Scrape wikipedia-science: 10565 new, 3601 updated, 14532 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSA_pre-processor-0.md

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+---
+title: "ANSA pre-processor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSA_pre-processor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:31.834847+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ANSA is a computer-aided engineering tool for finite element analysis and computational fluid dynamics  analysis widely used in the automotive industry. It is developed by BETA CAE Systems.  The software is distributed worldwide by a number of BETA CAE Systems subsidiaries and business agents.  In the United States, it is distributed by Beta CAE Systems, USA, based in Farmington Hills, Michigan.
+ANSA maintains the association between computer-aided engineering geometry and the finite element mesh. This means that the finite element meshes are better representations of their geometric parents. Also it is easy to maintain and update any changes in the geometry by simply reworking the updated area instead of recreating the finite element from scratch.
+It carries several proprietary algorithms for meshing suitable for both CFD and structural models.  ANSA initially stood for 'automatic net generation for structural analysis', but the software has gone beyond that very quickly.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ANSA page at BETA CAE Systems International AG website
+BETA CAE Systems USA Inc.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASME_Y14.5-0.md

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+---
+title: "ASME Y14.5"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASME_Y14.5"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:35.397284+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ASME Y14.5 is a standard published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) to establish rules, symbols, definitions, requirements, defaults, and recommended practices for stating and interpreting geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T). ASME/ANSI issued the first version of this Y-series standard in 1973.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+ASME Y14.5 is a complete definition of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing. It contains 15 sections which cover symbols and datums as well as tolerances of form, orientation, position, profile and runout. It is complemented by ASME Y14.5.1 - Mathematical Definition of Dimensioning and Tolerancing Principles.  Together these standards allow for clear and concise detailing of dimensional requirements on a product drawing or electronic drawing package as well as the verification of the requirements on manufactured parts. Effective application of Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) allows for parts to be verified by dimensional measurements, gauging, or by coordinate-measuring machine (CMM).
+
+
+== History ==
+The modern standard can trace its roots to the military standard MIL-STD-8 published in 1949. It was revised by MIL-STD-8A in 1953, which introduced the concept of modern GD&T "Rule 1". Further revisions have continued to add new concepts and address new technology like computer aided design and model-based definition. A list of revisions follows:
+
+ASME Y14.5-2018, "Dimensioning and Tolerancing"
+Current Standard
+Preceded by ASME Y14.5-2009
+ASME Y14.5-2-2017, "Certification of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Professionals"
+Current Standard
+Preceded by ASME Y14.5-2-2000
+ASME Y14.5-2009
+Succeeded by ASME Y14.5-2018
+Preceded by ASME Y14.5M-1994
+ASME Y14.5M-1994
+Succeeded by ASME Y14.5-2009
+Reaffirmed in 2004
+Preceded by ANSI Y14.5M-1982
+ANSI Y14.5M-1982
+Preceded by ANSI Y14.5-1973
+Reaffirmed in 1988
+ANSI Y14.5-1973
+Succeeded by ASME Y14.5M-1982
+Preceded by USASI Y14.5-1966
+USASI Y14.5-1966
+Succeeded by ANSI Y14.5-1973
+Preceded by ASA Y14.5-1957
+ASA Y14.5-1957
+Succeeded by USASI Y14.5-1966
+Preceded by ASA Z14.1 Series
+
+
+== See also ==
+Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
+CAD standards
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+2018 | Y14.5 - Dimensioning and Tolerancing Official ASME page

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_Institute_of_Standardization-0.md

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+---
+title: "Algerian Institute of Standardization"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_Institute_of_Standardization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:22.358894+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Algerian Institute of Standardization (Arabic: المعهد الجزائري للتقييس) (AIOS-IANOR), was erected in a public industrial and commercial fields (EPIC) by Executive Decree No. 98-69 of February 21, 1998, as part of restructuring INAPI (Algerian Institute of Standardization and Industrial Property).
+
+
+== See also ==
+ASCII
+Fortran
+ANSI C
+ANSI ASC X9
+ANSI ASC X12
+ANSI escape code
+ANSI-SPARC Architecture
+Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM)
+National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
+Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST)
+Accredited Crane Operator Certification
+Open standards
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official Website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allowable_Strength_Design-0.md

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+---
+title: "Allowable Strength Design"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allowable_Strength_Design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:23.553611+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Allowable Strength Design and Allowable Stress Design (ASD) are terms used by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) in the 14th Edition of the Manual of Steel Construction.
+Allowable Stress Design philosophy was left unsupported by AISC after the 9th edition of the manual which remained an acceptable reference design standard in evolving building codes (e.g. International Building Code by the International Code Council). This presented problems since new research, engineering concepts and design philosophy were ignored in the minimum requirements and references in the aging 9th edition. As a result, structures that were code compliant based on design using the Allowable Stress Design methods may not have been code compliant if reviewed with the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) requirements - particularly where the LRFD procedures explicitly defined additional analysis which was not explicitly defined in the Allowable Stress Design procedures.
+AISC's Allowable Strength Design applies a quasi-safety factor approach to evaluating allowable strength. Ultimate strength of an element or member is determined in the same manner regardless of the load combination method considered (e.g. ASD or LRFD). Design load combination effects are determined in a manner appropriate to the intended form of the analysis results. ASD load combinations are compared to the ultimate strength reduced by a factor (omega) which provides a mathematical form similar to Allowable Stress Design resolved with a safety factor.
+This AISC Allowable Strength Design does not attempt to relate capacity to elastic stress levels. Therefore, it is inappropriate to refer to the procedure or philosophy as either Allowable Stress or Permissible Stress Design.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Permissible stress design
+Building code
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminized_screen-0.md

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+---
+title: "Aluminized screen"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminized_screen"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:24.762506+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aluminized screen may refer to a type of cathode-ray tube (CRT) for video display or to a type of projection screen for showing motion pictures or slides, especially in polarized 3D.
+Some cathode-ray tubes, e.g., television picture tubes, include a thin layer of aluminium deposited on the back surface of their internal phosphor screen coating. Light from an excited area of the phosphor which would otherwise wastefully shine back into the tube, is instead reflected forward through the phosphor coating, increasing the total visible light output by around a factor of two. As well it prevents physical phosphors degradation, "phosphor poisoning", increasing the longevity of the device, and it may also act as a heat sink. The aluminium layer must be thick enough to reflect light efficiently, yet not so thick as to absorb too great a proportion of the electron beam that excites the phosphor.
+Some projection screens have an aluminized surface, usually an aluminium paint rather than a metal sheet. They reflect polarized light without altering its polarization. This is necessary when showing 3D films as left-eye and right-eye views are superimposed but oppositely polarized (typically at opposite 45 degree angles to the vertical if linearly polarized, right-handed and left-handed if circularly polarized). Audience members wear polarized glasses that allow only the correct image to be seen by each eye.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplification_factor-0.md

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+---
+title: "Amplification factor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplification_factor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:25.933566+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The amplification factor, also called gain, is the extent to which an analog amplifier boosts the strength of a signal. Amplification factors are usually expressed in terms of power. The decibel (dB), a logarithmic unit, is the most common way of quantifying the gain of an amplifier.
+In general an amplification factor is the numerical multiplicative factor by which some quantity is increased.
+
+In structural engineering the amplification factor is the ratio of second order to first order deflections.
+In electronics the amplification factor, or gain, is the ratio of output to input in an amplifier. In vacuum-tube theory the amplification factor (μ) of a triode has a more specific meaning: it is the ratio of the change in plate voltage to the change in control-grid voltage required to produce the same change in plate current. This parameter is commonly determined from families of plate-current characteristic curves as described in Vacuum tube characteristics.
+In numerical analysis the amplification factor is a number derived using Von Neumann stability analysis to determine stability of a numerical scheme for a partial differential equation.
+
+
+== References ==
+"Developments in Tall Buildings 1983". ISBN 0-87933-048-1. Page 489.
+"Numerical Computation of Internal & External Flows". ISBN 978-0-7506-6594-0. Page 296.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor_portal-0.md

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+---
+title: "Anchor portal"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor_portal"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:27.082991+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An anchor portal or H-frame tower is a gantry structure supporting overhead power lines in a switchyard. Their static function is similar to a dead-end tower. Anchor portals are almost always steel-tube or steel-framework constructions.
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_bracket_(fastener)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Angle bracket (fastener)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_bracket_(fastener)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:29.547027+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An angle bracket or angle brace or angle cleat is an L-shaped fastener used to join two parts generally at a 90-degree angle. It is typically made of metal but it can also be made of wood or plastic. Angle brackets feature holes in them for screws.
+A typical example use of is a shelf bracket for mounting a shelf on a wall. In general, angle brackets have a wide range of applications, and are used, among other things, in building construction, mechanical engineering or to join two pieces of furniture
+Retailers also use names like corner brace (not to be confused with corner bracing in cross bracing), corner bracket brace, shelf bracket, or L bracket. When the holes are enlarged for allowing adjustments, the name is angle stretcher plates or angle shrinkage.
+
+
+== Types ==
+There are different sizes available, varying in length, width and angle.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Shelf supports have many variations, including angle brackets
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annubar-0.md

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+---
+title: "Annubar"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annubar"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:30.707073+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Annubar primary element is an averaging Pitot tube manufactured by Rosemount Inc. used to measure the flow of fluid in a pipe.
+A Pitot tube measures the difference between the static pressure and the flowing pressure of the media in the pipe. The volumetric flow is calculated from that difference using Bernoulli's principle, taking into account the pipe's inside diameter. An Annubar, as an averaging Pitot tube, takes multiple samples across a section of a pipe or duct, averaging the differential pressures encountered accounting for variations in flow across the section. 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardagh_Group-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ardagh Group"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardagh_Group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:33.044850+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ardagh Group is a producer of glass and metal products founded in Ireland and now based in Luxembourg, which has "grown in the past two decades into one of the world’s largest metal and glass packaging companies".
+As of 2012, the company operated 89 facilities in 22 countries, employed approximately 23,500 people, and had approximately €7.7 billion in revenue.
+
+
+== History ==
+Founded in 1932 as the Irish Glass Bottle Company in Dublin, the company expanded through a series of acquisitions after Paul Coulson acquired an initial stake in the company in 1998. In North America, the company currently operates two of the oldest continuously operated glass container plants in the country: Dunkirk, Indiana, opened in 1889, and Winchester, Indiana, opened in 1898.
+It purchased Rockware Glass in 1999. In 2011, it purchased the metal packaging company Impress Group for €1.7 billion and Fi Par for €125 million. In August 2012, the company acquired Anchor Glass Container Corporation for $880 million. In 2013, Ardagh Group agreed to acquire St-Gobain's Verallia North America for €1.3 billion. In 2012 it purchased the Rexam Glass Division.
+The company launched an initial public offering (IPO) in March 2017 on the New York Stock Exchange, raising just over $300 million.
+In 2022 Ardagh Group successfully concluded its strategic acquisition of Consol Glass, Africa now known as Ardagh Glass Packaging – Africa (AGP – A).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Ardagh Group official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_engineering_maintenance-0.md

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+---
+title: "Army engineering maintenance"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_engineering_maintenance"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:34.266955+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Army engineering maintenance consists of those engineers, technicians, and military organizations responsible for the expert repair and maintenance of army vehicles,  weapon systems, and other equipment.
+Army engineering maintenance should not be confused with military engineering which is distinctly separate and analogous to civil engineering while the former is analogous to mechanical engineering and electrical engineering.
+
+
+== Operational and tactical level focus ==
+At the operational and tactical levels, army engineering maintenance is focused on the repair and scheduled maintenance work required to keep army equipment fleets operational.
+
+
+== Strategic level focus ==
+At the strategic level, army engineering maintenance is closely linked to military logistics. At this level, it includes work such as the design, development, and testing of new vehicles and weapon systems. It also includes lifecycle management activities once new systems become operational.
+The U.S. Army maintenance policy clarifies key components:
+
+Maintenance engineering
+application of engineering techniques, skills, and effort to ensure equipment can be maintained effectively throughout its lifecycle.
+Maintenance operations
+management and performance of services like repair, testing, overhaul, modification, and technical assistance.
+
+
+== Army engineering in nations' armed forces ==
+Royal Australian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers – Australia
+Corps of Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers – Canada
+Royal New Zealand Army Logistic Regiment – New Zealand
+Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering – Pakistan
+Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers – United Kingdom
+Ordnance Corps – United States
+Maintenance and Engineering Support - Singapore
+
+
+== See also ==
+Motor transport
+Armoured recovery vehicle
+Systems engineering
+Military engineering
+
+
+== Notes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Professional_Engineers_and_Geoscientists_of_Saskatchewan-0.md

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+---
+title: "Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Saskatchewan"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Professional_Engineers_and_Geoscientists_of_Saskatchewan"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:36.590170+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Saskatchewan (APEGS) is the regulatory body for professional engineers and geoscientists in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. It is a member of Engineers Canada. Its authority is granted under the provincial legislation entitled The Engineering and Geoscience Professions Act.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_rectified_value-0.md

