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+---
+title: "Decoding Reality"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_Reality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:48.990011+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Decoding Reality: The Universe as Quantum Information is a popular science book by Vlatko Vedral published by Oxford University Press in 2010. Vedral examines information theory and proposes information as the most fundamental building block of reality. He argues what a useful framework this is for viewing all natural and physical phenomena. In building out this framework the books touches upon the origin of information, the idea of entropy, the roots of this thinking in thermodynamics, the replication of DNA, development of social networks, quantum behaviour at the micro and macro level, and the very role of indeterminism in the universe. The book finishes by considering the answer to the ultimate question: where did all of the information in the Universe come from? The ideas address concepts related to the nature of particles, time, determinism, and of reality itself.
+
+== Contents ==
+
+=== "Creation Ex Nihilo: Something from Nothing" ===
+Vedral believes in the principle that information is physical. Creation ex nihilo comes from Catholic dogma, the idea being that God created the universe out of nothing. Vedral says that invoking a supernatural being as an explanation for creation does not explain reality because the supernatural being would have to come into existence itself too somehow presumably from nothing (or else from an infinite regression of supernatural beings), thus of course the reality can come from nothing without a supernatural being. Occam's razor principle favours the simplest explanation. Vedral believes information is the fundamental building block of reality as it occurs at the macro level (economics, human behaviour etc.) as well as the subatomic level. Vedral argues that information is the only candidate for such a building block that can explain its own existence as information generates additional information that needs to be compressed thus generating more information. 'Annihilation of everything' is a more fitting term than creation ex nihilo Vedral states, as compression of possibilities is the process of how new information is created.
+
+=== "Information for all Seasons" ===
+Vedral uses an Italo Calvino philosophical story about a tarot-like card game as the kernel for his metaphor of conscious life arriving in medias res to a pre-existing contextual reality. In this game the individual observers/players (Vedral suggests: quantum physics, thermodynamics, biology, sociology, economics, philosophy) lay down cards with ambiguous meanings as an attempt to communicate messages to deduce meaning out of the other players' interactions. The results (information) of previous rounds establish contextual rules for observers/players in subsequent rounds. The point of this game is not established until the last card has been played as later cards can change the meaning of previous events, as in the case of the quantum explanation for the photoelectric effect instantly disproving classical physics. Vedral points out that in our reality there is no last card.
+
+=== "Back to Basics: Bits and Pieces" ===
+Shannon entropy or information content measured as the surprise value of a particular event, is essentially inversely proportional to the logarithm of the event's probability, i = log(1/p). Claude Shannon's information theory arose from research at Bell labs, building upon George Boole's digital logic. As information theory predicts common and easily predicted words tend to become shorter for optimal communication channel efficiency while less common words tend to be longer for redundancy and error correction. Vedral compares the process of life to John von Neumann's self replicating automata. These are enduring information carriers that will survive wear and tear of the individual by producing copies that can in turn go on to produce more copies.
+
+=== "Digital Romance: Life is a Four-Letter Word" ===
+Genetic code as an efficient digital information store, containing built in codon redundancy for error correction in transcription.
+
+=== "Murphy’s Law: I Knew this Would Happen to Me" ===
+Examines the second law of thermodynamics and the process of information increasing entropy. Maxwell's demon was thought to be a way around this inevitability; however, such a demon would run out of information storage space and have to delete unwanted data thus having to do work to do so, increasing entropy.
+
+=== "Place Your Bets: In It to Win It" ===
+Blackjack as controlled risk taking using Shannon's information theory probability formulas. Casino as a ′cool′ financial entropy source and the gambler as a ′hot′ financial source, once again the second law of thermodynamics means the flow is almost always from hot to cold in the long run. For managed risk spread bets widely and in high-risk high-reward investments (assuming a known probability), this is the Log optimal portfolio approach.
+
+=== "Social Informatics: Get Connected or Die Tryin’" ===
+Six degrees of separation means well connected people tend to be more successful as their social networks expose them to more chances to make choices they want. Schelling precommitment as strategy in social and self-control, for example burning your bridges by buying gym membership to help motivated self win over lazy self. Mutual information resulting in phase transitions in social and political demography as well as physical systems, like water freezing into ice at a particular critical temperature or magnetic fields spontaneously aligning in certain atoms when cooling from a molten state.
+
+=== "Quantum Schmuntum: Lights, Camera, Action!" ===
+Vedral examines the basis of quantum information, the qubit, and examines one-time pad quantum cryptography as the most secure form of encryption because of its uncomputability. Quantum entanglement demonstrates the importance of mutual information in defining outcomes in a reality.
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+---
+title: "Decoding Reality"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_Reality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:48.990011+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== "Surfing the Waves: Hyper-Fast Computers" ===
+Quantum computers offer a search advantage over classical computers by searching many database elements at once as a result of quantum superpositions. A sufficiently advanced quantum computer would break current encryption methods by factorizing large numbers several orders of magnitude faster than any existing classical computer. Any computable problem may be expressed as a general quantum search algorithm although classical computers may have an advantage over quantum search when using more efficient tailored classical algorithms. The issue with quantum computers is that a measurement must be made to determine if the problem is solved which collapses the superposition. Vedral points out that unintentional interaction with the environment can be mitigated with redundancy, and this would be necessary if we were to scale up current quantum computers to achieve greater utility, i.e. to utilize 10 qubits have a 100 atom quantum system so that if one atom decoheres a consensus will still be held by the other 9 for the state of the same qubit.
+
+=== "Children of the Aimless Chance: Randomness versus Determinism" ===
+Randomness is key to generating new sources of surprise in a reality. Compression of these new sources to discard unimportant information is the deterministic element and organising principle.
+
+=== "Sand Reckoning: Whose Information is It, Anyway?" ===
+The information content of the universe as measured in bits or qubits. Vedral uses the initial effort of Archimedes of Syracuse in calculating the amount of sand that could theoretically fit inside the universe and compares it to a modern-day attempt to calculate the bit content of the universe. Vedral however sees this content as ultimately limitless as possibly maximum entropy is never reached as compression of complexity is an open ended process and random events will continue to occur. As Vedral sees information as the ultimate building block of physical reality, he speculates that information originating at any scale can force outcomes in all other scales to abide where mutual information is shared. For example, a human performed macro-level scientific test in search of a behaviour in a quantum particle could set parameters for that type of particle in the future when subjected to a similar test.
+
+=== "Destruction ab Toto: Nothing from Something" ===
+The information basis for creation ex nihilo. According to John von Neumann, starting trivially from an empty set of numbers an infinite sequence of numbers can bootstrap their way out. An empty set creates the number 1 by observing an empty set within itself which is enough of a basis for distinguishability. It creates the number 2 by observing an empty set within the second empty set and the number 1, and so on. Vedral sees this not as creation but as data compression, as every event of a reality breaks the symmetry of the pre-existing formlessness. Science is the process of describing a large amount of observed phenomena in a compressed programmatic way to predict future outcomes, and in this process of data compression science creates new information by eliminating all contrary possibilities to explain those phenomena.
+
+== Synopsis ==
+The book explains the world as being made up of information.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+"A quantum calculation". The Economist. April 2010.
+Lloyd, Seth (March 2010). "The universe is a quantum computer". New Scientist (2757).
+Cane, Alan (April 2010). "Decoding Reality". Financial Times.
+Poole, Steven (March 2010). "Et cetera: Steven Poole's non-fiction choice". The Guardian.
