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+title: "Maker education"
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+Maker education (a term coined by Dale Dougherty in 2013) closely associated with STEM learning, is an approach to problem-based and project-based learning that relies upon hands-on, often collaborative, learning experiences as a method for solving authentic problems. People who participate in making often call themselves "makers" of the maker movement and develop their projects in makerspaces, or development studios which emphasize prototyping and the repurposing of found objects in service of creating new inventions or innovations. Culturally, makerspaces, both inside and outside of schools, are associated with collaboration and the free flow of ideas. In schools, maker education stresses the importance of learner-driven experience, interdisciplinary learning, peer-to-peer teaching, iteration, and the notion of "failing forward", i.e. the idea that mistake-based learning is crucial to the learning process and eventual success of a project.
+
+== Influences ==
+Maker education is an offshoot of the maker movement, which Time magazine described as "the umbrella term for independent innovators, designers and tinkerers. A convergence of computer hackers and traditional artisans, the niche is established enough to have its own magazine, Make, as well as hands-on Maker Faires that are catnip for DIYers who used to toil in solitude". Dale Dougherty, founder of the Maker Faire and Make magazine, stated in his 2011 TED Talk that "We are all makers. We are born makers. We don't just live, but we make." In the same TED Talk, Dougherty also called for making to be embraced in education, as students are the new generation of makers. Another central contributor to the maker movement, Chris Anderson, who was once the editor-in-chief of Wired magazine and is now the CEO of 3D Robotics, wrote a manifesto of the maker movement in 2012, called "Makers". His third book, Makers: The New Industrial Revolution (2012), emphasizes the role that making has to play in the renaissance of American manufacturing. Mark Hatch, formerly the CEO of TechShop, also published "The Maker Movement Manifesto". In addition to these contributions, seminal texts include, Invent To Learn: Making, Tinkering, and Engineering in the Classroom by Sylvia Libow Martinez, and The Art of Tinkering, by Karen Wilkinson and Mike Petrich, founders of The Tinkering Studio at the Exploratorium.
+In the United States, hands-on learning through making has roots in the nineteenth century, as a result of the influence of educators such as Calvin M. Woodward, who established the Manual Training School of Washington University on June 6, 1879. Unlike later vocational education that would take hold in 1917 through the Smith-Hughes Act that had the aim of reducing the United States reliance on foreign trade, the impetus for the Manual Training School was to provide students with training in making and craftsmanship that had "no immediate vocational goal". Today's maker education highlights students' potential to "change the world" and "let their imaginations run wild" while also emphasizing building students' entrepreneurship skills and ability to earn money by selling their inventions.
+That Arts and Crafts movement of the late nineteenth century is sometimes also referenced in relationship with the maker movement. The Arts and Crafts movement, which originated in Britain before taking hold in Europe and North America, was anti-industrial, critical of machinery and factory production, advocating instead for a return to traditional craftsmanship.

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+
+== Development and expansion ==
+Since 2005, maker education has gained momentum in schools across the United States and around the world. Proponents of the maker movement cite the potential for making to bring more women to STEM fields and close the gender gap. Other potential benefits and goals for making include creating greater educational equity among students in public schools, and the possibility for making to be a driver in educational and societal change. Other educators and innovators have developed offshoot curriculum and technologies related to the intersection of critical thinking and making, called critical making.
+In school models, such as the Lighthouse Community Charter, a charter school in Oakland, California, Aaron Van der Woorf, the robotics teacher leads the students in Maker Ed. At the Park School, in collaboration with Harvard's Project Zero, students hold a mini maker faire in school that also acts as a fundraiser for the school. Some districts have also adopted maker education district-wide, such as the district of Elizabeth Forward, just south of Pittsburgh, which partnered with Carnegie Mellon to provide professional development for teachers through working with students on Maker Ed. Principals in Albemarle County schools cite Superintendent Pam Moran as instrumental in bringing maker education to their school district.
+School Maker Faires feature a display of maker education themed projects, and number over 100 per year. The U.S. contains the majority of the annual School Maker Faires, but they also occur across all continents, although they are often organized by U.S. organizations such as the Nanshan School Maker Faire in China  organized by SteamHead. School events are sometimes not open to public admission, but the official Maker Faire website lists all past and upcoming shows and oftentimes schools encourage the general public to spectate and interact with student exhibitions.
+In addition to bringing maker education to schools, scholars like Paulo Blikstein of Stanford University and Dennis Krannich of the University Bremen, in Germany, state that, "Digital fabrication and 'making,' and the positive social movement around them, could be an unprecedented opportunity for educators to advance a progressive educational agenda in which project-based, interest-driven, student-centered learning are at the center stage of students' educational experiences.". Penketh High School in Warrington became the first state school in the United Kingdom to establish a dedicated makerspace embedded into the curriculum in 2017, led by physics teacher Caroline Keep. Keep's earlier work with Mark Feltham at Liverpool John Moores University from 2013–14, developing one of the first makerspaces in UK higher education through the HEdWorks Project, had laid the groundwork for this approach. Keep and Feltham also co-founded Liverpool MakeFest in 2015 alongside Denise Jones of Liverpool Libraries, which grew into a major national maker education event designed to widen the access for educators to makers. It celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2025."
+
+The Obama administration has also strongly supported the growing maker movement as an integral part of STEM education, which it hopes will increase American students ability to compete globally in the areas of science, engineering, and math. At the White House, President Obama hosted the first ever White House Maker Faire in June, 2014, adopting the idea that Americans are a "Nation of Makers". On the Nation of Makers webpage, Americans are encouraged to join the movement, asserting that "empowering students and adults to create, innovate, tinker, and make their ideas and solutions into reality is at the heart of the Maker Movement". Since the first-ever White House Maker Faire, the Obama administration has "continued to support opportunities for students to learn about STEM through making, expand the resources available for maker entrepreneurs, and foster the development of advanced manufacturing in the U.S." In summer 2015, the President announced the National Week of Making, June 17–23, to support the Nation of Makers. In 2016, President Obama renewed his commitment to maker education by continuing the National Week of Making. The National Maker Faire will include participation from the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Energy, the Department of the Navy (Navy), the Institute of Museum and Library Services, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Endowment for the Arts, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). At the time of this announcement, the President also detailed the progress that had been made on the Nation of Makers. He announced, 
+
+Eight Federal agencies are announcing new grants, education initiatives, training, knowledge networks, and other supports to help create more makers and assist more entrepreneurs to take prototypes to scale with new ventures.
+More than 1,400 K–12 schools, representing almost 1 million students from all 50 states, are committing to dedicating a space for making, designating a champion for making, and having a public showcase of student projects.
+More than 100 additional commitments including the distribution of 1 million foldable microscopes to children around the world by Foldscope Instruments; the investment in 100 new makerspaces by Google as part of the Making Spaces program; and new steps to support making at 77 universities and colleges through Make Schools Alliance.
+In addition to these developments, on June 17, 2016, the White House issued a press release, detailing the next steps the United States government will take to support the development and expansion of maker education.
+In 2015 the China Premier, Li Keqiang, decreed that makerspaces would be a part of China's economic development plan. This was followed by the government funding of hundreds of makerspaces across China. In the years that followed, many public and private schools opened school makerspaces where students could build and innovate, propelled by government sponsored makerspaces and international school makerspaces such as the Shenzhen American International School makerspace, makerSAIS, opened by SteamHead in 2014.
+
+== Critique ==