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+---
+title: "Average rectified value"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_rectified_value"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:37.827593+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In electrical engineering, the average rectified value (ARV) of a quantity is the average of its absolute value. The ARV of an alternating current indicates which direct current would transport the same amount of electrical charge within the same period of time. On the other hand the RMS describes which direct current delivers the same amount of power within the same time period.
+The average of a symmetric alternating value is zero and it is therefore not useful to characterize it. Thus the easiest way to determine a quantitative measurement size is to use the average rectified value. The average rectified value is mainly used to characterize alternating voltage and current. It can be computed by averaging the absolute value of a waveform over one full period of the waveform.
+While conceptually similar to the root mean square (RMS), ARV will differ from it whenever a function's absolute value varies locally, as the former then increases disproportionately. The difference is expressed by the form factor
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          k
+          
+            
+              f
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              R
+              M
+              S
+            
+            
+              A
+              R
+              V
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {f} }={\mathrm {RMS}  \over \mathrm {ARV} }.}
+  
+
+
+== See also ==
+Average absolute deviation
+Root mean square
+Form factor (electronics)
+True RMS converter
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back-up_ring-0.md

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+---
+title: "Back-up ring"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back-up_ring"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:39.040768+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A back-up ring is a rigid ring that holds an elastomeric seal or plastic (such as Polyethylene) connection to its designed shape and in its correct place.  Back up rings are commonly used with O-rings, lip seals, and as reciprocating shaft seals. They are also used for piping connections joining two different materials - typically one flexible and one rigid.
+
+
+== Seals ==
+When sealing the piston inside a pneumatic cylinder, a soft and flexible material is required to prevent leakage, but those same properties may leave the seal material vulnerable to being pulled out of its seat and then pinched or torn in the narrow space between piston and cylinder wall.  If the joint cannot be redesigned, or a more resistant elastomer used, then the solution may be direct reinforcement with a stiffer material - in the form of a hard inner ring in this case.  A second function can be to hold the elastomer in place while a machine is being assembled, as geometry may prevent the seal from being directly checked after assembly.
+
+
+=== Rubber Contoured Back-Up Ring Size Chart ===
+Contoured back-ups are routinely produced in a 90 durometer nitrile. This provides sufficient elasticity to permit stretching over the major diameter of a piston and then snapping back into the gland groove cut into the piston.  90 durometer has sufficient hardness to resist extrusion of the softer elastomeric O-ring performing the actual sealing function against the high pressure liquid or gas.
+
+000 Series O-rings 0.070" ±0.003" - .045" Thick
+100 Series O-rings 0.103" ±0.003" - .045" Thick
+200 Series O-rings 0.139" ±0.004" - .040" Thick
+300 Series O-rings 0.210" ±0.005" - .060" Thick
+400 Series O-rings 0.275" ±0.006" - .096" Thick
+
+
+== Pipe Connections ==
+Back-up rings are used in Polyethylene (PE) pipe connections, such as HDPE pipes, where they are connected to steel pipe or pipe fittings. 
+
+The back-up ring is matched to the steel pipe flange specification and is placed behind the HDPE flange adapter - an end piece on the HDPE pipe that looks much like a steel flange at the end of the HDPE pipe. As the flange adapter does not have much structural strength, the back-up ring supports and compresses the HDPE flange adapter against the steel flange and creates an effective connection between the two piping materials.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+[1]
+"Rubber Contoured Back-Up Ring Size Chart"
+Technical Note PP 811-TN PE Flange Connections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_plant-0.md

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+---
+title: "Balance of plant"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_plant"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:40.188607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Balance of plant (BOP) is a term generally used in the context of power engineering to refer to all the supporting components and auxiliary systems of a power plant needed to deliver the energy, other than the generating unit itself. These may include transformers, inverters, switching and control equipment, protection equipment, power conditioners, supporting structures etc., depending on the type of plant.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Balance of system
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_limit-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,356 @@
+---
+title: "Ballistic limit"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_limit"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:41.342801+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The ballistic limit or limit velocity is the velocity required for a particular projectile to reliably (at least 50% of the time) penetrate a particular piece of material.  In other words, a given projectile will generally not pierce a given target when the projectile velocity is lower than the ballistic limit.  The term ballistic limit is used specifically in the context of armor; limit velocity is used in other contexts.
+The ballistic limit equation for laminates, as derived by Reid and Wen is as follows:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              
+              Γ
+              
+              
+                
+                  
+                    ρ
+                    
+                      t
+                    
+                  
+                  
+                  
+                    σ
+                    
+                      e
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+              
+                D
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              
+              T
+            
+            
+              4
+              
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          [
+          
+            1
+            +
+            
+              
+                1
+                +
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      8
+                      
+                      m
+                    
+                    
+                      π
+                      
+                      
+                        Γ
+                        
+                          2
+                        
+                      
+                      
+                      
+                        ρ
+                        
+                          t
+                        
+                      
+                      
+                      
+                        D
+                        
+                          2
+                        
+                      
+                      
+                      T
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{b}={\frac {\pi \,\Gamma \,{\sqrt {\rho _{t}\,\sigma _{e}}}\,D^{2}\,T}{4\,m}}\left[1+{\sqrt {1+{\frac {8\,m}{\pi \,\Gamma ^{2}\,\rho _{t}\,D^{2}\,T}}}}\,\right]}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{b}\,}
+  
+ is the ballistic limit
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Γ
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Gamma \,}
+  
+ is a projectile constant determined experimentally
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ρ
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rho _{t}\,}
+  
+ is the density of the laminate
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          σ
+          
+            e
+          
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma _{e}\,}
+  
+ is the static linear elastic compression limit
+
+  
+    
+      
+        D
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle D\,}
+  
+ is the diameter of the projectile
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T\,}
+  
+ is the thickness of the laminate
+
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m\,}
+  
+ is the mass of the projectile
+Additionally, the ballistic limit for small-caliber into homogeneous armor by TM5-855-1 is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        19.72
+        
+          
+            [
+            
+              
+                
+                  7800
+                  
+                    d
+                    
+                      3
+                    
+                  
+                  
+                    
+                      [
+                      
+                        
+                          (
+                          
+                            
+                              
+                                e
+                                
+                                  h
+                                
+                              
+                              d
+                            
+                          
+                          )
+                        
+                        sec
+                        ⁡
+                        θ
+                      
+                      ]
+                    
+                    
+                      1.6
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  W
+                  
+                    T
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            ]
+          
+          
+            0.5
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{1}=19.72\left[{\frac {7800d^{3}\left[\left({\frac {e_{h}}{d}}\right)\sec \theta \right]^{1.6}}{W_{T}}}\right]^{0.5}}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{1}}
+  
+ is the ballistic limit velocity in fps
+
+  
+    
+      
+        d
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle d}
+  
+ is the caliber of the projectile, in inches
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          e
+          
+            h
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle e_{h}}
+  
+ is the thickness of the homogeneous armor (valid from BHN 360 - 440) in inches
+
+  
+    
+      
+        θ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta }
+  
+ is the angle of obliquity
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          W
+          
+            T
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle W_{T}}
+  
+ is the weight of the projectile, in lbs
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_clamp-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Band clamp"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_clamp"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:42.529597+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A band clamp is a generic term for a holding device usually consisting of a strap of metal or cloth formed into a loop, with a mechanism to forcibly adjust the diameter, thereby exerting a squeezing force on an object within the loop.
+
+One type of band clamp known as a web clamp has a band usually made of nylon type cloth webbing. It can slip and stretch around irregularly shaped objects such as frames, packages, skids or even trailer loads.
+Clamping pressure is applied either through a mechanical method such as a screw or ratchet mechanism that tightens the band, or through the elastic nature of the band material itself. There are a range of styles of band clamp available for purchase, in particular the type used for framing as described above. Other web clamps include ratchet straps.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Hose clamp
+Jubilee clip
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar-link_chain-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Bar-link chain"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar-link_chain"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:43.683113+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A bar-link chain, also called a block-and-bar chain or a block chain, is a mechanical drive chain.  It is composed of side plates, where each plate straddles one end of a block and is connected to the block with a pin going through a hole at one end of the block.  
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Bar-link chains are simple, and often heavier and less efficient when compared with modern roller chains due to the lack of rolling motion as the chain engages and disengages the sprockets.
+However, they have advantages in specific applications, especially where no sprockets are needed, where strength is a greater concern than efficiency (high loads), and where the chain has special fixtures for holding or engaging a load.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Lifting Chain

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_dimension-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Basic dimension"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_dimension"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:44.917512+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In a technical drawing, a basic dimension is a theoretically exact dimension, given from a datum to a feature of interest.  In Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing,  basic dimensions are defined as a numerical value used to describe the theoretically exact size, profile, orientation or location of a feature or datum target. 
+Allowable variations from the theoretically exact geometry are indicated by feature control, notes, and tolerances on other non-basic dimensions.
+Basic dimensions are currently denoted by enclosing the number of the dimension in a rectangle.
+In earlier times, they were denoted by appending "BASIC" or "BSC" to the dimension
+When features are located using BASIC dimensions by chain dimensioning, there is no accumulation of tolerance between features, because the dimensions refer to the theoretically perfect position of the feature, not the actual location of the feature within the range permitted by tolerances.
+Basic dimensions, identified by the engineer, locate tolerance zones. Because that’s true, basic dimensions identify tolerance information located in feature control frames that state geometric tolerances. When an engineer makes a statement of tolerance, that statement is made in the form of a feature control frame.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_service_element-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Basic service element"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_service_element"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:46.132822+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In telecommunications, a basic service element (BSE) is: 
+
+An optional unbundled feature, generally associated with the basic serving arrangement (BSA), that an enhanced-service provider (ESP) may require or find useful in configuring an enhanced service.
+A fundamental (basic) communication network service; an optional network capability associated with a BSA.
+BSEs constitute optional capabilities to which the customer may subscribe or decline to subscribe.
+
+
+== References ==
+Basic service element at Telecommunications Industry Association's glossary

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_and_block-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Beam and block"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_and_block"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:47.351829+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Beam and block is a construction method to support flooring, especially for ground floors as well as multi story buildings. It is made of cast concrete, one piece of which is a prestressed concrete beam, which can be an inverted T-shaped beam, or lintel, the other piece being a simple rectangular block. The beams are placed at regular intervals and the blocks placed between them. They form a support for the next layer of flooring materials.
+Beam and block is also referred to as rib and block or lintel and block in some countries. Certain countries incorporate the use of temporary propping for 21 days while other rib and block systems use propless systems. Systems where props are used incorporate lighter beams while the prop line allows for structural cross support. Propless systems used heavier inverted T beams to compensate for the exclusion of props.
+The lintels and blocks are packed above load bearing walls under supervision and design by a structural engineer. This system is extremely versatile in achieving complex designs and using unskilled labour. It is cost efficient as well as easily understood by all contractors.
+Polystyrene blocks are used to replace concrete hollow blocks for lightweight insulated slabs. This keeps buildings warmer in winter and cooler in summer. From a structural viewpoint a lighter slab assists by allowing load-bearing walls and foundations to take less strain. 
+
+
+== References ==
+
+https://www.royalconcreteslabs.co.za/2020/06/04/what-are-different-types-of-concrete-slabs-in-south-africa/
+https://www.royalconcreteslabs.co.za/products/rib-and-block-slabs/