+
+== See also ==
+The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood by James Gleick
+Decoding the Universe by Charles Seife
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack-0.md
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+---
+title: "Dinosaur in a Haystack"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:54.054353+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Dinosaur in a Haystack (1995) is the seventh volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. It collects essays culled from Gould's monthly column "The View of Life" published in Natural History magazine, which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution, science biography, probabilities, and strange oddities found in nature.
+His essay "Poe's Greatest Hit" analyzes the controversial conchology textbook The Conchologist's First Book (1839), edited by Edgar Allan Poe. Poe's volume on natural history sold out within two months, and was his only book republished during his lifetime. Essay "Dinomania" is a review of Michael Crichton's novel Jurassic Park and Steven Spielberg's blockbuster film of the same name.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+The book received favorable reviews in Publishers Weekly and The New York Times.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Up Against the Wall - by Steve Jones
+Essay Summaries - by Lawrence N. Goeller
+Dinosaur in a Haystack Review - by Danny Yee
+Book review by Kathryn Denning
+Two Cultures - by Howard A. Doughty, Innovation Journal
+Dinosaur in a Haystack
+Hooking Leviathan by Its Past
+Dinomania
+Cordelia's Dilemma
+Of Tongue Worms, Velvet Worms, and Water Bears
+Happy Thoughts on a Sunny Day in New York City
+Dousing Diminutive Dennis's Debate&
+Audio from the Prologue - MP3
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation_Design-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation_Design-0.md
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+---
+title: "Distillation Design"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation_Design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:55.230278+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Distillation Design is a book which provides complete coverage of the design of industrial distillation columns for the petroleum refining, chemical and petrochemical plants, natural gas processing, pharmaceutical, food and alcohol distilling industries. It has been a classical chemical engineering textbook since it was first published in February 1992.
+The subjects covered in the book include:
+
+Vapor–liquid equilibrium(VLE): Vapor–liquid K values, relative volatilities, ideal and non-ideal systems, phase diagrams, calculating bubble points and dew points
+Key fractional distillation concepts: theoretical stages, x-y diagrams, multicomponent distillation, column composition and temperature profiles
+Process design and optimization: minimum reflux and minimum stages, optimum reflux, short-cut methods, feed entry location
+Rigorous calculation methods: Bubble point method, sum rates method, numerical methods (Newton–Raphson technique), inside out method, relaxation method, other methods
+Batch distillation: Simple distillation, constant reflux, varying reflux, time and boilup requirements
+Tray design and tray efficiency: tray types, tray capacities, tray hydraulic parameters, tray sizing and determination of column diameter, point and tray efficiencies, tray efficiency prediction and scaleup
+Packing design and packing efficiency: packing types, packing hydraulics and capacities, determination of packing efficiency by transfer unit method and by HETP method, packed column sizing
+
+
+== See also ==
+Chemical engineer – Professional designation branch of engineering
+Continuous distillation – Form of distillation
+Fenske equation – Equation used in chemical engineering
+McCabe-Thiele method – Chemical engineering techniquePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook – 1934 reference book for chemical engineering
+Transport Phenomena – First textbook about transport phenomena
+Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering – 1956 textbook in chemical engineering
+Batch distillation – Process in chemistry
+
+
+== External links ==
+McGraw Hill website page
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_God_Play_Dice-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_God_Play_Dice-0.md
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+---
+title: "Does God Play Dice?"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_God_Play_Dice?"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:56.337782+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Does God Play Dice: The New Mathematics of Chaos is a non-fiction book about chaos theory written by British mathematician Ian Stewart. The book was initially published by Blackwell Publishing in 1989.
+
+
+== Summary ==
+In this book, Stewart explains chaos theory to an audience presumably unfamiliar with it. As the book progresses the writing changes from simple explanations of chaos theory to in-depth, rigorous mathematical study. Stewart covers mathematical concepts such as differential equations, resonance, nonlinear dynamics, and probability. The book is illustrated with diagrams and graphs of mathematical concepts and equations when applicable.
+The back of the book, and a summary of its content, reads, "The science of chaos is forcing scientists to rethink Einstein's fundamental assumptions regarding the way the universe behaves. Chaos theory has already shown that simple systems, obeying precise laws, can nevertheless act in a random manner. Perhaps God plays dice within a cosmic game of complete law and order. Does God Play Dice? reveals a strange universe in which nothing may be as it seems. Familiar geometric shapes such as circles and ellipses give way to infinitely complex structures known as fractals, the fluttering of a butterfly's wings can change the weather, and the gravitational attraction of a creature in a distant galaxy can change the fate of the solar system."
+The title of the book is a reference to a famous quote by Albert Einstein.
+
+
+== Book ==
+Ian Stewart: Does God Play Dice: The New Mathematics of Chaos, Blackwell Publishing, 1989, ISBN 978-0-631-23251-3
+
+
+== References ==
+Percival, Ian (July 1989), "The order in chaos (review of Does God Play Dice?, Blackwell, 1989)", New Scientist
+Dembart, Lee (31 October 1989), "Mathematician's journey into the regions of chaos (review of Does God Play Dice?, Blackwell, 1989)", Los Angeles Times
+Richardson, W. P. (December 1989), "Review of Does God Play Dice? (Blackwell, 1989)", The Mathematical Gazette, 73 (466): 360–361, doi:10.2307/3619343, JSTOR 3619343, S2CID 115243219
+Joel, J. S. (1990), "Review of Does God Play Dice? (Blackwell, 1989)", Mathematical Reviews and zbMATH, MR 0997093, Zbl 0717.00001
+Pickover, Clifford A. (1990), "Review of Does God Play Dice? (Blackwell, 1989)", Leonardo, 23 (2–3): 323, doi:10.2307/1578633, JSTOR 1578633
+"Review of Does God Play Dice? (Blackwell, 1989)", Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 11 (3): 178–179, June 1991, doi:10.1177/027046769101100311, S2CID 171183707
+Lord, Nick (October 1990), "Review of Does God Play Dice? (Penguin, 1990)", The Mathematical Gazette, 74 (469): 334, doi:10.1017/s0025557200147436, S2CID 164271268
+Holmes, Philip (December 2002), "Review of Does God Play Dice? (2nd ed., Blackwell, 2002) and What Shape Is a Snowflake? (W. H. Freeman, 2002)" (PDF), Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 49 (11): 1392–1396
+
+
+== External links ==
+Text available at books.google.com
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don't_Be_Such_a_Scientist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don't_Be_Such_a_Scientist-0.md
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+---
+title: "Don't Be Such a Scientist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don't_Be_Such_a_Scientist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:57.503156+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Don't Be Such A Scientist:  Talking Substance in an Age of Style is a book published by Island Press written by scientist-turned-filmmaker Randy Olson which arises from a talk of the same title Olson gave to science audiences at universities and museums for five years preceding its publication.  The focus of the book is the challenge scientists face in communicating to the general public in an age of information-overload.  Olson draws on his two careers, first as a marine biologist who achieved a tenured professorship, then his second career which began when he then resigned to attend film school and acting classes, eventually becoming an independent feature filmmaker.  Among other topics, the book addresses the role of spontaneity, storytelling, and likeability in the mass communication of science.