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+
+Though maker education has been embraced by thousands of schools and school districts across the United States and abroad, there has also emerged criticism of the movement.
+Among the critics is Evgeny Morozov, a Belarusian writer and researcher, whose work focuses on the impact, both social and political, of technology. In his article published in The New Yorker, entitled, "Making It: Pick up a spot welder and join the revolution", Morozov criticizes Chris Anderson for "confusing the history of the Web with the history of capitalism and ends by speculating about the future of the maker movement, which, on closer examination, is actually speculation on the future of capitalism". He also criticizes companies and organizations that were once committed to open source software for becoming acquired by for-profit companies and embroiled in copyright and trademark lawsuits. Morozov also criticizes the maker movement's major contributors financial relationship with DARPA, which made a $10 million grant to support maker education for high school students, and $3.5 million to TechShop to establish new makerspaces.
+While Morozov is one of the more vocal critics of maker education, he is not the only one. Debbie Chachra, associate professor at Olin College of Engineering, in her article in the January 23, 2015 issue of The Atlantic, entitled, "Why I Am Not a Maker", centers her criticism on "the social history of who makes things—and who doesn't". Chachra describes the history of the "makers" of products as men, rather than those who cared for "hearth and home", that is, historically, women. She calls for recognition of "the work of the educators, those that analyze and characterize and critique, everyone who fixes things, all the other people who do valuable work with and for others—above all, the caregivers—whose work isn't about something you can put in a box and sell". In "A more lovingly made world", by McKenzie Wark of The New School, Wark writes that the problem with maker culture is that makers don't actually make things, they assemble them. While this experience is satisfying and fun (and Wark does acknowledge the way in which his children are not hemmed in by gender expectations while playing at the Maker Faire), it doesn't teach the underlying principles required for the actual making of functional objects. It also does not, though Chris Anderson and Mark Hatch evoke Marx in their Maker manifestos, map accurately onto an understanding of labor, and certainly not the life of the laborer.
+Shirin Vossoughi and Paula K. Hooper of Northwestern University, and Meg Escude of Exploratorium, offer an in-depth look at the ways in which maker education reinforces educational inequality. They begin by offering Haitian writer, Edwidge Danticat's commentary on making: "If you can't afford clothes, but you can make them--make them. You have to work with what you have, especially if you don't 'have a lot of money. You use creativity, and you use imagination."
+A Focus on Equity:  However, researchers, such as Calabrese Barton and Tan, have argued that youth make in ways that promote new just social futures. The object of making is not the artifact itself, but rather social justice. In their 4-year longitudinal study of youth makers they illustrated how making with and for the community opened opportunity for youth to project their communities' rich cultural knowledge and wisdom onto their  making while also troubling and negotiating the historicized injustices they experience.
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==

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+
+A Master of Science (Latin: Magister Scientiae), abbreviated as MS, MSc, SM, or ScM, is a master's degree. It usually focuses on developing advanced knowledge and analytical skills within a specific scientific, technical, or professional field. It typically emphasizes research, quantitative methods, and critical thinking, combining theoretical foundations with practical application to prepare graduates for specialized careers, doctoral study, or professional advancement. 
+The Master of Science degree was first introduced and awarded by the University of Michigan in 1858.
+
+== Algeria ==
+Algeria follows the Bologna Process.
+
+== Australia ==
+Australian universities commonly have coursework or research-based Master of Science courses for graduate students. They typically run for 1–2 years full-time, with varying amounts of research involved.
+
+== Bangladesh ==
+All Bangladeshi private and public universities have Master of Science courses as postgraduate degree. These include most of the major state-owned colleges. A number of private colleges also do offer MS degrees. After passing Bachelor of Science, any student becomes eligible to study in this discipline.
+
+== Belgium ==
+Like all EU member states, Belgium follows the Bologna Process. In Belgium, the typical university track involved obtaining two degrees, being a two-year Kandidaat prerequisite track (replaced by Bachelor) followed by a two- or three-year Licentiaat track. The latter was replaced by the Master of Science (MSc) academic degree. This system was not exclusive to scientific degrees and was also used for other programs like law and literature.
+
+== Canada ==
+In Canada, Master of Science (MSc) degrees may be entirely course-based, entirely research-based or (more typically) a mixture. Master's programs typically take one to three years to complete and the completion of a scientific thesis is often required. Admission to a master's program is contingent upon holding a four-year university bachelor's degree. Some universities require a master's degree in order to progress to a doctoral program (PhD).
+
+=== Quebec ===
+In the province of Quebec, the Master of Science follows the same principles as in the rest of Canada. There is one exception, however, regarding admission to a master's program. Since Québécois students complete two to three years of college before entering university, they have the opportunity to complete a bachelor's degree in three years instead of four. Some undergraduate degrees such as the Bachelor of Education and the Bachelor of Engineering requires four years of study. Following the obtention of their bachelor's degree, students can be admitted into a graduate program to eventually obtain a master's degree.
+While some students complete their master's program, others use it as a bridge to doctoral research programs. After one year of study and research in the master's program, many students become eligible to apply to a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program directly, without obtaining the Master of Science degree in the first place.
+
+== Chile ==
+Commonly, Chilean universities have used "Magíster" for a master's degree, but other than that it is similar to the rest of South America.
+
+== Cyprus ==
+Like all EU member states, the Republic of Cyprus follow the Bologna Process. Universities in Cyprus have used either "Magíster Scientiae or Artium" or Master of Arts/Science for a master's degree with 90 to 120 ECTS and duration of studies between 1, 2 and 5 years.
+
+== Czech Republic and Slovakia ==
+Like all EU member states, Czech Republic and Slovakia follow the Bologna Process. Czech Republic and Slovakia both award two different types of master's degrees; both award a title of Mgr. or Ing. to be used before the name.
+Prior to reforms for compliance with the Bologna process, a master's degree could only be obtained after 5 years of uninterrupted study. Under the new system, it takes only 2 years but requires a previously completed 3-year bachelor's program (a Bc. title). Writing a thesis (in both master's and bachelor's programs) and passing final exams are necessary to obtain the degree. It is mostly the case that the final exams cover the main study areas of the whole study program, i.e. a student is required to prove their knowledge in the subjects they attended during the 2 resp. 3 years of their study. Exams also include the defence of a thesis before an academic board.
+Ing. (Engineer) degrees are usually awarded for master's degrees achieved in the Natural Sciences or Mathematics-heavy study programmes, whereas an Mgr. (Magister) is generally awarded for Master's studies in social sciences, humanities and the arts.
+
+== Egypt ==
+The Master of Science (MSc) is an academic degree for post-graduate candidates or researchers, it usually takes from 4 to 7 years after passing the Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Master programs are awarded in many sciences in the Egyptian Universities. A completion of the degree requires finishing a pre-master studies followed by a scientific thesis or research. All MSc degree holders are allowable to take a step forward in the academic track to get the PhD degree.
+
+== Finland ==
+Like all EU member states, Finland follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science (MSc) academic degree usually follows the Bachelor of Science (BSc) studies which typically last five years. For the completion of both the bachelor and the master studies the student must accumulate a total of 300 ECTS credits, thus most Masters programs are two-year programs with 120 credits. The completion of a scientific thesis is required.
+
+== Germany ==
+Like all EU member states, Germany follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science (MSc) academic degree replaces the once common Diplom or Magister programs that typically lasted four to five years. It is awarded in science-related studies with a high percentage of mathematics. For the completion the student must accumulate 300 ECTS Credits, thus most Masters programs are two-year programs with 120 credits. The completion of a scientific thesis is required.

