diff --git a/_index.db b/_index.db index 45706ea1d..91a5bf110 100644 Binary files a/_index.db and b/_index.db differ diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_K._Isaacs-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_K._Isaacs-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c54e8e6d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_K._Isaacs-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "André K. Isaacs" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_K._Isaacs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:48.914559+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +André K. Isaacs (born December 20, 1981) is a Jamaican professor of chemistry researching organic and synthetic chemistry at the College of the Holy Cross. He is also a queer science communicator mainly using TikTok and Twitter, where he posts dancing and choreography videos to teach chemistry lessons. Many of his videos have gone viral on these platforms. + + +== Early life and education == +Isaacs was born in Kingston, Jamaica, on December 20, 1981. He regularly speaks of his uncle, who taught chemistry and mathematics but died young. Isaacs refers to him as his inspiration in pursuing science education. Although he chose science tracks during his childhood, he was always interested in culture and fashion. +In 2005, after finishing schooling in Jamaica, he moved to the United States to pursue a bachelor's degree in chemistry at the College of the Holy Cross. His professors and research advisors encouraged him during his undergraduate education to continue graduate studies due to his skills in organic chemistry. He obtained a PhD in chemistry in 2011 at the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of Jeffrey Winkler. Later, he went to the University of California, Berkeley as a postdoctoral fellow before moving back to College of the Holy Cross as an associate professor. +Isaacs identifies himself as a queer Black immigrant in science and has used his experience to motivate his advocacy. After having come out to his unsupportive family, he found comfort within a supportive lab environment. He has spoken openly about the challenges of being queer, Black, and alienated, which nearly caused him to drop out of graduate school. Consequently, he has focused on community building when building his lessons and online presence. + + +== Research == +Isaacs works on copper-catalyzed reactions using click chemistry, particularly, the copper-catalyzed cycloaddition of sulfonyl azides and terminal alkynes (CuAAC) and differential fragmentation of the resulting 1,2,3-triazole generates ketenimines and rhodium carbenoids which readily engage with a variety of nucleophiles to gain access to heterocycles of interest to the synthetic community. +As of 2024, his lab is staffed only by undergraduate student researchers. His research group has demonstrated the utility of click chemistry in the synthesis of N-Heterocycles such as indolizines, dihydroisoquinolines and as an approach to beta-lactams. +He has also researched antibiotic resistance and novel antibiotic drug development. + + +== Science outreach == +Isaacs has had viral success in science outreach due to his accessible and approachable videos where he aims to demonstrate that science can be conducted by anyone. During an interview on Today he stated:It doesn't matter what you look like. It doesn't matter how you identify. I want students to realize that whatever they bring is an asset and that science is better when people bring their unique qualities and skills to the table. His videos include dances from popular movie franchises such as Black Panther or Harry Potter, pop culture moments such as Rihanna's performance during the Super Bowl LVII halftime show, among other trending audios. In many of his videos, he wears a signature rainbow lab coat to promote diversity and inclusivity within chemistry. He has even made the analogy that chemistry is queer due to molecules bonding with a wide variety of partners. +In addition, his work covers topics on queer culture and social justice. Some of his chemistry videos explain addictive substances such as poppers or his thoughts and opinions around the Black Lives Matter movement. His scientific outreach videos also help explain chemistry, including the 2022 Nobel Prize in Chemistry involving click and bioorthagonal chemistry. He has mentioned the importance of this award for him since it is the foundation of his scientific research. Additionally, Carolyn Bertozzi, one of the laureates, is the eighth woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the first (known) to belong to the LGBTQ+ community. +In 2012 he founded Outfront, an alliance for LGBTQ+ students and staff at the College of the Holy Cross. The organization promotes and supports members of the LGBTQ+ community by increasing their visibility on campus. +He has given lectures and published scientific articles presenting his lines of research as well as his methods of teaching chemistry. As a result, he has been invited to speak at universities such as King's College London, the University of Minnesota, and Stanford University. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f6acb1ae3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:56.830179+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists (HWPS) is an interdisciplinary research center at the University of Paderborn, focused on the work of historical women philosophers and scientists. The Center is responsible for the publication of the Journal of the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists. The Center also awards the annual Elizabeth of Bohemia prize, Europe's first prize honoring women philosophers. The Center received a major grant from the Alexander von Humboldt foundation for the study of women philosophers in Ukraine, and also maintains a research network and talk series for researchers working on the history of women philosophers and scientists. + + +== Encyclopedia of Concise Concepts by Women Philosophers == +The Encyclopedia of Concise Concepts by Women Philosophers (ECC) is an online encyclopedia that exclusively contains entries on concepts from the work of female philosophers. +The ECC is an open access database developed by the Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists that went online on June 15, 2018. +Each entry is written by an internationally recognized researcher and peer-reviewed before publication. It will contain a brief explanation of a philosophical concept both either developed or significantly advanced by a woman philosopher as well as a list of primary and secondary sources for further research. Early articles focused on thinkers such as Diotima of Mantinea, Mercy Otis Warren and Jane Addams. +The encyclopedia is part of the digital collection of Paderborn University and articles are available as official academic sources. It was created by the German philosopher Ruth Hagengruber and Mary Ellen Waithe of Cleveland State University. +The ECC received the DARIAH-DE DH-Award 2018, (“Tools and Projects” section), for exceptional work in digital humanities. + + +== Émilie Du Châtelet: Research and Manuscript Editions == +The Center has a long-standing focus on the work of the eighteenth-century philosopher and physicist, Émilie du Châtelet. For example, a major international conference in Potsdam in 2006 resulted in an edited volume linking Du Châtelet to Leibniz and Newton. Since 2020, the Center has published a freely available historical-critical online edition of previously unedited manuscripts by Du Châtelet, stored at the National Library in St. Petersburg, Russia. This is the first critical edition, as well as the first online edition, of manuscripts by Du Châtelet. The edition is funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) and is a collaboration with the National Library of Russia. +Since 2021, the Center has also published a freely available online historical-critical edition of a different set of manuscripts by Du Châtelet, stored at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris. These manuscripts include the early drafts of her main philosophical work, the Institutions de physique. + + +== Elisabeth of Bohemia Prize == +The Elisabeth of Bohemia Prize was named in honor of Elisabeth of Bohemia (1618–1680). The award was established to acknowledge research on women in the history of philosophy. The prize is endowed with 3500 Euros and is donated by Ulrike Detmers. Awardees include Laura Aurora Benítez Grobet (2023), Sarah Hutton (2022), Mitieli Seixas da Silva (2021), Mary Ellen Waithe (2019) and Lisa Shapiro (2018). + + +== Public Teaching == +From 2017 to 2019, the Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists hosted the Libori Summer School in Paderborn, Germany. The conferences were open to the public and featured scholars from all over the world giving talks and master classes. The Center HWPS also hosts online teaching seminars. For their offering of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), the Center was awarded the Fellowship für Innovations in Digital University Teaching. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.F._Laundon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.F._Laundon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..65a49d9d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.F._Laundon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "G.F. Laundon" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.F._Laundon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:50.167899+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Gillian Fiona Laundon (7 May 1938 – 8 February 1984), also known as Gillian Cox, was a New Zealand-based mycologist with a focus on plant pathology and taxonomy, and a trans activist. + + +== Life and career == +Born Geoffry Frank Laundon on 7 May 1938 in Kettering, England to parents Frank and Marjorie, Laundon was educated at the University of Sheffield, receiving a B.Sc. honours degree (second class, 1st division) in Botany in 1959. Later in 1959 she became an assistant mycologist (later mycologist) at the Commonwealth Mycological Institute and specialised on rust fungi. In 1963 she married Margaret Keay Cox, and over the next several years had three children with her. In 1965 she emigrated to New Zealand and became mycologist at the Plant Health & Diagnostic Station at Levin, New Zealand and continued to research the taxonomy and nomenclature of rusts. + + +== Scientific contribution == +Laundon specialised on rust fungi (Urediniomycetes), first publishing new species in 1963. Among her most important contributions was a new system of spore terminology published in 1967, which was controversial at the time but was generally accepted by the time of her death. Laundon was an active member of the International Association for Plant Taxonomy and was on the Special Committee for Fungi and Lichens for a number of years, served on four international committees dealing with fungus nomenclature, and was invited to investigate the nomenclature of rust genera and write a chapter for Index Nominum Genericorum. Laundon was the first to realise there were two species involved when the poplar rusts were first found in New Zealand in 1972, a claim not verified until samples of the spores were examined with an electron microscope. She made significant contributions to the known plant pathogens in New Zealand, publishing many first reports of fungal diseases. +Laundon's interests were broader than just mycology. She designed and built a light meter that could be used for taking photographs through a microscope, and light incubators for a mycology laboratory, as well as learning to programme computers. +Over her career she collected at least 211 specimens and identified 539 that are in formal herbaria or culture collections. She also had the species Phoma laundoniae named in her honour. + + +== Trans Activism == +Laundon was an early member of "Hedesthia," one of the first recorded trans organisations in New Zealand (founded 1972). She was an active member, often writing into Hedesthia's newsletter, initially called S-E-L-F and later Trans-Scribe. In an article written in 1976, Laundon explained how internalised queerphobia - which she defines as the "fairly common belief that intersexuals, transsexuals, transvestites, fetishists and homosexuals are all one and the same thing, and are all 'disgusting'" - often caused trans people to isolate themselves. She emphasised the importance of trans friendships:Simply to meet others and see just how normal and decent they really are, and to see what they have achieved in bringing out their real selves, can be a revelation, and this can help towards self-acceptance, which, if you think about it, may be YOUR greatest problem. Laundon also underlined the lengths Hedesthia went to, to preserve their members' privacy - this included an extensive vetting process. + + +=== TransFormation === +Hedesthia was primarily a social organisation, and Laundon felt that there was a need for a "bureau of information" specifically geared towards supporting transsexuals. Working under the name Gillian Cox, Laundon and her wife Margaret Cox founded "TransFormation," in 1976. +TransFormation and Hedesthia worked closely alongside one another, sharing information and resources, as well as teaming up to send publicity and form relationships with a variety of organisations across the country, including gay activist and social groups, public libraries, universities, and various community support organisations. Laundon and Cox were encouraged by a grant of $50 from the Mental Health Foundation in 1977, which while not a large sum, provided the "first 'Official' recognition of the integrity of our service." + +Cox passed her TransFormation duties on to the rest of the Hedesthia collective in 1980. When she died in 1984, her obituary in Trans-Scribe noted she would be sadly missed by many:Her work in the field of Transsexualism was well respected throughout the world and the many letters that we receive annually attest to the esteem in which she is held by the numerous Transsexuals to whom she offered comfort and advice through her leaflets and correspondence. + + +=== Coming Out === +In 1977, in a highly unusual step at the time, Laundon publicly announced her gender transition in a scientific journal, taking the name Gillian Fiona Laundon, while still continuing with her research. Throughout this transition she had the support of her wife and their children and colleagues. + +Laundon was working as a public servant during this time, and with support from the Public Services Association (PSA), she successfully lobbied the State Services Commission (SSC) for access to all women's bathrooms in her department. Although a minority of her coworkers opposed this, she generally enjoyed "tremendous support." By 1978 she had won her case, however the SSC did not implement any guidelines, and discrimination was still rife in the public service. Writing in the PSA's Public Service Journal, Laundon expressed dismay that another colleague should be subjected to a vote by her colleagues over whether she should be able to use the women's toilets:No doubt her colleagues will say 'what about our rights?' But how does a transexual's use of the female facilities threaten them in any significant way. They on the other hand threaten her sanity, and perhaps even her very life through their attitudes towards her.Laundon sought to educate her colleagues about the prejudice trans people faced, and implored them to show compassion. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d6cf99de --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,115 @@ +--- +title: "Index of women scientists articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:54.194801+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== J == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== W == + + +== X == + + +== Y == + + +== Z == + + +== Trans man scientists who were scientists before transitioning == + + +== Transmasculine non-binary scientists who were scientists before transitioning == + + +== Transfeminine non-binary scientists == + + +== See also == +List of female Fellows of the Royal Society +List of female mathematicians +List of female scientists before the 21st century +List of women geologists +Women in chemistry +Women in computing +Women in geology +Women in science +Women in STEM fields + + +== References == + +Herzenberg, Caroline L. 1986. Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present: An Index. Locust Hill Press. ISBN 0-933951-01-9 +Howard S. The Hidden Giants, ch. 2, (Lulu.com; 2006) (accessed 22 August 2007) +Howes, Ruth H. and Caroline L. Herzenberg. 1999. Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Temple University Press. ISBN 1-56639-719-7 +Ogilvie, M. B. 1986. Women in Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-15031-X +Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics website at UCLA +Walsh JJ. 'Medieval Women Physicians' in Old Time Makers of Medicine: The Story of the Students and Teachers of the Sciences Related to Medicine During the Middle Ages, ch. 8, (Fordham University Press; 1911) (accessed 22 August 2007) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2bf432e4e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "LGBTQ people in science" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:44.393262+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +LGBT people in science are students, professionals, hobbyists, and anyone else who is LGBT and interested in science. The sexuality of many people in science remains up for debate by historians, largely due to the unaccepting cultures in which many of these people lived. For the most part, we do not know for certain how people in the past would have labelled their sexuality or gender because many individuals lived radically different private lives outside of the accepted gender and sexual norms of their time. One such example of a historical person in science that was arguably part of the LGBT community is Leonardo da Vinci, whose sexuality was later the subject of Sigmund Freud's study. +In modern times, LGBTQ+ individuals in science still navigate a landscape shaped by discrimination, social exclusion, and professional devaluation, but increased visibility and advocacy have led to growing efforts for inclusion and equity. Numerous organizations now work to support LGBTQ+ scientists, while companies and institutions are implementing policies aimed at fostering diversity and reducing barriers for underrepresented groups in STEM. Issues such as the "glass closet," where individuals feel pressure to conceal their identities for career advancement, continue to highlight the ongoing need for systemic change in the scientific community. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de37a26bf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "LGBTQ people in science" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:44.393262+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== History of LGBT people in science == +Magnus Hirschfeld, a German physician and sexologist, was one of the first advocates for homosexual and transgender rights. Hirschfeld was most well known for his sexual theories and for activism. In 1897 Hirschfeld created the first sexual rights organization, the Scientific Humanitarian Community, which aimed to explore and defend the rights of homosexuals. As one of the first advocates for homosexual rights, Hirschfeld faced a great amount of backlash from newspapers claiming, for example, that "abnormal propensities" should be distanced from "mainstream medicine". Hirschfeld was attacked by Nazis for being gay and Jewish, and he was beaten, sacked, and had his books burned. He was eventually forced into exile in France. John Maynard Keynes, an English economist, changed the ideology and practice of macroeconomics, and his ideas formed the school of thought known as Keynesian economics. Keynes's romantic relationships early in his life were only with other men. He had many sexual encounters with other men and he was open about these affairs. Several communities, in which Keynes was involved with, such as the Bloomsbury Group, and the Cambridge Apostles were accepting towards Keynes's homosexuality. People who opposed Keynes's ideas used his sexuality to attack his work. In Keynes's later years he began to pursue affairs with women. In 1925, Keynes married well-known Russian ballerina, Lydia Lopokova. Writer, physician, tubercular radiologist, and transsexual Alan L. Hart made great strides in tuberculosis detection after earning his master's degree in radiology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1928. Hart sought psychiatric help from his professor, J. Allen Gilbert, for his "abnormal" attraction to women previous to his transition. The treatment of Hart was documented in the case study "Homosexuality and Its Treatment" in 1920. Hart requested a full hysterectomy, claiming he felt that he deserved to be sterilized for his "abnormal inversions". Alan Turing was a mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist. A key figure in twentieth-century science, Turing led a group of cryptanalysts during World War II that successfully cracked the German Enigma machine, an achievement that significantly contributed to the Allied victory. His work not only helped shorten the war but also laid the foundation for modern computing and artificial intelligence. Despite his monumental contributions, Turing faced persecution due to his sexuality. In 1952, Turing was charged with "gross indecency" when his homosexuality was revealed—an offense under British law at the time. Rather than face imprisonment, Turing accepted hormone therapy, a form of chemical castration, which severely impacted his health and well-being. Two years later, in 1954, Turing died from cyanide poisoning, widely believed to be suicide. Much of his wartime work remained classified under the Official Secrets Act, and his scientific achievements were largely overshadowed by his prosecution during his lifetime. At the height of the Lavender Scare, astronomer Frank Kameny was fired by the US Army Map Service in 1957, shortly after his PhD from Harvard University. In 1958, he was barred from future employment in the federal government. Subsequently, radicalized, he became "one of the most significant figures" in the American gay rights movement. According to chemist Abhik Ghosh, the legendary porphyrin chemist Martin Gouterman, only a few years Kameny's junior, managed to escape similar persecution and was able to pursue a successful scientific career at the University of Washington. Computer scientist Lynn Conway worked at IBM and invented a method for issuing multiple out-of-order instructions per machine cycle. She was also a pioneer of microchip design with many high-tech companies today using her work as the foundations for their technology. Conway suffered from gender dysphoria and underwent a gender transition in 1968. After Conway revealed her intent to transition to IBM, she was fired. After her transition, Conway kept her transition a secret with only a few close friends who knew. In 2000 when her story went public, she began to work in transgender activism to advocate for more transgender rights and transgender equality. George Washington Carver was an agricultural scientist who developed several plant-based products and promoted the start of peanut farming. Although Carver did not make any comments on his sexuality a previous partner suggested that he was bisexual, and it is known that he lived the remainder of his life with Curtis Austin Jr. Sara Josephine Baker was a physician known by the name Doctor Jo who developed many programs for disease prevention. She created the Federal Children's Bureau which significantly contributed to the improvement of hygiene. As a leader in public health Baker is known for tracking down and quarantining Mary Mallon aka "Typhoid Mary", helping prevent the further spread of the typhoid fever. Baker was also an early advocate for women's leadership in medicine and was one of the first women to make significant strides in the field. She focused on the link between poverty and poor health, working to provide universal access to medical care. An openly gay woman, Baker lived with author Ida Alexa Ross Wiley for the later part of their lives. Despite the challenges she faced, her hard work saved countless lives and left a lasting legacy in public health. Sally Ride was an astrophysicist known for being the first American woman in space. She developed a foundation in her name dedicated to improving science education, particularly for young girls. After she died, it was announced that she and Tam O'Shaughnessy, who she had lived with for 27 years, were partners. This made Ride the first LGBT astronaut as well. Ben Barres a neurobiologist, was one of the first openly transgender scientists and the first to be inducted into the prestigious US National Academy of Sciences. He was a passionate advocate for trans and women's rights, challenging the systemic injustices within both science and academia. Barres made significant contributions to our understanding of the brain, particularly through his research on glial cells. His life and experiences are further explored in his autobiography, The Autobiography of a Transgender Scientist. Lauren Esposito is a pioneering figure in the LGBTQ+ community and a champion for diversity in STEM. As the only woman scorpion expert in the world, Esposito has made groundbreaking contributions to the field of arachnology while advocating for queer visibility in science. Coming from a family deeply rooted in STEM, she followed her passion for biology but faced significant challenges as an openly queer individual navigating academia. Esposito's experience with gendered harassment and microaggressions fueled her commitment to creating a more inclusive space for LGBTQ+ scientists. In 2018, she founded the initiative 500 Queer Scientists, a global visibility campaign to highlight the stories of LGBTQ+ professionals in STEM. With over 1,500 stories shared, Esposito continues to inspire others by fostering a supportive, connected community for queer scientists worldwide. Ruth Gates was a marine biologist and a passionate advocate for coral reef conservation. As the Director of the Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology, she dedicated her career to studying coral-algal symbiosis and developing strategies to help corals adapt to climate change. A proud member of the LGBTQ+ community, Gates married her wife Robin in 2018, just months before her death. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6389ec533 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "LGBTQ people in science" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:44.393262+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Known for her groundbreaking research on heat-resistant corals, Gates aimed to safeguard coral reefs from the devastating effects of ocean warming and acidification. Beyond her scientific achievements, Gates was deeply committed to public outreach, using documentaries like Chasing Coral to raise awareness about the urgent need for climate action. Her legacy continues through her lab, the Coral Resilience Lab, and through initiatives like the Ruth Gates Coral Restoration Innovation Grant, ensuring her mission to protect coral ecosystems lives on. Dr. Gates' work not only transformed reef studies but also inspired others to believe in the possibility of changing the narrative around climate change, making her an influential figure for both the scientific and LGBTQ+ communities. Richard Summerbell is a leading figure in mycology, recognized globally for his research on fungi and their impact on human and environmental health. As a prolific scientist with over 150 peer reviewed publications, Summerbell's work has significantly advanced our understanding of fungi, from their role in forest ecosystems to their involvement in human infections. Beyond his contributions to science, Summerbell was a prominent advocate for the LGBTQ+ community, actively participating in the liberation movement in the 70s and 80s. He co-hosted the Canadian show Coming Out, helping to challenge stigmas surrounding AIDS, sexuality, and religion. His activism combined with his groundbreaking work in fungal biodiversity and public health, makes him a key figure in scientific advancements as well as LGBTQ+ visibility. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63af71258 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "LGBTQ people in science" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:44.393262+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Challenges for LGBT people in science == +There are traditions and expectations that LGBT people should not study or have careers in science, according to Manil Suri. In 2016 the American Physical Society published a list of ways in which LGBT physicists have a more difficult career experience than their non-LGBT counterparts. +Studies have shown that many LGBT faculty and researchers are not out in their departments, and coming out may negatively affect retention. This is of particular issue in the STEM field as the work cultures and professional environments within this field of work can often exclude or alienate the existence of the LGBT community and the individuals within it. A 2021 study identified various inequalities for LGBT people in science. +LGBTQ professionals in STEM face a variety of challenges that make their work environments more hostile than those of their non-LGBTQ colleagues. They are more likely to leave their jobs due to higher levels of social exclusion, professional devaluation, and harassment rates up to 30% higher than their peers. LGBTQ individuals also report fewer opportunities for skill development, less access to resources, and less confidence about whistleblowing without retaliation. These issues contribute to higher levels of stress, insomnia, and depression, often linked to workplace marginalization. +Chemist David Smith speculated that the visibility of more LGBT role models in science would make it easier for other LGBT students to join the sciences, and conducted a survey which seemed to support this view. +A report on a 2015 survey of United States undergraduate students found that gay students of science were more likely to change their major to a subject outside of science than non-LGBT students. Various studies suggest that social barriers, harassment, and professional devaluation contribute to higher turnover rates among LGBTQ professionals in STEM fields. LGBTQ scientists of color, transgender and nonbinary individuals, and LGBTQ women face compounded disadvantages, with higher levels of exclusion, devaluation, and health challenges. +Unique challenges for transgender and nonbinary scientists further complicate the picture. They report higher rates of both physical and mental health difficulties, as their gender identity is often more visible than sexual orientation, making them more vulnerable to discrimination. Dylan Baker, a transgender software engineer at Google, noted that gender nonconformity or transitioning impacts all interactions in ways that sexual orientation does not, as the latter can be more easily concealed if desired. +Some academic commentators who study LGBT issues commented that LGBT students face social barriers to studying science which non-LGBT people do not experience. Various activist organizations used this study as supporting evidence that social changes could bring equal opportunity for LGBT people to study and have careers in science. + +=== The "Glass Closet" === +The "glass closet" represents a pervasive yet often understated barrier that LGBTQ+ individuals face in the workplace. It encapsulates the challenges of being visible while simultaneously encountering implicit biases, microaggressions, or overt discrimination. In science, academia, and industry, these challenges are magnified by systemic structures that have historically excluded LGBTQ+ voices. +Breaking free from this metaphorical closet is crucial not only for personal authenticity but also for fostering innovation, equity, and diversity across all professional fields. Historically, the risks associated with coming out in professional settings were profound. +Efforts to foster inclusivity in the workplace have made significant strides in recent years. Progressive organizations, such as Out & Equal Workplace Advocates, have been instrumental in creating safer spaces for LGBTQ+ employees. Similarly, companies like Genentech have implemented comprehensive policies to support LGBTQ+ professionals, including offering domestic partnership benefits and establishing employee resource groups. These initiatives are steps toward dismantling the systemic barriers that perpetuate the glass closet. However, progress is not uniform. Inconsistent federal protections and varying state-level policies leave many LGBTQ+ individuals vulnerable to discrimination. For instance, the lack of universal domestic partnership benefits creates significant inequities, particularly for those living in conservative regions. Addressing these systemic gaps requires sustained advocacy at both the organizational and governmental levels. +The importance of dismantling the glass closet extends beyond individual empowerment. Research shows that diverse teams outperform homogenous ones, fostering innovation and creativity. Organizations like NOGLSTP and SACNAS have helped this movement, providing mentorship, networking opportunities, and resources for LGBTQ+ professionals and their allies. These efforts are crucial for building supportive communities that amplify marginalized voices. + +== Organizations & Campaigns == + +=== United States === + +In recognition that LGBT people are underrepresented in the sciences, various universities have programs to encourage more LGBT students to join their science programs. The organization is oSTEM (Out in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) has a network of about 90 student chapters at universities across the United States. oSTEM has an annual conference and aims to provide a place for LGBT science students to gather, whether they are out or not. +Other professional organizations for LGBT people in science include the Out to Innovate. Out to Innovate educates professional communities about LGBT issues and offers two scholarships annually. In 2018, Lauren Esposito, curator of arachnology at the California Academy of Sciences, created the campaign 500 Queer Scientists, which aims to promote inclusivity in science. NASA employees annually holds LGBT pride parade events. +Additional LGBTQ-focused organizations in tech and STEM include Lesbians Who Tech, a global network that promotes visibility, leadership, and opportunities for LGBTQ women and non-binary individuals in tech. Maven Youth focuses on empowering LGBTQ+ youth through tech education, mentorship, and leadership development, helping them prepare for careers in STEM. Out for Undergrad (O4U) connects high-achieving LGBTQ undergraduates with professional opportunities and mentorship in industries like technology and engineering. +QueerTech offers a platform for LGBTQ professionals in tech to network and increase representation in the field. TransTech Social Enterprises supports trans and gender non-conforming individuals through tech training and job opportunities. StartOut is dedicated to fostering entrepreneurship within the LGBTQ community by providing resources, mentorship, and networking for LGBTQ entrepreneurs, especially in the tech sector. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..324504e82 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "LGBTQ people in science" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:44.393262+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== United Kingdom and Europe === +Pride in STEM, a charitable organization based in the United Kingdom, co-founded the International Day of LGBTQ+ People in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths. In Germany, a similar movement was founded under the name LGBTQ STEM Berlin. +The Proud Science Alliance is a collective organisation made up of representatives from LGBTQ+ networks from across the healthcare and life sciences sector. +The first interdisciplinary conference in the UK for LGBTQ+ people working in STEM fields was the LGBTSTEMinar hosted at the University of Sheffield in 2016. It has been hosted annually since then and in 2020 the Royal Society Athena Prize was awarded for this work. + +== Corporate Policies & Inclusion Efforts == +Corporate policies aimed at promoting LGBTQ+ inclusion have become important for diversity, equity, and innovation in the modern workplace. Achieving true inclusion requires more than surface-level commitments; it involves embedding equity into policies, practices, and cultural norms. + +=== The Value of Inclusive Corporate Policies === +Inclusive policies serve as both a moral imperative and a strategic advantage. Research consistently demonstrates that diverse workplaces outperform less inclusive ones by fostering creativity, improving problem-solving, and enhancing employee satisfaction. The 2021 Corporate Equality Index by the Human Rights Campaign illustrates that workplaces supportive of LGBTQ+ employees experience higher productivity, retention, and employee engagement. Despite this, LGBTQ+ employees in many parts of the U.S. remain vulnerable due to inconsistent federal protections, necessitating proactive efforts by individual companies. + +=== Examples of Inclusive Practices === +Several key practices exemplify the commitment to inclusion, from equitable benefits to creating safe spaces for gender expression. +Gender-neutral bathrooms, for instance, offer essential dignity and inclusivity for nonbinary and transgender employees. By removing binary constraints, these facilities help mitigate daily stressors for gender-diverse employees. +Similarly, respecting preferred pronouns is another cornerstone of an inclusive workplace. The recognition of self-identified names and pronouns fosters a culture of respect and reduces microaggressions. Inclusive dress codes further empower employees by eliminating outdated gender norms and allowing for authentic self-expression. +Equitable leave policies are particularly vital for LGBTQ+ families, who have historically been excluded from benefits such as parental leave and family health insurance. + +=== Industry Examples in LGBTQ+ Inclusion === +Companies that expand the language of their policies to include all family structures demonstrate a commitment to true equity. Finally, robust anti-discrimination policies provide a foundational safeguard, ensuring that all employees feel safe, valued, and respected. +Apple is a leader in promoting diversity, with initiatives such as Pride@Apple, a resource group for LGBTQ+ employees. Apple's workforce reflects significant representation from underrepresented communities, and its openly gay CEO, Tim Cook, serves as a visible advocate for equity. +AT&T, a pioneer in LGBTQ+ inclusion, was among the first companies to implement anti-discrimination policies based on sexual orientation. Its LGBTQ+ employee network, League at AT&T, has been a model for workplace resource groups since its founding in 1987. The company also actively supports LGBTQ+ visibility through sponsorships like the LOVELOUD music festival. +Google demonstrates its commitment through extensive philanthropic efforts, such as donating millions to LGBTQ+ organizations and initiatives like OutRight Action International. The company's platform amplifies LGBTQ+ visibility through features such as LGBTQ-friendly business attributes and Pride-themed doodles. +IBM has a longstanding history of inclusion, offering domestic partner benefits since 1996 and collaborating with organizations like Out & Equal to advance workplace equity. The company's leadership on legislative issues, including personal appeals to Congress for the Equality Act, underscores its dedication to systemic change. +Salesforce similarly prioritizes LGBTQ+ inclusion through equality groups such as Outforce and targeted diversity recruiting initiatives. In 2021, the company launched gender-inclusive benefits, including support for transgender employees and their families, during Transgender Awareness Week. +PayPal has taken bold stances against discriminatory policies, such as withdrawing plans for a headquarters in North Carolina after the state passed anti-LGBTQ+ legislation. Its partnerships with organizations like Out in Tech demonstrate a broader commitment to advocacy and digital equity. +Pinterest stands out for publishing its own gender transition guide and earning top scores in the Human Rights Campaign's Corporate Equality Index. The company provides resources and benefits aligned with the World Professional Association for Transgender Health, reinforcing its dedication to inclusivity. + +=== Broader Impact === +Corporate efforts to support LGBTQ+ employees extend beyond internal policies. By leveraging their platforms, these companies influence societal norms and advance broader conversations about equality. For example, public support for the Equality Act and partnerships with advocacy organizations amplify the fight for federal anti-discrimination protections. Furthermore, initiatives like diversity resource groups provide critical networking and mentorship opportunities, enabling LGBTQ+ professionals to advance their careers. While significant progress has been made, challenges remain. Companies must continually evaluate and adapt their policies to address emerging needs and ensure all employees feel empowered. The ongoing advocacy of industry leaders sets a promising precedent for workplaces of the future, where diversity and inclusion are integral to corporate success. By adopting and expanding these practices, businesses can drive meaningful change for their employees, industries, and society at large. + +== See also == +500 Queer Scientists +LGBT pride +LGBT history + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Welton, Tom (14 February 2014). "Gay prejudice? It's not easy admitting you're ... a scientist". The Guardian. +Scarpelli, Andrew (19 October 2017). "How I realized that LGBT+ scientists like me can inspire others in their field". Massive. + +== External links == +National Organization of Gay and Lesbian Scientists and Technical Professionals +500 Queer Scientists Campaign +Out in STEM Conference +Pride in STEM +LGBTQ STEM Berlin Twitter account \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b5aa240a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Søren Brostrøm" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:46.481887+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Søren Brostrøm (born 4 June 1965) is a Danish physician-scientist specializing in obstetrics and gynaecology. He was the Director general of the Danish Health Authority between 2015 and 2023, and has been a senior adviser to the Director-General of the WHO in charge of organizational change, since 2023. +Brostrøm has previously been a member (from 2017), Vice-chair (from 2018), and Chair (from 2019), of the Standing Committee of the European Regional Committee (SCRC), as well as (ex officio) Deputy Executive president of the WHO Regional Committee for Europe (69th session; 2019–2020). He held these posts during the COVID-19 pandemic, and as chairperson he led the committee's crisis management and response. +Before becoming director general in 2015, Brostrøm served, from September 2011, as the Director of the Department of Hospitals and Emergency management, also at the Danish Health Authority. Brostrøm worked as a chief physician at Herlev Hospital and as an associate professor at the University of Copenhagen, before joining the Danish Health Authority. +Following the COVID-19 pandemic, Brostrøm became a prominent public figure in Denmark, where he played a key role in the Danish response to COVID-19, which has been described as "one of the most successful in Europe." In Denmark, he became widely known as the "corona general", and was especially praised for his "directness and clarity with which he speaks" and his reliance on facts and logic. + +== Early life and education == +Søren Brostrøm was born in Aarhus in 1965, the second son of two medical doctors; his mother a paediatrician and his father a cancer researcher. He grew up in Risskov and Farsø. His father died in an accident when Brostrøm was 11 years old, and the family moved to Mobile, Alabama, where Brostrøm experienced different social conditions. Brostrom said in a 2020-interview that "the tragedy has left an everlasting mark on me" and that life after his father's death was burdened by "both grief and a tough financial situation". +In the early 1980s, Søren Brostrøm was the international secretary of the Danish