+
+
+== Reviews ==
+Science News
+Discover Magazine
+NPR
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-0.md
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+---
+title: "Dream Pool Essays"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:59.774914+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Dream Pool Essays (or Dream Torrent Essays) was an extensive book written by the Chinese polymath and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095), published in 1088 during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Shen compiled this encyclopedic work while living in forced retirement from government office, naming the book after his private estate near modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province. The Dream Pool Essays was heavily reorganized in reprint editions by later Chinese authors from the late 11th to 17th centuries. In modern times it has been translated from Chinese into several languages. These include English, German, French, and Japanese translations.
+The Dream Pool Essays covers a range of topics including discoveries and advancements in traditional Chinese medicine, mathematics, astronomy, science and technology, optics, architecture and civil engineering, metallurgy, and early archaeology. Observations of the natural world included those of wildlife, meteorology, hypotheses advancing early ideas in geomorphology and climate change based on findings of petrification and natural erosion, and strange recorded phenomena such as the description of an unidentified flying object. In addition to establishing the theory of true north in magnetic declination towards the North Pole, Shen was also the first to record the use of a compass for navigation, the first to describe the invention of movable type printing by contemporary artisan Bi Sheng, and the first in China to describe a drydock for repairing boats out of water.
+
+== History ==
+Shen Kuo was a renowned government official and military general during the Northern Song period of China. However, he was impeached from office by chancellor Cai Que (蔡確; 1036–1093), who wrongly held him responsible for a Song Chinese military defeat by the Tangut-led Western Xia dynasty in 1081 during the Song–Xia wars. When Shen compiled and published The Dream Pool Essays (Meng Xi Bi Tan, 《梦溪笔谈》) in 1088, he was living in retirement and relative isolation on his lavish garden estate near modern-day Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province. He titled the book after the name he gave to his private estate, the "Dream Brook". In English a full literal translation of the title is Brush Talks from a Dream Brook, and Shen Kuo is quoted as saying:
+
+Because I had only my writing brush and ink slab to converse with, I call it Brush Talks.
+As the historian Chen Dengyuan points out, much of Shen Kuo's written work was probably purged under the leadership of minister Cai Jing (1046–1126). For example, only six of Shen's books remain, and four of these have been significantly altered since the time they were penned by the author. The Dream Pool Essays was first quoted in a Chinese written work of 1095 AD, showing that even towards the end of Shen's life his final book was becoming widely printed. The book was originally 30 chapters long, yet an unknown Chinese author's edition of 1166 AD edited and reorganized the work into 26 chapters. There is one surviving copy of this 1166 edition now in Japan, while a Chinese reprint was produced in 1305. In 1631 another edition was printed, but it was heavily reorganized into three broad chapters.
+In modern times, Zhang Jiaju's biographical work Shen Kuo (1962) contains selected translations of the Dream Pool Essays from Middle Chinese into modern Vernacular Chinese. The Dream Pool Essays has also been translated from Chinese into various foreign languages. Various volumes of Joseph Needham's Science and Civilization in China series published since 1954 contain a large amount of selected English translations of the Dream Pool Essays. The Brush Talks from Dream Brook is the first complete English translation, presented in two volumes by translators Wang Hong and Zhao Zheng, and published in 2008 by the Sichuan People's Publishing House, China. A Japanese translation of the 1166 Chinese edition was prepared by the History of Science Seminar, Institute for Research in Humanities (Jimbun Kagaku Kenkyusho) for Kyoto University, and printed by the author Umehara Kaoru in his 3-volume edition of Bokei hitsudan (1978–1981). Quoted excerpts from the Dream Pool Essays in French were printed in the written works of J. Brenier in 1989  and J. F. Billeter in 1993. A complete German translation is offered in Shen Kuo: Pinselunterhaltungen am Traumbach. Das Gesamte Wissen des Alten China, translated and edited by Konrad Herrmann, and published in 1997 by Diederichs Verlag Munich (Gelbe Reihe Magnum, vol. I).
+
+== Content ==
+The text addressed scientific knowledge in areas including physics, astrology, mathematics, and medicine; it contended that there was no contradiction between technology and Confucian precepts.
+
+=== Geological theory ===
+With Shen's writings on fossils, geomorphology, and shifting geographical climates, he states in the following passages:
+
+In the Zhi-ping reign period [1064–67 AD] a man of Zezhou was digging a well in his garden, and unearthed something shaped like a squirming serpent, or dragon. He was so frightened by it that he dared not touch it, but after some time, seeing that it did not move, he examined it and found it to be stone. The ignorant country people smashed it, but Zheng Boshun, who was magistrate of Jincheng at the time, got hold of a large piece of it on which scale-like markings were to be seen exactly like those on a living creature. Thus a serpent or some kind of marine snake (chhen) had certainly been turned to stone, as happens with the 'stone-crabs'.
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@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "Dream Pool Essays"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:59.774914+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In recent years [cca. 1080] there was a landslide on the bank of a large river in Yong-ning Guan near Yanzhou. The bank collapsed, opening a space of several dozens of feet, and under the ground a forest of bamboo shoots was thus revealed. It contained several hundred bamboo with their roots and trunks all complete, and all turned to stone...Now bamboos do not grow in Yanzhou. These were several dozens of feet below the present surface of the ground, and we do not know in what dynasty they could possibly have grown. Perhaps in very ancient times the climate was different so that the place was low, damp, gloomy, and suitable for bamboos. On the Jin-hua Shan in Wuzhou there are stone pine-cones, and stones formed from peach kernels, stone bulrush roots, stone fishes, crabs, and so on, but as these are all (modern) native products of that place, people are not very surprised at them. But these petrified bamboos appeared under the ground so deep, though they are not produced in that place today. This is a very strange thing.
+
+=== Astronomy ===
+When the Director of the Astronomical Observatory asked Shen Kuo if the shapes of the Sun and Moon were round like balls or flat like fans, Shen Kuo explained his reasoning for the former:
+
+If they were like balls they would surely obstruct each other when they met. I replied that these celestial bodies were certainly like balls. How do we know this? By the waxing and waning of the moon. The moon itself gives forth no light, but is like a ball of silver; the light is the light of the sun (reflected). When the brightness is first seen, the sun(-light passes almost) alongside, so the side only is illuminated and looks like a crescent. When the sun gradually gets further away, the light shines slanting, and the moon is full, round like a bullet. If half of a sphere is covered with (white) powder and looked at from the side, the covered part will look like a crescent; if looked at from the front, it will appear round. Thus we know that the celestial bodies are spherical.
+
+When the director of the astronomical observatory asked Shen Kuo why eclipses occurred only on an occasional basis while in conjunction and opposition once a day, Shen Kuo wrote:
+
+I answered that the ecliptic and the moon's path are like two rings, lying one over the other, but distant by a small amount. (If this obliquity did not exist), the sun would be eclipsed whenever the two bodies were in conjunction, and the moon would be eclipsed whenever they were exactly in position. But (in fact) though they may occupy the same degree, the two paths are not (always) near (each other), and so naturally the bodies do not (intrude) upon one another.