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+---
+
+== South America ==
+In Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela, the Master of Science or Magister is a postgraduate degree lasting two to four years. The admission to a master's program (Spanish: Licenciatura; Portuguese: Mestrado) requires the full completion of a four to five year long undergraduate degree, bachelor's degree, engineer's degree or a licentiate of the same length. Defense of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees qualify for a doctorate program. Depending on the country, one ECTS credit point can equal on average between 22 and 30 actual study hours. In most of these cases, the number of required attendance hours to the university classes will be at least half of that (one ECTS will mean around 11 to 15 mandatory hours of on-site classes).
+
+== Southeastern Europe ==
+In Slavic countries in the European southeast (particularly former Yugoslavian republics), the education system was largely based on the German university system (largely due to the presence and influence of the Austria-Hungary Empire in the region). Prior to the implementation of the Bologna Process, academic university studies comprised a 4–5 year-long graduate diplom program, which could have been followed by a 2–4 year long magistar program and then later with 2–5 year long doctor of science program.
+After the Bologna Process implementation, again based on the German implementation, Diplom titles and programs were replaced by entirely professional bachelor's and master's programs. The studies are structured such that a master program lasts long enough for the student to accumulate a total of 300 ECTS credits, so its duration would depend on a number of credits acquired during the bachelor studies. Pre-Bologna magistar programs were abandoned – after earning an MSc degree and satisfying other academic requirements a student could proceed to earn a doctor of science degree directly, or skip MSc if the diplom program lasted more than 3 years as it was possible to do so for some time.
+
+== Guyana ==
+In Guyana, all universities, including University of Guyana, Texila American University, American International School of Medicine have Master of Science courses as postgraduate degrees. Students who have completed undergraduate Bachelor of Science degree are eligible to study in this discipline.
+
+== India ==
+In India, universities offer MSc programs usually in sciences discipline. Generally, post-graduate scientific courses lead to MSc degree while post-graduate engineering courses lead to ME or MTech degree. For example, a master's in automotive engineering would normally be an ME or MTech, while a master's in physics would be an MSc. A few top universities also offer combined undergraduate-postgraduate programs leading to a master's degree which is known as integrated masters.
+A Master of Science in Engineering (MSEngg) degree is also offered in India. It is usually structured as an engineering research degree, lesser than PhD and considered to be parallel to MPhil degree in humanities and science. Some institutes such as IITs offer an MS degree for postgraduate engineering courses. This degree is considered a research-oriented degree whereas MTech or ME degree is usually not a research degree in India. MSc degree is also awarded by various IISERs which are one of the top institutes in India.
+
+== Iran ==
+In Iran, similar to Canada, Master of Science (MSc) or in Iranian form Kārshenāsi-e arshad degrees may be entirely course-based, entirely research-based, or most commonly a mixture. Master's programs typically take two to three years to complete and the completion of a scientific thesis is often required.
+
+== Ireland ==
+Like all EU member states, Ireland follows the Bologna Process. In Ireland, Master of Science (MSc) may be course-based with a research component or entirely research based. The program is most commonly a one-year program and a thesis is required for both course-based and research based degrees.
+
+== Israel ==
+In Israel, Master of Science (MSc) may be entirely course-based or include research. The program is most commonly a two-year program and a thesis is required only for research based degrees.
+
+== Italy ==
+Like all EU member states, Italy follows the Bologna Process. The degree Master of Science is awarded in the Italian form, Laurea Magistrale. Before the current organization of academic studies there was the Laurea. According to the subject the laurea could require four, five or six years of study. The laurea was subsequently split into a "laurea triennale" (three years) and a "laurea magistrale" (two more years).
+
+== Nepal ==
+In Nepal, universities offer the Master of Science degree usually in science and engineering areas. Tribhuvan University offers MSc degree for all the science and engineering courses. Pokhara University and Purbanchal University offer ME for engineering and MSc for science. Kathmandu University offers MS by Research and ME degrees for science and engineering. Students can do postgraduate degree in any fields of science like chemistry, biology, physics etc.
+
+== Netherlands ==
+Like all EU member states, the Netherlands follows the Bologna Process. In the past graduates of applied universities (HBO) were excluded from using titles such as MSc, as HBO institutions are formally not universities but polytechnic institutions of higher education. However, since 2014 academic titles are granted to any university graduate.
+However, older academic titles used in the Netherlands are:
+
+ingenieur (abbreviated as ir.) (for graduates who followed a technical or agricultural program)
+meester (abbreviated as mr.) (for graduates who followed an LLM law program)
+doctorandus (abbreviated as drs.) (in all other cases).
+The bearers of these titles can use either the older title, of MSc, LL.M or MA but not both for the same field of study.
+
+== New Zealand ==
+New Zealand universities commonly have coursework or research-based Master of Science courses for graduate students. They typically run for 2 years full-time, with varying amounts of research involved.