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendora_Gravity_Main-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "Bendora Gravity Main"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendora_Gravity_Main"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:48.522720+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Bendora Gravity Main is a water main located in the Australian Capital Territory, Australia. Water in the water main travels 19.3 kilometres (12.0 mi) from the Bendora Dam via gravity to the treatment plant on Mount Stromlo, adjacent to the Cotter Dam pumping station, upstream from the confluence of the Cotter River with the Murrumbidgee River. 
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Construction of the water main commenced in 1966 and was opened on 5 January 1968. Prior to the construction of the gravity main, water was stored in Bendora Dam and released into the Cotter River to flow into the Cotter Dam. The gravity main is 1,500 millimetres (59 in) in diameter and is buried nearly its entire length. The water main has  the capacity to carry 310 megalitres (250 acre⋅ft) of water per day.
+The Bendora Gravity Main also supplies the Mount Stromlo Hydro-Power Station.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+List of dams and reservoirs in the Australian Capital Territory
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Photo of its construction – via National Library of Australia.
+"Our Network: Water and Sewerage" (PDF) (Map). Icon Water. n.d. Retrieved 2 April 2026.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Price_Memorial_Lecture-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+---
+title: "Bernard Price Memorial Lecture"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Price_Memorial_Lecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:49.691829+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Bernard Price Memorial Lecture is the premier annual lecture of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers. It is of general scientific or engineering interest and is given by an invited guest, often from overseas, at several of the major centres on South Africa. The main lecture and accompanying dinner are usually held at the University of Witwatersrand and it is also presented in the space of one week at other centres, typically Cape Town, Durban, East London and Port Elizabeth.
+The Lecture is named in memory of the eminent electrical engineer Bernard Price. The first lecture was held in 1951, and it has occurred as an annual event ever since.
+
+
+== Lecturers ==
+1951	Basil Schonland
+1952	A M Jacobs
+1953	H J Van Eck
+1954	J M Meek
+1955	Frank Nabarro
+1956	A L Hales
+1957	P G Game
+1958	Colin Cherry
+1959	Thomas Allibone
+1960	M G Say
+1961	Willis Jackson
+1963	W R Stevens
+1964	William Pickering
+1965	G.H. Rawcliffe
+1966	Harold Bishop
+1967	Eric Eastwood
+1968	F J Lane
+1969	A H Reeves
+1970 	Andrew R Cooper
+1971 	Herbert Haslegrave
+1972 	W J Bray
+1973 	R Noser
+1974 	D Kind
+1975 	L Kirchmayer
+1976 	S Jones
+1977 	J Johnson
+1978 	T G E Cockbain
+1979 	A R Hileman
+1980 	James Redmond
+1981 	L M Muntzing
+1982 	K F Raby
+1983 	R Isermann
+1984 	M N John
+1985 	J W L de Villiers
+1986 	Derek Roberts
+1987	Wolfram Boeck
+1988	Karl Gehring
+1989 	Leonard Sagan
+1990 	GKF Heyner
+1991 	P S Blythin
+1992 	P M Neches
+1993 	P Radley
+1994 	P R Rosen
+1995 	F P Sioshansi
+1996 	J Taylor
+1997 	M Chamia
+1998	C Gellings
+1999	M W Kennedy
+2000	John Midwinter
+2001	Pragasen Pillay
+2002 	Polina Bayvel
+2003	Case Rijsdijk
+2004	Frank Larkins
+2005    Igor Aleksander
+2006    Kevin Warwick
+2007     Skip Hatfield
+2008     Sami Solanki
+2009     William Gruver
+2010     Glenn Ricart
+2011     Philippe Paelinck
+2012     Nick Frydas
+2013     Vint Cerf
+2014     Ian Jandrell
+2015     Saurabh Sinha
+2016      Tshilidzi Marwala
+2017      Fulufhelo Nelwamondo
+2018      Ian Craig
+2019      Robert Metcalfe
+2020      Roger Price 
+2021 Saifur Rahman
+2022 Stuart J. Russell
+2023 Jan Meyer
+2024 Vukosi Marivate
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of engineering awards
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Dictionary_of_Civil_Engineers-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Dictionary_of_Civil_Engineers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:52.078958+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland discusses the lives of the people who were concerned with building harbours and lighthouses, undertook fen drainage and improved river navigations, built canals, roads, bridges and early railways, and provided water supply facilities. The first volume, published in 2002, covers the years from 1500 to 1830; the second one, published in 2008, covers 1830 to 1890. The third and final volume, published 2014, covers 1890 to 1920. The principal editor of the first volume was Professor A. W. Skempton, and the entries were written by a number of specialist historians.
+An 18-page introduction in the first volume discusses the practice of civil engineering from 1500-1830. The work concludes with appendices discussing wages, costs and inflation, a chronology of major civil engineering works, and indices of places and names. Volume Two's introduction discusses the practice of civil engineering from 1830-1890.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of civil engineers
+
+
+== References ==
+Skempton, A. W.; et al., eds. (2002). Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers, Volume 1, 1500-1830. London: Thomas Telford on behalf of the Institution of Civil Engineers. ISBN 0-7277-2939-X.
+Cross-Rudkin, P. S. M.; et al., eds. (2008). Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers, Volume 2, 1830-1890. London: Thomas Telford on behalf of the Institution of Civil Engineers. ISBN 978-0-7277-3504-1.
+C. McWilliam, Robert; Chrimes, Mike; et al., eds. (7 August 2014). Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers, Volume 3, 1890-1920. London: ICE Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0727758347.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackman's_theorem-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,366 @@
+---
+title: "Blackman's theorem"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackman's_theorem"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:53.294133+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Blackman's theorem is a general procedure for calculating the change in an impedance due to feedback in a circuit. It was published by Ralph Beebe Blackman in 1943, was connected to signal-flow analysis by John Choma, and was made popular in the extra element theorem by R. D. Middlebrook and the asymptotic gain model of Solomon Rosenstark. Blackman's approach leads to the formula for the impedance Z between two selected terminals of a negative feedback amplifier as Blackman's formula:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+        =
+        
+          Z
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              +
+              
+                T
+                
+                  S
+                  C
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              1
+              +
+              
+                T
+                
+                  O
+                  C
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+         
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z=Z_{D}{\frac {1+T_{SC}}{1+T_{OC}}}\ ,}
+  
+
+where ZD = impedance with the feedback disabled, TSC = loop transmission with a small-signal short across the selected terminal pair, and TOC = loop transmission with an open circuit across the terminal pair. The loop transmission also is referred to as the return ratio. Blackman's formula can be compared with Middlebrook's result for the input impedance Zin of a circuit based upon the extra-element theorem:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            i
+            n
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          Z
+          
+            i
+            n
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              
+                1
+                +
+                
+                  Z
+                  
+                    e
+                  
+                  
+                    0
+                  
+                
+                
+                  /
+                
+                Z
+              
+              
+                1
+                +
+                
+                  Z
+                  
+                    e
+                  
+                  
+                    ∞
+                  
+                
+                
+                  /
+                
+                Z
+              
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{in}=Z_{in}^{\infty }\left[{\frac {1+Z_{e}^{0}/Z}{1+Z_{e}^{\infty }/Z}}\right]}
+  
+
+where:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z\ }
+  
+ is the impedance of the extra element; 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            i
+            n
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{in}^{\infty }}
+  
+ is the input impedance with 
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z\ }
+  
+ removed (or made infinite); 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            e
+          
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{e}^{0}}
+  
+ is the impedance seen by the extra element 
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z\ }
+  
+ with the input shorted (or made zero); 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            e
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{e}^{\infty }}
+  
+ is the impedance seen by the extra element 
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z\ }
+  
+ with the input open (or made infinite).
+Blackman's formula also can be compared with Choma's signal-flow result:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            S
+            S
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          Z
+          
+            S
+            0
+          
+        
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              
+                1
+                +
+                
+                  T
+                  
+                    I
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                1
+                +
+                
+                  T
+                  
+                    Z
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+         
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{SS}=Z_{S0}\left[{\frac {1+T_{I}}{1+T_{Z}}}\right]\ ,}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            S
+            0
+          
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{S0}\ }
+  
+ is the value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            S
+            S
+          
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{SS}\ }
+  
+ under the condition that a selected parameter P is set to zero, return ratio 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            Z
+          
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{Z}\ }
+  
+ is evaluated with zero excitation and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            I
+          
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{I}\ }
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            Z
+          
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{Z}\ }
+  
+ for the case of short-circuited source resistance. As with the extra-element result, differences are in the perspective leading to the formula.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Mason's gain formula
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Eugene Paperno (September 2012). "Extending Blackman's formula to feedback networks with multiple dependent sources" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs. 59 (10): 658–662. Bibcode:2012ITCSE..59..658P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.695.4656. doi:10.1109/TCSII.2012.2213355. S2CID 8760900.
+Rahul Sarpeshkar (2010). "§10.7 Driving-point transistor impedances with Blackman's formula". Ultra Low Power Bioelectronics: Fundamentals, Biomedical Applications, and Bio-Inspired Systems. Cambridge University Press. pp. 258 ff. ISBN 9781139485234.
+Amaldo D'Amico; Christian Falconi; Gianluca Giustolisi; Gaetano Palumbo (April 2007). "Resistance of feedback amplifiers: A novel representation" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs. 54 (4): 298. Bibcode:2007ITCSE..54..298D. doi:10.1109/TCSII.2006.889713.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blocks_to_Robots-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Blocks to Robots"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blocks_to_Robots"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:54.524986+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Blocks to Robots: Learning with Technology in the Early Childhood Classroom (2008) is an educational guide book by Marina Umaschi Bers that introduces the idea of learning with technology in the early childhood classroom.  
+Research shows that attitudes about science, math, and technology start to form during early education. This book shows how to successfully use technology in the classroom, using a constructivist approach to teaching and learning. Bers focusses on robotic manipulatives that allow children to explore complex concepts in a concrete and fun way.
+
+
+== Reviews ==
+"Blocks to robots; learning with technology in the early childhood classroom.(Brief Article)(Book Review)". Reference & Research Book News. February 1, 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
+Hubbell, Elizabeth R. (February 22, 2008). "(Book Review) Blocks to Robots: Learning with Technology in the Early Childhood Classroom". Teachers College Record (ID Number: 15023). Retrieved 2010-02-07.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+DevTech Research group
+TangibleK Project

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blown_plate_glass-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Blown plate glass"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blown_plate_glass"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:55.730795+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Blown plate is a hand-blown glass. There is a record of blown plate being produced in London in 1620.
+
+
+== Production ==
+Blown plate was made by hand-grinding broad sheet glass. As the process was labour-intensive, and expensive, blown plate was mainly used for carriages and mirrors rather than in windows for buildings.
+Other methods for making hand-blown glass included: broad sheet, crown glass, polished plate and cylinder blown sheet. These methods of manufacture lasted at least until the end of the 19th century.  The early 20th century marked the move away from hand-blown to machine manufactured glass such as rolled plate, machine drawn cylinder sheet,  flat drawn sheet, single and twin ground polished plate and float glass.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_Engineers_Malaysia-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Board of Engineers Malaysia"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_Engineers_Malaysia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:56.879138+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM; Malay: Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia (LJM)) is a federal statutory body constituted under the Registration of Engineers Act 1967 (Act 138) (REA 1967) with perpetual succession and a common seal. It was inaugurated on 23rd August 1972.  BEM's primary responsibility is to register qualified individuals (referred to as registered Persons) and engineering consultancy practices in the engineering profession; accredit engineering degree and diploma programs and assess academic qualifications of applicants.
+The registration of individuals includes Professional Engineers with Practising Certificate, Professional Engineers, Accredited Checkers (Structural), Accredited Checkers (Geotechnical), Graduate Engineers, Engineering Technologists, and Inspectors of Works. Engineering Consultancy Practices (ECP) encompass Body Corporates, Multi-disciplinary Practices, Partnerships, and Sole Proprietorships.
+Additionally, BEM regulates the professional conduct and practices of registered Persons to safeguard the safety and interest of the public.
+BEM operates under the purview of the Ministry of Works (Malaysia) and is vested with broad powers.  The Minister may suspend the operation of the Registration of Engineers Act 1967 (REA 1967) in any part of Malaysia through notification in the gazette. The appointment of Board Members and the Registrar is made by the Minister. 
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+BEM official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_friction-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Boundary friction"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_friction"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:58.051293+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Boundary friction occurs when a surface is at least partially wet, but not so lubricated that there is no direct friction between two surfaces.
+
+
+== The Effect ==
+When two consistent, unlubricated surfaces slide against each other, there is a specific, predictable amount of friction that occurs. This amount increases as velocity does, but only up to a certain point. That increase generally follows what is known as a Stribeck curve, after Richard Stribeck. On the other hand, if the two surfaces are completely lubricated, there is no direct friction or rubbing at all. In real life, though, there is often a situation where the surfaces are not completely dry, but also not so lubricated that they do not touch.
+This "boundary friction" produces various effects, like an increase in lubrication through the generation of shearing forces, or an oscillation effect during motion, as the friction increases and decreases.
+For example, one can experience vibration when trying to brake on a partially damp road, or a cold glass that is slowly condensing moisture can be lifted until it spontaneously slides across the surface it is resting on.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_truss-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Box truss"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_truss"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:45:59.295571+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A box truss is a structure composed of three or more chords connected by transverse and/or diagonal structural elements.
+
+
+== Application ==
+Box trusses are commonly used in certain types of aircraft fuselages, electric power pylons, large radio antennas, and many bridge structures. (For various truss arrangements used see truss bridge.)
+By using what are in effect stiff panels in a cylindrical arrangement the resulting structure can have a high resistance to axial torsion (twisting along its long axis) and a higher resistance to buckling in its highly loaded sides.
+When finished as an open structure the truss will be less subject to wind drag and to aeroelastic effects than would a completely enclosed structure.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake_shoe-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+---
+title: "Brake shoe"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake_shoe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:00.514227+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A brake shoe is the part of a braking system which carries the brake lining in the drum brakes used on automobiles, or the brake block in train brakes and bicycle brakes.
+
+
+== Automobile drum brake ==
+The brake shoe carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued to the shoe.  When the brake is applied, the shoe moves and presses the lining against the inside of the drum.  The friction between lining and drum provides the braking effort. Energy is dissipated as heat. 
+Modern cars have disc brakes all round, or discs at the front and drums at the rear.  An advantage of discs is that they can dissipate heat more quickly than drums, reducing the risk of overheating.  
+Drums are retained at the rear because they are more effective than discs as a parking brake.  
+
+
+== Railway tread brake ==
+The brake shoe carries the brake block.  The block was originally made of wood but is now usually cast iron. When the brake is applied, the shoe moves and presses the block against the tread of the wheel.  As well as providing braking effort this also "scrubs" the wheel and keeps it clean. This scrubbing causes wear and tear on the wheel tread and often causes brake squeal. Tread brakes on passenger trains have now largely been superseded by disc brakes.
+
+
+== Bicycle rim brake ==
+This comprises a pair of rectangular open boxes which are mounted on the brake calipers of a bicycle and that hold the brake blocks which rub on the rim of a bicycle wheel to slow the bicycle down or stop it.
+
+
+== Cataloguing ==
+There are different systems for the cataloguing of brake shoes. The most frequently used system in Europe is the WVA numbering system.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Brake pad
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Iron_and_Steel_Research_Association-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "British Iron and Steel Research Association"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Iron_and_Steel_Research_Association"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:01.654528+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The British Iron and Steel Research Association or BISRA, formed in 1944, was the research arm of the British steel industry. It had headquarters in London, originally at 11 Park Lane, later moved to 24 Buckingham Gate, with Laboratories in Sheffield on Hoyle Street, Swansea, Teesside, and Battersea.
+The organization was created by Sir Charles Goodeve, who remained its director until his retirement in 1969. Roger Eddison was hired as a manager shortly after BISRA's founding.  BISRA's research has been responsible for much of the automation of modern steelmaking. BISRA were pioneers of digital computing in the steel industry.
+BISRA was funded 15% by a grant from the government of the United Kingdom, and 85% by a cooperative of several steelmaking companies.
+
+
+== See also ==
+British Steel (1967–1999)
+Steel
+Steelmaking
+Steel mill
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Sir Charles Goodeve Biography -- section on BISRA