+
+On the use of the sighting tube to fix the position of the pole star, Shen Kuo wrote:
+
+Before Han times it was believed that the pole star was in the center of the sky, so it was called Jixing (Summit star). Zu Geng(-zhi) found out with the help of the sighting tube that the point in the sky which really does not move was a little more than 1 degree away from the summit star. In the Xining reign-period (1068–1077) I accepted the order of the emperor to take charge of the Bureau of the Calendar. I then tried to find the true pole by means of the tube. On the very first night I noticed that the star which could be seen through the tube moved after a while outside the field of view. I realized, therefore, that the tube was too small, so I increased the size of the tube by stages. After three months' trials I adjusted it so that the star would go round and round within the field of view without disappearing. In this way I found that the pole star was distant from the true pole somewhat more than 3 degrees. We used to make the diagrams of the field, plotting the positions of the star from the time when it entered the field of view, observing after nightfall, at midnight, and early in the morning before dawn. Two hundred of such diagrams showed that the 'pole star' was really a circumpolar star. And this I stated in my detailed report to the emperor.
+
+=== Movable type printing ===
+On the methods of Bi Sheng's invention of movable type printing between the years 1041 to 1048 AD, Shen Kuo wrote:
+
+[Bi Sheng] took sticky clay and cut in it characters as thin as the edge of a coin. Each character formed, as it were, a single type. He baked them in the fire to make them hard. He had previously prepared an iron plate and he had covered his plate with a mixture of pine resin, wax, and paper ashes. When he wished to print, he took an iron frame and set it on the iron plate. In this he placed the types, set close together. When the frame was full, the whole made one solid block of type. He then placed it near the fire to warm it. When the paste [at the back] was slightly melted, he took a smooth board and pressed it over the surface, so that the block of type became as even as a whetstone. If one were to print only two or three copies, this method would be neither simple nor easy. But for printing hundreds or thousands of copies, it was marvelously quick. As a rule he kept two forms going. While the impression was being made from the one form, the type was being put in place on the other. When the printing of the one form was finished, the other was then ready. In this way the two forms alternated and the printing was done with great rapidity.
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+---
+title: "Dream Pool Essays"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:59.774914+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Personal beliefs and philosophy ===
+Of Taoism and the inability of empirical science to explain everything in the world, Shen Kuo wrote:
+
+Those in the world who speak of the regularities underlying the phenomena, it seems, manage to apprehend their crude traces. But these regularities have their very subtle aspect, which those who rely on mathematical astronomy cannot know of. Still even these are nothing more than traces. As for the spiritual processes described in the [Book of Changes] that "when they are stimulated, penetrate every situation in the realm," mere traces have nothing to do with them. This spiritual state by which foreknowledge is attained can hardly be sought through changes, of which in any case only the cruder sort are attainable. What I have called the subtlest aspect of these traces, those who discuss the celestial bodies attempt to know by depending on mathematical astronomy; but astronomy is nothing more than the outcome of conjecture.
+
+=== Dissertation on the Timberwork Manual ===
+Below are two passages from Shen's book outlining the basics contained in Yu Hao's Timberwork Manual. Yu Hao was a Chinese architect of the earlier 10th, and Kuo was one to praise his work. In the first quote, Shen Kuo describes a scene where Yu Hao gives advice to another artisan architect about slanting struts for diagonal wind bracing:
+
+When Mr. Qian (Wei-yan) was Governor of the two Zhejiang provinces, he authorized the building of a wooden pagoda at the Fan-tian Si (Brahma-Heaven Temple) in Hangzhou with a design of twice three stories. While it was under construction General Chhien went up to the top and was worried because it swayed a little. But the Master-Builder explained that as the tiles had not yet been put on, the upper part was still rather light, hence the effect. So then they put on all the tiles, but the sway continued as before. Being at a loss what to do, he privately sent his wife to see the wife of Yu Hao with a present of golden hair pins, and enquire about the cause of the motion. (Yu) Hao laughed and said: 'That's easy, just fit in struts (pan) to settle the work, fixed with (iron) nails, and it will not move any more.' The Master-Builder followed his advice, and the tower stood quite firm. This is because the nailed struts filled in and bound together (all the members) up and down so that the six planes (above and below, front and back, left and right) were mutually linked like the cage of the thorax. Although people might walk on the struts, the six planes grasped and supported each other, so naturally there could be no more motion. Everybody acknowledged the expertise thus shown.
+
+In this next quote, Shen Kuo describes the dimensions and types of architecture outlined in Yu Hao's book:
+
+Methods of building construction are described in the Timberwork Manual, which, some say, was written by Yu Hao. (According to that book), buildings have three basic units of proportion, what is above the cross-beams follows the Upperwork Unit, what is above the ground floor follows the Middlework Unit, and everything below that (platforms, foundations, paving, etc.) follows the Lowerwork Unit. The length of the cross-beams will naturally govern the lengths of the uppermost cross-beams as well as the rafters, etc. Thus for a (main) cross-beam of (8 ft) length, an uppermost cross-beam of (3.5 ft) length will be needed. (The proportions are maintained) in larger and smaller halls. This (2/28) is the Upperwork Unit. Similarly, the dimensions of the foundations must match the dimensions of the columns to be used, as also those of the (side-) rafters, etc. For example, a column (11 ft) high will need a platform (4.5 ft) high. So also for all the other components, corbelled brackets, projecting rafters, other rafters, all have their fixed proportions. All these follow the Middlework Unit (2/24). Now below of ramps (and steps) there are three kinds, steep, easy-going, and intermediate. In places these gradients are based upon a unit derived from the imperial litters. Steep ramps are ramps for ascending which the leading and trailing bearers have to extend their arms fully down and up respectively (ratio 3/35). Easy-going ramps are those for which the leaders use elbow length and the trailers shoulder height (ratio 1/38); intermediate ones are negotiated by the leaders with downstretched arms and trailers at shoulder height (ratio 2/18). These are the Lowerwork Units. The book (of Yu Hao) had three chapters. But builders in recent years have become much more precise and skillful (yen shan) than formerly. Thus for some time past the old Timberwork Manual has fallen out of use. But (unfortunately) there is hardly anybody capable of writing a new one. To do that would be a masterpiece in itself!
+
+=== Botany and zoology ===
+Shen Kuo described the natural predator insect similarly shaped to the gou-he ("dog-grubs") which preyed upon the agricultural pest infestation of zi-fang, the moth Leucania separata:
+
+In the Yuan-Feng reign period (1078–1085), in the Qingzhou region, an outbreak of zi-fang insects caused serious damage to the crops in the fields in autumn. Suddenly another insect appeared in swarms of thousands and tens of thousands, covering the entire ground area. It was shaped like earth-burrowing gou-he (dog grubs), and its mouth was flanked by pincers. Whenever it met a zi-fang, it would seize it with the pincers and break the poor beast into two bits. Within ten days all the zi-fang had disappeared, so the locality had an abundant harvest. Such kinds of insects have been known since antiquity and the local people call them pang-bu-ken ("not allowing other [insects] to be").
+
+=== Natural phenomena ===
+Around 1078, Shen Kuo wrote an accurate description of the damaging effects of lightning to buildings and to the specific materials of objects within. Taking an objective and speculative viewpoint, he stated:
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+---
+title: "Dream Pool Essays"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:59.774914+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A house belonging to Li Shunju was struck by lightning. Brilliant sparkling light was seen under the eaves. Everyone thought that the hall would be burnt, and those who were inside rushed out. After the thunder had abated, the house was found to be alright, though its walls and the paper on the windows were blackened. On certain wooden shelves, certain lacquered vessels with silver mouths had been struck by the lightning, so that the silver had melted and dropped to the ground, but the lacquer was not even scorched. Also, a valuable sword made of strong steel had been melted to liquid, without the parts of the house nearby being affected. One would have thought that the thatch and wood would have been burnt up first, yet here were metals melted and no injury to thatch and wood. This is beyond the understanding of ordinary people. There are Buddhist books which speak of 'dragon fire' which burns more fiercely when it meets with water instead of being extinguished by water like 'human' fire. Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life, but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous. How insecure it is to investigate natural principles using only the light of common knowledge, and subjective ideas.