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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:20.343874+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Norway ==
+Norway follows the Bologna Process. For engineering, the Master of Science academic degree has been recently introduced and has replaced the previous award forms "Sivilingeniør" (engineer, a.k.a. engineering master) and "Hovedfag" (academic master). Both were awarded after 5 years of university-level studies and required the completion of a scientific thesis.
+"Siv.ing", is a protected title traditionally awarded to engineering students who completed a five-year education at The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Norwegian: Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, NTNU) or other university programs deemed to be equivalent in academic merit. Historically there was no bachelor's degree involved and today's program is a five years master's degree education. The "Siv.ing" title is in the process of being phased out, replaced by (for now, complemented by) the "M.Sc." title. By and large, "Siv.ing" is a title tightly being held on to for the sake of tradition. In academia, the new program offers separate three-year bachelor and two-year master programs. It is awarded in the natural sciences, mathematics and computer science fields. The completion of a scientific thesis is required. All master's degrees are designed to certify a level of education and qualify for a doctorate program.
+Master of Science in Business is the English title for those taking a higher business degree, "Siviløkonom" in Norwegian. In addition, there is, for example, the 'Master of Business Administration' (MBA), a practically oriented master's degree in business, but with less mathematics and econometrics, due to its less specific entry requirements and smaller focus on research.
+
+== Pakistan ==
+Pakistan inherited its conventions pertaining to higher education from United Kingdom after independence in 1947. Master of Science degree is typically abbreviated as MSc (as in the United Kingdom) and which is awarded after 16 years of education (equivalent with a bachelor's degree in the US and many other countries). Recently, in pursuance to some of the reforms by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (the regulatory body of higher education in Pakistan), the traditional 2-year Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree has been replaced by the 4-year Bachelor of Science degree, which is abbreviated as BS to enable the Pakistani degrees with the rest of the world. Subsequently, students who pass a 4-year BS degree that is awarded after 16 years of education are then eligible to apply for MS degree, which is considered at par with Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) degree.
+
+== Poland ==
+Like all EU member states, Poland follows the Bologna Process. The Polish equivalent of Master of Science is "magister" (abbreviated "mgr", written pre-nominally much like "Dr"). Starting in 2001, the MSc programs typically lasting 5 years began to be replaced as below:
+
+3-year associates programs, (licentiate degree termed "licencjat" in Polish. No abbreviated pre-nominal or title.)
+3.5-year engineer programs (termed "inżynier", utilizing the pre-nominal abbreviation "inż.")
+2-year master programs open to both "licencjat" and "inż." graduates.
+1.5-year master programs open only to "inż." graduates.
+The degree is awarded predominantly in the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, economics, as well as in the arts and other disciplines. Those who graduate from an engineering program prior to being awarded a master's degree are allowed to use the "mgr inż." pre-nominal ("master engineer"). This is most common in engineering and agricultural fields of study. Defense of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees in Poland qualify for a doctorate program.
+
+== Russia ==
+The title of "master" was introduced by Alexander I at 24 January 1803. The Master had an intermediate position between the candidate and doctor according to the decree "About colleges structure". The master's degree was abolished from 1917 to 1934.
+
+== Spain ==
+Like all EU member states, Spain follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science (MSc) degree is a program officially recognized by the Spanish Ministry of Education. It usually involves 1 or 2 years of full-time study. It is targeted at pre-experience candidates who have recently finished their undergraduate studies. An MSc degree can be awarded in every field of study. An MSc degree is required in order to progress to a PhD. MSci, MPhil and DEA are equivalent in Spain.
+
+== Sweden ==
+Like all EU member states, Sweden follows the Bologna Process. The Master of Science academic degree has, like in Germany, recently been introduced in Sweden. Students studying Master of Science in Engineering programs are rewarded both the English Master of Science Degree, but also the Swedish equivalent "Teknologisk masterexamen". Whilst "Civilingenjör" is an at least five year long education.
+
+== Syria ==
+The Master of Science is a degree that can be studied only in public universities. The program is usually 2 years, but it can be extended to 3 or 4 years. The student is required to pass a specific bachelor's degree to attend a specific Master of Science degree program. The master of science is mostly a research degree, except for some types of programs held with cooperation of foreign universities. The student typically attends courses in the first year of the program and should then prepare a research thesis. Publishing two research papers is recommended and will increase the final evaluation grade.

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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:20.343874+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== United Kingdom ==
+The Master of Science (MSc) is typically a taught postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examinations and a project dissertation (normally taking up a third of the program). Master's programs usually involve a minimum of 1 year of full-time study (180 UK credits, of which 150 must be at master's level) and sometimes up to 2 years of full-time study (or the equivalent period part-time). Taught master's degrees are normally classified into Pass, Merit and Distinction (although some universities do not give Merit). Some universities also offer MSc by research programs, where a longer project or set of projects is undertaken full-time; master's degrees by research are normally pass/fail, although some universities may offer a distinction.
+The more recent Master in Science (MSci) degree (Master of Natural Sciences at the University of Cambridge), is an undergraduate (UG) level integrated master's degree offered by UK institutions since the 1990s. It is offered as a first degree with the first three (four in Scotland) years similar to a BSc course and a final year (120 UK credits) at master's level, including a dissertation. The final MSci qualification is thus at the same level as a traditional MSc.
+
+== United States ==
+The Master of Science (Magister Scientiæ) degree is normally a full-time two-year degree often abbreviated MS. It is the primary type in most subjects and may be entirely course-based, entirely research-based or (more typically) a combination of the two. The combination often involves writing and defending a thesis or completing a research project which represents the culmination of the material learned.
+Admission to a master's program is normally contingent upon holding a bachelor's degree. Progressing to a doctoral program may require a master's degree. In some fields or graduate programs, work on a doctorate can begin immediately after the bachelor's degree. Some programs provide for a joint bachelor's and master's degree after about five years. Some universities use the Latin degree names and due to the flexibility of word order in Latin, Artium Magister (AM) or Scientiæ Magister (SM or ScM) may be used in some institutions.
+
+== See also ==
+Master of Science in Accounting
+Master of Science in Administration
+Master of Science in Computer Science
+Master of Science in Corporate Communication
+Master of Science in Economics
+Master of Science in Engineering
+Master of Science in Finance
+Master of Science in Foreign Service
+Master of Science in Information Systems
+Master of Science in Information Technology
+Master of Science in Management
+Master of Science in Nursing
+Master of Science in Occupational Therapy
+Master of Science in Physician Assistant Studies
+Master of Science in Project Management
+Master of Science in Systems Management
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Information_Technology-0.md

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+---
+title: "Master of Science in Information Technology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Information_Technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:21.648744+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Master of Science in Information Technology (abbreviated M.Sc.IT, MScIT or MSIT) is a master's degree in the field of information technology awarded by universities in many countries or a person holding such a degree. The MSIT degree is designed for those managing information technology, especially the information systems development process. The MSIT degree is functionally equivalent to a Master of Information Systems Management, which is one of several specialized master's degree programs recognized by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB).
+One can become a software engineer and data scientist after completing an MSIT degree.
+
+
+== Curriculum ==
+A joint committee of Association for Information Systems (AIS) and Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) members develop a model curriculum for the Master of Science in Information Systems (MSIT). The most recent version of the MSIS Model Curriculum was published in 2016.
+
+
+== Course and variants ==
+The course of study is concentrated around the Information Systems discipline. The core courses are (typically) Systems analysis, Systems design, Data Communications, Database design, Project management and Security.
+The degree typically includes coursework in both computer science and business skills, but the core curriculum might depend on the school and result in other degrees and specializations, including:
+
+Master of Science (Information Technology) M.Sc.(I.T)
+Master of Computer Applications  (MCA)
+Master in Information Science (MIS)
+Master of Science in Information and Communication Technologies (MS-ICT)
+Master of Science in Information Systems Management (MISM)
+Master of Science in Information Technology (MSIT or MS in IT)
+Master of Computer Science (MCS)
+Master of Science in Information Systems (MSIS)
+Master of Science in Management of Information Technology (M.S. in MIT)
+Master of Information Technology (M.I.T.) 
+Master of IT (M. IT or MIT) in Denmark
+Candidatus/candidata informationis technologiæ (Cand. it.) in Denmark
+Master of Information Science and Technology (M.I.S.T.) from The University of Tokyo and Osaka University, Japan
+
+
+== See also ==
+ABET - Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (United States)
+List of master's degrees
+Bachelor of Computer Information Systems
+Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
+Master of Science in Information Systems
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(academic_company)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Meta (academic company)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(academic_company)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:22.918942+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Meta was a Canadian artificial intelligence company that specialized in analyzing and organizing knowledge from the text of scientific literature using machine learning. Founded in 2010 by siblings Sam Molyneux and Amy Molyneux in Toronto, Canada, and backed by institutional venture capital investors, the company developed AI-powered tools.  Meta's assets were later transferred to Facebook Inc. to enable its rebranding to Meta Platforms Inc. in 2021 by the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative and shut down in 2021, effective in 2022.
+
+
+== History ==
+History Founding and Early Development 
+Meta Inc. was founded initially as Sciencescape Inc., in Toronto. The idea for the company emerged from Sam Molyneux's experience as a cancer genomics researcher when he discovered that similar research findings had been published while he was working on related projects.
+The company initially focused on developing AI-powered knowledge tools to help researchers navigate the overwhelming volume of scientific publications. The platform was designed to address information overload in modern scientific research. 
+
+
+=== Beginning ===
+Meta Inc., formerly Sciencescape Inc., was founded in 2010 by Sam and Amy Molyneux. Before co-founding Meta, Sam Molyneux studied cancer genomics at the Ontario Cancer Institute at Princess Margaret Hospital in Toronto. The service was developed with the intention of curating the millions of articles in the area of academic publishing.
+The company was headquartered in Redwood City, California (formerly Toronto, Ontario, Canada) and operated Meta Science, a literature discovery platform.
+As of September 2016, Meta had analyzed over 26 million papers and profiled 14 million researchers.  Using natural language processing, Meta scans articles - as well as the millions of articles stored in open-access repositories - collecting information about authors, citations and topics. Participating publishers receive exposure for their journals in return. These include the American Medical Association, BioMed Central, Elsevier, Karger, SAGE Publishing, Taylor & Francis, Wolters Kluwer, and the Royal Society. The technology for the platform was developed via a joint partnership between Meta and SRI International.
+IARPA FUSE Program Commercialization 
+Meta Inc.'s technology foundation was significantly enhanced through its commercialization of SRI International’s machine learning research developed under the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA) Foresight and Understanding from Scientific Exposition (FUSE) program.
+
+
+=== Merge with Chan Zuckerberg Initiative ===
+Meta merged with the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative in 2017, marking the Initiative's first acquisition.
+
+
+=== Shutdown ===
+On October 28, 2021, the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative announced the sunset of Meta, with a proposed shutdown date of March 31, 2022.
+
+
+== Features and specifications ==
+Meta includes coverage of the biomedical sciences with real-time updates from PubMed and other sources. The website provides access to over 22 million papers with publication dates as early as the 1800s.  By sifting through papers and learning from user behavior, the service pinpoints key pieces of research and provides relevant search results. Meta also provides visualizations about a field of research by organizing papers by their date of publication and citation count and then presenting the information in a way that allows users to quickly identify key historical papers.
+The Meta Science research platform uses algorithms that allow users to sort new publications according to subject matter. Users can subscribe to feeds for areas of research including biology, genes, diseases, genetic disorders, drugs, people, labs & institutes, and journals.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minibeast-0.md