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_sheet_glass-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Broad sheet glass"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_sheet_glass"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:02.869377+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Broad sheet is a type of hand-blown glass. It was first made in Sussex in 1226.
+
+
+== Production ==
+It is made by blowing molten glass into an elongated tube shape with a blowpipe. Then, while the glass is still hot, the ends are cut off and the resulting cylinder is split with shears and flattened on an iron plate. The quality of broad sheet glass is not good, with many imperfections and mostly translucent. Due to the relatively small sizes blown, broad sheet was typically made into leadlights. The centerpiece was used for decoration in places where looking through the glass wasn't vital. If the piece was large, it was possible to see bubble tracks and strain lines.
+Other methods for making hand-blown glass included blown plate glass, crown glass (introduced to England in the 17th century), polished plate glass and cylinder blown sheet glass. These methods of manufacture lasted at least until the end of the 19th century. The early 20th century marks the move away from hand-blown to machine manufactured glass such as rolled plate glass, machine drawn cylinder sheet glass, flat drawn sheet glass, single and twin ground polished plate glass and float glass.
+Broad sheet glass was first made in the UK in Chiddingfold, Surrey on the border with Sussex in 1226. In 1240 an order was placed for this glass to be used in Westminster Abbey. This glass was of poor quality and fairly opaque. Manufacture slowly decreased and ceased by the early 16th century. The choice of this location may have been due to the availability of sand, the abundance of bracken (the ash of which can be used to make potash for soda glass) and the significant beech forests to provide charcoal as fuel for the kiln. Examples of glass from this area can be found in Guildford Museum.
+Whilst French glass-makers and others were making broad sheet glass earlier than this notably William Le Verrier, Schurterrers and John Alemayne. Between 1350 and 1356 Alemayne secured orders for glass to be used in St. Stephens Chapel, Westminster and St Georges Chapel, Windsor.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckling-restrained_braced_frame-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Buckling-restrained braced frame"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckling-restrained_braced_frame"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:04.062433+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Buckling-restrained braced frame (BRBF) is a structural steel frame that provides lateral resistance to buckling, particularly during seismic activity.
+The BRBF is typically a special case of a concentrically braced frame. Tests have demonstrated BRBF systems are highly effective for energy dissipation, while being vulnerable to large deformations and story drift.
+A buckling-restrained brace (BRB) consists of a steel core surrounded by a hollow steel section, coated with a low-friction material, and then grouted with a specialized mortar. The encasing and mortar prohibit the steel core from buckling when in compression. At the same time, the coating prevents axial load from being transferred to the encasement, thus preventing strength loss and allowing for better and more symmetric cyclic performance. These elements most commonly brace a bay diagonally or in a chevron pattern. Because maximum tension and compression forces in a BRB are much closer than in a standard brace, there is much less imbalance of force in the chevron configuration resulting in smaller beam sizes than a standard braced frame.
+
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+AISC Seismic Design Manual, Second Printing Pg 5–23
+ANSI/AISC 341-05 Section 16 & C16

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulging_factor-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+---
+title: "Bulging factor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulging_factor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:05.207538+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bulging factor is an engineering term describing the geometry of out-of plane deformations of the surface of a crack on a pressurized fuselage structure.  It is used in evaluating the damage tolerance of airframe fuselages.
+The single curved geometry and pressure differential causes a longitudinal crack to bulge out or protrude from the original shape. This change in geometry, or “bulging effect”, significantly increases the stress intensity factor at the crack tips.  The effects of this loading condition can trigger different types of failure mechanisms.
+For the case of unstiffened shell structures, the bulging factor can be defined as the ratio of stress-intensity (SIF) of a curved shell to the stress-intensity factor of a flat panel:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        b
+        u
+        l
+        g
+        i
+        n
+        g
+        f
+        a
+        c
+        t
+        o
+        r
+        =
+        S
+        I
+        F
+        (
+        c
+        u
+        r
+        v
+        e
+        d
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        S
+        I
+        F
+        (
+        f
+        l
+        a
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle bulgingfactor=SIF(curved)/SIF(flat)}
+  
+
+The representation of this phenomenon becomes rather complex due to the biaxial and internal pressure load and structural configuration.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Lazghab Tarek, Fayza Ayari, Lotfi Chelbi. Crack growth in cylindrical aluminum shells with inner reinforcing foam layer. Springer, 2006. pp. 151.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Engineer_Surveyors-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Bureau of Engineer Surveyors"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Engineer_Surveyors"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:06.399524+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Bureau of Engineering Surveyors is the professional sector of the Society of Operations Engineers (SOE) for Engineer Surveyors, but also allied professionals in building services and engineering safety. It was founded in 1965 and merged with other societies to form the SOE in 2000. Its members check machinery and fixed plant for safety, and for meeting legal requirements.
+
+
+== References ==
+Bureau of Engineering Surveyors webpage

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCNP-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+---
+title: "CCNP"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCNP"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:11.119007+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Cisco Certified Network Professional (CCNP) is a person in the IT industry who has achieved the professional level of Cisco Career Certification.
+
+
+== Professional certifications ==
+Prior to February 2020 there were approximately eight professional-level certification programs within Cisco Career Certifications.
+
+CCDP
+CCNP Cloud
+CCNP Collaboration
+CCNP Data Center
+CCNP Routing and Switching
+CCNP Security
+CCNP Service Provider
+CCNP Wireless
+Cisco has announced that as of February 2020, the above format has been retired and replaced with the following:
+
+CCNP Enterprise (integrating CCNP Routing and Switching, CCDP and CCNP Wireless)
+CCNP Data Center (integrating CCNP Cloud)
+CCNP Security
+CCNP Service Provider
+CCNP Collaboration
+Cisco Certified DevNet Professional
+Migration guides to the newer certification exams are available from Cisco at its CCNP Migration Tools page.
+
+
+== Required exams ==
+Before February 2020 relevant entry-level certifications needed to be passed in advance if a candidate wanted to attempt the professional level exams. Starting February 2020, no entry-level certification will be required to attempt the CCNP exams.
+
+
+== Validity ==
+The validity of CCNP Certification is 3 years. Renewal requires certification holders to register for and pass same or higher level Cisco recertification exam(s) every 3 years or obtain 80 continuing education credits.
+
+
+== Related certifications ==
+Associate-level certification: CCNA
+Expert-level Certification: CCIE
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEN_Workshop_Agreement-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "CEN Workshop Agreement"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEN_Workshop_Agreement"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:13.567294+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A CEN Workshop Agreement (commonly abbreviated CWA) is a reference document from the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). It is, by definition, not an official standard from the member organizations.
+In the field of electronic signatures, several CWAs exist. In July 2003 the European Commission granted the following three CWAs status as generally recognized technical standards, presumed to be in accordance with the Electronic Signatures Directive (1999/93/EC):
+
+CWA 14167-1 (June 2003): security requirements for trustworthy systems managing certificates for electronic signatures — Part 1: System Security Requirements
+CWA 14167-2 (March 2004): security requirements for trustworthy systems managing certificates for electronic signatures — Part 2: cryptographic module for CSP signing operations — Protection Profile (MCSO-PP)
+CWA 14169 (March 2004): secure signature creation devices.
+Other CWA deals with e-signature; among them:
+
+CWA 14170 Signature Creation Process and Environment.
+CWA 14171 Signature Validation Process and Environment.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+CEN Workshop Agreements – CEN website
+CEN Workshop Agreements on E-signature – CEN website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardington_test-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Cardington test"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardington_test"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:07.607614+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Cardington Fire Tests were a series of large-scale fire tests conducted in real structures (wood, steel-concrete composite, and concrete) at the BRE Cardington facility near Cardington, Bedfordshire, England, during the mid-1990s.  After the tests, extensive computational and analytical studies of the behaviour of steel-framed composite structures in fire conditions were carried out by, among others, the University of Edinburgh, Sheffield University, and Imperial College London.
+The results were presented in the form of a main report, which identified the main findings, together with numerous supplementary reports exploring various phenomena in detail.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpentier_joint-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Carpentier joint"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpentier_joint"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:08.794049+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A carpentier joint is a hinge consisting of  several thin metal strips of curved cross section, similar in structure to retracting steel measuring tape, or some retractable radio antennas. It has two configurations: closed and open. The defining property of the joint is that it is self-opening, does not need mechanical elements such as guides, and maintains a certain degree of stiffness when in the open configuration.
+The hinge is used in antenna deployment, solar arrays and sensor deployment in satellite applications.
+The hinge locks in the open condition. To fold, the spring strips are subjected to sufficient bending moment to pop the curved section of each strip flat in the centre, and flex along the length from the centre in an elastic curve to the desired angle, where it must be held in place until it is to be deployed. Release of the restraining force allows the elasticity of the material and the stored energy of bending to restore the strips to straight configuration, at which point the sectional curve will pop back and lock the strip straight. Depending on the length of the spring strips and the width of the end-pieces, the hinge may be folded to angles in the order of 180° The entire folding motion is provided by elastic deformation of the strips, there is no sliding contact surface.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casing_shoe-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Casing shoe"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casing_shoe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:09.930753+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In oil drilling and borehole mining, a casing shoe or guide shoe is a bull-nose shaped device which is attached to the bottom of the casing string. A casing hanger, which allows the casing to be suspended from the wellhead, is attached to the top of the casing.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement_accelerator-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Cement accelerator"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement_accelerator"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:12.301588+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A cement accelerator is an admixture for the use in concrete, mortar, rendering or screeds.  The addition of an accelerator speeds the setting time and thus cure time starts earlier. This allows concrete to be placed in winter with reduced risk of frost damage. Concrete is damaged if it does not reach a strength of 500 pounds per square inch (3.4 MPa) before freezing.
+Typical chemicals used for acceleration today are calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), calcium nitrite (Ca(NO2)2), calcium formate (Ca(HCOO)2) and aluminium compounds. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is the most efficient and least expensive accelerator and was formerly very popular. However, chloride anions are very corrosive for the steel of the reinforcement bars (rebars) so its use is no longer recommended and in many countries actually prohibited. This de facto caution comes from the fact that chloride anions cause severe pitting corrosion of steel rebars. As the local corrosion of a rebar can lead to its rupture, it can compromise the tensile strength of reinforced concrete and so the structural stability of an edifice. Thiocyanate compounds can also corrode reinforcing but are safe at recommended dosage levels. Sodium compounds might compromise the long term compressive strength if used with alkali-reactive aggregates.
+Novel alternatives include cement based upon calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA), which sets within 20 minutes, and develops sufficient rapid strength that an airport runway can be repaired in a six-hour window, and be able to withstand aircraft use at the end of that time, as well as in tunnels and underground, where water and time limitations require extremely fast strength and setting.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_engine-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Ceramic engine"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_engine"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:14.720666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A ceramic engine is an internal combustion engine made from specially engineered ceramic materials. Ceramic engines allow for the compression and expansion of gases at extremely high temperatures without loss of heat or engine damage. Proof-of-concept ceramic engines were popularized by successful studies in the early 1980s and 1990s. Under controlled laboratory conditions, ceramic engines outperformed traditional metal engines in terms of weight, efficiency, and performance. All-ceramic engines were seen as the next advancement in future engine technology, but have not yet entered the automobile market because of manufacturing and economic problems.
+
+
+== History ==
+Research into more efficient diesel engines occurred after the 1970s energy crisis, resulting in a new market for fuel-efficient vehicles. A newly developed gas turbine engine design promised high thermal efficiency, but needed a material that could withstand 2,500 °F (1,370 °C) temperatures. The high heat did not allow for readily available materials like metals, superalloys, and carbon composites to be used. As a result, government-funded research facilities in the United States, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom experimented with replacing metal with ceramics. Ceramics' high resistance to heat helped pave the way towards the first commercial use of gas turbine engines, the successes of which led to the idea of an all-ceramic engine.
+Between 1985 and 1989, Nissan, in collaboration with NGK, produced the world's first ceramic turbocharger, later debuting this on the 1985 Fairlady Z 200ZR. Isuzu developed a diesel ceramic engine that used ceramic for the pistons, piston rings, and turbocharger wheels. Isuzu also developed an engine that used cylinder liners made of ceramic materials such as silicon nitride. Isuzu also used ceramics for the intake and exhaust valves, exhaust manifold, turbocharger housing, camshafts, heat insulation, and rocker arms.
+Predictions for an adiabatic turbo-compound engine (a theoretical heat-efficient engine) were seen as plausible with the use of technical ceramic material. A 1987 technical paper by Roy Kamo predicted the mass production of such engines to occur in the year 2000. However, these predictions were made with the belief that ceramics would overcome "the design methodology, manufacturing process, machining cost, and mass production quality control needed for high volume production."
+Currently, ceramic engines are not viable for mass production. Large parts, like the engine block, can be challenging to manufacture out of ceramics due to their brittleness and stiffness.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+In 1982, Isuzu tested a car with an all-ceramic engine near the Kinko Bay.
+In 1988, Toyota introduced a ceramic engine into its Crown, as well as its GTV (Gas Turbine Vehicle) concept car.
+
+
+== Notes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_valve-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Ceramic valve"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_valve"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:15.907255+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A ceramic valve is a valve with ceramic trim, ball, seat, disc or lining.  A carbon steel or stainless steel body is used to protect the ceramic trim from being damaged by sudden thermal or mechanical shock. Advanced ceramics are used in the manufacture including alumina, zirconia and silicon nitride. Significant benefits of the use of ceramic in valves (when compared to steel or other traditional materials) include resistance to wear and their lower mass. Thanks to the excellent corrosion resistance, abrasive  resistance and wear resistance, ceramic valves are often used in severe corrosive and abrasive applications, such as FGD, and pneumatic refuse conveying systems.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Quality_Engineer-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+---
+title: "Certified Quality Engineer"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Quality_Engineer"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:17.137219+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Certified Quality Engineer, often abbreviated CQE, is a certification given by the American Society for Quality (ASQ). These engineers are professionally educated in quality engineering and quality control.
+They are trained in researching and preventing unnecessary costs through lack of quality, lost production costs, lost market share due to poor quality, etc. They possess the knowledge needed to set up quality control circles, assess potential quality risks, and evaluate human factors and natural process variation.
+
+
+== Scope ==
+CQE training includes the following topics:
+
+Management Systems
+Project Management
+Quality Information Systems
+Leadership Principles and Techniques
+Training
+Cost of Quality
+Quality Philosophies & Approaches
+History of Quality
+Total Quality Management
+Customer Relations
+Quality Deployment
+Supplier Qualification & Certification Systems
+Quality Systems
+Documentation Systems
+Configuration Management
+Planning, Controlling and Assuring Product and Process Quality
+Design Inputs and Design Review
+Validation and Qualification Methods
+Process Capability
+Interpretation of Technical Drawings and Specifications
+Material Control
+Acceptance Sampling
+Calibration Systems
+Measurement Systems
+Measurement System Analysis
+Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility (Gage R & R)
+Destructive and Nondestructive Testing and Measuring
+Traceability to Standards
+Reliability and Risk Management
+Design of Systems for Reliability
+Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
+Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
+Management and Planning Tools
+Corrective Action
+Preventive Action
+Overcoming Barriers to Quality Improvement
+Concepts of Probability and Statistics
+Properties and Applications of Probability Distributions
+Tests for Means, Variances, and Proportions
+Statistical Decision Making
+Drawing Valid Statistical Conclusions
+Statistical Process Control
+Control Charts
+Design of Experiments
+
+
+== Techniques ==
+Some techniques that Quality Engineers use in quality engineering/assurance include:
+
+Statistical Process Control
+Deming's Wheel
+Total Quality Management (TQM)
+Six Sigma
+
+
+== Applications ==
+These techniques are applicable company/system wide and are, by definition, not only developed for manufacturing processes.
+Application areas include:
+
+Purchasing
+Sales and After-sales Support
+Manufacturing
+Customer Service
+Human Resource Management
+Research and Development
+Information Technology
+
+
+== Professional certification ==
+The American Society for Quality (ASQ) is a professional institute that examines the professional competency of candidates and, if found to be acceptable, awards them with official certification.
+This process helps to establish and maintain a minimum body of knowledge and skill level among certified engineers.
+The exam changes from test-to-test in minor detail and the body of knowledge is revised and updated by peer review committees set up by the ASQ.
+There are two formats for the ASQ certification test:
+
+Computer Delivered - This CQE examination is a one-part, 175- multiple choice question, five-and-a-half-hour exam and is offered in English only. 160 multiple choice questions are scored and 15 are unscored.
+Paper and Pencil - This CQE examination is a one-part, 160- multiple choice question, five-hour exam and is offered in English only.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ASQ.org
+CQE-web
+Quality Council
+CQE Academy

