From 48560fd30a6e0e8e1cac92f344b79acdb64eb832 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: turtle89431 <turtle89431@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 03:01:45 -0700
Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 6474 new, 3240 updated, 9992 total
 (kb-cron)

---
 _index.db                                     | Bin 82866176 -> 83755008 bytes
 .../wiki/AAALAC_International-0.md            |  24 +
 .../wiki/Absolute_income_hypothesis-0.md      | 137 +++
 .../wiki/Ad_hoc_hypothesis-0.md               |  39 +
 ...ipose_tissue_expandability_hypothesis-0.md |  15 +
 .../wiki/Admissible_heuristic-0.md            | 475 +++++++++
 .../wiki/Aestivation_hypothesis-0.md          |  28 +
 .../wiki/Affect_heuristic-0.md                |  23 +
 .../wiki/Affect_heuristic-1.md                |  20 +
 .../wiki/Affect_heuristic-2.md                |  27 +
 .../wiki/Affect_heuristic-3.md                |  33 +
 .../wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis-0.md              |  20 +
 .../wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis-1.md              |  18 +
 .../wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis-2.md              |  15 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis-0.md      |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis-1.md      |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis-2.md      |   2 +-
 .../Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses-0.md     |  42 +
 .../Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses-1.md     |  39 +
 .../wiki/Anchoring_effect-0.md                |  27 +
 .../wiki/Anchoring_effect-1.md                |  26 +
 .../wiki/Anchoring_effect-2.md                |  21 +
 .../wiki/Anchoring_effect-3.md                |  31 +
 .../wiki/Anchoring_effect-4.md                |  26 +
 .../wiki/Anchoring_effect-5.md                |  49 +
 .../wiki/Anfinsen's_dogma-0.md                |  34 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-0.md |  21 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-1.md |  18 +
 .../wiki/Animal_testing-10.md                 |  29 +
 .../wiki/Animal_testing-11.md                 |  18 +
 .../wiki/Animal_testing-12.md                 |  24 +
 .../wiki/Animal_testing-13.md                 |  18 +
 .../wiki/Animal_testing-14.md                 |  28 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-2.md |  31 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-3.md |  22 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-4.md |  16 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-5.md |  29 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-6.md |  23 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-7.md |  24 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-8.md |  21 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-9.md |  27 +
 .../Aramaic_New_Testament_hypotheses-0.md     |  58 ++
 .../wiki/Archival_research-0.md               |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Archival_research-1.md               |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Archival_research-2.md               |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Art-based_research-0.md              |  43 +
 .../wiki/Astronomy_Centre-0.md                |  40 +
 .../wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-0.md          |  24 +
 .../wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-1.md          |  32 +
 .../wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-2.md          |  20 +
 .../wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-3.md          |  35 +
 .../wiki/Availability_heuristic-0.md          |  22 +
 .../wiki/Availability_heuristic-1.md          |  19 +
 .../wiki/Availability_heuristic-2.md          |  24 +
 .../wiki/Availability_heuristic-3.md          |  20 +
 .../wiki/Availability_heuristic-4.md          |  25 +
 .../wiki/Availability_heuristic-5.md          |  40 +
 .../wiki/Babble_hypothesis-0.md               |  45 +
 .../wiki/Baconian_method-0.md                 |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Baconian_method-1.md                 |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum-0.md     | 279 +++++
 .../wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum-1.md     | 362 +++++++
 .../wiki/Berserker_hypothesis-0.md            |  37 +
 .../wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis-0.md            |  23 +
 .../wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis-1.md            |  55 +
 .../wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-0.md     |  28 +
 .../wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-1.md     |  36 +
 .../wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-2.md     |  28 +
 .../wiki/Bold_hypothesis-0.md                 |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Bold_hypothesis-1.md                 |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Bold_hypothesis-2.md                 |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Bold_hypothesis-3.md                 |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Broad_spectrum_revolution-0.md       |  48 +
 .../wiki/Carbohydrate–insulin_model-0.md      |  38 +
 .../wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-0.md    |  29 +
 .../wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-1.md    |  29 +
 .../wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-2.md    |  40 +
 .../wiki/Cognitive_inertia-0.md               | 105 ++
 .../wiki/Cognitive_inertia-1.md               |  39 +
 .../wiki/Cognitive_inertia-2.md               |  32 +
 .../wiki/Cognitive_inertia-3.md               |  39 +
 .../wiki/Compression_of_morbidity-0.md        |  27 +
 .../Computational_heuristic_intelligence-0.md |  25 +
 .../wiki/Consistent_heuristic-0.md            | 581 +++++++++++
 .../wiki/Consistent_heuristic-1.md            | 374 +++++++
 ...Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-0.md |  30 +
 ...Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-1.md |  26 +
 ...Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-2.md |  18 +
 ...Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-3.md |  27 +
 ...Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-4.md |  44 +
 .../wiki/Constructive_heuristic-0.md          |  21 +
 .../wiki/Contagion_heuristic-0.md             |  45 +
 .../wiki/Contagion_heuristic-1.md             |  48 +
 .../wiki/Content_sniffing-0.md                |  35 +
 .../wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-0.md            | 222 ++++
 .../wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-1.md            | 239 +++++
 .../wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-2.md            | 146 +++
 .../wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-3.md            | 145 +++
 .../wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-4.md            | 796 ++++++++++++++
 .../wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-0.md    | 269 +++++
 .../wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-1.md    | 217 ++++
 .../wiki/Cross-entropy_method-0.md            | 976 ++++++++++++++++++
 .../wiki/Dark_forest_hypothesis-0.md          |  54 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-0.md     |  30 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-1.md     |  34 +
 .../Distributional–relational_database-0.md   |  21 +
 .../wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-0.md          |  21 +
 .../wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-1.md          |  46 +
 .../wiki/Drift-barrier_hypothesis-0.md        |  22 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test-0.md     |  61 ++
 .../wiki/Duhem–Quine_thesis-0.md              |  48 +
 .../wiki/Effort_heuristic-0.md                |  26 +
 .../wiki/Effort_heuristic-1.md                |  42 +
 .../Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-0.md | 471 +++++++++
 .../Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-1.md | 857 +++++++++++++++
 .../Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-2.md | 360 +++++++
 .../Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-3.md | 377 +++++++
 .../Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-4.md |  65 ++
 .../wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis-0.md    |  41 +
 .../wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis-1.md    |  19 +
 .../wiki/Enterprise_modelling-0.md            |  24 +
 .../wiki/Enterprise_modelling-1.md            |  63 ++
 .../wiki/Enterprise_modelling-2.md            |  56 +
 .../wiki/Entourage_effect-0.md                |  38 +
 .../wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis-0.md               |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis-1.md               |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Ergodic_hypothesis-0.md              |  43 +
 .../wiki/Euler's_laws_of_motion-0.md          | 589 +++++++++++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko-0.md       |  40 +
 .../wiki/Evaluation_function-0.md             |  29 +
 .../wiki/Evaluation_function-1.md             |  43 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor-0.md |  27 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor-1.md |  16 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor-2.md |  29 +
 .../wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis-0.md     |  15 +
 .../wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis-1.md     |  20 +
 .../wiki/Extremal_optimization-0.md           |  31 +
 .../wiki/Extremal_optimization-1.md           |  36 +
 .../wiki/Familiarity_heuristic-0.md           |  50 +
 .../wiki/Farrer_hypothesis-0.md               |  37 +
 .../wiki/Farrer_hypothesis-1.md               |  33 +
 .../wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees-0.md           |  34 +
 .../wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees-1.md           |  28 +
 ...st_observation_of_gravitational_waves-0.md |  27 +
 ...st_observation_of_gravitational_waves-1.md |  26 +
 ...st_observation_of_gravitational_waves-2.md |  20 +
 ...st_observation_of_gravitational_waves-3.md |  31 +
 ...st_observation_of_gravitational_waves-4.md |  29 +
 ...st_observation_of_gravitational_waves-5.md |  35 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-0.md |  41 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-1.md | 277 +++++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-2.md | 402 ++++++++
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-0.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-1.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-2.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-3.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-4.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-5.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-6.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-7.md                |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Forensic_science-8.md                |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frecency-0.md      |  30 +
 .../wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis-0.md     |  49 +
 .../wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis-1.md     |  26 +
 .../wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis-2.md     |  32 +
 .../wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory-0.md        |  19 +
 .../wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory-1.md        |  34 +
 .../wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory-2.md        |  31 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudge_factor-0.md  |  52 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze_heuristic-0.md |  24 +
 .../wiki/Geschwind–Galaburda_hypothesis-0.md  |  31 +
 .../wiki/Gillies'_conjecture-0.md             | 421 ++++++++
 .../wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw-0.md                 |  26 +
 .../wiki/Glacial_survival_hypothesis-0.md     |  25 +
 .../wiki/Glasgow_Chronology-0.md              |  24 +
 .../Global_horizontal_sounding_technique-0.md |  46 +
 .../wiki/Graduated_optimization-0.md          |  37 +
 .../wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-0.md           |  27 +
 .../wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-1.md           |  19 +
 .../wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-2.md           |  14 +
 .../wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-3.md           |  24 +
 .../wiki/Guided_local_search-0.md             | 277 +++++
 .../wiki/Guided_local_search-1.md             |  38 +
 .../wiki/Gunslinger_effect-0.md               |  33 +
 .../wiki/Hart–Tipler_conjecture-0.md          |  24 +
 .../wiki/Heavy_isotope_diet-0.md              |  34 +
 ..._invention_and_scientific_development-0.md |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-0.md     | 135 +++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-1.md     |  29 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-2.md     |  29 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-3.md     |  50 +
 ...matic_model_of_information_processing-0.md |  27 +
 ...matic_model_of_information_processing-1.md |  24 +
 ...matic_model_of_information_processing-2.md |  33 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(engineering)-0.md         |  38 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-0.md          |  50 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-1.md          |  36 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-10.md         |  46 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-2.md          |  23 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-3.md          |  11 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-4.md          |  11 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-5.md          |  24 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-6.md          |  24 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-7.md          |  21 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-8.md          |  34 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-9.md          |  38 +
 .../wiki/Heuristic_argument-0.md              |  22 +
 .../wiki/High-income_trap-0.md                |  14 +
 .../wiki/Hitchens's_razor-0.md                |  42 +
 .../wiki/Homotopy_hypothesis-0.md             | 300 ++++++
 .../wiki/How_to_Solve_It-0.md                 |  95 ++
 .../wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer-0.md     |   2 +-
 ...stem_Observation_and_Research_Station-0.md |  15 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-0.md      |  31 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-1.md      |  25 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-2.md      |  19 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-3.md      |  21 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-4.md      |  23 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-5.md      |  18 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-6.md      |  46 +
 .../wiki/Human_performance_modeling-7.md      |  52 +
 .../wiki/Hyper-heuristic-0.md                 |  28 +
 .../wiki/Hyper-heuristic-1.md                 | 127 +++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-0.md    |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-1.md    |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Independence_hypothesis-0.md         |  35 +
 .../wiki/Integrated_assessment_modelling-0.md |  47 +
 .../wiki/Integrated_asset_modelling-0.md      |  86 ++
 .../wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis-0.md       |  47 +
 .../wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis-1.md       |  41 +
 .../wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis-2.md       |  22 +
 .../wiki/Joint_hypothesis_problem-0.md        |  22 +
 .../wiki/Keitai–Kinmei_Civil_War-0.md         |  36 +
 .../wiki/Killer_heuristic-0.md                |  28 +
 .../wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-0.md        |  29 +
 .../wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-1.md        |  35 +
 .../wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-2.md        |  24 +
 .../wiki/Knowledge_inertia-0.md               |  29 +
 ...nowledge_representation_and_reasoning-0.md |  15 +
 ...nowledge_representation_and_reasoning-1.md |  23 +
 ...nowledge_representation_and_reasoning-2.md |  25 +
 ...nowledge_representation_and_reasoning-3.md |  20 +
 ...nowledge_representation_and_reasoning-4.md |  21 +
 ...nowledge_representation_and_reasoning-5.md |  62 ++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_lab-0.md      |  90 ++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_lab-1.md      |  62 ++
 .../wiki/Landscape_zodiac-0.md                |  61 ++
 .../wiki/Law_of_Crime_Concentration-0.md      |  18 +
 .../wiki/Lectio_difficilior_potior-0.md       |  51 +
 .../wiki/Liberation_hypothesis-0.md           |  14 +
 .../wiki/Life-cycle_hypothesis-0.md           |  28 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-0.md           |  33 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-1.md           |  35 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-2.md           |  25 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-3.md           |  33 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-4.md           |  25 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-5.md           |  28 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-6.md           |  40 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-7.md           |  35 +
 .../wiki/Linguistic_relativity-8.md           |  47 +
 ..._of_environmental_sampling_techniques-0.md |   2 +-
 ...d's_three_principles_of_real_analysis-0.md |  30 +
 .../wiki/Lottery_ticket_hypothesis-0.md       | 217 ++++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-ratio-0.md       | 170 +++
 .../wiki/Marcan_priority-0.md                 |  33 +
 .../wiki/Marcan_priority-1.md                 |  25 +
 .../wiki/Marcan_priority-2.md                 |  40 +
 .../wiki/Marcan_priority-3.md                 |  44 +
 .../wiki/Marcan_priority-4.md                 |  33 +
 .../Matthean_Posteriority_hypothesis-0.md     |  45 +
 .../wiki/Maximization_(psychology)-0.md       |  50 +
 .../wiki/Medea_hypothesis-0.md                |  44 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MegaTransect-0.md  |  50 +
 .../wiki/Meta-optimization-0.md               |  32 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamodeling-0.md  |  85 ++
 .../wiki/Metasystem_transition-0.md           |  47 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-0.md  |  57 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-1.md  |  27 +
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture_theory-0.md |  14 +
 .../wiki/Model-dependent_realism-0.md         |  48 +
 .../wiki/Modeling_perspective-0.md            |  88 ++
 .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_illusion-0.md |  45 +
 .../wiki/Multi-source_hypothesis-0.md         |  28 +
 .../wiki/Multiple_discovery-0.md              |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Multiple_discovery-1.md              |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Neuroheuristics-0.md                 |  27 +
 .../wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-0.md         | 286 +++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-1.md         | 172 +++
 .../wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-2.md         | 677 ++++++++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-0.md         |  16 +
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-1.md         | 513 +++++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-10.md        |  36 +
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-11.md        |  33 +
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-12.md        |  42 +
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-2.md         | 326 ++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-3.md         | 373 +++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-4.md         | 501 +++++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-5.md         | 156 +++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-6.md         | 288 ++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-7.md         | 571 ++++++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-8.md         | 662 ++++++++++++
 .../wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-9.md         | 178 ++++
 .../wiki/Nexus_Tools_Platform-0.md            |  53 +
 .../wiki/Nicolausian_discounting-0.md         |  19 +
 .../wiki/Nominative_determinism-0.md          |  20 +
 .../wiki/Nominative_determinism-1.md          |  28 +
 .../wiki/Nominative_determinism-2.md          |  18 +
 .../wiki/Nominative_determinism-3.md          |  34 +
 .../wiki/Nominative_determinism-4.md          |  20 +
 .../wiki/Null-move_heuristic-0.md             |  40 +
 .../wiki/Obesity_paradox-0.md                 |  20 +
 .../wiki/Obesity_paradox-1.md                 |  36 +
 .../wiki/Observational_astronomy-0.md         |  35 +
 .../wiki/Observational_astronomy-1.md         |  33 +
 .../wiki/Observational_astronomy-2.md         |  35 +
 .../wiki/Observational_astronomy-3.md         |  39 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md   |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md   |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md   |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-0.md |  28 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-1.md |  39 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-2.md |  43 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-3.md |  21 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-4.md |  18 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-5.md |  26 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-6.md |  27 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-7.md |  42 +
 .../wiki/Odysseus_Unbound-0.md                |  30 +
 .../wiki/Operation_Moonwatch-0.md             |   2 +-
 .../wiki/Operation_Moonwatch-1.md             |   2 +-
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_DNA-0.md |  40 +
 .../wiki/Parallel_tempering-0.md              | 231 +++++
 .../wiki/Participatory_modeling-0.md          |  25 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule-0.md |  25 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule-1.md |  30 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule-2.md |  33 +
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-0.md |  50 +
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-1.md |  72 ++
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-2.md | 295 ++++++
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-3.md | 371 +++++++
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-4.md | 416 ++++++++
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-5.md | 439 ++++++++
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-6.md | 891 ++++++++++++++++
 ...ance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-7.md | 594 +++++++++++
 .../wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-0.md     |  45 +
 .../wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-1.md     | 576 +++++++++++
 .../wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-2.md     |  40 +
 .../wiki/Planetarium_hypothesis-0.md          |  27 +
 .../wiki/Pollen_calendar-0.md                 |  32 +
 .../wiki/Principle_of_least_astonishment-0.md |  55 +
 .../wiki/Priority_heuristic-0.md              |  60 ++
 .../Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-0.md    |  22 +
 .../Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-1.md    |  41 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_map-0.md   |  39 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_map-1.md   |  38 +
 .../wiki/Protein_leverage_hypothesis-0.md     |  17 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians-0.md |  15 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians-1.md |  25 +
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians-2.md |  32 +
 .../wiki/Quantitative_storytelling-0.md       |  38 +
 .../wiki/Racial_invariance-0.md               |  14 +
 .../wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis-0.md           |  28 +
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAALAC_International-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAALAC_International-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a5af13a16
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAALAC_International-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "AAALAC International"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAALAC_International"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:41.804867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+AAALAC International is a private, nonprofit organization headquartered in Frederick, Maryland, that promotes the humane treatment of animals in science through voluntary accreditation and assessment programs. The accreditation program started in 1965, when some veterinarians and researchers organized the American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, or AAALAC. In 1996, AAALAC changed its name to the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC International). The organization said the name change reflected the organization's growth in other countries and its commitment to enhancing life sciences and quality animal care around the world. Since 2016, the organization is officially known only by its acronym, AAALAC International. There are currently about 1,000 organizations worldwide accredited through its program.
+Along with meeting all applicable local and national regulations, AAALAC accredited institutions must also demonstrate that they are achieving the standards outlined in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, a document published since 1996 by the National Research Council of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. The Guide includes standards go beyond what is required by law.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Animal welfare
+Animal testing
+American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, a U.S. nonprofit organization
+Animal Welfare Act of 1966, a U.S. law
+Food Security Act of 1985, a U.S. law
+In vivo
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_income_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_income_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..db94ae26e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_income_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+---
+title: "Absolute income hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_income_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:52.235761+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In economics, the absolute income hypothesis concerns how a consumer divides their disposable income between consumption and saving. It is part of the theory of consumption attributed to John Maynard Keynes. The American economist James Tobin (1918–2002) researched and developed this idea more extensively in the 1960s and 70s.
+
+
+== Background ==
+Keynes' General Theory in 1936 identified the relationship between income and consumption as a key macroeconomic relationship. Keynes asserted that real consumption (i.e. adjusted for inflation) is a function of real disposable income, which is total income net of taxes. As income rises, the theory asserts that consumption will also rise, but not necessarily at the same rate. When applied to a cross section of a population, rich people are expected to consume a lower proportion of their income than poor people.
+The marginal propensity to consume is present in Keynes' consumption theory and determines by what amount consumption will change in response to a change in income.
+While this theory has success modeling consumption in the short term, attempts to apply this model over a longer time frame have proven less successful. This has led to the absolute income hypothesis falling out of favor as the consumption model of choice for economists. Keynes' consumption function has come to be known as 'absolute income hypothesis' or 'absolute income theory'. His statement of the relationship between income and consumption was based on psychological law.
+
+
+== Model ==
+The model is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          C
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        =
+        α
+        +
+        λ
+        
+          Y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C_{t}=\alpha +\lambda Y_{t}}
+  
+
+where: 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          C
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C_{t}}
+  
+ is consumption at time t,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha }
+  
+ is autonomous consumption, a constant,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda }
+  
+ is the marginal propensity to consume (
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        <
+        λ
+        <
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0<\lambda <1}
+  
+),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y_{t}}
+  
+ is disposable income at time t.
+The component 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+        
+          Y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda Y_{t}}
+  
+ represents induced consumption.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Consumption function
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Keynes, John M. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.  London: Macmillan, 1936.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5ec26d671
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+---
+title: "Ad hoc hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:53.374609+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In science and philosophy, an ad hoc hypothesis is a hypothesis added to a theory in order to save it from being falsified.
+For example, a person that wants to believe in leprechauns can avoid ever being proven wrong by using ad hoc hypotheses (e.g., by adding "they are invisible", then "their motives are complex", and so on).
+Often, ad hoc hypothesizing is employed to compensate for anomalies not anticipated by the theory in its unmodified form.
+
+
+== In the scientific community ==
+Scientists are often skeptical of theories that rely on frequent, unsupported adjustments to sustain them. This is because, if a theorist so chooses, there is no limit to the number of ad hoc hypotheses that they could add. Thus the theory becomes more and more complex, but is never falsified. This is often at a cost to the theory's predictive power, however. Ad hoc hypotheses are often characteristic of pseudoscientific subjects.
+Albert Einstein's addition of the cosmological constant to general relativity in order to allow a static universe was ad hoc. Although he later referred to it as his "greatest blunder", it may correspond to theories of dark energy.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ad hoc
+Fringe science
+Russell's teapot
+Deferent and epicycle § Bad science
+No true Scotsman
+Special pleading
+The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
+Proofs and Refutations
+"The Dragon in My Garage"
+Paraconsistent logic
+Moving the goalposts
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Ad hoc hypothesis at PhilPapers
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue_expandability_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue_expandability_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..4b746b31f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue_expandability_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Adipose tissue expandability hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue_expandability_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:55.612615+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The adipose tissue expandability hypothesis posits that metabolic dysregulation that appears to be caused by excess weight, such as type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, are triggered when an individual's capacity for storing excess calories in the subcutaneous adipose tissue is exceeded. Each individual's capacity to store excess energy varies, so the threshold at which an individual begins to experience metabolic disease is not well captured by methods such as body mass index or body fat percentage. If a person has the ability to store a large amount of body fat without experiencing metabolic disturbance, this is known as metabolically healthy obesity.
+Although it was hypothesized that having a larger number of smaller adipocytes was correlated with the ability to store more fat, some evidence suggests the opposite—those with smaller adipocytes having a worse metabolic profile. The core factor, the inability to store excess fat in these cells, remains.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admissible_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admissible_heuristic-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..bf234bfa9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admissible_heuristic-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,475 @@
+---
+title: "Admissible heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admissible_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:17.054508+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In computer science, specifically in algorithms related to pathfinding, a heuristic function is said to be admissible if it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal, i.e. the cost it estimates to reach the goal is not higher than the lowest possible cost from the current point in the path. In other words, it should act as a lower bound.
+It is related to the concept of consistent heuristics. While all consistent heuristics are admissible, not all admissible heuristics are consistent.
+
+
+== Search algorithms ==
+An admissible heuristic is used to estimate the cost of reaching the goal state in an informed search algorithm. In order for a heuristic
+to be admissible to the search problem, the estimated cost must always be lower than or equal to the actual cost of reaching the goal state. 
+The search algorithm uses the admissible heuristic to find an estimated 
+optimal path to the goal state from the current node. 
+For example, in A* search the evaluation function (where 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+ is the current node) is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)=g(n)+h(n)}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)}
+  
+ = the evaluation function.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(n)}
+  
+ = the cost from the start node to the current node
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(n)}
+  
+ = estimated cost from current node to goal.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(n)}
+  
+ is calculated using the heuristic 
+function. With a non-admissible heuristic, the A* algorithm could 
+overlook the optimal solution to a search problem due to an 
+overestimation in 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)}
+  
+.
+
+
+== Formulation ==
+
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+ is a node
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+  
+ is a heuristic
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(n)}
+  
+ is cost indicated by 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+  
+ to reach a goal from 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          h
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h^{*}(n)}
+  
+ is the optimal cost to reach a goal from 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(n)}
+  
+ is admissible if, 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∀
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \forall n}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        ≤
+        
+          h
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(n)\leq h^{*}(n)}
+  
+
+
+== Construction ==
+An admissible heuristic can be derived from a relaxed
+version of the problem, or by information from pattern databases that store exact solutions to subproblems of the problem, or by using inductive learning methods.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Two different examples of admissible heuristics apply to the fifteen puzzle problem:
+
+Hamming distance
+Manhattan distance
+The Hamming distance is the total number of misplaced tiles. It is clear that this heuristic is admissible since the total number of moves to order the tiles correctly is at least the number of misplaced tiles (each tile not in place must be moved at least once). The cost (number of moves) to the goal (an ordered puzzle) is at least the Hamming distance of the puzzle.
+The Manhattan distance of a puzzle is defined as:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            all tiles
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            d
+            i
+            s
+            t
+            a
+            n
+            c
+            e
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          tile, correct position
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(n)=\sum _{\text{all tiles}}{\mathit {distance}}({\text{tile, correct position}})}
+  
+
+Consider the puzzle below in which the player wishes to move each tile such that the numbers are ordered. The Manhattan distance is an admissible heuristic in this case because every tile will have to be moved at least the number of spots in between itself and its correct position.
+
+The subscripts show the Manhattan distance for each tile. The total Manhattan distance for the shown puzzle is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        =
+        3
+        +
+        1
+        +
+        0
+        +
+        1
+        +
+        2
+        +
+        3
+        +
+        3
+        +
+        4
+        +
+        3
+        +
+        2
+        +
+        4
+        +
+        4
+        +
+        4
+        +
+        1
+        +
+        1
+        =
+        36
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(n)=3+1+0+1+2+3+3+4+3+2+4+4+4+1+1=36}
+  
+
+
+== Optimality proof ==
+If an admissible heuristic is used in an algorithm that, per iteration, progresses only the path of lowest evaluation (current cost + heuristic) of several candidate paths, terminates the moment its exploration reaches the goal and, crucially, closes all optimal paths before terminating (something that's possible with A* search algorithm if special care isn't taken), then this algorithm can only terminate on an optimal path. To see why, consider the following proof by contradiction:
+Assume such an algorithm managed to terminate on a path T with a true cost Ttrue greater than the optimal path S with true cost Strue. This means that before terminating, the evaluated cost of T was less than or equal to the evaluated cost of S (or else S would have been picked). Denote these evaluated costs Teval and Seval respectively. The above can be summarized as follows,
+
+Strue < Ttrue
+Teval ≤ Seval
+If our heuristic is admissible it follows that at this penultimate step Teval = Ttrue because any increase on the true cost by the heuristic on T would be inadmissible and the heuristic cannot be negative. On the other hand, an admissible heuristic would require that Seval ≤ Strue which combined with the above inequalities gives us Teval < Ttrue and more specifically Teval ≠ Ttrue. As Teval and Ttrue cannot be both equal and unequal our assumption must have been false and so it must be impossible to terminate on a more costly than optimal path.
+As an example, let us say we have costs as follows:(the cost above/below a node is the heuristic, the cost at an edge is the actual cost)
+
+ 0     10   0   100   0
+START ----  O  ----- GOAL
+ |                   |
+0|                   |100
+ |                   | 
+ O ------- O  ------ O
+100   1    100   1   100
+
+So clearly we would start off visiting the top middle node, since the expected total cost, i.e. 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)}
+  
+, is 
+  
+    
+      
+        10
+        +
+        0
+        =
+        10
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 10+0=10}
+  
+. Then the goal would be a candidate, with 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)}
+  
+ equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        10
+        +
+        100
+        +
+        0
+        =
+        110
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 10+100+0=110}
+  
+. Then we would clearly pick the bottom nodes one after the other, followed by the updated goal, since they all have 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)}
+  
+ lower than the 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)}
+  
+ of the current goal, i.e. their 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        100
+        ,
+        101
+        ,
+        102
+        ,
+        102
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 100,101,102,102}
+  
+. So even though the goal was a candidate, we could not pick it because there were still better paths out there. This way, an admissible heuristic can ensure optimality.
+However, note that although an admissible heuristic can guarantee final optimality, it is not necessarily efficient.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Consistent heuristic
+Heuristic function
+Search algorithm
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivation_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivation_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Aestivation hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivation_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:56.818197+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The aestivation hypothesis is a hypothesized solution to the Fermi paradox conceived in 2017 by Anders Sandberg, Stuart Armstrong and Milan M. Ćirković. The hypothesis, published on 27 April 2017, suggests advanced alien civilizations may be storing energy and aestivating (hibernating in times of heat instead of cold), until the universe cools to better make use of the stored energy to perform tasks.
+As the universe cools, the potential work producible by stored energy can increase by a multiplier of 1030 per Landauer's principle. If the goal of an advanced civilization is to maximize the number of calculations done, to generate information processing for tasks like mass-producing simulations, then aestivation would be purposeful to achieve this end.
+
+
+== Fermi paradox ==
+
+There is no reliable or reproducible evidence that aliens have visited Earth. No transmissions or evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life have been detected or observed anywhere other than Earth in the Universe. This runs counter to the knowledge that the Universe is filled with a very large number of planets, some of which likely hold the conditions hospitable for life. Life typically expands until it fills all available niches. These contradictory facts form the basis for the Fermi paradox, of which the aestivation hypothesis is one proposed solution.
+
+
+== Intentions of alien civilizations ==
+Advanced alien civilizations may have intentions that differ considerably from one another and from humanity. If the intent is creating large amounts of "happiness", then energy resources may be used to generate perfect computer simulations of "the maximal number of maximally happy minds". If the intent is knowledge, resources may be focused on information storage. Such civilizations may go through a time of exploration and then remain dormant until the conditions of the universe are more energetically favorable to best achieve their objectives. While this may not achieve infinite value in terms of their intentions, the upper limit may still be extremely large.
+
+
+== Dispute ==
+The theory has been disputed by a subsequent paper by Charles H. Bennett, Robin Hanson and Jess Riedel, who claim the notion that more computations could be performed later in the universe's history is based on a misunderstanding of the physics of computation.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Affect heuristic"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The affect heuristic is a  heuristic, a mental shortcut that allows people to make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently, in which current emotion—fear, pleasure, surprise, etc.—influences decisions. In other words, it is a type of heuristic in which emotional response, or "affect" in psychological terms, plays a lead role.  It is a subconscious process that shortens the decision-making process and allows people to function without having to complete an extensive search for information. It is shorter in duration than a mood, occurring rapidly and involuntarily in response to a stimulus. Reading the words "lung cancer" usually generates an affect of dread, while reading the words "mother's love" usually generates a feeling of affection and comfort.  The affect heuristic is typically used while judging the risks and benefits of something, depending on the positive or negative feelings that people associate with a stimulus. It is the equivalent of "going with your gut". If their feelings towards an activity are positive, then people are more likely to judge the risks as low and the benefits high. On the other hand, if their feelings towards an activity are negative, they are more likely to perceive the risks as high and benefits low.
+
+== Concept ==
+The theory of affect heuristic is that a human being's affect can influence how he or she makes decisions. Research has shown that risk and benefits are negatively correlated in people's minds. This was found after researchers found that the inverse relationship between perceived risk and perceived benefit of an activity was linked to the strength of positive or negative affect associated with the activity as measured by rating the activity on bipolar scales (e.g. good/bad). This implies that people base their judgements of an activity or a technology not only on what they think about it, but also on how they feel about it.  The affect heuristic gained early attention in 1980 when Robert B. Zajonc argued that affective reactions to stimuli are often the first reaction which occur automatically and subsequently influencing the way in which we process and judge information. The affect heuristic received more recent attention when it was used to explain the unexpected negative correlation between benefit and risk perception. Finucane, Alhakami, Slovic and Johnson theorized in 2000 that a good feeling towards a situation (i.e., positive affect) would lead to a lower risk perception and a higher benefit perception, even when this is logically not warranted for that situation. This implies that a strong emotional response to a word or other stimulus might alter a person's judgment. He or she might make different decisions based on the same set of facts and might thus make an illogical decision. Overall, the affect heuristic is of influence in nearly every decision-making arena.
+
+=== Theoretical accounts of affect ===
+An alternative thought to the “gut feeling” response is Antonio Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis. It is the opinion that thought is made largely from images which include perceptual and symbolic representations. These images then become “marked” by positive or negative feelings linked directly or indirectly to somatic states. When a negative somatic marker is linked to an image of a future outcome, it sounds an alarm in the brain. When a positive marker is linked to an image, it becomes a signal of incentive. He hypothesized that somatic markers increase the accuracy of the decision process and the absence of these markers, mostly seen in people with certain types of brain damage, degrades the ability to make good decisions. This hypothesis arose when observing patients with damage to their prefrontal cortex who had severe impairments in personal and social decision-making despite their other abilities.
+
+== Thought and feeling ==
+It has been argued by researchers that people use affect heuristics as a first response to an issue, they rely on spontaneous affective reactions which make it more efficient than having to research and analyze external information. Slovic, Finucane, Peters and MacGregor (2005) contrast two modes of thinking: the analytic system and the experiential system. The analytic system, also referred to as the rational system, is thought that is considered to be slow and requires effort; it requires consciousness, probabilities, logical reasoning, and substantial evidence. The experiential system is the exact opposite. It is intuitive and mostly automatic which makes it more convenient for people because it does not require effort or consciousness. It relies on images, metaphors, and narratives which are then used to estimate the probability of a hazard. This is due to the experience of affect, in other words, a “gut feeling.” Multiple studies including the one done by Miller and Ireland (2005) show how "gut feeling" or intuitive decisions affect various executives and managers of many companies. Many of the individuals studied use intuition as an effective approach to making important decisions. The experimenters' goal is to evaluate the risk and benefits of using intuition. Their results show that this is a troublesome decision tool. Affective reactions that accompany judgements are not necessarily voluntary, but are automatic responses. Zajonc states that “one might be able to control the expression of emotion, but not the experience of it itself.”  However, he also clarifies that feelings are not free of thought and that thoughts are not free of feeling. The experiential system also takes past experiences into account. In other words, if a person has already experienced a certain issue, he or she is more likely to take more precautions towards the issue.
+
+== Experimental findings ==
+Many studies have been done to further look into affect heuristics and many have found that these heuristics shape our attitudes and opinions towards our decisions, especially risk perception. These studies demonstrate how affect is an important characteristic of the decision-making process in many different domains and aspects as well as how it can lead to a strong conditioner of preference. As demonstrated below, affect is independent of cognition which indicate that there are conditions where affect does not require cognition.
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+---
+title: "Affect heuristic"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Subliminal affective response ===
+The cause of affect does not necessarily have to be consciously perceived. A study conducted by Winkielman, Zajonc and Schwarz (1997) demonstrated the speed at which an affective reaction can influence judgements. To do this they used a subliminal priming paradigm where participants were "primed" through exposure to either a smiling face, a frowning face, or a neutral polygon presented at about 1⁄250  of a second. This was considered an amount of time where the nature of the stimuli could not be recalled. Participants were then exposed to an ideograph (e.g. a Chinese character) for two seconds and asked to rate the ideograph on a scale of liking. Researchers found that participants preferred the ideograph preceded with a smiling face as opposed to those preceded by a frowning face or neutral polygon despite the fact that the smiling face was only shown for 1⁄250 of a second.
+The same experiment demonstrated the persistence of initial affect. During a second session, participations were primed with the same characters, but these characters were preceded by a different face that they were not previously exposed to (e.g. those previously exposed to the smiling face were now exposed to the neutral polygon). Participants continued to show preference for the characters based on the first association, even though the second exposure was preceded by a different affective stimulus.  In other words, the second priming was ineffective because the effects of the first priming still remained. If the participant liked a character following exposure to a smiling face, they would continue to like the character even when it was preceded by a frowning face during the second exposure. (The experimental outcome was statistically significant and adjusted for variables such as non-affective preference for certain characters).
+
+=== Insensitivity to numbers ===
+Sometimes affective responses to certain stimuli are a result of a lack of sensitivity to other factors, for example, numbers. Slovic and Peters (2006) did a study on psychophysical numbing, the inability to discriminate change in a physical stimulus as the magnitude of the stimulus increases, and found that students more strongly supported an airport-safety measure that was expected to save a  high percentage of 150 lives at risk as opposed to a measure that was expected to save 150 lives. This is thought to have occurred because although saving 150 lives is good, it is somewhat harder to comprehend and thus the decision comes from the positive feeling associated with the higher percentage.
+
+=== The influence of time ===
+Research has been conducted in the influence that time plays in decision-making. In two experiments, Finucane, Alhakami, Slovic and Johnson (2000) studied the affect heuristic under time pressure and the influence that providing risk and benefit information has on the affect heuristic. The researchers compared individuals under no time pressure and those with time pressure. They predicted that individuals under time pressure would rely more heavily on their affect in order to be more efficient in their responses whereas those under no time pressure would use more logic in their decision-making. To do this, university students were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions (time pressure or no time pressure) and one of the two counterbalancing orders (risk judgements followed by benefit judgements or vice versa). They were then given a task in which they had to make judgements about the risk or benefit of certain activities and technologies. As predicted, individuals in the time-pressure condition took less time to make risk judgements than did individuals in the no time pressure condition. In the second experiment, students again had to make judgements about certain activities, but this time were given additional information about the risk and benefits. Information was framed as being high risk, low risk, high benefit or low benefit. The researchers found that this additional information did in fact influence their judgements.
+Two similar studies were conducted by Wilson and Arvai in 2006, in which they also looked at the affect heuristic affects high and low risk options. These experiments examine the affect heuristic and the “evaluability hypothesis”, the joint evaluation when options are evaluated in a side-by-side comparison and separate evaluation where options are evaluated on their own. They take this concept and discuss how it relates to the affect heuristic by specifically looking at making traits of an option more or less meaningful in terms of the context of choice, more specifically, affect. To examine this relationship more closely, they conducted two experiments where participants received quantitative information about the nature of risks and were placed in one of two groups: affect-poor combined with high risks and affect-rich combined with low risks. In their first study, they looked how the influence of affect on evaluability in joint evaluations as compared to separate evaluations. To this, participants were asked to make choices about the affect-rich problem of crime and the affect-poor problem of deer overpopulation. Participants were asked to rate how they perceived crime and deer overpopulation by rating  on a scale from "very good" to "very bad." They found that participants ignored the quantitative information and focused on the affect characteristics.
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+---
+title: "Affect heuristic"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Fear appeals ===
+Health campaigns often use “fear appeals” to grab the attention of their audience.  Fear appeals are a type of advertising that specifically uses methods of creating anxiety in the consumer which results in the consumer wanting to cure this fear by purchasing the product. In a study by Averbeck, Jones, and Robertson (2011), researchers look at how prior knowledge influences one's response to fear appeals. Surveys were distributed which manipulated prior knowledge as low or high and two different topics: sleep deprivation or spinal meningitis. Various scale were used to test how prior knowledge affects certain health-related issues. Researchers found that individuals who had prior knowledge in a certain subject exhibited less fear and were least likely to fall prey to the affect heuristic as opposed to individuals that did not have prior knowledge who exhibited more fear and were more likely to fall prey.
+Another example of how fear appeals are used in marketing today is through the findings presented in the experiment by Schmitt and Blass (2008). They produced two versions of an anti-smoking film. One contained high fear arousal and one did not. Out of the participants (46 non-smoking students and 5 smoking students), those who viewed the high fear-arousal version expressed stronger anti-smoking behavioral intentions than those who viewed the low fear-arousal version.
+
+=== Climate change ===
+Research has shown that Americans are aware of climate change, but do not consider it to be a serious problem due to the lack of an affective response. Many people report as not having experienced the consequences of climate change or that it is a long-term consequence that will not happen in the near future. Therefore, it is considered to be of lower priority and not much is done as a solution to global climate change.
+
+=== Risk communication ===
+Research on the affect heuristic had its origin in risk perception. Communicating risk is meant to improve the correspondence between the magnitude of the risk of an issue and the magnitude to which people respond to that risk. Affect, specifically negative affect, is an important method for increasing perceived risk considering its influences on perceived risk and thus has been utilized as essential for communicating risk to the public.
+Raising risk awareness is thought to be increased when risk information is presented in the form of frequences (e.g. “Within 40 years there is a 33% probability of flood”) or probabilities (e.g. “Each year there is a 1% probability of flood). This method is thought to evoke an affective response which then increases the availability of risk which results in greater perceived risk. This demonstrates how the way in which information is presented influences the way in which people interpret the information, more specifically, potential risks. Research also shows that people's financial risk taking is affected by their emotional state,
+The affect heuristic is certainly evident in product innovations we see in the market. The processes consumers use to weigh the potential risk and benefits associated with purchasing such innovations are in constant motion. A study by Slovic and King (2014) tries to explain this specific phenomenon. Their experiment addresses the extent to which feelings dominate early perceptions of new products. Participants were exposed to three innovations in pretest and posttest design. Through this study, they concluded that risks and benefits associated with innovations are related to the consumer's evaluations of the products.
+
+==== Cancer ====
+Researchers have looked at the affective and experiential modes of thinking in terms of cancer prevention. Research has shown that affect plays a significant role in whether people choose to get screened for certain types of cancer. Current research is now looking into how to communicate the risks and benefits of cancer prevention and treatment options. So far research has shown that the way in which information is framed does play a role in the way in which the information is interpreted. Research has also shown that treatment options may not have significant meaning to patients unless it has an affective connection. It is for this reason that researchers are looking into using affective coding such as icon arrays to make numerical information easier to understand and process.
+
+=== Air Pollution ===
+An experiment composed by Hine and Marks (2007) examines the role of affect heuristics in maintaining wood-burning behavior. The individuals analyzed in this study were 256 residents of a small Australian city where high levels of wood smoke pollution are present. With the negative effects of air pollution evident, their studies found that individuals who used wood heaters exhibited less support for wood smoke control policies. These individuals were aware that their wood heaters were part of the problem. Even with that awareness, their positive affections and emotions towards wood heating trumped all negative evidence for it.
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+---
+title: "Affect heuristic"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Smiling ===
+Research has been done on how smiling can cause affective responses and thus influence our opinions of others. An experiment by LaFrance and Hecht (1995) investigated  whether a smiling target would elicit more leniency than those that do not. Participants judged a case of potential academic misconduct and were asked to rate a list of subjects. Materials included photos of a female target either showing a neutral expression, felt smile, false smile, or miserable smile. Researchers found that the student pictured as smiling received less punishment than did the student who did not smile despite the fact that the smiling student was not seen as less guilty. They did not find a significant difference between the different smiles. Smiling students were also rated as more trustworthy, honest, genuine, good, obedient, sincere, and admirable compared to the student that did not smile.
+To the previous studies evidence, there is further evidence on the effect of smiling on a person’s perception. They contain it in the experiment by Delevati and Cesar (1994). Brazilian undergraduates perceived a slide of a male and female person. Smiling faces were portrayed and non-smiling faces were portrayed. The participants used 12 different adjectives to judge the portraits. Results showed those persons showing a smile received more favorable perceptions than those who did not. Generally speaking, a smiling person can produce warmer feelings in the perceiver than the non-smiling person.
+
+=== Memory load ===
+Researchers have studied how one's memory load increases one's chances of using the affect heuristic. In a study by Shiv and Fedorikhin (1999), participants were asked to either memorize a two-digit number (low cognitive demand) or a seven-digit number (high cognitive demand). Participants were then asked to enter another room where they would report their number. On the way there, they were asked for their preference for two snacks: chocolate cake (more favorable affect, less favorable cognition) or fruit salad (less favorable affect, more favorable cognition). Researchers predicted that participants given the seven-digits to remember (high cognitive load) would reduce their deliberation process due to having to remember a large amount of information. This would increase the chances of these participants choosing the cake over the fruit salad due to it being the more affectively favorable option. This hypothesis proved true with participants choosing the chocolate cake 63% of the time when given a high cognitive load and only 41% when given a low cognitive load. In the same study they also tested the impulsiveness of the participants in moderating the effects of processing-resources of choice and at the time they were asked for their preference for the two snacks high cognitive demand chose the chocolate cake 84.2%. This provides evidence that people's decisions  can be influenced by affect heuristic in a relatively spontaneous manner from the stimulus, with little involvement of higher-order cognitive demand.
+
+=== Lasting effects ===
+Another common situation involving affect heuristic is where a strong, emotional first impression can inform a decision, even if subsequent evidence weight cognitively against the original decision made. In a study by Sherman, Kim and Zajonc (1998), they investigated how long the induced effects of an affective response could last. Participants were asked to study Chinese characters and their English meanings. Half of the meanings were positive (e.g. beauty) and the other half negative (e.g. disease). Participants were then tested on these meanings, which was followed by a task in which they were given pairs of characters and asked to choose which character they preferred. Researchers found that participants preferred the character with a positive meaning.
+In the same experiment, participants were given a new task where the characters were presented with a neutral meaning (e.g. linen) and participants were told that these were the true meanings of the character. The testing procedure was the same and despite exposing participants with the new meanings, their preferences in characters remained the same. Characters that were paired with positive meanings continued to be preferred.
+
+== Disadvantages ==
+While heuristics can be helpful in many situations, it can also lead to biases which can result in poor decision-making habits. Like other heuristics, the affect heuristic can provide efficient and adaptive responses, but relying on affect can also cause decisions to be misleading.
+
+=== Smoking ===
+Studies have looked at how the affect influences smoking behavior. Smokers tend to act experientially in the sense that they give little conscious thought to the risks before they start. It is usually as a result of affective responses in the moment that occur when seeing others partake in the behavior. Epstein (1995) found that there has been quite a bit of manipulation of consumers when it comes to packaging and marketing products. This is especially the case with tobacco companies. Research has shown that cigarette advertisements were designed to increase the positive affect associated with smoking and decrease the perceptions of risk. Therefore, seeing this advertisement could lead people astray to start smoking because of its induced appeal. In a study by Slovic et al. (2005), he released a survey to smokers in which he asked “If you had it to do all over again, would you start smoking?” and more than 85% of adult smokers and about 80% of young smokers (between the ages of 14 and 22) answered “No.” He found that most smokers, especially those that start at a younger age, do not take the time and think about how their future selves will perceive the risks associated with smoking. Essentially, smokers give little conscious thought to smoking before they start and it is usually after they have started smoking and have become addicted that they learn new information about health risk.
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Slovic, Paul; Melissa Finucane; Ellen Peters; Donald G. MacGregor (2014). "The Affect Heuristic" (PDF). European Journal of Operational Research. 55 (6): 527–32. doi:10.1111/sjop.12166. PMID 25243906.