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+---
+title: "Minibeast"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minibeast"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:24.224686+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the context of ecological literacy, arthropods and other small invertebrates are often referred to by informal names such as minibeasts, bugs, creepy crawlies (-ie and -y in the singular), or minifauna (contrasting with megafauna). The term is used for spiders, insects, woodlice, centipedes, slugs, snails, worms and many other animals.
+
+
+== Definition ==
+The United Kingdom–based Young People's Charitable Trust defines them as "small animals" in a factsheet written for young readers. There is a "Minibeast Zooseum" in Michigan dedicated to invertebrates.
+Minibeasts, as indicated by their name, are generally miniature compared to pets and livestock that people are more often familiar with. The study of minibeasts is common as part of the primary school curriculum. Studying minibeasts is a very effective way to observe many biological concepts first hand, which is not possible with many larger animals. Life cycles, food chains, and bodily structure and function are just some of the basic elements of biological science which can be easily explained using minibeasts. "Bugs Alive!" at Melbourne Museum features a huge number of live minibeasts with detailed information about them, while services such as "Minibeast Wildlife" and "Travelbugs"  take live minibeasts to school and provide educational resources.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Damned yellow composite—Numerous difficult-to-identify dandelion-like plants
+Little brown bird
+Little brown mushroom—Difficult-to-identify mushrooms
+Small shelly fauna
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+National Curriculum in Action—Minibeast Tree Diagrams
+Wildlife Trust—Minibeast Ride, with National Curriculum considerations
+Minibeast Wildlife—Minibeast education, resources, and photographs
+Melbourne Museum - Bugs Alive!—Resources, exhibition information, interactive web games
+Travelbugs—Mobile minibeast education

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_laboratory-0.md

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+---
+title: "Mobile laboratory"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_laboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:25.404032+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A mobile laboratory is a laboratory that is either fully housed within or transported by a vehicle such as a converted bus, RV, or tractor-trailer.
+Such vehicles can serve a variety of functions, including:
+
+Science education
+Science research
+Air, water, and soil analysis and monitoring
+Biosafety
+
+
+== Mobile Teaching Laboratories ==
+
+A novel use of the mobile laboratory is in science education. In some cases, the mobile laboratory travels to schools, museums, and other community organizations, providing the schools with educational resources which they otherwise lack. The mobile laboratory coalition is a loose partnership of groups that provide such services. In other cases, students must also travel to the mobile lab, such as when the lab takes the form of a boat or a train. Mobile laboratories have recently been gaining favor from the National Institutes of Health, in the form of the particular mobile laboratories such as the Biobus located in New York and Georgia State University's Bio-Bus Program located in Atlanta, GA  and the Boston University MobileLab, as a way to develop knowledge and understanding regarding biotechnology and medicine amongst the United States population.
+The practice of mobile teaching labs exists outside the USA as well with examples, in the UK and in African countries.  The UK Institute of Physics is touring secondary schools with their Lab in a Lorry. This is a large articulated truck with three small laboratories. In these, pupils can learn about the use of Physics in Medicine, and do hands-on experiments with light and sound using good physics lab equipment. These are guided by local volunteers and an IoP scientist. Volunteers usually have an interest in general science, or come from a science background. The project has the backing of the British Science Association, the STEMNET Ambassadors Scheme, and sponsors such as EDF Energy.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-0.md