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_fitting-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Chicago fitting"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_fitting"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:18.284640+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Chicago fitting (also called a Duck's foot fitting due to its shape) is a one quarter turn fitting or hose coupling used for attaching hoses or piping together. Chicago fittings are used on both low to medium pressure gas and fluid lines. The advantages of the Chicago fitting are that they can be used in a wide range of industries and that there are no male or female fitting; both fittings are identical. A Chicago fitting is also known as an Air King coupling.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Gladhand connector
+Hose Coupling
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Universal “Chicago” Couplings

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilton_and_Colburn_J-factor_analogy-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,204 @@
+---
+title: "Chilton and Colburn J-factor analogy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilton_and_Colburn_J-factor_analogy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:19.454617+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Chilton–Colburn J-factor analogy (also known as the modified Reynolds analogy) is a successful and widely used analogy between heat, momentum, and mass transfer. The basic mechanisms and mathematics of heat, mass, and momentum transport are essentially the same. Among many analogies (like Reynolds analogy, Prandtl–Taylor analogy) developed to directly relate heat transfer coefficients, mass transfer coefficients and friction factors, Chilton and Colburn J-factor analogy proved to be the most accurate. The factors are named after Thomas H. Chilton and Allan Philip Colburn (1904–1955).  
+It is written as follows,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          J
+          
+            M
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            f
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          J
+          
+            H
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            h
+            
+              
+                c
+                
+                  p
+                
+              
+              
+              G
+            
+          
+        
+        
+        
+          
+            P
+            r
+          
+          
+            
+              2
+              3
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          J
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              k
+              
+                c
+              
+              ′
+            
+            
+              v
+              ¯
+            
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          
+            S
+            c
+          
+          
+            
+              2
+              3
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle J_{M}={\frac {f}{2}}=J_{H}={\frac {h}{c_{p}\,G}}\,{Pr}^{\frac {2}{3}}=J_{D}={\frac {k'_{c}}{\overline {v}}}\cdot {Sc}^{\frac {2}{3}}}
+  
+
+This equation permits the prediction of an unknown transfer coefficient when one of the other coefficients is known. The analogy is valid for fully developed turbulent flow in conduits with Re > 10000, 0.7 < Pr < 160, and tubes where L/d > 60 (the same constraints as the Sieder–Tate correlation). The wider range of data can be correlated by Friend–Metzner analogy.
+Relationship between Heat and Mass;
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          J
+          
+            M
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            f
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              S
+              h
+            
+            
+              R
+              e
+              
+              S
+              
+                c
+                
+                  
+                    1
+                    3
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          J
+          
+            H
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            f
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              N
+              u
+            
+            
+              R
+              e
+              
+              P
+              
+                r
+                
+                  
+                    1
+                    3
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle J_{M}={\frac {f}{2}}={\frac {Sh}{Re\,Sc^{\frac {1}{3}}}}=J_{H}={\frac {f}{2}}={\frac {Nu}{Re\,Pr^{\frac {1}{3}}}}}
+  
+
+
+== See also ==
+Reynolds analogy
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Geankoplis, C.J. Transport processes and separation process principles (2003). Fourth Edition, p. 475.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Lecture notes on mass transfer coefficients: http://facstaff.cbu.edu/rprice/lectures/mtcoeff.html

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_ring_antenna-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Choke ring antenna"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_ring_antenna"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:20.712575+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A choke ring antenna is a directional antenna designed for reception of GNSS signals from satellites. It consists of a number of concentric conductive cylinders around a central antenna.
+The first choke ring antennas were invented at JPL; since 1989 they have been improved and extended by many companies.
+Due to its intricate construction, it is often enclosed in a protective cover or radome when placed outside and exposed to the elements.
+
+
+== Benefits ==
+Choke ring antennas have excellent phase center stability, polarization purity, suppression of radiation below the horizon and multipath rejection. This makes them highly suited for satellite navigation. In a GNSS ground-based receiver, a choke ring antenna can provide millimeter precision measurements for use in surveying and geological measurements.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Patch antenna - a directional type of antenna.
+Magellan Navigation - one manufacturer of this product.
+Trimble Inc. - another manufacturer of this product.
+
+
+== Notes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Volkswagens-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Classic Volkswagens"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Volkswagens"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:21.929992+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Classic Volkswagens is a 1988 bestselling non-fiction automobile book, by photographer and author Colin Burnham. It was printed by Osprey Publishing as part of their classic automotive collection in the 1980s and 1990s, and made sales of over 250,000. It is the second book in a series of nine automotive books by the same author. It is described as one of the "best volkswagen books ever produced" by several automotive clubs. The book has been referenced by over 1,000,000 people.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_antenna-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+---
+title: "Coaxial antenna"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_antenna"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:23.106731+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A coaxial antenna (often known as a coaxial dipole) is a particular form of a half-wave dipole antenna, most often employed as a vertically polarized omnidirectional antenna.
+
+
+== History ==
+Arnold B. Bailey was granted the US patent 2,184,729 Antenna System on December 26, 1939, after filing in 1937 for a vertical antenna providing coaxial element sleeve structures.
+Bonnie Crystal was granted the US patent 7,151,497  Coaxial Antenna System on December 19, 2006, after filing in 2003 for new types of coaxial antennas with reduced size providing efficient broadband, wideband and controlled bandwidths, using radiation by the outside of the coaxial elements.
+
+
+== Configuration ==
+In the most basic form, a quarter-wavelength section (
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda }
+  
+/4) of coaxial cable is prepared such that the inner and outer conductors are separate but still attached to the remaining cable.
+The outer (shield) conductor is connected to a quarter-wavelength conducting sleeve into which the cable is inserted, and the inner conductor protrudes vertically above the sleeve for a quarter-wavelength. Also, additional quarter-wavelength sections may be connected to the outer conductor to form a better ground plane.
+
+
+== Bazooka Dipole coaxial antenna ==
+Dipole antennas constructed using coaxial cables with shorted ends are often given the name "Bazooka" dipoles.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Amateur radio
+Antenna (radio)
+Coaxial cable
+Dipole antenna
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Bailey's 1939 patent (PDF)
+Coaxial Antenna System patent number 7151497
+Home made coaxial dipole antenna

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobra_probe-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Cobra probe"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobra_probe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:24.300832+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Cobra probe is a device to measure the pressure and velocity components of a moving fluid. It is a multi-holed pressure probe with rotational axis of the probe shaft coplanar with the measurement plane of the instrument.  Because of this geometry, when the instrument is rotated around the shaft's axis, the measurement elements of the probe remain in the same location.  The name cobra probe comes from the shape of the probe head, which resembles a cobra and gives it this property.
+Cobra probes come in three-, four-, and five-hole configurations, the former used for two-dimensional flow measurement, the latter two for three-dimensional flow measurement.  In the three-hole kind of instrument, there are two yaw direction tubes which are chamfered and silver soldered symmetrically on the two sides of a pitot tube. It is otherwise similar to the other kinds of yawmeters.  In the four- and five-hole configurations, the central pitot tube is surrounded by three or four chamfered tubes, respectively.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Science,_Engineering,_and_Public_Policy-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Science,_Engineering,_and_Public_Policy"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:36:09.780535+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:26.706714+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Arrangement_of_Work_Sections-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Common Arrangement of Work Sections"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Arrangement_of_Work_Sections"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:27.916538+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Common Arrangement of Work Sections (CAWS), first published in 1987, is a construction industry working convention in the UK. It was designed to promote standardisation of, and detailed coordination between, bills of quantities and specifications. It is part of an industry-wide initiative to produce coordinated projects information (now managed by the Construction Project Information Committee). CAWS has been used for the arrangement of the National Building Specification, the National Engineering Specification and the Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works (SMM7) (7th ed).
+The new edition aligns CAWS with the Unified Classification for the Construction Industry (Uniclass) which was published in 1997.
+The Common Arrangement is the authoritative UK classification of work sections for building work, for use in arranging project specifications and bills of quantities. Over 300 work sections are defined in detail to give:
+
+good coordination between drawings, specifications and bills of quantities
+predictability of location of relevant information
+fewer oversights and discrepancies between documents
+flexibility to the contractor in dividing the project information into work packages.
+The classification of work sections is separate from, and complementary to, the classification of other concepts such as building types, elements, construction products and properties/characteristics. Uniclass, published in 1997, is the definitive overall classification tables, one of which is for work sections for buildings, comprising the Common Arrangement group, sub-group and work section headings.
+
+
+== External links ==
+NBS