+Thomas Gilovich; Dale Griffin; Daniel Kahneman, eds. (2002). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8.
+Shefrin, Hersh (2002). Behavioral Corporate Finance: Decisions that create value. McGraw-Hill. pp. 2, 10, 164, 40–42, 60–61, 69. ISBN 978-0-07-284865-6.
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+---
+title: "Alvarez hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:58.010084+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Alvarez hypothesis posits that the mass extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other living things during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was caused by the impact of a large asteroid on the Earth. Prior to 2013, it was commonly cited as having happened about 65 million years ago, but Renne and colleagues (2013) gave an updated value of 66 million years. Evidence indicates that the asteroid fell in the Yucatán Peninsula, at Chicxulub, Mexico. The hypothesis is named after the father-and-son team of scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez, who first suggested it in 1980. Shortly afterwards, and independently, the same was suggested by Dutch paleontologist Jan Smit.
+In March 2010, an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis, specifically the Chicxulub impact, as being the cause of the extinction. A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism. They had determined that a space rock 10–15 km (6–9 mi) in diameter hurtled into earth at Chicxulub. For comparison, the Martian moon Phobos has a diameter of 22 km (14 mi), and Mount Everest is just under 9 km (5.6 mi). The collision would have released the same energy as 100,000,000 megatonnes of TNT (4.2×1023 J), over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
+A 2016 drilling project into the peak ring of the crater strongly supported the hypothesis, and confirmed various matters that had been unclear until that point. These included the fact that the peak ring comprised granite (a rock found deep within the Earth) rather than typical sea floor rock, which had been shocked, melted, and ejected to the surface in minutes, and evidence of colossal seawater movement directly afterwards from sand deposits. Crucially, the cores also showed a near-complete absence of gypsum, a sulfate-containing rock, which would have been vaporized and dispersed as an aerosol into the atmosphere, confirming the presence of a probable link between the impact and global longer-term effects on the climate and food chain.
+
+== History ==
+
+In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez, his son geologist Walter Alvarez, and chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Vaughn Michel, discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary, formerly called Cretaceous–Tertiary or K–T boundary) contain a concentration of iridium hundreds of times greater than normal.
+Previously, in a 1953 publication, geologists Allan O. Kelly and Frank Dahille analyzed global geological evidence suggesting that one or more giant asteroids impacted the Earth, causing an angular shift in its axis, global floods, firestorms, atmospheric occlusion, and the extinction of the dinosaurs. There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but without strong confirming evidence.
+
+== Evidence and projects ==
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+---
+title: "Alvarez hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:58.010084+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The location of the impact was unknown when the Alvarez team developed their hypothesis, but later scientists discovered the Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatán Peninsula, now considered the likely impact site.
+Paul Renne of the Berkeley Geochronology Center has reported that the date of the asteroid event is 66,038,000 years ago, plus or minus 11,000 years, based on Ar-Ar dating.  He further posits that the mass extinction of dinosaurs occurred within 33,000 years of this date.
+In April 2019, a paper was published in PNAS which describes evidence from a fossil site in North Dakota that the authors say provides a "postimpact snapshot" of events after the asteroid collision "including ejecta accretion and faunal mass death". The team found that the tektites that had peppered the area were present in amber found on the site and were also embedded in the gills of about 50 percent of the fossil fish. They were also able to find traces of iridium. The authors – who include Walter Alvarez – postulate that shock of the impact, equivalent to an earthquake of magnitude 10 or 11, may have led to seiches, oscillating movements of water in lakes, bays, or gulfs, that would have reached the site in North Dakota within minutes or hours of the impact. This would have led to the rapid burial of organisms under a thick layer of sediment. Coauthor David Burnham of the University of Kansas was quoted as saying, "They’re not crushed, it’s like an avalanche that collapses almost like a liquid, then sets like concrete. They were killed pretty suddenly because of the violence of that water. We have one fish that hit a tree and was broken in half."
+According to a high-resolution study of fossilized fish bones published in 2022, the Cretaceous-Paleogene asteroid which caused mass extinction impacted during the Northern Hemisphere spring.
+In 2016, a scientific drilling project drilled deep into the peak ring of the Chicxulub impact crater, to obtain rock core samples from the impact itself. The discoveries were widely seen as confirming current theories related to both the crater impact, and its effects. They confirmed that the rock composing the peak ring had been subjected to immense pressures and forces and had been melted by immense heat and shocked by immense pressure from its usual state into its present form in just minutes; the fact that the peak ring was made of granite was also significant, since granite is not a rock found in sea-floor deposits, it originates much deeper in the Earth and had been ejected to the surface by the immense pressures of impact; that gypsum, a sulfate-containing rock that is usually present in the shallow seabed of the region, had been almost entirely removed and must therefore have been almost entirely vaporized and entered the atmosphere, and that the event was immediately followed by a huge megatsunami (a massive movement of sea waters) sufficient to lay down the largest known layer of sand separated by grain size directly above the peak ring.
+These strongly support the hypothesis that the impactor was large enough to create a 120-mile peak ring, to melt, shock and eject basement granite from the mid-crust deep within the Earth, to create colossal water movements, and to eject an immense quantity of vaporized rock and sulfates into the atmosphere, where they would have persisted for a long time.  This global dispersal of dust and sulfates would have led to a sudden and catastrophic effect on the climate worldwide, large temperature drops, and devastated the food chain.
+
+== Alternative theories ==
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+title: "Alvarez hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:58.010084+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Although a 2010 paper published in Science that declared that the extinction of the dinosaurs was caused by Chicxulub was co-authored by 41 scientists, dozens of other scientists challenged both the paper's methods and its conclusions. A leading critic of the Alvarez hypothesis is Gerta Keller, who has focused on Deccan Traps volcanism as a likely cause of a more gradual extinction. Despite the fact that the Alvarez hypothesis has overwhelming support from the scientific community, Keller has continued to advocate for research into alternate theories. The Deccan Traps theory was first proposed in 1978 by geologist Dewey McLean but quickly lost traction. The Deccan Traps are an area of volcanic flood basalts in Western India spanning ~1.3 million square kilometers that were created by massive volcanic activity during the same time period in which the Chicxulub impact occurred. Prior to Keller's research, the timeframe of the Deccan Traps' eruptions had a significantly large range of error, making it difficult to draw strong conclusions regarding their connection to the K-Pg extinction. In a 2014 report, Keller and her colleagues used uranium-lead zircon geochronology to more accurately identify the eruptions as occurring both within a span of one million years and around 250,000 years prior to the K-Pg boundary. Keller additionally determined that ocean temperatures rose seven to nine degrees Celsius during the most significant period of the Deccan eruptions. Along with ocean acidification, ozone reduction, acid rain, and a release of harmful gases, she asserts that these conditions were sufficient to have initiated the mass extinction. Keller has specifically rejected the Alvarez hypothesis, pointing to evidence she gathered from the Chicxulub crater in 2009 revealing that twenty inches of sediment separates the impact from the extinction. The finding suggests that the impact occurred 200,000 to 300,000 years before the K-Pg extinction, a period far too large for the two to be correlated. This, however, contrasts the range of 33,000 years determined by Paul Renne in 2015, as well the more recent assertion that a tsunami generated by the impact created the unusual sediment layer. Keller additionally claims that the impact did not cause as much ecological damage as is widely believed, and she determined that many foraminifera species began to decline well before the impact event occurred. Her 2009 project revealed that the 52 species found in the sediment prior to the impact were present in the sediment following it, suggesting that the impact caused minimal extinction.
+A more recent theory combining both Deccan volcanism and the impact hypothesis has been developed by teams at UC Berkeley led by Paul Renne and Mark Richards. This theory proposes that the impact itself instigated the most intense period of Deccan eruptions, both of which had devastating effects contributing to the K-Pg extinction. Renne and Richards calculated that the Chicxulub impact was capable of producing seismic activity strong enough to initiate volcanic eruptions. They determined that the largest period of Deccan volcanic eruptions, or the Wai subgroup, occurred 50,000 to 100,000 years after the Chicxulub impact, which is consistent with theoretical predictions modeling the length of time after which eruptions should occur. The group also confirmed that the length of time between the extinction and subsequent biological recovery was consistent with the length of Deccan volcanic activity, proposing that the eruptions paused the recovery of the marine ecosystems destroyed by the impact.
+Debate regarding the cause of the K-Pg extinction has proven to be extremely controversial among researchers, and the resilience of its intensity has earned it the moniker of the "dinosaur wars." Criticism is unusually harsh, targeting not only research findings but the credibility and integrity of the scientists themselves. Verbal accusations have been thrown both by and toward many prominent researchers including Gerta Keller and Luis Alvarez, discouraging civil debate and in some cases threatening careers. Walter Alvarez is an active member of the UC Berkeley team researching the connection between Deccan volcanism and the Chicxulub impact.
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Analysis of competing hypotheses"
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+
+The analysis of competing hypotheses (ACH) is a methodology for evaluating multiple competing hypotheses for observed data. It was developed by Richards (Dick) J. Heuer, Jr., a 45-year veteran of the Central Intelligence Agency, in the 1970s for use by the Agency. ACH is used by analysts in various fields who make judgments that entail a high risk of error in reasoning. ACH aims to help an analyst overcome, or at least minimize, some of the cognitive limitations that make prescient intelligence analysis so difficult to achieve.
+ACH was a step forward in intelligence analysis methodology, but it was first described in relatively informal terms. Producing the best available information from uncertain data remains the goal of researchers, tool-builders, and analysts in industry, academia and government. Their domains include data mining, cognitive psychology and visualization, probability and statistics, etc. Abductive reasoning is an earlier concept with similarities to ACH.
+
+== Process ==
+Heuer outlines the ACH process in considerable depth in his book, Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. It consists of the following steps:
+
+Hypothesis – The first step of the process is to identify all potential hypotheses, preferably using a group of analysts with different perspectives to brainstorm the possibilities. The process discourages the analyst from choosing one "likely" hypothesis and using evidence to prove its accuracy. Cognitive bias is minimized when all possible hypotheses are considered.
+Evidence – The analyst then lists evidence and arguments (including assumptions and logical deductions) for and against each hypothesis.
+Diagnostics – Using a matrix, the analyst applies evidence against each hypothesis in an attempt to disprove as many theories as possible. Some evidence will have greater "diagnosticity" than other evidence—that is, some will be more helpful in judging the relative likelihood of alternative hypotheses. This step is the most important, according to Heuer. Instead of looking at one hypothesis and all the evidence ("working down" the matrix), the analyst is encouraged to consider one piece of evidence at a time, and examine it against all possible hypotheses ("working across" the matrix).
+Refinement – The analyst reviews the findings, identifies any gaps, and collects any additional evidence needed to refute as many of the remaining hypotheses as possible.
+Inconsistency – The analyst then seeks to draw tentative conclusions about the relative likelihood of each hypothesis. Less consistency implies a lower likelihood. The least consistent hypotheses are eliminated. While the matrix generates a definitive mathematical total for each hypothesis, the analyst must use their judgment to make the final conclusion. The result of the ACH analysis itself must not overrule analysts' own judgments.
+Sensitivity – The analyst tests the conclusions using sensitivity analysis, which weighs how the conclusion would be affected if key evidence or arguments were wrong, misleading, or subject to different interpretations. The validity of key evidence and the consistency of important arguments are double-checked to assure the soundness of the conclusion's linchpins and drivers.
+Conclusions and evaluation – Finally, the analyst provides the decisionmaker with his or her conclusions, as well as a summary of alternatives that were considered and why they were rejected. The analyst also identifies milestones in the process that can serve as indicators in future analyses.
+
+== Strengths ==
+Some benefits of doing an ACH matrix are:
+
+It is auditable.
+It is widely believed to help overcome cognitive biases, though there is a lack of strong empirical evidence to support this belief.
+Since the ACH requires the analyst to construct a matrix, the evidence and hypotheses can be backtracked. This allows the decisionmaker or other analysts to see the sequence of rules and data that led to the conclusion.
+
+== Weaknesses ==
+Weaknesses of doing an ACH matrix include:
+
+The process to create an ACH is time-consuming.
+The ACH matrix can be problematic when analyzing a complex project.
+It can be cumbersome for an analyst to manage a large database with multiple pieces of evidence.
+Evidence also presents a problem if it is unreliable.
+The evidence used in the matrix is static and therefore it can be a snapshot in time.
+Especially in intelligence, both governmental and business, analysts must always be aware that the opponent(s) is intelligent and may be generating information intended to deceive. Since deception often is the result of a cognitive trap, Elsaesser and Stech use state-based hierarchical plan recognition (see abductive reasoning) to generate causal explanations of observations. The resulting hypotheses are converted to a dynamic Bayesian network and value of information analysis is employed to isolate assumptions implicit in the evaluation of paths in, or conclusions of, particular hypotheses. As evidence in the form of observations of states or assumptions is observed, they can become the subject of separate validation. Should an assumption or necessary state be negated, hypotheses depending on it are rejected. This is a form of root cause analysis.
+According to social constructivist critics, ACH also fails to stress sufficiently (or to address as a method) the problematic nature of the initial formation of the hypotheses used to create its grid. There is considerable evidence, for example, that in addition to any bureaucratic, psychological, or political biases that may affect hypothesis generation, there are also factors of culture and identity at work. These socially constructed factors may restrict or pre-screen which hypotheses end up being considered, and then reinforce confirmation bias in those selected.
+Philosopher and argumentation theorist Tim van Gelder has made the following criticisms:
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+title: "Analysis of competing hypotheses"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:59.135316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ACH demands that the analyst makes too many discrete judgments, a great many of which contribute little if anything to discerning the best hypothesis
+ACH misconceives the nature of the relationship between items of evidence and hypotheses by supposing that items of evidence are, on their own, consistent or inconsistent with hypotheses.
+ACH treats the hypothesis set as "flat", i.e. a mere list, and so is unable to relate evidence to hypotheses at the appropriate levels of abstraction
+ACH cannot represent subordinate argumentation, i.e. the argumentation bearing up on a piece of evidence.
+ACH activities at realistic scales leave analysts disoriented or confused.
+Van Gelder proposed hypothesis mapping (similar to argument mapping) as an alternative to ACH.
+
+=== Structured analysis of competing hypotheses ===
+The structured analysis of competing hypotheses offers analysts an improvement over the limitations of the original ACH. The SACH maximizes the possible hypotheses by allowing the analyst to split one hypothesis into two complex ones.
+For example, two tested hypotheses could be that Iraq has WMD or Iraq does not have WMD. If the evidence showed that it is more likely there are WMDs in Iraq then two new hypotheses could be formulated: WMD are in Baghdad or WMD are in Mosul. Or perhaps, the analyst may need to know what type of WMD Iraq has; the new hypotheses could be that Iraq has biological WMD, Iraq has chemical WMD and Iraq has nuclear WMD. By giving the ACH structure, the analyst is able to give a nuanced estimate.
+
+=== Other approaches to formalism ===
+One method, by Valtorta and colleagues uses probabilistic methods, adds Bayesian analysis to ACH. A generalization of this concept to a distributed community of analysts lead to the development of CACHE (the Collaborative ACH Environment), which introduced the concept of a Bayes (or Bayesian) community. The work by Akram and Wang applies paradigms from graph theory.
+Other work focuses less on probabilistic methods and more on cognitive and visualization extensions to ACH, as discussed by Madsen and Hicks. DECIDE, discussed under automation is visualization-oriented.
+Work by Pope and Jøsang uses subjective logic, a formal mathematical methodology that explicitly deals with uncertainty. This methodology forms the basis of the Sheba technology that is used in Veriluma's intelligence assessment software.
+
+== Software ==
+
+A few online and downloadable software tools help automate the ACH process. These programs leave a visual trail of evidence and allow the analyst to weigh evidence.
+
+PARC ACH 2.0 was developed by Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in collaboration with Richards J. Heuer, Jr. It is a standard ACH program that allows analysts to enter evidence and rate its credibility and relevance.
+Decision Command software was developed by Willard Zangwill.
+DECIDE was developed by the analytic research firm SSS Research, Inc. DECIDE not only allows analysts to manipulate ACH, but it provides multiple visualization products.
+Analysis of Competing Hypotheses (ACH) is an open-source ACH implementation.
+ACH Template is an Excel sheet that implements the scoring and weighting methodology of ACH, more specifically the weighted inconsistency counting algorithm.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
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+title: "Anchoring effect"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The anchoring effect is a psychological phenomenon in which an individual's judgments or decisions are influenced by a reference point or "anchor" which can be completely irrelevant.
+The original description of the anchoring effect came from psychophysics. When judging stimuli along a continuum, it was noticed that the first and last stimuli were used to compare the other stimuli (this is also referred to as "end anchoring"). This concept was notably formalized in behavioral economics by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. In their seminal 1974 work, they described anchoring as a heuristic used to make estimates under uncertainty.
+Both numeric and non-numeric anchoring have been reported through research. In numeric anchoring, once the value of the anchor is set, subsequent arguments, estimates, etc. made by an individual may change from what they would have otherwise been without the anchor. For example, an individual may be more likely to purchase a car if it is placed alongside a more expensive model (the anchor).  Non-numeric anchoring has been observed in physical judgments involving length, weight, and volume.
+
+== Experimental findings ==
+
+The anchoring and adjustment heuristic was first theorized by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. In one of their first studies, participants were separated into one of two conditions, and either asked to compute, within 5 seconds, the product of the numbers one through to eight, either as 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 × 8 or reversed as 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. Because participants did not have enough time to calculate the full answer, they had to make an estimate after their first few multiplications. When these first multiplications gave a small answer – because the sequence started with small numbers – the median estimate was 512; when the sequence started with the larger numbers, the median estimate was 2,250. (The correct answer is 40,320.) In another study by Tversky and Kahneman, participants were asked to estimate the percentage of African countries in the United Nations. Before estimating, the participants first observed a roulette wheel that was predetermined to stop on either 10 or 65. Participants whose wheel stopped on 10 guessed lower values (25% on average) than participants whose wheel stopped at 65 (45% on average). The pattern has held in other experiments for a wide variety of different subjects of estimation.
+As a second example, in a study by Dan Ariely, an audience is first asked to write the last two digits of their social security number and consider whether they would pay this number of dollars for items whose value they did not know, such as wine, chocolate and computer equipment. They were then asked to bid for these items, with the result that the audience members with higher two-digit numbers would submit bids that were between 60 percent and 120 percent higher than those with the lower social security numbers, which had become their anchor. When asked if they believed the number was informative of the value of the item, quite a few said yes. Trying to avoid this confusion, a small number of studies used procedures that were clearly random, such as Excel random generator button and die roll, and failed to replicate anchoring effects.
+The anchoring effect has also been documented in real estate markets. In one study in the Journal of Real Estate Research, it was established that the 2-year and 9-year highs on the Case-Shiller House Price Index could be used as anchors in predicting current house prices. The findings were used to indicate that, in forecasting house prices, these 2-year and 9-years highs might be relevant.
+In behavioral finance, anchoring has been observed in stock-purchase decisions. A study found that when using an app-based stock brokerage, an investor's first stock purchase price serves as an anchor for future stock purchases. The findings indicate that when investors start by making only a small stock purchase, they end up with less accumulated investments in the long run.
+
+== Characteristics ==
+
+=== Difficulty of avoiding ===
+Various studies have shown that anchoring is very difficult to avoid. For example, in one study students were given anchors that were wrong. They were asked whether Mahatma Gandhi died before or after age 9, or before or after age 140. Clearly neither of these anchors can be correct, but when the two groups were asked to suggest when they thought he had died, they guessed significantly differently (average age of 50 vs. average age of 67).
+Other studies have tried to eliminate anchoring much more directly. In a study exploring the causes and properties of anchoring, participants were exposed to an anchor and asked to guess how many physicians were listed in the local phone book. In addition, they were explicitly informed that anchoring would "contaminate" their responses, and that they should do their best to correct for that. A control group received no anchor and no explanation. Regardless of how they were informed and whether they were informed correctly, all of the experimental groups reported higher estimates than the control group. Thus, despite being expressly aware of the anchoring effect, most participants were still unable to avoid it. A later study found that even when offered monetary incentives, most people are unable to effectively adjust from an anchor.
+Although it has been found through many research and experiments that attempt to mitigate the decision heuristic of anchoring bias is either marginally significant or not successful at all, it can be found that the consider-the-opposite (COS strategy) has been the most reliable in mitigating the anchoring bias. In short, the COS strategy is proposed to an individual by asking them to consider the possibilities the opposite of their perceptions and beliefs. Therefore, depriving the individual of their preexisting attitudes and limiting the decision bias.
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+title: "Anchoring effect"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Durability of anchoring ===
+Anchoring effects are also shown to remain adequately present given the accessibility of knowledge pertaining to the target. This, in turn, suggests that despite a delay in judgement towards a target, the extent of anchoring effects have seen to remain unmitigated within a given time period. A series of three experiments were conducted to test the longevity of anchoring effects. It was observed that despite a delay of one week being introduced for half the sample population of each experiment, similar results of immediate judgement and delayed judgement of the target were achieved.  The experiments concluded that external information experienced within the delayed judgement period shows little influence relative to self-generated anchors even with commonly encountered targets (temperature) used in one of the experiments, showing that anchoring effects may precede priming in duration especially when the anchoring effects were formed during the task. Further research to conclude an effect that is effectively retained over a substantial period of time has proven inconsistent.
+
+=== Pervasiveness across contexts ===
+One notable characteristic of the anchoring effect is its pervasiveness across diverse judgment scenarios. Furnham and Boo (2011) highlight that anchoring occurs not only in abstract estimation tasks (like guessing the height of Mount Everest) but also in real-world contexts such as legal sentencing, consumer purchasing, salary negotiations, and forecasting. Anchoring persists even when the anchor is implausible or clearly irrelevant (e.g., spinning a random wheel), demonstrating that anchoring can operate automatically, outside of conscious awareness or logical evaluation.
+
+=== Anchoring bias in groups ===
+It is often presumed that groups come to a more unbiased decision relative to individuals. However, this assumption is supported with varied findings that could not come to a general consensus. Nevertheless, while some groups are able to perform better than an individual member, they are found to be just as biased or even more biased relative to their individual counterparts. A possible cause would be the discriminatory fashion in which information is communicated, processed and aggregated based on each individual's anchored knowledge and belief. This results in a diminished quality in the decision-making process and consequently, amplifies the pre-existing anchored biases.
+The cause of group anchoring remains unsure. Group anchors may have been established at the group level or may simply be the culmination of several individual's personal anchors. Prior studies have shown that when given an anchor before the experiment, individual members consolidated the respective anchors to attain a decision in the direction of the anchor placed. However, a distinction between individual and group-based anchor biases does exist, with groups tending to ignore or disregard external information due to the confidence in the joint decision-making process. The presence of pre-anchor preferences also impeded the extent to which external anchors affected the group decision, as groups tend to allocate more weight to self-generated anchors, according to the 'competing anchor hypothesis'.
+Recently, it has been suggested that the group member who speaks first often has an unproportionally high impact on the final decision. A series of experiments were conducted to investigate anchoring bias in groups and possible solutions to avoid or mitigate anchoring. The first experiment established that groups are indeed influenced by anchors while the other two experiments highlighted methods to overcome group anchoring bias. Methods that were utilized include the use of process accountability and motivation through competition instead of cooperation to reduce the influence of anchors within groups.
+
+=== Susceptibility in automated systems ===
+Even advanced technologies cannot prevent users from being influenced by anchoring. A peer-reviewed study sought to investigate the effect of business intelligence (BI) systems on the anchoring effect. Business intelligence denotes an array of software and services used by businesses to gather valuable insights into an organisation's performance. The extent to which cognitive bias is mitigated by using such systems was the overarching question in this study. While the independent variable was the use of the BI system, the dependent variable was the outcome of the decision-making process. The subjects were presented with a 'plausible' anchor and a 'spurious' anchor in a forecasting decision. It was found that, while the BI system mitigated the negative effects of the spurious anchor, it had no influence on the effects of the plausible anchor. This is important in a business context, because it shows that humans are still susceptible to cognitive biases, even when using sophisticated technological systems. One of the subsequent recommendations from the experimenters was to implement a forewarning into BI systems as to the anchoring effect.
+
+== Causes ==
+The present literature does not reach a consensus as to the cause of anchoring. However, scholars agree that anchoring is a phenomenon that can be easily demonstrated but is hard to explain. Some scholars suggest that anchoring is, in fact, caused by a combination of factors.
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+---
+title: "Anchoring effect"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Anchoring-and-adjusting ===
+The most prevalent explanation of the anchoring effect is the argument originally made by Tversky and Kahneman, termed anchoring-and-adjusting. Based on this theory, individuals set an anchor according to available information, whether it is provided or individuals already have an anchor in mind, and use this anchor as a point of reference to adjust their answers. This theory explains inaccuracy in guessing by suggesting that people adjust insufficiently, rendering their final guess closer to the anchors. This phenomenon was further investigated in other studies and used as an explanation for biases such as hindsight bias and egocentric bias.
+For instance, when asked to guess the price of a drink in a coffee shop, individuals often look for the price of other drinks or recall the price of similar drinks at other stores, and base their answer on the anchor that they set. Specifically, the original study found that by simply providing an arbitrary anchor to each group, people provided significantly different responses, suggesting that their answers were generated through anchoring and adjusting. In addition, this finding suggests that individuals are gullible when setting an anchor, and almost automatically begin the anchoring-and-adjusting process.
+On the other hand, Epley and Gilovich found that when anchors are self-generated, people will stop adjusting once they believe they have adjusted their answers to an acceptable range. Although this process does not guarantee insufficient adjustments, it does result in an answer that is as close to the anchor as possible in the acceptable range. However, insufficient adjustments are diminished when individuals are able and motivated by external factors, such as monetary compensation, to continue adjusting for a more accurate answer, thereby reducing the anchoring effect. The anchoring effect is also reduced when individuals know which way to adjust from the anchor because it eliminates the possible answers by half.
+Besides general knowledge, anchoring is also observed in social settings. The simulation theory of empathy suggests that people use their own mental state and reasoning to infer the actions of others. People assume that those who are similar to us will act in a similar way. Aligned with this idea, Tamir and Mitchell found that judgments of the attitude of others are made more quickly for those who are similar to the judge, and greater self-other discrepancy resulted in longer reaction time. In this case, individuals use their own attitudes as an anchor and make adjustments to predict the attitude of others. Note that this process only takes place when the judge perceives great similarity between self and others.
+Overall, this theory describes the process of anchoring and adjusting away from the anchor, as well as the phenomenon of inaccurate responses due to insufficient adjusting. However, proponents of alternative theories argued that adjusting is only possible when the original anchor lies outside the acceptable range. According to Epley and Gilovich, individuals will not adjust at all and give an answer that is identical to their anchor if the anchor is already within the acceptable range. Using the previous example, the actual price of the drink can be identical to other drinks served at that store, meaning that people should theoretically consider their anchor as a potential answer rather than adjusting. When a reasonable anchor is given, there will be no adjustment. Therefore, this theory does not explain all cases of anchoring.
+
+=== Selective accessibility ===
+An alternative explanation of the anchoring effect is the idea that the accessibility of anchor-consistent information is enhanced when individuals consider it as a potential answer. After determining that the initial anchor is not the correct answer, they move on to consider other possibilities. However, because the anchor was just made salient and accessible to them, they will take the anchor into consideration while evaluating other possibilities. As a result, this comparative assessment can result in answers that are disproportionally consistent with the anchor. In this sense, anchoring is a special case of semantic priming, where the anchor acts as the prime.
+Unlike anchoring-and-adjusting, this theory suggests that people consider the relevant attributes of the initial anchor to determine if the anchor is plausible. Rather than accepting any plausible anchor as their answer and insufficiently adjusting anchors outside of the acceptable range, people will remain motivated to find a more accurate answer after rejecting the initial anchor. The preceding adjustments that individuals make are relevant to the anchor because people evaluate hypotheses through attempting to confirm them. In line with this idea, when investigating whether the plausibility of an anchor affects comparative and absolute judgments, Strack and Mussweiler found that individuals take longer to provide an absolute judgment when the anchor is implausible. Comparative judgments refer to the process of using an anchor to determine the final answer. Most paradigms used in anchoring studies also ask participants to provide an absolute judgment (i.e., provide a concrete number as their answer) after comparative judgments. When plausible anchors were used in comparative judgments, the anchor became more accessible, shortening the response time for consequent absolute judgments. In contrast, implausible anchors result in longer response time because there is no relevant information that can be used as primes.
+Although selective accessibility and anchoring-and-adjusting provide conflicting explanations for the anchoring effect, some scholars have argued that anchoring is influenced by multiple factors, and these theories complement each other in explaining the anchoring effect. For instance, Simmons and colleagues proposed an integrative theory suggesting that an anchor can result in selective reliance on anchor-consistent information, rendering the range of plausible answers closer to the anchor. On the other hand, people adjust away from (or possibly back toward) anchors before settling on their final estimate. This integrative theory is more parsimonious because it suggests that neither the source of the anchor (self-generated or provided) nor the plausibility of the anchor has a significant effect on judgments.
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+title: "Anchoring effect"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Attitude change ===
+On the contrary of the two previous theories, the attitude change view suggests that individuals' attitude towards an anchor, specifically provided anchors, can heavily affect the extent of the anchoring effect. Recall that individuals often seek to confirm their hypothesis rather than objectively evaluating all information. When individuals disagree with the provided anchor, they will selectively seek evidence that supports their own attitudes instead of the provided anchor, resulting in an unobserved anchoring effect. This theory highlights the idea that the distinct anchoring effect observed with self-generated and provided anchors roots from individual attitude (i.e., does the individual believe in the anchor) rather than the anchors themselves, supporting the integrative theory proposed by Simmons and colleagues. Furthermore, supporters of this view have argued that attitude change is an alternative explanation of the anchoring effect. Providing an anchor generates favorable attitudes in individuals toward the anchor, biasing consequent judgments.
+
+=== Extremeness aversion ===
+Extremeness aversion is a robust phenomenon where people try to avoid the extremes during decision-making, such as selecting the middle options more often than other extreme options and avoiding reporting the maximum or minimum on a Likert scale. This desire to avoid extremes is at least partially responsible for the anchoring effect. For instance, upon setting an anchor, participants who were told they could adjust up to 6 units made significantly smaller adjustments compared to those who were told that they could adjust up to 15 units, suggesting that people avoid extremes when making decisions. Importantly, the maximum allowable adjustment  acted as an anchor that affected the final judgment, highlighting the prevalent aversion to extremes. As a result, the final judgment is close to the anchor because people do not want to adjust too close to the extremes.
+
+=== Neuroscience basis ===
+Some research has explored neural mechanisms underlying the anchoring effect. Studies of individual differences report that mixed-handed individuals show larger anchoring effects than strongly handed individuals, a pattern consistent with differences in interhemispheric interaction. Electrophysiological work provides additional evidence: EEG studies suggest that externally presented anchors function as semantic primes that shape the cognitive and affective context in which judgments are formed. Higher anchors are associated with increased P2 and late positive potential (LPP) amplitudes, indicating greater anticipatory attention and expectations of stronger or more aversive outcomes. Research using EEG and fMRI in management-related judgment tasks further shows that anchor values engage distinct semantic and evaluative networks. Higher anchors produce stronger EEG power in value-judgment stages, and fMRI experiments reveal different reaction-time profiles and neural activation patterns for feasible, infeasible, and no-anchor conditions during both comparison and decision phases.
+
+== Influencing factors ==
+
+=== Cognitive ability ===
+The impact of cognitive ability on anchoring is contested. Predrag Teovanović's  investigated whether intelligence, cognitive reflection and personality traits affects the presence of anchoring effect in decision-making. Although measures of individual differences in susceptibility to anchoring were reliable, individual differences only explain a small portion of the variation. However, intelligence is negatively correlated with anchoring for participants who are more reflective. By critically thinking about their process of decision-making, reflective individuals might realize the unreasonable reliance on anchors and insufficient adjustments. Similarly, Welsh and colleagues found a weak, negative correlation between aptitude for rationality and overall cognitive measures and anchoring susceptibility. A study on willingness to pay for consumer goods found that anchoring decreased in those with greater cognitive ability, though it did not disappear. Research supporting individual differences in anchoring suggests that individuals who recognize the potential bias of anchoring and actively reflect on their decision-making process tend to be less susceptible to its effects. By critically assessing whether their judgments are based on reliable data or influenced by arbitrary anchors, they are more likely to identify and correct for insufficient adjustments, or choose not to use unreliable anchors at all.
+Another study, however, found that cognitive ability had no significant effect on how likely people were to use anchoring. In a poker-like experiment that included people of differing academic achievement and psychometric reasoning scoring, it has been found that anchoring is not related to education level. It also found that numerical reasoning and reflection scores had a negative association with anchoring susceptibility.
+
+=== Overconfidence ===
+Overconfidence is significantly associated with the anchoring effect. It refers specifically to the tendency for individuals to place excessive weight on their initial estimates and insufficient weight on new information leading to cognitive conceit. Cognitive conceit or overconfidence arises from other factors like personal cognitive attributes such as knowledge and decision-making ability, decreasing the probability to pursue external sources of confirmation. This factor has also been shown to arise with tasks with greater difficulty. Even within subject matter experts, they were also prey to such behaviour of overconfidence and should more so, actively reduce such behaviour. Following the study of estimations under uncertain, despite several attempts to curb overconfidence proving unsuccessful, Tversky and Kahneman suggest an effective solution to overconfidence is for subjects to explicitly establish anchors to help reduce overconfidence in their estimates.
+
+=== Personality ===
+
+Correlational research on anchoring bias and personality traits yielded mixed results, with emphasis on the Big Five personality traits which includes: Conscientiousness (orderly and responsible), neuroticism (uneasy and anxious), extraversion (sociable and outgoing), openness (intelligence and creativity) and agreeableness (polite and trusting). One study found that participants who were high in the Openness trait were more influenced by anchors set by others when estimating the length of the Mississippi river, with no other personality traits correlating to the effects of anchoring. Other research showed that it was conscientiousness and agreeableness that increased anchoring biases, while anchoring effects were diminished in participants high in the extraversion trait. Nonetheless, when measuring the Big Five personality traits and anchoring susceptibility, no significant correlation was found between personality and anchoring. The anchoring effect seems to be present regardless of personality.
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+---
+title: "Anchoring effect"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Personal experience ===
+Early research found that experts (those with high knowledge, experience, or expertise in some field) were more resistant to the anchoring effect. However, anchoring happens unconsciously which means that unless someone who is knowledgeable is warned prior, they are still susceptible to anchoring. Since then, however, numerous studies have demonstrated that while experience can sometimes reduce the effect, even experts are susceptible to anchoring. In a study concerning the effects of anchoring on judicial decisions, researchers found that even experienced legal professionals were affected by anchoring. This remained true even when the anchors provided were arbitrary and unrelated to the case in question. Also, this relates to goal setting, where more experienced individuals will set goals based on their past experiences which consequently affects end results in negotiations.
+Expertise is typically defined as domain-specific knowledge and experience. In a study using price estimation of cars, it was found that relevant knowledge positively influenced anchoring. Expertise in cognitive bias is related to experience however the two are not exclusively exhaustive. In a study using stock return estimates, it was found that expertise decreases behavioural bias significantly. It was found that other factors like cognitive ability and experience where there is no susceptibility to anchoring or a susceptibility as it increases, tend to become factors that decrease the effects of anchoring when they are an expert.
+
+=== Motivation/rewards ===
+The motivation to be accurate in one's judgements seem to have mixed effects on the strength of anchoring. On one hand, According to Wegener's attitude change theory, it was widely accepted that the prevalent effects of anchoring was due to the pathway of low-elaboration, non-thoughtful processes. The lack of reward or consequences results in the assumption that anchors are a reasonable hint to the correct answer without considering contextual differences, categorical differences, or even the relevance of the anchor. There is also evidence that the effects of anchoring is diminished when there is prior warning about the phenomenon of insufficient adjustment  and self-generated anchors.
+However, there is also conflicting evidence where increases in motivation does not correlate to a lowered rate of anchoring. There were no differences in the effects of anchoring when comparing participants who were offered monetary rewards for accurate answers to those who weren't. Moreover, findings by Wilson et al. (1996) concluded that incentives and forewarnings did not eliminate anchoring effects.
+This could be explained by high elaborative anchoring - When motivated to be accurate, participants engage in more cognitively demanding thought processes, searching for existing information, including prior experiences and established anchors. The high need for accuracy lead to more effortful thought processes, and putting a heavier emphasis on anchors since they are representations of prior knowledge in what we perceive as similar categories. Findings have demonstrated that both a high and low need to be accurate result in susceptibility to the influence of anchoring effects, even when one is motivated to explicitly avoid them.
+
+=== Mood ===
+A wide range of research has linked sad or depressed moods with more extensive and accurate evaluation of problems. As a result of this, earlier studies hypothesized that people with more depressed moods would tend to use anchoring less than those with happier moods. However, more recent studies have shown the opposite effect: sad people are more likely to use anchoring than people with happy or neutral mood. In a study focusing on medical practitioners, it was found that physicians that possess positive moods are less susceptible to anchoring bias, when compared to physicians with neutral moods. Researchers suggested that positive mood promotes more systematic information processing, which can reduce susceptibility to anchoring.
+
+=== Culture ===
+Culture has been identified as an influencing factor in susceptibility to the anchoring effect. Research distinguishes between the holistic thinking style, predominant in East and Southeast Asian cultures, and the analytic thinking style, common in Western cultures. A study comparing students from Poland and India found that while both groups were affected by anchoring, the degree of susceptibility varied significantly by cultural background. Polish students demonstrated lower susceptibility to anchoring compared to Indian students. Additionally, cultural differences in overconfidence were observed, with Indian students displaying a higher rate of overprecision compared to Polish students. This is explained by the differences in cultural difference in tolerances for ambiguity and risk (uncertainty avoidance), with Poland scoring high and India scoring medium to low on Hofstede's Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI).
+
+== Applications ==
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+title: "Anchoring effect"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Anchoring in negotiation ===
+In the negotiation process anchoring serves to determine an accepted starting point for the subsequent negotiations. As soon as one side states their first price offer, the (subjective) anchor is set. The counterbid (counter-anchor) is the second-anchor.
+In addition to the initial research conducted by Tversky and Kahneman, multiple other studies have shown that anchoring can greatly influence the estimated value of an object. For instance, although negotiators can generally appraise an offer based on multiple characteristics, studies have shown that they tend to focus on only one aspect. In this way, a deliberate starting point can strongly affect the range of possible counteroffers. The process of offer and counteroffer results in a mutually beneficial arrangement. However, multiple studies have shown that initial offers have a stronger influence on the outcome of negotiations than subsequent counteroffers.
+An example of the power of anchoring has been conducted during the Strategic Negotiation Process Workshops. During the workshop, a group of participants is divided into two sections: buyers and sellers. Each side receives identical information about the other party before going into a one-on-one negotiation. Following this exercise, both sides debrief about their experiences. The results show that where the participants anchor the negotiation had a significant effect on their success.
+Anchoring affects everyone, even people who are highly knowledgeable in a field. Northcraft and Neale conducted a study to measure the difference in the estimated value of a house between students and real-estate agents. In this experiment, both groups were shown a house and then given different listing prices. After making their offer, each group was then asked to discuss what factors influenced their decisions. In the follow-up interviews, the real-estate agents denied being influenced by the initial price, but the results showed that both groups were equally influenced by that anchor.
+Anchoring can have more subtle effects on negotiations as well. Janiszewski and Uy investigated the effects of precision of an anchor. Participants read an initial price for a beach house, then gave the price they thought it was worth. They received either a general, seemingly nonspecific anchor (e.g., $800,000) or a more precise and specific anchor (e.g., $799,800). Participants with a general anchor adjusted their estimate more than those given a precise anchor ($751,867 vs $784,671). The authors propose that this effect comes from difference in scale; in other words, the anchor affects not only the starting value, but also the starting scale. When given a general anchor of $20, people will adjust in large increments ($19, $21, etc.), but when given a more specific anchor like $19.85, people will adjust on a lower scale ($19.75, $19.95, etc.). Thus, a more specific initial price will tend to result in a final price closer to the initial one.
+As for the question of setting the first or second anchor, the party setting the second anchor has the advantage in that the counter-anchor determines the point midway between both anchors. Due to a possible lack of knowledge the party setting the first anchor can also set it too low, i.e. against their own interests. Generally negotiators who set the first anchor also tend to be less satisfied with the negotiation outcome, than negotiators who set the counter-anchor. This may be due to the regret or sense that they did not achieve or rather maximise the full potential of the negotiations. However, studies suggest that negotiators who set the first offer frequently achieve economically more advantageous results.
+
+=== Anchoring in pricing ===
+According to the theory, consumers' shopping experiences are influenced by factors such as time restriction and specific environment. Enterprises design would set anchor values for consumers in order to get them to buy the products. 
+When persuading consumers to purchase a particular product, sellers might use anchoring. Sellers often influence consumers' price perception by anchoring a high reference price and that is an anchor value. Following are three ways to set the anchor value for consumers.
+
+==== Sorting the prices of products ====
+Sellers usually sort the prices of products from high to low and this method is commonly seen on the menus of restaurants. The high prices at the top of the menu act as anchor values in this situation. Consumers will have an expectation that the products are all expensive when knowing the relatively high prices of products on the top of the list. As a result, they will be pleased to see the cheaper products at the middle and bottom of the list and regard these prices as acceptable or cheaper than expected. Therefore, they are more likely to buy these products.
+
+==== Decoy ====
+Decoy effect is defined as a situation where people tend to have a change in preference between two choices when they are showed with a third choice. The third choice is called a decoy which is designed to induce consumers to change their preferences. The decoy is usually considered as inferior. For example, it might be more expensive than option A while having lower quality than option B. In this case, the anchor is the decoy.
+One decoy effect example is the bundle sales. For example, many restaurants often sell set meals to their consumers, while simultaneously having the meals' components sold separately. The prices of the meals' components are the decoy pricing and act as an anchor which enables to make the set meal more valuable to consumers. With the decoy effect it generates, the anchor increases consumers' willingness to pay for the set meals, or the mixed bundles.
+
+==== Incidental prices ====
+Incidental price is defined as the prices offered or showed by a seller for products which the consumers are not interested in. According to the theory, the incidental price serves as an anchor which increases consumers' willingness to pay. This effect has been widely used in areas such as auctions, online vendors and retailers.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Bandwagon effect
+Confirmation bias
+Framing effect
+Law of the instrument
+List of cognitive biases
+Matthew effect
+Negotiation strategies
+Poisoning the well
+Primacy effect
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Serfas, S. (2010). Cognitive Biases in the Capital Investment Context: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Experiments on Violations of Normative Rationality. Gabler research. Gabler Verlag. pp. 67–70. ISBN 978-3-8349-6485-4. Retrieved April 9, 2019.
+"Price Anchoring Demonstration". Gary's Class. Retrieved 2 April 2026.
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+---
+title: "Anfinsen's dogma"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anfinsen's_dogma"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:00.330938+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Anfinsen's dogma, also known as the thermodynamic hypothesis, is a postulate in molecular biology. It states that, at least for a small globular protein in its standard physiological environment, the native structure is determined only by the protein's amino acid sequence. The dogma was championed by the Nobel Prize Laureate Christian B. Anfinsen from his research on the folding of ribonuclease A. His research was based on previous studies by biochemist Lisa Steiner, whose superiors at the time did not recognize the significance. The postulate amounts to saying that, at the environmental conditions (temperature, solvent concentration and composition, etc.) at which folding occurs, the native structure is a unique, stable and kinetically accessible minimum of the free energy. In other words, there are three conditions for formation of a unique protein structure:
+
+Uniqueness – Requires that the sequence does not have any other configuration with a comparable free energy. Hence the free energy minimum must be unchallenged.
+
+Stability – Small changes in the surrounding environment cannot give rise to changes in the minimum configuration. This can be pictured as a free energy surface that looks more like a funnel (with the native state in the bottom of it) rather than like a soup plate (with several closely related low-energy states); the free energy surface around the native state must be rather steep and high, in order to provide stability.
+
+Kinetical accessibility – Means that the path in the free energy surface from the unfolded to the folded state must be reasonably smooth or, in other words, that the folding of the chain must not involve highly complex changes in the shape (like knots or other high order conformations). Basic changes in the shape of the protein happen dependent on their environment, shifting shape to suit their place. This creates multiple configurations for biomolecules to shift into.
+
+
+== Challenges to Anfinsen's dogma ==
+Protein folding in a cell is a highly complex process that involves transport of the newly synthesized proteins to appropriate cellular compartments through targeting, permanent misfolding, temporarily unfolded states, post-translational modifications, quality control, and formation of protein complexes facilitated by chaperones.   
+Some proteins need the assistance of chaperone proteins to fold properly. It has been suggested that this disproves Anfinsen's dogma. However, the chaperones do not appear to affect the final state of the protein; they seem to work primarily by preventing aggregation of several protein molecules prior to the final folded state of the protein. However, at least some chaperones are required for the proper folding of their subject proteins.
+Many proteins can also undergo aggregation and misfolding. For example, prions are stable conformations of proteins which differ from the native folding state. In bovine spongiform encephalopathy, native proteins re-fold into a different stable conformation, which causes fatal amyloid buildup. Other amyloid diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, are also exceptions to Anfinsen's dogma.
+Some proteins have multiple native structures, and change their fold based on some external factors. For example, the KaiB protein complex switches fold throughout the day, acting as a clock for cyanobacteria. It has been estimated that around 0.5–4% of Protein Data Bank (PDB) proteins switch folds. The switching between alternative structures is driven by interactions of the protein with small ligands or other proteins, by chemical modifications (such as phosphorylation) or by changed environmental conditions, such as temperature, pH or membrane potential. Each alternative structure may either correspond to the global minimum of free energy of the protein at the given conditions or be kinetically trapped in a higher local minimum of free energy.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Sela M, White FH Jr, Anfinsen CB (1957). "Reductive cleavage of disulfide bridges in ribonuclease". Science. 125 (3250): 691–692. Bibcode:1957Sci...125..691S. doi:10.1126/science.125.3250.691. PMID 13421663. S2CID 36895461.
+Anfinsen CB, Haber E (1961). "Studies on the reduction and re-formation of protein disulfide bonds". J. Biol. Chem. 236 (5): 1361–1363. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)64177-8. PMID 13683523.