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+---
+title: "Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:26.619976+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies named after M.V. Lomonosov (traditional abbreviation "MITHT") is one of the oldest universities in the country that offer training in a wide range of specialties in the field of chemical technology.
+Currently, there are more than 4,500 students in nine areas of undergraduate, 28 master's programs and 23 scientific specialties for training of candidates and doctors of science. In MITHT there are eight dissertation councils for doctoral and PhD theses.
+Research and teaching activities are performed by more than 400 professors and 158 scientists, including more than 120 doctors of science and professors. Located in Moscow at Vernadsky Avenue, Building 86 (new building complex) and Malaya Pirogovskaya, Building 1 (historic building).
+
+== History ==
+History of the university and its continuing operations as a higher education institution begins 1 July 1900 and covers several stages.
+
+=== Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Moscow Higher Women Courses (1900–1918) ===
+1 July (14 July, New Style) 1900 was organized the Moscow Higher Women Courses (MHWC). Their structure originally consisted of two departments: History and Philosophy and Physics and Mathematics. On the last one were soon opened two offices: mathematical and natural, and after a few years two more – medical and chemical-pharmaceutical. The initiators and the first lecturers were outstanding scientists, academics subsequently S. A. Chaplygin, V. I. Vernadsky, N. D. Zelinsky (the inventor of the gas mask (1916)), Professors V. F. Davidov, B. K. Mlodzeevskii, A. N. Reformatsky, A. A. Eichenwald, S. G. Krapivin. The first director of MHWC was Professor V. I. Guerrier.
+In 1905 as a director was elected S. A. Chaplygin, the leading scientist in the field of hydro- and aerodynamics, the organizer of the construction of school buildings on the Malaya Pirogovskaya street (formerly Devichie Pole). He remained in that post until 1918.
+By the beginning of World War I MHWC turned into one of the largest higher education institutions in the country. The number of trainees reached 710, and during the existence of courses released 5760 professionals. In turning into a first-class university MHWC paramount importance had an exceptional organizational skill of S. A. Chaplygin, later shown to them with equal brilliance in creating TsAGI.
+
+=== Department of Chemistry of the 2nd Moscow State University (1918–30) ===
+16 October 1918 MHWC were converted into second Moscow State University. The first rector of the 2nd Moscow State University was appointed academician S. S. Nametkin who worked since 1913 as a head of the Department of Organic Chemistry of MHWC. As rector, he remained until 1924. As part of the 2nd Moscow State University became the chemical-pharmaceutical department, which in 1919 was transformed into the chemical and pharmaceutical department.  At this time, on the faculty worked well-known Professors A. M. Berkengeim, B. K. Mlodzeevskii, S. S. Nametkin, M. I. Prozin, A. N. Reformatsky, O. N. Tsuberbiller. In 1929, the faculty became a chemical faculty of the university type with specialties such as:
+
+Chemical – pharmaceutical chemistry;
+Basic chemistry;
+Aniline chemistry;
+Chemistry of rare elements;
+Coke-benzene chemistry;
+Organic Synthesis.
+Faculty graduates go to work in the factories, involve in the implementation of research projects that receive a wide scope. During 1922 – 1928 years it has been published about 300 papers and 11 monographs. The greatest successes are achieved in the fields of organic and pharmaceutical chemistry under the direction of heads of departments, academics S. S. Nametkin, B. M. Rodionov, Professor A. M. Berkengeim. Production of new drugs being introduced in the pharmaceutical factory belonging to faculty.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-1.md

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+---
+title: "Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:26.619976+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology (1930–92) ===
+18 April 1930 by order of the People's Commissariat second MSU was reorganized into three independent institutions: Medical (now RSMU them. Pirogov) Pedagogical (now MPSU), and Chemical Technology (now MITHT). Last transferred to the jurisdiction of the Vsehimprom VSNKh USSR. In addressing this issue directly involved Sergo Ordzhonikidze.
+10 May 1931 Chemical and Pharmaceutical Faculty became an independent and received a new name – the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology (MITHT). Historically, the name of the institute is due to the nature of objects that are studied by students: they were small capacity chemical and pharmaceutical technology, technology of platinum group metals and rare-earth elements. From this moment begins a new stage of development of the institution, which is quickly becoming one of the leading universities in the chemical industry. Front of it set the goal of training for high-tech industries of chemical technology. In MITHT the first time in the country began to train engineers on the technology of thin inorganic products, synthetic rubber, thin organic produce synthetic liquid fuels, organometallic compounds and a number of other specialties.
+In the process of restructuring of education at the institute have been preserved and developed the best traditions of MHWC and 2nd Moscow State University: a high level of theoretical training and a combination of academic and scientific work, helped by the fact that the teaching work at the institute and chairing of departments were performed by outstanding scientists and educators which created a school and research areas.
+Special departments were prepared engineers for industries which were still being created in the first five years. At the time, were of great importance establishment of a domestic pharmaceutical industry and the country's liberation on imports of medicines. Were developed and implemented methods of production of such drugs as atophan, benzocaine, procaine, bromural, thiokol, ichtyol, validol, antipyrine, caffeine, alkaloids and others. In 1938, in MITHT under the leadership of academic A. N. Nesmeyanov (later President of the RAS) began work in the field of organometallic compounds. Also, the Institute prepared professionals for the companies producing such important national defense materials, such as tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and rare-earth elements. So, Professor I. Ya. Bashilov created the production technology of uranium and radium. And under the guidance of Professor G. A. Meyerson were carried out important work on carbothermy and getting super-hard alloys.
+7 May 1940 for academic achievement and great progress in the preparation of chemists institute is named after the outstanding Russian scientist Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov.
+During the war, groups of departments in collaboration with industry and research institutes conduct intensive research on defense-related development and implementation of the executed work. Thus, under the supervision of Professor N. I. Gelperin was created the most powerful bomb in World War II – FAB-5000NG that terrified Hitlerites. Efforts of the Institute as a whole and individual professors and teachers were appreciated by the country. Professors B. A. Dogadkin, N. I. Krasnopevtsev, V. V. Lebedinskij, S. S. Medvedev, S. I. Sklyarenko and Ya. K. Sirkin were awarded the Stalin Prize laureates, and associate professor K. A. Bolshakov won that title twice.
+The post-war period was characterized by intensive work of the Institute staff in the aftermath of the war, the creation of the necessary conditions for teaching and research. Among the most important achievements of the postwar period MITHT need to include: 
+
+The total synthesis of a number of natural alkaloids – pilocarpine, pilozinin, alkaloids of propane series (tropine, cocaine), arecoline, eserine, emetine, psyhotrine, emataliine, cinchonamine, tubocurarine and other alkaloids of curare (magnolin, magnolamine, dauricine). For this work, Professor N. A. Preobragensky in 1952 was awarded the Stalin Prize of the first degree;
+The synthesis of physiologically active derivatives of piperidine (anesthetics, analgesics, and other drugs), technology development and industrial development of high-output painkiller "promedol";
+Academician A. N. Bashkirov for the first time in the world and the Soviet Union in 1959 has been implemented industrial technology for production of higher aliphatic alcohols on the basis of a synthesis of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (the so-called "oxosynthesis technology");
+Development of technology for the production of vitamins A1, B1, B2, E, C and K1;
+Create rubbers based on new types of caoutchouc, operating at high and low temperatures in harsh operating conditions.
+The high scientific – technical research conducted at the institute, evidenced by the fact that MITHT became one of the first places among the universities and research institutes on the number of implemented inventions. Employees of the institute published 450–500 scientific papers and received 50–60 invention certificates a year. The institute conducts research on economic agreements and contracts on cooperation with industry and research institutes, whose number exceeded 150.
+MITHT, in fact, has turned into a complex of the university and research institutes. On 2500–3000 students, in addition to 400 professors and lecturers, employed more than 900 scientists. Two to one – that is the ratio of students, academic and teaching staff, which was reached in MITHT. Good specialist, engineer cannot be prepared without bringing him to participate in real, serious scientific research in the learning process.
+11 February 1971 for his services to the training of specialists for the national economy and the development of scientific research institute was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour.
+Education in MITHT always featured a deep fundamental training, which included, along with a full range of natural sciences study the big cycle engineering and technological disciplines. Special training was carried out by the so-called "thin" chemical technologies that are, as a rule, small capacity technology, implemented on the basis of the latest achievements of chemical science and technology. That is, in fact, the students received a university degree in combination with engineering training.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-2.md