Communist Youth League. Brostrøm graduated from Gammel Hellerup Gymnasium in 1984. +From an early age, he was interested in biology and mathematics. Brostrøm has said in connection with his profession and education that "although my parents were doctors, it was my own choice, but I was probably also very influenced by them." +In 1995, Brostrøm received a Master of Science in Medicine (cand. med.) degree from the University of Copenhagen. He completed his clinical clerkship at Holstebro Hospital in Holstebro, Denmark. In 2003, he obtained his PhD degree in obstetrics and gynaecology, with a subspecialization in urogynecology, focused on laparoscopic pelvic surgery. He completed a Master of Public Administration from the Copenhagen Business School in 2011. In 2019, he completed a Senior Managers in Government (SMG) program at Harvard Kennedy School of Government. +His PhD thesis was on motor evoked potentials from the pelvic floor and lower urinary tract dysfunction. + +== Career == +He made a career in several Copenhagen hospitals as a gynaecological surgeon and was one of the leading doctors in Europe in performing a special robotic-assisted operation in which the top of the vagina is stitched open. +After his medical training, Brostrøm worked in 2007 as an attending physician at the gynaecological-obstetric department at Aarhus University Hospital Skejby. He then worked as a chief physician at the gynaecological-obstetric department at Glostrup Hospital from 2007 to 2008. From 2009 to 2011 he worked as a chief physician at the gynaecological-obstetric department at Herlev University Hospital. +For two years from 2009 to 2011, Brostrøm worked concurrently as an associate professor at the Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (now part of the Department of Clinical Medicine) at the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen, and completed a Master of Public Administration (MPA) at Copenhagen Business School. + +=== Danish Health Authority === +In September 2011, Brostrøm joined the Danish Health Authority as the Director of the Department of Hospitals and Emergency management, with broad responsibilities for the national planning of specialized hospital services, emergency services and preparedness, communicable diseases, immunization and screening programs as well as national action plans in the field of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, mental health etc. +The responsibilities also included health preparedness and infectious diseases, which is where the Authority's pandemic preparedness lies. During the COVID-19 pandemic ten years later, Brostrøm would come to rely on the experience and knowledge he gained as department head. + +=== Director-General === +In October 2015, Brostrøm was appointed Director general of the Danish Health Authority, which was immediately afterwards heavily reshaped by a comprehensive organizational change, where major areas such as patient safety, approval of medicines and handling of health data were placed in independent authorities. The Danish Health Authority remained the overall authority. +One of his first major tasks was to complete the update of the specialty plan, which dictates which hospitals can perform complicated treatments and which cannot. It came into force in June 2017 after extensive committee work and many critical debates in medical circles. +In May 2021, Brostrøm was elected a member of the Executive Board of the World Health Organization by the World Health Assembly. + +==== Public attention ==== +Brostrøm came to public attention when the Danish Health Authority's HPV vaccination programme in 2014–15 experienced a sudden and large drop in uptake among the target group, girls and young women, who feared serious side effects. Brostrøm took responsibility for inadequate communication and did so in an open and personal manner, which has also been characteristic of his appearance at numerous press conferences and interviews in connection with the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. + +== Personal life and interests == +Brostrøm is interested in art, theatre and the opera. Brostrøm is openly homosexual. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42e60df98 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "Søren Brostrøm" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:46.481887+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== HIV/AIDS impact on Brostrøm === +Brostrom spoke in an interview in 2020 about how the HIV and AIDS global epidemic affected his youth: "HIV and AIDS is the disease I myself grew up with. Both as a young gay man and as a young medical student." Brostrøm described how the disease came as a shock and put a damper on the free and uninhibited sexuality that had taken hold in the gay community throughout the 1960s and 70s. Brostrøm said, "In 1992 I was in the US as part of (medical) school, and from that period I remember it very clearly. There was a lot of debate and the disease was shrouded in taboo. There were religious and conservative groups who called HIV and AIDS God's punishment on homosexuals. At that time I saw young beautiful men lying dead. People like myself." + +== Memberships, chairmanships and organizational work == +Brostrøm has been chairman and board member of a number of organizations. List: + +=== Danish === +Member of the Board of the Danish Society of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. +2001–2003: President of the Danish Association of Young Gynaecologists and Obstetricians (FYGO). +2008–2011: President of the Danish FIGO-foundation. +2018–2022: Member of the Board of the Danish Health Fund. + +==== Governmental ==== +2014–present: Chair of the National Task force on Cancer and Heart Disease. +2014–present: Chair of the National Task force on Mental health. +2015–present: Advisory role to Cabinet and Parliament. +2015–present: Executive officer in the Ministry of Health. + +=== International === +2001–2002: Member of the Executive Committee of the European Network of Trainees in Obstetrics and Gynaecology (ENTOG) +2003–2005: President of the European Network of Trainees in Obstetrics and Gynaecology (ENTOG). +2003–2006: board member of the European Board and College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (EBCOG). +2008–2011: Member of the Scientific Committee of the International Urogynaecology Association (IUGA). +2008–2011: President of the Nordic Urogynaecology Association (NUGA). +2010–2012: Secretary general of the International Urogynecological Association (IUGA). +2012–2015: Member of the Health Security Committee (HSC) of the European Union + +==== World Health Organization ==== +2017–2018: Member of the Standing Committee of the European Regional Committee (SCRC) of the WHO. +2018: Vice-chair of the WHO World Health Assembly Committee A +2018–2019: Vice-chair of the Standing Committee of the European Regional Committee (SCRC) of the WHO. +2019–2020: Chair of the Standing Committee of the European Regional Committee (SCRC) of the WHO. +2019–2020: Deputy Executive president of the WHO Regional Committee for Europe. +2021–2024: Member of the Executive Board of the World Health Organization. + +== Awards and honours == + +=== National === + Denmark: + Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog (2018) + +== Selected works and publications == + +=== Journals === +Brostrøm, Søren (2003). "Motor Evoked Potentials from the Pelvic Floor". Neurourology and Urodynamics. 22 (7): 620–637. doi:10.1002/nau.10151. PMID 14595605. S2CID 9427779. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren; Jennum, Poul; Lose, Gunnar (2003). "Motor evoked potentials from the striated urethral sphincter: A comparison of concentric needle and surface electrodes". Neurourology and Urodynamics. 22 (2): 123–129. doi:10.1002/nau.10030. ISSN 0733-2467. PMID 12579629. S2CID 19880017. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren; Jennum, Poul; Lose, Gunnar (2003). "Motor evoked potentials from the striated urethral sphincter and puborectal muscle: Normative values". Neurourology and Urodynamics. 22 (4): 306–313. doi:10.1002/nau.10077. ISSN 1520-6777. PMID 12808705. S2CID 2471980. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren; Jennum, Poul; Lose, Gunnar (2003). "Motor evoked potentials from the striated urethral sphincter and puborectal muscle: reproducibility of latencies". Clinical Neurophysiology. 114 (10): 1891–1895. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00199-8. ISSN 1388-2457. PMID 14499750. S2CID 24909746. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren; Frederiksen, J. L.; Jennum, P.; Lose, G. (2003). "Motor evoked potentials from the pelvic floor in patients with multiple sclerosis". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 74 (4): 498–500. doi:10.1136/jnnp.74.4.498. ISSN 0022-3050. PMC 1738390. PMID 12640072. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren (2005). "European trainees cooperate to harmonise and improve the quality of training in OB/GYN". European Clinics in Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 1 (1): 57–58. doi:10.1007/s11296-004-0001-2. ISSN 1613-3412. S2CID 68229375. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren; Lose, Gunnar (2008). "Pelvic floor muscle training in the prevention and treatment of urinary incontinence in women – what is the evidence?". Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 87 (4): 384–402. doi:10.1080/00016340801938806. ISSN 1600-0412. PMID 18382863. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren (2008–2010). "Which nonsurgical options are effective for the treatment of female urinary incontinence?". Nature Clinical Practice Urology. 5 (10): 532–533. doi:10.1038/ncpuro1197. ISSN 1743-4289. PMID 18728631. S2CID 42368096. Wikidata () +Brostrøm, Søren (2019). "Improving care for patients with functional disorders in Denmark". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 116: 22–24. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.11.003. ISSN 0022-3999. PMID 30654989. S2CID 58551967. Wikidata () +Guldberg, Rikke; Brostrøm, Søren; Hansen, Jesper Kjær; Kærlev, Linda; Gradel, Kim Oren; Nørgård, Bente Mertz; Kesmodel, Ulrik Schiøler (2013). "The Danish Urogynaecological Database: establishment, completeness and validity". International Urogynecology Journal. 24 (6): 983–990. doi:10.1007/s00192-012-1968-8. ISSN 1433-3023. PMID 23073539. S2CID 434294. Wikidata () +Guldberg, Rikke; Kesmodel, Ulrik Schiøler; Brostrøm, Søren; Kærlev, Linda; Hansen, Jesper Kjær; Hallas, Jesper; Nørgård, Bente Mertz (2014). "Use of antibiotics for urinary tract infection in women undergoing surgery for urinary incontinence: a cohort study". BMJ Open. 4 (2) e004051. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004051. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 3918979. PMID 24496697. Wikidata () +Due, Ulla; Brostrøm, Søren; Lose, Gunnar (1 April 2016). "Lifestyle advice with or without pelvic floor muscle training for pelvic organ prolapse: a randomized controlled trial". International Urogynecology Journal. 27 (4): 555–563. doi:10.1007/s00192-015-2852-0. ISSN 1433-3023. PMID 26439114. S2CID 20986824. Wikidata () +Due, Ulla; Brostrøm, Søren; Lose, Gunnar (2016). "The 12-month effects of structured lifestyle advice and pelvic floor muscle training for pelvic organ prolapse". Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 95 (7): 811–819. doi:10.1111/aogs.12884. ISSN 1600-0412. PMID 26910261. Wikidata () + +=== Books === +Subjektivt & objektivt: anamnese, undersøgelse og journal [Subjective & objective: anamnesis, examination and journal]. Søren Brostrøm, Niels, f. Saxtrup, Lotte Clevin (3 ed.). Copengagen: Munksgaard Danmark. 2011. ISBN 978-87-628-1012-9. OCLC 769811356.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1e2df9081 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Uzi Even" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:47.673164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Uzi Even (Hebrew: עוזי אבן; born 18 October 1940) is an Israeli professor emeritus of physical chemistry at Tel Aviv University and a former politician well known for being the first openly gay member of the Knesset (the Israeli Parliament). + + +== Biography == +Uzi Even was born in Haifa during the British Mandate era. He earned a BSc and MSc in physics at the Technion, and a PhD at Tel Aviv University. His specializations are spectroscopy of super cold molecules, molecular clusters and cluster impact chemistry, and the quantum properties of helium clusters. He then worked as a scientist at the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona. As a reservist in the Israel Defense Forces he reached the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. He conducted top-secret military research and served as an intelligence officer during the Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War. In 1968 he left his job at the reactor and joined Lekem, an Israeli intelligence agency responsible for collecting scientific and technical information from abroad. +In May 1981, Even leaked the news of preparations to carry out "Operation Opera" to opposition leader Shimon Peres. Peres subsequently wrote a letter of protest to Prime Minister Menachem Begin, and the operation was delayed for a month. +In 1982, Even had his security clearance revoked and rank lowered in the IDF reserves and was reassigned to a clerical position after his sexual orientation was discovered. At the time, the IDF's policy prohibited known homosexuals from holding security clearances. In 1993, he participated in the first Knesset hearing on gays and lesbians, and spoke about his ordeal in the IDF over his sexual orientation. His testimony led to Yitzhak Rabin's government changing the law and regulations to allow homosexuals to serve in the army in any position, including one requiring a high security clearance. In 1996, after Even's employer, Tel Aviv University, refused his then-partner, Amit Kama, spousal rights equal to those it granted to the spouses of staff in heterosexual marriages, he sued the university with help from the Association for Civil Rights in Israel. Even won the case, setting a legal precedent. +In 2004, Even and Kama married in Canada. On 10 March 2009, the Family Court ruled that Even and Kama could legally adopt their 30-year-old foster son, Yossi Even-Kama, making them the first same-sex male couple in Israel whose right of adoption was legally acknowledged. +In December 2012 Even set yet another legal precedent by divorcing Kama. The divorce was granted by the Family Court, since the Rabbinical Court does not recognize same-sex marriages. This might lead the way for straight couples to bypass the religious establishment as well, which - in Israel - holds monopoly on marriage and divorce affairs. + + +== Political career == +A member of Meretz, he narrowly missed out on being elected to the fifteenth Knesset in 1999, but as the next placed candidate on the party's list, he became an MK when Amnon Rubinstein resigned in 2002, making him the first openly homosexual member of the Knesset. For the 2003 elections he was placed 15th on the party's list, and lost his seat when they won only six seats. +In 2006, Even announced he was leaving Meretz and joining the Labor Party, feeling comfortable doing so after he noticed that Labor promised equality to all citizens in its election manifesto. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Uzi Even on the Knesset website +Uzi Even's homepage on the Tel Aviv University website Archived 31 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine +Info on the Even-Lavie Valve \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01ec45d9d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 1/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The presence of women in medicine, particularly in the practicing fields of surgery and as physicians, has been traced to the earliest of history. Women have historically had lower participation levels in medical fields compared to men with occupancy rates varying by race, socioeconomic status, and geography. +Women's informal practice of medicine in roles such as caregivers, or as allied health professionals, has been widespread. Since the start of the 20th century, most countries of the world provide women with access to medical education. Not all countries ensure equal employment opportunities, and gender equality has yet to be achieved within medical specialties and around the world. + +== History == + +=== Ancient medicine === +The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An Egyptian of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Peseshet, described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest woman named in the history of science. Ubartum lived around 2050 BC in Mesopotamia and came from a family of several physicians. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War. Metrodora was a physician and generally regarded as the first female medical writer. Her book, On the Diseases and Cures of Women, was the oldest medical book written by a female and was referenced by many other female physicians. She credited much of her writings to the ideologies of Hippocrates. + +=== Medieval Europe === + +During the Middle Ages, convents were a centralized place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. An example is the German abbess Hildegard of Bingen, whose prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including medicine, botany and natural history (c. 1151–58). She is considered Germany's first female physician. +Women in the Middle Ages participated in healing techniques and several capacities in medicine and medical education. Women occupied select ranks of medical personnel during the period. They worked as herbalists, midwives, surgeons, barber-surgeons, nurses, and traditional empirics. Women healers treated most patients, not limiting themselves to treating solely women. The names of 24 women described as surgeons in Naples, Italy between 1273 and 1410 have been recorded, and references have been found to 15 women practitioners, most of them Jewish and none described as midwives, in Frankfurt, Germany between 1387 and 1497. The earliest known English women doctors, Solicita and Matilda Ford, date to the late twelfth century; they were referred to as medica, a term for trained physicians. +Women also engaged in midwifery and healing arts without having their activities recorded in written records, and practiced in rural areas or where there was little access to medical care. Society in the Middle Ages limited women's role as physician. Once universities established faculties of medicine during the thirteenth century, women were excluded from advanced medical education. Licensure began to require clerical vows for which women were ineligible, and healing as a profession became male-dominated. +In many occasions, women had to fight against accusation of illegal practice done by males, putting into question their motives. If they were not accused of malpractice, then women were considered "witches" by both clerical and civil authorities. Surgeons and barber-surgeons were often organized into guilds, which could hold out longer against the pressures of licensure. Like other guilds, a number of the barber-surgeon guilds allowed the daughters and wives of their members to take up membership in the guild, generally after the man's death. Katherine "la surgiene" of London, daughter of Thomas the surgeon and sister of William the Surgeon, belonged to a guild in 1286. Documentation of female members in the guilds of Lincoln, Norwich, Dublin and York continue until late in the period. +Midwives, those who assisted pregnant women through childbirth and some aftercare, included only women. Midwives constituted roughly one third of female medical practitioners. Men did not involve themselves in women's medical care; women did not involve themselves in men's health care. The southern Italian coastal town of Salerno was a center of medical education and practice in the 12th century. In Salerno the physician Trota of Salerno compiled a number of her medical practices in several written collections. One work on women's medicine that was associated with her, the De curis mulierum ('On Treatments for Women') formed the core of what came to be known as the Trotula ensemble, a compendium of three texts that circulated throughout medieval Europe. Trota herself gained a reputation that spread as far as France and England. There are also references in the writings of other Salernitan physicians to the mulieres Salernitane ('Salernitan women'), which give some idea of local empirical practices. +Dorotea Bucca, an Italian physician, was chair of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna for over forty years from 1390. Other Italian women whose contributions in medicine have been recorded include Abella, Jacqueline Felice de Almania, Alessandra Giliani, Rebecca de Guarna, Margarita, Mercuriade (14th century), Constance Calenda, Clarice di Durisio (15th century), Constanza, Maria Incarnata and Thomasia de Mattio. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..115ceae4d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 2/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Medieval Islamic world === +For the medieval Islamic world, little information is known about female medical practitioners although it is likely that women were regularly involved in medical practice in some capacity. Male medical writers refer to the presence of female practitioners (a ṭabība) in describing certain procedures or situations. The late-10th to early-11th century Andalusi physician and surgeon al-Zahrawi wrote that certain medical procedures were difficult for male doctors practicing on female patients because of the need to touch the genitalia. The male practitioner was required to either find a female doctor who could perform the procedure, or a eunuch physician, or a midwife who took instruction from the male surgeon. The existence of female practitioners can be inferred, albeit not explicitly, through direct evidence. Midwives played a prominent role in the delivery of women's healthcare. For these practitioners, there is more detailed information, both in terms of the prestige of their craft (ibn Khaldun calls it a noble craft, "something necessary in civilization") and in terms of biographical information on historic women. To date, no known medical treatise written by a woman in the medieval Islamic world has been identified. + +=== Western medicine in China === +Traditional Chinese medicine based on the use of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage and other forms of therapy has been practiced in China for thousands of years. Western medicine was introduced to China in the 19th century, mainly by medical missionaries sent from various Christian mission organizations, such as the London Missionary Society (Britain), the Methodist Church (Britain) and the Presbyterian Church (US). Benjamin Hobson (1816–1873), a medical missionary sent by the London Missionary Society in 1839, set up the Wai Ai Clinic (惠愛醫館) in Guangzhou, China. The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese (香港華人西醫書院) was founded in 1887 by the London Missionary Society, with its first graduate (in 1892) being Sun Yat-sen (孫中山). +Due to the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, Chinese women were reluctant to be treated by Western male doctors. This resulted in a need for female doctors. One of these was Sigourney Trask of the Methodist Episcopal Church, who set-up a hospital in Fuzhou during the mid-19th century. Trask also arranged for a local girl, Hü King Eng, to study medicine at Ohio Wesleyan Female College, with the intention that Hü would return to practise western medicine in Fuzhou. After graduation, Hü became the resident physician at Fuzhou's Woolston Memorial Hospital in 1899 and trained several female physicians. Another female medical missionary Mary H. Fulton (1854–1927) was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (US) to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women (夏葛女子醫學院), this college was located in Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Edward A. K. Hackett (1851–1916) of Indiana. The college was dedicated in 1902 and offered a four-year curriculum. By 1915, there were more than 60 students, mostly in residence. Most students became Christians, due to the influence of Fulton. The college was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social status. The graduates of this college included Chau Lee-sun (周理信, 1890–1979) and Wong Yuen-hing (黃婉卿), both of whom graduated in the late 1910s and then practiced medicine in the hospitals in Guangdong province. + +== Midwifery in 18th-century America == +During this era, the majority of American women whether European or African American, childbirth was considered a female event where female friends, relatives, and the local midwife gathered to support the birthing mother. Midwives gained their knowledge through experience and apprenticeship. Out of the different occupations women took on around this time, midwifery was one of the highest-paying industries. In the 18th century, households tended to have an abundance of children largely in part to having hired help and diminished mortality rates. Despite the high chance of complications in labor, American midwife Martha Ballard, specifically, had high success rates in delivering healthy babies to healthy mothers. + +== Women's health movement, 1970s == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..afa54ff32 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 11/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Abram, Ruth Abram., Send Us a Lady Physician: Women Doctors in America, 1835–1920 +Benton, John F. (1985). "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 59 (1): 30–53. JSTOR 44452036. PMID 3886049. ProQuest 1296295309. +Blake, Catriona. The Charge of the Parasols: Women's Entry to the Medical Profession +Borst, Charlotte G. Catching Babies: Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870–1920 (1995), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press +Elisabeth Brooke, Women Healers: Portraits of Herbalists, Physicians, and Midwives (biographical encyclopedia) +Chenevert, Melodie. STAT: Special Techniques in Assertiveness Training for Women in the Health Profession +Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers +Deirdre English and Barbara Ehrenreich, For Her Own Good (gendering of history of midwifery and professionalization of medicine) +Fette, Julie (2007). "Pride and Prejudice in the Professions: Women Doctors and Lawyers in Third Republic France". Journal of Women's History. 19 (3): 60–86. doi:10.1353/jowh.2007.0055. S2CID 144728859. Project MUSE 221409. +Grant, Susan-Mary (June 2012). "On the Field of Mercy: Women Medical Volunteers from the Civil War to the First World War". American Nineteenth Century History. 13 (2): 276–278. doi:10.1080/14664658.2012.720092. S2CID 144169798. +Henderson, Metta Lou. American Women Pharmacists: Contributions to the Profession +Junod, Suzanne White and Seaman, Barbara, eds. Voices of the Women's Health Movement, Volume OneSeven Stories Press. New York. 2012. pp 60–62. +Leneman, Leah (April 1994). "Medical women at war, 1914–1918". Medical History. 38 (2): 160–177. doi:10.1017/S0025727300059081. PMC 1036842. PMID 8007751. +Luchetti, Cathy. Medicine Women: The Story of Early-American Women Doctors. New York: Crown, +Regina Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (1985 first ed.; 2001) +More, Ellen S. Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and the Profession of Medicine, 1850–1995 +Perrone, Bobette H. et al. Medicine Women, Curanderas, and Women Doctors (1993); cross-cultural anthropological survey of traditional societies +Pringle, Rosemary. Sex and Medicine: Gender, Power and Authority in the Medical Profession +Schwirian, Patricia M. Professionalization of Nursing: Current Issues and Trends (1998), Philadelphia: Lippencott, ISBN 0781710456 +Walsh, Mary Roth. Doctors Wanted: No Women Need Apply: Sexual Barriers in the Medical Profession, 1835–1975 (1977) + +=== Biographies === +Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A Midwife's Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard Based on Her Diary, 1785–1812 (1991) +Rebecca Wojahn, Dr. Kate: Angel on Snowshoes (1956) + +== External links == +The Archives for Women in Medicine Archived 3 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Countway Library, Harvard Medical School +"Changing the Face of Medicine", 2003 Exhibition at the National Library of Medicine;"NLM Exhibit Honors Outstanding Women", NIH Record, 11 November 2003. exhibition website at Changing the Face of Medicine . +Women are Changing the face of medicine +Women Physicians: 1850s–1970s Archived 8 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine – online exhibit at the Drexel University College of Medicine Archives and Special Collections on Women in Medicine and Homeopathy +"The Stethoscope Sorority", an online exhibit from the Archives for Women in Medicine Archived 3 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine +Women in Medicine Oral History Project Collection Archived 23 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services +What's It Like to Be a Woman in Medicine? – online website at Cedar Sinai \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ac243653c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 3/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The 1970s marked an increase of women entering and graduating from medical school in the United States. From 1930 to 1970, a period of 40 years, around 14,000 women graduated from medical school. From 1970 to 1980, a period of 10 years, over 20,000 women graduated from medical school. This increase of women in the medical field was due to both political and cultural changes. Two laws in the U.S. lifted restrictions