+
+=== "Strange Happenings" ===
+A passage called "Strange Happenings" contains a peculiar account of an unidentified flying object. Shen wrote that, during the reign of Emperor Renzong (1022–1063), an object as bright as a pearl occasionally hovered over the city of Yangzhou at night, but described first by local inhabitants of eastern Anhui and then in Jiangsu. Shen wrote that a man near Xingkai Lake observed this curious object; allegedly it:
+
+...opened its door and a flood of intense light like sunbeams darted out of it, then the outer shell opened up, appearing as large as a bed with a big pearl the size of a fist illuminating the interior in silvery white. The intense silver-white light, shot from the interior, was too strong for human eyes to behold; it cast shadows of every tree within a radius of ten miles. The spectacle was like the rising Sun, lighting up the distant sky and woods in red. Then all of a sudden, the object took off at a tremendous speed and descended upon the lake like the Sun setting.
+
+Shen went on to say that Yibo, a poet of Gaoyou, wrote a poem about this "pearl" after witnessing it. Shen wrote that since the "pearl" often made an appearance around Fanliang in Yangzhou, the people there erected a "Pearl Pavilion" on a wayside, where people came by boat in hopes to see the mysterious flying object.
+
+=== Swords ===
+Around 1065 Shen Kuo wrote about the assembly methods for swords, and the patterns produced in the steel:
+
+Ancient people use chi kang, (combined steel), for the edge, and jou thieh (soft iron) for the back, otherwise it would often break. Too strong a weapon will cut and destroy its own edge; that is why it is advisable to use nothing but combined steel. As for the yu-chhang (fish intestines) effect, it is what is now called the 'snake-coiling' steel sword, or alternatively, the 'pine tree design'. If you cook a fish fully and remove its bones, the shape of its guts will be seen to be like the lines on a 'snake-coiling sword'.
+
+=== Chinese clothing ===
+Shen Kuo observed that the Chinese since some centuries prior had entirely adopted barbarian fashions.
+
+中國衣冠，自北齊以來，乃全用胡服。窄袖、緋綠短衣、長靿靴、有鞢帶，皆胡服也。窄袖利於馳射，短衣、長靿皆便於涉草。胡人樂茂草，常寢處其間，予使北時皆見之。雖王庭亦在深荐中。予至胡庭日，新雨過，涉草，衣褲皆濡，唯胡人都無所沾。帶衣所垂蹀躞，蓋欲佩帶弓劍、帨、算囊、刀勵之類。
+The clothing of China since the Northern Qi [550–557] onward has been entirely made barbarian. Narrow sleeves, short dark red or green robes, tall boots and metal girdle ornaments are all barbarian garb. The narrow sleeves are useful when shooting while galloping. The short robes and tall boots are convenient when passing through tall grass. The barbarians all enjoy thick grass as they always sleep in it. I saw them all do it when I was sent north. Even the king's court is in the deep grasses. On the day I had arrived at the barbarian court the new rains had passed and I waded through the grass. My robes and trousers were all soaked, but the barbarians were not at all wet. With things hanging from robe and belt they walk about. One perhaps might want to hang items like a bow and blade, handkerchief, coin purse or knife from the belt.
+
+== Book chapters ==
+On the humanities:
+
+Official life and the imperial court (60 paragraphs)
+Academic and examination matters (10 paragraphs)
+Literary and artistic (70 paragraphs)
+Law and police (11 paragraphs)
+Military (25 paragraphs)
+Miscellaneous stories and anecdotes (72 paragraphs)
+Divination, magic, and folklore (22 paragraphs)
+On natural sciences:
+
+On the I Ching, Yin and Yang, and 5 elements (7 paragraphs)
+Mathematics (11 paragraphs)
+Astronomy and calendar (19 paragraphs)
+Meteorology (18 paragraphs)
+Geology and mineralogy (17 paragraphs)
+Geography and cartography (15 paragraphs)
+Physics (6 paragraphs)
+Chemistry (3 paragraphs)
+Engineering, metallurgy, and technology (18 paragraphs)
+Irrigation and hydraulic engineering (6 paragraphs)
+Architecture (6 paragraphs)
+Biological sciences, botany, and zoology (52 paragraphs)
+Agricultural arts (6 paragraphs)
+Medicine and pharmaceutics (23 paragraphs)
+Humanistic sciences:
+
+Anthropology (6 paragraphs)
+Archeology (21 paragraphs)
+Philology (36 paragraphs)
+Music (44 paragraphs)
+(Total number of paragraphs = 584)
+
+== See also ==
+
+Chinese classics
+Chinese literature
+History of science and technology in China
+List of Chinese writers
+Technology of the Song dynasty
+
+== Notes ==
+^ a: Shen Gua (1031–1091) et les Sciences, Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de Leurs Applications (1989)
+^ b: Florilège des notes du Ruisseau des rêves (Mengxi bitan) de Shen Gua (1031–1095) by Jean-François Billeter and 31 of his Geneva University students, in Études Asiatiques (1993)
+^ i: See Greek fire
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Citations ===
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+---
+title: "Dream Pool Essays"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:59.774914+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.
+Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press ISBN 9971-69-259-7
+Mohn, Peter (2003). Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction. New York: Springer-Verlag Inc. ISBN 3-540-43183-7.
+Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
+Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
+Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
+Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
+Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1: Botany. Taipei, Caves Books Ltd.
+Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
+Ropp, Paul S. (1990). Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese History. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06440-9
+
+== Further reading ==
+Fu, Daiwie. "On Mengxi Bitan's world of marginalities and “south-pointing needles”. Fragment translation vs. contextual translation". (Archive) In: Alleton, Vivianne and Michael Lackner (editors). De l'un au multiple: traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes Translations from Chinese into European Languages. Éditions de la maison des sciences de l'homme (MSH), 1999, Paris. p. 176–201. ISBN 273510768X, 9782735107681.
+Fu, Daiwie. "Mengxi Bitan as an example of organization of knowledge in Song biji." Sinologie française 6 (special issue on the history of science and technology): 269–290.
+
+== External links ==
+Shen Kua: mathematician, engineer, physicist, and astronomer Archived 2011-08-17 at the Wayback Machine
+Works by Shen Kuo at Project Gutenberg
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+---
+title: "The Demon-Haunted World"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:50.093542+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark is a 1995 book by the astronomer and science communicator Carl Sagan. (Four of the 25 chapters were written with Ann Druyan.) In it, Sagan aims to explain the scientific method to laypeople and to encourage people to learn critical and skeptical thinking. He explains methods to help distinguish between ideas that are considered valid science and those that can be considered pseudoscience. Sagan states that when new ideas are offered for consideration, they should be tested by means of skeptical thinking and should stand up to rigorous questioning.
+
+== Themes ==
+Sagan explains that science is not just a body of knowledge, but is a way of thinking. Sagan shows how scientific thinking is both imaginative and disciplined, bringing humans to an understanding of how the universe is, rather than how they wish to perceive it. He says that science works much better than any other system because it has a "built-in error-correcting machine". Superstition and pseudoscience get in the way of the ability of many laypersons to appreciate the beauty and benefits of science. Skeptical thinking allows people to construct, understand, reason, and recognize valid and invalid arguments. Wherever possible, there must be independent validation of the concepts whose truth should be proved. He states that reason and logic would succeed once the truth was known. Conclusions emerge from premises, and the acceptability of the premises should not be discounted or accepted because of bias.