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+---
+title: "Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:26.619976+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov (1992–2011) ===
+In 1992, the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov has received a new, higher educational status – status of the academy. With the name change has changed the status and range of activities of the institute along with old technology, new specialty Humanitarian – Management Profile: "Economics and Management (chemical industry)", "Environmental Protection", "Standardization and Certification". These specialties are subject to major technologies and solve their narrow-profile tasks.
+Before the transition to a tiered structure the education of students was carried out in one direction, "Chemical Technology and Biotechnology", which consists of seven specialties. After the transition academy led training in seven areas of undergraduate, graduate five areas (including 26 master's programs) and 13 majors (including 25 majors) in full-time and part-correspondence courses, and conducted post-graduate education in 24 specialties and additional education in primary educational programs MITHT.
+To implement in MITHT a tiered system of higher education were opened new training units. Along with main faculties teaching of students was performed at the Faculty of Natural Science, Faculty of Humanities, Faculty of Management, Economics and Environment, Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of further education at the Institute of Distance Education.
+According to the Federal Agency for Supervision in Education and Science in 2008 in MITHT worked one of the most highly qualified scientific and technical teaching staff of universities and academies of Russia: doctors and candidates of sciences accounted for about 80% of the teachers. At the academy a total enrollment of 4,500 undergraduate and graduate students, taught 119 professors, doctors, and 218 associate professors, candidates of sciences.
+
+=== Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies (2011–present) ===
+
+In 2011, the academy received a university status.
+The successes of the university in education, research and innovation, the recognition of the scientific and pedagogical schools, its international status and worldwide fame are undoubtedly merit in the first professors, assistant professors, lecturers, and they have created in the walls of the university unique creative scientific and educational environment. Friendly and supportive atmosphere of the business and human interaction with the students and teachers together form the necessary conditions for the development of the individual, focused, motivated professional growth.
+
+== Awards ==
+In accordance with the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of USSR on 20 October 1956 the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov awarded the medal "For the development of virgin land";
+In accordance with the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of USSR on 11 February 1971 for services on the training of specialists for the national economy and the development of research Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov awarded the Order of Red Banner of Labour.
+
+== Faculties and institutes ==
+Faculty of Humanities
+Faculty of Management, Economics and Ecology
+Faculty of Natural Sciences
+Faculty of Engineering
+Faculty of Chemistry and Technology of Rare Elements and electronic materials
+Faculty of Biotechnology and Organic synthesis
+Faculty of Physics, Chemistry and Technology of Polymer Processing
+Faculty of Additional Education
+Institute of Polymer Technologies and Materials
+The State Institute of Professional Development and Retraining chemical, microbiological and medical industry
+Institute of Distance Education
+
+== Areas of baccalaureate ==
+Chemistry
+Chemical technology
+Biotechnology
+Material Science and Technology of Materials
+Standardization and Certification
+Technosphere Safety
+Applied Informatics
+Applied mathematics
+Management
+
+== Masters Programs ==
+Chemistry:
+
+Inorganic chemistry
+Analytical chemistry
+Organic chemistry
+Physical chemistry
+Colloid chemistry
+Chemical technology:
+
+Chemistry and Technology of basic organic and petrochemical synthesis
+Chemistry and Technology of organometallic compounds
+Chemical technology of natural energy and carbon materials
+Chemical Technology of Macromolecular Compounds
+Chemical technology of plastics and composite materials
+Technology for processing of elastomers
+Nanotechnology of organic photosensitive materials
+Processes and devices of chemical technologies
+Information Systems in Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology
+Chemical technology of fuel and gas
+Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Engineering
+Biotechnology:
+
+Molecular and Cellular Biotechnology
+Chemistry and Technology of biologically active substances
+Technology of drugs
+Technology of biopharmaceuticalshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
+Technology of bioconversion of plant material
+Materials science and technology of materials:
+
+Materials science and technology of nanomaterials and coatings
+Material science, the receipt and processing of inorganic powder and composite materials
+Theoretical and Applied Polymer Materials
+Physico-chemical studies of new materials and processes
+Physical materials and technology of electronic materials
+Technosphere Safety:
+
+Protecting the environment
+Standardization and Certification:
+
+Total Quality Management
+
+== Famous alumni ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-3.md

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+---
+title: "Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:26.619976+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Science ===
+Beregov, Valery Vasilievich (b. 27 February 1942) – Corresponding Member of RAMS, now head of the department in MSMU them. Sechenov.
+Wolfson, Nicholai Sigizmundovich (18 October 1914, Moscow, Russian Empire – 4 March 1994) – a Russian chemist who developed methods for the synthesis of vitamin A, P, K and chemicals color cinematography.
+Gekhman, Alexander Efimovich (b. 29 September 1949, Moscow) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Glushkov, Robert Georgievich (b. 10 September 1929) – Academy of Medical Sciences, the leading scientist in the field of chemistry of drugs, laureate of the State Prize of the USSR (1981).
+Dumaev, Cyril Michailovich (b. 1931) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Evstigneeva, Rima Porfirievna (12 February 1925, Egorevsk – 7 July 2003, Moscow) – a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, an expert in the chemistry of natural compounds, the winner of the State Prize of the USSR (1985). Developed the technology of synthesis of vitamins E and K1.
+Eremenko, Igor Leonidovich (b. 1950) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Karabash, Alex Georgievich. (10 February 1912 – 2003, Obninsk, Kaluga region, Russia) – Soviet and Russian chemist, inventor. One of the founders of the first Soviet atomic bomb RDS-1 and the world's first nuclear power plant in Obninsk.
+Kolosov, Michael Nicholaevich. (11 May 1927, Kursk – 1985, Moscow) – Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Apprentice of M.M. Shemyakin.
+Kochetkov, Nicholai Konstantinovich (1915–2005) – Russian organic chemist, a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Krajewski, Alexander Antonovich (b. 1932) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Lapidus, Albert Lvovich (b. 1933) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Mirzabeckov, Andrew Daryevitch (19 October 1937 – 13 July 2003) – Director of the Institute of Molecular Biology, Academy of Sciences of the USSR from 1984 to 2003, Doctor of Chemical Sciences, USSR Academy of Sciences (RAS).
+Miroschnikov, Anatoly Ivanovich (b. 5 May 1940, v. Sagaidachniy Belgorod Region) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences, Member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences – a prominent specialist in the field of biotechnology and technology of natural and synthetic compounds, and bioorganic chemistry. From 1987 to 1991 Director of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Medicinal Plants (AIMP), from 1991 vice director of the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of RAS, Chairman of the Presidium of Pushchino Research Center of RAS.
+Moiseev, Ilya Josephovich (19 October 1937 – 13 July 2003) – Academician.
+Moiseenkov, Alexander Kravchuk (1935–1992) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Laureate of the State Prize of the Russian Federation (1998).
+Muzafarov, Aziz Mansurovich (b. 21 August 1950, Fergana) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Nefedov, Vadim Ivanovich (b. 29 June 1937, Magnitogorsk) – Academician, laureate of the State Prize of the USSR (1985).
+Pravednikov Andrew Nikodimovich (1923–1985) – Member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
+Sakharov, Boris Andreevich (28 March 1914, St. Petersburg – 12 April 1973, Moscow) – a member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Lenin Prize (1964) and the State Prize of the USSR (1985). Master of Sports of the USSR (1968) and International Arbiter (1956) on chess composition, Vice President of the Permanent Commission of the FIDE Chess Composition (1965–1972).
+Solncev, Konstantin (b. 29 March 1950, v. Panino Voronezh Region) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences, director of Institute of Physical and Chemical Problems of ceramic materials.
+Fedorenko, Nikolay Prokofievich (11 May 1917 – 1 April 2006) – Academician of Academy of Sciences of the USSR, one of the founders and first director of CEMI, Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1963–1985)
+Khokhlov, Alexander Stepanovich (b. 6 July 1916, Moscow – 9 July 1997) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Cetlin, Victor Ionovich (b. 2 October 1941) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
+Shvets, Vitaly Ivanovich(b. 19 March 1936, Nikopol) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences – a famous scientist in the development of methods for the isolation, chemical and biological synthesis of various types of lipids and their complexes with a variety of biologically active substances, the winner of the State Prize of the USSR (1985), winner of the Award of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of education, Honored worker of Science, Head of the Department of Biotechnology and bionanotechnology of MITHT.
+
+=== Politics ===
+Tikhomirov, Sergey Michailovich (1 (14) February 1905 – 25 November 1982) – Soviet political and economic figure. Member of the CPSU Central Committee (1956–1961).
+Furtseva, Catherine Alekseevna (24 November (7 December), 1910, Vishny Volochek – 25 October 1974, Moscow) – Soviet statesman and party leader. The Minister of Culture of the USSR from 1960 to 1974.
+
+=== Industry ===
+Smirnov, Alex Sergeevich (b. 9 June 1963) – Russian businessman. Since 2005 – Vice president of JSC "Lukoil".
+Filatov, Anatoly Vasilievich (b. 28 May 1935) – the Russian metallurgist, the first general manager of the concern "Norilsk Nickel" (1989–1996). Federation Council member of I convocation (1993–1996). Hero of Socialist Labor.
+
+=== Sport ===
+Zharkova, Olga Nicholaevna (b. 11 January 1979, Moscow) – Russian curler, member of two Olympic Games (2002 and 2006), European champion in 2006.
+
+== See also ==
+Moscow State Pedagogical University (Second Moscow State University)
+Russian National Research Medical University named after N.I. Pirogov
+
+== Literature ==
+R. R. Biglov Essays on the History of MITHT. – Moscow: Publishing center MITHT them. M.V. Lomonosov, 2010. – 171 p. – ISBN 978-5-904742-02-7
+Moscow Academy of Fine Chemical Technology, Golden Pages of MITHT – Moscow: Publishing House "Provincial", 2010. – 148 p. – ISBN 978-5-98266-067-1
+
+== References ==
+Official website of the Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies named after M.V. Lomonosov
+Website Akademik.ru