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compartmentalization_(engineering)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Compartmentalization (engineering)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compartmentalization_(engineering)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:29.101555+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+When referring to engineering, compartmentalization is the general technique of separating two or more parts of a system to prevent malfunctions from spreading between or among them.
+This entails the breaking up of a project or problem into sub classes and sub categories, with the intention of simplifying the task at hand, or to efficiently distribute it amongst a number of teams or people.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_propeller-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Composite propeller"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_propeller"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:30.307784+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marine composite propellers are ship propellers made from fiber composites. These composites are made from materials like glass or carbon fibers and infused with a high-strength resin like epoxy or polyimide.
+
+
+== Attributes ==
+Composite propellers can be made using a lay-up process, leading to anisotropic properties. This can create a passive adaptation of self-twisting propeller blades, which are considered more energy-efficient when compared to rigid propeller blades. 
+
+
+== Longevity ==
+Composite materials may be considered an environmentally friendly option for propeller blades in some applications. While the composite blades are more resistant to corrosion and impact damage than many metal-alloy propeller blades, the water saturation and the propeller application decrease the longevity of composite propellers. 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_Air_and_Gas_Institute-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Compressed Air and Gas Institute"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_Air_and_Gas_Institute"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:31.458646+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Compressed Air and Gas Institute (CAGI) is the industry association located in Cleveland, Ohio, USA. It was founded in 1915. CAGI represents manufacturers of compressed air system equipment, including air compressors, blowers, pneumatic tools, and air and gas drying and filtration equipment. It also develops standards for compressors, compressor-related testing, air dryers, filters and portable air tools, many prepared and updated in coordination with 
+other standards organizations, including Pneurop and the American National Standards Institute.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_inspection-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+---
+title: "Computer-aided inspection"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_inspection"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:32.700565+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Computer-aided inspection (CAI) is the use of software tools to assess manufactured objects. It is closely related to computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Its primary purpose is to allow engineers to more quickly and precisely assess the physical properties of manufactured objects. These properties can include dimensions, material consistency, roughness and roundness.
+
+
+== Uses ==
+CAI has applications in industries ranging from food production to aerospace, commonly being used in the quality assurance step of the manufacturing process. It involves comparing manufactured objects with a CAD model, technical drawing or data sheet to ensure that the finished product is within specification and meets design intent.
+
+
+== Technologies ==
+CAI machines can use a variety of technologies depending on the material of the product to be inspected, the properties to be measured, and the precision required.
+
+
+=== Digital Cameras ===
+Digital cameras are frequently used in situations where the shape or colour of an object needs to be analysed. Using machine vision, the CAI program can make decisions about objects by comparing them to a master photo or data array.
+
+
+=== Laser Scanning ===
+Laser scanning CAI machines use point clouds to generate a 3D model which is compared to the required specification. Laser scanners are generally used to check the external geometry of parts with low reflectivity and translucence.
+
+
+=== Structured Light Scanning ===
+Structured light scanners use projected light patterns and digital cameras to analyse the geometry of an object. As with laser scanning, objects with high reflectivity and translucence can cause problems but temporary coatings can be applied to prevent this.
+
+
+=== CT Scanning ===
+Industrial CT scanners use X-rays to image an object from many angles, building up a 3D image to compare to a specification. CT scans can be used to analyse the internal geometry of parts because the X-rays penetrate the object being scanned. Higher resolution CT scans can also check for cavities, cracks, and other undesirable features inside parts.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Computer-aided design
+Computer-aided manufacturing
+Coordinate-measuring machine
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_Series-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+---
+title: "Concrete Series"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_Series"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:33.889455+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Concrete Series was a series of books about the use of concrete in construction that was published by Concrete Publications Limited of Dartmouth Street, London, from the 1930s to the 1960s.
+
+
+== History ==
+The Concrete Series was a book series about the use of concrete in construction that was published by Concrete Publications Limited of Dartmouth Street, London, from the 1930s to the 1960s.
+The series was published at a time when concrete was increasingly being used in building design and for public works such as road building. The series ran to in excess of 35 titles.
+Later, the series was continued by the Cement and Concrete Association and Spon Press, part of Taylor & Francis group.
+
+
+== Titles ==
+This is an incomplete list of titles in the series:
+
+Arch design simplified. W.A. Fairhurst, 1946.
+Concrete farm silos, granaries and tanks. A.M. Pennington, 1942.
+Concrete surface finishes, renderings and terrazzo. W.S. Gray & H.L. Childe, 1935. (2nd revised edition 1943)
+Design of arch roofs. J.S. Terrington, 1937.
+Design of domes. J.S. Terrington, 1937. (Reprinted from Concrete and Constructional Engineering)
+Design of pyramid roofs. J.S. Terrington, 1939.
+Prestressed concrete designer's handbook, P.W. Abeles and F.H. Turner, 1962.
+Reinforced concrete chimneys. C. Percy Taylor & Leslie Turner, 1940.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Concrete Quarterly
+Modernist architecture
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-force_spring-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Constant-force spring"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-force_spring"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:36.261398+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An ideal constant-force spring is a spring for which the force it exerts over its range of motion is a constant, that is, it does not obey Hooke's law. In reality, "constant-force springs" do not provide a truly constant force and are constructed from materials that do obey Hooke's law. Generally, constant-force springs are constructed as a rolled ribbon of spring steel such that the spring is in a rolled-up form when relaxed.
+
+
+== Mechanism ==
+As the spring is unrolled, the material coming off the roll bends from the radius of the roll into a straight line between the reel and the load. Because the material tension-stiffness of the straight section is orders of magnitude greater than the bending stiffness of the ribbon, the straight section does not stretch significantly, the restoring force comes primarily from the deformation of the portion of the ribbon near the roll. Because the geometry of that region remains nearly constant as the spring unrolls (with material coming off the roll joining the curved section, and material in the curved section joining the straight section), the resulting force is nearly constant.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Hydrospring
+
+
+== References ==
+Ansel C. Ugural, Mechanical Design of Machine Components, Second Edition - Page 683, CRC Press, 2015 ISBN 1439887810.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:14.149375+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:37.530686+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_air_volume-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Constant air volume"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_air_volume"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:35.077551+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Constant air volume (CAV) is a type of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.  In a simple CAV system, the supply air flow rate is constant, but the supply air temperature is varied to meet the thermal loads of a space.
+Most CAV systems are small, and serve a single thermal zone.  However, variations such as CAV with reheat, CAV multizone, and CAV primary-secondary systems can serve multiple zones and larger buildings.
+In mid- to large-size buildings, new central CAV systems are somewhat rare.  Due to fan energy savings potential, variable air volume (VAV) systems are more common.  However, in small buildings and residences, CAV systems are often the system of choice due to their simplicity, low cost, and reliability.  Such small CAV systems often have on/off control, rather than supply air temperature modulation, to vary their heating or cooling capacities.
+There are two types of CAV systems that are commonly in use to modify the supply air temperature: the terminal reheat system and the mixed air system.
+The terminal reheat system cools the air in the air handling unit down to the lowest possible needed temperature within its zone of spaces. This supplies a comfortable quality to the space, but wastes energy.
+The mixed air system has two air streams, typically one for the coldest and one for the hottest needed air temperature in the zone.  The two air streams are strategically combined to offset the space's load.  The mixed air system option is not as proficient at controlling the humidity, yet it does do well at controlling the temperature.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constrained-layer_damping-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Constrained-layer damping"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constrained-layer_damping"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:38.711206+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Constrained-layer damping is a mechanical engineering technique to suppress vibrations. Typically a viscoelastic or other damping material, is sandwiched between two sheets of stiff materials that lack sufficient damping by themselves. The result is that any vibration generated on either side of the constraining materials (the two stiffer materials on the sides) is suppressed by the viscoelastic material, by turning it into heat. The damping is associated with the shear deformation of the viscoelastic material.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_monitoring_and_adaptive_control_(stormwater_management)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Continuous monitoring and adaptive control (stormwater management)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_monitoring_and_adaptive_control_(stormwater_management)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:39.866341+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Continuous monitoring and adaptive control (CMAC) is a category of stormwater best management practice that allows for a wider range of operation of detention and retention ponds. CMAC systems typically consist of a water level sensor, an actuated valve, and an internet connection.
+Specific applications of CMAC include flood protection, water quality treatment, water reuse, and channel protection.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Urban runoff
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Chesapeake Bay Urban Stormwater Work Group

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraflexure-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Contraflexure"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraflexure"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:41.072871+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In solid mechanics, a point along a beam under a lateral load is known as a point of contraflexure if the bending moment about the point equals zero. In a bending moment diagram, it is the point at which the bending moment curve intersects with the zero line (i.e. where the bending moment reverses direction along the beam). Knowing the place of the contraflexure is especially useful when designing reinforced concrete or structural steel beams and also for designing bridges.
+Flexural reinforcement may be reduced at this point. However, to omit reinforcement at the point of contraflexure entirely is inadvisable as the actual location is unlikely to realistically be defined with confidence. Additionally, an adequate quantity of reinforcement should extend beyond the point of contraflexure to develop bond strength and to facilitate shear force transfer.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Deformation
+Engineering mechanics
+Flexural rigidity
+Flexural stress
+Fluid mechanics
+Inflection point
+Strength of materials
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_display_unit-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Control display unit"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_display_unit"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:42.280849+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A control display unit (CDU) is used in remotely operated gasfields placed on the seabed.
+It distributes power, control signals and chemicals arriving through the umbilical and pipelines from land to the other sub-sea structures.
+The connection point – manifold – in the control distribution unit can be retrieved to the surface for maintenance and modifications.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_panel_(engineering)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Control panel (engineering)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_panel_(engineering)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:43.558943+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A control panel is a flat, often vertical, area where control or monitoring instruments are displayed or it is an enclosed unit that is the part of a system that users can access, such as the control panel of a security system (also called control unit).
+They are found in factories to monitor and control machines or production lines and in places such as nuclear power plants, ships, aircraft and mainframe computers. Older control panels are most often equipped with push buttons and analog instruments, whereas nowadays in many cases touchscreens are used for monitoring and control purposes.
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+=== Flat panels ===
+
+
+=== Enclosed control unit ===
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conveyor_pulley-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Conveyor pulley"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conveyor_pulley"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:44.740001+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A conveyor pulley is a mechanical device used to change the direction of the belt in a conveyor system, to drive the belt, and to tension the belt.  Modern pulleys are made of rolled shells with flexible end disks and locking assemblies. Early pulley engineering was developed in Australia by Josef Sitzwohl in 1948 and later by Helmuth Lange and Walter Schmoltzi in Germany.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Flexible shaft
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_capacity-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_capacity"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:27:08.074833+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:45.975704+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(piping)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Coupling (piping)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(piping)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:47.132895+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In piping and plumbing, a coupling (or coupler) is a very short length of pipe or tube, with a socket at one or both ends that allows two pipes or tubes to be joined, welded (steel), brazed or soldered (copper, brass etc.) together.
+Alternatively it is a short length of pipe with two female National pipe threads (NPT) (in North American terms, a coupler is a double female while a nipple is double male) or two male or female British standard pipe threads.
+If the two ends of a coupling are of different standards or joining methods, the coupling is called an adapter. Examples of adapters include one end BSP threaded with the other NPT threaded, and one end threaded with the other a plain socket for brazing.
+A coupling whose ends use the same connection method but are of different sizes is called a reducing coupling or reducer. An example is a 3/4" NPT to 1/2" NPT coupling.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+ASME B1.20.7 Hose Coupling Screw Threads, Inch. (Quote: The normal sequence of connections, in relation to the direction of flow, is from an externally threaded nipple into an internally threaded coupling)
+
+
+== External resources ==
+PDF illustrating assorted adapters

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_nut-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Coupling nut"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_nut"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:48.309824+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A coupling nut, also known as extension nut, is a threaded fastener for joining two male threads, most commonly a threaded rod, but also pipes. The outside of the fastener is usually hexagonal so a wrench can hold it. Variations include reducing coupling nuts, for joining two different size threads; sight hole coupling nuts, which have a sight hole for observing the amount of engagement; and coupling nuts with left-handed threads.
+Coupling nuts can be used to tighten a rod assembly inward or to press a rod assembly outward.
+Along with bolts or studs, coupling nuts are also often used to make homemade bearing and seal pullers/presses. The advantage of a connecting nut over a standard nut in this application is that, due to its length, a greater number of threads are engaged with the bolt. This helps to spread the force over a larger number of threads, which reduces the possibility of stripping or galling the threads under a heavy load.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crack_arrestor-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Crack arrestor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crack_arrestor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:49.515527+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A crack arrestor (otherwise known as a rip-stop doubler) is a structural engineering device. Being typically shaped into ring or strip, and composed of a strong material, it serves to contain stress corrosion cracking or fatigue cracking, helping to prevent the catastrophic failure of a device.
+The crack arrestor can be as simple as a thickened region of metal, or may be constructed of a laminated or woven material that can be designed to withstand deformation without failure. When correctly applied, the technique is capable of redirecting movement and safely distributing stresses. It is compatible with fail-safe design practices.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+Crack arrestors have seen extensive use in the aviation sector, particularly upon large pressurised aircraft as a means of guarding against progressive metal fatigue. Specifically, the skin of the fuselage typically has a large number of high stress locations, rivetting being a leading cause, making these points of potential crack initiation. Calculations are frequently used to simulate crack propagation, as well as the effectiveness of mitigating measures, such as crack arrestors, in ensuring the aircraft can be safely operated.
+Following two catastrophic airframe failures in 1954, crack arrestors were used as additional reinforcement of the fuselage of the de Havilland Comet, although this was only one of several design changes made to address structural design weaknesses related to metal fatigue and skin stresses that had been previously unknown to the aviation industry.
+Naval vessels are another place where crack arrestors have been extensively used. As of the 2010s, the United States Navy frequently applies them to areas of the ship that have been damaged or otherwise have received repairs in order to ensure that the affected element is not lacking in either strength or durability. It has been acknowledged that ships primarily composed of aluminium are significantly more prone to crack propagation than older steel counterparts; thus, the use of mitigating measures is likely to become more commonplace.
+Crack arrestors have also been used in civil engineering. They have long been used in the nuclear industry as a structural element of reactors. Numerous pipelines used from transporting chemicals have been reinforced with such devices to protect against bursting and exterior damage alike. While commonly applied to metal alloys, appropriately designed crack arrestors have been used with composite materials as well. During 2008, Airbus Group was awarded a patent for a new design technique for a crack arrestor component.
+
+
+== Citations ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_technical_practice-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Critical technical practice"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_technical_practice"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:50.691463+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Critical technical practice is a critical theory based approach towards technological design proposed by Phil Agre where critical and cultural theories are brought to bear in the work of designers and engineers. One of the goals of critical technical practice is to increase awareness and critical reflection on the hidden assumptions, ideologies and values underlying technology design. It was developed by Agre in response to a perceived lack in Artificial intelligence research in the late 20th century, and continues to influence critical AI in 2021.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Critical design
+Critical making
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_to_X-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Critical to X"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_to_X"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:51.821409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Critical to x (CTx) is a Design for Six Sigma approach that refers to the key factors that are essential for the successful completion of a project or process.
+These factors may be identified through a CTX tree.
+
+
+== Critical to X factors ==
+The following is a list of Critical to X factors:
+
+Critical to quality (CTQ)
+CTQ tree
+Critical to cost (CTC)
+Critical to process (CTP)
+Critical to safety (CTS)
+Critical to delivery (CTD)
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticality_matrix-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Criticality matrix"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticality_matrix"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:52.979654+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In operations research and engineering, a criticality matrix is a representation (often graphical) of failure modes along with their probabilities and severities.
+Severity may be classified in four categories, with Level I as most severe or "catastrophic"; Level II for "critical"; Level III for "marginal"; and Level IV for "minor".
+
+
+== Example ==
+For example, an aircraft might have the following matrix:
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrystEngCommunity-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "CrystEngCommunity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrystEngCommunity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:54.185046+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+CrystEngCommunity is a virtual web community for people working in the field of crystal engineering. The website is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC). 
+CrystEngCommunity has links to the main international research groups working in crystal engineering; publishes occasional profiles (interviews) of crystal engineers; a conference diary that lists and links to international events in the field of crystal engineering; and a terminology wiki, CrystEngWiki, for crystal engineering.
+Also on the community are links to research articles on crystal engineering including CrystEngSelects (a selection of recent articles of interest to crystal engineers from across the RSC journals Chemical Communications, CrystEngComm, Dalton Transactions, Journal of Materials Chemistry, New Journal of Chemistry and Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry); links to special CrystEngComm Discussion conference special issues; and links to past crystal engineering articles from the RSC Journals Archive.
+Other useful links include downloadable wallpapers for PC desktops, book reviews and a compilation of useful weblinks for crystal engineers
+The community has a particularly close association with the RSC's crystal engineering journal, CrystEngComm.
+
+
+== See also ==
+CrystEngComm
+Dalton Transactions
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+CrystEngCommunity
+CrystEngWiki