+
+=== Dragon in my garage ===
+
+As an example of skeptical thinking, Sagan offers a story concerning a fire-breathing dragon who lives in his garage. When he persuades a rational, open-minded visitor to meet the dragon, the visitor remarks that they are unable to see the creature. Sagan replies that he "neglected to mention that she's an invisible dragon". The visitor suggests spreading flour on the floor so that the creature's footprints might be seen, which Sagan says is a good idea, "but this dragon floats in the air". When the visitor considers using an infrared camera to view the creature's invisible fire, Sagan explains that her fire is heatless. He continues to counter every proposed physical test with a reason why the test will not work.
+Sagan concludes by asking: "Now what's the difference between an invisible, incorporeal, floating dragon who spits heatless fire and no dragon at all? If there's no way to disprove my contention, no conceivable experiment that would count against it, what does it mean to say that my dragon exists? Your inability to invalidate my hypothesis is not at all the same thing as proving it true."
+Continuing with concepts relevant to the 'dragon in my garage' story, Sagan writes about a patient of John Mack who claimed to have scars on her body which were from encounters with aliens. Sagan writes that if the patient is asked what her scars look like, she is unable to show them because, unfortunately, they are located in the private areas of her body.
+ 
+
+=== Baloney detection kit ===
+Sagan presents a set of tools for skeptical thinking that he calls the "baloney detection kit". Skeptical thinking consists both of constructing a reasoned argument and recognizing a fallacious or fraudulent one. In order to identify a fallacious argument, Sagan suggests employing such tools as independent confirmation of facts, debate, development of different hypotheses, quantification, the use of Occam's razor, and the possibility of falsification. Sagan's "baloney detection kit" also provides tools for detecting "the most common fallacies of logic and rhetoric", such as argument from authority and statistics of small numbers. Through these tools, Sagan argues the benefits of a critical mind and the self-correcting nature of science can take place.
+Sagan provides nine tools as the first part of this kit.
+
+There must be independent confirmation of the facts given when possible.
+Encourage debate on the evidence from all points of view.
+Realize that an argument from authority is not always reliable. Sagan supports this by telling us that "authorities" have made mistakes in the past and they will again in the future.
+Consider more than one hypothesis. Sagan adds to this by telling us that we must think of the argument from all angles and think all the ways it can be explained or disproved. The hypothesis that then still hasn't been disproved has a much higher chance of being correct.
+Try to avoid clinging obdurately to your own hypothesis and so become biased. Sagan tells us to compare our own hypothesis with others to see if we can find reasons to reject our own hypothesis.
+Quantify. Sagan tells us that if whatever we are trying to explain has numerical value or quantitative data related to it, then we'll be much more able to compete against other hypotheses.
+If there is a chain of argument, every link in that chain must be correct.
+The use of Occam's razor, which says to choose the hypothesis that is simpler and requires the fewest assumptions.
+Ask if a given hypothesis can be falsified. Sagan tells us that if a hypothesis cannot be tested or falsified then it is not worth considering.
+Sagan suggests that with the use of this "baloney detection kit" it is easier to critically think and find the truth.
+
+==== Logical fallacies ====
+There is a second part to the kit. This consists of twenty logical fallacies that one must not commit when offering up a new claim.
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+---
+title: "The Demon-Haunted World"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:50.093542+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ad hominem. An arguer attacks the opposing arguer and not the actual argument.
+Argument from authority. Someone expects another to immediately believe that a person of authority or higher knowledge is correct.
+Argument from adverse consequences. Someone says that something must be done a certain way or else there will be adverse consequences.
+Appeal to ignorance. One argues a claim in that whatever has not been proved false must be true, and vice versa.
+Special pleading. An arguer responds to a deeply complex or rhetorical question or statement by, usually, saying "oh you don't understand how so and so works."
+Begging the question. An arguer assumes the answer and makes a claim such as, this happened because of that, or, this needs to happen in order for that to happen.
+Observational selection. Someone talks about how great something is by explaining all of the positive aspects of it while purposely not mentioning any of the negative aspects.
+Statistics of small numbers. Someone argues something by giving the statistics in small numbers, which isn't very reliable.
+Misunderstanding of the nature of statistics. Someone misinterprets statistics given to them.
+Fallacy of inconsistency. An arguer is very inconsistent in their claims.
+Non sequitur. This is Latin for "it doesn't follow". A claim is made that doesn't make much sense, such as "Our nation will prevail because God is great."
+Post hoc ergo propter hoc. Latin for "it happened after, so it was caused by". An arguer claims that something happened because of a past event when really it probably didn't.
+Meaningless question. Someone asks a question that has no real meaning or doesn't add to the argument at all.
+The excluded middle. An arguer only considers or mentions the two opposite extremes of the conversation and excludes the aspects in between the two extremes.
+Short-term vs. long-term. A subset of the excluded middle, but so important it was pulled out for special attention.
+Slippery slope, related to excluded middle (e.g., If we allow abortion in the first weeks of pregnancy, it will be impossible to prevent the killing of a full-term infant. Or, conversely: If the state prohibits…).
+Confusion of correlation and causation. The latter causes the former.
+Straw man. Caricaturing a position to make it easier to attack. This is also a short-term/long-term fallacy.
+Suppressed evidence, or half-truth.
+Weasel word. Talleyrand said: "An important art of politicians is to find new names for institutions which under old names have become odious to the public." 
+Sagan provides a skeptical analysis of several examples of what he refers to as superstition, fraud, and pseudoscience such as witches, UFOs, ESP, and faith healing. He is critical of organized religion.
+In a 2020 interview for Skeptical Inquirer, when Sagan's wife Ann Druyan was asked about the origin of the phrase "baloney detection kit", she said that
+
+It didn't really come from Carl. It actually came from a friend of mine named Arthur Felberbaum who died about forty years ago. He and Carl and I once sat down for dinner together. His politics were very left wing, so Carl and Arthur and I were trying to find common ground so that we could have a really good dinner together. And at one point, Arthur said, "Carl, it's just that I dream that every one of us would have a baloney detection kit in our head." And that's where that idea came from.
+
+=== Misuse of science ===
+Sagan indicates that science can be misused. Thus, he is highly critical of Edward Teller, the "father of the hydrogen bomb", and Teller's influence on politics, and contrasts his stance to that of Linus Pauling and other scientists who took moral positions.
+Sagan also discusses the misuse of science in representation. He relates to the depiction of the mad scientist character in children's TV shows and is critical of this occurrence. Sagan suggests an addition of scientific television programs, many of which would take a look at believed hoaxes of the past and encourage viewers to engage in critical thinking to better represent science on popular television.
+
+==== Misuse of psychiatric authority ====
+Sagan indicates that therapists can contribute to the growth of pseudoscience or the infusion of "false stories". He is critical of John Mack and his support of  abduction cases, which were represented in his patients.
+Sagan writes about the story of Paul Ingram. Ingram's daughter reported that her father had sexually abused her. He was told that "sex offenders often repressed memories of their crimes." Ingram was eventually able to have a foggy visualization of the claimed events, and he suggested that perhaps "a demon might be responsible." Sagan describes how once Ingram started remembering events, so did several other individuals and family members. A "memory recovery" technique was performed on Ingram, and he confessed to the crimes. A medical examination was done on his daughter, where none of the scars she described were actually found. Sagan writes that Ingram later tried to plead innocence once "away from his daughters, his police colleagues, and his pastor."