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naked_Scientists-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "The Naked Scientists"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naked_Scientists"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:20:27.783622+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Naked Scientists is a one-hour audience-interactive science radio talk show broadcast live by the BBC nationally on BBC Radio 5 Live (until 12 January 2025), and internationally on Friday nights on ABC Radio National, Australia; it is also distributed globally as a podcast.
+The programme was created and is edited by Cambridge University consultant virologist Dr Chris Smith. Former Naked Scientists line-up members include producers Phil Sansom, Adam Murphy, and Katie Haylor, with Peter Cowley adding ad-hoc technology perspectives.
+
+
+== History ==
+Dr Chris Smith launched The Naked Scientists in 2001, rebranding the programme from a previous incarnation created in 2000 called ScienceWorld. Initially on commercial local radio, the show moved to the BBC's eastern region local radio network in 2003 where it was aired on Sundays on all 8 stations across the region. In August 2012, BBC East in response to national changes to local radio provision announced an impending change to the Sunday schedule which would have seen the show discontinued. In response to public reaction, the head of BBC East, Mick Rawsthorne, was interviewed on national radio about the decision to end the programme. Rawsthorne explained that the Naked Scientists did not fit the station's core purpose of providing "local radio". However, Rawsthorne did acknowledge the quality of the Naked Scientists programming and recognised that, with Cambridge University at the heart of Cambridgeshire, special consideration should be made for science in Cambridgeshire. Consequently, the BBC reconsidered their decision to terminate the programme and developed a proposal for it to continue as well as a way for enhanced scientific coverage and content to be integrated with other mainstream mid-week outputs of BBC Cambridgeshire, significantly increasing the reach of the programme and the representation of science at BBC Radio Cambridgeshire. In August 2022 the show switched to a Thursday evening from its original Sunday slot, a move intended to capitalise on the news agenda and a more powerful slot. It ran in this segment until the end of August 2023 when, prompted by changes to the BBC local radio schedule nationwide, this outing of the show ended. 
+From January 2013, a new initiative involving the Naked Scientists also began on BBC Radio Norfolk. A dedicated hour of science Q and A was included in the station's Tea Time output (hosted by Matthew Gudgin) on alternate Wednesday evenings at 6pm. Listeners call, text, tweet or email with questions on any scientific subject and the team answer them. This continued until 2020 when changes were introduced to the schedule and presenter line up during the response to Covid-19.
+From January 2013, the Naked Scientists programme also began to air across Australia on ABC Radio National, initially on a Sunday morning. From January 2014 the first airing of the programme was moved to a Friday evening 10pm slot, repeated on Sundays at 3pm. This show is also released as the Naked Scientists Podcast.
+Launched in May 2014, 5 live Science is a new weekly one-hour programme from the Naked Scientists aired by BBC 5 live. Under the banner 5 live Science, it's a newly formatted version of the show produced by the Naked Scientists team and fronted by Dr Chris Smith; it aired nationally every Sunday morning until 12 January 2025. The programme is also released as a podcast under the same name.
+
+
+=== Awards ===
+
+
+== Content ==
+Each episode of the main Naked Scientists programme is one hour long and includes a digest of topical science news stories, audience questions answered live on the air and interviews with guest scientists. These individuals join the hosts in the studio to talk about their work and to take questions live from listeners. Previous featured guests include the discoverer of the DNA fingerprint,  Alec Jeffreys, the  Astronomer Royal  Sir Martin Rees, and the co-discoverer of DNA structure, James D. Watson.
+The show also features on-location reports and interviews, and an ad-hoc interactive segment called Kitchen Science where listeners are encouraged to attempt a science experiment at home during the show. Kitchen Science experiments have included building a desktop trebuchet, a chocolate teapot and a liver powered bottle rocket.  The Kitchen Science segment also hosts experiments that listeners may not be able to do at home, such as generating X-rays from Sticky Tape with Dr Carlos Camara of UCLA and testing how much fat would stop a bullet with researchers at Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory.
+
+
+== Other media ==
+The Naked Scientists appeared on TV Channel Five's panel game The What in the World? Quiz and have contributed to the 2007 Channel 4 programme "The Farm Revealed". In September 2008, with the Open University, the Naked Scientists launched a new UK national radio edition of their programme, The Naked Scientists - Up All Night (subsequently renamed "Breaking Science") which was broadcast on BBC Radio 5 Live for 12 months before finishing in 2009.
+In November 2008, with the Royal Society of Chemistry, a series entitled The Naked Scientists In Africa began on Channel Africa, the international broadcasting service of the South African Broadcasting Corporation.   The Naked Scientists in Africa was produced by Naked Scientist team-member Meera Senthilingam, incorporating international science news and a focus on science stories originating in, or pertinent to, African countries. This project ran until 2010.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Naked Scientists website
+Naked Scientists Podcast