Miller finds Darwin's God by Amiel Rossow (skeptic)
+Review of Kenneth Miller's Finding Darwin's God Archived 2016-04-30 at the Wayback Machine by Edward B. Davis (Christian historian of science), based on a version published by Reports of the National Center for Science Education 22.1-2 (Jan-Apr 2002): 47–8.
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Billion_Years_of_Change-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Billion_Years_of_Change-0.md
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+---
+title: "Five Billion Years of Change"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Billion_Years_of_Change"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:24.870615+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Five Billion Years of Change: A History of the Land (2003, ISBN 157230958X) is a book by Denis Wood that attempts a holistic view of reality that ranges from the Big Bang to the World Wide Web. Specifically, this books deals with the formation of various structures:
+
+the universe
+the Earth and its atmosphere, oceans, and continents
+the origin of life
+the evolution of humans
+the development of agriculture
+the rise and fall of civilizations
+contemporary globalization
+A key theme is repeated through this book: humans have a tendency to divide our understandings into "history" and "prehistory". People are shocked when some event from prehistory intrudes upon their current lives; Wood likens the shock of this intrusion to an expulsion from the Garden of Eden.  This division is a metaphor for various artificial divisions; for example:
+
+the formation of the Earth, the pre-biotic chemistry, and the origin of life
+before the Industrial Revolution and our subsequent modern era
+Instead of thinking in terms of artificial divisions of "now" and "back then", readers should develop an intuitive mindset of graduated changes in which the "fossils" of the ancient past are intermingled with contemporary objects; for instance, the "oxygen holocaust" of the paleoproterozoic eon exists in today's oxygen-rich atmosphere.
+Also, the heroic saga induces another faulty thinking style that obscures the true nature of the world.  To understand the real story of humanity, Wood argues that people must focus on the mass actions of people or of large impersonal forces rather than a few heroes or kings.  Hollywood movies dealing with ecological threats are especially misleading; rather than imparting an accurate image of ecological issues, movies present a villain such as a mad scientist or a greedy, evil business person.  Instead, such entertainment and much news reporting distracts us from our individual actions that are at the heart of ecological problems.
+Inaccurate ways of thinking induce a passive helplessness.  Instead, by presenting a sweeping story of successive, interlinked, long term trends, the author hopes to give readers a flexible, authentic model of the world.  With that model, readers will be capable of understanding (and possibly dealing with) current global challenges.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness-0.md
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+---
+title: "Fooled by Randomness"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:25.975827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets is a book by Nassim Nicholas Taleb that deals with the fallibility of human knowledge. It was first published in 2001. Updated editions were released a few years later. The book is the first part of Taleb's multi-volume philosophical essay on uncertainty, titled the Incerto, which also includes The Black Swan (2007–2010), The Bed of Procrustes (2010–2016), Antifragile (2012), and Skin in the Game (2018).
+
+
+== Thesis ==
+Taleb sets forth the idea that modern humans are often unaware of the existence of randomness. They tend to explain random outcomes as non-random.
+Human beings:
+
+overestimate causality, e.g., they see elephants in the clouds instead of understanding that they are in fact randomly shaped clouds that appear to our eyes as elephants (or something else);
+tend to view the world as more explainable than it really is. So they look for explanations even when there are none.
+Other misperceptions of randomness that are discussed include:
+
+Survivorship bias. We see the winners and try to learn from them, while forgetting the huge number of losers.
+Skewed distributions. Many real life phenomena are not 50:50 bets like tossing a coin, but have various unusual and counter-intuitive distributions. An example of this is a 99:1 bet in which you almost always win, but when you lose, you lose all your savings. People can easily be fooled by statements like "I won this bet 50 times". According to Taleb: "Option sellers, it is said, eat like chickens and go to the bathroom like elephants", which is to say, option sellers may earn a steady small income from selling the options, but when a disaster happens they lose a fortune.
+
+
+== Reaction ==
+The book was selected by Fortune as one of the 75 "Smartest Books of All Time." U.S.A Today recounted that many criticisms raised in this book of the financial industry turned out to be justified. Forbes described the book as being playful, self-effacing and at times insufferably arrogant, but always thought-provoking. The New Yorker (one of the publications which receives more favourable comments in this book) said that the book was to conventional Wall Street wisdom what Martin Luther’s ninety-nine [sic]  theses were to the Catholic Church.
+
+
+== Editions ==
+In 2001, TEXERE published the first edition of the book. (ISBN 1-58799-071-7, London : Texere, 2001)
+In 2004, TEXERE published a revamped second edition.
+In 2005, Random House published a softback edition with more changes. (ISBN 1-58799-190-X, New York : Random house, 2005)
+In 2005, a French version appeared, with many unique changes.
+The book has been translated into 20 languages, and is reported to have sold over half a million copies.
+Further editions have been published by Penguin (softback, May 2007) and Random House (hardback, October 2008.)