+
+==== Hoaxes ====
+Hoaxes have played a valuable role in the history of science by revealing the flaws in our thinking and helping us advance our critical thinking skills. One of Sagan's examples is the "Carlos hoax" by James Randi that revealed flaws in reporting by news media. Carlos was described as an ancient spirit that supposedly possessed José Alvarez and provided Alvarez with advanced knowledge about the universe. Many news outlets assumed this was true and reported it as such, which spread misinformation.
+Sagan also cites crop circles as hoaxes.
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+---
+title: "The Demon-Haunted World"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:50.093542+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Reception and legacy ==
+The book was a New York Times bestseller.  The contemporary skeptical movement considers it an important book. The Demon-Haunted World has been criticized (in Smithsonian magazine and The New York Times) for not incorporating certain information relevant to the items he discusses in his book. The Smithsonian article by Paul Trachtman argues that Sagan relates issues of government choices and declining scientific thinking skills to pseudoscience topics like astrology and faith healing but ignores other issues that may be causing governmental bodies and other individuals to turn away from science. One such issue is consequences of pouring governmental money into cancer research. Trachtman writes, "it is not because of such beliefs that Congress now approaches the NIH budget with an ax. In fact, billions of dollars spent on years of research in the war on cancer have spawned growing professional bureaucracies and diminishing medical benefits." Trachtman argues that Sagan does not include problems like growing bureaucracies and diminishing medical benefits as reasons for a lack of scientific attention. In his review for The New York Times, James Gorman also argues for an unaddressed issue in Sagan's book, saying Sagan fails to emphasize the idea that scientists should take a more active role in teaching science to the public, while he does mention the failures of the education system to do so.
+The review in the Smithsonian magazine and a review by academic biologist Richard Lewontin in the New York Review of Books provide a range of opinions on Sagan's attitude towards religious ideas. Per the New York Review article, "when it comes to the Supreme Extraterrestrial he is rather circumspect." The Smithsonian article suggests Sagan was very clear about his religious beliefs in the book, for he "splits his universe in two, into science and irrationality." The Smithsonian goes on to say that Sagan's defined religious views fall within the area of an untestable claim, a type of claim he argues against in The Demon-Haunted World.
+Lewontin's review also claims that Sagan includes something in The Demon-Haunted World which he also is arguing against in that same text. The article mentions how Sagan discusses a natural predisposition people have towards science; but, the article says, "He does not tell us how he used the scientific method to discover the "embedded" human proclivity for science." Sagan heavily discusses the importance of using the scientific method in his book, and this article claims he strays away from his own message by not including a description of his use of the scientific method on this topic.
+A review by Lee Dembart in the Los Angeles Times was positive. It described Sagan's book as "a manifesto for clear thought", with the main issue being the length of eight chapters. Gorman's review in The New York Times also criticised the length of the book.
+The book has received a number of retrospective reviews. An article in The Guardian, 2012, described the book as somewhat dated, though still insightful. Another article from The Verge in 2017 noted that a quote from the book regarding Sagan's pessimistic prediction for a future America had gone viral on Twitter, which the article described as "chillingly prescient". The article praised the book, stating that Sagan "practiced the scientific skepticism and thinking that he preached, and that's what helped him accurately analyze the trends of his time and forecast their eventual outcomes in ours."
+
+== See also ==
+
+Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds – 1841 book by Charles Mackay
+Junk science – Scientific data considered to be spurious or fraudulent
+Pathological science – Area of research which persists despite being widely discredited
+Rationalism – Epistemological view centered on reason
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Ayala, F. J. Ayala (July 26, 1996). "The Demon-Haunted World, reviewed". Science. Vol. 273, no. 5274. pp. 442–444. Bibcode:1996Sci...273..442S. doi:10.1126/science.273.5274.442.
+Dembart, Lee (April 18, 1996). "Book Review / Non Fiction : For This Scientist, the Truth Is Out There : The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark by Carl Sagan". Los Angeles Times.
+Gorman, James (April 7, 1996). "Invasion of the Body Snatchers". The New York Times.
+Schult, Jeff (April 1996). "The Case for Science (Carl Sagan: The Demon-Haunted World – Science as a Candle in the Dark)". American Reporter.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Department_of_Mad_Scientists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Department_of_Mad_Scientists-0.md
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+---
+title: "The Department of Mad Scientists"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Department_of_Mad_Scientists"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:51.406900+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Department of Mad Scientists: How DARPA is Remaking Our World, from the Internet to Artificial Limbs, is a book by Michael Belfiore about the history and origins of DARPA. Belfiore describes DARPA's creation as the agency ARPA in Department of Defense and some of its notable contributions to artificial limbs, the Internet, space exploration and robotic automobiles.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+In his review of the book, Tom Simonite says "Belfiore does a good job of exploring the sunny side of the moon that is DARPA", but also notes that the author had no access to DARPA's classified research, which constitutes approximately half of all work. Robin Tatu also observes Belfiore's limited access, but calls the book a "an engaging inquiry into the workings of the agency, its past contributions, and its concerns for future technology." David Pitt describes the book as "a capsule history" that, "for some readers [..] serves as a tantalizing introduction to subject that bears deeper exploration."
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+After Words interview with Belfiore on The Department of Mad Scientists, August 21, 2010
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Design_of_Experiments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Design_of_Experiments-0.md
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+---
+title: "The Design of Experiments"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Design_of_Experiments"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:52.574025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Design of Experiments is a 1935 book by the English statistician, Ronald Fisher, on experimental design, considered to be a foundational work in modern statistics and experimental methodology. The book introduced concepts such as randomization, replication, blocking, and contains Fisher’s influential discussion of the null hypothesis, illustrated in the context of the Lady tasting tea experiment. The book has had a lasting impact on the development of statistical science, shaping diverse fields such as agriculture, psychology, and medical research. It remains an important reference in the history of applied statistics and the philosophy of scientific testing.
+
+
+== Background ==
+At the time of publication, Fisher was a statistician at Rothamsted Research (formally known as Rothamsted Experimental Station) where he developed statistical methods to analyze agricultural data. His broader career included fundamental contributions to statistics, genetics, and evolutionary biology. The Design of Experiments built on Fisher’s earlier work, including his book Statistical Methods for Research Workers (1925), and laid the groundwork for the practical application of statistical tests in experimental science.
+Much of Fisher’s approach grew out of earlier studies at Rothamsted, particularly a 1923 paper with Winifred Mackenzie on crop variation. In this work, Fisher tied the validity of experimental tests directly to the principle of randomization, arguing that randomly allocating treatments to plots could simulate the independence required for valid inference. This innovation established randomization as the “physical basis of the validity of the test” and became Fisher’s first principle of experimental design.
+Fisher went on to integrate randomization with two further principles, replication and blocking, to form a general framework for designing experiments. These ideas, first applied to agricultural trials, were presented systematically in The Design of Experiments, helping to formalize experimental design as a statistical discipline.