for women in the medical field – Title IX of the Higher Education Act Amendments of 1972 and the Public Health Service Act of 1975, banning discrimination on grounds of gender. In November 1970, the Assembly of the Association of American Medical Colleges rallied for equal rights in the medical field. +Throughout the decade women's ideas about themselves and their relation to the medical field were shifting due to the women's feminist movement. A sharp increase of women in the medical field led to developments in doctor-patient relationships, changes in terminology and theory. One area of medical practice that was challenged and changed was gynecology. Author Wendy Kline noted that "to ensure that young brides were ready for the wedding night, [doctors] used the pelvic exam as a form of sex instruction." +With higher numbers of women enrolled in medical school, medical practices like gynecology were challenged and subsequently altered. In 1972, the University of Iowa Medical School instituted a new training program for pelvic and breast examinations. Students would act both as the doctor and the patient, allowing each student to understand the procedure and create a more gentle, respectful examination. With changes in ideologies and practices throughout the 70s, by 1980 over 75 schools had adopted this new method. +Along with women entering the medical field and feminist rights movement, came along the women's health movement which sought alternative methods of health care for women. This came through the creation of self-help books, most notably Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women. This book gave women a "manual" to help understand their body. It challenged hospital treatment, and doctors' practices. Aside from self-help books, many help centres were opened: birth centres run by midwives, safe abortion centres, and classes for educating women on their bodies, all with the aim of providing non-judgmental care for women. The women's health movement, along with women involved in the medical field, opened the doors for research and awareness for female illness like breast cancer and cervical cancer. +Scholars in the history of medicine had developed some study of women in the field—biographies of pioneering women physicians were common prior to the 1960s—and study of women in medicine took particular root with the advent of the women's movement in the 1960s, and in conjunction with the women's health movement. + +== Modern medicine == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..208a0274c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 4/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + In 1540, Henry VIII of England granted the charter for the Company of Barber-Surgeons; while this led to the specialization of healthcare professions (i.e. surgeons and barbers), women were barred from professional practice. Women did continue to practice during this time without formal training or recognition in England and eventually North America for the next several centuries. +Women's participation in the medical professions was generally limited by legal and social practices during the decades while medicine was professionalizing. Women openly practiced medicine in the allied health professions (nursing, midwifery, etc.), and throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, women made significant gains in access to medical education and medical work through much of the world. These gains were sometimes tempered by setbacks; some have documented a decline in women physicians in the US in the first half of the twentieth century, such that there were fewer women physicians in 1950 than there were in 1900. A 2026 study attributed this decline to closures of schools with traditionally high female enrollments, higher admission standards for female applicants to medical schools than male applicants, and the refusal of some medical schools, such as Harvard Medical School, to admit women at all. +Through the latter half of the twentieth century, women made gains generally across the board. In the United States, for instance, women were 9% of total US medical school enrollment in 1969; this had increased to 20% in 1976. By 1985, women constituted 16% of practicing American physicians. +At the beginning of the 21st century in industrialized nations, women have made significant gains, but have yet to achieve parity throughout the medical profession. Women have achieved parity in medical school in some industrialized countries, since 2003 forming the majority of the United States medical school applicants. In 2007–2008, women accounted for 49% of medical school applicants and 48.3% of those accepted. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) 48.4% (8,396) of medical degrees awarded in the US in 2010–2011 were earned by women, an increase from 26.8% in 1982–1983. While more women are taking part in the medical field, a 2013–2014 study reported that there are significantly fewer women in leadership positions within the academic realm of medicine. This study found that women accounted for 16% of deans, 21% of the professors, and 38% of faculty, as compared to their male counterparts. +The practice of medicine remains disproportionately male overall. In industrialized nations, the recent parity in gender of medical students has not yet trickled into parity in practice. In many developing nations, neither medical school nor practice approach gender parity. Moreover, there are skews within the medical profession: some medical specialties, such as surgery, are significantly male-dominated, while other specialties are significantly female-dominated, or are becoming so. For example, in the United States, As of 2006 female physicians outnumber male physicians in pediatrics and female residents outnumber male residents in family medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, and psychiatry. In several different areas of medicine (general practice, medical specialties, surgical specialties) and in various roles, medical professionals tend to overestimate women's true representation, and this correlates with a decreased willingness to support gender-based initiatives among men, impeding further progress towards gender parity. +Women continue to dominate in nursing. In 2000, 94.6% of registered nurses in the United States were women. In health care professions as a whole in the US, women numbered approximately 14.8 million, as of 2011. +Biomedical research and academic medical professions—i.e., faculty at medical schools—are also disproportionately male. Research on this issue, called the "leaky pipeline" by the National Institutes of Health and other researchers, shows that while women have achieved parity with men in entering graduate school, a variety of discrimination causes them to drop out at each stage in the academic pipeline: graduate school, postdoc, faculty positions, achieving tenure; and, ultimately, in receiving recognition for groundbreaking work. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0617cf7ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 5/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Glass ceiling === +The "glass ceiling" is a metaphor to convey the undefined obstacles that women and minorities face in the workplace. Female physicians of the late 19th-century faced discrimination in many forms due to the prevailing Victorian era attitude that the ideal woman be demure, display a gentle demeanor, act submissively, and enjoy a perceived form of power that should be exercised over and from within the home. Medical degrees were difficult for women to earn, and once practicing, discrimination from landlords for medical offices, left female physicians to set up their practices on "Scab Row" or "bachelor's apartments." +The Journal of Women's Health surveyed physician mothers and their physician daughters to analyze the effect that discrimination and harassment have on the individual and their career. This study included 84% of physician mothers that graduated medical school prior to 1970, with the majority of these physicians graduating in the 1950s and 1960s. The authors of this study stated that discrimination in the medical field persisted after the title VII discrimination legislation was passed in 1965. This was the case until 1970, when the National Organization for Women (NOW) filed a class action lawsuit against all medical schools in the United States. By 1975, the number of women in medicine had nearly tripled, and has continued to grow. By 2005, more than 25% of physicians and around 50% of medical school students were women. The increase of women in medicine also came with an increase of women identifying as a racial/ethnic minority, yet this population is still largely underrepresented in comparison to the general population of the medical field. +Within this specific study, 22% of physician mothers and 24% of physician daughters identified themselves as being an ethnic minority. These women reported experiencing instances of exclusion from career opportunities as a result of their race and gender. According to this article, females tend to have lessened confidence in their abilities as a doctor, yet their performance is equivalent to that of their male counterparts. This study also commented on the impact of power dynamics within medical school, which is established as a hierarchy that ultimately shapes the educational experience. Instances of sexual harassment attribute to the high attrition rates of females in the STEM fields. + +== Competition between midwifery and obstetrics == +A shift from women midwifery to male obstetrics occurs in the growth of medical practices such as the founding of the American Medical Association. Instead of assisting labor in the basis of an emergency, doctors took over the delivery of babies completely; putting midwifery second. This is an example of the growing sense of competition between male physicians and female midwives as a rise in obstetrics took hold. The education of women on the basis of midwifery was stunted by both physicians and public-health reformers, driving midwifery to be seen as out of practice. Societal roles also played a fact in the downfall of the practice in midwifery because women were unable to obtain the education needed for licensing and once married, women were to embrace a domestic lifestyle. In 2018, there were 11,826 certified nurse midwives (CNMs). In 2019 there were 42,720 active physicians in Obstetrics and Gynecology. +Outside of the United States, midwifery is still practiced in several countries such as in Africa. The first school of midwives in Africa was supposedly founded by Dr. Ernst Rodenwalt in Togo in 1912. In comparison, The Juba College of Nursing and Midwifery in South Sudan (a country that gained its independence in 2011) graduated its first class of students in 2013. + +== Women's contributions to medicine == + +=== Historical women's medical schools === + +When women were routinely forbidden from medical school, they sought to form their own medical schools. + +New England Female Medical College, Boston, founded in 1848. +Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (founded 1850 as Female Medical College of Pennsylvania) +London School of Medicine for Women (founded 1874 by Sophia Jex-Blake) +Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women (founded 1886 by Sophia Jex-Blake) +First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg (founded 1897 as Female Medical University) +Tokyo Women's Medical University (founded 1900 by Yoshioka Yayoi) +Hackett Medical College for Women, Guangzhou, China, founded in 1902 by Presbyterian Church (USA). + +=== Historical hospitals with significant female involvement === +Woman's Hospital of Philadelphia, founded in 1861, provided clinical experience for Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania students +New England Hospital for Women and Children (now called Dimock Community Health Center), founded in 1862 by women doctors "for the exclusive use of women and children" +New Hospital for Women (founded in the 1870s by Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and run largely by women, for women) +South London Hospital for Women and Children (founded 1912 by Eleanor Davies-Colley and Maud Chadburn; closed 1984; employed an all-woman staff) + +=== Pioneering women in early modern medicine === + +==== 18th century ==== +Madeleine-Françoise Calais (c. 1713 – fl. 1740) was a pioneer who is referred to as the first female dentist in France. +Dorothea Erxleben (1715–1762) was the first female doctor in Germany and the first woman worldwide to be granted an MD by a university. +Salomée Halpir (1718 – after 1763) was a Polish medic and oculist who is often referred to as the first female doctor from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. + +==== 19th century ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..00450d50a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 6/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lovisa Årberg (1801–1881) was the first female doctor and surgeon in Sweden; whereas, Amalia Assur (1803–1889) was the first female dentist in Sweden and possibly Europe. Marie Durocher (1809–1893) was a Brazilian obstetrician, midwife and physician. She is considered the first female doctor in Brazil and the Americas. Ann Preston (1813–1872) was the first female to become the dean of a medical school [Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP)] in 1866. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910), who was England-born, was the first woman to graduate from medical school in the United States. She obtained her MD in 1849 from Geneva College, New York City. Rebecca Lee Crumpler, (1831–1895) became the first African American female physician in the United States in 1864 upon being awarded her M.D. by New England Female Medical College in Boston. Lucy Hobbs Taylor (1833–1910) was the first female dentist in the United States. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836–1917) was a pioneering feminist in Britain who became the first female doctor in the United Kingdom in 1865 and a co-founder of London School of Medicine for Women. Madeleine Brès (1839–1925) was the first female medical doctor in France. Sophia Jex-Blake (1840–1912) was an English physician, feminist and teacher who was the first woman to practice medicine in Scotland in 1878. Sophia Bambridge (1841–1910) was the first female doctor in American Samoa. Frances Hoggan (1843–1927) became the first female doctor in Wales in 1870. She was also the first British woman to receive a doctorate in medicine (1870). Eliza Walker Dunbar (1845-1925) was the first woman in the UK to be appointed as a House Surgeon with responsibilities over male doctors (1874) and the first to receive a UK medical licence by examination (1877). Jennie Kidd Trout (1841–1921) was the first woman in Canada to become a licensed medical doctor in March 1875. Rosina Heikel (1842–1929) was a feminist and the first female physician in Finland (1878), as well as in the Nordic countries. Isala Van Diest (7 May 1842 – 6 February 1916) was the first female medical doctor and the first female university graduate in Belgium. Nadezhda Suslova (1843–1918), a graduate of Zurich University, was the first female doctor in Russia +Edith Pechey-Phipson (1845–1908) was a pioneering English doctor in India. She received her MD in 1877 from the University of Bern and Licentiate in Midwifery in 1877 at the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland. Mary Scharlieb (1845–1930) was a pioneer British female physician, as she was the first woman to be elected to the honorary visiting staff of a hospital in the United Kingdom. Vilma Hugonnai (1847–1922) was the first female doctor in Hungary. She studied medicine in Zürich and received her degree in 1879. However, she had to work as a midwife until 1897 when the Hungarian authorities finally accepted her degree. Hugonnai then started her own medical practice. Margaret Cleaves (1848–1917) was a pioneering doctor in brachytherapy who obtained her M.D. in 1873. She was the first female appointed to the University of Iowa Medical Department's examining committee in 1885. Anastasia Golovina, also known as Anastassya Nikolau Berladsky-Golovina, and Atanasya Golovina (1850–1933), was the first female doctor in Bulgaria. Ogino Ginko (1851–1913) was the first licensed and practicing female physician of Western medicine in Japan. Bohuslava Kecková (1854–1911), first Bohemian (Czech) woman to obtain a medical degree in 1880 from University of Zurich. Aletta Jacobs (1854–1929) was the first woman to complete a university course in the Netherlands and the first female doctor in the country. Hope Bridges Adams Lehmann (1855–1916) was the first female general practitioner and gynecologist in Munich, Germany. Grace Cadell (1855–1918) and Marion Gilchrist (1864–1952) were the first women to qualify as doctors in Scotland respectively in 1891 and 1894. Draga Ljočić-Milošević (1855–1926) was a feminist activist and the first female physician in Serbia. She graduated from Zurich University in 1879 +Henriette Saloz-Joudra (1855–1928) successfully defended a doctoral thesis in cardiology at the University of Geneva in June 1883. Ana Galvis Hotz (1855–1934) was the first female doctor in Colombia. She was also the first Colombian woman (and first woman from Latin America) to obtain a medical degree. Constance Stone (1856–1902) was the first woman to practice medicine in Australia. Dolors Aleu i Riera (1857–1913) was the first female medical doctor in Spain when she started practicing medicine in 1879. Maria Cuțarida-Crătunescu (1857–1919) was the first female doctor in Romania. Lilian Welsh (1858–1938) was the first woman full professor at Goucher College. Sonia Belkind (1858–1943), who was Russian-born, was the first female doctor in Palestine. Isabel Cobb (1858–1947), who earned her M.D. in 1892, was Cherokee and the first woman physician in Indian territory. She was also an alumnus of Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania. Matilde Montoya (1859–1939) became the first female physician in Mexico in 1887. Kadambini Ganguly (1861–1923) was the first Indian woman to obtain a medical degree in India upon graduating from the Calcutta Medical College in 1886. Elsie Inglis (1864–1917), born in India, was a pioneering Scottish doctor and suffragist who obtained her MD at Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women and worked at Rotunda Hospital, Dublin. Annie Lowrie Alexander (1864–1929) was the first licensed female physician in the Southern United States +Emily Charlotte Thomson (1864–1955) was one of the first women admitted to professional medical societies in Scotland and co-founded the Dundee Women's Hospital in 1896. Anandi Gopal Joshi (1865–1887), the first Indian woman to obtain a medical degree having graduated from the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1886. Susan La Flesche Picotte (1865–1915) was the first Native American woman to obtain a medical degree. Sofia Okunevska (1865–1926) was the first Ukrainian female doctor. Mary Josephine Hannan (1865–1935) was the first Irishwoman to graduate with the following credentials: LRCPI & SI and LM. Marie Spångberg Holth (1865–1942) was the first woman doctor in Norway after graduating in medicine from the Royal Frederiks University of Christiania in 1893. Anne Walter Fearn (1865–1938) practiced as a medical doctor in Shanghai, China, for almost 40 years. Eloísa Díaz (1866–1950) became the first female doctor in Chile upon graduating from the Universidad de Chile on 27 December 1886. She obtained her degree on 3 January 1887. Merbai Ardesir Vakil (1868–1941) was an Indian physician and the first Asian woman to graduate from a Scottish university. Eva Jellett (1868–1958), first woman to graduate from Trinity College Dublin with a medical degree in 1905. Bertha E. Reynolds (1868–1961) was among the first women licensed to practice medicine in Wisconsin (serving the rural communities of Lone Rock and Avoca). Emma K. Willits (1869–1965) was believed to be only the third woman to specialize in surgery and the first to head a Department of General Surgery at Children's Hospital in San Francisco, 1921–1934. Alice Hamilton (1869–1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author who is best known as a leading expert in the field of occupational health and a pioneer in the field of industrial toxicology. She was also the first woman appointed to the faculty of Harvard University. Vera Gedroitz (1870–1932) was the first female professor of surgery in the world, as well as the first female military surgeon in Russia. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f3319d69 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 7/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Maria Montessori (1870–1952), renowned educator and one of the first female medical doctors in Italy. Milica Šviglin Čavov (b. unknown, circa 1870s) was the first Croatian female doctor. She graduated from the Medical School in Zürich in 1893, but was not allowed to work in Croatia. Florence Sabin (1871–1953) was the first woman elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. Yoshioka Yayoi (1871–1959), one of the first women to gain a medical degree in Japan; founded a medical school for women in 1900. Hannah Myrick (1871–1973) had helped to introduce the use of X-rays at the New England Hospital for Women and Children. Laura Esther Rodriguez Dulanto (1872–1919) was the first female doctor in Peru upon obtaining her medical degree. Marie Equi (1872–1952) was an American doctor and activist for women's access to birth control and abortion. Fannie Almara Quain (1874–1950) was the first woman born in North Dakota to earn a doctor of medicine degree. Karola Maier Milobar (born 1876) became the first female physician to practice in Croatia in 1906. Bertha De Vriese (1877–1958) was the first Belgian woman to obtain a medical degree from Ghent University. Selma Feldbach (1878–1924) was the first Estonian woman to become a medical doctor. Andrea Evangelina Rodríguez Perozo (1879–1947) was the first female medical school graduate in the Dominican Republic. Alice Mary Barry (1880–1955) was a doctor and the first woman nominated fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ef7e2056 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 8/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ernestina Paper (b. unknown, circa mid–1800s) was the first Italian woman to receive an advanced degree (in medicine) in 1877. +Doctor Ethel Constance Cousins (1882–1944) and nurse Elizabeth Brodie were the first European women admitted to Bhutan in 1918 as part of a missionary effort to curtail a cholera outbreak. +Muthulakshmi Reddi (1886–1968) was one of the early female medical doctors in India and a major social reformer. +María Elisa Rivera Díaz (1887–1981) (1909), Ana Janer (1909), Palmira Gatell (1910), and Dolores Piñero (1892–1975) (1913) were the first women to earn a medical degree in Puerto Rico. María Elisa Rivera Díaz and Ana Janer graduated in the same medical school class in 1909 and thus could both be considered the first female Puerto Rican physicians. +Anna Petronella van Heerden (1887–1975) was the first Afrikaner woman to qualify as a medical doctor in South Africa. Her thesis, which she obtained a doctorate on in 1923, was the first medical thesis written in Afrikaans. +Matilde Hidalgo (1889–1974) was the first female doctor in Ecuador. +Johanna Hellman (1889–1982) was a German physician who specialized in surgery, and the first woman to be a member of the German Society for Surgery. +Sun Chau Lee (周理信, 1890–1979) was one of the first female Chinese doctors of Western medicine in China. +Mabel Wolff (1890–1981) and her sister Gertrude L. Wolff developed the first midwifery training school in Sudan in 1930. Mastura Khidir, one of the original students, was awarded a medal from King George V in 1945 for being the last surviving midwife from the first graduating class. +Mary Hearn (1891–1969) was a gynaecologist and first woman fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland. +Concepción Palacios Herrera (1893–1981) was the first female physician in Nicaragua. +Evelyn Totenhofer (1894–1977) became the first (female) resident nurse for Pitcairn Islands in 1944. +Jane Cummins (1899–1982), who possessed a DMRE and DTM&H, was an officer in the WRAF. +Irene Condachi (1899–1970), who earned her M.D. in 1927, was one of only two practicing female doctors in Malta during World War II. +Ah-hsin Tsai (1899–1990) was colonial Taiwan's first female physician. + +==== 20th and 21st centuries ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f1a4c32a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 9/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ana Aslan (1897–1988) was a Romanian biologist and physician, specialist in gerontology, academician from 1974 and the director of the National Institute of Geriatrics and Gerontology (1958–1988). Marguerite Champendal (1870–1928) was the first woman from Geneva to earn her M.D. at the University of Geneva in 1900. Emily Siedeberg (1873–1968) became the first female doctor in New Zealand in 1896. Ellen Dougherty (1844–1919) became New Zealand's first registered nurse in 1902 whereas Akenehi Hei (1878–1910) was the first Māori female to qualify as a nurse in 1908 in New Zealand. Yu Meide (1874–1960) became the first Chinese Western medicine female doctor in Macau when she started a medical practice in 1906. Oból Voansnac and Sofie Lyberth were the first Western-educated Greenlandic women to train as midwives in Greenland sometime in the early 20th century. Lilian Grandin (1876–1924) was the first female doctor in Jersey. In 1907, Eleanor Diaper became the first nurse to work as a district nurse in Jersey. Grace Pepe Malemo Haleck (1894–1987), Initia Taveuveu and Feiloa'iga Iosefa became the first qualified female nurses in American Samoa upon completing their training in 1916. Dorothy Pantin (1896–1985) was the first woman doctor and surgeon of the Isle of Man. Deaconess Mette Cathrine Thomsen was the first trained female nurse to work in the Faroe Islands from 1897 to 1915. Eshba Dominika Fominichna (born 1897) became the first female doctor in Abkhazia after having returned from earning her medical degree in 1925 at the Baku State University. Safiye Ali (1894–1952) was the first Turkish woman to have obtained a medical degree. Damaye Soumah Cissé, mother of the renowned educator and politician Jeanne Martin Cissé (1926–2017), was one of the first midwives in Guinea. Josephine Rera (1903–1987) was the first woman doctor in Borough Park and Bensonhurst, Brooklyn in New York City. She received the American Medical Association commendation for 50th Year in Practice. Rera graduated in 1926 with an M.D. diploma at the New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital (now the New York Medical College in Valhalla, New York). Lai Po-cheun was the first female to study and graduate as a medical student at the Hong Kong University during the 1920s. Fatma bint Saada Nassor Lamki became the first female doctor in Zanzibar sometime during the 1920s. Kornelija Sertić (1897–1988) was the first woman to graduate from the Medical School in Zagreb (which occurred in 1923). Agnes Yewande Savage (1906–1964) was the first woman in West Africa to qualify in medicine +Joan Refshauge (1906–1979) was the first female doctor appointed to Papua New Guinea by the Australian government in 1947. Henriette Bùi Quang Chiêu (1906–2012) was the first female doctor in Vietnam. Sophie Redmond (1907–1955) became the first female doctor in Suriname after graduating from medical school in 1935. Alma Dea Morani (1907–2001) was the first woman admitted to the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons. Yvonne Sylvain (1907–1989) was the first female doctor in Haiti. She was the first woman accepted into the medical school of the University of Haiti, and earned her medical degree there in 1940. Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), significant work in anesthesiology and teratology; founded field of neonatology; first woman granted full professorship at Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons. Pearl Dunlevy (1909–2002) was a physician and epidemiologist and the first female president of the Biological Society of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland. Isobel Addey Tate (1875–1917) was one of the first women to die while serving as a doctor overseas during World War I. Beatrice Emmeline Simmons, a missionary and nurse, was the first Caucasian (female) formally trained in a health care profession to settle as an educator in Kiribati in 1910. Elizabeth Abimbola Awoliyi (1910–1971) was the first female physician in Nigeria. Badri Teymourtash (1911–1989) was the first Iranian female dentist, who received her higher education in Belgium. Andréa de Balmann (1911–2007) was the first female doctor in French Polynesia. Jane Elizabeth Hodgson (1915–2006) was a pioneering provider of reproductive healthcare for women and advocate for women's rights. Matilda J. Clerk (1916–1984) was the first Ghanaian woman to win a scholarship for university education abroad and the second Ghanaian woman to become a physician. She was also the first woman to obtain a postgraduate diploma in colonial Ghana and West Africa. Irene Ighodaro (1916–1995) was the first Sierra Leonean woman to qualify as a medical doctor and the first West African-born female doctor in Britain +Mary Malahele-Xakana (1917–1982) was the first black woman to register as a medical doctor in South Africa (in 1947). Susan Ofori-Atta (1917–1985) was the first woman to qualify as a physician in colonial Ghana. Fatima Al-Zayani (1918–1982) became the first qualified female nurse in Bahrain in 1941. In 1969, Sadeeqa Ali Al-Awadi became the first female doctor in Bahrain upon her graduating from medical school. Kakish Ryskulova (1918–2018) was the first woman from Kyrgyzstan to qualify as a surgeon. Salma Ismail (1918–2014) was the first Malay woman to qualify as a doctor. Katherine Burdon, wife of the then-government administrator, was among the women formally registered as midwives for St. Kitts and Anguilla in 1920. Ogotu Head (1920–2001) was the first female nursing graduate from Niue after having completed her training in Samoa in 1939. Ethna Gaffney (1920–2011) was the first female RCSI Professor of Chemistry. Estela Gavidia (b. unknown, circa 1920) was the first woman to graduate as a doctor in El Salvador, which occurred in 1945. Gabriela Valenzuela and Froilana Mereles were the first women to graduate with a medical degree in Paraguay in 1924. Valenzuela, however, is considered Paraguay's first practicing female doctor. Augusta Jawara (1924–1981) was the first woman from The Gambia to qualify as a state certified midwife in 1953. She completed her training in England. Kula Fiaola (1924–2003) became the first qualified (female) nurse in Tokelau in 1951. Barbara Ball (1924–2011) was the first female doctor in Bermuda after having started her practice in 1949. Margery Clare McKinnon (1924–2014) became the first female doctor in Norfolk Island around 1955. Jean Lenore Harney (1925–2020) was the first female doctor from St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla to study medicine at the United Kingdom's Liverpool University (c. 1940s) +Kapelwa Sikota (1928–2006) became the first registered nurse in Zambia in 1952. Mary Grant (1928–2016) was the third Ghanaian woman to qualify in medicine +Daphne Steele (1929–2004), a nurse from Guyana, became the first Black Matron in the National Health Service in 1964. Josephine Nambooze (born 1930) started her practice as the first female doctor in Uganda in 1962. Selina Rwashana was the first psychiatric nurse in Uganda after having completed her training in the United Kingdom during the 1950s. Tu Youyou (born 1930), first Chinese Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine and the first female citizen of the People's Republic of China to receive a Nobel Prize in any category (2015). Lucie Lods and Jacqueline Exbroyat (1931–2013) were the first female doctors in New Caledonia. Lods started her practice in 1938, whereas Exbroyat did so during the 1960s. Ayten Berkalp (born 1933) became the first female doctor in Northern Cyprus in 1963. Lobsang Dolma Khangkar (1934–1989) was the first female doctor in the region of Tibet. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ce283a2a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Women in medicine" +chunk: 10/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:52.958164+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Widad Kidanemariam (1935–1988) became the first female doctor in Ethiopia during the 1960s. Xhanfize (Frashëri) Basha returned to Albania to become the country's first female doctor upon completing her studies at the University of Philadelphia in 1937. Edna Adan Ismail (born 1937) became Somaliland's first nurse midwife during the 1950s upon completing her training at the then-named Borough Polytechnic in the United Kingdom. Hajah Habibah Haji Mohd Hussain (born 1937) was among the first women in Brunei to work as a nurse after finishing nursing school in 1955. Marguerite Issembe became the first midwife in Gabon in 1940. Ulai Otobed (born 1941) from Palau became the first female doctor in Micronesia. In 2020, Lara Reklai became the first Palauan female to complete her medical studies in Cuba. María Herminia Yelsi and Digna Maldonado de Candía became the first female professional nurses in Paraguay in 1941. Barbara Ross-Lee (born 1942) was the first African American female dean of a U.S. medical school (1993) (Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine). Kek Galabru (born 1942) became the first female doctor in Cambodia upon obtaining her medical degree in France in 1968. Choua Thao (born 1943), at the age of 14, was one of two Hmong girls recruited to receive nursing training around the time of the Secret War in Laos. Dalva Maria Carvalho Mendes (born 1956), Brazilian doctor and soldier; first woman to be made a rear admiral in the Brazilian Navy +Nancy Dickey (born 1950) was the first female president of the American Medical Association. Rosa Mari Mandicó (born 1951) became the first qualified female nurse in Andorra in 1971. In 1991, Concepció Álvarez Martínez, Isabel Navarro Gilabert, Dominica Ramond Punsola, Montserrat Rue Capella, Pilar Serrano Gascón, Purificación Valverde Hernández and Maria Líria Viñolas Blasco were the first nurse graduates in Andorra. Nancy C. Andrews (born 1958), first female dean of a top-ten medical school in the United States (2007), Duke University School of Medicine. Alganesh Haregot and Alganesh Adhanom were among the first women to graduate from a formal nursing school in Eritrea in 1959. Ramlati Ali (born 1961) became the first female doctor in Mayotte in 1996. Anniest Hamilton, the first female doctor in Turks and Caicos Islands, began her healthcare career sometime during the 1960s. Under the tutelage of matron Daw Dem, Pem Choden, Nim Dem, Choni Zangmo, Gyem, Namgay Dem and Tsendra Pem became the first nurses in Bhutan in 1962. Clara Raquel Epstein (born 1963), first Mexican-American woman U.S. trained and U.S. board certified in neurological surgery and youngest recipient of the prestigious Lifetime Achievement Award in Neurosurgery. Viopapa Annandale-Atherton is the first Samoan woman to become a doctor upon graduating from New Zealand's University of Otago in 1964. She later returned to Samoa in 1993 and started a medical practice. Cora LeEthel Christian became the first female doctor in the United States Virgin Islands upon completing her medical education in the early 1970s. Madeline Nyamwanza-Makonese (b. unknown, mid-20th century) was the first female doctor in Zimbabwe. She was the second African woman to become a doctor and the first African woman to graduate from the University of Rhodesia Medical School in 1970. Rehana Kausar (b. mid-20th century) became the first woman doctor from Azad Kashmir to graduate from Medical School in Pakistan in 1971. Elwyn Chomba became the first female doctor in Zambia in 1973. In 1999, Jacqueline Mulundika-Mulwanda became Zambia's first female surgeon. N'Guessan Affoué Christine from Ivory Coast is the first midwife advisor of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). She retired from the profession in 2016 after having worked in the field since 1976. Zoe Gardner becomes the first woman in 1976 to overwinter with the Australian Antarctic Program as a medical officer on sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island. Margaret Allen (born 1948) became the first female heart transplant surgeon in the United States after having performed a transplant performed in 1985 +Desiree Cox became the first (female) Rhodes Scholar from the Bahamas in 1987. She became a medical doctor upon earning her MBBS at the University of Oxford in 1992. Marlene Toma became the first Saint Martin woman to graduate in midwifery in 1990. Kinneh Sogur was the first home-trained female medical doctor to graduate from the University of the Gambia (UTG) in 2007. The medical school was the first one to be established in the country in 1999. Margeret 'Molly' Brown (died 2008) was the first female doctor in the Cayman Islands +Esther Apuahe became the first female surgeon in Papua New Guinea in 2011. Naomi Kori Pomat (died 2021) was the first female doctor in Papua New Guinea's Western Province. ʻAmelia Afuhaʻamango Tuʻipulotu became the first Tongan (female) to receive a Nursing PhD in 2012. Neti Tamarua Herman became the first Cook Islands (female) nurse to earn a doctorate degree in 2015. Alice Niragire was the first Rwandan female to graduate with a master's degree in surgery in 2015 since the course was introduced in 2006. In 2018, Claire Karekezi returned to Rwanda to become the country's first female neurosurgeon. Natalie Joyce Brewley (died 2016) was the first female doctor in the British Virgin Islands. Stacy Rhymer is considered the first female doctor in the British Virgin Islands' Virgin Gorda. Jin Cody became the first (female) certified nurse-midwife in the Northern Mariana Islands in 2017. Elisa Gaspar becomes the first female to lead the Medical Association of Angola (ORMED) in 2019. George Tarer was the first midwife to graduate in Guadeloupe. Olivia Torres Cruz is the first Chamorro female doctor in Guam. Errolyn Tungu is the first female obstetrician-gynaecologist in Vanuatu. Rebecca Edwards became the first Falkland Islander woman to become a doctor after completing her medical training at the University College London. Sergelen Orgoi developed low-cost liver transplantation for developing countries. Adama Saidou is the first female surgeon in Niger, as well as the first woman to lead a surgical department. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md index 1456eccac..8d51a3ce8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md index 66d552416..781c26420 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md index 067d64bcd..53cc137d8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 11/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md index ddc8d04ef..03a0b8c31 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 12/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md index c9b19598c..91d27cfbf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 13/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md index 4a26f10d8..a437fa30e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 14/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md index df36bc41b..8dce9a6ac 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 15/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md index a2509b898..0efd02178 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 16/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md index d0996b5d6..32511511d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 17/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md index ec85610da..76136ab6e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 18/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md index 9f4ecd018..fa043d22c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 19/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md index 31594c665..0b29b5d48 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 20/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md index 668619ae4..1aed8a681 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md index aa1c36bfb..4f4a6c1f7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 21/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md index 28e42b529..27408947b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 22/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md index 8dfef38b9..62f488f3a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 23/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md index 84687cb9d..04b10305f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 24/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md index 8b360055f..966329512 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 25/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md index b7ee9b7f2..ae1805027 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md index 6dcbe7672..d52918a96 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md index a688de7c2..6a5163f7f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md index 78923bcc5..0c2ace45c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md index 6a925bb3b..a9ef3662f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md index dd93472e6..d904e4a04 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md index 66050662b..1909802f2 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/25 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:51:28.816114+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yifat_Merbl-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yifat_Merbl-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cdf2115f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yifat_Merbl-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Yifat Merbl" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yifat_Merbl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:51.342236+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Yifat Merbl (Hebrew: יפעת מרבל) is a professor of immunology at the Weizmann Institute of Science. Her research is at the intersection of biochemistry, proteomics, and immunology, and addresses research questions in the fields of cancer and the immune system. + + +== Biography == +Marbel grew up in Givat Shmuel. In her compulsory service in the IDF, she served as an officer in the Air Force. +In 2003, she received BA in computational biology from Bar-Ilan University. In 2005, she received MA in immunology from the Weizmann Institute of Science as part of Irun R. Cohen's group from the Department of Immunology. In 2010, she received a PhD in systems biology from Harvard University under the supervision of Mark Kirschner. In 2011–2014, she continued her postdoctoral research at Harvard University. In September 2014, she returned to Israel, as head of a research group at the Weizmann Institute of Science studying the proteasome. +In parallel with her work at the Weizmann Institute of Science, as of May 2024 she is one of the three founders of the startup company Promise Bio Ltd., which uses a cloud-based artificial intelligence platform to perform large-scale epiproteomic analyses on standard mass spectrometry data to improve disease treatment. +During the Twelve-Day War, her Weizmann Institute laboratory was destroyed by a ballistic missile launched from Iran. + + +=== Personal life === +Her wife is Einav Lazar, and they have three children. + + +== Research == +Her research is at the intersection of biochemistry, proteomics, and immunology, and addresses research questions in the field of cancer and the immune system. +A study she led found that the proteasome can break down proteins into peptides that are effective against bacteria. This is an immune mechanism that was unknown until this study. The team of researchers working under her found more than a quarter of a million peptides with the potential for an antibacterial effect. These peptides may in the future form the basis for new drugs with a different mechanism of action than antibiotics. The study was published in early March 2025 in the journal Nature. + + +== Awards and recognition == +In 2024, she was awarded the Rappaport Prize for Promising Researcher. +In 2025, the scientific journal Nature selected her as one of the ten most significant and groundbreaking researchers of 2025. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Prof. Yifat Merbl, on the Weizmann Institute of Science website +Yifat Merbl, on the ResearchGate website +Yifat Merbl publications indexed by Google Scholar \ No newline at end of file