+Moore S, Stein WH (1973). "Chemical structures of pancreatic ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease". Science. 180 (4085): 458–464. Bibcode:1973Sci...180..458M. doi:10.1126/science.180.4085.458. PMID 4573392.
+Profiles in Science: The Christian B. Anfinsen Papers-Articles
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 1/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation, animal research, and in vivo testing, is the use of non-human animals, as model organisms, in experiments that seek answers to scientific and medical questions. This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments or habitats. Experimental research with animals is usually conducted in universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, defense establishments, and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to the industry. The focus of animal testing varies on a continuum from pure research, focusing on developing fundamental knowledge of an organism, to applied research, which may focus on answering some questions of great practical importance, such as finding a cure for a disease. Examples of applied research include testing disease treatments, breeding, defense research, and toxicology, including cosmetics testing. In education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses.
+Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed to most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry, and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease. The results have included the near-eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation, and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan's work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". Research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as the production of the diphtheria antitoxin and the 1922 discovery of insulin and its use in treating diabetes, which was previously fatal. Modern general anaesthetics such as halothane were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics, and the whooping cough vaccine.
+Animal testing is widely used to aid in research of human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical. This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution. Performing experiments in model organisms allows for better understanding of the disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species of the model organism is usually chosen so that it reacts to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology as needed. Biological activity in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, and care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another. However, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of animal models. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies, anthrax, glanders, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis, Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm, and other parasitic infections. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, and other conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model system available.
+The annual use of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates—was estimated at 192 million as of 2015. In the European Union, vertebrate species represent 93% of animals used in research, and 11.5 million animals were used there in 2011. The mouse (Mus musculus) is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries, and by one estimate, the number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million. In 2013, it was reported that mammals (mice and rats), fish, amphibians, and reptiles together accounted for over 85% of research animals. In 2022, a law was passed in the United States that eliminated the FDA requirement that all drugs be tested on animals.
+Animal testing is regulated to varying degrees in different countries. In some cases it is strictly controlled while others have more relaxed regulations. There are ongoing debates about the ethics and necessity of animal testing. Proponents argue that it has led to significant advancements in medicine and other fields while opponents raise concerns about cruelty towards animals and question its effectiveness and reliability. There are efforts underway to find alternatives to animal testing such as computer simulation models, organs-on-chips technology that mimics human organs for lab tests, microdosing techniques which involve administering small doses of test compounds to human volunteers instead of non-human animals for safety tests or drug screenings, positron emission tomography (PET) scans which allow scanning of the human brain without harming humans, comparative epidemiological studies among human populations, and simulators and computer programs for teaching purposes.
+
+== Definitions ==
+The terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations. Literally, "vivisection" means "live sectioning" of an animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved the dissection of live animals. The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals; for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes; more broadly, all experimentation on live animals", although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work". The word has a negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research, whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation".
+The following text excludes as much as possible practices related to in vivo veterinary surgery, which is left to the discussion of vivisection.
+
+== History ==
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+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 2/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals. Galen, a 2nd-century Roman physician, performed post-mortem dissections of pigs and goats. Avenzoar, a 12th-century Arabic physician in Moorish Spain introduced an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries included Antoine Lavoisier's use of a guinea pig in a calorimeter to prove that respiration was a form of combustion, and Louis Pasteur's demonstration of the germ theory of disease in the 1880s using anthrax in sheep. Robert Koch used animal testing of mice and guinea pigs to discover the bacteria that cause anthrax and tuberculosis. In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning.
+Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry, and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease. For example, the results have included the near-eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation, and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan's work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. Drosophila became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". D. melanogaster remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During the same time period, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of William Ernest Castle in collaboration with Abbie Lathrop led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brown and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains. The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries.
+In the late 19th century, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease. The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after the delivery of antitoxin in the 1925 serum run to Nome. The success of animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States.
+Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as Frederick Banting's research in dogs, which determined that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with diabetes. This led to the 1922 discovery of insulin (with John Macleod) and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. John Cade's research in guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of bipolar disorder, replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as halothane and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations.
+In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the polio virus, which led to his invention of the polio vaccine. The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years. Albert Sabin improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys; the Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in the United States by 1965. It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of 100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals."
+On 3 November 1957, a Soviet dog, Laika, became the first of many animals to orbit the Earth. In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. The ability of humans to change the genetics of animals took an enormous step forward in 1974 when Rudolf Jaenisch could produce the first transgenic mammal, by integrating DNA from simians into the genome of mice. This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell.
+Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics, and the whooping cough vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies, anthrax, glanders, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis, Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm, and other parasitic infections. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model system available.
+Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century. In the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed. For example, in the U.S., the government could only ban a drug after they had prosecuted a company for selling products that harmed customers. However, in response to the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster of 1937 in which the eponymous drug killed over 100 users, the US Congress passed laws that required safety testing of drugs on animals before they could be marketed. Other countries enacted similar legislation. In the 1960s, in reaction to the Thalidomide tragedy, further laws were passed requiring safety testing on pregnant animals before a drug can be sold.
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+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 11/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+metabolic tests, investigating pharmacokinetics—how drugs are absorbed, metabolized and excreted by the body when introduced orally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, or transdermally.
+toxicology tests, which gauge acute, sub-acute, and chronic toxicity. Acute toxicity is studied by using a rising dose until signs of toxicity become apparent. Current European legislation demands that "acute toxicity tests must be carried out in two or more mammalian species" covering "at least two different routes of administration". Sub-acute toxicity is where the drug is given to the animals for four to six weeks in doses below the level at which it causes rapid poisoning, in order to discover if any toxic drug metabolites build up over time. Testing for chronic toxicity can last up to two years and, in the European Union, is required to involve two species of mammals, one of which must be non-rodent.
+efficacy studies, which test whether experimental drugs work by inducing the appropriate illness in animals. The drug is then administered in a double-blind controlled trial, which allows researchers to determine the effect of the drug and the dose-response curve.
+Specific tests on reproductive function, embryonic toxicity, or carcinogenic potential can all be required by law, depending on the result of other studies and the type of drug being tested.
+
+=== Education ===
+It is estimated that 20 million animals are used annually for educational purposes in the United States including, classroom observational exercises, dissections and live-animal surgeries. Frogs, fetal pigs, perch, cats, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish and starfish are commonly used in classroom dissections. Alternatives to the use of animals in classroom dissections are widely used, with many U.S. States and school districts mandating students be offered the choice to not dissect. Citing the wide availability of alternatives and the decimation of local frog species, India banned dissections in 2014.
+The Sonoran Arthropod Institute hosts an annual Invertebrates in Education and Conservation Conference to discuss the use of invertebrates in education. There also are efforts in many countries to find alternatives to using animals in education. The NORINA database, maintained by Norecopa, lists products that may be used as alternatives or supplements to animal use in education, and in the training of personnel who work with animals. These include alternatives to dissection in schools. InterNICHE has a similar database and a loans system.
+In November 2013, the U.S.-based company Backyard Brains released for sale to the public what they call the "Roboroach", an "electronic backpack" that can be attached to cockroaches. The operator is required to amputate a cockroach's antennae, use sandpaper to wear down the shell, insert a wire into the thorax, and then glue the electrodes and circuit board onto the insect's back. A mobile phone app can then be used to control it via Bluetooth. It has been suggested that the use of such a device may be a teaching aid that can promote interest in science. The makers of the "Roboroach" have been funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and state that the device is intended to encourage children to become interested in neuroscience.
+
+=== Defense ===
+Animals are used by the military to develop weapons, vaccines, battlefield surgical techniques, and defensive clothing. For example, in 2008 the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency used live pigs to study the effects of improvised explosive device explosions on internal organs, especially the brain.
+In the US military, goats are commonly used to train combat medics. (Goats have become the main animal species used for this purpose after the Pentagon phased out using dogs for medical training in the 1980s.) While modern mannequins used in medical training are quite efficient in simulating the behavior of a human body, some trainees feel that "the goat exercise provide[s] a sense of urgency that only real life trauma can provide". Nevertheless, in 2014, the U.S. Coast Guard announced that it would reduce the number of animals it uses in its training exercises by half after PETA released video showing Guard members cutting off the limbs of unconscious goats with tree trimmers and inflicting other injuries with a shotgun, pistol, ax and a scalpel. That same year, citing the availability of human simulators and other alternatives, the Department of Defense announced it would begin reducing the number of animals it uses in various training programs. In 2013, several Navy medical centers stopped using ferrets in intubation exercises after complaints from PETA.
+Besides the United States, six out of 28 NATO countries, including Poland and Denmark, use live animals for combat medic training.
+
+== Ethics ==
+Most animals are euthanized after being used in an experiment. Sources of laboratory animals vary between countries and species; most animals are purpose-bred, while a minority are caught in the wild or supplied by dealers who obtain them from auctions and pounds. Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the British Royal Society, argue that virtually every medical achievement in the 20th century relied on the use of animals in some way. The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the United States National Academy of Sciences has argued that animal testing cannot be replaced by even sophisticated computer models, which are unable to deal with the extremely complex interactions between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms and the environment. Animal rights organizations—such as PETA and BUAV—question the need for and legitimacy of animal testing, arguing that it is cruel and poorly regulated, that medical progress is actually held back by misleading animal models that cannot reliably predict effects in humans, that some of the tests are outdated, that the costs outweigh the benefits, or that animals have the intrinsic right not to be used or harmed in experimentation.
+
+=== Viewpoints ===
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+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 12/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The moral and ethical questions raised by performing experiments on animals are subject to debate, and viewpoints have shifted significantly over the 20th century. There remain disagreements about which procedures are useful for which purposes, as well as disagreements over which ethical principles apply to which species.
+A 2015 Gallup poll found that 67% of Americans were "very concerned" or "somewhat concerned" about animals used in research. A Pew poll taken the same year found 50% of American adults opposed the use of animals in research.
+Still, a wide range of viewpoints exist. The view that animals have moral rights (animal rights) is a philosophical position proposed by Tom Regan, among others, who argues that animals are beings with beliefs and desires, and as such are the "subjects of a life" with moral value and therefore moral rights. Regan still sees ethical differences between killing human and non-human animals, and argues that to save the former it is permissible to kill the latter. Likewise, a "moral dilemma" view suggests that avoiding potential benefit to humans is unacceptable on similar grounds, and holds the issue to be a dilemma in balancing such harm to humans to the harm done to animals in research. In contrast, an abolitionist view in animal rights holds that there is no moral justification for any harmful research on animals that is not to the benefit of the individual animal. Bernard Rollin argues that benefits to human beings cannot outweigh animal suffering, and that human beings have no moral right to use an animal in ways that do not benefit that individual. Donald Watson has stated that vivisection and animal experimentation "is probably the cruelest of all Man's attack on the rest of Creation." Another prominent position is that of philosopher Peter Singer, who argues that there are no grounds to include a being's species in considerations of whether their suffering is important in utilitarian moral considerations. Malcolm Macleod and collaborators argue that most controlled animal studies do not employ randomization, allocation concealment, and blinding outcome assessment, and that failure to employ these features exaggerates the apparent benefit of drugs tested in animals, leading to a failure to translate much animal research for human benefit.
+Governments such as the Netherlands and New Zealand have responded to the public's concerns by outlawing invasive experiments on certain classes of non-human primates, particularly the great apes. In 2015, captive chimpanzees in the U.S. were added to the Endangered Species Act adding new road blocks to those wishing to experiment on them. Similarly, citing ethical considerations and the availability of alternative research methods, the U.S. NIH announced in 2013 that it would dramatically reduce and eventually phase out experiments on chimpanzees.
+The British government has required that the cost to animals in an experiment be weighed against the gain in knowledge. Some medical schools and agencies in China, Japan, and South Korea have built cenotaphs for killed animals. In Japan there are also annual memorial services Ireisai (Japanese: 慰霊祭) for animals sacrificed at medical school.
+
+Various specific cases of animal testing have drawn attention, including both instances of beneficial scientific research, and instances of alleged ethical violations by those performing the tests. The fundamental properties of muscle physiology were determined with work done using frog muscles (including the force generating mechanism of all muscle, the length-tension relationship, and the force-velocity curve), and frogs are still the preferred model organism due to the long survival of muscles in vitro and the possibility of isolating intact single-fiber preparations (not possible in other organisms). Modern physical therapy and the understanding and treatment of muscular disorders is based on this work and subsequent work in mice (often engineered to express disease states such as muscular dystrophy). In February 1997 a team at the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced the birth of Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell.
+Concerns have been raised over the mistreatment of primates undergoing testing. In 1985, the case of Britches, a macaque monkey at the University of California, Riverside, gained public attention. He had his eyelids sewn shut and a sonar sensor on his head as part of an experiment to test sensory substitution devices for blind people. The laboratory was raided by Animal Liberation Front in 1985, removing Britches and 466 other animals. The National Institutes of Health conducted an eight-month investigation and concluded, however, that no corrective action was necessary. During the 2000s other cases have made headlines, including experiments at the University of Cambridge and Columbia University in 2002. In 2004 and 2005, undercover footage of staff of in an animal testing facility in Virginia owned by Covance (now Fortrea) was shot by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Following release of the footage, the U.S. Department of Agriculture fined the company $8,720 for 16 citations, three of which involved lab monkeys; the other citations involved administrative issues and equipment.
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+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 13/15
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Threats to researchers ===
+Threats of violence to animal researchers are not uncommon.
+In 2006, a primate researcher at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) shut down the experiments in his lab after threats from animal rights activists. The researcher had received a grant to use 30 macaque monkeys for vision experiments; each monkey was anesthetized for a single physiological experiment lasting up to 120 hours, and then euthanized. The researcher's name, phone number, and address were posted on the website of the Primate Freedom Project. Demonstrations were held in front of his home. A Molotov cocktail was placed on the porch of what was believed to be the home of another UCLA primate researcher; instead, it was accidentally left on the porch of an elderly woman unrelated to the university. The Animal Liberation Front claimed responsibility for the attack. As a result of the campaign, the researcher sent an email to the Primate Freedom Project stating "you win", and "please don't bother my family anymore". In another incident at UCLA in June 2007, the Animal Liberation Brigade placed a bomb under the car of a UCLA children's ophthalmologist who experiments on cats and rhesus monkeys; the bomb had a faulty fuse and did not detonate.
+In 1997, PETA filmed staff from Huntingdon Life Sciences, showing dogs being mistreated. The employees responsible were dismissed, with two given community service orders and ordered to pay £250 costs, the first lab technicians to have been prosecuted for animal cruelty in the UK. The Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty campaign used tactics ranging from non-violent protest to the alleged firebombing of houses owned by executives associated with HLS's clients and investors. The Southern Poverty Law Center, which monitors US domestic extremism, has described SHAC's modus operandi as "frankly terroristic tactics similar to those of anti-abortion extremists", and in 2005 an official with the FBI's counter-terrorism division referred to SHAC's activities in the United States as domestic terrorist threats. 13 members of SHAC were jailed for between 15 months and eleven years on charges of conspiracy to blackmail or harm HLS and its suppliers.
+These attacks—as well as similar incidents that caused the Southern Poverty Law Center to declare in 2002 that the animal rights movement had "clearly taken a turn toward the more extreme"—prompted the US government to pass the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act and the UK government to add the offense of "Intimidation of persons connected with animal research organisation" to the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. Such legislation and the arrest and imprisonment of activists may have decreased the incidence of attacks.
+
+=== Scientific criticism ===
+Systematic reviews have pointed out that animal testing often fails to accurately mirror outcomes in humans. For instance, a 2013 review noted that some 100 vaccines have been shown to prevent HIV in animals, yet none of them have worked on humans. Effects seen in animals may not be replicated in humans, and vice versa. Many corticosteroids cause birth defects in animals, but not in humans. Conversely, thalidomide causes serious birth defects in humans, but not in some animals such as mice (however, it does cause birth defects in rabbits). A 2004 paper concluded that much animal research is wasted because systemic reviews are not used, and due to poor methodology. A 2006 review found multiple studies where there were promising results for new drugs in animals, but human clinical studies did not show the same results. The researchers suggested that this might be due to researcher bias, or simply because animal models do not accurately reflect human biology. Lack of meta-reviews may be partially to blame. Poor methodology is an issue in many studies. A 2009 review noted that many animal experiments did not use blinded experiments, a key element of many scientific studies in which researchers are not told about the part of the study they are working on to reduce bias. A 2021 paper found, in a sample of Open Access Alzheimer Disease studies, that if the authors omitted from the title that the experiment was performed in mice, the news headline followed suit and the Twitter repercussion was higher.
+
+=== Activism ===
+
+There are various examples of activists utilizing Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to obtain information about taxpayer funding of animal testing. For example, the White Coat Waste Project, a group of activists that hold that taxpayers should not have to pay $20 billion every year for experiments on animals, highlighted that the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases provided $400,000 in taxpayer money to fund experiments in which 28 beagles were infected by disease-causing parasites. The White Coat Project found reports that said dogs taking part in the experiments were "vocalizing in pain" after being injected with foreign substances. Following public outcry, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) made a call to action that all members of the National Institute of Health resign effective immediately and that there is a "need to find a new NIH director to replace the outgoing Francis Collins who will shut down research that violates the dignity of nonhuman animals."
+
+=== Historical debate ===
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+chunk: 14/15
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+As the experimentation on animals increased, especially the practice of vivisection, so did criticism and controversy. In 1655, the advocate of Galenic physiology Edmund O'Meara said that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state". O'Meara and others argued pain could affect animal physiology during vivisection, rendering results unreliable. There were also objections ethically, contending that the benefit to humans did not justify the harm to animals. Early objections to animal testing also came from another angle—many people believed animals were inferior to humans and so different that results from animals could not be applied to humans.
+On the other side of the debate, those in favor of animal testing held that experiments on animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge. Claude Bernard—who is sometimes known as the "prince of vivisectors" and the father of physiology, and whose wife, Marie Françoise Martin, founded the first anti-vivisection society in France in 1883—famously wrote in 1865 that "the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen". Arguing that "experiments on animals [. . .] are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man [. . .] The effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences in degree", Bernard established animal experimentation as part of the standard scientific method.
+In 1896, the physiologist and physician Dr. Walter B. Cannon said "The antivivisectionists are the second of the two types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, 'Common sense without conscience may lead to crime, but conscience without common sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden of crime.'" These divisions between pro- and anti-animal testing groups first came to public attention during the Brown Dog affair in the early 1900s, when hundreds of medical students clashed with anti-vivisectionists and police over a memorial to a vivisected dog.
+In 1822, the first animal protection law was enacted in the British parliament, followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), the first law specifically aimed at regulating animal testing. The legislation was promoted by Charles Darwin, who wrote to Ray Lankester in March 1871: "You ask about my opinion on vivisection. I quite agree that it is justifiable for proper investigations on physiology; but not for mere damnable and detestable curiosity. It is a subject which makes me sick with horror, so I will not say another word about it, else I shall not sleep to-night." In response to the lobbying by anti-vivisectionists, several organizations were set up in Britain to defend animal research: The Physiological Society was formed in 1876 to give physiologists "mutual benefit and protection", the Association for the Advancement of Medicine by Research was formed in 1882 and focused on policy-making, and the Research Defence Society (now Understanding Animal Research) was formed in 1908 "to make known the facts as to experiments on animals in this country; the immense importance to the welfare of mankind of such experiments and the great saving of human life and health directly attributable to them".
+Opposition to the use of animals in medical research first arose in the United States during the 1860s, when Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), with America's first specifically anti-vivisection organization being the American AntiVivisection Society (AAVS), founded in 1883. Antivivisectionists of the era generally believed the spread of mercy was the great cause of civilization, and vivisection was cruel. However, in the USA the antivivisectionists' efforts were defeated in every legislature, overwhelmed by the superior organization and influence of the medical community. Overall, this movement had little legislative success until the passing of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act, in 1966.
+Real progress in thinking about animal rights build on the "theory of justice" (1971) by the philosopher John Rawls and work on ethics by philosopher Peter Singer.
+
+== Alternatives ==
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+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 15/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Most scientists and governments state that animal testing should cause as little suffering to animals as possible, and that animal tests should only be performed when there is no alternative. The "Three Rs" are guiding principles for the use of animals in research in most countries. Whilst replacement of animals, i.e. alternatives to animal testing, is one of the principles, their scope is much broader. Although such principles have been welcomed as a step forwards by some animal welfare groups, they have also been criticized as both outdated by current research, and of little practical effect in improving animal welfare. The scientists and engineers at Harvard's Wyss Institute have created "organs-on-a-chip", including the "lung-on-a-chip" and "gut-on-a-chip". Researchers at cellasys in Germany developed a "skin-on-a-chip". These tiny devices contain human cells in a 3-dimensional system that mimics human organs. The chips can be used instead of animals in in vitro disease research, drug testing, and toxicity testing. Researchers have also begun using 3-D bioprinters to create human tissues for in vitro testing.
+Another non-animal research method is in silico or computer simulation and mathematical modeling which seeks to investigate and ultimately predict toxicity and drug effects on humans without using animals. This is done by investigating test compounds on a molecular level using recent advances in technological capabilities with the ultimate goal of creating treatments unique to each patient. Microdosing is another alternative to the use of animals in experimentation. Microdosing is a process whereby volunteers are administered a small dose of a test compound allowing researchers to investigate its pharmacological affects without harming the volunteers. Microdosing can replace the use of animals in pre-clinical drug screening and can reduce the number of animals used in safety and toxicity testing. Additional alternative methods include positron emission tomography (PET), which allows scanning of the human brain in vivo, and comparative epidemiological studies of disease risk factors among human populations. Simulators and computer programs have also replaced the use of animals in dissection, teaching and training exercises.
+Official bodies such as the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Test Methods of the European Commission, the Interagency Coordinating Committee for the Validation of Alternative Methods in the US, ZEBET in Germany, and the Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (among others) also promote and disseminate the 3Rs. These bodies are mainly driven by responding to regulatory requirements, such as supporting the cosmetics testing ban in the EU by validating alternative methods. The European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing serves as a liaison between the European Commission and industries. The European Consensus Platform for Alternatives coordinates efforts amongst EU member states. Academic centers also investigate alternatives, including the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing at the Johns Hopkins University and the NC3Rs in the UK.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Citations ===
+
+=== Works cited ===
+Carbone L (2004). What animals want: expertise and advocacy in laboratory animal welfare policy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972188-7. OCLC 57138138.
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Animal testing at Wikimedia Commons
+ Quotations related to Animal testing at Wikiquote
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 3/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Model organisms ==
+
+=== Invertebrates ===
+
+Although many more invertebrates than vertebrates are used in animal testing, these studies are largely unregulated by law. The most frequently used invertebrate species are Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, and Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode worm. In the case of C. elegans, the worm's body is completely transparent and the precise lineage of all the organism's cells is known, while studies in the fly D. melanogaster can use an amazing array of genetic tools. These invertebrates offer some advantages over vertebrates in animal testing, including their short life cycle and the ease with which large numbers may be housed and studied. However, the lack of an adaptive immune system and their simple organs prevent worms from being used in several aspects of medical research such as vaccine development. Similarly, the fruit fly immune system differs greatly from that of humans, and diseases in insects can be different from diseases in vertebrates; however, fruit flies and waxworms can be useful in studies to identify novel virulence factors or pharmacologically active compounds.
+Several invertebrate systems are considered acceptable alternatives to vertebrates in early-stage discovery screens. Because of similarities between the innate immune system of insects and mammals, insects can replace mammals in some types of studies. Drosophila melanogaster and the Galleria mellonella waxworm have been particularly important for analysis of virulent traits of mammalian pathogens. Waxworms and other insects have also proven valuable for the identification of pharmaceutical compounds with favorable bioavailability. The decision to adopt such models generally involves accepting a lower degree of biological similarity with mammals for significant gains in experimental throughput.
+
+=== Rodents ===
+
+In the U.S., the numbers of rats and mice used is estimated to be from 11 million to between 20 and 100 million a year. Other rodents commonly used are guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils. Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species because of their size, low cost, ease of handling, and fast reproduction rate. Mice are widely considered to be the best model of inherited human disease and share 95% of their genes with humans. With the advent of genetic engineering technology, genetically modified mice can be generated to order and can provide models for a range of human diseases. Rats are also widely used for physiology, toxicology and cancer research, but genetic manipulation is much harder in rats than in mice, which limits the use of these rodents in basic science.
+
+=== Dogs ===
+
+Dogs are widely used in biomedical research, testing, and education—particularly beagles, because they are gentle and easy to handle, and to allow for comparisons with historical data from beagles (a Reduction technique). They are used as models for human and veterinary diseases in cardiology, endocrinology, and bone and joint studies, research that tends to be highly invasive, according to the Humane Society of the United States. The most common use of dogs is in the safety assessment of new medicines for human or veterinary use as a second species following testing in rodents, in accordance with the regulations set out in the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use. One of the most significant advancements in medical science involves the use of dogs in developing the answers to insulin production in the body for diabetics and the role of the pancreas in this process. They found that the pancreas was responsible for producing insulin in the body and that removal of the pancreas, resulted in the development of diabetes in the dog. After re-injecting the pancreatic extract (insulin), the blood glucose levels were significantly lowered.
+The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal Welfare Report shows that 60,979 dogs were used in USDA-registered facilities in 2016. In the UK, according to the UK Home Office, there were 3,847 procedures on dogs in 2017. Of the other large EU users of dogs, Germany conducted 3,976 procedures on dogs in 2016 and France conducted 4,204 procedures in 2016. In both cases this represents under 0.2% of the total number of procedures conducted on animals in the respective countries.
+
+=== Zebrafish ===
+Zebrafish are commonly used for the basic study and development of various cancers. Used to explore the immune system and genetic strains. They are low in cost, small in size, have a fast reproduction rate, and able to observe cancer cells in real time. Humans and zebrafish share neoplasm similarities which is why they are used for research. The National Library of Medicine shows many examples of the types of cancer zebrafish are used in. The use of zebrafish have allowed them to find differences between MYC-driven pre-B vs T-ALL and be exploited to discover novel pre-B ALL therapies on acute lymphocytic leukemia.
+The National Library of Medicine also explains how a neoplasm is difficult to diagnose at an early stage. Understanding the molecular mechanism of digestive tract tumorigenesis and searching for new treatments is the current research. Zebrafish and humans share similar gastric cancer cells in the gastric cancer xenotransplantation model. This allowed researchers to find that Triphala could inhibit the growth and metastasis of gastric cancer cells. Since zebrafish liver cancer genes are related with humans they have become widely used in liver cancer search, as well as many other cancers.
+
+=== Non-human primates ===
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 4/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Non-human primates (NHPs) are used in toxicology tests, studies of AIDS and hepatitis, studies of neurology, behavior and cognition, reproduction, genetics, and xenotransplantation. They are caught in the wild or purpose-bred. In the United States and China, most primates are domestically purpose-bred, whereas in Europe the majority are imported purpose-bred. The European Commission reported that in 2011, 6,012 monkeys were experimented on in European laboratories. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, there were 71,188 monkeys in U.S. laboratories in 2016. 23,465 monkeys were imported into the U.S. in 2014 including 929 who were caught in the wild. Most of the NHPs used in experiments are macaques; but marmosets, spider monkeys, and squirrel monkeys are also used, and baboons and chimpanzees are used in the US. As of 2015, there are approximately 730 chimpanzees in U.S. laboratories.
+In a survey in 2003, it was found that 89% of singly-housed primates exhibited self-injurious or abnormal stereotypyical behaviors including pacing, rocking, hair pulling, and biting among others.
+The first transgenic primate was produced in 2001, with the development of a method that could introduce new genes into a rhesus macaque. This transgenic technology is now being applied in the search for a treatment for the genetic disorder Huntington's disease. Notable studies on non-human primates have been part of the polio vaccine development, and development of Deep Brain Stimulation, and their current heaviest non-toxicological use occurs in the monkey AIDS model, SIV. In 2008, a proposal to ban all primates experiments in the EU has sparked a vigorous debate.
+
+=== Other species ===
+
+Over 500,000 fish and 9,000 amphibians were used in the UK in 2016. The main species used is the zebrafish, Danio rerio, which are translucent during their embryonic stage, and the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. Over 20,000 rabbits were used for animal testing in the UK in 2004. Albino rabbits are used in eye irritancy tests (Draize test) because rabbits have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye pigment in albinos make the effects easier to visualize. The numbers of rabbits used for this purpose has fallen substantially over the past two decades. In 1996, there were 3,693 procedures on rabbits for eye irritation in the UK, and in 2017 this number was just 63. Rabbits are also frequently used for the production of polyclonal antibodies.
+Cats are most commonly used in neurological research. In 2016, 18,898 cats were used in the United States alone, around a third of which were used in experiments which have the potential to cause "pain and/or distress" though only 0.1% of cat experiments involved potential pain which was not relieved by anesthetics/analgesics. In the UK, just 198 procedures were carried out on cats in 2017. The number has been around 200 for most of the last decade.
+
+== Care and use of animals ==
+
+=== Regulations and laws ===
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+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 5/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The regulations that apply to animals in laboratories vary across species. In the U.S., under the Animal Welfare Act and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide), published by the National Academy of Sciences, any procedure can be performed on an animal if it can be successfully argued that it is scientifically justified. Researchers are required to consult with the institution's veterinarian and its Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), which every research facility is obliged to maintain. The IACUC must ensure that alternatives, including non-animal alternatives, have been considered, that the experiments are not unnecessarily duplicative, and that pain relief is given unless it would interfere with the study. The IACUCs regulate all vertebrates in testing at institutions receiving federal funds in the USA. Although the Animal Welfare Act does not include purpose-bred rodents and birds, these species are equally regulated under Public Health Service policies that govern the IACUCs. The Public Health Service policy oversees the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC conducts infectious disease research on nonhuman primates (due to end, according to an announcement in November 2025), rabbits, mice, and other animals, while FDA requirements cover use of animals in pharmaceutical research. Animal Welfare Act (AWA) regulations are enforced by the USDA, whereas Public Health Service regulations are enforced by OLAW and in many cases by AAALAC.
+According to the 2014 U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of the Inspector General (OIG) report—which looked at the oversight of animal use during a three-year period—"some Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees ...did not adequately approve, monitor, or report on experimental procedures on animals". The OIG found that "as a result, animals are not always receiving basic humane care and treatment and, in some cases, pain and distress are not minimized during and after experimental procedures". According to the report, within a three-year period, nearly half of all American laboratories with regulated species were cited for AWA violations relating to improper IACUC oversight. The USDA OIG made similar findings in a 2005 report. With only a broad number of 120 inspectors, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) oversees more than 12,000 facilities involved in research, exhibition, breeding, or dealing of animals. Others have criticized the composition of IACUCs, asserting that the committees are predominantly made up of animal researchers and university representatives who may be biased against animal welfare concerns.
+Larry Carbone, a laboratory animal veterinarian, writes that, in his experience, IACUCs take their work very seriously regardless of the species involved, though the use of non-human primates always raises what he calls a "red flag of special concern". A study published in Science magazine in July 2001 confirmed the low reliability of IACUC reviews of animal experiments. Funded by the National Science Foundation, the three-year study found that animal-use committees that do not know the specifics of the university and personnel do not make the same approval decisions as those made by animal-use committees that do know the university and personnel. Specifically, blinded committees more often ask for more information rather than approving studies.
+Scientists in India are protesting a recent guideline issued by the University Grants Commission to ban the use of live animals in universities and laboratories.
+On April 10, 2025, the FDA announced a Roadmap to Reducing Animal Testing in Preclinical Safety Studies to reduce and phase out animal testing and promote alternatives such as advanced computer simulations and lab grown human "organoids" and organ-on-a-chip systems. Over 90% of drugs that appear safe and effective in animals do not go on to receive FDA approval in humans predominantly due to safety and/or efficacy issues.
+On April 29, 2025, the US NIH announced a new initiative to prioritize human-based research technologies and reduce use of animals in NIH-funded research. On July 8, 2025 at a collaborative FDA & NIH Workshop on Reducing Animal Testing, the NIH announced that NIH will no longer seek proposals exclusively for animal models and that all new NIH funding opportunities moving forward should incorporate language on consideration of NAMs.
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 6/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Numbers ===
+Accurate global figures for animal testing are difficult to obtain; it has been estimated that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year, 10–11 million of them in the EU. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics reports that global annual estimates range from 50 to 100 million animals. None of the figures include invertebrates such as shrimp and fruit flies.The USDA/APHIS has published the 2016 animal research statistics. Overall, the number of animals (covered by the Animal Welfare Act) used in research in the US rose 6.9% from 767,622 (2015) to 820,812 (2016). This includes both public and private institutions. By comparing with EU data, where all vertebrate species are counted, Speaking of Research estimated that around 12 million vertebrates were used in research in the US in 2016. A 2015 article published in the Journal of Medical Ethics, argued that the use of animals in the US has dramatically increased in recent years. Researchers found this increase is largely the result of an increased reliance on genetically modified mice in animal studies.
+In 1995, researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimated that 14–21 million animals were used in American laboratories in 1992, a reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970. In 1986, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment reported that estimates of the animals used in the U.S. range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year, and that their own best estimate was at least 17 million to 22 million. In 2016, the Department of Agriculture listed 60,979 dogs, 18,898 cats, 71,188 non-human primates, 183,237 guinea pigs, 102,633 hamsters, 139,391 rabbits, 83,059 farm animals, and 161,467 other mammals, a total of 820,812, a figure that includes all mammals except purpose-bred mice and rats. The use of dogs and cats in research in the U.S. decreased from 1973 to 2016 from 195,157 to 60,979, and from 66,165 to 18,898, respectively.
+In the UK, Home Office figures show that 3.79 million procedures were carried out in 2017. 2,960 procedures used non-human primates, down over 50% since 1988. A "procedure" refers here to an experiment that might last minutes, several months, or years. Most animals are used in only one procedure: animals are frequently euthanized after the experiment; however death is the endpoint of some procedures.
+The procedures conducted on animals in the UK in 2017 were categorised as: 43% (1.61 million) sub-threshold, 4% (0.14 million) non-recovery, 36% (1.35 million) mild, 15% (0.55 million) moderate, and 4% (0.14 million) severe. A 'severe' procedure would be, for instance, any test where death is the end-point or fatalities are expected, whereas a 'mild' procedure would be something like a blood test or an MRI scan.
+
+=== The Three Rs ===
+
+The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing.  These were first described by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch in 1959. The 3Rs state:
+
+Replacement which refers to the preferred use of methods that do not use animals over methods that use animals whenever possible to achieve the same scientific aims. These methods include computer modeling.
+Reduction which means using the minimum number of animals possible and to obtain as much information as possible from the same number of animals.
+Refinement which refers to methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering or distress, enhance animal welfare for the animals used, and use non-invasive techniques.
+The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals can not be avoided.  These 3Rs are now implemented in many testing establishments worldwide and have been adopted by various pieces of legislation and regulations.
+Despite the widespread acceptance of the 3Rs, many countries—including Canada, Australia, Israel, South Korea, and Germany—have reported rising experimental use of animals in recent years with increased use of mice and, in some cases, fish while reporting declines in the use of cats, dogs, primates, rabbits, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Along with other countries, China has also escalated its use of GM animals, resulting in an increase in overall animal use.
+
+=== Sources ===
+
+Animals used by laboratories are largely supplied by specialist dealers. Sources differ for vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Most laboratories breed and raise flies and worms themselves, using strains and mutants supplied from a few main stock centers. For vertebrates, sources include breeders and dealers including Fortrea and Charles River Laboratories, which supply purpose-bred and wild-caught animals; businesses that trade in wild animals such as Nafovanny; and dealers who supply animals sourced from pounds, auctions, and newspaper ads. Animal shelters also supply the laboratories directly. Large centers also exist to distribute strains of genetically modified animals; the International Knockout Mouse Consortium, for example, aims to provide knockout mice for every gene in the mouse genome.
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 7/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the U.S., Class A breeders are licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to sell animals for research purposes, while Class B dealers are licensed to buy animals from "random sources" such as auctions, pound seizure, and newspaper ads. Some Class B dealers have been accused of kidnapping pets and illegally trapping strays, a practice known as bunching. It was in part out of public concern over the sale of pets to research facilities that the 1966 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act was ushered in—the Senate Committee on Commerce reported in 1966 that stolen pets had been retrieved from Veterans Administration facilities, the Mayo Institute, the University of Pennsylvania, Stanford University, and Harvard and Yale Medical Schools. The USDA recovered at least a dozen stolen pets during a raid on a Class B dealer in Arkansas in 2003.
+Four states in the U.S.—Minnesota, Utah, Oklahoma, and Iowa—require their shelters to provide animals to research facilities. Fourteen states explicitly prohibit the practice, while the remainder either allow it or have no relevant legislation.
+In the European Union, animal sources are governed by Council Directive 86/609/EEC, which requires lab animals to be specially bred, unless the animal has been lawfully imported and is not a wild animal or a stray. The latter requirement may also be exempted by special arrangement. In 2010 the Directive was revised with EU Directive 2010/63/EU. In the UK, most animals used in experiments are bred for the purpose under the 1988 Animal Protection Act, but wild-caught primates may be used if exceptional and specific justification can be established. The United States also allows the use of wild-caught primates; between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the U.S. Most of the primates imported are handled by Charles River Laboratories or by Fortrea, which are very active in the international primate trade.
+
+=== Pain and suffering ===
+
+It is generally accepted that animals can feel pain. The extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering, and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them, has been debated.
+According to the USDA, in 2016 501,560 animals (61%) (not including rats, mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress. 247,882 (31%) animals were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 71,370 (9%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved.
+The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to the 17th-century French philosopher, René Descartes, who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack consciousness. Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. However, some canine experts are stating that, while intelligence does differ animal to animal, dogs have the intelligence of a two to two-and-a-half-year old. This does support the idea that dogs, at the very least, have some form of consciousness. The ability of invertebrates to experience pain and suffering is less clear, however, legislation in several countries (e.g. U.K., New Zealand, Norway) protects some invertebrate species if they are being used in animal testing.
+In the U.S., the defining text on animal welfare regulation in animal testing is the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. This defines the parameters that govern animal testing in the U.S. It states "The ability to experience and respond to pain is widespread in the animal kingdom...Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals." The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms. On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain, the Guide states "The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic should reflect professional judgment as to which best meets clinical and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects of the research protocol". Accordingly, all issues of animal pain and distress, and their potential treatment with analgesia and anesthesia, are required regulatory issues in receiving animal protocol approval. Currently, traumatic methods of marking laboratory animals are being replaced with non-invasive alternatives.
+In 2019, Katrien Devolder and Matthias Eggel proposed gene editing research animals to remove the ability to feel pain. This would be an intermediate step towards eventually stopping all experimentation on animals and adopting alternatives. Additionally, this would not stop research animals from experiencing psychological harm.
+
+=== Euthanasia ===
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 8/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Regulations require that scientists use as few animals as possible, especially for terminal experiments. However, while policy makers consider suffering to be the central issue and see animal euthanasia as a way to reduce suffering, others, such as the RSPCA, argue that the lives of laboratory animals have intrinsic value. Regulations focus on whether particular methods cause pain and suffering, not whether their death is undesirable in itself. The animals are euthanized at the end of studies for sample collection or post-mortem examination; during studies if their pain or suffering falls into certain categories regarded as unacceptable, such as depression, infection that is unresponsive to treatment, or the failure of large animals to eat for five days; or when they are unsuitable for breeding or unwanted for some other reason.
+Methods of euthanizing laboratory animals are chosen to induce rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or distress. The methods that are preferred are those published by councils of veterinarians. The animal can be made to inhale a gas, such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, by being placed in a chamber, or by use of a face mask, with or without prior sedation or anesthesia. Sedatives or anesthetics such as barbiturates can be given intravenously, or inhalant anesthetics may be used. Amphibians and fish may be immersed in water containing an anesthetic such as tricaine. Physical methods are also used, with or without sedation or anesthesia depending on the method. Recommended methods include decapitation (beheading) for small rodents or rabbits. Cervical dislocation (breaking the neck or spine) may be used for birds, mice, rats, and rabbits depending on the size and weight of the animal.  High-intensity microwave irradiation of the brain can preserve brain tissue and induce death in less than 1 second, but this is currently only used on rodents. Captive bolts may be used, typically on dogs, ruminants, horses, pigs and rabbits. It causes death by a concussion to the brain. Gunshot may be used, but only in cases where a penetrating captive bolt may not be used. Some physical methods are only acceptable after the animal is unconscious. Electrocution may be used for cattle, sheep, swine, foxes, and mink after the animals are unconscious, often by a prior electrical stun. Pithing (inserting a tool into the base of the brain) is usable on animals already unconscious. Slow or rapid freezing, or inducing air embolism are acceptable only with prior anesthesia to induce unconsciousness.
+
+== Research classification ==
+
+=== Pure research ===
+Basic or pure research investigates how organisms behave, develop, and function. Those opposed to animal testing object that pure research may have little or no practical purpose, but researchers argue that it forms the necessary basis for the development of applied research, rendering the distinction between pure and applied research—research that has a specific practical aim—unclear. Pure research uses larger numbers and a greater variety of animals than applied research. Fruit flies, nematode worms, mice and rats together account for the vast majority, though small numbers of other species are used, ranging from sea slugs through to armadillos. Examples of the types of animals and experiments used in basic research include:
+
+Studies on embryogenesis and developmental biology. Mutants are created by adding transposons into their genomes, or specific genes are deleted by gene targeting. By studying the changes in development these changes produce, scientists aim to understand both how organisms normally develop, and what can go wrong in this process. These studies are particularly powerful since the basic controls of development, such as the homeobox genes, have similar functions in organisms as diverse as fruit flies and man.
+Experiments into behavior, to understand how organisms detect and interact with each other and their environment, in which fruit flies, worms, mice, and rats are all widely used. Studies of brain function, such as memory and social behavior, often use rats and birds. For some species, behavioral research is combined with enrichment strategies for animals in captivity because it allows them to engage in a wider range of activities.
+Breeding experiments to study evolution and genetics. Laboratory mice, flies, fish, and worms are inbred through many generations to create strains with defined characteristics. These provide animals of a known genetic background, an important tool for genetic analyses. Larger mammals are rarely bred specifically for such studies due to their slow rate of reproduction, though some scientists take advantage of inbred domesticated animals, such as dog or cattle breeds, for comparative purposes. Scientists studying how animals evolve use many animal species to see how variations in where and how an organism lives (their niche) produce adaptations in their physiology and morphology. As an example, sticklebacks are now being used to study how many and which types of mutations are selected to produce adaptations in animals' morphology during the evolution of new species.
+
+=== Applied research ===
+Applied research aims to solve specific and practical problems. These may involve the use of animal models of diseases or conditions, which are often discovered or generated by pure research programmes. In turn, such applied studies may be an early stage in the drug discovery process. Examples include:
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 9/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Genetic modification of animals to study disease. Transgenic animals have specific genes inserted, modified or removed, to mimic specific conditions such as single gene disorders, such as Huntington's disease. Other models mimic complex, multifactorial diseases with genetic components, such as diabetes, or even transgenic mice that carry the same mutations that occur during the development of cancer. These models allow investigations on how and why the disease develops, as well as providing ways to develop and test new treatments. The vast majority of these transgenic models of human disease are lines of mice, the mammalian species in which genetic modification is most efficient. Smaller numbers of other animals are also used, including rats, pigs, sheep, fish, birds, and amphibians.
+Studies on models of naturally occurring disease and condition. Certain domestic and wild animals have a natural propensity or predisposition for certain conditions that are also found in humans. Cats are used as a model to develop immunodeficiency virus vaccines and to study leukemia because their natural predisposition to FIV and Feline leukemia virus. Certain breeds of dog experience narcolepsy making them the major model used to study the human condition. Armadillos and humans are among only a few animal species that naturally have leprosy; as the bacteria responsible for this disease cannot yet be grown in culture, armadillos are the primary source of bacilli used in leprosy vaccines.
+Studies on induced animal models of human diseases. Here, an animal is treated so that it develops pathology and symptoms that resemble a human disease. Examples include restricting blood flow to the brain to induce stroke, or giving neurotoxins that cause damage similar to that seen in Parkinson's disease. Much animal research into potential treatments for humans is wasted because it is poorly conducted and not evaluated through systematic reviews. For example, although such models are now widely used to study Parkinson's disease, the British anti-vivisection interest group BUAV argues that these models only superficially resemble the disease symptoms, without the same time course or cellular pathology. In contrast, scientists assessing the usefulness of animal models of Parkinson's disease, as well as the medical research charity The Parkinson's Appeal, state that these models were invaluable and that they led to improved surgical treatments such as pallidotomy, new drug treatments such as levodopa, and later deep brain stimulation.
+Animal testing has also included the use of placebo testing. In these cases animals are treated with a substance that produces no pharmacological effect, but is administered in order to determine any biological alterations due to the experience of a substance being administered, and the results are compared with those obtained with an active compound.
+
+==== Xenotransplantation ====
+
+Xenotransplantation research involves transplanting tissues or organs from one species to another, as a way to overcome the shortage of human organs for use in organ transplants. Current research involves using primates as the recipients of organs from pigs that have been genetically modified to reduce the primates' immune response against the pig tissue. Although transplant rejection remains a problem, recent clinical trials that involved implanting pig insulin-secreting cells into diabetics did reduce these people's need for insulin.
+Documents released to the news media by the animal rights organization Uncaged Campaigns showed that, between 1994 and 2000, wild baboons imported to the UK from Africa by Imutran Ltd, a subsidiary of Novartis Pharma AG, in conjunction with Cambridge University and Huntingdon Life Sciences, to be used in experiments that involved grafting pig tissues, had serious and sometimes fatal injuries. A scandal occurred when it was revealed that the company had communicated with the British government in an attempt to avoid regulation.
+
+=== Toxicology testing ===
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing-9.md
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+---
+title: "Animal testing"
+chunk: 10/15
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:38.284993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Toxicology testing, also known as safety testing, is conducted by pharmaceutical companies testing drugs, or by contract animal testing facilities, such as Huntingdon Life Sciences, on behalf of a wide variety of customers. According to 2005 EU figures, around one million animals are used every year in Europe in toxicology tests; which are about 10% of all procedures. According to Nature, 5,000 animals are used for each chemical being tested, with 12,000 needed to test pesticides. The tests are conducted without anesthesia, because interactions between drugs can affect how animals detoxify chemicals, and may interfere with the results.