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_ring_fitting-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Cutting ring fitting"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_ring_fitting"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:55.361681+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cutting ring fittings are flareless fittings used for connections in fluid applications. They are used worldwide in hydraulic systems.
+The cutting ring fitting consists of the body, the cutting ring and the nut. On assembly, the two cutting edges of the cutting ring carves into the outer surface of the tube hence ensuring the necessary holding power and sealing for high operating pressures. The tubes have usually metric dimensions.
+The cutting ring fitting was invented by Ermeto in Germany in the early 1930s. Later Parker Hannifin acquired Ermeto and introduced the fittings to the US. Today they are standardized in ISO 8434.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Compression fitting
+Piping and plumbing fitting
+Sweat fitting
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damping_matrix-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,186 @@
+---
+title: "Damping matrix"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damping_matrix"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:56.497350+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In applied mathematics, a damping matrix is a matrix corresponding to any of certain systems of linear ordinary differential equations.  A damping matrix is defined as follows.  If the system has n degrees of freedom un and is under application of m damping forces. Each force can be expressed as follows:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            D
+            i
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          c
+          
+            i
+            1
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                u
+                
+                  1
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          c
+          
+            i
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                u
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        ⋯
+        +
+        
+          c
+          
+            i
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                u
+                
+                  n
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            j
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            i
+            ,
+            j
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                u
+                
+                  j
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{Di}=c_{i1}{\dot {u_{1}}}+c_{i2}{\dot {u_{2}}}+\cdots +c_{in}{\dot {u_{n}}}=\sum _{j=1}^{n}c_{i,j}{\dot {u_{j}}}}
+  
+
+It yields in matrix form;
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        =
+        C
+        
+          
+            
+              U
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F_{D}=C{\dot {U}}}
+  
+
+where C is the damping matrix composed by the damping coefficients:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+        =
+        (
+        
+          c
+          
+            i
+            ,
+            j
+          
+        
+        
+          )
+          
+            1
+            ≤
+            i
+            ≤
+            n
+            ,
+            1
+            ≤
+            j
+            ≤
+            m
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C=(c_{i,j})_{1\leq i\leq n,1\leq j\leq m}}

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center_tiers-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Data center tiers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center_tiers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:57.690781+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Data center tiers are defined levels of resiliency and redundancy for IT facility infrastructure. They are widely used in the data center, ISP and cloud computing industries as part of the engineering design for high availability systems. The data center tier system was created by the Uptime Institute.
+The standard data center tiers are:
+
+Tier I: no redundancy
+Tier II: partial N+1 redundancy
+Tier III: full N+1 redundancy of all systems, including power supply and cooling distribution paths
+Tier IV: as Tier III, but with 2N+1 redundancy of all systems
+A Tier III system is intended to operate at Tier II resiliency even when under maintenance, and a Tier IV system is intended to operate at Tier III resiliency even when under maintenance.
+Most commercial data centers are Tier III; instead of using Tier IV datacentres, many large service providers typically use multiple availability zones to implement of their services, thus achieving greater resilience than would be possible with any single data centre.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Availability zone
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datex_II-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Datex II"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datex_II"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:58.873132+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Datex II or Datex2 is a data exchange standard for exchanging traffic information between traffic management centres, traffic service providers, traffic operators and media partners. It contains for example traffic incidents, current road works and other special traffic-related events. These data is presented in XML-format and is modeled with UML.
+The standard is developed by the technical body Intelligent transport systems (CEN/TC 278) of the European Committee for Standardization.
+The standard contains 12 parts:
+
+Context and framework
+Location referencing
+Situation publication
+Variable Message Sign (VMS) Publications
+Measured and Elaborated Data Publications
+Parking Publications
+Common data elements
+Traffic management publications and extensions dedicated to the urban environment
+Traffic signal management publications dedicated to the urban environment
+Energy infrastructure
+Publication of machine interpretable traffic regulations
+Facility related publications
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official Datex II website
+Datex II example messages
+Datex on openstreetmap (in French)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision-matrix_method-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+---
+title: "Decision-matrix method"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision-matrix_method"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:00.002599+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The decision-matrix method, also Pugh method or Pugh concept selection, invented by Stuart Pugh, is a qualitative technique used to rank the multi-dimensional options of an option set. It is frequently used in engineering for making design decisions but can also be used to rank investment options, vendor options, product options or any other set of multidimensional entities.
+
+
+== Definition ==
+A basic decision matrix consists of establishing a set of criteria and a group of potential candidate designs. One of these is a reference candidate design. The other designs are then compared to this reference design and being ranked as better, worse, or same based on each criterion. The number of times "better" and "worse" appeared for each design is then displayed, but not summed up.
+A weighted decision matrix operates in the same way as the basic decision matrix but introduces the concept of weighting the criteria in order of importance. The more important the criterion the higher the weighting it should be given.
+
+
+== Advantages ==
+The advantage of the decision-making matrix is that it encourages self-reflection amongst the members of a design team to analyze each candidate with a minimized bias (for team members can be biased towards certain designs, such as their own).  Another advantage of this method is that sensitivity studies can be performed.  An example of this might be to see how much your opinion would have to change in order for a lower ranked alternative to outrank a competing alternative.
+
+
+== Disadvantages ==
+However, there are some important disadvantages of the decision-matrix method:
+
+The list of criteria options is arbitrary.  There is no way to know a priori if the list is complete; it is likely that important criteria are missing.
+Conversely, it is possible that less important criteria are included, causing decision makers to be distracted and biased in their choice of options.
+Scoring methods, even with weighting, tend to equalize all the requirements.  But a few requirements are "must haves". If enough minor criteria are listed, it is possible for them to add up and select an option that misses a "must have" requirement.
+The values assigned to each option are guesses, not based on any quantitative measurements.  In fact the entire decision matrix can create the impression of being scientific, even though it requires no quantitative measurements of anything at all.
+
+
+== Morphological analysis ==
+Morphological analysis is another form of a decision matrix employing a multi-dimensional configuration space linked by way of logical relationships.
+
+
+== See also ==
+MCDA
+Belief decision matrix
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degg's_Model-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Degg's Model"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degg's_Model"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:01.129805+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Degg's Model shows that a natural disaster only occurs if a vulnerable population is exposed to a hazard and that the resilience of a community is an important parameter in determining the impact and consequences of a hazardous event. The model was devised in 1992 by Martin Degg, head of the geography department at the University of Chester, in England.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_choice-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Design choice"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_choice"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:02.342626+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A design choice describes the planned way to satisfy an engineering development requirement in a way that could be satisfied differently. Often, there are multiple ways to satisfy a requirement, which necessitates making choices to select from possible design options. Selection is often based on financial considerations, often resulting in the least expensive option.
+In civil engineering, design choices typically derive from basic principles of materials science and structural design. A suspension bridge, for example, uses the fact that steel is extremely efficient in tension, while a prestressed concrete bridge takes advantage of concrete's relatively low cost by weight and its ability to sustain high compressive loading (see compression).
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_verification-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Design for verification"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_verification"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:03.566061+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Design for verification (DfV) is a set of engineering guidelines to aid designers in ensuring right first time manufacturing and assembly of large-scale components. The guidelines were developed as a tool to inform and direct designers during early stage design phases to trade off estimated measurement uncertainty against tolerance, cost, assembly, measurability and product requirements.
+
+
+== Background ==
+Increased competition in the aerospace market has placed additional demands on aerospace manufacturers to reduce costs, increase product flexibility and improve manufacturing efficiency. There is a knowledge gap within the sphere of digital to physical dimensional verification and on how to successfully achieve dimensional specifications within real-world assembly factories that are subject to varying environmental conditions. 
+The DfV framework is an engineering principle to be used within low rate and high value and complexity manufacturing industries to aid in achieving high productivity in assembly via the effective dimensional verification of large volume structures, during final assembly. The DfV framework has been developed to enable engineers to design and plan the effective dimensional verification of large volume, complex structures in order to reduce failure rates and end-product costs, improve process integrity and efficiency, optimise metrology processes, decrease tooling redundancy and increase product quality and conformance to specification. Francis et al 2016 published the theoretical elements of the DfV methods showing, that by using the new design for verification methods alongside the traditional ‘design for X’ toolbox, the resultant process achieved improved tolerance analysis and synthesis, optimized large volume metrology and assembly processes and more cost-effective tool and jig design.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Design for assembly
+Design for inspection
+Design for manufacturability
+Design for X
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_review-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+---
+title: "Design review"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_review"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:04.710748+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A design review is a milestone within a product development process whereby a design is evaluated against its requirements in order to verify the outcomes of previous activities and identify issues before committing to—and, if need be, to re-prioritise—further work. The ultimate design review, if successful, therefore triggers the product launch or product release.
+The conduct of design reviews is compulsory as part of design controls, when developing products in certain regulated contexts such as medical devices.
+By definition, a review must include persons who are external to the design team.
+
+
+== Contents of a design review ==
+In order to evaluate a design against its requirements, a number of means may be considered, such as:
+
+Physical tests.
+Engineering simulations.
+Examinations (Walk-through).
+
+
+== Timing of design reviews ==
+Most formalised systems engineering processes recognise that the cost of correcting a fault increases as it progresses through the development process.  Additional effort spent in the early stages of development to discover and correct errors is therefore likely to be worthwhile.  Design reviews are example of such an effort.
+Therefore, a number of design reviews may be carried out, for example to evaluate the design against different sets of criteria (consistency, usability, ease of localisation, environmental) or during various stages of the design process.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Design review (U.S. government)
+Hazard and operability study
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detailed_engineering-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+---
+title: "Detailed engineering"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detailed_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:05.911994+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Detailed engineering are studies which creates a full definition of every aspect of a project development. It includes all the studies to be performed before project construction starts. Detail engineering studies are a key component for every project development across mining, infrastructure, energy, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and oil and gas sectors.
+Detailed engineering is a service which is delivered for example by global engineering companies such as Worley, Morimatsu Industry, Outotec, Hatch, Amec Foster Wheeler, M3 Engineering, Ausenco, SNC-Lavalin, Techint, and Jacobs Engineering.
+Detailed engineering follows Front End Engineering Design (FEED) and Basic Engineering previous steps on the engineering process for a project development, it contains in detail diagrams and drawings for construction, civil works, instrumentation, control system, electrical facilities, management of suppliers, schedule of activities, costs, procurement of equipment, economic evaluation and also environmental impacts before starting of construction of a project.
+Detailed engineering is used for different stages and purposes in project development worldwide, whether it is a water treatment plant at OceanaGold Didipo gold-copper mine in the Philippines, a processing plant at Hochschild Mining Inmaculada silver mine in Peru, a molybdenum flotation plant at KGHM Sierra Gorda copper project in Chile, detailed engineering is a key component for every project development.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_grinding-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Diamond grinding"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_grinding"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:07.064631+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Diamond grinding is a grinding process that can be applied to a variety of surfaces including floors, stones, and engineering ceramics. It takes advantage of the fact that diamond has the highest hardness of any bulk material, and uses diamond tools to smooth out bumps and other irregularities on the surface.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Diamond grinding of pavement
+Diamond grinding cup wheel
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm_(structural_system)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Diaphragm (structural system)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm_(structural_system)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:08.265730+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In structural engineering, a diaphragm is a structural element that transmits lateral loads to the vertical resisting elements of a structure (such as shear walls or frames).  Diaphragms are typically horizontal but can be sloped in a gable roof on a wood structure or concrete ramp in a parking garage.  The diaphragm forces tend to be transferred to the vertical resisting elements primarily through in-plane shear stress.  The most common lateral loads to be resisted are those resulting from wind and earthquake actions, but other lateral loads such as lateral earth pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be resisted by diaphragm action.
+The diaphragm of a structure often does double duty as the floor system or roof system in a building, or the deck of a bridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
+Parts of a diaphragm include:
+
+the collector (or membrane), used as a shear panel to carry in-plane shear
+The drag strut member, used to transfer the load to the shear walls or frames
+the chord, used to resist the tension and compression forces that develop in the diaphragm since the collector is usually incapable of handling these loads alone
+Diaphragms are usually constructed of plywood or oriented strand board in timber construction; metal deck or composite metal deck in steel construction; or a concrete slab in concrete construction.   
+The two primary types of the diaphragm are flexible and rigid. Flexible diaphragms resist lateral forces depending on the tributary area, irrespective of the flexibility of the members to they are transferring force to.  On the other hand, rigid diaphragms transfer load to frames or shear walls depending on their flexibility and their location in the structure. Diaphragms that cannot be classified as either flexible or rigid are referred to as semirigid. The flexibility of a diaphragm affects the distribution of lateral forces to the vertical components of the lateral force-resisting elements in a structure.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_preparation-0.md