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of cognitive biases
+Ludic fallacy
+Pareidolia – the psychological phenomenon of perceiving patterns in randomness
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+View on Google Books
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Eros_to_Gaia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Eros_to_Gaia-0.md
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+---
+title: "From Eros to Gaia"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Eros_to_Gaia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:28.395748+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+From Eros to Gaia is a non-fiction scientific book of 35 non-technical writings by Freeman Dyson, Professor Emeritus of Physics at Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study. This book is a collection of essays written from 1933 (when Dyson was nine years old) to 1990. It was originally published by Pantheon Books in 1992.
+The book begins with Dyson's juvenile 1933 science fiction story concerning the asteroid Eros. The pieces in the collection range over anecdotal history, expository popular-science articles, lectures on public policity related to science, political issues concerning problems created by science and technology, book reviews, and people (known personally by Dyson) such as Richard Feynman, Paul Dirac, and Helen Dukas. The book ends with Dyson's contribution Gaia to Clifton Fadiman's 1990 collection Living Philosophies. The concluding essay deals with the value and potential of the emerging Gaia philosophy.
+
+Along with articles on quantum field theory and the mystery of unaccounted-for carbon in the biosphere, there are tributes to Richard Feynman and Paul Dirac, a travel sketch on Armenia and Dyson's proposed 60-year program for space science, including manned missions to Mars.
+The book has been translated into Spanish (1994), French (1995), and Japanese (2005).
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germs b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germs
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fringe_of_the_Unknown-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fringe_of_the_Unknown-0.md
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+---
+title: "The Fringe of the Unknown"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fringe_of_the_Unknown"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:04:27.233073+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Fringe of the Unknown is a science book by L. Sprague de Camp, first published in hardcover and paperback by Prometheus Books in 1983.
+
+
+== Summary ==
+The book is a collection of articles that constitute a "study ... of controversial and often little-known happenings in science and technology, with an emphasis on the wayward activities of those who dabble in fringe science." The material is organized in three sections, "Our Ingenious Forebears," "Beasts of Now and Then," and "Scientists, Mad and Otherwise." The first debunks extravagant occult and pseudoscientific claims regarding ancient civilizations while highlighting these cultures' actual accomplishments. The second performs much the same function in regard to biology, focusing on elephants, claims regarding the survival of dinosaurs into the present day, and past extinction events. The third explores the distinction between science and pseudoscience as illustrated in the lives of a number of scientists holding extreme views.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+Part I. Our Ingenious Forebears
+1. "The Wisdom of the Ancients" (from Science Fiction Quarterly, Nov. 1951)
+2. "Apollonios Enlists" (from Astounding Science Fiction, Jun. 1961)
+3. "Appius Claudius Crassus" (original title: "Appius Claudius Crassus: Roman Builder") (from Science Digest, Jun. 1962)
+4. "The First Missile Launchers" (from Science Digest, Oct. 1960)
+5. "The Iron Pillar of Delhi" (from Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact, Sep. 1972)
+6. "The Mechanical Wizards of Alexandria" (from Science Digest, Aug. 1962)
+7. "The Landlocked Indian Ocean" (from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Jun. 1969)
+
+Part II. Beasts of Now and Then
+8. "Dinosaurs Today" (original title: "Dinosaurs in Today's World") (from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Mar. 1968)
+9. "Mammoths and Mastodons" (from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, May 1965)
+10. "Death Comes to the Megafauna" (from If Worlds of Science Fiction, Sep. 1971)
+11. "Xerxes' Okapi" (original title: "Xerxes' Okapi and Greek Geography") (from Isis, Mar. 1963)
+12. "The Temperamental Tank" (original title: "War Elephants") (from Elephant, 1964)
+13. "How to Plan a Fauna" (from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Oct. 1963)
+
+Part III. Scientists, Mad and Otherwise
+14. "The Care and Feeding of Scientists" (original title: "The Care and Feeding of Mad Scientists") (from Astounding Science Fiction, Jul. 1951)
+15. "The Great Whale Robbery" (from The Day of the Dinosaur, 1968)
+16. "Mad Men of Science" (originally published in two parts, as "Mad Men of Science" and "More Mad Men of Science") (from Future Science Fiction, Jan. and Mar. 1957)
+17. "Orthodoxy in Science" (from Astounding Science Fiction, May 1954)
+18. "Hoaxes in Science" (original title: "Why Do They Do It?") (from Astounding Science Fiction, Sep. 1950)
+19. "Little Green Men from Afar" (from The Humanist, Jul./Aug. 1976)
+20. "The Need to Know" (original title: "Pure Science") (from The Book of Knowledge Annual, 1959)
+"Acknowledgments"
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Joel W. Hedgpeth, noting that the book's "assemblage of articles" includes "all sorts of more-or-less scientific subjects," feels de Camp "writes about these matters in ... good-humored spirit, but with a ... substantial factual basis." While highlighting the essays on sea serpents, the extinction of the megafauna, the "strange story of the okapi," and the Cope-Marsh feud, Hedgpeth states "[h]is most entertaining piece is about the use of elephants in warfare, which is aptly titled 'The Temperamental Tank.'"
+
+
+== Notes ==
\ No newline at end of file