+Toxicology tests are used to examine finished products such as pesticides, medications, food additives, packing materials, and air freshener, or their chemical ingredients. Most tests involve testing ingredients rather than finished products, but according to BUAV, manufacturers believe these tests overestimate the toxic effects of substances; they therefore repeat the tests using their finished products to obtain a less toxic label.
+The substances are applied to the skin or dripped into the eyes; injected intravenously, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously; inhaled either by placing a mask over the animals and restraining them, or by placing them in an inhalation chamber; or administered orally, through a tube into the stomach, or simply in the animal's food. Doses may be given once, repeated regularly for many months, or for the lifespan of the animal.
+There are several different types of acute toxicity tests. The LD50 ("Lethal Dose 50%") test is used to evaluate the toxicity of a substance by determining the dose required to kill 50% of the test animal population. This test was removed from OECD international guidelines in 2002, replaced by methods such as the fixed dose procedure, which use fewer animals and cause less suffering. Abbott writes that, as of 2005, "the LD50 acute toxicity test ... still accounts for one-third of all animal [toxicity] tests worldwide".
+Irritancy can be measured using the Draize test, where a test substance is applied to an animal's eyes or skin, usually an albino rabbit. For Draize eye testing, the test involves observing the effects of the substance at intervals and grading any damage or irritation, but the test should be halted and the animal killed if it shows "continuing signs of severe pain or distress". The Humane Society of the United States writes that the procedure can cause redness, ulceration, hemorrhaging, cloudiness, or even blindness. This test has also been criticized by scientists for being cruel and inaccurate, subjective, over-sensitive, and failing to reflect human exposures in the real world. Although no accepted in vitro alternatives exist, a modified form of the Draize test called the low volume eye test may reduce suffering and provide more realistic results and this was adopted as the new standard in September 2009. However, the Draize test will still be used for substances that are not severe irritants.
+The most stringent tests are reserved for drugs and foodstuffs. For these, a number of tests are performed, lasting less than a month (acute), one to three months (subchronic), and more than three months (chronic) to test general toxicity (damage to organs), eye and skin irritancy, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and reproductive problems. The cost of the full complement of tests is several million dollars per substance and it may take three or four years to complete.
+These toxicity tests provide, in the words of a 2006 United States National Academy of Sciences report, "critical information for assessing hazard and risk potential". Animal tests may overestimate risk, with false positive results being a particular problem, but false positives appear not to be prohibitively common. Variability in results arises from using the effects of high doses of chemicals in small numbers of laboratory animals to try to predict the effects of low doses in large numbers of humans. Although relationships do exist, opinion is divided on how to use data on one species to predict the exact level of risk in another.
+Scientists face growing pressure to move away from using traditional animal toxicity tests to determine whether manufactured chemicals are safe.
+Among variety of approaches to toxicity evaluation the ones which have attracted increasing interests are in vitro cell-based sensing methods applying fluorescence.
+
+==== Cosmetics testing ====
+
+Cosmetics testing on animals is particularly controversial. Such tests, which are still conducted in the U.S., involve general toxicity, eye and skin irritancy, phototoxicity (toxicity triggered by ultraviolet light) and mutagenicity.
+Cosmetics testing on animals is banned in India, the United Kingdom, the European Union, Israel and Norway while legislation in the U.S. and Brazil is currently considering similar bans. In 2002, after 13 years of discussion, the European Union agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of animal-tested cosmetics by 2009, and to ban all cosmetics-related animal testing. France, which is home to the world's largest cosmetics company, L'Oreal, has protested the proposed ban by lodging a case at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, asking that the ban be quashed. The ban is also opposed by the European Federation for Cosmetics Ingredients, which represents 70 companies in Switzerland, Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy. In October 2014, India passed stricter laws that also ban the importation of any cosmetic products that are tested on animals.
+
+=== Drug testing ===
+Before the early 20th century, laws regulating drugs were lax. Currently, all new pharmaceuticals undergo rigorous animal testing before being licensed for human use. Tests on pharmaceutical products involve:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_New_Testament_hypotheses-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_New_Testament_hypotheses-0.md
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+---
+title: "Aramaic New Testament hypotheses"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_New_Testament_hypotheses"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:01.547733+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aramaic New Testament hypotheses are a number of hypotheses within Biblical scholarship which argue that the Christian New Testament derives in some form from an Aramaic original. A first version was initially advanced in the 17th and 18th centuries, arguing that all Gospels and Acts could derive from one Aramaic proto-Gospel. Subsequent current-day hypotheses trying to better establish this earlier hypothesis, usually argue some parts of the Gospels could derive from an Aramaic sayings-source. In current scholarship they enjoy no notable support compared to the consensus hypothesis that the New Testament was written in Koine Greek.
+They are related to and often overlap with the Hebrew Gospel hypothesis, which posits a similar idea but with Hebrew instead of Aramaic.
+
+
+== Greek original New Testament hypothesis ==
+
+The current consensus view held by almost all scholars of the New Testament is that all of its contents were originally written in Koine Greek.
+
+An example of how mainstream scholars have dealt with Aramaic influences within an overall view of the Gospels' original Greek-language development may be found in Martin Hengel's synthesis of studies of the linguistic situation in Palestine during the time of Jesus and the Gospels:Since non-literary, simple Greek knowledge or competency in multiple languages was relatively widespread in Jewish Palestine including Galilee, and a Greek-speaking community had already developed in Jerusalem shortly after Easter, one can assume that this linguistic transformation [from "the Aramaic native language of Jesus" to "the Greek Gospels"] began very early.  ...  [M]issionaries, above all 'Hellenists' driven out of Jerusalem, soon preached their message in the Greek language. We find them in Damascus as early as AD 32 or 33. A certain percentage of Jesus' earliest followers were presumably bilingual and could therefore report, at least in simple Greek, what had been heard and seen. This probably applies to Cephas/Peter, Andrew, Philip or John. Mark, too, who was better educated in Jerusalem than the Galilean fishermen, belonged to this milieu.  The great number of phonetically correct Aramaisms and his knowledge of the conditions in Jewish Palestine compel us to assume a Palestinian Jewish-Christian author.  Also, the author's Aramaic native language is still discernible in the Marcan style.
+
+
+== Aramaic original New Testament hypotheses ==
+The hypothesis that the New Testament could have been written in Aramaic, the language of Jesus, and then translated to Greek is rejected by the majority of modern scholars.
+Richard Simon of Normandy in 1689 initially asserted that an Aramaic or Hebrew Gospel of Matthew, lay behind the Nazarene Gospel, and was the Proto-Gospel. A more extensive version of this theory only claiming an Aramaic Proto-Gospel was first proposed by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in 1784. It was expounded on by Johann Gottfried Eichhorn, who in 1804 provided a comprehensive basis for the Proto-Gospel hypothesis and argued for an Aramaic original gospel that each of the Synoptic evangelists had in a different intermediate form.
+In 1887 John Hancock Pettingell in spite of the then-well established view of Greek originals, argued that some texts of the New Testament such as "the Gospel of Matthew, the Epistles to the Hebrews" might have been written "in the vernacular Syriac of the Jews". Some 19th-century scholars believe the place names in the Peshitta New Testament indicate it was written by someone with independent knowledge of Aramaic place names in Palestine mentioned in the Greek New Testament.
+Throughout the 20th century Matthew Black tried to advance Lessing's hypothesis further, but only was able to establish with some degree of certainty that some parts of the Gospel of Mark could derive from an Aramaic sayings-source or tradition. His work was heavily critiqued for its methodology. It is republished today with a critical preface lauding it as the "highmark" of an older theory, but describing consequent developments in scholarship.
+The 20th-century scholar Charles Cutler Torrey held to a view that the Gospels were composed in Aramaic. He also argued in a posthumous publication that the Greek in the Book of Revelation was so bad that it might be indicative of having been composed in Aramaic.
+The 20th-century Vetus Syra translator E. Jan Wilson believed that Luke was written "in the Syriac dialect of Antioch", that Matthew also might be an Aramaic composition, that Mark was unlikely to be Aramaic and that John could not have been written in Aramaic.  Fellow 20th-century translator George Lamsa advocated for a similar Syriac-based theory asserting a "Peshitta-original" in his translation of his Peshitta New Testament. However, his work is poorly regarded by most scholars in the field.
+The common response by scholars in the field of New Testament studies to these theories is expressed by Sebastian Brock:
+
+The only complete English translation of the Peshitta is by G. Lamsa. This is unfortunately not always very accurate, and his claims that the Peshitta Gospels represent the Aramaic original underlying the Greek Gospels are entirely without foundation; such views, which are not infrequently found in more popular literature, are rejected by all serious scholars.
+
+
+== Outside of academia ==
+At times leaders of the Assyrian Church of the East express the belief that the entire Syriac Peshitta New Testament in liturgical use by them is the original of the New Testament. However, almost all modern scholars view its Old Testament as a 2nd-century translation from Hebrew and its New Testament as a 5th-century translation from Greek.
+Claims exalting Aramaic in such ways are directly connected to the emergence and current expression of Assyrian nationalism. Similar beliefs are present in various Messianic Jewish groups.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of English Bible translations#Modern Aramaic to English translations
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Ben-Hayyim, Z. (1957–1977), The Literary and Oral Tradition of Hebrew and Aramaic amongst the Samaritans, Jerusalem Academy of the Hebrew Language
+Black, M. (1967), An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts. 3rd Ed., Hendrickson Publishers
+Burney, C. F. (1922), The Aramaic Origin of the Fourth Gospel, Oxford at the Clarendon Press
+Casey, M. (1998), The Aramaic Sources of Mark's Gospel, Cambridge University Press
+Casey, M. (2002), An Aramaic Approach to Q, Cambridge University Press
+Fitzmyer, J. (1997), The Semitic Background of the New Testament, Eerdmans Publishing
+Lamsa, G. (1976), New Testament Origin, Aramaic Bible Center
+Montgomery, James A. (1923). The Origin of the Gospel According to St. John. Philadelphia: John C. Winston Co.
+Torrey, Charles Cutler (1916). The Composition and Date of Acts. Harvard Theological Studies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
+Torrey, Charles Cutler (1936). Our Translated Gospels: Some of the Evidence. New York: Harper & Brothers.
+Torrey, C. (1941), Documents of the Primitive Church, Harper & Brothers
+Zimmermann, F. (1979), The Aramaic Origin of the Four Gospels, Ktav Publishing House
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_research-0.md
index 24896aab8..81f5fa237 100644
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 category: "reference"
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-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:55:51.960083+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:39.554526+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_research-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_research-1.md
index cbe75c942..57fa792ef 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_research"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:55:51.960083+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:39.554526+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_research-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_research-2.md
index ddf11e212..f56d906c5 100644
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 category: "reference"
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-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:55:51.960083+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:39.554526+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art-based_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art-based_research-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+---
+title: "Art-based research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art-based_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:40.700649+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Art-based research is a mode of formal qualitative inquiry that uses artistic processes  in order to understand and articulate the subjectivity of human experience.
+
+
+== History ==
+The term was first coined by Elliot Eisner, who was a professor of Art and Education at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and one of the United States' leading academic minds.
+Eisner used the term "art-based research" as the title of a conference presentation held at Stanford University in 1993.
+Subsequently, the concept of art-based research was defined by Shaun McNiff, professor of Creative Arts Therapies at Lesley College, as "the systematic use of the artistic process, the actual making of artistic expressions in all of the different forms of the arts, as a primary way of understanding and examining experience by both researchers and the people that they involve in their studies". It was later additionally defined as "research that uses the arts, in the broadest sense, to explore, understand, represent and even challenge human action and experience".
+Many practitioners of art-based research trace the origins of their approach to the work of German arts theorist and psychologist Rudolf Arnheim, and American philosopher Susanne Langer, both of whom elucidated the use of artistic experimentation and production as a means by which to acquire and document knowledge about the art, the artist, and its audience, inspiring a range of academic programs that facilitated students in using the process of making art, including performance, painting, and music as the means by which to understand the nature of human experience, teaching, and learning.
+Arts-Based research is often paired with action research, participatory action research and community-based participatory research methodologies.
+Today, art-based research is employed not only in arts education, but also in health care, management, the social and behavioral sciences, and the technology sector.
+
+
+== Branches ==
+
+
+=== Feminist arts-based research ===
+Feminist arts-based research draws on the principles of the feminist movement and feminist art, committed to gender equality as it intersects with the vast array of social life and social justice issues. Feminist arts-based research requires researchers to critically reflect on their practice and positionally as artists and researchers. As Karen Keifer-Boyd states, feminist arts-based research "examines gender inequalities manifested in different forms of privilege and oppression, and exposes the pervasiveness of gender entangled with race and class in structuring social life".
+
+
+=== Queer arts-based research ===
+Drawing on queer studies and theory as well the historical artistic activism of the LGBT movements such as ACT UP or the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt, queer arts-based research seeks to question and deconstruct normative binaries, hetero- and cis-normativity, and make space for queer ways of knowing and being in the world. Oxford Research Encyclopedias on Communication state that queer arts-based research "allows individuals to question the taken-for-granted conventions that shape social understanding of gender, sex, and sexuality in a subjective and participatory way".
+
+
+=== Disability arts-based research ===
+Disability arts-based research focuses on addressing negative ideology regarding disability through building knowledge from and with people with disabilities, and challenge discourses about disabled people without their involvement. Following the values of the disability rights movement, researchers and participants engaging in disability arts-based research are committed to maintain voice, agency, and dignity for disabled people.
+
+
+== A/r/tography ==
+Expanding on Eisner's ideas, researchers in Canada developed a discipline they named "a/r/tography", a hybrid form of practice-based research within education and the arts. A/r/tography stands for artmaking, researching, and teaching. It is a popular methodology for artists, teachers and makers in which a/r/tography transforms information and the relationships between art-making, research and theory in order to inform the public on various issues. For example, Australian artist, art theorist, and educator, Graeme Sullivan, states that "Arts-informed researchers, [artographers], and the like, have a similar interest in schools, community and culture, but their focus is on developing the practitioner-researcher who is capable of imaginative and insightful inquiry."
+Further developments in arts-based approaches as a means of communicating complex research ideas from diverse research sources have been integral to practical and conceptual innovations, merging the domains of arts-based research and knowledge translation research in the health science and the social sciences. This domain of arts-based knowledge translation has been developed by Mandy Archibald, assistant professor and interdisciplinary artist at the University of Manitoba and others.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_Centre-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_Centre-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Astronomy Centre"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_Centre"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:13.184580+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Astronomy Centre, also known as the Amateur Astronomy Centre, is an astronomical observatory located in northern England which is run by experienced amateur astronomers and is open to the public at certain times.
+
+
+== History and purpose ==
+Founded in November 1982 by Peter Drew, Linda Simonian and Rob Miller on the site of a disused factory, high in the Pennines, the Centre provides opportunities for its members, schools, local community groups and the general public to observe and photograph astronomical phenomena at a range of wavelengths during daylight and night hours.
+At the time the Centre was conceived, access to equipment and expertise was unavailable for many amateur astronomers in the UK and a national centre would have provided an invaluable focal point. Developments in optical fabrication, photography and communications now permit many visitors and members to complement their home astronomical facilities, skills and experience with those of the Astronomy Centre.
+In keeping with the Centres original ethos, besides welcoming visitors to the facility, current members engage off-site with schools, youth organisations and community groups and also provide contributions to national, regional, local print and broadcast media.
+
+
+== Structures ==
+The first permanent housing on the site was built to shelter a 17 inches (430 mm) aperture Newtonian telescope. Further construction took the total number of separate telescope mountings to 14 by the end of 2015.
+The main observatory tower is a three level 29 feet (8.8 m) round building topped by an aluminium dome with twin 3 feet (0.91 m) sliding doors. Its construction by the members was completed in April 2000.
+
+
+== Telescopes and other instruments ==
+The largest optical telescope currently in regular use is a 30 inches (760 mm) open truss Newtonian on a mount inspired by the designs of John Dobson. A 42.6 inches (1,080 mm) mirror blank is available for a future enhancement of the facilities but construction of the UK's largest reflector since the destruction of the 98 inches (2,500 mm) original Isaac Newton Telescope at Herstmonceux Castle is currently on hold.
+In addition to the permanently mounted 30", 20", 17", 16", 12" and 8" instruments there are fixed locations to allow a number of smaller portable items to be quickly set up if visitor numbers increase on a clear night.
+Many of the optical instruments were constructed by telescope maker Peter Drew, who has also provided many other societies and individuals (such as Hoober Observatory) with their equipment. This includes a number of cameras obscura similar to, but smaller than, the one installed on the main Observatory building.
+
+
+== Public and community access ==
+Observational astronomy takes place on weekly open nights, for special events and by special arrangement with keyholders. As well as the basics of visual astronomy  visitors can undertake a wide range of more advanced observations guided by volunteers with long experience in safe solar astronomy, infra-red astronomy and radio astronomy.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+The Astronomy Centre on Go Stargazing
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Augustinian hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Augustinian hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the Augustinian Proposal) is a solution to the synoptic problem, which concerns the origin of the Gospels of the New Testament. The hypothesis holds that Matthew was written first, by Matthew the Evangelist (see the Gospel According to the Hebrews and the Jewish-Christian Gospels). Mark the Evangelist wrote the Gospel of Mark second and used Matthew and the preaching of Peter as sources. Luke the Evangelist wrote the Gospel of Luke and was aware of the two Gospels that preceded him. Unlike some competing hypotheses, this hypothesis does not rely on, nor does it argue for, the existence of any document that is not explicitly mentioned in historical testimony. Instead, the hypothesis draws primarily upon historical testimony, rather than textual criticism, as the central line of evidence. The foundation of evidence for the hypothesis is the writings of the Church Fathers: historical sources dating back to as early as the first half of the 2nd century, which have been held as authoritative by most Christians for nearly two millennia. Adherents to the Augustinian hypothesis view it as a simple, coherent solution to the synoptic problem.
+The Augustinian hypothesis addresses certain fundamental points of contention surrounding the synoptic problem, such as how reliable the early Christian tradition is, which gospel was written first, whether there were other unknown sources behind the gospels, to what extent, if any, the gospels were redacted, and to what extent the gospels were altered between the time they were originally written and the time the first surviving manuscripts appear. These and other matters are raised and alternate resolutions proposed by proponents of competing hypotheses, such as the Two-source hypothesis, its related Q hypothesis, the Farrer hypothesis, and others.
+The main two areas of contention within the Augustinian community are whether Matthew was originally written in Aramaic using Hebrew script (see Aramaic primacy), or if the Greek text is the original, and whether it was Mark or Luke who wrote second. A modified version of the Augustinian hypothesis, known as the Griesbach hypothesis, agrees that Matthew wrote first and that Mark depended on Matthew, and does not dispute that the original text was in Hebrew thereafter translated into Greek, but argues that Mark also depended on Luke and therefore that Luke’s gospel precedes Mark's. Because of the similarity on primary points of contention, this hypothesis is also treated as a possible amendment to the Augustinian hypothesis.
+
+== Origin ==
+
+The hypothesis takes its name from Augustine of Hippo, an early 5th century bishop and church father, who wrote: "Now, those four evangelists whose names have gained the most remarkable circulation over the whole world, and whose number has been fixed as four, ...are believed to have written in the order which follows: first Matthew, then Mark, thirdly Luke, lastly John." And: "Of these four, it is true, only Matthew is reckoned to have written in the Hebrew language; the others in Greek. And however they may appear to have kept each of them a certain order of narration proper to himself, this certainly is not to be taken as if each individual writer chose to write in ignorance of what his predecessor had done..."
+Mark was famously dubbed by Augustine as "pedissequus et breviator Matthaei", the attendant and abbreviator of Matthew, in direct contrast to the view most commonly held in academia today, that Mark's gospel was the earliest. Augustine also discussed the commonalities between the Synoptic Gospels, including the identical language found in Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Augustine was not the first to articulate this view, as Irenaeus and Origen, among others, shared this ordering. However, Augustine is the earliest extant author to give a detailed scholarly textual analysis of the three texts' interdependence, and to articulate a theory for the express purpose of explaining this fact.
+
+== Ancient tradition ==
+
+The Church Fathers who wrote about the order and authorship of the canonical gospels all supported some basic ideas of the Augustinian hypothesis. The fathers whose writings survive and who wrote about authorship are almost unanimous in agreement that Matthew the apostle was the author, wrote first, and did so for the Hebrews in their language.  A number of sources in antiquity asserted that Mark wrote his Gospel after Matthew based on the preaching of Peter. Various elements of this tradition are found in the writings of Irenaeus, Origen, Eusebius, and others.
+The text of the Gospel itself circulated with a title "According to Matthew", a tradition indisputably acknowledged before the close of the 2nd century.  In addition, the title "According to Matthew" is found in the earliest manuscripts.  A number of scholars have argued that the title must be dated no later than 125. Many contemporary scholars, however, believe it was originally anonymous.
+The earliest surviving references to the gospel tradition are quoted by Eusebius (lived c. 263–339 CE), and different but related traditions appear in the works of Papias (wrote during the first half of 2nd century CE) and the works of Clement. A third ancient source, Irenaeus, also provides further information about the traditions, especially that of Papias, and possibly adds a third related tradition to the sources. These related traditions generally agree on the primary points of contention within the Augustinian hypothesis, though not without discrepancies. Rather than seen as a refutation to the hypothesis, instead these discrepancies are often cited in defense of the hypothesis because they counter the argument that the entire tradition is merely a repetition of Papias's original assertion (therefore, if he were wrong, the great many historical sources supporting the theory would be inconsequential). Instead, slight disagreement is actually in favor of multiple, near identical traditions.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-1.md
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+---
+title: "Augustinian hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Papias ===
+According to Irenaeus, Papias was "a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp, a man of primitive times," who wrote a volume in "five books." The benefit of historical immediacy, as argued by D. H. Fischer is one of the key determinants of historicity, and the church father Papias is a very early source in regard to testimony that the Matthew wrote his gospel first. Papias wrote that: "Matthew compiled the sayings in the Hebrew language, and everyone translated them as well he could." (The 'Hebrew language' referred to by Papias has often been interpreted as Aramaic.)
+It has been argued, because Papias does not cite an authority for his assertions concerning Matthew but does concerning Mark, that Matthew was already fully accepted at the time of his writings.
+
+=== Clement ===
+Eusebius also recorded an important tradition from Clement of Alexandria (died c. 213):
+
+In the same volumes Clement has found room for a tradition of the primitive authorities of the Church regarding the order of the gospels. It is this. He used to say that the earliest gospels were those containing the genealogies [Matthew, Luke], while Mark's originated as follows: When, at Rome, Peter had openly preached the word and by the Spirit had proclaimed the gospel, the large audience urged Mark, who had followed him for a long time and remembered what had been said, to write it all down. This he did, making his gospel available to all who wanted it. When Peter heard about this, he made no objection and gave no special encouragement. Last of all, aware that the physical facts had been recorded in the gospels, encouraged by his pupils and irresistibly moved by the Spirit, John wrote a spiritual gospel.
+This source claims multiple authorities of antiquity, not merely Papias; this is taken as evidence against the view that the testimony of the Fathers is based solely upon the witness of Papias. Furthermore the tradition of Clement concurs with the significant point of contention: Matthean priority. However, Clement conflicts with the Augustinian hypothesis concerning the order of Mark and Luke. The Griesbach hypothesis attempts to resolve the difficulty concerning this secondary point of contention by stating Luke wrote before Mark.
+
+=== Irenaeus ===
+Irenaeus, who was familiar with the work of Papias and who knew Polycarp and possibly even the apostle John, wrote: "Now Matthew published also a book of the Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while Peter and Paul were preaching the gospel in Rome and founding the Church."
+He is quoted by Eusebius as saying:
+
+2. Matthew published his Gospel among the Hebrews in their own language, while Peter and Paul were preaching and founding the church in Rome.
+3. After their departure Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, also transmitted to us in writing those things which Peter had preached; and Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared.
+4. Afterwards John, the disciple of the Lord, who also reclined on his bosom, published his Gospel, while staying at Ephesus in Asia.
+
+Irenaeus gives here another tradition in accord with Papias, though containing more information. This has been taken as evidence of a third, yet harmonious tradition.  However, Irenaeus places the composition of Mark after Peter's death, while Clement (and others, such as Origen and Eusebius) claimed Peter was alive and approved the work. Nonetheless, his chronology of the composition of the books does accord with the Augustinian hypothesis (which does not directly address whether Peter was alive at the time of the composition of Mark).
+An original Aramaic version of Matthew does not exist in the sense that no copy survives in the original language today. Many proponents of the Augustinian hypothesis hold that the current Greek Matthew is a complete translation of the original Aramaic Matthew. This theory has strong support in a number of Church Fathers. Papias, Irenaeus, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius and Jerome all agree that the original Matthew was written in Hebrew. Jerome even claimed to have seen the original Aramaic Matthew in the library of Pamphilus the Martyr.  Eusebius wrote in c. 325 that Pantaerus found a copy of the Gospel of Matthew written in Hebrew in India, and that it had been left there by Bartholomew. In c. 376, Epiphanius wrote there was "no doubt" that a sect in Palestine still used the original Hebrew text "just as it was originally written." And, of course, Augustine also repeated this tradition. To these authors should be added Pantaenus, Athanasius, John Chrysostom, Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory of Nazianzus, and others in agreement. However, most modern scholars believe Matthew was originally composed in Greek (see Aramaic New Testament hypotheses and Hebrew Gospel hypothesis).
+
+== Augustinian revival ==
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+title: "Augustinian hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Augustinian position, and the similar Griesbach hypothesis, has drawn recent interest, especially from B. C. Butler, John Wenham, W.R. Farmer, and others as an alternative solution to the synoptic problem, and has been employed as a scholarly refutation of Marcan priority, the Q hypothesis, and the two-source hypothesis.
+Butler argued that accepting the priority of Matthew rendered it possible to dispense with the hypothetical Q document altogether, a position he supported by arguments concerning the inadmissibility of appealing to Q as a sound explanation of the cases where Matthew appears to be more original than Mark.
+Likewise it has been pointed out that differences between the Synoptic Gospels are as easily explained by differing purposes of the authors than by forced redactions or omissions due to ignorance.  Furthermore, against certain arguments that the “primitiveness” of the ideas within the Gospels is the determining factor in their literary interdependence, it is observed that defining "primitiveness" carries obvious difficulties.
+Farmer argued that a modification of the Augustinian hypothesis, the so-called Two-gospel hypothesis, ordering Matthew-Luke-Mark, eliminated all reasons for the existence of Q, a position whose credibility was conceded by W.C. Allen and others. Bernard Orchard also developed the Two-gospel hypothesis and suggested a plausible historic scenario that merged its ideas with the historic evidence that underlines the Augustinian hypothesis.
+
+=== Modern position in detail ===
+Recently, modern scholars accepting some form of the Augustinian hypothesis have attempted to develop a detailed argument explaining the theoretical origin of the gospels. There was a perceived need for this in response to recent competing theories, expressed by Bernard Orchard: “the two-document hypothesis and the priority of Mark are still only hypotheses, not infallible dogmas, and they have stood secure for so long chiefly because no one has been able to offer any satisfactory alternative."  Central to this process is the assumption that the gospel's development should be understood as a reaction to various developing needs of the early church.
+John Wenham argued that, in the early Jerusalem Church, there would have been an early need for the production of a written record to augment the "atmosphere of spontaneity" within which the apostles, disciples, and eyewitnesses would have given instruction. The reasons for this, he asserted, were: the need for instruction when no qualified teacher was available, the need for consistency and accuracy in what was taught as it spread throughout the first scattered Christian communities, and for the basic need of evangelization.  Wenham also argued that Matthew was a natural choice since, as a tax collector, he would have had the requisite literacy, as well as his first hand memories, and perhaps even notes.  Others have observed that persecutions in Palestine, threatening dispersion of the Christians, would have been a motivating factor for a text of the life of Jesus.
+The majority Hebrew makeup of the primitive Church has been seen as support of Aramaic primacy.  Besides the traditional material (see above), other support for an Aramaic Matthew advanced in recent years includes the theory that the Medieval Hebrew gospel of Matthew in Even Bohan could be a corrupted version of the original.
+Bernard Orchard identified the above period as a "first phase" of the development of the Gospels, distinguished from the subsequent phase by the events of the year 42:
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+title: "Augustinian hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A savage persecution of the Church, begun by Herod Agrippa I in AD 42, was the signal for the dispersion of the apostles now possessing in the Gospel of Matthew the necessary tool to support and confirm their preaching, while at the same time preserving their theological unity. The first phase was completed, and the second phase of the Church's expansion was about to begin with the mission of Paul.
+Central to Orchard's characterization of this new second phase is the distinction between a primarily Hebrew orientation and a primarily Greek orientation, focusing not only on the Jewish converts to Christianity, but to the gentile converts as well. This, he argues, resulted in three key events: the translation of the original Matthew into Greek, the production of the Gospel of Mark within the context of Peter's preaching to Greek speaking converts in Rome, and Luke's authorship of his Gospel under the instruction of Paul. Cited in support of this are the comments of Clement, Irenaeus, and others who state that the Gospel of Mark was written by Mark, a follower of the apostle Peter, based on his speeches. Orchard countered the claim that the Gospel of Mark must have been written first, since it contains less information than Matthew and Luke, by positing that Peter elected not to speak on certain subjects, such as the birth and resurrection narratives, since he had not been a direct witness of those events.
+The notion that Peter employed Matthew in his preaching was supported by B.C. Butler, but not by John Wenham, who instead explained the similar structure by arguing simply that Mark used both his recollection of his instruction from the Gospel of Matthew and his memory of the preaching of Peter to pen his own synthesis.
+The association of the Gospel of Luke with Paul the apostle, which is witnessed by tradition, has led some to argue that Luke was with Paul during his imprisonment in Rome, or to at least place the date of composition prior to 70 and the fall of Jerusalem.  The author of Luke also wrote in his prologue that he employed various sources in composing his work. Wenham argued that an excess of such material, along with the constraints of scroll length, was one cause of his noticeable omission of material found in Matthew and Mark.
+An unusual modern scholar who supported the notion that the Synoptic Gospels were of an early date, specifically before 70, was John Robinson. Though generally considered a liberal theologian, his views in respect to the development of the Gospels were consistent with the Augustinian hypothesis. He wrote in his work Redating the New Testament that past scholarship was based on a "tyranny of unexamined assumptions" and an "almost wilful blindness," concluding that New Testament was written before 64, and that there is no compelling evidence and little evidence of any kind that anything in the New Testament reflects knowledge of the Temple's destruction. Furthermore, in relation to the four gospels, according to Norman Geisler:
+
+"Robinson places Matthew at 40 to after 60, Mark at about 45 to 60, Luke at before 57 to after 60, and John at from 40 to after 65."
+
+== Explanatory notes ==
+
+== See also ==
+
+Farrer hypothesis
+Four-document hypothesis
+Gospel harmony
+Griesbach hypothesis
+Hebrew Gospel hypothesis
+Two-source hypothesis
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Evaluation of the Theory of Literary Dependence
+The Mysterious Case of the Missing Q Archived 2002-08-02 at the Wayback Machine
+Synoptic Problem Website
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+---
+title: "Availability heuristic"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The availability heuristic, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. This heuristic, operating on the notion that, if something can be quickly recalled, it must be important, or at least more important than alternative solutions not as readily recalled, is inherently biased toward recently acquired information.
+The mental availability of an action's consequences is positively related to those consequences' perceived magnitude. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater those consequences are often perceived to be. Most notably, people often rely on the content of their recall if its implications are not called into question by the difficulty they have in recalling it.
+
+== Overview and history ==
+
+In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman began work on a series of papers examining "heuristic and biases" used in judgment under uncertainty. Prior to that, the predominant view in the field of human judgment was that humans are rational actors. Kahneman and Tversky explained that judgment under uncertainty often relies on a limited number of simplifying heuristics rather than extensive algorithmic processing. Soon, this idea spread beyond academic psychology, into law, medicine, and political science. This research questioned the descriptive adequacy of idealized models of judgment, and offered insights into the cognitive processes that explained human error without invoking motivated irrationality. One simplifying strategy people may rely on is the tendency to make a judgment about the frequency of an event based on how many similar instances are brought to mind. In 1973, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first studied this phenomenon and labeled it the "availability heuristic". An availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. As follows, people tend to use a readily available fact to base their beliefs on a comparably distant concept. There has been much research done with this heuristic, but studies on the issue are still questionable with regard to the underlying process. Studies illustrate that manipulations intended to increase the subjective experience of ease of recall are also likely to affect the amount of recall. Furthermore, this makes it difficult to determine whether the obtained estimates of frequency, likelihood, or typicality are based on participants' phenomenal experiences or on a biased sample of recalled information.
+However, some textbooks have chosen the latter interpretation introducing the availability heuristic as "one's judgments are always based on what comes to mind". For example, if a person is asked whether there are more words in the English language that start with a k or have k as the third letter, the person will probably be able to think of more words that begin with the letter k, concluding incorrectly that k is more frequent as the first letter than the third. In this Wikipedia article itself, for example, there are multiple instances of words such as "likely", "make", "take", "ask" and indeed "Wikipedia", but (aside from names) only a couple of initial K's: "know" and "key".
+
+== Research ==
+Chapman (1967) described a bias in the judgment of the frequency with which two events co-occur. This demonstration showed that the co-occurrence of paired stimuli resulted in participants overestimating the frequency of the pairings. To test this idea, participants were given information about several hypothetical mental patients. The data for each patient consisted of a clinical diagnosis and a drawing made by the patient. Later, participants estimated the frequency with which each diagnosis had been accompanied by various features of the drawing. The subjects vastly overestimated the frequency of this co-occurrence (such as suspiciousness and peculiar eyes). This effect was labeled the illusory correlation. Tversky and Kahneman suggested that availability provides a natural account for the illusory-correlation effect. The strength of the association between two events could provide the basis for the judgment of how frequently the two events co-occur. When the association is strong, it becomes more likely to conclude that the events have been paired frequently. Strong associations will be thought of as having occurred together frequently.
+In Tversky & Kahneman's first examination of availability heuristics, subjects were asked, "If a random word is taken from an English text, is it more likely that the word starts with a K, or that K is the third letter?" They argue that English-speaking people would immediately think of many words that begin with the letter "K" (kangaroo, kitchen, kale), but that it would take a more concentrated effort to think of any words in which "K" is the third letter (acknowledge, ask). Results indicated that participants overestimated the number of words that began with the letter "K" and underestimated the number of words that had "K" as the third letter. Tversky and Kahneman concluded that people answer questions like these by comparing the availability of the two categories and assessing how easily they can recall these instances. In other words, it is easier to think of words that begin with "K", more than words with "K" as the third letter. Thus, people judge words beginning with a "K" to be a more common occurrence. In reality, however, a typical text contains twice as many words that have "K" as the third letter than "K" as the first letter.
+In Tversky and Kahneman's seminal paper, they include findings from several other studies, which also show support for the availability heuristic. Apart from their findings in the "K" study, they also found:
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+title: "Availability heuristic"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+When participants were shown two visual structures and asked to pick the structure that had more paths, participants saw more paths in the structure that had more obvious available paths. In the structure that participants chose, there were more columns and shorter obvious paths, making it more available to them. When participants were asked to complete tasks involving estimation, they would often underestimate the end result. Participants were basing their final estimation on a quick first impression of the problem. Participants particularly struggled when the problems consisted of multiple steps. This occurred because participants were basing their estimation on an initial impression. Participants failed to account for the high rate of growth in the later steps due to the impression they formed in the initial steps. This was shown again in a task that asked participants to estimate the answer to a multiplication task, in which the numbers were presented as either 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8 or 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1. Participants who were presented the equation with the larger numbers first (8x7x6...), estimated a significantly higher result than participants with the lower numbers first (1x2x3...). Participants were given a short amount of time to make the estimation, thus participants based their estimates off of what was easily available, which in this case was the first few numbers in the sequence.
+
+== Explanations ==
+Many researchers have attempted to identify the psychological process which creates the availability heuristic.
+Tversky and Kahneman argue that the number of examples recalled from memory is used to infer the frequency with which such instances occur. In an experiment to test this explanation, participants listened to lists of names containing either 19 famous women and 20 less famous men or 19 famous men and 20 less famous women. Subsequently, some participants were asked to recall as many names as possible whereas others were asked to estimate whether male or female names were more frequent on the list. The names of the famous celebrities were recalled more frequently compared to those of the less famous celebrities. The majority of the participants incorrectly judged that the gender associated with more famous names had been presented more often than the gender associated with less famous names. Tversky and Kahneman argue that although the availability heuristic is an effective strategy in many situations when judging probability, use of this heuristic can lead to predictable patterns of errors.
+Schwarz and his colleagues, on the other hand, proposed the ease of retrieval explanation, wherein the ease with which examples come to mind, not the number of examples, is used to infer the frequency of a given class. In a study by Schwarz and colleagues to test their explanation, participants were asked to recall either six or twelve examples of their assertive or very unassertive behavior. Participants were later asked to rate their own assertiveness. Pretesting had indicated that although most participants were capable of generating twelve examples, this was a difficult task. The results indicated that participants rated themselves as more assertive after describing six examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior, but rated themselves as less assertive after describing twelve examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior. The study reflected that the extent to which recalled content impacted judgment was determined by the ease with which the content could be brought to mind (it was easier to recall 6 examples than 12), rather than the amount of content brought to mind.
+Research by Vaughn (1999) looked at the effects of uncertainty on the use of the availability heuristic. College students were asked to list either three or eight different study methods they could use in order to get an A on their final exams. The researchers also manipulated the time during the semester they would ask the students to complete the questionnaire.  Approximately half of the participants were asked for their study methods during the third week of classes, and the other half were asked on the last day of classes. Next, participants were asked to rate how likely they would be to get an A in their easiest and hardest classes.  Participants were then asked to rank the difficulty they experienced in recalling the examples they had previously listed. The researchers hypothesized that students would use the availability heuristic, based on the number of study methods they listed, to predict their grade only when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. Students were not expected to use the availability heuristic to predict their grades at the end of the semester or about their easiest final. The researchers predicted this use of the availability heuristic because participants would be uncertain about their performance throughout the semester. The results indicated that students used the availability heuristic, based on the ease of recall of the study methods they listed, to predict their performance when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. If the student listed only three study methods, they predicted a higher grade at the end of the semester only on their hardest final. If students listed eight study methods, they had a harder time recalling the methods and thus predicted a lower final grade on their hardest final. The results were not seen in the easy final condition because the students were certain they would get an A, regardless of the study method. The results supported this hypothesis and gave evidence to the fact that levels of uncertainty affect the use of the availability heuristic.
+
+== Applications ==
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+title: "Availability heuristic"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Media ===
+After seeing news stories about child abductions, people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater. Media coverage can help fuel a person's example bias with widespread and extensive coverage of unusual events, such as homicide or airline accidents, and less coverage of more routine, less sensational events, such as common diseases or car accidents. Long term consumption of this media will skew the consumer's reality and influence their attitudes and emotions. This is referred to as cultivation theory, which aligns with availability bias: frequent exposure to similar news stories causes consumers to inflate their sense of how likely these dangers are. For example, when asked to rate the probability of a variety of causes of death, people tend to rate "newsworthy" events as more likely because they can more readily recall an example from memory. Moreover, unusual and vivid events like homicides, shark attacks, or lightning are more often reported in mass media than common and un-sensational causes of death like common diseases.
+For example, many people think that the likelihood of dying from shark attacks is greater than that of dying from being hit by falling airplane parts when more people actually die from falling airplane parts. When a shark attack occurs, the deaths are widely reported in the media whereas deaths as a result of being hit by falling airplane parts are rarely reported in the media. This shows the power media has in priming the social perceiver's thoughts and can lead to the implicit idea that the ocean is more dangerous than flying.
+In a 2010 study exploring how vivid television portrayals are used when forming social reality judgments, people watching vivid violent media gave higher estimates of the prevalence of crime and police immorality in the real world than those not exposed to vivid television. These results suggest that television violence does in fact have a direct causal impact on participants' social reality beliefs. Repeated exposure to vivid violence leads to an increase in people's risk estimates about the prevalence of crime and violence in the real world.  Counter to these findings, researchers from a similar study argued that these effects may be due to effects of new information. Researchers tested the new information effect by showing movies depicting dramatic risk events and measuring their risk assessment after the film. Contrary to previous research, there were no long-term effects on risk perception due to exposure to dramatic movies. However, the study did find evidence of idiosyncratic effects of the movies - that is, people reacted immediately after the movies with enhanced or diminished risk beliefs, which faded after a period of 10 days.
+A similar study in 2024 explored the association between the use of neighbourhood apps and inaccurate perceptions of higher local crime rates. The study expected that, according to cultivation theory, those who consume more crime-related media believe there is a higher risk of being a victim of crime and that media will have a larger impact on heavy vs light users. The study found the largest impact from local news. The study noted that neighbourhood apps may have default enabled push notifications for more frequent and consistent exposure. The conclusions were that the use of neighbourhood apps led to higher perceptions of crimes when controlling for actual crime rates. The constant exposure to crime notifications is theorized to cultivate an availability heuristic that impacts the perception of crime rates. The study noted limitations like an overall small impact and the limits of generalizability by using an opt-in online panel for participants. The limitations bring up that the work is correlational, that it may be possible that those who overestimate local crime rates may be more likely to use the neighbourhood apps because they want to be informed. 
+Another measurable effect is the inaccurate estimation of the fraction of deaths caused by terrorism compared to homicides with other causes.
+In the context of media (often social media), echo chambers need to be considered when discussing availability bias. If a person is constantly exposed to the same perspectives and opinions, they become more engrained and thus more immediately accessible and available when using social media. While conformation bias may perpetuate echo chambers, availability bias can become problematic too as it feeds into this loop.  
+
+=== Health ===
+Researchers examined the role of cognitive heuristics in the AIDS risk-assessment process. 331 physicians reported worry about on-the-job HIV exposure, and experience with patients who have HIV. By analyzing answers to questionnaires handed out, researchers concluded that availability of AIDS information did not relate strongly to perceived risk.
+Participants in a 1992 study read case descriptions of hypothetical patients who varied on their sex and sexual preference. These hypothetical patients showed symptoms that could have been caused by five different diseases (AIDS, leukemia, influenza, meningitis, or appendicitis). Participants were instructed to indicate which disease they thought the patient had and then they rated patient responsibility and interaction desirability. Consistent with the availability heuristic, either the more common (influenza) or the more publicized (AIDS) disease was chosen.
+
+=== Business and economy ===
+One study sought to analyze the role of the availability heuristic in financial markets. Researchers defined and tested two aspects of the availability heuristic:
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+---
+title: "Availability heuristic"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Outcome Availability – availability of positive and negative investment outcomes, and
+Risk Availability – availability of financial risk.
+On days of substantial stock market moves, abnormal stock price reactions to upgrades are weaker, than those to downgrades. These availability effects are still significant even after controlling for event-specific and company-specific factors.
+Similarly, research has pointed out that under the availability heuristic, humans are not reliable because they assess probabilities by giving more weight to current or easily recalled information instead of processing all relevant information. Since information regarding the current state of the economy is readily available, researchers attempted to expose the properties of business cycles to predict the availability bias in analysts' growth forecasts. They showed the availability heuristic to play a role in analysis of forecasts and influence investments because of this.
+In effect, investors are using the availability heuristic to make decisions and subsequently, may be obstructing their own investment success. An investor's lingering perceptions of a dire market environment may be causing them to view investment opportunities through an overly negative lens, making it less appealing to consider taking on investment risk, no matter how small the returns on perceived "safe" investments.  To illustrate, Franklin Templeton's annual Global Investor Sentiment Survey 1 asked individuals how they believed the S&P 500 Index performed in 2009, 2010, and 2011. 66 percent of respondents stated that they believed the market was either flat or down in 2009, 48 percent said the same about 2010 and 53 percent also said the same about 2011.  In reality, the S&P 500 saw 26.5 percent annual returns in 2009, 15.1 percent annual returns in 2010, and 2.1 percent annual returns in 2011, meaning lingering perceptions based on dramatic, painful events are impacting decision-making even when those events are over.
+Additionally, a study by Hayibor and Wasieleski found that the availability of others who believe that a particular act is morally acceptable is positively related to others' perceptions of the morality of that act. This suggests that availability heuristic also has an effect on ethical decision making and ethical behavior in organizations.
+
+=== Education ===
+A study done by Craig R. Fox provides an example of how availability heuristics can work in the classroom. In this study, Fox tests whether the difficulty of recall influences judgment, specifically with course evaluations among college students.  In his study he had two groups complete a course evaluation form.  He asked the first group to write two recommended improvements for the course (a relatively easy task) and then write two positives about the class. The second group was asked to write ten suggestions where the professor could improve (a relatively difficult task) and then write two positive comments about the course.  At the end of the evaluation, both groups were asked to rate the course on a scale from one to seven.  The results showed that students asked to write ten suggestions (difficult task) rated the course less harshly because it was more difficult for them to recall the information. Most of the students in the group that was asked to fill in 10 suggestions didn't fill in more than two being unable to recall more instances where they were unsatisfied with the class. Students asked to do the easier evaluation with only two complaints had less difficulty in terms of availability of information, so they rated the course more harshly.
+Another study by Marie Geurten sought to test the availability heuristic in young children. Children of varying ages (from 4 to 8 years old) were tasked with generating a list of names, with some being asked for a shorter list and some for a longer list. The study then assessed the children's own impressions of their ability to recall names. Those children who were tasked with generating a shorter list had a higher perception of their ability to recall names than those who were tasked with generating a longer list. According to the study, this suggests that the children based their assessment of their recall abilities on their subjective experience of ease of recall.
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+---
+title: "Availability heuristic"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Criminal justice ===
+The media usually focuses on violent or extreme cases, which are more readily available in the public's mind. This may come into play when it is time for the judicial system to evaluate and determine the proper punishment for a crime. In one study, respondents rated how much they agreed with hypothetical laws and policies such as "Would you support a law that required all offenders convicted of unarmed muggings to serve a minimum prison term of two years?" Participants then read cases and rated each case on several questions about punishment. As hypothesized, respondents recalled more easily from long-term memory stories that contain severe harm, which seemed to influence their sentencing choices to make them push for harsher punishments. This can be eliminated by adding high concrete or high contextually distinct details into the crime stories about less severe injuries.