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+---
+title: "Die preparation"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_preparation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:09.418694+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Die preparation is a step of semiconductor device fabrication during which a wafer is prepared for IC packaging and IC testing. The process of die preparation typically consists of two steps: wafer mounting and wafer dicing.
+
+
+== Wafer mounting ==
+Wafer mounting is a step that is performed during the die preparation of a wafer as part of the process of semiconductor fabrication. During this step, the wafer is mounted on a plastic tape that is attached to a ring. Wafer mounting is performed right before the wafer is cut into separate dies. The adhesive film upon which the wafer is mounted ensures that the individual dies remain firmly in place during 'dicing', as the process of cutting the wafer is called.
+The picture on the right shows a  300 mm wafer after it was mounted and diced. The blue plastic is the adhesive tape. The wafer is the round disc in the middle. In this case, a large number of dies were already removed.
+
+
+== Semiconductor-die cutting ==
+
+In the manufacturing of micro-electronic devices, die cutting, dicing or singulation is a process of reducing  a wafer containing multiple identical integrated circuits to individual dies each containing one of those circuits.
+During this process, a wafer with up to thousands of circuits is cut into rectangular pieces, each called a die. In between those functional parts of the circuits, a thin non-functional spacing is foreseen where a saw can safely cut the wafer without damaging the circuits. This spacing is called the scribe line or saw street. The width of the scribe is very small, typically around 100 μm. A very thin and accurate saw is therefore needed to cut the wafer into pieces. Usually the dicing is performed with a water-cooled circular saw with diamond-tipped teeth.
+
+
+== Types of blades ==
+The most common make up of blade used is either a metal or resin bond containing abrasive grit of natural or more commonly synthetic diamond, or borazon in various forms. Alternatively, the bond and grit may be applied as a coating to a metal former. See diamond tools.
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Kaeslin, Hubert (2008), Digital Integrated Circuit Design, from VLSI Architectures to CMOS Fabrication, Cambridge University Press, section 11.4.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_withstand_test-0.md

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+---
+title: "Dielectric withstand test"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_withstand_test"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:10.593639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In electrical engineering, a dielectric withstand test (also pressure test, high potential test, hipot test, or insulation test) is an electrical safety test performed on a component or product to determine the effectiveness of its insulation. The test may be between mutually insulated sections of a part, or energized parts and ground. The test is a means to qualify a device's ability to operate safely during rated electrical conditions. If the current through a device under test is less than a specified limit at the required test potential and time duration, the device meets the dielectric withstand requirement. A dielectric withstand test may be done as a factory test on new equipment, or may be done on apparatus already in service as a routine maintenance test.
+
+Voltage withstand testing is done with a high-voltage source and voltage and current meters.  A single instrument called a "pressure test set" or "hipot tester" is often used to perform this test. It applies the necessary voltages to a device and monitors leakage current. The current can trip a fault indicator. The tester has output overload protection. The test voltage may be either direct current or alternating current at power frequency or other frequency, like resonant frequency (30 to 300 Hz determined by load) or VLF (0.01 Hz to 0.1 Hz), when convenient. The maximum voltage is given in the test standard for the particular product. The application rate may also be adjusted to manage leakage currents resulting from inherent capacitive effects of the test object. The duration of the test is dependent on the test requirements of the asset owner but is normally up to 5 minutes. The applied voltage, rate of application and test duration depend on the specification requirements of the equipment. Different test standards apply for consumer electronics, military electrical devices, high-voltage cables, switchgear and other apparatus.
+Typical hipot equipment leakage current trip limit settings range between 0.1 and 20 mA and are set by the user according to test object characteristics and rate of voltage application. The objective is to choose a current setting that will not cause the tester to falsely trip during voltage application, while at the same time, selecting a value that minimizes possible damage to the device under test should an inadvertent discharge or breakdown occur.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Burn-in
+Dielectric
+Dielectric loss
+Electrical breakdown
+Electrical isolation test
+Impulse generator
+VLF cable testing
+Wet leakage current test
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_magnetofluidics-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Digital magnetofluidics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_magnetofluidics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:11.764260+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Digital magnetofluidics is a method for moving, combining, splitting, and controlling  drops of water or biological fluids using magnetic fields.  This is accomplished by adding superparamagnetic particles to a drop placed on a superhydrophobic surface.  Normally this type of surface would exhibit a lotus effect and the drop of water would roll or slide off.  But by using magnetic fields, the drop is stabilized and its movements and structure can be controlled.
+
+
+== References ==
+A. Egatz-Gomez, S. Melle, A.A. García, S. Lindsay, M.A. Rubio, P. Domínguez, T. Picraux, J. Taraci, T. Clement, and M. Hayes, “Superhydrophobic Nanowire Surfaces for Drop Movement Using Magnetic Fields,” in Proc. NSTI Nanotechnology Conference and Trade Show, 2006, pp. 501–504.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_time_cost_model-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Dimension time cost model"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_time_cost_model"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:12.900359+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The dimension time cost model (DTC) is a creative problem-solving technique that analyzes a problem by maximizing its possible characteristics. Dimension can also encompass other physical characteristics such as temperature, brightness, mass, etc. The DTC model encouragaes creativity by reviewing a system at its potential minimal and maximal points.
+The approach is based on the theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ). 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_pressure-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Discharge pressure"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_pressure"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:14.043782+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Discharge pressure (also called high side pressure or head pressure) is the pressure generated on the output side of a gas compressor in a refrigeration or air conditioning system. Higher discharge pressure could result in increased energy consumption and due to that less efficiency. High discharge pressure is generally considered a negative except for the very rare cases where it can be used to achieve a certain pressure in the system. Additionally, higher discharge pressure can damage components. The discharge pressure is affected by several factors: size and speed of the condenser fan, ambient temperature, condition and cleanliness of the condenser coil, and the size of the discharge line. An extremely high discharge pressure coupled with an extremely low suction pressure is an indicator of a refrigerant restriction. High discharge pressure could result in multiple types of cavitation, including suction cavitation and discharge cavitation which can lead to reduced system efficiency, wear on components, increased noise and vibration and ultimately system failure. You can measure the discharge pressure of the system by installing a pressure gauge on the discharge line. Carefully monitoring the pressure can prevent component damage and failure.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_ratio-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Discrimination ratio"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_ratio"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:15.207370+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In Six Sigma, the discrimination ratio or reliability design index is a performance metric of attribute agreement analysis which assesses the level of agreement between how well the appraisers or inspectors can differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable items.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissipator_(building_design)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Dissipator (building design)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissipator_(building_design)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:16.406495+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A dissipator is a device mounted among some sections of a building to reduce strains during an earthquake by slowing down the shaking of the building. During an earthquake, the sections of the building are subjected to movements which are relative to each other (for instance, the relative movement between two different floors). When the structures oscillate, the dissipator devices, some of which are similar to pistons, slow down the vibration by dissipating viscous or friction energy, thus increasing the equivalent viscous coefficient and then reducing the strains on the structure itself.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_uniformity-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Distribution uniformity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_uniformity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:17.562095+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Distribution uniformity or DU in irrigation is a measure of how uniformly water is applied to the area being watered, normally expressed as percentage, and not to be confused  with efficiency.  The distribution uniformity is often calculated when performing an irrigation audit.  The DU should not be confused with the coefficient of uniformity (CU) which is often preferred for describing the performance of overhead pressurized systems.
+The most common measure of DU is the low quarter DU expressed as DUlq, which is a measure of the average of the lowest quarter of samples, divided by the average of all samples expressed as percentage.  The higher the DUlq, the more uniform the coverage of the area measured.  If all samples are equal, the DUlq is 1.0 or 100%.  There is no universal value of DUlq for satisfactory system performance.  A value of >.80 or 80% is considered above average.
+Distribution uniformity may be helpful as a starting point for irrigation scheduling.  For example, an irrigator might want to apply not less than one inch of water to the area being watered.  If the DU were 75% (0.75), then the total amount to be applied would be the desired amount of water, divided by the DU.  In this case, the required irrigation would be 1.33 inches of water, so that only a very small area received less than one inch.  The lower the DU, the less uniform the distribution at the plane of data collection and the more water that may be needed to meet the minimum requirement.
+Catchments are commonly used to determine sprinkler DU and one must be reminded that data collection most often occurs above grade and above the root zone where plant uptake normally occurs.  Many factors may affect water distribution or redistribution between catchment plane and root zone; slope, plant canopy, thatch, mulch, infiltration rate, etc.. Soil type and root horizon may nullify the need for high DUlq sprinklers.
+Low sprinkler DUlq does not guarantee inefficiency, nor does high DUlq guarantee efficiency.
+An alternative is Christiansen's uniformity coefficient (CU), defined as the average depth of irrigation water applied minus the average absolute deviation from this depth, all divided by the average depth applied (ASAE, 1998).
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_subscript_notation-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+---
+title: "Double subscript notation"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_subscript_notation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:18.802524+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In engineering, double-subscript notation is a notation used to indicate some variable between two points (each point being represented by one of the subscripts). In electronics, the notation is usually used to indicate the direction of current or voltage, while in mechanical engineering it is sometimes used to describe the force or stress between two points, and sometimes even a component that spans between two points (like a beam on a bridge or truss). Although there are many cases where multiple subscripts are used, they are not necessarily called double subscript notation specifically.
+
+
+== Electronic usage ==
+IEEE standard 255-1963, "Letter Symbols for Semiconductor Devices", defined eleven original quantity symbols expressed as abbreviations.
+
+This is the basis for a convention to standardize the directions of double-subscript labels. The following uses transistors as an example, but shows how the direction is read generally. The convention works like this:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            
+              C
+              B
+            
+          
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{\mathrm {CB} }\ }
+  
+ represents the voltage from C to B. In this case, C would denote the collector end of a transistor, and B would denote the base end of the same transistor. This is the same as saying "the voltage drop from C to B", though this applies the standard definitions of the letters C and B.  This convention is consistent with IEC 60050-121.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            
+              C
+              E
+            
+          
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {CE} }\ }
+  
+ would in turn represent the current from C to E. In this case, C would again denote the collector end of a transistor, and E would denote the emitter end of the transistor. This is the same as saying "the current in the direction going from C to E".
+Power supply pins on integrated circuits utilize the same letters for denoting what kind of voltage the pin would receive. For example, a power input labeled VCC would be a positive input that would presumably connect to the collector pin of a BJT transistor in the circuit, and likewise respectively with other subscripted letters. The format used is the same as for notations described above, though without the connotation of VCC meaning the voltage from a collector pin to collector pin; the repetition avoids confusion as such an expression would not exist.
+The table above shows only the originally denoted letters; others have found their way into use over time, such as S and D for the Source and Drain of a FET, respectively.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_pump-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Downton pump"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_pump"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:47:19.973873+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Downton pump is type of positive displacement pump patented in 1825 by Jonathan Downton, a British shipwright. It was typically used on ships.
+The design of the Downton pump sought to create a more constant flow of pumped liquid, and a steadier load-state on the pump, by increasing the number of buckets operating in the pump. These buckets were actuated by means of a rotating crankshaft and connecting rods, which caused the buckets to reciprocate up and down, with each feeding the next with liquid. Hebert (1836) contains a description and cut-away illustration of an early Downton pump.
+
+
+== Power source ==
+The power source for the pump could be either mechanical or human, with human-powered Downton pumps being operated by means of a capstan.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Wightman_Colburn-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Irving Wightman Colburn"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Wightman_Colburn"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:46:25.477141+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Irving Wightman Colburn  (16 May 1861 – 4 September 1917) was an American inventor and manufacturer.
+In 1898, Colburn applied for a patent  for a "Glass Working Machine" that could make hollow-bodied glass containers like bottles. The patent was granted on March 7, 1899, Patent Number US620,642. The use of the patent is unknown.
+Colburn developed a process for the production of continuous flat glass disks which made the mass production for window panes possible. Colburn began his experiments in 1899. In one patent for a machine to produce flat glass on 25 March 1902. He created the Colburn Machine Glass Co. in August 1906. In 1908 he installed two machines, before the technology had developed, and in 1911 he became bankrupt. Toledo Glass Company bought Colburn's patents in 1912. He then improved the process with Toledo Glass, and its first successful result occurred on 25 November 1913. The company then became the Libbey-Owens Sheet Glass company in 1916.
+
+
+== References ==