+
+
+== Origin of the Null Hypothesis and the Lady Tasting Tea ==
+One of the most notable sections of the book describes the origin of the null hypothesis. Fisher illustrated it with a wager, a woman claimed to be able to tell whether milk or tea had been poured first into a cup. In order to test this, Fisher designed an experiment in which she was presented with eight cups, four of each preparation. This came to be known as the Lady tasting tea experiment. He defined the null hypothesis as the assumption that she has no such ability to make the distinction, meaning her answers would be due to chance. Under this assumption, the probability of guessing all eight cups correctly was calculated to be 1/70. Fisher argued that if she succeeded to distinguish whether milk or tea had been poured first into a cup, the null hypothesis could be rejected. Fisher stated “the null hypothesis is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation. Every experiment may be said to exist only in order to give the facts a chance of disproving the null hypothesis,” thus the concept of a null hypothesis was born. This discussion became central to the philosophy of statistical inference.
+
+
+=== Further Developments in Experimental Designs ===
+Beyond establishing the principles of randomization, replication and blocking, The Design of Experiments advanced the statistical understanding of error estimation in field trials. Before Fisher’s work, agricultural experiments often lacked a coherent theory for estimating experimental error, except in the simplest comparisons. Fisher formalized this process, allowing errors to be estimated directly from the data rather than assumed. His methods revealed the unreliability of earlier experiments that failed to account for natural variability, such as differences in soil fertility. Later editions of his related work, Statistical Methods for Research Workers, introduced further refinements, including the analysis of covariance, a technique developed to improve precision by adjusting for variation. Together, these innovations helped organize earlier agricultural practices into a coherent framework for experimental design and analysis.
+
+
+== Controversies ==
+Fisher has faced multiple criticisms and controversies through his decades-long career. His work had established a foundation for significance testing that stressed the indication of evidence against the null hypothesis, using p-values. Ronald Fisher argued that inductive inference was dire to the progression of scientific knowledge and that this is “experimentally demonstrable when we know how to conduct an experiment which will rarely fail to give us a statistically significant result.” Skeptics, such as Paul L. Morgan and Jacob Cohen, expressed that there were considerable irregularities in Fisher's disagreements with probability. Cohen had a specific critique regarding Fisher, “who emphatically rejected Bayesian theory of inverse probability but slipped into invalid Bayesian interpretations of NHST [null hypothesis significance testing].” Despite Fisher’s statistical legacy, the discourse highlights how his study has contributed to the extensive misinterpretation of NHST in modern research.
+In addition to critiques of his work, Fisher has been known to be controversial due to his views on race and history of supporting eugenic policies.
+
+
+== Legacy ==
+
+After Fisher’s death in 1962, the methods of experimental design and analysis he had established decades earlier had transformed research across the physical, biological and statistical sciences. The Design of Experiments (1935) and its later editions provided a systematic account of the logic of experimentation, as well as the formulation of the null hypothesis into a unified framework for scientific use. The book advanced the use of factorial designs, which allowed researchers to study multiple factors and their interactions simultaneously. While ideas of combining treatments in this way was not entirely new, Fisher demonstrated its logical and statistical advantage over older approaches that favoured observation of one factor at a time. His framework later influenced fields such as psychology and education, where experimental designs gradually replaced purely correlational studies. Fisher’s concepts of randomization, error analysis, and statistical inference remain foundational.
+
+
+=== Impact of Fisher's Book and Research ===
+In The Design of Experiments, Ronald A. Fisher has made noteworthy inputs within the field of genetics and biological assay. The book discusses his study of systematically arranged experiments which demonstrated and fully articulated the incorrect assumptions about the independence of plot errors that can be properly eliminated using the process of randomization. This is now commonly known as the principle of randomization.
+Since laying the groundwork in experimental design and analysis, many of Fisher’s initial works were advanced by other notable researchers, such as Frank Yates. Rothamsted Research was particularly fond of developing the newer concepts of experimental design and analysis. Fisher’s studies have advanced sampling methods for experimental plots, effectively modernizing yield estimates in agriculture and survey methods in a variety of fields. By 1939, studies involving highly variable data had included these strategies which were adapted by agronomists worldwide. Decades after its publication, The Design of Experiments continues to shape modern research methodology.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ronald Fisher
+Statistical Methods for Research Workers (1925)
+Combinatorics of Experimental Design (1987)
+List of important publications in statistics
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden-0.md
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+---
+title: "The Dragons of Eden"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:03:58.604870+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence is a 1977 book by Carl Sagan, in which the author combines the fields of anthropology, evolutionary biology, psychology, and computer science to give a perspective on how human intelligence may have evolved.
+Sagan discusses the search for a quantitative means of measuring intelligence. He argues that the brain to body mass ratio is an extremely good correlative indicator for intelligence, with humans having the highest ratio and dolphins the second highest, though he views the trend as breaking down at smaller scales, with some small animals (ants in particular) placing disproportionately high on the list. Other topics mentioned include the evolution of the brain (with emphasis on the function of the neocortex in humans), the evolutionary purpose of sleep and dreams, demonstration of sign language abilities by chimps and the purpose of mankind's innate fears and myths. The title "The Dragons of Eden" is borrowed from the notion that man's early struggle for survival in the face of predators, and in particular a fear of reptiles, may have led to cultural beliefs and myths about dragons.
+The Dragons of Eden won a Pulitzer Prize. In 2002, John Skoyles and Dorion Sagan published a follow-up entitled Up from Dragons.
+
+
+== Summary ==
+The book is an expansion of the Jacob Bronowski Memorial Lecture in Natural Philosophy which Sagan gave at the University of Toronto. In the introduction Sagan presents his thesis – that "the mind ... [is] a consequence of its anatomy and physiology and nothing more" – in reference to the works of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
+In chapter 2, Sagan briefly summarizes the entire evolution of species starting from the Big Bang to the beginning of the human civilization with the help of a "Cosmic Calendar", an analogy where one year in the calendar corresponds to the time since the Big Bang. Sagan used the same analogy in the more-widely known television series Cosmos.
+
+It is disconcerting to find that in such a cosmic year the Earth does not condense out of interstellar matter until early September, dinosaurs emerge on Christmas Eve; flowers arise on December 28; and men and women originate at 10:30 P.M. on New Year's Eve. All of recorded history occupies the last 10 seconds of December 31; and the time from the waning of the Middle Ages to the present occupies little more than one second.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Writing for the New York Times, John Leonard called the book "a delight" and described  Sagan as "a scientific Robert Redford, handsome and articulate and all business." The book was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 1978.
+
+
+== In popular culture ==
+In 2008, an album called The Dragons of Eden was released by  keyboard player and producer Travis Dickerson along with guitar virtuoso Buckethead and drummer Bryan "Brain" Mantia. The album derives its track titles from the book's chapters.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Brain-to-body mass ratio
+Triune brain
+
+
+== References ==
+Campbell, David N. "Fascinating Popularization of Special Interest to Educators", Phi Delta Kappan (April 1978). Vol. 59, no. 8. pp. 567–568. JSTOR 20299094.
+Geschwind, Norman. American Scientist (January–February 1978). Vol. 66, no. 1. p. 91. JSTOR 27848453.
+Klopfer, P. H. The Quarterly Review of Biology (December 1978). Vol. 53, no. 4. p. 495. JSTOR 2826736.
+Pitt, Joseph C. Human Ecology (December 1978). Vol. 6, no. 4. pp. 471–473. JSTOR 4602474.
+The Wilson Quarterly (Autumn 1977). Vol. 1, No. 5. p. 183. JSTOR 40255318.
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Dragons of Eden at Open Library
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