+A similar study asked jurors and college students to choose sentences on four severe criminal cases in which prison was a possible but not an inevitable sentencing outcome. Respondents answering questions about court performance on a public opinion formulated a picture of what the courts do and then evaluated the appropriateness of that behavior. Respondents recalled public information about crime and sentencing. This type of information is incomplete because the news media present a highly selective and non-representative selection of crime, focusing on the violent and extreme, rather than the ordinary. This makes most people think that judges are too lenient. But, when asked to choose the punishments, the sentences given by students were equal to or less severe than those given by judges. In other words, the availability heuristic made people believe that judges and jurors were too lenient in the courtroom, but the participants gave similar sentences when placed in the position of the judge, suggesting that the information they recalled was not correct.
+Researchers in 1989 predicted that mock jurors would rate a witness to be more deceptive if the witness testified truthfully before lying than when the witness was caught lying first before telling the truth. If the availability heuristic played a role in this, lying second would remain in jurors' minds (since it was more recent) and they would most likely remember the witness lying over the truthfulness. To test the hypothesis, 312 university students played the roles of mock jurors and watched a videotape of a witness presenting testimony during a trial. Results confirmed the hypothesis, as mock jurors were most influenced by the most recent act.
+
+=== Perceived risk ===
+
+Previous studies have indicated that explaining a hypothetical event makes the event seem more likely through the creation of causal connections. However, such effects could arise through the use of the availability heuristic; that is, subjective likelihood is increased by an event becoming easier to imagine.
+A study done asked those participating to pick between two illnesses. Those doing the study wanted to know which disease they thought was more likely to cause death. In the study, they asked participants to choose between a stroke and asthma as to which one someone was more likely to die from. The researchers concluded that it depended on what experiences were available to them. If they knew someone or heard of someone that died from one of the diseases that is the one they perceived to be a higher risk to die from.
+
+=== Vividness effects ===
+Two studies with 108 undergraduates investigated vivid information and its impact on social judgment and the availability heuristic and its role in mediating vividness effects.
+In study 1, Subjects listened to a tape recording that described a woman who lived with her 7-year-old son. Subjects then heard arguments about the woman's fitness as a parent and were asked to draw their own conclusions regarding her fitness or unfitness. The concrete and colorful language were found to influence judgments about the woman's fitness as a mother.
+In study 2, a series of male and female names were presented to subjects; for each name, subjects were told the university affiliation of the individual (Yale or Stanford). When some names were presented, subjects were simultaneously shown a photograph that purportedly portrayed the named individual. Subsequently, to assess what subjects could remember (as a measure of availability), each name was represented, as well as the appropriate photograph if one had been originally presented. The study considered whether the display or non-display of photographs biased subjects' estimates as to the percentage of Yale (vs Stanford) students in the sample of men and women whose names appeared on the original list, and whether these estimated percentages were causally related to the respondents' memory for the college affiliations of the individual students on the list. The presence of photographs affected judgments about the proportion of male and female students at the two universities. Such effects have typically been attributed to the ready accessibility of vividly presented information in memory—that is, to the availability heuristic.
+In both studies, vividness affected both availability (ability to recall) and judgments. However, causal modeling results indicated that the availability heuristic did not play a role in the judgment process.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-5.md
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+---
+title: "Availability heuristic"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Judging frequency and probability ===
+In general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. Consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. Such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatoric outcomes, and of repeated events. The phenomenon of illusory correlation is explained as an availability bias.
+In the original Tversky and Kahneman (1973) research, three major factors that are discussed are the frequency of repetition, frequency of co-occurrence, and illusory correlation. The use of frequency of repetition aids in the retrieval of relevant instances. The idea behind this phenomenon is that the more an instance is repeated within a category or list, the stronger the link between the two instances becomes. Individuals then use the strong association between the instances to determine the frequency of an instance. Consequently, the association between the category or list and the specific instance often influences frequency judgement. Frequency of co-occurrence strongly relates to Frequency of repetition, such that the more an item-pair is repeated, the stronger the association between the two items becomes, leading to a bias when estimating the frequency of co-occurrence. Due to the phenomena of frequency of co-occurrence, illusory correlations also often play a big role.
+Another factor that affects the availability heuristic in frequency and probability is exemplars. Exemplars are the typical examples that stand out during the process of recall. If asked what participants thought different set sizes were (how many men and how many women are in the class), participants would use exemplars to determine the size of each set.  Participants would derive their answers on ease of recall of the names that stood out. Participants read a list of names of members of a class for 30 seconds, and then participants were asked the male to female ratio of the class. The participant's answer would depend on the recall of exemplars. If the participant reading the list recalled seeing more common male names, such as Jack, but the only female names in the class were uncommon names, such as Deepika, then the participant will recall that there were more men than women. The opposite would be true if there were more common female names on the list and uncommon male names. Due to the availability heuristic, names that are more easily available are more likely to be recalled, and can thus alter judgments of probability.
+Another example of the availability heuristic and exemplars would be seeing a shark in the ocean. Seeing a shark has a greater impact on an individual's memory than seeing a dolphin.  If someone sees both sharks and dolphins in the ocean, they will be less aware of seeing the dolphins, because the dolphins had less of an impact on their memory. Due to the greater impact of seeing a shark, the availability heuristic can influence the probability judgement of the ratio of sharks and dolphins in the water. Thus, an individual who saw both a shark and a dolphin would assume a higher ratio of sharks in the water, even if there are more dolphins in reality.
+
+== Critiques ==
+
+=== Ease of recall as a critique ===
+One of the earliest and most powerful critiques of the original Tversky and Kahneman study on the availability heuristic was the Schwarz et al. study which found that the ease of recall was a key component in determining whether a concept became available.  Many studies since this criticism of the original availability heuristic model have repeated this initial criticism, that the ease of recall factor became an integral facet of the availability heuristic itself (see Research section).
+
+=== Alternative explanations ===
+Much of the criticism against the availability heuristic has claimed that making use of the content that becomes available in our mind is not based on the ease of recall as suggested by Schwarz et al.  For example, it could be argued that recalling more words that begin with K than words with the third letter being K could arise from how we categorize and process words into our memory.  If we categorize words by the first letter and recall them through the same process, this would show more support for the representative heuristic than the availability heuristic.  Based on the possibility of explanations such as these, some researchers have claimed that the classic studies on the availability heuristic are too vague in that they fail to account for people's underlying mental processes.  Indeed, a study conducted by Wanke et al. demonstrated this scenario can occur in situations used to test the availability heuristic.
+A second line of study has shown that frequency estimation may not be the only strategy we use when making frequency judgments.  A recent line of research has shown that our situational working memory can access long-term memories, and this memory retrieval process includes the ability to determine more accurate probabilities.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Anomic aphasia
+Attribute substitution
+Cache language model
+Confirmation bias
+Gambler's fallacy
+List of cognitive biases
+Recency bias
+Streetlight effect
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+How Belief Works – an article on the origins of the availability bias.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babble_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babble_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Babble hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babble_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:03.879807+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In psycholinguistics and leadership studies, the babble hypothesis (demonstratively labelled the babble effect) is a conjecture that posits a strong correlation between the amount or quantity of speaking time an individual has in group settings and their likelihood of emerging as a leader, as commonly opposed to quality of speech. According to the hypothesis, individuals who contribute more verbal input during group interactions are perceived to have increased speaking time which in turn increases likelihood of them being perceived and recognized as leaders. Those individuals who speak more also receive higher ratings on leader, communication and contribution-related measures.
+
+
+== Past research ==
+Research into the idea that emerging leaders talk a lot has been around for a long time, with Bales making this claim in 1950. One of the earliest studies that directly varied the quality and quantity of verbal interaction was by Regula and Julian (1973). They found that variations in the quantity but not in the quality of task contributions affected whether the power to influence others was attributed to an individual.
+There have since been many studies investigating the extent to which speaking time can predict the emergence of leaders in previously leaderless groups. However, many have been either ecologically invalid or used approaches to data collection and analysis techniques that were not comprehensive enough to produce applicable results, namely Riecken (1958), Jaffee and Lucas (1969), and Bavelas, Hastorf, Gross and Kite (1965). 
+After examining the flaws of previous research, McLaren et al. attempted to address these weaknesses in their own study. In it, diverse groups of participants were observed in challenging strategy games, with measurement of both speaking time and the substance of their utterances. The study confirmed that speaking time had the highest correlation with leadership emergence, surpassing other factors such as intelligence, agreeableness, and game proficiency. 
+Although the quality of what an individual was saying was not found to have a significant influence, the physical behaviours associated with individuals' speaking time seemed important in their emergence as leaders. This included counts of eye fixation and vocal pitch. Further research shows speaking time and seating position both emerged as significant predictors of more visual attention, which individuals pay more to their perceived leaders. Speaking time was also positively correlated to judges' perceptions of dominance. Dominance is a key quality of leaders, as theories of followership claim people favour dominant leaders in order to enhance their ability to aggress against out-groups.
+The study also noted the secondary influence of gender. Gender was found to influence both production and interpretation of speaking time, consistent with the expectation states theory. This theory predicts that in groups that vary in external status markers, such as gender, age and intelligence, the markers become predictors of within-group status through both direct, including voting behaviour, and indirect pathways like speaking time.
+
+
+== The impact of gender differences ==
+The reason for underrepresentation of women in emerging leadership positions can be explained by objective speaking time differences. Equal speaking times are thought to narrow the leadership emergence gender gap. There does not seem to be a correlation with gender differences in leader effectiveness. A follow-up study however found no significant effects for gender when predicting leader emergence or in the amount of time that women and men spoke. This reinforces the idea that speaking time has a larger influence on leadership emergence than the qualities and identity the emerging leader may have.
+Changing stereotypes about women and their role in society have allowed women to become more agentic, and this trait has been hypothesised to have a positive relationship with participation. Participation, consistent with the babble hypothesis, increases the likelihood of leader emergence by increasing the prominence a group member has within their group.
+Other variables have been found, however, that result in women being less likely to emerge as leaders. Examples of these include the group's cultural background (less egalitarian cultural groups are less likely to have women emerge as leaders) and the amount of time spent interacting with a possible emerging leader (gender differences were found to be attenuated when raters had a larger length of time or multiple occasions to make their judgement on whether someone is an adequate leader). Nevertheless, increased time spent may increase an individual's perceived speaking time and this may be the reason for the leader emergence.
+
+
+== Criticisms and conclusions ==
+Group members seem to regulate the speaking time of other members; suggesting that speaking time may be a result of group processes and perceptions (Bass, 1990). He argued for a dichotomy of quality and quantity of speech.
+Furthermore, a 2011 study found that certain personality traits, such as authoritarianism, creativity, extraversion and intelligence, predicted who would emerge as a leader in a previously leaderless group. These, consistently with Bass' theory, will be reflected by the quality of what an emerging leader is saying. Although it may be argued one with more speaking time will have more opportunity to display these personality traits, this research suggests a combination of quality and speaking time will predict leader emergence rather than speaking time alone, challenging the babble hypothesis.
+Furthermore, the idea that leadership emergence does not depend on the identity of emerging leaders goes against the social categorisation theory of leadership. Social identity theory states that individuals develop their social identity based on their unique characteristics and their affiliation with a social group, namely their shared experiences with others in the group (Tajfel & Turner (1986)). The social categorisation theory of leadership suggests that people who internalise the identity of the group, and make it part of their social identity, are more likely to emerge as leaders. Leader emergence therefore occurs according to the group prototype, which is the group members' shared representation of their group, including its norms, values, beliefs, and aspirations. This links to both the expectations that members of a group have for their leader and the quality of their leadership, rather than only their speaking time. 
+Although speaking time may be an accurate predictor of leadership emergence, there are other factors that can impact the extent of the accuracy of predictions based on the babble hypothesis, as many other elements such as gender and expectations can play a role in individuals' perceptions of adequate leaders.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Agitprop
+Active measures
+Big lie
+Cult of personality
+Firehose of falsehood
+Gish gallop
+Peter principle
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method-0.md
index 8f658032b..08f9c6a18 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:38:15.416620+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:21.768116+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method-1.md
index 39e437427..0ab5320d3 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method-1.md
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:38:15.416620+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:21.768116+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum-0.md
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+---
+title: "Balance of angular momentum"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:14.393868+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In classical mechanics, the balance of angular momentum, also known as Euler's second law, is a fundamental law of physics stating that a torque (a twisting force that causes rotation) must be applied to change the angular momentum (a measure of rotational motion) of a body. This principle, distinct from Newton's laws of motion, governs rotational dynamics. For example, to spin a playground merry-go-round, a push is needed to increase its angular momentum, while friction in the bearings and drag create opposing forces that slowly reduce it, eventually stopping the motion.
+
+First articulated by Swiss mathematician and physicist Leonhard Euler in 1775, the balance of angular momentum is a cornerstone of physics with broad applications. It implies the equality of corresponding shear stresses and the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor in continuum mechanics, a result also consistent with the Boltzmann Axiom, which posits that internal forces in a continuum are torque-free. These concepts—the balance of angular momentum, the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor, and the Boltzmann Axiom—are interconnected, as the former provides a physical basis for the latter two in continuum mechanics. It is also vital for analyzing systems like the spinning top, determining the skew-symmetric part of the stress tensor, and understanding the gyroscopic effect linked to the D'Alembert force.
+
+== Mathematical definition ==
+The mathematical formulation states that the rate of change 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    L
+                    →
+                  
+                
+                ˙
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {\vec {L}}}_{c}}
+  
+ of angular momentum 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                L
+                →
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {L}}_{c}}
+  
+ about a point 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              c
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {c}}}
+  
+, is equal to the sum of the external torques 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                M
+                →
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {M}}_{c}}
+  
+ acting on that body about that point:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                M
+                →
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    L
+                    →
+                  
+                
+                ˙
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {M}}_{c}={\dot {\vec {L}}}_{c}}
+  
+
+The point 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              c
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {c}}}
+  
+ is a fixed point in an inertial system or the center of mass of the body. In the special case, when external torques vanish, it shows that the angular momentum is preserved. The d'Alembert force counteracting the change of angular momentum shows as a gyroscopic effect.
+
+== History ==
+Swiss mathematician Jakob I Bernoulli applied the balance of angular momentum in 1703 – without explicitly formulating it – to find the center of oscillation of a pendulum, which he had already done in a first, somewhat incorrect manner in 1686. The balance of angular momentum thus preceded Newton's laws, which were first published in 1687.
+In 1744, Euler was the first to use the principles of momentum and of angular momentum to state the equations of motion of a system. In 1750, in his treatise "Discovery of a new principle of mechanics" he published the Euler's equations of rigid body dynamics, which today are derived from the balance of angular momentum, which Euler, however, could deduce for the rigid body from Newton's second law. After studies on plane elastic continua, which are indispensable to the balance of the torques, Euler raised the balance of angular momentum to an independent principle for calculation of the movement of bodies in 1775.
+In 1822, French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy introduced the stress tensor whose symmetry in combination with the balance of linear momentum made sure the fulfillment of the balance of angular momentum in the general case of the deformable body. The interpretation 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              M
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  L
+                  →
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {M}}={\dot {\vec {L}}}}
+  
+ of the balance of angular momentum was first noted by M. P. Saint-Guilhem in 1851.
+
+== Kinetics of rotation ==
+Kinetics deals with states that are not in mechanical equilibrium. According to Newton's second law, an external force leads to a change in velocity (acceleration) of a body. Analogously an external torque means a change in angular velocity resulting in an angular acceleration. The inertia relating to rotation depends not only on the mass of a body but also on its spatial distribution. With a rigid body this is expressed by the moment of inertia. With a rotation around a fixed axis, the torque is proportional to the angular acceleration with the moment of inertia as proportionality factor. Here the moment of inertia is not only dependent on the position of the axis of rotation (see Steiner Theorem) but also on its direction. Should the above law be formulated more generally for any axis of rotation then the inertia tensor must be used.
+With the two-dimensional special case, a torque only results in an acceleration or slowing down of a rotation. With the general three-dimensional case, however, it can also alter the direction of the axis (precession).
+
+== Formulations ==
+In rigid body dynamics the balance of angular momentum leads to Euler's equations.
+In continuum mechanics the balance of angular momentum leads to Cauchy's second law of motion, that states the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor. The Boltzmann Axiom has the same consequence.
+
+== Boltzmann Axiom ==
+
+In 1905, Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann pointed out that with reduction of a body into infinitesimally smaller volume elements, the inner reactions have to meet all static conditions for mechanical equilibrium. Cauchy's stress theorem handles the equilibrium in terms of force. For the analogous statement in terms of torque, German mathematician Georg Hamel coined the name Boltzmann Axiom.
+This axiom is equivalent to the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor. For the resultants of the stresses do not exert a torque on the volume element, the resultant force must lead through the center of the volume element. The line of action of the inertia forces and the normal stress resultants σxx·dy and σyy·dx lead through the center of the volume element. In order that the shear stress resultants τxy·dy and τyx·dx lead through the center of the volume element
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                τ
+                
+                  x
+                  y
+                
+              
+              
+                d
+              
+              y
+            
+            
+              
+                τ
+                
+                  y
+                  x
+                
+              
+              
+                d
+              
+              x
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              y
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              x
+            
+          
+        
+        
+        →
+        
+        
+          τ
+          
+            y
+            x
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          τ
+          
+            x
+            y
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\tau _{xy}\mathrm {d} y}{\tau _{yx}\mathrm {d} x}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} y}{\mathrm {d} x}}\quad \rightarrow \quad \tau _{yx}=\tau _{xy}}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum-1.md
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+---
+title: "Balance of angular momentum"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_angular_momentum"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:14.393868+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+must hold. This is actually the statement of the equality of corresponding shear stresses in the xy plane.
+
+== Cosserat Continuum ==
+In addition to the torque-free classical continuum with a symmetric stress tensor, cosserat continua (polar continua) that are not torque-free have also been defined. One application of such a continuum is the theory of shells. Cosserat continua are not only capable to transport a momentum flux but also an angular momentum flux. Therefore, there also may be sources of momentum and angular momentum inside the body. Here the Boltzmann Axiom does not apply and the stress tensor may be skew-symmetric.
+If these fluxes are treated as usual in continuum mechanics, field equations arise in which the skew-symmetric part of the stress tensor has no energetic significance. The balance of angular momentum becomes independent of the balance of energy and is used to determine the skew-symmetric part of the stress tensor. American mathematician Clifford Truesdell saw in this the "true basic sense of Euler's second law".
+
+== Area rule ==
+
+The area rule is a corollary of the angular momentum law in the form: The resulting moment is equal to the product of twice the mass and the time derivative of the areal velocity.
+It refers to the ray 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}}
+  
+ to a point mass with mass m. This has the angular momentum with the velocity 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  r
+                  →
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {\vec {r}}}}
+  
+ and the momentum 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              p
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  r
+                  →
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {p}}=m{\dot {\vec {r}}}}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              L
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        ×
+        
+          
+            
+              p
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        ×
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  r
+                  →
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        ×
+        
+          d
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          d
+        
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {L}}={\vec {r}}\times {\vec {p}}=m{\vec {r}}\times {\dot {\vec {r}}}=m{\vec {r}}\times \mathrm {d} {\vec {r}}/\mathrm {d} t}
+  
+.
+In the infinitesimal time dt the trajectory sweeps over a triangle whose content is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          d
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        ×
+        
+          d
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} {\vec {A}}={\tfrac {1}{2}}{\vec {r}}\times \mathrm {d} {\vec {r}}}
+  
+, see image, areal velocity and cross product "×". This is how it turns out:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              L
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        ×
+        
+          d
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              r
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          d
+        
+        t
+        =
+        2
+        m
+        
+        
+          d
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          d
+        
+        t
+        =
+        2
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  A
+                  →
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {L}}=m{\vec {r}}\times \mathrm {d} {\vec {r}}/\mathrm {d} t=2m\,\mathrm {d} {\vec {A}}/\mathrm {d} t=2m{\dot {\vec {A}}}}
+  
+.
+With Euler's second law this becomes:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              M
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  L
+                  →
+                
+              
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        2
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  A
+                  →
+                
+              
+              ¨
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {M}}={\dot {\vec {L}}}=2m{\ddot {\vec {A}}}}
+  
+.
+The special case of plane, moment-free central force motion is treated by Kepler's second law, also known as the area rule.
+
+== See also ==
+Conservation of angular momentum
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berserker_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berserker_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Berserker hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berserker_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:05.161026+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Berserker hypothesis, also known as the deadly probes scenario, is the idea that humans have not yet detected intelligent alien life in the universe because it has been systematically destroyed by a series of lethal Von Neumann probes. The hypothesis is named after the Berserker series of novels (1963–2005) written by Fred Saberhagen.
+The hypothesis has no single known proposer, and instead is thought to have emerged over time in response to the Hart–Tipler conjecture, the idea that an absence of detectable Von Neumann probes is contrapositive evidence that no intelligent life exists outside of the Solar System. According to the Berserker hypothesis, an absence of such probes is not evidence of life's absence, since interstellar probes could "go berserk" and destroy other civilizations, before self-destructing.
+In his 1983 paper "The Great Silence", astronomer David Brin summarized the implications of the Berserker hypothesis: it is entirely compatible with all the facts and logic of the Fermi paradox, but would mean that there exists no intelligent life left to be discovered. In the worst case, humanity has already alerted others to its  existence, and is next in line to be destroyed.
+
+There is no need to struggle to suppress the elements of the Drake equation in order to explain the Great Silence, nor need we suggest that no [intelligent aliens] anywhere would bear the cost of interstellar travel. It need only happen once for the results of this scenario to become the equilibrium conditions in the Galaxy. We would not have detected extra-terrestrial radio traffic – nor would any [intelligent aliens] have ever settled on Earth – because all were killed shortly after discovering radio.
+
+
+== Background ==
+
+There is no reliable or reproducible evidence that aliens have visited Earth. No transmissions or evidence of intelligent life have been observed anywhere other than Earth in the Universe. This runs counter to the knowledge that the Universe is filled with a very large number of planets, some of which likely hold the conditions hospitable for life. Life typically expands until it fills all available niches. These contradictory facts form the basis for the Fermi paradox, of which the Berserker hypothesis is one proposed solution.
+
+
+=== Sentinel type Berserker ===
+In his science fiction novel "The Sentinel", Arthur C. Clarke propose that instead of an advanced civilisation sending a berserker to seek and destroy cosmic civilisations as they emerge past a given stage of development, a sentinel is placed in the vicinity of an emerging civilisation, passively waiting to be discovered by it, once this watched civilisation reaches the specific stage of development that allows it to reach and find it.
+In this approach, the placement of the sentinel would determine the target stage at which emerging civilisations should be eliminated; a moon of the home planet, a near-by planet, the edge of the solar system, or the nearest solar system, all entail different levels of technological advancement that the watched civilisation must reach before the sentinel is activated.
+
+
+== Responses ==
+A key component of the hypothesis is that Earth's solar system has not yet been visited by a Berserker probe. In a 2013 analysis by Anders Sandberg and Stuart Armstrong at the Future of Humanity Institute at University of Oxford, they predicted that even a slowly replicated set of Berserker probes, if it were able to destroy civilizations elsewhere, would also very likely have already encountered (and destroyed) humanity.
+
+
+== Relationship to other proposed Fermi paradox solutions ==
+The Berserker hypothesis is distinct from the dark forest hypothesis in that under the latter, many alien civilizations could still exist provided they keep silent. The dark forest hypothesis can be viewed as a special case of the Berserker hypothesis, if the 'deadly Berserker probes' are (e.g. due to resource scarcity) only sent to star systems that show signs of intelligent life. 
+The Great Filter hypothesis is a more general counterpart to the Berserker hypothesis, which posits that a great event or barrier prevents early-stage extraterrestrial life from developing into intelligent space-faring civilizations. In the Berserker hypothesis framing, the filter would exist between the industrial age and widespread space colonization.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Biophilia hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:06.376743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The biophilia hypothesis (also called BET) suggests that humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with nature and other forms of life. Edward O. Wilson introduced and popularized the hypothesis in his book, Biophilia (1984). He defines biophilia as the "innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes". He argued that "to explore and affiliate with life is a deep and complicated process in mental development. To an extent still undervalued in philosophy and religion, our existence depends on this propensity, our spirit is woven from it, hope rises on its currents". Wilson saw modern biology as converging with biophilia: "Modern biology has produced a genuinely new way of looking at the world that is incidentally congenial to the inner direction of biophilia. In other words, instinct is in this rare instance aligned with reason.... to the degree that we come to understand other organisms, we will place a greater value on them, and on ourselves".
+
+== Natural affinity for living systems ==
+"Biophilia" is an innate affinity of life or living systems. The term was first used by Erich Fromm to describe a psychological orientation of being attracted to all that is alive and vital. Wilson uses the term  in a related sense when he suggests that biophilia describes "the connections that human beings subconsciously seek with the rest of life." He proposed the possibility that the deep affiliations humans have with other life forms and nature as a whole are rooted in our biology. Both positive and negative (including phobic) affiliations toward natural objects (species, phenomenon) as compared to artificial objects are evidence for biophilia.
+Although named by Fromm, the concept of biophilia has been proposed and defined many times over. Aristotle was one of many to put forward a concept that could be summarized as "love of life". Diving into the term philia, or friendship, Aristotle evokes the idea of reciprocity and how friendships are beneficial to both parties in more than just one way, but especially in the way of happiness.
+The hypothesis has since been developed as part of theories of evolutionary psychology. Taking on an evolutionary perspective, people being drawn towards life and nature can be explained in part due to our evolutionary history of residing in natural environments, as only recently in our history have we shifted towards an urbanized lifestyle. These connections to nature can still be seen in people today as people gravitate towards, identify with, and desire to connect with nature. These connections are not limited to any one component part of nature, as people show connections to a wide range of natural things including plants, animals, and environmental landscapes. One possible explanation is that our ancestors who had stronger connections to nature would hold an evolutionary advantage over less connected people as they would have better knowledge and therefore access to food, water, and shelter. In a broader and more general sense research has suggested that our modern urban environments are not suited for minds that evolved in natural environments.
+Human preferences toward things in nature, while refined through experience and culture, are hypothetically the product of biological evolution. For example, adult mammals (especially humans) are generally attracted to baby mammal faces with their large eyes and rounded features and find them appealing across species. Similarly, the hypothesis helps explain why ordinary people care for and sometimes risk their lives to save domestic and wild animals, and keep plants and flowers in and around their homes. In the book Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations edited by Peter Kahn and Stephen Kellert, the importance of animals, especially those with which a child can develop a nurturing relationship, is emphasized particularly for early and middle childhood. The same book reports on the help that animals can provide to children with autistic-spectrum disorders.
+
+=== Physiological responses: fractal fluency ===
+Fractal fluency is a neuroscience model that proposes that, through exposure to nature's fractal scenery, people's visual systems have adapted to efficiently process fractals with ease. Fractals are patterns that repeat at different scales. Examples in natural scenery include clouds, mountains and trees. This adaptation to fractal patterns occurs at many stages of the visual system, from the way people's eyes move to which regions of the brain get activated. Fluency puts the viewer in a ‘comfort zone’ so inducing an aesthetic experience. Humans appear to be especially well-adapted to processing fractal patterns with fractal dimension between 1.3 and 1.5. When humans view fractal patterns with fractal dimensions in this range, these fractals reduce physiological stress and boost cognitive abilities.
+Biophilic fractals are patterns designed to induce the health and well-being benefits associated with exposure to nature's scenery. These include stress-reduction and enhanced cognitive capacity. Designers and architects incorporate biophilic fractals into the built environment to counter the fact that people spend 92% of their time indoors and away from nature's scenery. The Fractal Chapel designed by INNOCAD architecture in the state hospital in Graz, Austria, is a prominent example and recipient of the 2025 IIDA (International Interior Design Association) Best of Competition Award.
+
+== Indigenous perspectives on the human-nature connection ==
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+---
+title: "Biophilia hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:06.376743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Many Indigenous cultures do not draw a sharp distinction between humans and nature. In these traditions, humans may be understood as an integral part of the natural world rather than as separate from it. Human practices and ways of life may be seen to be based in relationships of reciprocity involving all living beings and the environment.
+At the heart of such belief systems is the concept of kinship, which extends beyond human relationships and includes elements of the natural world. Humans, other animals, plants and soil are seen as dependent on each other for survival and health. For example, the Haudenosaunee people express this idea through a "Thanksgiving Address", a ceremony intended to honor all aspects of nature.
+Some Indigenous cultures have developed what has been referred to as "traditional ecological knowledge". This may include ostensibly sustainable stewardship practices such as controlled burns of vegetation, as employed in some traditional Native American and Aboriginal Australian societies. In Hawaii, the idea of Aloha_ʻĀina aloha has served as a guide for responsible resource use.
+Indigenous and animist beliefs typically view nature as sacred. Specific sites, species, or phenomena holding deep significance. Emphasis is put on objectives such as reciprocity and balance. This may imply an idea of nature restoration through sustainable practices, rituals, and ceremonies. For instance, the Anishinaabe make offerings before harvesting wild rice.
+
+== Biophilic design ==
+In architecture, biophilic design is a sustainable design strategy that incorporates reconnecting people with the natural environment. It may be seen as a necessary complement to green architecture, which decreases the environmental impact of the built world but does not address human reconnection with the natural world.
+Caperna and Serafini define biophilic design as that kind of architecture, which is able to supply our inborn need of connection to life and to the vital processes. Biophilic space has been defined as the environment that strengthens life and supports the sociological and psychological components. These spaces can have positive health effects on people including reducing mental health issues in stressful spaces such as prisons, reducing chronic pain, improving memory, and lowering blood pressure. Examples of this being studied in medical settings include having a window looking out to see living plants is also shown to help speed up the healing process of patients in hospitals. Similarly, having plants in the same room as patients in hospitals also speeds up their healing process.
+Biophilic fractals are patterns designed to induce the health and well-being benefits associated with exposure to nature's scenery. These include stress-reduction and enhanced cognitive capacity. Designers and architects incorporate biophilic fractals into the built environment to counter the fact that people spend 92% of their time indoors and away from nature's scenery. ScienceDesignLab's Fractal Chapel in the state hospital in Graz, Austria is a prominent example and recipient of the 2025 IIDA (International Interior Design Association) Best of Competition Award.
+
+== Biophilia and conservation ==
+Because of our technological advancements and more time spent inside buildings and cars disconnects us from nature, biophilic activities and time spent in nature may be strengthening our connections as humans to nature, so people continue to have strong urges to reconnect with nature. The concern for a lack of connection with the rest of nature outside of us, is that a stronger disregard for other plants, animals and less appealing wild areas could lead to further ecosystem degradation and species loss. Therefore, reestablishing a connection with nature has become more important in the field of conservation. Examples would be more available green spaces in and around cities, more classes that revolve around nature and implementing smart design for greener cities that integrate ecosystems into them such as biophilic cities. These cities can also become part of wildlife corridors to help with migrational and territorial needs of other animals.
+
+== Biophilia in fiction ==
+Canadian author Hilary Scharper explicitly adapted E.O. Wilson's concept of biophilia for her ecogothic novel, Perdita. In the novel, Perdita (meaning "the lost one") is a mythological figure who brings biophilia to humanity.
+
+== See also ==
+Biocultural evolution
+Biomimetics
+Deep ecology
+Ecopsychology
+Environmental psychology
+Healthy building
+Nature deficit disorder
+Nature therapy
+Technobiophilia
+Ecosexuality
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Edward O. Wilson's Biophilia Hypothesis
+Biophilia, biomimicry, and sustainable design
+The Economics of Biophilia - Terrapin Bright Green
+Biophilia, website for Biophilia magazine
+"Biophilic Design Patterns: Emerging Nature-Based Parameters for Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment" by Catherine O. Ryan, William D Browning, Joseph O Clancy, Scott L Andrews, Namita B Kallianpurkar (ArchNet-International Journal of Architectural Research)
+14 Patterns of Biophilic Design - Terrapin Bright Green
+"Biophilia: Does Visual Contact with Nature Impact on Health and Well-Being?" - National Center for Biotechnology Information
+"Biophilic Architecture and Biophilic Design" by Antonio Caperna, International Society of Biourbanism
+"Biourbanism for a healthy city: biophilia and sustainable urban theories and practices" Archived 2018-05-24 at the Wayback Machine by Antonio Caperna and Eleni Tracada, University of Derby (UK) - UDORA Repository
+"Introduction to Biophilic Biophilic Design" by Antonio Caperna, International Society of Biourbanism
+"Biophilic Design", Journal of Biourbanism Volume VI (1&2/2017) by Antonio Caperna Editor in Chief, International Society of Biourbanism
+
+Italian Academy of Biophilia (AIB) - Italian Academy of Biophilia (AIB)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Black Sea deluge hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:07.496507+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Black Sea deluge is the best known of three hypothetical flood scenarios for the Late Quaternary history of the Black Sea that have been proposed since 1997. One other flood scenario proposes a rapid, even catastrophic, rise in sea level of the Black Sea. The maximum depth of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits is 110 meters (360 ft) and 103 meters (338 ft), respectively, which would put them above the ocean levels in the Last Glacial Maximum, some 125 meters (410 ft) lower than in present times. The hypothesis is controversial, with other authors arguing for a more gradual inundation of the Black Sea.
+
+== History ==
+
+In 1997, William Ryan, Walter Pitman, Petko Dimitrov, and their colleagues first published the Black Sea deluge hypothesis. They proposed that a catastrophic inflow of Mediterranean seawater into the Black Sea freshwater lake occurred around 7,600 years ago, c. 5600 BCE.
+As proposed, the Early Holocene Black Sea flood scenario describes events that would have profoundly affected prehistoric settlement in Eastern Europe and adjacent parts of Asia and possibly was the basis of oral history concerning the myth of Noah's flood. Some archaeologists support this theory as an explanation for the lack of Neolithic sites in northern Turkey. In 2003, Ryan and coauthors revised the dating of the early Holocene flood to 8,800 years ago, c. 6800 BCE.
+Before that date, glacial meltwater had turned the Black and Caspian seas into vast freshwater lakes draining into the Aegean Sea. As glaciers retreated, some of the rivers emptying into the Black Sea declined in volume and changed course to drain into the North Sea. The levels of the lakes dropped through evaporation, while changes in worldwide hydrology caused global sea levels to rise.
+The rising Mediterranean finally spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus. The event flooded 100,000 km2 (39,000 sq mi) of land and significantly expanded the Black Sea shoreline to the north and west. According to these researchers, 50 km3 (10 cu mi) of water poured through each day. The Bosporus valley roared and surged at full spate for at least 300 days. They argued that the catastrophic inflow of seawater resulted from an abrupt sea-level jump that accompanied the Laurentide Ice Sheet collapse and the ensuing breach of a bedrock barrier in the Bosporus strait.
+
+=== Popular press accounts ===
+Popular discussion of this early Holocene Black Sea flood scenario was headlined in The New York Times in December 1996 and later published as a book.  In a series of expeditions widely covered by mainstream media, a team of marine archaeologists led by Robert Ballard identified what appeared to be ancient shorelines, freshwater snail shells, drowned river valleys, tool-worked timbers, and man-made structures in roughly 100 metres (330 ft) of water off the Black Sea coast of modern Turkey.
+
+== Late Pleistocene Great Flood hypothesis ==
+In 2003 and 2007, a more ancient catastrophic flood scenario was proposed by Andrei L. Chepalyga for the Late Quaternary sea level rise of the Black Sea. The hypothesis for a "Late Pleistocene Great Flood" argues that a brackish Neoeuxinian Lake, which occupied the Black Sea basin, was rapidly inundated by glacial meltwater overflow from the Caspian Sea via the Manych-Kerch Spillway shortly after the Late Glacial Maximum, about 17,000–14,000 years ago. These extensive meltwater flooding events linked several lacustrine and marine water bodies, starting with the southern edge of the Scandinavian Peninsula and southward, through spillways to the Manych-Kerch and Bosporus, ultimately forming what has been referred to as the Cascade of Eurasian Basins. This event is argued to have caused a rapid, if not catastrophic, rise in the level of the Black Sea. It might have imposed substantial stresses upon contemporary human populations and remained in cultural memory as the Great Flood. The authors also suggested that the event might have stimulated the beginning of shipping and horse domestication.
+
+== Black Sea gradual inundation hypothesis ==
+In addition to the early Holocene "Noah's Flood" scenario proposed by Ryan, Pitman, Dimitrov, and their colleagues and the Caspian Sea overflow scenario of Chepalyga, the non-catastrophic progressive flood model (or gradual inflow model) has been proposed to explain the Late Quaternary sea level history of the Black Sea.
+About 8,000 years ago, the level of the Marmara Sea would have risen high enough for two-way flow to start. The evidence used to support this scenario includes the disparate ages of sapropel deposition in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea; buried back-stepping barrier islands observed on the Black Sea shelf; and an under-water delta in the Marmara Sea, near the Bosporus Strait, composed of Black Sea sediments.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-1.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+---
+title: "Black Sea deluge hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:07.496507+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Counter-arguments ==
+ 
+Criticisms of the deluge hypothesis hinge on two main lines of arguments. The first mainly focuses on the water level of the Black Sea: if the magnitude and pace of the rise of the Black Sea level was moderate enough, or if it even outpaced the rise in the Aegean basin (with water flowing, when they reconnected, from the former to the latter as it does now), or if the straits were already opened (at a lower level than now) and the two basins already connected at the time of the hypothesised flood, the catastrophe hypothesis is voided. The second is the lack of archaeological evidence one would expect of a flood, such as impact on geology, wildlife or humans. 
+Since the end of the last glacial period, the global sea level has risen 120 m (390 ft). The flood hypothesis hinges on the geomorphology of the Bosporus since the end of the glacial age. The Black Sea area has been isolated and reconnected many times during the last 500,000 years.
+Opponents of the deluge hypothesis point to clues that water was flowing out of the Black Sea basin as late as 15,000 years ago.
+In this alternative scenario, much depends on the evolution of the Bosporus. According to a study from 2001, the modern sill is 32–34 m (105–112 ft) below sea level and consists of Quaternary sand over-lying Paleozoic bedrock in which three sills are found at 80–85 m (260–280 ft) below sea level. Sedimentation on these sills started before 10,000 years ago and continued until 5,300 years ago.
+A large part of the academic geological community also continues to reject the idea that there could have been enough sustained long-term pressure by water from the Aegean to dig through a supposed isthmus at the present Bosporus or enough of a difference in water levels, if any, between the two water basins.
+In 2007, a research anthology on the topic was published which made much of the earlier Russian research available in English for the first time and combined it with more recent scientific findings.
+The level in the Black Sea before the marine reconnection was estimated to have been 30 m (100 ft) below present sea level, rather than 80 m (260 ft) of the catastrophe theories or even lower; if the flood occurred at all, the sea level increase and the flooded area during the reconnection were significantly smaller than previously proposed. Since the depth of the Bosporus, in its middle furrow, at present varies from 36 to 124 m (118 to 407 ft), with an average depth of 65 m (213 ft), a calculated Stone Age shoreline in the Black Sea lying 30 m (100 ft) lower than in the present day would imply that the contact with the Mediterranean might never have been broken during the Holocene, and hence there could have been no sudden waterfall-style transgression. The flooding could have been "not so big".
+In 2011, several authors concluded that "there is no underwater archaeological evidence to support any catastrophic submergence of prehistoric Black Sea settlements during the late Pleistocene or early Holocene intervals".
+A 2012 study based on process length variation of the dinoflagellate cyst Lingulodinium machaerophorum shows no evidence for catastrophic flooding. 
+However, Geophysical, geochronological, and geochemical evidence points to a "fast transgression" of the submergence lasting between 10 and 200 years.
+A 2022 literature review concluded that there was insufficient evidence for a flood scenario. It was more likely that the waters of the Black Sea itself gradually outflowed to the Mediterranean. There was also no archaeological evidence of humans evacuating the area during the relevant time.
+
+== See also ==
+Black Sea undersea river – Saline water current in the Black Sea
+Altai flood – Prehistoric event in Central Asia
+Flood myth – Myth in which a great flood destroys civilization
+Noah's Ark – Vessel in the Genesis flood narrative
+4.2 kiloyear event – Severe climatic event starting around 2200 BCPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+5.9 kiloyear event – North Atlantic ice rafting eventsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+8.2 kiloyear event – Rapid global cooling about 8,200 years agoPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+West Siberian Glacial Lake – Periglacial lake of the Weichselian Glaciation
+Zanclean flood – Theoretical refilling of the Mediterranean Sea between the Miocene and Pliocene Epochs, flooding of the Mediterranean
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-2.md
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+---
+title: "Black Sea deluge hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:07.496507+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Aksu, Ali E.; Hiscott, Richard N.; Mudie, Peta J.; Rochon, André; Kaminski, Michael A.; Abrajano, Teofilo; Yaşar, Doğan (2002). "Persistent Holocene Outflow from the Black Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean Contradicts Noah's Flood Hypothesis". GSA Today. 12 (5): 4. Bibcode:2002GSAT...12e...4A. doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2002)012<0004:PHOFTB>2.0.CO;2.
+Yanko-Hombach, Valentina; Gilbert, Allan S.; Panin, Nicolae; Dolukhanov, Pavel M., eds. (2007). The Black Sea Flood Question: Changes in Coastline, Climate, and Human Settlement. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5302-3. ISBN 978-1-4020-4774-9.
+Dimitrov, Petko; Dimitrov, Dimitar (2004). The Black Sea, the Flood and the ancient myths. "Slavena", Varna. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.18954.16327.
+Dimitrov, Dimitar Petkov (2010). Geology and Non-traditional resources of the Black Sea. LAP (Lambert Academic Publishing AG), Saarbrucken, Germany. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.20631.88486.
+Eris, K.; Ryan, W. B. F.; Cagatay, N.; Sancar, Ü.; Lericolais, G.; Menot, G.; Bard, E. (2008). "The timing and evolution of the post-glacial transgression across the Sea of Marmara shelf south of İstanbul" (PDF). Marine Geology. 243 (1–4): 57–76. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2007.04.010.
+Gökaşan, E.; Algan, O.; Tur, H.; Meriç, E.; Türker, A.; Şimşek, M. (2005). "Delta formation at the southern entrance of Istanbul Strait (Marmara sea, Turkey): a new interpretation based on high-resolution seismic stratigraphy". Geo-Marine Letters. 25 (6): 370–377. Bibcode:2005GML....25..370G. doi:10.1007/s00367-005-0215-4. S2CID 130792746.
+Keith, M.L.; Anderson, G.M. (1963). "Radiocarbon Dating: Fictitious Results with Mollusk Shells". Science. 141 (3581): 634–637. Bibcode:1963Sci...141..634K. doi:10.1126/science.141.3581.634. PMID 17781758. S2CID 24213036.
+Lericolais, G.; et al. (2009). "High frequency sea level fluctuations recorded in the Black Sea since the LGM". Global and Planetary Change. 66 (1–2): 65–75. Bibcode:2009GPC....66...65L. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.03.010. S2CID 140710053.
+Lippsett, Lonny (14 August 14, 2009). "Noah's Not-so-big Flood" Oceanus.
+National Geographic News. 2009-02-06. "Noah's Flood" Not Rooted in Reality, After All?
+"Ballard and the Black Sea". National Geographic Society.
+Schiermeier, Quirin (August 2004). "Noah's flood". Nature. 430 (7001): 718–719. doi:10.1038/430718a. PMID 15306780. Gale A186293984.
+The late glacial Great Flood in the Ponto-Caspian basin (Archived 2015-05-12 at the Wayback Machine). paleogeo.org.
+Ryan, William B.F.; Pitman, Walter C.; Major, Candace O.; Shimkus, Kazimieras; Moskalenko, Vladamir; Jones, Glenn A.; Dimitrov, Petko; Gorür, Naci; Sakinç, Mehmet; Yüce, Hüseyin (April 1997). "An abrupt drowning of the Black Sea shelf". Marine Geology. 138 (1–2): 119–126. Bibcode:1997MGeol.138..119R. doi:10.1016/s0025-3227(97)00007-8.
+Ryan, William B.; Pitman, Walter C. (2000). Noah's Flood: The new scientific discoveries about the event that changed history. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-85920-0.
+Shopov Y. Y., Т. Yalamov, P. Dimitrov, D. Dimitrov and B. Shkodrov (2009b) Initiation of the Migration of Vedic Aryans to India by a Catastrophic Flooding of the Black Sea by Mediterranean Sea during the Holocene". Extended Abstracts of LIMPACS-3 International Conference of IGBP, PAGES, 5–8 March 2009, Chandigarh, India, pp. 126–127.* Sperling, M.; Schmiedl, G.; Hemleben, C.; Emeis, K. C.; Erlenkeuser, H.; Grootes, P. M. (2003). "Black Sea impact on the formation of eastern Mediterranean sapropel S1? Evidence from the Marmara Sea". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 190: 9–21. Bibcode:2003PPP...190....9S. doi:10.1016/s0031-0182(02)00596-5.
+Yanko-Hombach, Valentina; Allan S. Gilbert; Nicolae Panin; Pavel M. Dolukhanov, eds. (2007). The Black Sea Flood Question. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-4774-9. OCLC 77482394.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-0.md
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-1.md
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-2.md
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-3.md
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_spectrum_revolution-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_spectrum_revolution-0.md
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+---
+title: "Broad spectrum revolution"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_spectrum_revolution"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:09.941400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The broad spectrum revolution (BSR) hypothesis, proposed by Kent Flannery in a 1968 paper presented to a London University symposium, suggested that the emergence of the Neolithic in southwest Asia was prefaced by increases in dietary breadth among foraging societies. The broad spectrum revolution followed the last glacial period around 15,000 BP in the Middle East and 12,000 BP in Europe. During this time, there was a transition from focusing on a few main food sources to gathering/hunting a "broad spectrum" of plants and animals.
+
+
+== Hypothesis details ==
+Flannery's hypothesis was meant to help explain the adoption of agriculture in the Neolithic Revolution. Unpersuaded by "the facile explanation of prehistoric environmental change" Flannery suggested (following Lewis Binford's equilibrium model) that population growth in optimal habitats led to demographic pressure within nearby marginal habitats as daughter groups migrated.  The search for more food within these marginal habitats forced foragers to diversify the types of food sources harvested, broadening the subsistence base outward to include more fish, small game, waterfowl, invertebrates (such as snails and shellfish), as well as previously ignored or marginal plant sources.  Most importantly, Flannery argues that the need for more food in these marginal environments led to the deliberate cultivation of certain plant species, especially cereals.  In optimal habitats, these plants naturally grew in relatively dense stands, but required human intervention in order to be efficiently harvested in marginal zones.  Thus, the broad spectrum revolution set the stage for domestication and rise of permanent agricultural settlement.
+
+
+=== Characteristics ===
+A BSR is likely to manifest as both an increased spectrum of food resources and an evenness in the exploitation of high- and low-value prey. Under a broad spectrum economy a greater amount of low-value prey (i.e. high cost-to-benefit ratio) would be included because there are insufficient high-value prey to reliably satisfy a population's needs. In terms of plants, it would be expected that foodstuffs that had once been ignored because of difficulty of extraction were now included in a diet. In terms of fauna, animal prey which was previously considered an inefficient use of resources (particularly small, fast mammals or fish) could now also be worthwhile. In other words, increasing scarcity made the extra effort necessary for survival.
+In the Middle East, the broad spectrum revolution led to an increase in the production of food.  The growth and reproduction of certain plants and animals became vastly popular.  Because large animals became quite scarce, people had to find new resources of food and tools elsewhere.  Interests focused on smaller game like fish, rabbits, and shellfish because the reproduction rate of small animals is much greater than that of large animals.
+
+
+=== Stimulation ===
+The most commonly accepted stimulation for the BSR is demographic pressures on the landscape, under which over-exploitation of resources meant narrow diets restricted to high-value prey could no longer feed the expanding population.
+The broad-spectrum revolution has also been linked to climatic changes, including sea level rises during which:
+
+Conditions became more inviting to marine life offshore in shallow, warm waters.
+Quantity and variety of marine life increased drastically as did the number of edible species.
+Because the rivers' power weakened with rising waters, the currents flowing into the ocean were slow enough to allow salmon and other fish to ascend upstream to spawn.
+Birds found refuge next to riverbeds in marsh grasses and then proceeded to migrate across Europe in the wintertime.
+
+
+== Example ==
+The Japanese site Nittano (inlet near Tokyo) was occupied several times between 6000 and 5000 BP. The Jōmon culture occupied Nittano at over 30,000 sites known in Japan. People hunted deer, pigs, bears, antelope, fish, shellfish, and gathered plants. Sites have yielded over 300 sample remains of shellfish and 180 sample remains of plants.
+
+
+== Criticism ==
+The broad spectrum revolution has been a subject of intense debate since it was first proposed, but its basic arguments are well-supported.
+
+
+== References ==
+Notes
+
+Bibliography
+
+Kent Flannery, "Origins and Ecological Effects of Early Domestication in Iran and the Near East," The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals, eds. Peter J. Ucko and G.W. Dimbleby (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1969), 73–100
+Mary Stiner, "Thirty Years on the 'Broad Spectrum Revolution' and Paleolithic Demography," PNAS, 98, no. 13 (2001): 6993–6996;
+Ehud Weiss et al., "The Broad Spectrum Revisited: Evidence from Plant Remains," PNAS, 101, no. 26 (2004): 9551–9555
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate–insulin_model-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate–insulin_model-0.md
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+---
+title: "Carbohydrate–insulin model"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate–insulin_model"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:11.063944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The carbohydrate-insulin model (CIM) posits that obesity is caused by excess consumption of carbohydrate, which then disrupts normal insulin metabolism leading to weight gain and weight-related illnesses. It is contrasted with the mainstream energy balance model (EBM), which holds that obesity is caused by an excess in calorie consumption compared to calorie expenditure. According to the carbohydrate–insulin model, low-carbohydrate diets would be the most effective in causing long-term weight loss. Notable proponents of the carbohydrate–insulin model include Gary Taubes and David Ludwig. The CIM has been tested in mice and humans. Although some experts consider that these studies falsified the CIM, proponents disagree. Available evidence does not support the existence of a long-term advantage in weight loss for low-carbohydrate diets.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Adipose tissue
+Appetite
+Basal metabolic rate
+Energy homeostasis
+Glucagon
+Glycemic index
+Glycemic load
+Hyperinsulinemia
+Insulin sensitivity
+Insulin
+Ketogenic diet
+Leptin
+Lipogenesis
+Low-carbohydrate diet
+Low-glycemic index diet
+Metabolic Syndrome
+Obesity
+Refined carbohydrates
+Set point theory
+Sugar
+Ultra-processed food
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Coastal migration (Americas)"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:13.444822+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The coastal migration hypothesis is one of two leading hypotheses about the settlement of the Americas at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. It proposes one or more migration routes involving watercraft, via the Kurile island chain, along the coast of Beringia and the 
+archipelagos off the Alaskan-British Columbian coast, continuing down the coast to Central and South America.
+
+The alternative is the hypothesis solely by interior routes, which assumes migration along an  ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum.The coastal migration hypothesis has been bolstered by findings such as the report that the sediments in the Port Eliza caves on Vancouver Island indicate the possibility of a survivable climate as far back 16 ka (16,000 years) in the area, while the continental ice sheets were nearing their maximum extent. Despite such research, the hypothesis is still subject to considerable debate.
+Carlson, Erlandson, and others have argued for a coastal migration from Alaska to the Pacific Northwest pre-11ka (before ≈13,000 calendar years ago) that predates the hypothesized migration of Clovis people moving south through an ice-free corridor located near the continental divide. The coastal migrants may have been followed by the Clovis culture when the final retreat of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet opened migration routes between interior and coastal Alaska.
+A 2017 discovery on Triquet Island by an archaeological team from the University of Victoria appears to verify local First Nation oral history traditions that the island was inhabited during the ice age. A hearth excavated at the site was determined by radiocarbon dating to be between 13,613 and 14,086 years old, making it one of the oldest settlements in North America.
+While some archaeologists believe that the Clovis people moved south from Alaska through an ice-free corridor located between modern British Columbia and Alberta, recent dating of Clovis and similar Paleoindian sites in Alaska suggest that Clovis technology actually moved from the south into Alaska following the melting of the continental ice sheets at about 10.5 ka.
+In North America, the earliest dog remains were found in Lawyer's Cave on the Alaskan mainland east of Wrangell Island in the Alexander Archipelago of southeast Alaska; radiocarbon dating indicates it is 10,150 years old. A genetic-based estimate indicates that this dog's lineage had split from the Siberian Zhokhov Island dog lineage 16,700 years ago. This timing coincides with the suggested opening of the North Pacific coastal route into North America.
+
+== Sea levels ==
+Dating the initial coastal migration is challenging because of the flooding of early settlement sites by the rise of the eustatic sea level accompanying deglaciation.  Dates for sites such as ones at Ground Hog Bay in SE Alaska (10.2 ka) and Namu, about 800 km south of Ground Hog Bay near modern Bella Coola (9.7 ka) thus represent early mainland settlement above the present-day sea level after earlier waterborne migration while the sea level was lower and the coastal mainland was still glaciated. Full understanding of the initial migration requires careful reconstruction of the land and ecological resources available to the migrants in their contemporary environment.
+Evidence from Southeast Alaska and Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte Islands) in British Columbia, provides some data about food and land resources during early settlement.  Fedje and Christensen (1999:642) have identified several sites on Haida Gwaii that date to post 9ka. The oldest human yet found on the west coast of North America are from On Your Knees Cave, which is on Prince of Wales Island in Southeast Alaska.  The individual, a young man in his early twenties when he died, has been dated to ≈10,000 cal BP and isotopic analyses indicate he was raised on a diet primarily of marine foods.
+These data suggest human occupation when the sea level was lower than present, and that submerged archaeological sites could occur along the paleocoastline beyond the current shorelines of Haida Gwaii (Fedje & Christensen, 1999) and Southeast Alaska.
+Between 13 and 10.5 ka, Haida Gwaii had more than double its current land area (Fedje & Christensen, 1999:638).  This area was flooded with a rapid rise in sea level between 11 and 9 ka. (Fedje & Christensen, 1999:638).  Therefore, evidence of initial human occupation on the paleocoastline of Haida Gwaii would now be below sea level. Conversely, older sites that are located near modern shorelines would have been approximately 24 km (15 mi) from the coast (Fedje & Christensen, 1999:638).
+The antiquity of the lithic scatters that Fedje and Christensen (1999) have found in intertidal zones along the Haida Gwaii coast suggests an early human occupation of the area.
+Fedje and Christensen (1999) support Carlson (1990), and Fladmark's (1975, 1979 & 1989) initial coastal migration model rather than the ice-free corridor model through their investigations of intertidal zones on Haida Gwaii.
+
+== The peopling of the Americas ==
+The timing and route of human arrival to mid-latitude North America is highly contested and both the terrestrial and coastal routes suffer from a paucity of archaeological evidence. Beringia is very difficult to access in modern-day because it is now below current sea level. However, hypotheses have been made based on mitochondrial DNA research to address the question of whether or not humans left Beringia and settled mid-latitude America during the LGM or stayed in Beringia throughout the LGM.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-1.md
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+---
+title: "Coastal migration (Americas)"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:13.444822+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Three-wave model ===
+The Three-wave model is an older model that attempts to explain the peopling of the Americas suggested by Greenberg et al. (1986). Using linguistic and genetic data as well as dental anthropology, Greenberg et al. subdivided Native Americans into three groups: Amerind, Na-Dene, and Aleut-Inuit. They explained the linguistic, anatomical, and genetic differences they found in each group as a result of separate migrations or waves out of Northeast Asia to the Americas.
+This model has been criticized by anthropologist Emőke J.E. Szathmáry who thought that Greenberg's study overstated biological difference. Szathmáry argued that the differences between each group could be better explained by isolation rather than the three migrations. In 1977, Bonatto and Szathámry (1997) concluded that the presence of glaciers isolated the populations from one another, causing them to settle in Beringia rather than use it as a bridge or corridor for migration to mid-latitude America. Bonatto and Szathmáry suggest that after the LGM, humans actually migrated out of Beringia rather than out of Asia.
+
+=== Beringian "Standstill" hypothesis ===
+The Beringian "Standstill" Hypothesis proposed by Tamm et al. (2007) builds on Bonatto and Szathmáry's idea of migration out of Beringia after the LGM. Using mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) and computer modeling of ice sheets, Tamm et al. estimate an isolation period in Beringia of about ≈10,000 years, concluding that the isolated Beringian populations spread throughout mid-latitude and South America after the LGM due to blocked access to North America before 15,000 cal BP.
+At the turn of the 21st century, more research began to favor the coastal migration theory over terrestrial theories for the peopling of the Americas. Paleoecological evidence suggests that travel along the coast would have been possible between 13 and 11 ka as the ice sheets were retreating. The coastal region was quite hospitable by 13 ka to peoples with watercraft and a maritime adaptation.
+
+=== Kelp highway hypothesis ===
+This hypothesis addresses how humans could have settled the Americas before the ice sheets retreated, allowing for terrestrial migration. Erlandson et al. (2007) suggest that coastal migrations and settlements happened in higher latitudes, such as 35-70°N, where coastal ecosystems would be more productive because of geography and upwelling in the Northern Pacific Rim. The different kelps of the Pacific Rim are major contributors to the areas of productivity and biodiversity and support a wide variety of life such as marine mammals, shellfish, fish, seabirds, and edible seaweeds that would also support a coastal community of hunter-gatherers.
+While the benefits of kelp forests are very clear in the present day Pacific Rim, Erlandson et al. address the difficulties of understanding the ancient kelp forests as they would have existed at the end of the LGM. But, they were able to estimate where the kelp forests might have been distributed.
+
+==== Archeological and geological evidence ====
+Archaeological sites from the Pacific Northwest to Baja California have offered more evidence to suggest the coastal migration theory. Sites in the North Pacific have been discovered and researched to help develop a baseline of early coastal colonization data.  In California, archeological sites with dates that support human settlement in the migration period 12,000 -7,000 ybp are: Borax Lake, the Cross Creek Site, Santa Barbara Channel Islands, Santa Barbara Coast's Sudden Flats, and the Scotts Valley site, CA-SCR-177. The Arlington Springs Man is an excavation of 10,000-year-old human remains in the Channel Islands. Marine shellfish remains associated with kelp forests were recovered in the Channel Island sites and at other sites such as Daisy Cave and Cardwell Bluffs dated between 12,000 and 9000 cal BP.
+In South America, evidence of human presence as early as 12,500 cal BP was discovered at the Monte Verde site pointing to coastal migration south over inland migration as the ice sheet would not yet be retreated.
+Further evidence to support the coastal migration hypothesis has been found in the biological viability of regions after deglaciation. Lesnek et al. 2018 found that the deglaciation of the Pacific coastal corridor allowed for biological productivity, availability of food resources, and an accessible migration route for early colonization.
+
+==== Zoo-archaeological evidence ====
+Further evidence of a coastal ecology sufficient to support early coastal migrants comes from zoo-archaeological finds along the Northwest coast.  Goat remains as old as 12 ka have been found on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, as well as bear remains dating to 12.5 ka in the Prince of Wales Archipelago, British Columbia. Even older remains of black and brown bear, caribou, sea birds, fish, and ringed seal have been dated from a number of caves in Southeast Alaska by paleontologist Timothy Heaton.  This means that there were enough land and floral resources to support large land mammals and, theoretically, humans.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-2.md
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+---
+title: "Coastal migration (Americas)"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:13.444822+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Watercraft ===
+Fedje and Christensen (1999:648) also argue that the coast was likely colonized before 13 ka, largely based on watercraft evidence from Japan before 13 ka. Dietary evidence from middens in Indonesia indicates the development of offshore fishing, requiring watercraft, between 35 and 40 ka.  Sea-going cultures were mobile in the island-rich environment off the late Pleistocene coast of east Asia, facilitating the spread of marine technology and skills through the Philippines, up the Ryukyu chain, to Japan.  Warming of the climate after about 16 ka (although glaciation would remain) could have provided an impetus for seaborne migration up the Kurile island chain towards North America, through some combination of a more hospitable climate and increased ocean productivity. Although no boats have been recovered from early Pacific Coast archaeological sites, this may be due to poor preservation of organic materials and the inundation of coastal areas mentioned above.  We can still infer water travel based on the presence of artifacts made by humans found at island sites.
+Anecdotal evidence comes from the surviving Bella Bella oral tradition, as recorded by Franz Boas in 1898.  "In the beginning there was nothing but water and ice and a narrow strip of shoreline." Some believe this story describes the environment of the Northwest Coast during the last deglaciation.
+
+=== Migration south ===
+Further south, California's Channel Islands have also produced evidence for early seafaring by Paleoindian (or Paleocoastal) peoples. Santa Rosa and San Miguel islands, for instance, have produced 11 sites dating to the Terminal Pleistocene, including the Arlington Man site dated to ≈11 ka and Daisy Cave occupied about 10.7 ka.
+Significantly, the Channel Islands were not connected to the mainland coast during the Quaternary, so maritime peoples contemporary with the Clovis and Folsom complexes in the interior had to have seaworthy boats to colonize them. The Channel Islands have also produced the earliest fishhooks yet found in the Americas, bone bipoints (gorges) that date between about 8.5 and 9 ka (10,000 and 9500 calendar years).
+Even further south, the Monte Verde site in Chile has become accepted as the earliest settlement in South America, dating to at least 14,500 years ago. This is believed to indicate migration through northern coastal regions before that date. The Monte Verde site produced the remains of nine types of seaweeds, including kelp.
+
+== Western Stemmed Tradition ==
+Paleocoastal Channel Islands settlers were equipped with finely made stemmed points, as well as chipped stone crescents generally similar to those found in Western Stemmed Tradition (WST) sites of western North America.
+Such ancient stemmed point lithic technology is widely attested at many sites in North America. For example, at Buttermilk Creek, Texas (Debra L. Friedkin site) these artifacts are dated to ≈13.5 to ≈15.5 ka ago. At the nearby Gault site, stemmed projectile points dated to ≈16 ka ago are also found; they are located below a Clovis stratigraphic horizon at this site.
+At Paisley Caves, Oregon, these WST projectile points are dated to ≈12.7 to ≈13 ka ago—soon after the earliest occupation level here. At Cooper's Ferry, Idaho, similar WST dates are reported.
+At Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania, the Miller point (similar to WST) can be dated to ≈14 ka ago.
+In Mexico, a stemmed projectile point is associated with the bones of a mammoth buried at Santa Isabel Iztapan (Ixtapan). Four hundred meters away, two other stemmed points were associated with butchered mammoth bones. The dates are similar to the above.
+In South America, there is also a long history of the use of stemmed points. Here they are known as 'El Jobo points', from which later developed 'Stemmed Fishtail points'. In particular, El Jobo points are found at Monte Verde, Chile in use as early as ≈14.2 ka ago. El Jobo and Fishtail points became widespread across South America ≈13 ka ago.
+On the Channel Islands, Jon Erlandson and his colleagues have identified several early shell middens located near sources of chert, which was used to make stone tools. These quarry/workshop sites have been dated between about 10 and 10.5 ka and contain crescents and finely made stemmed projectile points probably used to hunt birds and sea mammals, respectively.
+
+== See also ==
+Settlement of the Americas § Pacific coastal route
+Huaca Prieta
+Solutrean hypothesis
+
+== References ==
+
+== Literature ==
+Dillehay, Tom D.; Steve Goodbred; Mario Pino; Víctor F. Vásquez Sánchez; Teresa Rosales Tham; James Adovasio; Michael B. Collins; Patricia J. Netherly; Christine A. Hastorf; Katherine L. Chiou; Dolores Piperno; Isabel Rey; Nancy Velchoff (24 May 2017). "Simple technologies and diverse food strategies of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene at Huaca Prieta, Coastal Peru". Science Advances. 3 (5) e1602778. American Academy for the Advancement of Science. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E2778D. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602778. PMC 5443642. PMID 28560337.
+Fedje, Daryl W.; Christensen, Tina (Oct 1999). "Modeling Paleoshorelines and Locating Early Holocene Coastal Sites in Haida Gwaii". American Antiquity. 64 (4): 635–652. doi:10.2307/2694209. JSTOR 2694209.
+Hardy, Karen; Erlandson, Jon M.; Braje, Todd J.; Ainis, Amira F.; Culleton, Brendan J.; Gill, Kristina M.; Hofman, Courtney A.; Kennett, Douglas J.; Reeder-Myers, Leslie A.; Rick, Torben C. (2020). "Maritime Paleoindian technology, subsistence, and ecology at an ≈11,700 year old Paleocoastal site on California's Northern Channel Islands, USA". PLOS ONE. 15 (9) e0238866. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1538866E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0238866. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7498104. PMID 32941444.
+Waters, Michael R.; Keene, Joshua L.; Forman, Steven L.; Prewitt, Elton R.; Carlson, David L.; Wiederhold, James E. (2018). "Pre-Clovis projectile points at the Debra L. Friedkin site, Texas—Implications for the Late Pleistocene peopling of the Americas". Science Advances. 4 (10) eaat4505. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.4505W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat4505. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 6200361. PMID 30397643.
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+---
+title: "Cognitive inertia"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cognitive inertia is the tendency – for a particular orientation in an individual's thinking about a matter, belief, or strategy – to resist change. Clinical and neuroscientific literature often describes it as a lack of motivation to generate cognitive processes needed to attend to a matter or problem. 
+The physics term "inertia" emphasizes resistance to change in a mode of cognitive processing that has been used for a substantial time. Commonly confused with belief perseverance, cognitive inertia is  perseverance in an interpretation of information, not perseverance in the belief itself.
+Cognitive inertia has been causally implicated in disregard of impending threats to one's health or environment, in enduring political values, and in deficits in task switching. Interest in the phenomenon was taken up by economic and industrial psychologists primarily to explain resistance to change in brand loyalty, in group brainstorming, and in business strategizing. 
+In a clinical setting, cognitive inertia has been used as a diagnostic tool for neurodegenerative diseases, depression, and anxiety. 
+Critics have commented that the term "cognitive inertia" oversimplifies resistant thought processes and suggest a more integrative approach involving motivation, emotion, and developmental factors.
+
+== History and methods ==
+
+=== Early history ===
+The idea of cognitive inertia has its roots in philosophical epistemology. Early allusions to a reduction of cognitive inertia can be found in the Socratic dialogues written by Plato. Socrates builds his argument by using the detractor's beliefs as the premise of his argument's conclusions. In doing so, Socrates reveals the detractor's fallacy of thought, inducing the detractor to change their mind or face the reality that their thought processes are contradictory. Ways to combat persistence of cognitive style are also seen in Aristotle's syllogistic method which employs logical consistency of the premises to convince an individual of the conclusion's validity.
+At the beginning of the twentieth century, two of the earliest experimental psychologists, Müller and Pilzecker, defined perseveration of thought to be "the tendency of ideas, after once having entered consciousness, to rise freely again in consciousness". Müller described perseveration by illustrating his own inability to inhibit old cognitive strategies with a syllable-switching task, while his wife easily switched from one strategy to the next. One of the earliest personality researchers, W. Lankes, more broadly defined perseveration as "being confined to the cognitive side" and possibly "counteracted by strong will". These early ideas of perseveration were the precursor to how the term cognitive inertia would be used to study certain symptoms in patients with neurodegenerative disorders, rumination and depression.   
+
+=== Cognitive psychology ===
+Originally proposed by William J. McGuire in 1960, the theory of cognitive inertia was built upon emergent theories in social psychology and cognitive psychology that centered around cognitive consistency, including Fritz Heider's balance theory and Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance. McGuire used the term cognitive inertia to account for an initial resistance to change how an idea was processed after new information, that conflicted with the idea, had been acquired.
+In McGuire's initial study involving cognitive inertia, participants gave their opinions of how probable they believed various topics to be. A week later, they returned to read messages related to the topics they had given their opinions on. The messages were presented as factual and were targeted to change the participants' belief in how probable the topics were. Immediately after reading the messages, and one week later, the participants were again assessed on how probable they believed the topics to be. Discomforted by the inconsistency of the related information from the messages and their initial ratings on the topics, McGuire believed the participants would be motivated to shift their probability ratings to be more consistent with the factual messages. However, the participants' opinions did not immediately shift toward the information presented in the messages. Instead, a shift towards consistency of thought on the information from the messages and topics grew stronger as time passed, often referred to as "seepage" of information. The lack of change was reasoned to be due to persistence in the individual's existing thought processes which inhibited their ability to re-evaluate their initial opinion properly, or as McGuire called it, cognitive inertia.
+
+==== Probabilistic model ====
+Although cognitive inertia was related to many of the consistency theories at the time of its conception, McGuire used a unique method of probability theory and logic to support his hypotheses on change and persistence in cognition. Utilizing a syllogistic framework, McGuire proposed that if three issues (a, b and c) were so interrelated that an individual's opinion were in complete support of issues a and b then it would follow their opinion on issue c would be supported as a logical conclusion. Furthermore, McGuire proposed if an individual's belief in the probability (p) of the supporting issues (a or b) was changed, then not only would the issue (c) explicitly stated change, but a related implicit issue (d) could be changed as well. More formally:
+
+the required change (
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+) on c necessary for maintaining logical consistency among the opinions is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+p(c) = 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+p(a & b)
+which, assuming that a and b are independent events i.e., that p(a & b) = p(a) p(b) becomes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+p(c) = 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+p(a) p(b) + 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+p(b) p(a) + 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+p(a) 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+p(b)
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+---
+title: "Cognitive inertia"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+where p(a) and p(b) refer to the initial opinions, before the communication induced changes.
+This formula was used by McGuire to show that the effect of a persuasive message on a related, but unmentioned, topic (d) took time to sink in. The assumption was that topic d was predicated on issues a and b, similar to issue c, so if the individual agreed with issue c then so too should they agree with issue d. However, in McGuire's initial study immediate measurement on issue d, after agreement on issues a, b and c, had only shifted half the amount that would be expected to be logically consistent. Follow-up a week later showed that shift in opinion on issue d had shifted enough to be logically consistent with issues a, b, and c, which not only supported the theory of cognitive consistency, but also the initial hurdle of cognitive inertia.
+The model was based on probability to account for the idea that individuals do not necessarily assume every issue is 100% likely to happen, but instead there is a likelihood of an issue occurring and the individual's opinion on that likelihood will rest on the likelihood of other interrelated issues.   
+
+== Examples ==
+
+=== Public health ===
+
+==== Historical ====
+Group (cognitive) inertia, how a subset of individuals view and process an issue, can have detrimental effects on how emergent and existing issues are handled. In an effort to describe the almost lackadaisical attitude from a large majority of U.S. citizens toward the insurgence of the Spanish flu in 1918, historian Tom Dicke has proposed that cognitive inertia explains why many individuals did not take the flu seriously. At the time, most U.S. citizens were familiar with the seasonal flu. They viewed it as an irritation that was often easy to treat, infected few, and passed quickly with few complications and hardly ever a death. However, this way of thinking about the flu was detrimental to the need for preparation, prevention, and treatment of the Spanish flu due to its quick spread and virulent form until it was much too late, and it became one of the most deadly pandemics in history.
+
+==== Contemporary ====
+In the more modern period, there is an emerging position that anthropogenic climate change denial is a kind of cognitive inertia. Despite the evidence provided by scientific discovery, there are still those – including nations – who deny its incidence in favor of existing patterns of development.
+
+=== Geography ===
+To better understand how individuals store and integrate new knowledge with existing knowledge, Friedman and Brown tested participants on where they believed countries and cities to be located latitudinally and then, after giving them the correct information, tested them again on different cities and countries. The majority of participants were able to use the correct information to update their cognitive understanding of geographical locations and place the new locations closer to their correct latitudinal location, which supported the idea that new knowledge affects not only the direct information but also related information. However, there was a small effect of cognitive inertia as some areas were unaffected by the correct information, which the researchers suggested was due to a lack of knowledge linkage in the correct information and new locations presented.
+
+=== Group membership ===
+
+==== Politics ====
+The persistence of political group membership and ideology is suggested to be due to the inertia of how the individual has perceived the grouping of ideas over time. The individual may accept that something counter to their perspective is true, but it may not be enough to tip the balance of how they process the entirety of the subject.
+Governmental organizations can often be resistant or glacially slow to change along with social and technological transformation. Even when evidence of malfunction is clear, institutional inertia can persist. Political scientist Francis Fukuyama has asserted that humans imbue intrinsic value on the rules they enact and follow, especially in the larger societal institutions that create order and stability. Despite rapid social change and increasing institutional problems, the value placed on an institution and its rules can mask how well an institution is functioning as well as how that institution could be improved. The inability to change an institutional mindset is supported by the theory of punctuated equilibrium, long periods of deleterious governmental policies punctuated by moments of civil unrest. After decades of economic decline, the United Kingdom's referendum to leave the EU was seen as an example of the dramatic movement after a long period of governmental inertia.
+
+==== Interpersonal roles ====
+The unwavering views of the roles people play in our lives have been suggested as a form of cognitive inertia. When asked how they would feel about a classmate marrying their mother or father, many students said they could not view their classmate as a step-father/mother. Some students went so far as to say that the hypothetical relationship felt like incest.
+Role inertia has also been implicated in marriage and the likelihood of divorce. Research on couples who cohabit together before marriage shows they are more likely to get divorced than those who do not. The effect is most seen in a subset of couples who cohabit without first being transparent about future expectations of marriage. Over time, cognitive role inertia takes over, and the couple marries without fully processing the decision, often with one or both of the partners not fully committed to the idea. The lack of deliberative processing of existing problems and levels of commitment in the relationship can lead to increased stress, arguments, dissatisfaction, and divorce.  
+
+== In business ==
+Cognitive inertia is regularly referenced in business and management to refer to consumers' continued use of products, a lack of novel ideas in group brainstorming sessions, and lack of change in competitive strategies.
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+---
+title: "Cognitive inertia"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Brand loyalty ===
+Gaining and retaining new customers is essential to whether a business succeeds early on. To assess a service, product, or likelihood of customer retention, many companies will invite their customers to complete satisfaction surveys immediately after purchasing a product or service. However, unless the satisfaction survey is completed immediately after the point of purchase, the customer response is often based on an existing mindset about the company, not the actual quality of experience. Unless the product or service is extremely negative or positive, cognitive inertia related to how the customer feels about the company will not be inhibited, even when the product or service is substandard. These satisfaction surveys can lack the information businesses need to improve a service or product that will allow them to survive against the competition.
+
+=== Brainstorming ===
+Cognitive inertia plays a role in why a lack of ideas is generated during group brainstorming sessions. Individuals in a group will often follow an idea trajectory, in which they continue to narrow in on ideas based on the very first idea proposed in the brainstorming session. This idea trajectory inhibits the creation of new ideas central to the group's initial formation.
+In an effort to combat cognitive inertia in group brainstorming, researchers had business students either use a single-dialogue or multiple-dialogue approach to brainstorming. In the single dialogue version, the business students all listed their ideas. They created a dialogue around the list, whereas, in the multi-dialogue version, ideas were placed in subgroups that individuals could choose to enter and talk about and then freely move to another subgroup. The multi-dialogue approach was able to combat cognitive inertia by allowing different ideas to be generated in sub-groups simultaneously and each time an individual switched to a different sub-group, they had to change how they were processing the ideas, which led to more novel and high-quality ideas.
+
+=== Competitive strategies ===
+Adapting cognitive strategies to changing business climates is often integral to whether or not a business succeeds or fails during economic stress. In the late 1980s in the UK, real estate agents' cognitive competitive strategies did not shift with signs of an increasingly depressed real estate market, despite their ability to acknowledge the signs of decline. This cognitive inertia at the individual and corporate level has been proposed as reasons to why companies do not adopt new strategies to combat the ever-increasing decline in the business or take advantage of the potential. General Mills' continued operation of mills long after they were no longer necessary is an example of when companies refuse to change the mindset of how they should operate.
+More famously, cognitive inertia in upper management at Polaroid was proposed as one of the main contributing factors to the company's outdated competitive strategy. Management strongly held that consumers wanted high-quality physical copies of their photos, where the company would make their money. Despite Polaroid's extensive research and development into the digital market, their inability to refocus their strategy to hardware sales instead of film eventually led to their collapse.
+Scenario planning has been one suggestion to combat cognitive inertia when making strategic decisions to improve business. Individuals develop different strategies and outline how the scenario could play out, considering different ways it could go. Scenario planning allows for diverse ideas to be heard and the breadth of each scenario, which can help combat relying on existing methods and thinking alternatives is unrealistic.
+
+=== Management ===
+In a recent review of company archetypes that lead to corporate failure, Habersang, Küberling, Reihlen, and Seckler defined "the laggard" as one who rests on the laurels of the company, believing past success and recognition will shield them from failure. Instead of adapting to changes in the market, "the laggard" assumes that the same strategies that won the company success in the past will do the same in the future. This lag in changing how they think about the company can lead to rigidity in company identity, like Polaroid, conflict in adapting when the sales plummet, and resource rigidity. In the case of Kodak, instead of reallocating money to a new product or service strategy, they cut production costs and imitation of competitors, both leading to poorer quality products and eventually bankruptcy.
+A review of 27 firms integrating the use of big data analytics found cognitive inertia to hamper the widespread implementation, with managers from sectors that did not focus on digital technology seeing the change as unnecessary and cost prohibitive.
+Managers with high cognitive flexibility that can change the type of cognitive processing based on the situation at hand are often the most successful in solving novel problems and keeping up with changing circumstances. Interestingly, shifts in mental models (disrupting cognitive inertia) during a company crisis are frequently at the lower group level, with leaders coming to a consensus with the rest of the workforce in how to process and deal with the crisis, instead of vice versa. It is proposed that leaders can be blinded by their authority and too easily disregard those at the front-line of the problem causing them to reject remunerative ideas.
+
+== Applications ==
+
+=== Therapy ===
+An inability to change how one thinks about a situation has been implicated as one of the causes of depression. Rumination, or the perseverance of negative thoughts, is often correlated with the severity of depression and anxiety. Individuals with high levels of rumination test low on scales of cognitive flexibility and have trouble shifting how they think about a problem or issue even when presented with facts that counter their thinking process.
+In a review paper that outlined strategies that are effective for combating depression, the Socratic method was suggested to overcome cognitive inertia. By presenting the patient's incoherent beliefs close together and evaluating with the patient their thought processes behind those beliefs, the therapist is able to help them understand things from a different perspective.
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+---
+title: "Cognitive inertia"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Clinical diagnostics ===
+In nosological literature relating to the symptom or disorder of apathy, clinicians have used cognitive inertia as one of the three main criteria for diagnosis. The description of cognitive inertia differs from its use in cognitive and industrial psychology in that lack of motivation plays a key role. As a clinical diagnostic criterion, Thant and Yager described it as "impaired abilities to elaborate and sustain goals and plans of actions, to shift mental sets, and to use working memory". This definition of apathy is frequently applied to onset of apathy due to neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease but has also been applied to individuals who have gone through extreme trauma or abuse.
+
+== Neural anatomy and correlates ==
+
+=== Cortical ===
+Cognitive inertia has been linked to decreased use of executive function, primarily in the prefrontal cortex, which aids in the flexibility of cognitive processes when switching tasks. Delayed response on the implicit associations task (IAT) and Stroop task have been related to an inability to combat cognitive inertia, as participants struggle to switch from one cognitive rule to the next to get the questions right.
+Before taking part in an electronic brainstorming session, participants were primed with pictures that motivated achievement to combat cognitive inertia. In the achievement-primed condition, subjects were able to produce more novel, high-quality ideas. They used more right frontal cortical areas related to decision-making and creativity.
+Cognitive inertia is a critical dimension of clinical apathy, described as a lack of motivation to elaborate plans for goal-directed behavior or automated processing. Parkinson's patients whose apathy was measured using the cognitive inertia dimension showed less executive function control than Parkinson's patients without apathy, possibly suggesting more damage to the frontal cortex. Additionally, more damage to the basal ganglia in Parkinson's, Huntington's and other neurodegenerative disorders have been found with patients exhibiting cognitive inertia in relation to apathy when compared to those who do not exhibit apathy. Patients with lesions to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex have shown reduced motivation to change cognitive strategies and how they view situations, similar to individuals who experience apathy and cognitive inertia after severe or long-term trauma.
+
+=== Functional connectivity ===
+Nursing home patients who have dementia have been found to have larger reductions in functional brain connectivity, primarily in the corpus callosum, important for communication between hemispheres. Cognitive inertia in neurodegenerative patients has also been associated with a decrease in the connection of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal area with subcortical areas, including the anterior cingulate cortex and basal ganglia. Both findings are suggested to decrease motivation to change one's thought processes or create new goal-directed behavior.
+
+== Alternative theories ==
+Some researchers have refuted the cognitive perspective of cognitive inertia and suggest a more holistic approach that considers the motivations, emotions, and attitudes that fortify the existing frame of reference.
+
+=== Alternative paradigms ===
+
+==== Motivated reasoning ====
+The theory of motivated reasoning is proposed to be driven by the individual's motivation to think a certain way, often to avoid thinking negatively about oneself. The individual's own cognitive and emotional biases are commonly used to justify a thought, belief, or behavior. Unlike cognitive inertia, where an individual's orientation in processing information remains unchanged either due to new information not being fully absorbed or being blocked by a cognitive bias, motivated reasoning may change the orientation or keep it the same depending on whether that orientation benefits the individual.
+In an extensive online study, participant opinions were acquired after two readings about various political issues to assess the role of cognitive inertia. The participants gave their opinions after the first reading and were then assigned a second reading with new information; after being assigned to read more information on the issue that either confirmed or disconfirmed their initial opinion, the majority of participants' opinions did not change. When asked about the information in the second reading, those who did not change their opinion evaluated the information that supported their initial opinion as stronger than information that disconfirmed their initial opinion. The persistence in how the participants viewed the incoming information was based on their motivation to be correct in their initial opinion, not the persistence of an existing cognitive perspective.
+
+==== Socio-cognitive inflexibility ====
+From a social psychology perspective, individuals continually shape beliefs and attitudes about the world based on interaction with others. What information the individual attends to is based on prior experience and knowledge of the world. Cognitive inertia is seen not just as a malfunction in updating how information is being processed but as the assumptions about the world and how it works can impede cognitive flexibility. The persistence of the idea of the nuclear family has been proposed as a socio-cognitive inertia. Despite the changing trends in family structure, including multi-generational, single-parent, blended, and same-sex parent families, the normative idea of a family has centered around the mid-twentieth century idea of a nuclear family (i.e., mother, father, and children). Various social influences are proposed to maintain the inertia of this viewpoint, including media portrayals, the persistence of working-class gender roles, unchanged domestic roles despite working mothers, and familial pressure to conform.
+The phenomenon of cognitive inertia in brainstorming groups has been argued to be due to other psychological effects such as fear of disagreeing with an authority figure in the group, fear of new ideas being rejected and the majority of speech being attributed to the minority group members. Internet-based brainstorming groups have been found to produce more ideas of high-quality because it overcomes the problem of speaking up and fear of idea rejection.    
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_of_morbidity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_of_morbidity-0.md
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+title: "Compression of morbidity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_of_morbidity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:14.618203+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The compression of morbidity in public health is a hypothesis put forth by James Fries, professor of medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine. The hypothesis was supported by a 1998 study of 1700 University of Pennsylvania alumni over a period of 20 years.
+Fries' hypothesis is that the burden of lifetime illness may be compressed into a shorter period before the time of death, if the age of onset of the first chronic infirmity can be postponed. This hypothesis contrasts to the view that as the age of countries' populations tends to increase over time, they will become increasingly infirm and consume an ever-larger proportion of the national budget in healthcare costs.
+Fries posited that if the hypothesis is confirmed, healthcare costs and patient health overall will be improved. In order to confirm this hypothesis, the evidence must show that it is possible to delay the onset of infirmity, and that corresponding increases in longevity will at least be modest. The evidence is at best mixed.  Vincent Mor's "The Compression of Morbidity Hypothesis: A Review of Research and Prospects for the Future" argues that "Cross-national evidence for the validity of the compression of morbidity hypothesis originally proposed by Fries is generally accepted. Generational improvements in education and the increased availability of adaptive technologies and even medical treatments that enhance quality of life have facilitated continued independence of older persons in the industrialized world. Whether this trend continues may depend upon the effect of the obesity epidemic on the next generation of older people." See also "Mortality and Morbidity Trends: Is There Compression of Morbidity?" for recent evidence against the hypothesis.
+There may also be age versus cohort effects.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Successful aging
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Fries, James F. (2005). "The Compression of Morbidity". The Milbank Quarterly. 83 (4): 801–23. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00401.x. PMC 2690269. PMID 16279968.
+Brody, Jane E. (August 25, 2008). "Living Longer, in Good Health to the End". The New York Times. p. D7.
+Gretchen Reynolds (8 February 2017) "Lessons on Aging Well from a 105-Year-Old Cyclist" The New York Times accessdate=2017-02-14
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+title: "Computational heuristic intelligence"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_heuristic_intelligence"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:24.198634+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Computational heuristic intelligence (CHI) refers to specialized programming techniques in computational intelligence (also called artificial intelligence, or AI). These techniques have the express goal of avoiding complexity issues, also called NP-hard problems, by using human-like techniques. They are best summarized as the use of exemplar-based methods (heuristics), rather than rule-based methods (algorithms). Hence the term is distinct from the more conventional computational algorithmic intelligence, or symbolic AI. An example of a CHI technique is the encoding specificity principle of Tulving and Thompson. In general, CHI principles are problem solving techniques used by people, rather than programmed into machines. It is by drawing attention to this key distinction that the use of this term is justified in a field already replete with confusing neologisms. Note that the legal systems of all modern human societies employ both heuristics (generalisations of cases) from individual trial records as well as legislated statutes (rules) as regulatory guides.
+Another recent approach to the avoidance of complexity issues is to employ feedback control rather than feedforward modeling as a problem-solving paradigm. This approach has been called computational cybernetics, because (a) the term 'computational' is associated with conventional computer programming techniques which represent a strategic, compiled, or feedforward model of the problem, and (b) the term 'cybernetic' is associated with conventional system operation techniques which represent a tactical, interpreted, or feedback model of the problem. Of course, real programs and real problems both contain both feedforward and feedback components. A real example which illustrates this point is that of human cognition, which clearly involves both perceptual (bottom-up, feedback, sensor-oriented) and conceptual (top-down, feedforward, motor-oriented) information flows and hierarchies.
+The AI engineer must choose between mathematical and cybernetic problem solution and machine design paradigms. This is not a coding (program language) issue, but relates to understanding the relationship between the declarative and procedural programming paradigms. 
+The vast majority of STEM professionals never get the opportunity to design or implement pure cybernetic solutions. When pushed, most responders will dismiss the importance of any difference by saying that all code can be reduced to a mathematical model anyway. Unfortunately, not only is this belief false, it fails most spectacularly in many AI scenarios.
+Mathematical models are not time agnostic, but by their very nature are pre-computed, i.e. feedforward. Dyer [2012] and Feldman [2004] have independently investigated the simplest of all somatic governance paradigms, namely control of a simple jointed limb by a single flexor muscle. They found that it is impossible to determine forces from limb positions- therefore, the problem cannot have a pre-computed (feedforward) mathematical solution. Instead, a top-down command bias signal changes the threshold feedback level in the sensorimotor loop, e.g. the loop formed by the afferent and efferent nerves, thus changing the so-called ‘equilibrium point’ of the flexor muscle/ elbow joint system. An overview of the arrangement reveals that global postures and limb position are commanded in feedforward terms, using global displacements (common coding), with the forces needed being computed locally by feedback loops. This method of sensorimotor unit governance, which is based upon what Anatol Feldman calls the ‘equilibrium Point’ theory, is formally equivalent to a servomechanism such as a car's ‘cruise control’.
+
+
+== See also ==
+NP-hard
+Heuristics
+Computational cybernetics
+Top-down and bottom-up design
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e07e0f321
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,581 @@
+---
+title: "Consistent heuristic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:25.369916+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the study of path-finding problems in artificial intelligence, a heuristic function is said to be consistent, or monotone, if its estimate is always less than or equal to the estimated distance from any neighbouring vertex to the goal, plus the cost of reaching that neighbour.
+Formally, for every node N and each successor P of N, the estimated cost of reaching the goal from N is no greater than the step cost of getting to P plus the estimated cost of reaching the goal from P. That is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        N
+        )
+        ≤
+        c
+        (
+        N
+        ,
+        P
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        P
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(N)\leq c(N,P)+h(P)}
+  
+ and
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        G
+        )
+        =
+        0.
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(G)=0.\,}
+  
+
+where
+
+h is the consistent heuristic function
+N is any node in the graph
+P is any descendant of N
+G is any goal node
+c(N,P) is the cost of reaching node P from N
+Informally, every node i will give an estimate that, accounting for the cost to reach the next node, is always lesser than or equal to the estimate at node i+1.
+A consistent heuristic is also admissible, i.e. it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal (the converse, however, is not always true). Assuming non negative edges, this can be easily proved by induction.
+Let 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(N_{0})=0}
+  
+ be the estimated cost for the goal node. This implies that the base condition is trivially true as 0 ≤ 0. Since the heuristic is consistent, 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+        ≤
+        c
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+        ≤
+        c
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+        +
+        c
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+        +
+        .
+        .
+        .
+        +
+        c
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(N_{i+1})\leq c(N_{i+1},N_{i})+h(N_{i})\leq c(N_{i+1},N_{i})+c(N_{i},N_{i-1})+...+c(N_{1},N_{0})+h(N_{0})}
+  
+ by expansion of each term. The given terms are equal to the true cost, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        c
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}c(N_{i},N_{i-1})}
+  
+, so any consistent heuristic is also admissible since it is upperbounded by the true cost.
+The converse is clearly not true as we can always construct a heuristic that is always below the true cost but is nevertheless inconsistent by, for instance, increasing the heuristic estimate from the farthest node as we get closer and, when the estimate 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(N_{i})}
+  
+ becomes at most the true cost 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          h
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h^{*}(N_{i})}
+  
+, we make 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+        −
+        c
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(N_{i-1})=h(N_{i})-c(N_{i},N_{i-1})}
+  
+.
+
+== Consequences of monotonicity ==
+
+Consistent heuristics are called monotone because the estimated final cost of a partial solution, 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(N_{j})=g(N_{j})+h(N_{j})}
+  
+ is monotonically non-decreasing along any path, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            2
+          
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        c
+        (
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          N
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(N_{j})=\sum _{i=2}^{j}c(N_{i-1},N_{i})}
+  
+ is the cost of the best path from start node 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          N
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N_{1}}
+  
+ to 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          N
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N_{j}}
+  
+.  It's necessary and sufficient for a heuristic to obey the triangle inequality in order to be consistent.
+The justification for 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        N
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(N)}
+  
+ to be monotonically non-decreasing under a consistent heuristic is as follows:
+Suppose 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+ is a successor of 
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N}
+  
+, then  
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        N
+        )
+        +
+        c
+        (
+        N
+        ,
+        a
+        ,
+        P
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(P)=g(N)+c(N,a,P)}
+  
+ for some action 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a}
+  
+ from 
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N}
+  
+ to 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+. Then we have that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        =
+        g
+        (
+        N
+        )
+        +
+        c
+        (
+        N
+        ,
+        a
+        ,
+        P
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        ≥
+        g
+        (
+        N
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        N
+        )
+        =
+        f
+        (
+        N
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(P)=g(P)+h(P)=g(N)+c(N,a,P)+h(P)\geq g(N)+h(N)=f(N)}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..4350bc009
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,374 @@
+---
+title: "Consistent heuristic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:25.369916+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+hence 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        ≥
+        f
+        (
+        N
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(P)\geq f(N)}
+  
+.
+In the A* search algorithm, using a consistent heuristic means that once a node is expanded, the cost by which it was reached is the lowest possible, under the same conditions that Dijkstra's algorithm requires in solving the shortest path problem (no negative cost edges).  In fact, if the search graph is given cost 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          ′
+        
+        (
+        N
+        ,
+        P
+        )
+        =
+        c
+        (
+        N
+        ,
+        P
+        )
+        +
+        h
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        −
+        h
+        (
+        N
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c'(N,P)=c(N,P)+h(P)-h(N)}
+  
+ for a consistent 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+  
+, then A* is equivalent to best-first search on that graph using Dijkstra's algorithm.
+With a non-decreasing 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        N
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(N)}
+  
+ under consistent heuristics, one can show that A* achieves optimality with cycle-checking, that is, when A* expands a node 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+, the optimal path to 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+ has already been found. Suppose for the sake of contradiction that when A* expands 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+, the optimal path has not been found. Then, by the graph separation property, there must exist another node 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          n
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n'}
+  
+ on the optimal path to 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+ on the frontier. Since 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+ was selected for expansion instead of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          n
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n'}
+  
+, this would mean that 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        <
+        f
+        (
+        
+          n
+          ′
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)<f(n')}
+  
+. But since f-values are monotonically non-decreasing along any path under the consistent heuristic function 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ , we know that 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        ≥
+        f
+        (
+        
+          n
+          ′
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(n)\geq f(n')}
+  
+ since 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          n
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n'}
+  
+ is on the path to 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+. This is a contradiction, meaning that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          n
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n'}
+  
+ should have been selected for expansion first instead of 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+.
+In the unusual event that an admissible heuristic is not consistent, a node will need repeated expansion every time a new best (so-far) cost is achieved for it.
+If the given heuristic 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+  
+ is admissible but not consistent, one can artificially force the heuristic values along a path to be monotonically non-decreasing
+by using 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          h
+          ′
+        
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        ←
+        max
+        (
+        h
+        (
+        P
+        )
+        ,
+        
+          h
+          ′
+        
+        (
+        N
+        )
+        −
+        c
+        (
+        N
+        ,
+        P
+        )
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h'(P)\gets \max(h(P),h'(N)-c(N,P))}
+  
+
+as the heuristic value for 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+ instead of 
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+        (
+        P
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h(P)}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N}
+  
+ is the node immediately preceding 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+ on the path and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          h
+          ′
+        
+        (
+        s
+        t
+        a
+        r
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        h
+        (
+        s
+        t
+        a
+        r
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h'(start)=h(start)}
+  
+. This idea is due to László Mérō
+and is now known as pathmax.
+Contrary to common belief, pathmax does not turn an admissible heuristic into a consistent heuristic. For example, if A* uses pathmax and a heuristic that is admissible but not consistent, it is not guaranteed to have an optimal path to a node when it is first expanded.
+
+=== Relation to Local Admissibility ===
+Modifying the consistency condition to h(N)−h(P) ≤ c(N,P) establishes a connection to local admissibility, where the heuristic estimate to a specific node remains less than or equal to the actual step cost. This ensures optimality when selecting local nodes, akin to how admissible heuristics ensure global optimality. By maintaining this property, the search process improves efficiency by making locally optimal decisions that contribute to the globally optimal solution.
+
+== See also ==
+Admissible heuristic
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..342e43fc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Construction of the Egyptian pyramids"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The construction of the Egyptian pyramids can be explained with well-established scientific facts; however, there are some aspects that even today are considered controversial hypotheses. The construction techniques used seem to have developed over time; later pyramids were not constructed in the same way as earlier ones. It is believed that huge stones were carved from quarries with copper tools, and these blocks were then dragged and lifted into position. Disagreements chiefly concern the methods used to move and place the stones.
+In addition to the many unresolved arguments about the construction techniques, there have been many disagreements as to the kind of workforce used. The Greeks, many years after the event, believed that the pyramids were built by slave labour. Archaeologists now believe that the Great Pyramid of Giza (at least) was built by tens of thousands of skilled workers who camped near the pyramids and worked for a salary or as a form of tax payment (levy) until the construction was completed, pointing to workers' cemeteries discovered in 1990. For the Middle Kingdom pyramid of Amenemhat II, there is evidence from the annal stone of the king that foreigners from Canaan were employed.
+The pseudoscientific field of pyramidology includes many archaeological fringe theories attempting to explain how the pyramids were built.
+
+== Historical hypotheses ==
+
+=== The Writing of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus ===
+The first historical accounts of the construction of these monuments came centuries after the era of pyramid construction, by Herodotus in the 5th century BC and Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC. Herodotus's account claims that the Egyptians used a machine (now referred to as the "Herodotus Machine"), stating:
+
+This pyramid was made like stairs, which some call steps and others, tiers. When this, its first form, was completed, the workmen used short wooden logs as levers to raise the rest of the stones; they heaved up the blocks from the ground onto the first tier of steps; when the stone had been raised, it was set on another lever that stood on the first tier, and the lever again used to lift it from this tier to the next. It may be that there was a new lever on each tier of steps, or perhaps there was only one lever, quite portable, which they carried up to each tier in turn; I leave this uncertain, as both possibilities were mentioned. But this is certain, that the upper part of the pyramid was finished off first, then the next below it, and last of all the base and the lowest part. 
+Diodorus Siculus's account states:
+
+And it's said the stone was transported a great distance from Arabia, and that the edifices were raised utilizing earthen ramps since machines for lifting had not yet been invented in those days; and most surprising it is, that although such large structures were raised in an area surrounded by sand, no trace remains of either ramps or the dressing of the stones, so that it seems not the result of the patient labour of men, but rather as if the whole complex were set down entire upon the surrounding sand by some god. Now Egyptians try to make a marvel of these things, alleging that the ramps were made of salt and natron and that, when the river was turned against them, it melted them clean away and obliterated their every trace without the use of human labour. But in truth, it most certainly was not done this way! Rather, the same multitude of workmen who raised the mounds returned the entire mass to its original place; for they say that three hundred and sixty thousand men were constantly employed in the prosecution of their work, yet the entire edifice was hardly finished at the end of twenty years.
+Diodorus Siculus's description of the shipment of the stone from Arabia is correct since the term "Arabia" in those days implied the land between the Nile and the Red Sea where the limestone blocks have been transported from quarries across the river Nile.
+
+=== Third through Fifth dynasties ===
+During the earliest period, pyramids were constructed wholly of stone. Locally quarried limestone was the material of choice for the main body of these pyramids, while a higher quality of limestone quarried at Tura (near modern Cairo) was used for the outer casing. The limestone originated from different outcrops of the Eocene-aged Mokattam Formation. Granite, quarried near Aswan, was used to construct some architectural elements, including the portcullis (a type of gate) and the roofs and walls of the burial chamber. Occasionally, granite was used in the outer casing as well, such as in the Pyramid of Menkaure. In the early pyramids, the layers of stone (called courses) forming the pyramid body were laid sloping inwards; however, this configuration was abandoned in later pyramids. The Bent Pyramid at Dahshur seems to indicate acceptance of a new technique at a transition between these two building techniques. Its lower section is built of sloping courses while in its upper section the stones are laid horizontally.
+
+=== Middle Kingdom and onward ===
+During the Middle Kingdom, pyramid construction techniques changed again. Most pyramids built then were little more than mountains of mud-brick encased in a veneer of polished limestone. In several cases, later pyramids were built on top of natural hills to further reduce the volume of material needed in their construction. The materials and methods of construction used in the earliest pyramids have ensured their survival in a generally much better state of preservation than for the pyramid monuments of the later pharaohs.
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+---
+title: "Construction of the Egyptian pyramids"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Mortar ===
+The stones forming the core of the pyramids were roughly cut, especially in the Great Pyramid. To fill the gaps, huge quantities of gypsum and rubble were needed.  The filling has almost no binding properties, but it was necessary to stabilize the construction. To make the gypsum mortar, it had to be dehydrated by heating which requires large quantities of wood. According to Egyptologists, the findings of both the 1984 and 1995 David H. Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Projects may suggest that Egypt had to strip its forest and scrap every bit of wood it had to build the pyramids of Giza and other even earlier 4th Dynasty pyramids. Carbon dating samples from core blocks and other materials revealed that dates from the 1984 study averaged 374 years earlier than currently accepted and the 1995 dating averaging 100–200 years. As suggested by team members, "We thought that it was unlikely that the pyramid builders consistently used centuries-old wood as fuel in preparing mortar. The 1984 results left us with too little data to conclude that the historical chronology of the Old Kingdom was wrong by nearly 400 years, but we considered this at least a possibility". Egyptologists propose that the old wood problem is responsible for the discrepancy, claiming the earlier dates were possibly derived from recycling large amounts of centuries-old wood and other earlier materials.
+
+=== Arsenical copper ===
+The main material used in the Old and Middle Kingdoms was so-called arsenical copper or bronze. It is more effective than copper with minor impurities, and can be made even harder by repeated hammering.  Hundreds of artefacts from these periods were made of this material. All preserved copper alloy tools of the Old Kingdom era of pyramid builders were recently collected in a monograph. Its occurrence was also confirmed for the settlement material from Giza, from the reigns of Khufu and Khafre. Recent data from Middle Kingdom Elephantine Island indicate that this material was an intentionally produced alloy, and a result of rather complex technology.
+
+== Quarrying ==
+There is good information concerning the location of the quarries, some of the tools used to cut stone in the quarries, transportation of the stone to the monument, leveling the foundation, and leveling the subsequent tiers of the developing superstructure. Workmen probably used copper chisels, drills, and saws to cut softer stone, such as most of the limestone. The harder stones, such as granite, granodiorite, syenite, and basalt, cannot be cut with copper tools alone; instead, they were worked with time-consuming methods like pounding with dolerite, drilling, and sawing with the aid of an abrasive, such as quartz or corundum sand. This occurred in a process known as sand abrasion. Blocks were transported by sledge likely lubricated by water.
+Leveling the foundation may have been accomplished by use of water-filled trenches as suggested by Mark Lehner and I. E. S. Edwards or through the use of a crude square level and experienced surveyors. 
+
+== Transport of stone blocks ==
+
+One of the major problems faced by the early pyramid builders was the need to move immense quantities of stone. The Twelfth Dynasty tomb of Djehutihotep has an illustration of 172 men pulling an alabaster statue of him on a sledge. The statue is estimated to weigh 60 tons and Denys Stocks estimated that 45 workers would be required to start moving a 16,300 kg (35,900 lb) lubricated block, or eight workers to move a 2,750 kg (6,060 lb) block. Dick Parry and Mladjov have suggested a method for rolling the stones, using a cradle-like machine that had been excavated in various new kingdom temples. Four of those objects could be fitted around a block so it could be rolled easily. Experiments done by the Obayashi Corporation, with concrete blocks 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in) square by 1.6 metres (5 ft 3 in) long and weighing 2.5 tonnes (5,500 lb), showed how 18 men could drag the block over a 1-in-4 incline ramp, at a rate of 18 metres per minute (1 ft/s; 1 km/h). This idea was previously described by John Bush in 1977, and is mentioned in the Closing Remarks section of Parry's book. Vitruvius in De architectura described a similar method for moving irregular weights. It is still not known whether the Egyptians used this method but the experiments indicate it could have worked using stones of this size. Egyptologists generally accept this for the 2.5 ton blocks mostly used but do not agree over the methods used for the 15+ ton and several 70 to 80 ton blocks.
+The diary of Merer, logbooks written more than 4,500 years ago by an Egyptian official and found in 2013 by a French archeology team under the direction of Pierre Tallet in a cave in Wadi al-Jarf, describes the transportation of limestone blocks from the quarries at Tura to Giza by boat.
+
+=== Ramps ===
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+---
+title: "Construction of the Egyptian pyramids"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Most Egyptologists acknowledge that ramps are the most tenable of the methods to raise the blocks, yet they acknowledge that it is an incomplete method that must be supplemented by another device. Archaeological evidence for the use of ramps has been found at the Great Pyramid of Giza and other pyramids. The method most accepted for assisting ramps is levering. The archaeological record gives evidence of only small ramps and inclined causeways, not something that could have been used to construct even a majority of the monument. To add to the uncertainty, there is considerable evidence demonstrating that non-standardized or ad hoc construction methods were used in pyramid construction.
+Therefore, there are many proposed ramps and there is a considerable amount of discrepancy regarding what type of ramp was used to build the pyramids. One of the widely discredited ramping methods is the large straight ramp, and it is routinely discredited on functional grounds for its massive size, lack of archaeological evidence, huge labor cost, and other problems.
+Other ramps serve to correct these problems of ramp size, yet run into critiques of either functionality or limited archaeological evidence. Zig-zagging ramps, straight ramps using the incomplete part of the superstructure (Arnold 1991), spiraling ramps supported by the superstructure and spiraling ramps leaning on the monument as a large accretion have been proposed. Mark Lehner speculated that a spiraling ramp, beginning in the stone quarry to the southeast and continuing around the exterior of the pyramid, may have been used. However, spiral ramps would have covered the building for decades fully and would not allow the regular layout of the exact pyramid square in equal distance to each base cornerstone as the only method to keep the exact geometric shape of the edges and side mantles. Ramp models with several ramp paths, which are positioned on the inner step pyramid require relatively less material. The stone blocks may have been drawn on sleds along the ramps lubricated by water.
+As a recent study shows that the challenge was not just to account for the route the transported stones had to take but to account for the size and frequency of stones being moved—circa 1 ton being put in place every 2–3 minutes by human draw teams on a ramp of maximum 10%—to enable building of the Great Pyramid within 30 years. The special case of the pyramid extensions E2 and E3 in Meydum of ring-shaped extensions only 5 metres (16 ft) wide around the previous building core shows the ramp system was effective and small in volume which applies for tangential ramps of 10 cubits or 5 metre width. The challenge was the geometry of the pyramid that provides shorter side lengths the higher the building grows, increases the necessity to turn maneuvers and allows less space for ramps leaning on the masonry. The slope change of the Bent Pyramid is probably the result of the discovery this can not be solved with steep gradients. Also essential was the effective organization of the building site by a module that allowed the work division of the teams along plots and the transport causeways between ramp and workplace, including the return of pulling crews and sleds, probably by a second ramp system. The problem of building the mantle at the ramp arrival point could be solved by bypass-systems.
+
+=== Levering ===
+Levering methods are considered to be the most tenable solution to complement ramping methods, partially due to Herodotus's description; and partially to the shadoof, a lever-enabled irrigation device first depicted in Egypt during the New Kingdom and found concomitantly with the Old Kingdom in Mesopotamia. In Lehner's point of view, levers should be employed to lift the top 3% of the material of the superstructure. It is important to note that the top 4% of this material comprises 1⁄3 of the total height of the monument. In other words, in Lehner's view, levers should be employed to lift a small amount of material and a great deal of vertical height of the monument.
+In the milieu of levering methods, there are those that lift the block incrementally, as in repeatedly prying up alternating sides of the block and inserting wooden or stone shims to gradually move the stone up one course; and there are other methods that use a larger lever to move the block up one course in one lifting procedure. Since the discussion of construction techniques to lift the blocks attempts to resolve a gap in the archaeological and historical record with a plausible functional explanation, the following examples by Isler, Keable, and Hussey-Pailos list experimentally tested methods. Isler's method (1985, 1987) is an incremental method and, in the Nova experiment (1992), used wooden shims or cribbing. Isler was able to lift a block up one tier in approximately one hour and 30 minutes. Peter Hodges and Julian Keable's method is similar to Isler's method and instead used small manufactured concrete blocks as shims, wooden pallets, and a pit where their experimental tests were performed. Keable was able to perform his method in approximately 2 minutes. Scott Hussey-Pailos's (2005) method uses a simple levering device to lift a block up a course in one movement. This method was tested with materials of less strength than historical analogs (tested with materials weaker than those available in ancient Egypt), a factor of safety of 2, and lifted a 1,100 kg (2,500 lb) block up one course in under a minute. This method is presented as a levering device to work complementary with Mark Lehner's idea of a combined ramp and levering techniques.
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+---
+title: "Construction of the Egyptian pyramids"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Waterways ===
+Egyptians used the now-disappeared branch of the Nile to transport the tons of construction materials. A 2012 study led by geographer Hader Sheisha at Aix-Marseille University proposed that the former waterscapes and higher river levels around 4,500 years ago facilitated the construction of the Giza Pyramid Complex. The Nile's present waterways have receded too far from the pyramid sites to be of use.
+A new study published in May 2024 mapped an extinct branch of the Nile, Ahramat Branch, which once flowed near Egypt's Great Pyramid and other Giza monuments. Using satellite imaging and sediment core analysis, researchers suggested that the 64 kilometres (40 mi) waterway was crucial for transporting materials and labor for pyramid construction. The branch, which was about 0.5 kilometres (0.31 mi) wide with a depth of at least 25 metres (82 ft), likely disappeared due to drought and desertification.
+It has been suggested that locks were used to elevate barges along waterways leading to pyramid construction sites, but there is a lack of evidence of any on-site use of hydraulic force.
+
+== Pyramid building experiments ==
+
+=== Yoshimura ===
+In 1978, Nippon TV funded the pyramid building project conceived by archaeologist Sajuki Yoshimura. It was originally planned as a 1 to 5 scale model of the Great Pyramid. Because of the limited budget, the size had to be drastically reduced when the price of limestone rose as the project gained publicity. A concrete foundation had to be poured as the selected site offered no bedrock basis. With the help of two cranes and a forklift, the pyramid was built to reach a height of 11 metres (36 ft), with a 15 metres (49 ft) base. The structure was ultimately dismantled and hauled away.
+
+=== Nova ===
+In 1992, Egyptologist Mark Lehner and stonemason Roger Hopkins conducted a three-week pyramid-building experiment for a Nova television episode. They built a pyramid 6 metres (20 ft) high by 9 metres (30 ft) wide, consisting of a total of 162 cubic metres (5,700 ft3), or about 405 tons. It was made out of 186 stones weighing an average of 2.2 tons each. Twelve quarrymen carved 186 stones in 22 days, and the structure was erected by 44 men. As a modern shortcut, they used iron hammers, chisels and levers (the ancient Egyptians were limited to using copper and later bronze and wood), but Lehner and Hopkins did experiments with copper tools, noting that they were adequate for the job in hand, if additional manpower was available to constantly resharpen them; they estimated they would have needed around 20 extra men for this maintenance. Another shortcut taken was the use of a front-end loader or fork lift truck, but modern machinery was not used to finish the construction. They used levers to lift the capstone to a height of 20 feet (6.1 m). Four or five men were able to use levers on stones less than one ton to flip them over and transport them by rolling, but larger stones had to be towed. Lehner and Hopkins found that by putting the stones on wooden sledges and sliding the sledges on wooden tracks, they were able to tow a two-ton stone with 12 to 20 men. The wood for these sledges and tracks would have to have been imported from Lebanon at great cost since there was little, if any, wood in ancient Egypt. While the builders failed to duplicate the precise jointing created by the ancient Egyptians, Hopkins was confident that this could have been achieved with more practice.
+
+== Great Pyramid ==
+
+Some research suggests other estimates to the accepted workforce size. For instance, physicist Kurt Mendelssohn calculated that the workforce may have been 50,000 men at most, while Ludwig Borchardt and Louis Croon placed the number at 36,000. According to Miroslav Verner, a workforce of no more than 30,000 was needed in the Great Pyramid's construction. Evidence suggests that around 5,000 were permanent workers on salaries with the balance working three- or four-month shifts in lieu of taxes while receiving subsistence "wages" of ten loaves of bread and a jug of beer per day. Zahi Hawass believes that the majority of workers may have been volunteers. Most archaeologists agree that only about 4,000 of the total workforce were labourers who quarried the stone, hauled blocks to the pyramid, and set the blocks in place. The vast majority of the workforce provided support services such as scribes, toolmakers, and other backup services. The tombs of supervisors contain inscriptions regarding the organisation of the workforce. There were two crews of approximately 2,000 workers sub-divided into named gangs of 1,000. The gangs were divided into five phyles of 200 which were in turn split into groups of around 20 workers grouped according to their skills, with each group having their own project leader and a specific task.
+A construction management study carried out by the firm Daniel, Mann, Johnson, & Mendenhall in association with Mark Lehner, and other Egyptologists, estimates that the total project required an average workforce of 14,567 people and a peak workforce of 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis to suggest the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years. Their study estimates the number of blocks used in construction was between 2 and 2.8 million (an average of 2.4 million), but settles on a reduced finished total of 2 million after subtracting the estimated volume of the hollow spaces of the chambers and galleries. Most sources agree on this number of blocks somewhere above 2.3 million. Their calculations suggest the workforce could have sustained a rate of 180 blocks per hour (3 blocks/minute) with ten-hour workdays for putting each individual block in place. They derived these estimates from modern third-world construction projects that did not use modern machinery, but conclude it is still unknown exactly how the Great Pyramid was built. As Dr. Craig Smith of the team points out:
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+---
+title: "Construction of the Egyptian pyramids"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The logistics of construction at the Giza site are staggering when you think that the ancient Egyptians had no pulleys, no wheels, and no iron tools. Yet, the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the entire 13.1-acre base. This is comparable to the accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser leveling. That's astounding. With their 'rudimentary tools', the pyramid builders of ancient Egypt were about as accurate as we are today with 20th-century technology.
+
+The entire Giza Plateau is believed to have been constructed over the reign of five pharaohs in less than a hundred years, which generally includes: the Great Pyramid, Khafre and Menkaure's pyramids, the Great Sphinx, the Sphinx, and Valley Temples, 35 boat pits cut out of solid bedrock, and several causeways, as well as paving nearly the entire plateau with large stones. This does not include Khafre's brother Djedefre's northern pyramid at Abu Rawash, which would have also been built during this time frame of 100 years. In the hundred years prior to Giza—beginning with Djoser, who ruled from 2687 to 2667 BC, and amongst dozens of other temples, smaller pyramids, and general construction projects—four other massive pyramids were built: the Step pyramid of Saqqara (believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid), the pyramid of Meidum, the Bent Pyramid, and the Red Pyramid. Also during this period (between 2686 and 2498 BC) the Sadd el-Kafara dam, which used an estimated 100,000 cubic meters of rock and rubble, was built.
+In October 2018, a team of archaeologists from the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale and University of Liverpool announced the discovery of the remains of a 4,500-year-old ramp contraption at Hatnub, excavated since 2012. This method, which aided in lifting the heavy alabaster stones up from their quarries, may have been used to build Egypt's Great Pyramid as well. Yannis Gourdon, co-director of the joint mission at Hatnub, said:
+
+This system is composed of a central ramp flanked by two staircases with numerous post holes, using a sled which carried a stone block and was attached with ropes to these wooden posts, ancient Egyptians were able to pull up the alabaster blocks out of the quarry on very steep slopes of 20 percent or more ... As this system dates back at least to Khufu's reign, that means that during the time of Khufu, ancient Egyptians knew how to move huge blocks of stone using very steep slopes. Therefore, they could have used it for the construction [of] his pyramid.
+
+=== Internal ramp hypothesis ===
+
+Houdin's father was an architect who, in 1999, thought of a construction method that, it seemed to him, made more sense than any existing method proposed for building pyramids. To develop this hypothesis, Jean-Pierre Houdin, also an architect, gave up his job and set about drawing the first fully functional CAD architectural model of the Great Pyramid of Giza.
+
+His scheme involves using a regular external ramp to build the first 30% of the pyramid, with an "internal ramp" taking stones up beyond that height. The stones of the external ramp are re-cycled into the upper stories, thus explaining the otherwise puzzling lack of evidence for ramps.
+After four years working alone, Houdin was joined by a team of engineers from the French 3D software company Dassault Systèmes, who used the most modern computer-aided design technology available to further refine and test the hypothesis, making it (according to Houdin) the only one proven to be a viable technique. Houdin published his theory in the books Khufu: The Secrets Behind the Building of the Great Pyramid in 2006 and The Secret of the Great Pyramid, co-written in 2008 with Egyptologist Bob Brier.
+In Houdin's method, each ramp inside the pyramid ended at an open space, a notch temporarily left open in the edge of the construction. This 10-square-meter clear space housed a crane that lifted and rotated each 2.5-ton block, to ready it for eight men to drag up the next internal ramp. There is a notch of sorts in one of the right places, and in 2008 Houdin's co-author Bob Brier, with a National Geographic film crew, entered a previously unremarked chamber that could be the start of one of these internal ramps. In 1986 a member of the French team (see below) saw a desert fox at this notch, rather as if it had ascended internally.
+Houdin's thesis remains unproven and in 2007, Egyptologist David Jeffreys from the University College London described the internal spiral hypothesis as "far-fetched and horribly complicated", while Oxford University's John Baines, declared he was "suspicious of any theory that seeks to explain only how the Great Pyramid was built".
+Houdin has another hypothesis developed from his architectural model, one that could finally explain the internal "Grand Gallery" chamber that otherwise appears to have little purpose. He believes the gallery acted as a trolley chute/guide for counterbalance weights. It enabled the raising of the five 60-ton granite beams that roof the King's Chamber. Houdin and Brier and the Dassault team are already credited with proving for the first time that cracks in beams appeared during construction, were examined and tested at the time and declared relatively harmless.
+
+== See also ==
+Ancient Egyptian technology
+List of megalithic sites
+Seven wonders of the world
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+How to Build a Pyramid, Archaeology Magazine, May/June 2007 Archived 21 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine
+Engineering the Pyramids - Materials Science and Engineering @ Drexel University
+Rope pull hypothesis - alternative hypothesis by Heribert Illig and Franz Löhner
+Collection of alternative construction essays
+Did the Great Pyramid Have an Elevator? The Structural Engineer, April 2009
+The main problems / drawbacks of all ramp systems
+3D Unveils Great Pyramid's Mystery - illustrates hypothesis of Houdin and Brier.
+Did the Egyptians create a canal and a port to bring stone to the Great Pyramid?
+A Device for Lifting Pyramid Stones
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+---
+title: "Constructive heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:26.519422+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A constructive heuristic is a type of heuristic method which starts with an empty solution and repeatedly extends the current solution until a complete solution is obtained. It differs from local search heuristics which start with a complete solution and then try to improve the current solution further via local moves. Examples of some famous problems that are solved using constructive heuristics are the flow shop scheduling,  the vehicle routing problem and the open shop problem.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Evolutionary algorithms
+Genetic algorithms
+Local search (optimization)
+Metaheuristics
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Contagion heuristic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:27.704654+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The contagion heuristic is a psychological heuristic which follows the law of contagion and the law of similarity, leading people to avoid contact with people or objects viewed as "contaminated" by previous contact with someone or something viewed as bad—or, less often, to seek contact with objects that have been in contact with people or things considered good. For example, people tend to view food that has touched the ground as contaminated by the ground, and therefore unfit to eat, or view a person who has touched a diseased person as likely to carry the disease (regardless of the actual contagiousness of the disease).
+The contagion heuristic can include "magical thinking", in which well-educated adults will think that touching an object transfers their qualities ("essence") to it: for example, a sweater worn by Adolf Hitler is thought to bear his negative essence and to be capable of transmitting it to another wearer. The perception of essence-transfer extends to rituals to purify items viewed as spiritually contaminated, such as having Mother Teresa wear Hitler's sweater to counteract his essence.
+
+== Types ==
+The contagion heuristic can be separated into three categories:
+
+=== 1. Positive or negative ===
+Contagion can be negative or positive depending on how the contaminating object or person is perceived.
+Negative contagion occurs when a seemingly negative object comes into contact with another object. For example, a brief contact of food with an object seen as disgusting will render the object "contaminated" regardless of the actual implications to the object such as the transfer of viruses. Hence this might lead to an irrational rejection of the food.
+Positive contagion occurs when a seemingly positive object comes into contact with another object.
+In both these examples, contact is required as in the law of contagion however, this can also be applied to an object associated with another. For example, reluctance to come in contact with a plastic replica of an object perceived as disgusting (negative) even though there are no negative implications from touching it.
+
+=== 2. Forwards or backwards ===
+The forwards contagion heuristic occurs when an object has been in contact with someone or something else seen as positively or negatively contaminated. For example, forward contagion occurs when someone is now in contact with, or about to consume, a piece of food that has touched the ground.
+The backwards contagion heuristic occurs with objects that come into contact with something or someone else seen as positively or negatively contaminated. For example,  the unwillingness to allow one's personal objects to come into possession of people who are disliked. Findings from Kramer and Block show that consumers may be less willing to accept a high auction price for a teddy bear they were selling if the person buying was perceived to be of low moral quality (such as a sex offender) as opposed to high moral quality (e.g. a mother of a young child)
+For the backward contagion to be more effective the person should have owned it rather than mere contact.
+
+=== 3. Physical or non-physical ===
+There is a range of ways an item or person can become contaminated. These were grouped after testing the 'predicted purification potency' which is the level at which the object can be 'de-contaminated' by an action: e.g. washing.
+
+==== Physical sources ====
+Physical Germ Model  Carried by a living invisible entity.(e.g. Salmonella)
+Physical Residue Model  (e.g. Dandruff, Sweat)
+Associative Model  How much an object reminds the person of something or someone
+In the cases of 1 and 2, the predicted purity potency turned out to be highly similar. In both cases, they are effectively moderated by washing, especially in the case of source 2.
+For the associative model, a change in the appearance of the object seemed to be highly effective. In this case, physical contact is not required (but is seen as more contaminated if it occurs) for the object to be seen as contaminated and hence differs from the above two cases. However, it is distinguishable from non-physical models as there is no spiritual element.
+
+==== Non-physical sources ====
+Symbolic Interaction Model Interaction with something of symbolic importance (e.g. sacramental bread which for certain individuals is simply the combination of wheat flour, yeast, water and salt without its contact with a holy person like a priest)
+Spiritual Essence Model When the 'essence' of a person is transferred to an object or person by contact. (e.g., a jumper owned by Hitler is seen as negatively contaminated as his 'essence' has transferred and he is generally perceived as of low moral quality)
+These non-physical sources of contagion are more difficult to erase than the above three physical sources however, they both tend to be effectively reduced by opposite valence contact; that is, an opposite but equal force. For example, to reduce the negative contaminants on Hitler's jumper, someone of high moral quality will be needed to counteract the 'essence'.
+
+== Discovery ==
+Anthropologists suggested a contagion heuristic or more specifically magic thinking when traditional societies were observed doing cultural practices such as transferring a person's identity (or soul) to inanimate objects such as fingernails and hair which were seen as highly "contagious". Furthermore, these beliefs continued to also include objects that had been in physical contact with the person.
+Whilst initially thought to only apply to traditional societies, further research by Rozin and Nemeroff showed that it could also be applied to Western societies. Observing that the contagion heuristic seems to only apply to humans, they created three routes of reasoning.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1738de249
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+---
+title: "Contagion heuristic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:27.704654+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A rejection of potentially offensive food: People are unlikely to touch foods that elicit disgust in attempts to protect our health (e.g. disgust towards uncooked chicken as it is seen as contaminated with potential harmful microorganisms like salmonella).
+Illness transfer between humans: Avoid touching a 'contaminated' ill person due to fear of getting ill.
+Support Relationships: Positive contagion encourages highly intimate acts with people perceived as positively contaminated such as family and lovers. (sexual intimacy which would otherwise elicit disgust without love and lust)
+Hence, the contagion heuristic seems to be a pre-adaptation, that is it evolved to be beneficial to health and relationships, supporting the survival of our species, but now no longer serves a person in the current environment.
+
+== Critiques ==
+Positive contagion is relatively weak and might just be an over-extension of the negative contagion principle. This is most likely due to the negative bias: that is, when given two cases, one of negative and one of positive of equal force, the negative case will have a greater impact. As an old Russian phrase states, "A spoonful of tar can spoil a barrel of honey, but a spoonful of honey does nothing for a barrel of tar.″
+The associative model doesn't require any physical contact as stated as necessary in the Laws of Contagion, therefore can be seen as an alternative to contagion rather than part of it. For example, we are more inclined to consume food when the word 'natural' is involved regardless of the actual content; the positive contaminant of the word 'natural' is enough to alter decisions due to our associations with the word.
+Inattention: People tend not to think about the interpersonal history of entities that are seen as contaminated. When they receive change in a shop, they do not think of the long string of humans, who handled it previously.
+
+== Variation ==
+
+=== Age ===
+As the contagion heuristic stems from understanding that harmful microbes can exist in certain foods, this limits the extent to which children apply this heuristic. This is because the knowledge and understanding of invisible sources of contamination such as germs and how they spread or multiply are not understandable to young children. Studies have shown that at the age of 3-5, children begin to develop contagion sensitivity (degree to which someone knows if something is contaminated or not). Whilst they begin to acknowledge entities as negatively contaminated, they do not understand the biological reasoning until an older age.
+
+=== Culture and religion ===
+Cultural variation plays a large role in disgust as it affects what is seen as positive or negative and hence certain societies may react to different contaminants. For example, cultural traditions such as removing shoes upon entering a house is practiced by many Asian societies (due to negative contamination) however not by American societies.
+A study by Rozin and Nemeroff shows that religious groups have their own rules on what is seen as contaminated. The experiment explored whether Jews following the Laws of Kashrut would consume kosher foods that had been in contact or association with non-kosher entities. The report showed that even when the food is only contaminated by similarity (e.g. vegetarian bacon), most would deter from consumption. However, these problems can be controlled by creating rituals to decontaminate the food or setting limits on how contamination. In Judaism, the boundary of allowing non-kosher entities contaminate kosher food is 1/60th of the total volume of the contaminated good given the contamination occurs by accident.
+
+== See also ==
+Projective identification
+Sacred contagion
+Sympathetic magic
+Social intuitionism
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Nemeroff, C., & Rozin, P.  (2000).  "The makings of the magical mind: The nature and function of sympathetic magical thinking."  In K. S. Rosengren, C. N. Johnson, & P. L. Harris (Eds.), Imagining the impossible: Magical, scientific, and religious thinking in children (pp. 1–34).  New York: Cambridge University Press. DOI 10.1017/CBO9780511571381.002
+Argo, Jennifer J.; Dahl, Darren W.; Morales, Andrea C. (December 2008). "Positive Consumer Contagion: Responses to Attractive Others in a Retail Context". Journal of Marketing Research. 45 (6): 690–701. doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.6.690. ISSN 0022-2437. S2CID 144293105.
+Rozin, Paul; Millman, Linda; Nemeroff, Carol (1986). "Operation of the laws of sympathetic magic in disgust and other domains". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 50 (4): 703–712. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.4.703. ISSN 1939-1315.
+Argo, Jennifer J.; Dahl, Darren W.; Morales, Andrea C. (April 2006). "Consumer Contamination: How Consumers React to Products Touched by Others". Journal of Marketing. 70 (2): 81–94. doi:10.1509/jmkg.70.2.081. ISSN 0022-2429. S2CID 167866086.
+Kramer, Thomas; Block, Lauren G. (July 2014). "Like Mike: Ability contagion through touched objects increases confidence and improves performance". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 124 (2): 215–228. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.03.009.
+Savani, Krishna; Kumar, Satishchandra; Naidu, N. V. R.; Dweck, Carol S. (2011). "Beliefs about emotional residue: The idea that emotions leave a trace in the physical environment". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 101 (4): 684–701. doi:10.1037/a0024102. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 21688925.
+Bower, Lennea. Sympathetic Magical Thinking in Decision Making: Differences for Animate and Inanimate Decision Targets (2014): ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
+Paul Rozin, Sharon Wolf; Attachment to land: The case of the land of Israel for American and Israeli Jews and the role of contagion, Judgment and Decision Making, Vol. 3, No. 4, April 2008, pp. 325–33
+Kelly, D. (2013). ‘Moral Disgust and The Tribal Instincts Hypothesis,' Cooperation and Its Evolution, Eds. K. Sterelny, R. Joyce, Calcott, B, & B. Fraser. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, pages 503-524
+Hejmadi, Ahalya; Rozin, Paul; Siegal, Michael (2004). "Once in Contact, Always in Contact: Contagious Essence and Conceptions of Purification in American and Hindu Indian Children". Developmental Psychology. 40 (4): 467–476. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.467. ISSN 1939-0599. PMID 15238036.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing-0.md
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Content sniffing"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:28.890773+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Content sniffing, also known as media type sniffing or MIME sniffing, is the practice of inspecting the content of a byte stream to attempt to deduce the file format of the data within it. Content sniffing is generally used to compensate for a lack of accurate metadata that would otherwise be required to enable the file to be interpreted correctly. Content sniffing techniques tend to use a mixture of techniques that rely on the redundancy found in most file formats: looking for file signatures and magic numbers, and heuristics including searching for well-known representative substrings, the use of byte frequency and n-gram tables, and Bayesian inference.
+Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) sniffing was, and still is, used by some web browsers, including notably Microsoft's Internet Explorer, in an attempt to help web sites which do not correctly signal the MIME type of web content display. However, doing this opens up a serious security vulnerability, in which, by confusing the MIME sniffing algorithm, the browser can be manipulated into interpreting data in a way that allows an attacker to carry out operations that are not expected by either the site operator or user, such as cross-site scripting. Moreover, by making sites which do not correctly assign MIME types to content appear to work correctly in those browsers, it fails to encourage the correct labeling of material, which in turn makes content sniffing necessary for these sites to work, creating a vicious circle of incompatibility with web standards and security best practices.
+A specification exists for media type sniffing in HTML5, which attempts to balance the requirements of security with the need for reverse compatibility with web content with missing or incorrect MIME-type data. It attempts to provide a precise specification that can be used across implementations to implement a single well-defined and deterministic set of behaviors.
+The UNIX file command can be viewed as a content sniffing application.
+
+
+== Charset sniffing ==
+
+Numerous web browsers use a more limited form of content sniffing to attempt to determine the character encoding of text files for which the MIME type is already known. This technique is known as charset sniffing or codepage sniffing and, for certain encodings, may be used to bypass security restrictions too. For instance, Internet Explorer 7 may be tricked to run JScript in circumvention of its policy by allowing the browser to guess that an HTML-file was encoded in UTF-7. This bug is worsened by the feature of the UTF-7 encoding which permits multiple encodings of the same text and, specifically, alternative representations of ASCII characters.
+Most encodings do not allow evasive presentations of ASCII characters, so charset sniffing is less dangerous in general because, due to the historical accident of the ASCII-centric nature of scripting and markup languages, characters outside the ASCII repertoire are more difficult to use to circumvent security boundaries, and misinterpretations of character sets tend to produce results no worse than the display of mojibake.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Browser sniffing
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+X-Content-Type-Options header
+MIME Sniffing Standard
+L. Masinter (March 27, 2011). "Internet Media Types and the Web". IETF. Retrieved 2012-07-14.
+A. Barth, I. Hickson (January 24, 2011). "Media Type Sniffing". IETF. Retrieved 2012-07-14.
+David Risney. "Mime-sniffing". Retrieved 2012-07-14.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..da7cb3cb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,222 @@
+---
+title: "Continuum hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In mathematics, specifically set theory, the continuum hypothesis (abbreviated CH) is a hypothesis about the possible sizes of infinite sets. It states:
+
+There is no set whose cardinality is strictly between that of the integers and the real numbers. The name of the hypothesis comes from the term continuum for the real numbers. In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC), this is equivalent to the following equation in aleph numbers: 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=\aleph _{1}}
+  
+, or even shorter with beth numbers: 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℶ
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beth _{1}=\aleph _{1}}
+  
+.
+The continuum hypothesis was advanced by Georg Cantor in 1878. It became one of the most studied problems in set theory, and establishing its truth or falsehood was the first of Hilbert's 23 problems presented in 1900. The answer to this problem is independent of ZFC. This means the axioms of ZFC can neither prove nor disprove the continuum hypothesis, meaning either the continuum hypothesis or its negation can be added as an axiom to ZFC set theory, with the resulting theory being consistent if and only if ZFC is consistent. This independence was proved in 1963 by Paul Cohen, complementing earlier work by Kurt Gödel in 1940.
+The generalized continuum hypothesis states that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha +1}=2^{\aleph _{\alpha }}}
+  
+ for every ordinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha }
+  
+.
+
+== History ==
+The continuum hypothesis was first introduced by Georg Cantor in his 1878 paper "Ein Beitrag zur Mannigfaltigkeitslehre", in a form now called the weak continuum hypothesis which is equivalent to the standard formulation under the then-undeveloped axiom of choice. Cantor initially presented the weak continuum hypothesis as a theorem, but did not give a proof and later became uncertain of it. On 25 October 1882, Cantor wrote to his correspondent Gösta Mittag-Leffler, and formulated the continuum hypothesis (CH) in its modern form and gave his belief he could prove it. By the 1890s, many mathematicians in Germany and France were aware of the problem. Cantor tried for many years to prove CH but never succeeded.
+It became the first on David Hilbert's list of important open questions that was presented at the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in the year 1900 in Paris. At that point, axiomatic set theory was not yet formulated.
+Many erroneous proofs and disproofs of CH were given. As early as 1884, Paul Tannery claimed to prove CH, but the proof was erroneous. In 1890, Beppo Levi claimed to have a proof from assuming that every subset of the real numbers has the Baire property, but no proof was ever published. At the 1904 ICM in Heidelberg, Gyula Kőnig announced he had disproven CH, drawing wide attention that even reached the Grand Duke of Baden Frederick I via Felix Klein, but a flaw in the proof was found the next day. Felix Bernstein also published an attempted proof of CH in 1904, but it was wrong and attracted little response. In 1926, Hilbert claimed to have solved the continuum hypothesis and gave a proof sketch, but this was also incorrect, although it influenced later ideas in recursion theory.
+In 1906, Kőnig revised part of his attempted CH disproof and established Kőnig's theorem, which by using the concept of cofinality introduced in 1908 by Felix Hausdorff, shows that result that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}}
+  
+ cannot equal 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }}
+  
+ for 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha }
+  
+ with cofinality 
+  
+    
+      
+        ω
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \omega }
+  
+. For example, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≠
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            ω
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}\neq \aleph _{\omega }}
+  
+. Hausdorff formulated the question of whether 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        +
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{\alpha }}=\aleph _{\alpha }+1}
+  
+ for all ordinals 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha }
+  
+, which would be named the generalized continuum hypothesis by Alfred Tarski in 1925. In 1923, Thoralf Skolem conjectured that CH could not be settled by the axioms of Zermelo set theory.
+Kurt Gödel proved in 1940 that the negation of the continuum hypothesis, i.e., the existence of a set with intermediate cardinality, could not be proved in standard set theory. The second half of the independence of the continuum hypothesis – i.e., unprovability of the nonexistence of an intermediate-sized set – was proved in 1963 by Paul Cohen.
+
+== Cardinality of infinite sets ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..86edae5d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,239 @@
+---
+title: "Continuum hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Two sets are said to have the same cardinality or cardinal number if there exists a bijection (a one-to-one correspondence) between them. Intuitively, for two sets 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ to have the same cardinality means that it is possible to "pair off" elements of 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+ with elements of 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ in such a fashion that every element of 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+ is paired off with exactly one element of 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ and vice versa. Hence, the set 
+  
+    
+      
+        {
+        
+          banana
+        
+        ,
+        
+          apple
+        
+        ,
+        
+          pear
+        
+        }
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \{{\text{banana}},{\text{apple}},{\text{pear}}\}}
+  
+ has the same cardinality as 
+  
+    
+      
+        {
+        
+          yellow
+        
+        ,
+        
+          red
+        
+        ,
+        
+          green
+        
+        }
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \{{\text{yellow}},{\text{red}},{\text{green}}\}}
+  
+ despite the sets themselves containing different elements.
+With infinite sets such as the set of integers or rational numbers, the existence of a bijection between two sets becomes more difficult to demonstrate. The rational numbers 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Q
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }
+  
+ seemingly form a counterexample to the continuum hypothesis: the integers form a proper subset of the rationals, which themselves form a proper subset of the reals, so intuitively, there are more rational numbers than integers and more real numbers than rational numbers. However, this intuitive analysis is flawed since it does not take into account the fact that all three sets are infinite. Perhaps more importantly, it in fact conflates the concept of "size" of the set 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Q
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }
+  
+ with the order or topological structure placed on it. In fact, it turns out the rational numbers can actually be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the integers, and therefore the set of rational numbers is the same size (cardinality) as the set of integers: they are both countable sets.
+Cantor gave two proofs that the cardinality of the set of integers is strictly smaller than that of the set of real numbers (see Cantor's first uncountability proof and Cantor's diagonal argument). His proofs, however, give no indication of the extent to which the cardinality of the integers is less than that of the real numbers. Cantor proposed the continuum hypothesis as a possible solution to this question.
+In simple terms, the Continuum Hypothesis (CH) states that the set of real numbers has minimal possible cardinality which is greater than the cardinality of the set of integers. That is, every infinite set 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+        ⊆
+        
+          R
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S\subseteq \mathbb {R} }
+  
+ of real numbers can either be mapped one-to-one into the integers or the real numbers can be mapped one-to-one into 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+. Since the real numbers are equinumerous with the powerset of the integers, i.e. 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          R
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\mathbb {R} |=2^{\aleph _{0}}}
+  
+, CH can be restated as follows:
+
+Assuming the axiom of choice, there is a unique smallest cardinal number 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{1}}
+  
+ greater than 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{0}}
+  
+, and the continuum hypothesis is in turn equivalent to the equality 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=\aleph _{1}}
+  
+.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-2.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b3943bc28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+---
+title: "Continuum hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Independence from ZFC ==
+The independence of the continuum hypothesis (CH) from Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF) follows from combined work of Kurt Gödel  and Paul Cohen.
+Gödel
+showed that CH cannot be disproved from ZF, even if the axiom of choice (AC) is adopted, i.e. from ZFC. Gödel's proof shows that both CH and AC hold in the constructible universe 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L}
+  
+, an inner model of ZF set theory, assuming only the axioms of ZF.  The existence of an inner model of ZF in which additional axioms hold shows that the additional axioms are (relatively) consistent with ZF, provided ZF itself is consistent. The latter condition cannot be proved in ZF itself, due to Gödel's incompleteness theorems, but is widely believed to be true and can be proved in stronger set theories.
+Cohen showed that CH cannot be proven from the ZFC axioms, completing the overall independence proof. To prove his result, Cohen developed the method of forcing, which has become a standard tool in set theory. Essentially, this method begins with a model of ZF in which CH holds and constructs another model which contains more sets than the original in a way that CH does not hold in the new model. Cohen was awarded the Fields Medal in 1966 for his proof.
+Cohen's independence proof shows that CH is independent of ZFC. Further research has shown that CH is independent of all known large cardinal axioms in the context of ZFC. Moreover, it has been shown that the cardinality of the continuum 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {c}}=2^{\aleph _{0}}}
+  
+ can be any cardinal consistent with Kőnig's theorem. A result of Solovay, proved shortly after Cohen's result on the independence of the continuum hypothesis, shows that in any model of ZFC, if 
+  
+    
+      
+        κ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \kappa }
+  
+ is a cardinal of uncountable cofinality, then there is a forcing extension in which 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        κ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=\kappa }
+  
+. However, per Kőnig's theorem, it is not consistent to assume 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            ω
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\omega }}
+  
+ or 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            
+              ω
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+            +
+            ω
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\omega _{1}+\omega }}
+  
+ or any cardinal with cofinality 
+  
+    
+      
+        ω
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \omega }
+  
+.
+The continuum hypothesis is closely related to many statements in analysis, point-set topology and measure theory. As a result of its independence, many substantial conjectures in those fields have subsequently been shown to be independent as well.
+The independence from ZFC means that proving or disproving the CH within ZFC is impossible.  However, Gödel and Cohen's negative results are not universally accepted as disposing of all interest in the continuum hypothesis. The continuum hypothesis remains an active topic of research: see Woodin and Koellner for an overview of the current research status.
+The continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice were among the first genuinely mathematical statements shown to be independent of ZF set theory. Although the existence of some statements independent of ZFC had already been known more than two decades prior: for example, assuming good soundness properties and the consistency of ZFC, Gödel's incompleteness theorems published in 1931 establish that there is a formal statement Con(ZFC) (one for each appropriate Gödel numbering scheme) expressing the consistency of ZFC, that is also independent of it. The latter independence result indeed holds for many theories.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-3.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5e8d886d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-3.md
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+---
+title: "Continuum hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Arguments for and against the continuum hypothesis ==
+Gödel believed that CH is false, and that his proof that CH is consistent with ZFC only shows that the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms do not adequately characterize the universe of sets.  Gödel was a Platonist  and therefore had no problems with asserting the truth and falsehood of statements independent of their provability. Cohen, though a formalist, also tended towards rejecting CH.
+Historically, mathematicians who favored a "rich" and "large" universe of sets were against CH, while those favoring a "neat" and "controllable" universe favored CH. Parallel arguments were made for and against the axiom of constructibility, which implies CH. More recently, Matthew Foreman has pointed out that ontological maximalism can actually be used to argue in favor of CH, because among models that have the same reals, models with "more" sets of reals have a better chance of satisfying CH.
+Another viewpoint is that the conception of set is not specific enough to determine whether CH is true or false. This viewpoint was advanced as early as 1923 by Skolem, even before Gödel's first incompleteness theorem. Skolem argued on the basis of what is now known as Skolem's paradox, and it was later supported by the independence of CH from the axioms of ZFC since these axioms are enough to establish the elementary properties of sets and cardinalities. In order to argue against this viewpoint, it would be sufficient to demonstrate new axioms that are supported by intuition and resolve CH in one direction or another. Although the axiom of constructibility does resolve CH, it is not generally considered to be intuitively true any more than CH is generally considered to be false.
+At least two other axioms have been proposed that have implications for the continuum hypothesis, although these axioms have not currently found wide acceptance in the mathematical community. In 1986, Chris Freiling presented an argument against CH by showing that the negation of CH is equivalent to Freiling's axiom of symmetry, a statement derived by arguing from particular intuitions about probabilities. Freiling believes this axiom is "intuitively clear" but others have disagreed.
+A difficult argument against CH developed by W. Hugh Woodin has attracted considerable attention since the year 2000. Foreman does not reject Woodin's argument outright but urges caution. Woodin proposed a new hypothesis that he labeled the "(*)-axiom", or "Star axiom". The Star axiom would imply that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{2}}
+  
+, thus falsifying CH. The Star axiom was bolstered by an independent May 2021 proof showing the Star axiom can be derived from a variation of Martin's maximum. However, Woodin stated in the 2010s that he now instead believes CH to be true, based on his belief in his new "ultimate L" conjecture.
+Solomon Feferman argued that CH is not a definite mathematical problem.  He proposed a theory of "definiteness" using a semi-intuitionistic subsystem of ZF that accepts classical logic for bounded quantifiers but uses intuitionistic logic for unbounded ones, and suggested that a proposition 
+  
+    
+      
+        ϕ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \phi }
+  
+ is mathematically "definite" if the semi-intuitionistic theory can prove 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        ϕ
+        ∨
+        ¬
+        ϕ
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (\phi \lor \neg \phi )}
+  
+.  He conjectured that CH is not definite according to this notion, and proposed that CH should, therefore, be considered not to have a truth value. Peter Koellner wrote a critical commentary on Feferman's article.
+Joel David Hamkins proposes a multiverse approach to set theory and argues that "the continuum hypothesis is settled on the multiverse view by our extensive knowledge about how it behaves in the multiverse, and, as a result, it can no longer be settled in the manner formerly hoped for". In a related vein, Saharon Shelah wrote that he does "not agree with the pure Platonic view that the interesting problems in set theory can be decided, that we just have to discover the additional axiom. My mental picture is that we have many possible set theories, all conforming to ZFC".
+
+== Generalized continuum hypothesis ==
+The generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) states that if an infinite set's cardinality lies between that of an infinite set S and that of the power set 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            P
+          
+        
+        (
+        S
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(S)}
+  
+ of S, then it has the same cardinality as either S or 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            P
+          
+        
+        (
+        S
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(S)}
+  
+. That is, for any infinite cardinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda }
+  
+ there is no cardinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        κ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \kappa }
+  
+ such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+        <
+        κ
+        <
+        
+          2
+          
+            λ
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda <\kappa <2^{\lambda }}
+  
+. GCH is equivalent to:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-4.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..2a91f279d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-4.md
@@ -0,0 +1,796 @@
+---
+title: "Continuum hypothesis"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+(occasionally called Cantor's aleph hypothesis).
+The beth numbers provide an alternative notation for this condition: 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℶ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }=\beth _{\alpha }}
+  
+ for every ordinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha }
+  
+. The continuum hypothesis is the special case for the ordinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha =1}
+  
+. GCH was first suggested by Philip Jourdain. For the early history of GCH, see Moore.
+Like CH, GCH is also independent of ZFC, but Sierpiński proved that ZF + GCH implies the axiom of choice (AC) (and therefore the negation of the axiom of determinacy, AD), so choice and GCH are not independent in ZF; there are no models of ZF in which GCH holds and AC fails. To prove this, Sierpiński showed GCH implies that every cardinality n is smaller than some aleph number, and thus can be ordered. This is done by showing that n is smaller than 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            +
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}+n}}
+  
+ which is smaller than its own Hartogs number—this uses the equality 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            +
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+        =
+        
+        2
+        ⋅
+        
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            +
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}+n}\,=\,2\cdot \,2^{\aleph _{0}+n}}
+  
+; for the full proof, see Gillman.
+Kurt Gödel showed that GCH is a consequence of ZF + V=L (the axiom that every set is constructible relative to the ordinals), and is therefore consistent with ZFC. As GCH implies CH, Cohen's model in which CH fails is a model in which GCH fails, and thus GCH is not provable from ZFC. W. B. Easton used the method of forcing developed by Cohen to prove Easton's theorem, which shows it is consistent with ZFC for arbitrarily large cardinals 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }}
+  
+ to fail to satisfy 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{\alpha }}=\aleph _{\alpha +1}}
+  
+. Much later, Foreman and Woodin proved that (assuming the consistency of very large cardinals) it is consistent that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            κ
+          
+        
+        >
+        
+          κ
+          
+            +
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\kappa }>\kappa ^{+}}
+  
+ holds for every infinite cardinal 
+  
+    
+      
+        κ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \kappa }
+  
+. Later Woodin extended this by showing the consistency of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            κ
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          κ
+          
+            +
+            +
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\kappa }=\kappa ^{++}}
+  
+ for every 
+  
+    
+      
+        κ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \kappa }
+  
+. Carmi Merimovich showed that, for each n ≥ 1, it is consistent  with ZFC that for each infinite cardinal κ, 2κ is the nth successor of κ (assuming the consistency of some large cardinal axioms). On the other hand, László Patai proved that if γ is an ordinal and for each infinite cardinal κ, 2κ is the γth successor of κ, then γ is finite.
+For any infinite sets A and B, if there is an injection from A to B then there is an injection from subsets of A to subsets of B. Thus for any infinite cardinals A and B, 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+        <
+        B
+        →
+        
+          2
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          2
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A<B\to 2^{A}\leq 2^{B}}
+  
+. If A and B are finite, the stronger inequality 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+        <
+        B
+        →
+        
+          2
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+        <
+        
+          2
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A<B\to 2^{A}<2^{B}}
+  
+ holds. GCH implies that this strict, stronger inequality holds for infinite cardinals as well as finite cardinals.
+
+=== Implications of GCH for cardinal exponentiation ===
+Although the generalized continuum hypothesis refers directly only to cardinal exponentiation with 2 as the base, one can deduce from it the values of cardinal exponentiation 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}}
+  
+ in all cases. GCH implies that for ordinals α and β:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            β
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}=\aleph _{\beta +1}}
+  
+ when α ≤ β+1;
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}=\aleph _{\alpha }}
+  
+ when β+1 < α and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            β
+          
+        
+        <
+        cf
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\beta }<\operatorname {cf} (\aleph _{\alpha })}
+  
+, where cf is the cofinality operation; and
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}=\aleph _{\alpha +1}}
+  
+ when β+1 < α and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            β
+          
+        
+        ≥
+        cf
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\beta }\geq \operatorname {cf} (\aleph _{\alpha })}
+  
+.
+The first equality (when α ≤ β+1) follows from:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            β
+            +
+            1
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        (
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          )
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+            ⋅
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            β
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}\leq \aleph _{\beta +1}^{\aleph _{\beta }}=(2^{\aleph _{\beta }})^{\aleph _{\beta }}=2^{\aleph _{\beta }\cdot \aleph _{\beta }}=2^{\aleph _{\beta }}=\aleph _{\beta +1}}
+  
+
+while:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            β
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\beta +1}=2^{\aleph _{\beta }}\leq \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}.}
+  
+
+The third equality (when β+1 < α and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            β
+          
+        
+        ≥
+        cf
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\beta }\geq \operatorname {cf} (\aleph _{\alpha })}
+  
+) follows from:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≥
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            cf
+            ⁡
+            (
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+        >
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}\geq \aleph _{\alpha }^{\operatorname {cf} (\aleph _{\alpha })}>\aleph _{\alpha }}
+  
+
+by Kőnig's theorem, while:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        (
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          )
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+            ⋅
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            α
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\beta }}\leq \aleph _{\alpha }^{\aleph _{\alpha }}\leq (2^{\aleph _{\alpha }})^{\aleph _{\alpha }}=2^{\aleph _{\alpha }\cdot \aleph _{\alpha }}=2^{\aleph _{\alpha }}=\aleph _{\alpha +1}}
+  
+
+== See also ==
+Absolute infinite
+Beth number
+Cardinality
+Ω-logic
+Second continuum hypothesis
+Wetzel's problem
+
+== References ==
+ 
+Maddy, Penelope (June 1988). "Believing the axioms, [part I]". Journal of Symbolic Logic. 53 (2). Association for Symbolic Logic: 481–511. doi:10.2307/2274520. JSTOR 2274520.
+
+== Sources ==
+This article incorporates material from Generalized continuum hypothesis on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. Archived 2017-02-08 at the Wayback Machine
+
+== Further reading ==
+Cohen, Paul Joseph (2008) [1966]. Set theory and the continuum hypothesis. Mineola, New York City: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-46921-8.
+Dales, H.G.; Woodin, W.H. (1987). An Introduction to Independence for Analysts. Cambridge.
+Enderton, Herbert (1977). Elements of Set Theory. Academic Press.
+Gödel, K.: What is Cantor's Continuum Problem?, reprinted in Benacerraf and Putnam's collection Philosophy of Mathematics, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983. An outline of Gödel's arguments against CH.
+Martin, D. (1976). "Hilbert's first problem: the continuum hypothesis," in Mathematical Developments Arising from Hilbert's Problems, Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics XXVIII, F. Browder, editor. American Mathematical Society, 1976, pp. 81–92. ISBN 0-8218-1428-1
+McGough, Nancy. "The Continuum Hypothesis".
+Wolchover, Natalie (15 July 2021). "How Many Numbers Exist? Infinity Proof Moves Math Closer to an Answer".
+
+== External links ==
+ Quotations related to Continuum hypothesis at Wikiquote
+
+Szudzik, Matthew & Weisstein, Eric W. "Continuum Hypothesis". MathWorld.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..79a111da5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,269 @@
+---
+title: "Cosmic censorship hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:16.959067+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two mathematical conjectures about the structure of gravitational singularities in the context of general relativity.
+Singularities that arise in the solutions of Einstein's equations are typically hidden within event horizons, and therefore cannot be observed from the rest of spacetime. Singularities that are not so hidden are called naked. The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis was conceived by Roger Penrose in 1969 and posits that no naked singularities is visible from infinity (namely, it is “dressed” by an event horizon) while the strong cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that generically, general relativity must be a deterministic theory and, thus, our universe must be globally hyperbolic.
+
+== Basics ==
+Since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be observed from the rest of spacetime, causality may break down, and physics may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems, singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe, as described by the general theory of relativity, is deterministic: it is possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe (possibly excluding some finite regions of space hidden inside event horizons of singularities), knowing only its condition at a certain moment of time (more precisely, everywhere on a spacelike three-dimensional hypersurface, called the Cauchy surface). Failure of the cosmic censorship hypothesis leads to the failure of determinism, because it is yet impossible to predict the behavior of spacetime in the causal future of a singularity. Cosmic censorship is not merely a problem of formal interest; some form of it is assumed whenever black hole event horizons are mentioned.
+
+The hypothesis was first formulated by Roger Penrose in 1969, and it is not stated in a completely formal way. In a sense it is more of a research program proposal: part of the research is to find a proper formal statement that is physically reasonable, falsifiable, and sufficiently general to be interesting.  Because the statement is not a strictly formal one, there is sufficient latitude for (at least) two independent formulations: a weak form, and a strong form.
+
+== Weak and strong cosmic censorship hypothesis ==
+The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two conjectures concerned with the global geometry of spacetimes.
+The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts there can be no singularity visible from future null infinity. In other words, singularities need to be hidden from an observer at infinity by the event horizon of a black hole. Mathematically, the conjecture states that, for generic initial data, the causal structure is such that the maximal Cauchy development possesses a complete future null infinity.
+The strong cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that, generically, general relativity is a deterministic theory, in the same sense that classical mechanics is a deterministic theory. In other words, the classical fate of all observers should be predictable from the initial data. Mathematically, the conjecture states that the maximal Cauchy development of generic compact or asymptotically flat initial data is locally extensible as a regular Lorentzian manifold. Taken in its strongest sense, the conjecture suggests the local extensibility of the maximal Cauchy development as a continuous Lorentzian manifold (very strong cosmic censorship). This strongest version was disproven in 2018 by Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk for the Cauchy horizon of an uncharged, rotating black hole. 
+The two conjectures are mathematically independent, as there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is valid but strong cosmic censorship is violated and, conversely, there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is violated but strong cosmic censorship is valid.
+
+== Example ==
+The Kerr metric, corresponding to a black hole of mass 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+ and angular momentum 
+  
+    
+      
+        J
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle J}
+  
+, can be used to derive the effective potential for particle orbits restricted to the equator (as defined by rotation).  This potential looks like:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            
+              e
+              f
+              f
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        r
+        ,
+        e
+        ,
+        ℓ
+        )
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            M
+            r
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                ℓ
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              −
+              
+                a
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              (
+              
+                e
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              −
+              1
+              )
+            
+            
+              2
+              
+                r
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              M
+              (
+              ℓ
+              −
+              a
+              e
+              
+                )
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              r
+              
+                3
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+         
+         
+         
+        a
+        ≡
+        
+          
+            J
+            M
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{\rm {eff}}(r,e,\ell )=-{\frac {M}{r}}+{\frac {\ell ^{2}-a^{2}(e^{2}-1)}{2r^{2}}}-{\frac {M(\ell -ae)^{2}}{r^{3}}},~~~a\equiv {\frac {J}{M}}}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ is the coordinate radius, 
+  
+    
+      
+        e
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle e}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℓ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \ell }
+  
+ are the test-particle's conserved energy and angular momentum respectively (constructed from the Killing vectors).
+To preserve cosmic censorship, the black hole is restricted to the case of 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        <
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a<1}
+  
+.  For there to exist an event horizon around the singularity, the requirement 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        <
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a<1}
+  
+ must be satisfied.  This amounts to the angular momentum of the black hole being constrained to below a critical value, outside of which the horizon would disappear.  
+The following thought experiment is reproduced from Hartle's Gravity:
+
+Imagine specifically trying to violate the censorship conjecture.  This could be done by somehow imparting an angular momentum upon the black hole, making it exceed the critical value (assume it starts infinitesimally below it).  This could be done by sending a particle of angular momentum 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℓ
+        =
+        2
+        M
+        e
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \ell =2Me}
+  
+.  Because this particle has angular momentum, it can only be captured by the black hole if the maximum potential of the black hole is less than 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        
+          e
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (e^{2}-1)/2}
+  
+.
+Solving the above effective potential equation for the maximum under the given conditions results in a maximum potential of exactly 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        
+          e
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (e^{2}-1)/2}
+  
+.  Testing other values shows that no particle with enough angular momentum to violate the censorship conjecture would be able to enter the black hole, because they have too much angular momentum to fall in.
+
+== Problems with the concept ==
+There are a number of difficulties in formalizing the hypothesis:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..8ed63443b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,217 @@
+---
+title: "Cosmic censorship hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:16.959067+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There are technical difficulties with properly formalizing the notion of a singularity.
+It is not difficult to construct spacetimes which have naked singularities, but which are not "physically reasonable"; the canonical example of such a spacetime is perhaps the "superextremal" 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        <
+        
+          |
+        
+        Q
+        
+          |
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M<|Q|}
+  
+ Reissner–Nordström solution, which contains a singularity at 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r=0}
+  
+ that is not surrounded by a horizon. A formal statement needs some set of hypotheses which exclude these situations.
+Caustics may occur in simple models of gravitational collapse, and can appear to lead to singularities. These have more to do with the simplified models of bulk matter used, and in any case have nothing to do with general relativity, and need to be excluded.
+Computer models of gravitational collapse have shown that naked singularities can arise, but these models rely on very special circumstances (such as spherical symmetry). These special circumstances need to be excluded by some hypotheses.
+In 1991, John Preskill and Kip Thorne bet against Stephen Hawking that the hypothesis was false.  Hawking conceded the bet in 1997, due to the discovery of the special situations just mentioned, which he characterized as "technicalities". Hawking later reformulated the bet to exclude those technicalities. The revised bet is still open (although Hawking died in 2018), the prize being "clothing to cover the winner's nakedness".
+
+== Counter-example ==
+An exact solution to the scalar-Einstein equations 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+          
+            a
+            b
+          
+        
+        =
+        2
+        
+          ϕ
+          
+            a
+          
+        
+        
+          ϕ
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R_{ab}=2\phi _{a}\phi _{b}}
+  
+ which forms a counterexample to many formulations of the 
+cosmic censorship hypothesis was found by Mark D. Roberts in 1985:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        d
+        
+          s
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        2
+        σ
+        )
+        
+        d
+        
+          v
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        2
+        
+        d
+        v
+        
+        d
+        r
+        +
+        r
+        (
+        r
+        −
+        2
+        σ
+        v
+        )
+        
+          (
+          
+            d
+            
+              θ
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            +
+            
+              sin
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ⁡
+            θ
+            
+            d
+            
+              ϕ
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        ,
+        
+        φ
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            2
+          
+        
+        ln
+        ⁡
+        
+          (
+          
+            1
+            −
+            
+              
+                
+                  2
+                  σ
+                  v
+                
+                r
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ds^{2}=-(1+2\sigma )\,dv^{2}+2\,dv\,dr+r(r-2\sigma v)\left(d\theta ^{2}+\sin ^{2}\theta \,d\phi ^{2}\right),\quad \varphi ={\frac {1}{2}}\ln \left(1-{\frac {2\sigma v}{r}}\right),}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma }
+  
+ is a constant.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Black hole information paradox
+Chronology protection conjecture
+Firewall (physics)
+Fuzzball (string theory)
+Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Earman, John (1995). Bangs, crunches, whimpers, and shrieks: singularities and acausalities in relativistic spacetimes (PDF). New York: Oxford University Press. See especially chapter 2. ISBN 978-0-19-509591-3.
+Wald, Robert M. (1998). "The Question of Cosmic Censorship". In Wald, Robert M. (ed.). Black holes and relativistic stars. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-87034-2.
+Penrose, Roger (1979). "Singularities and time-asymmetry". In Hawking, Stephen; Israel, W. (eds.). General relativity: an Einstein centenary survey. Cambridge [Eng.] ; New York: Cambridge University Press. See especially section 12.3.2, pp. 617–629. ISBN 978-0-521-22285-3.
+Shapiro, Stuart L.; Teukolsky, Saul A. (25 February 1991). "Formation of naked singularities: The violation of cosmic censorship" (PDF). Physical Review Letters. 66 (8). American Physical Society (APS): 994–997. Bibcode:1991PhRvL..66..994S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.66.994. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10043968. S2CID 7830407. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-12-05.
+Wald, Robert M. (1984). General relativity (PDF). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 299–308. ISBN 978-0-226-87032-8.
+
+== External links ==
+The old bet (conceded in 1997)
+The new bet
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..fcb3e69ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,976 @@
+---
+title: "Cross-entropy method"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:30.044973+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The cross-entropy (CE) method is a Monte Carlo method for importance sampling and optimization. It is applicable to both combinatorial and continuous problems, with either a static or noisy objective.
+The method approximates the optimal importance sampling estimator by repeating two phases:
+
+Draw a sample from a probability distribution.
+Minimize the cross-entropy between this distribution and a target distribution to produce a better sample in the next iteration.
+Reuven Rubinstein developed the method in the context of rare-event simulation, where tiny probabilities must be estimated, for example in network reliability analysis, queueing models, or performance analysis of telecommunication systems. The method has also been applied to the traveling salesman, quadratic assignment, DNA sequence alignment, max-cut and buffer allocation problems.
+
+
+== Estimation via importance sampling ==
+Consider the general problem of estimating the quantity
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ℓ
+        =
+        
+          
+            E
+          
+          
+            
+              u
+            
+          
+        
+        [
+        H
+        (
+        
+          X
+        
+        )
+        ]
+        =
+        ∫
+        H
+        (
+        
+          x
+        
+        )
+        
+        f
+        (
+        
+          x
+        
+        ;
+        
+          u
+        
+        )
+        
+        
+          
+            d
+          
+        
+        
+          x
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \ell =\mathbb {E} _{\mathbf {u} }[H(\mathbf {X} )]=\int H(\mathbf {x} )\,f(\mathbf {x} ;\mathbf {u} )\,{\textrm {d}}\mathbf {x} }
+  
+,
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H}
+  
+ is some performance function and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        
+          x
+        
+        ;
+        
+          u
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} ;\mathbf {u} )}
+  
+ is a member of some parametric family of distributions. Using importance sampling this quantity can be estimated as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              ℓ
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+        H
+        (
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          
+            
+              f
+              (
+              
+                
+                  X
+                
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+              ;
+              
+                u
+              
+              )
+            
+            
+              g
+              (
+              
+                
+                  X
+                
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {\ell }}={\frac {1}{N}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}H(\mathbf {X} _{i}){\frac {f(\mathbf {X} _{i};\mathbf {u} )}{g(\mathbf {X} _{i})}}}
+  
+,
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {X} _{1},\dots ,\mathbf {X} _{N}}
+  
+ is a random sample from 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g\,}
+  
+. For positive 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H}
+  
+, the theoretically optimal importance sampling density (PDF) is given by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          g
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          x
+        
+        )
+        =
+        H
+        (
+        
+          x
+        
+        )
+        f
+        (
+        
+          x
+        
+        ;
+        
+          u
+        
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        ℓ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g^{*}(\mathbf {x} )=H(\mathbf {x} )f(\mathbf {x} ;\mathbf {u} )/\ell }
+  
+.
+This, however, depends on the unknown 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℓ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \ell }
+  
+. The CE method aims to approximate the optimal PDF by adaptively selecting members of the parametric family that are closest (in the Kullback–Leibler sense) to the optimal PDF 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          g
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g^{*}}
+  
+.
+
+
+== Generic CE algorithm ==
+Choose initial parameter vector 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            v
+          
+          
+            (
+            0
+            )
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ^{(0)}}
+  
+; set t = 1.
+Generate a random sample 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {X} _{1},\dots ,\mathbf {X} _{N}}
+  
+ from 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        ⋅
+        ;
+        
+          
+            v
+          
+          
+            (
+            t
+            −
+            1
+            )
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\cdot ;\mathbf {v} ^{(t-1)})}
+  
+
+Solve for 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            v
+          
+          
+            (
+            t
+            )
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ^{(t)}}
+  
+, where
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            v
+          
+          
+            (
+            t
+            )
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              argmax
+            
+          
+          
+            
+              v
+            
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        
+          
+            1
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+        H
+        (
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          
+            
+              f
+              (
+              
+                
+                  X
+                
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+              ;
+              
+                u
+              
+              )
+            
+            
+              f
+              (
+              
+                
+                  X
+                
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+              ;
+              
+                
+                  v
+                
+                
+                  (
+                  t
+                  −
+                  1
+                  )
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        f
+        (
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ;
+        
+          v
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ^{(t)}=\mathop {\textrm {argmax}} _{\mathbf {v} }{\frac {1}{N}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}H(\mathbf {X} _{i}){\frac {f(\mathbf {X} _{i};\mathbf {u} )}{f(\mathbf {X} _{i};\mathbf {v} ^{(t-1)})}}\log f(\mathbf {X} _{i};\mathbf {v} )}
+  
+
+If convergence is reached then stop; otherwise, increase t by 1 and reiterate from step 2.
+In several cases, the solution to step 3 can be found analytically.  Situations in which this occurs are
+
+When 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f\,}
+  
+ belongs to the natural exponential family
+When 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f\,}
+  
+ is discrete with finite support
+When 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        (
+        
+          X
+        
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            I
+          
+          
+            {
+            
+              x
+            
+            ∈
+            A
+            }
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H(\mathbf {X} )=\mathrm {I} _{\{\mathbf {x} \in A\}}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ;
+        
+          u
+        
+        )
+        =
+        f
+        (
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ;
+        
+          
+            v
+          
+          
+            (
+            t
+            −
+            1
+            )
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(\mathbf {X} _{i};\mathbf {u} )=f(\mathbf {X} _{i};\mathbf {v} ^{(t-1)})}
+  
+, then 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            v
+          
+          
+            (
+            t
+            )
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ^{(t)}}
+  
+ corresponds to the maximum likelihood estimator based on those 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            X
+          
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        ∈
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {X} _{k}\in A}
+  
+.
+
+
+== Continuous optimization—example ==
+The same CE algorithm can be used for optimization, rather than estimation. 
+Suppose the problem is to maximize some function 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+, for example, 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              e
+            
+          
+          
+            −
+            (
+            x
+            −
+            2
+            
+              )
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        0.8
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              e
+            
+          
+          
+            −
+            (
+            x
+            +
+            2
+            
+              )
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S(x)={\textrm {e}}^{-(x-2)^{2}}+0.8\,{\textrm {e}}^{-(x+2)^{2}}}
+  
+. 
+To apply CE, one considers first the associated stochastic problem of estimating
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            P
+          
+          
+            θ
+          
+        
+        (
+        S
+        (
+        X
+        )
+        ≥
+        γ
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {P} _{\boldsymbol {\theta }}(S(X)\geq \gamma )}
+  
+
+for a given level 
+  
+    
+      
+        γ
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \gamma \,}
+  
+, and parametric family 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          {
+          
+            f
+            (
+            ⋅
+            ;
+            
+              θ
+            
+            )
+          
+          }
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left\{f(\cdot ;{\boldsymbol {\theta }})\right\}}
+  
+, for example the 1-dimensional 
+Gaussian distribution,
+parameterized by its mean 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          μ
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mu _{t}\,}
+  
+ and variance 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          σ
+          
+            t
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma _{t}^{2}}
+  
+ (so 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          θ
+        
+        =
+        (
+        μ
+        ,
+        
+          σ
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\theta }}=(\mu ,\sigma ^{2})}
+  
+ here).
+Hence, for a given 
+  
+    
+      
+        γ
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \gamma \,}
+  
+, the goal is to find 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          θ
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}
+  
+ so that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          D
+          
+            
+              K
+              L
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              I
+            
+          
+          
+            {
+            S
+            (
+            x
+            )
+            ≥
+            γ
+            }
+          
+        
+        ‖
+        
+          f
+          
+            θ
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {KL} }({\textrm {I}}_{\{S(x)\geq \gamma \}}\|f_{\boldsymbol {\theta }})}
+  
+
+is minimized. This is done by solving the sample version (stochastic counterpart) of the KL divergence minimization problem, as in step 3 above.
+It turns out that parameters that minimize the stochastic counterpart for this choice of target distribution and
+parametric family are the sample mean and sample variance corresponding to the elite samples, which are those samples that have objective function value 
+  
+    
+      
+        ≥
+        γ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \geq \gamma }
+  
+.
+The worst of the elite samples is then used as the level parameter for the next iteration.
+This yields the following randomized algorithm that happens to coincide with the so-called Estimation of Multivariate Normal Algorithm (EMNA), an estimation of distribution algorithm.
+
+
+=== Pseudocode ===
+// Initialize parameters
+μ := −6
+σ2 := 100
+t := 0
+maxits := 100
+N := 100
+Ne := 10
+// While maxits not exceeded and not converged
+while t < maxits and σ2 > ε do
+    // Obtain N samples from current sampling distribution
+    X := SampleGaussian(μ, σ2, N)
+    // Evaluate objective function at sampled points
+    S := exp(−(X − 2) ^ 2) + 0.8 exp(−(X + 2) ^ 2)
+    // Sort X by objective function values in descending order
+    X := sort(X, S)
+    // Update parameters of sampling distribution via elite samples                  
+    μ := mean(X(1:Ne))
+    σ2 := var(X(1:Ne))
+    t := t + 1
+// Return mean of final sampling distribution as solution
+return μ
+
+
+== Related methods ==
+Simulated annealing
+Genetic algorithms
+Harmony search
+Estimation of distribution algorithm
+Tabu search
+Natural Evolution Strategy
+Ant colony optimization algorithms
+
+
+== See also ==
+Cross entropy
+Kullback–Leibler divergence
+Randomized algorithm
+Importance sampling
+
+
+== Journal papers ==
+De Boer, P.-T., Kroese, D.P., Mannor, S. and Rubinstein, R.Y. (2005). A Tutorial on the Cross-Entropy Method. Annals of Operations Research, 134 (1), 19–67.[1]
+Rubinstein, R.Y. (1997). Optimization of Computer Simulation Models with Rare Events, European Journal of Operational Research, 99, 89–112.
+
+
+== Software implementations ==
+CEopt Matlab package
+CEoptim R package
+Novacta.Analytics .NET library
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_forest_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_forest_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Dark forest hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_forest_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:18.155821+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The dark forest hypothesis is the idea that extraterrestrial civilizations may exist in abundance across the universe, but remain silent and hidden out of fear that revealing themselves would lead to destruction by a more technologically advanced and hostile civilization. It is one of several proposed explanations of the Fermi paradox, which contrasts the apparently high probability of extraterrestrial life with the lack of evidence for it. The hypothesis derives its name from Liu Cixin's 2008 novel The Dark Forest although similar concepts predate the work.
+
+
+== Relation to the Fermi paradox ==
+
+There is currently no known reliable or reproducible evidence that extraterrestrial life forms have visited or attempted to contact Earth. Despite systematic searches, no transmission and no firm evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life has been detected. This runs counter to the general observations that:
+
+The universe is filled with a very large number of planets, some of which might possess conditions hospitable for life;
+Terrestrial life is observed to expand until it fills all niches suited to it.
+These contradictory facts form the basis for the Fermi paradox.
+
+
+== Concept ==
+The "dark forest" hypothesis presumes that any space-faring civilization would view any other intelligent life such as theirs as an inevitable threat and thus destroy any nascent life that makes itself known. As a result, the electromagnetic radiation surveys would not find evidence of intelligent alien life. 
+A similar hypothesis, under the name "deadly probes", was described by astronomer and author David Brin in his 1983 summary of the arguments for and against the Fermi paradox.
+The name of the hypothesis derives from Liu Cixin's 2008 novel The Dark Forest, as in a "dark forest" filled with "armed hunter(s) stalking through the trees like ghosts". According to the dark forest hypothesis, since the intentions of any newly contacted civilisation can never be known with certainty, then if one is encountered, it is best to make a preemptive strike, in order to avoid the potential extinction of one's own species. The novel provides a detailed investigation of Liu's concerns about alien contact.
+
+
+== Relationship to other proposed Fermi paradox solutions ==
+The Berserker hypothesis, also known as the deadly probes scenario, proposes self-reproducing machines that would seek to destroy organic life. The name derives from short stories by Fred Saberhagen written in the 1960s, but the concept was introduced by John von Neumann in 1948 as part of his analysis of self-replicating machines. While the Berserker hypothesis is also about horrible outcomes from other civilizations, unlike the Dark Forest hypothesis, the probes or their actions would seem to be detectable.
+
+
+== Game theory ==
+The dark forest hypothesis is a special case of the "sequential and incomplete information game" in game theory.
+In game theory, a "sequential and incomplete information game" is one in which players make decisions in sequence, with each player having limited knowledge about the others' choices and strategies. In the case of this particular game, the only win condition is continued survival. An additional constraint in the special case of the "dark forest" is the scarcity of vital resources. The "dark forest" can be considered an extensive-form game with each "player" possessing the following possible actions: destroy another civilization known to the player; broadcast and alert other civilizations of one's existence; or do nothing.
+
+
+== Science fiction versions ==
+In addition to Fred Saberhagen's Berserker novels,  variations of these ideas have been used in other science fiction stories.  In 1987, science fiction author Greg Bear explored this concept that he called a "vicious jungle" in his novel The Forge of God. In The Forge of God, humanity is likened to a baby crying in a hostile forest: "There once was an infant lost in the woods, crying its heart out, wondering why no one answered, drawing down the wolves." One of the characters explains, "We've been sitting in our tree chirping like foolish birds for over a century now, wondering why no other birds answered. The galactic skies are full of hawks, that's why. Planetisms that don't know enough to keep quiet, get eaten."
+The term "dark forest" was coined for the idea in 2008 by science fiction author Liu Cixin in his novel The Dark Forest.
+In Liu Cixin's novel, the dark forest hypothesis is introduced by the character Luo Ji, while discussing with Ye Wenjie. She introduces three key axioms to a new field she describes as "cosmic sociology":
+
+"Suppose a vast number of civilizations distributed throughout the universe, on the order of the number of observable stars. Lots and lots of them. Those civilizations make up the body of a cosmic society. Cosmic sociology is the study of the nature of this super-society."
+Suppose that survival is the primary need of a civilization.
+Suppose that civilizations continuously expand over time, but the total matter in the universe remains constant.
+The only logical conclusion from the acceptance of these axioms as well as two other considerations, "chain of suspicion" and "technological explosion", according to the character Ye was talking to, is that any civilization that revealed itself will be considered as an imminent existential threat by at least some of the other civilizations, among which some will then proceed to destroy the civilization that makes itself known.
+In the third book of the trilogy, the perspective of the hunters in The Dark Forest is further illustrated through an alien character called Singer, who thinks that intelligent life that does not fear the dark forest would "expand and attack without fear". In other words, dark-forest-fearing civilizations are benign, civilizations that would reveal themselves are evil, and hunters are enforcers and protectors.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Dyer, Dyer; O'Dowd, Matt (14 March 2024). "Dark Forest: Should We NOT Contact Aliens?". PBS Space Time. Retrieved 26 March 2024 – via YouTube.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-0.md
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+---
+title: "Debiasing"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:31.215378+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Debiasing is the reduction of bias, particularly with respect to judgment and decision making. Biased judgment and decision making is that which systematically deviates from the prescriptions of objective standards such as facts, logic, and rational behavior or prescriptive norms. Biased judgment and decision making exists in consequential domains such as medicine, law, policy, and business, as well as in everyday life. Investors, for example, tend to exhibit the disposition effect by holding onto falling stocks too long and selling rising stocks too quickly. Employers exhibit considerable discrimination in hiring and employment practices, and some parents continue to believe that vaccinations cause autism despite knowing that this link is based on falsified evidence. At an individual level, people who exhibit less decision bias have more intact social environments, reduced risk of alcohol and drug use, lower childhood delinquency rates, and superior planning and problem solving abilities.
+Debiasing can occur within the decision maker. For example, a person may learn or adopt better strategies by which to make judgments and decisions. Debiasing can also occur as a result of changes in external factors, such as changing the incentives relevant to a decision or the manner in which the decision is made.
+There are three general approaches to debiasing judgment and decision making, and the costly errors with which biased judgment and decision making is associated: changing incentives, nudging, and training. Each approach has strengths and weaknesses. For more details, see Morewedge and colleagues (2015).
+
+== General approaches ==
+
+=== Incentives ===
+Changing incentives can be an effective means to debias judgment and decision making. This approach is generally derived from economic theories suggesting that people act in their self-interest by seeking to maximize their utility over their lifetime. Many decision making biases may occur simply because they are more costly to eliminate than to ignore. Making people more accountable for their decisions (increasing incentives), for example, can increase the extent to which they invest cognitive resources in making decisions, leading to less biased decision making when people generally have an idea of how a decision should be made.  However, "bias" might not be the appropriate term for these types of decision making errors.  These "strategy-based" errors occur simply because the necessary effort outweighs the benefit. If a person makes a suboptimal choice based on an actual bias, then incentives may exacerbate the issue. An incentive in this case may simply cause the person to perform the suboptimal behavior more enthusiastically.
+Incentives can be calibrated to change preferences toward more beneficial behavior. Price cuts on healthy foods increase their consumption in school cafeterias, and soda taxes appear to reduce soda consumption by the public. People often are willing to use incentives to change their behavior through the means of a commitment device. Shoppers, for example, were willing to forego a cash back rebate on healthy food items if they did not increase the percentage of healthy foods in their shopping baskets.
+Incentives can backfire when they are miscalibrated or are weaker than social norms that were preventing undesirable behavior. Large incentives can also lead people to choke under pressure.
+
+=== Nudges ===
+Nudges, changes in information presentation or the manner by which judgments and decisions are elicited, is another means to debiasing. People may choose healthier foods if they are better able to understand their nutritional contents, and may choose lower-calorie meals if they are explicitly asked if they would like to downsize their side orders. Other examples of nudges include changing which option is the default option to which people will be assigned if they do not choose an alternative option, placing a limit on the serving size of soda, or automatically enrolling employees in a retirement savings program.
+
+=== Training ===
+Training can effectively debias decision makers over the long term. Training, to date, has received less attention by academics and policy makers than incentives and nudges because initial debiasing training efforts resulted in mixed success (see Fischhoff, 1982 in Kahneman et al.). Decision makers could be effectively debiased through training in specific domains. For example, experts can be trained to make very accurate decisions when decision making entails recognizing patterns and applying appropriate responses in domains such as firefighting, chess, and weather forecasting. Evidence of more general debiasing, across domains and different kinds of problems, however, was not discovered until recently. The reason for the lack of more domain-general debiasing was attributed to experts failing to recognize the underlying "deep structure" of problems in different formats and domains. Weather forecasters are able to predict rain with high accuracy, for example, but show the same overconfidence in their answers to basic trivia questions as other people. An exception was graduate training in scientific fields heavily reliant on statistics such as psychology.
+Experiments by Morewedge and colleagues (2015) have found interactive computer games and instructional videos can result in long-term debiasing at a general level. In a series of experiments, training with interactive computer games that provided players with personalized feedback, mitigating strategies, and practice, reduced six cognitive biases by more than 30% immediately and by more than 20% as long as three months later. The biased reduced were anchoring, bias blind spot, confirmation bias, fundamental attribution error, projection bias, and representativeness.
+Training in reference class forecasting may also improve outcomes. Reference class forecasting is a method for systematically debiasing estimates and decisions, based on what Daniel Kahneman calls the outside view. As pointed out by Kahneman in Thinking, Fast and Slow (p. 252), one of the reasons reference class forecasting is effective for debiasing is that, in contrast to conventional forecasting methods, it takes into account the so-called "unknown unknowns." According to Kahneman, reference class forecasting is effective for debiasing and "has come a long way" in practical implementation since he originally proposed the idea with Amos Tversky (p. 251).
+
+== Sometimes effective strategies ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-1.md
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+---
+title: "Debiasing"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:31.215378+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Incentives ===
+Paying people for optimal behavior through bonuses or by providing discounts (e.g., to exercise, to take their medication, to trade in fuel inefficient vehicles such as the "cash for clunkers" program).
+Taxing people for suboptimal behavior (e.g., drinking soda, smoking tobacco, and weed).
+
+=== Nudges ===
+Using default effect to nudge people towards decisions optimal for the decision maker or society.
+Commitment devices that makes it more costly to make suboptimal decisions (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2014).
+Reframing choice options in ways that make important attributes salient. Labeling hamburger meat 25% fat, for example, makes people more sensitive to fat content than labeling it 75% lean.
+Presenting information in formats that make critical information easier to evaluate, such as displaying nutritional value using a "traffic light" system.
+
+=== Training ===
+Providing people with personalized feedback regarding the direction and degree to which they exhibit bias.
+Teaching a "consider-the-alternative" strategy, such as considering a plausible alternative reason for an event than cause one suspects.
+Teaching people statistical reasoning and normative rules of which they are unaware.
+Encouraging people to take the perspective of a person who will experience the consequences of their decision can reduce bias. Participants who were shown a "morphed" image of their face to resemble themselves upon retirement were more likely to save money for the future rather than elect to receive it in the present.
+Encourage, incentivize, or make mandatory the use of reference class forecasting. Reference class forecasting was made mandatory in Great Britain and Denmark for large government infrastructure projects with the explicit purpose of eliminating optimism bias.
+
+== See also ==
+Cognitive bias mitigation
+Cognitive bias modification
+Cognitive vulnerability
+Reference class forecasting
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional–relational_database-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional–relational_database-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Distributional–relational database"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional–relational_database"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:32.392660+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A distributional–relational database, or word-vector database, is a database management system (DBMS) that uses distributional word-vector representations to enrich the semantics of structured data. 
+As distributional word-vectors can be built automatically from large-scale corpora, this enrichment supports the construction of databases which can embed large-scale commonsense background knowledge into their operations. Distributional-Relational models can be applied to the construction of schema-agnostic databases (databases in which users can query the data without being aware of its schema), semantic search, schema-integration and inductive and abductive reasoning as well as different applications in which a semantically flexible knowledge representation model is needed. The main advantage of distributional–relational models over purely logical or semantic web models is the fact that the core semantic associations can be automatically captured from corpora, in contrast to the definition of manually curated ontologies and rule knowledge bases.
+
+
+== Distributional–relational models ==
+Distributional–relational models were first formalized as a mechanism to cope with the vocabulary/semantic gap between users and the schema behind the data. In this scenario, distributional semantic relatedness measures, combined with semantic pivoting heuristics can support the approximation between user queries (expressed in their own vocabulary), and data (expressed in the vocabulary of the designer).
+In this model, the database symbols (entities and relations) are embedded into a distributional semantic space and have a geometric interpretation under a latent or explicit semantic space. The geometric aspect supports the semantic approximation between entities from different databases, or between a query term and a database entity. The distributional relational model then becomes a double layered model where the semantics of the structured data provides the fine-grained semantics intended by the database designer, which is extended by the distributional semantic model which contains the semantic associations expressed at a broader use. 
+These models support the generalization from a closed communication scenario (in which database designers and users live in the same context, e.g. the same organization) to an open communication scenario (e.g. different organizations, the Web), creating an abstraction layer between users and the specific representation of the conceptual model.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Documentary hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:19.356229+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The documentary hypothesis (DH) is one of the models used by biblical scholars to explain the origins and composition of the Torah (or Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). A version of the documentary hypothesis, frequently identified with the German scholar Julius Wellhausen, was almost universally accepted for most of the 20th century. It posited that the Pentateuch is a compilation of four originally independent documents: the Jahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist, and Priestly sources, frequently referred to by their initials. The first of these, J, was dated to the Solomonic period (c. 950 BCE). E was dated somewhat later, in the 9th century BCE, and D was dated just before the reign of King Josiah, in the 7th or 8th century BCE. Finally, P was generally dated to the time of Ezra in the 5th century BCE. The sources would have been joined at various points in time by a series of editors or "redactors".
+The consensus around the classical documentary hypothesis has now faltered. This was triggered in large part by the influential publications of John Van Seters, Hans Heinrich Schmid, and Rolf Rendtorff in the mid-1970s, who argued that J was to be dated no earlier than the time of the Babylonian captivity (597–539 BCE), and rejected the existence of a substantial E source. They also called into question the nature and extent of the three other sources. Van Seters, Schmid, and Rendtorff shared many of the same criticisms of the documentary hypothesis, but were not in complete agreement about what paradigm ought to replace it. 
+As a result, there has been a revival of interest in "fragmentary" and "supplementary" models, frequently in combination with each other and with a documentary model, making it difficult to classify contemporary theories as strictly one or another. Modern scholars also have given up the classical Wellhausian dating of the sources, and generally see the completed Torah as a product of the Achaemenid period (probably 450–350 BCE), although some would place its production as late as the Hellenistic period (333–164 BCE), after the conquests of Alexander the Great.
+
+== History of the documentary hypothesis ==
+
+The Torah (or Pentateuch) is collectively the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. According to tradition, they were dictated by God to Moses, but when modern critical scholarship began to be applied to the Bible, it was discovered that the Pentateuch was not the unified text one would expect from a single author. As a result, the Mosaic authorship of the Torah had been largely rejected by leading scholars by the 17th century, with many modern scholars viewing it as a product of a long evolutionary process.
+In the mid-18th century, some scholars started a critical study of doublets (parallel accounts of the same incidents), inconsistencies, and changes in style and vocabulary in the Torah. In 1780, Johann Eichhorn, building on the work of the French doctor and exegete Jean Astruc's "Conjectures" and others, formulated the "older documentary hypothesis": the idea that Genesis was composed by combining two identifiable sources, the Jehovist ("J"; also called the Yahwist) and the Elohist ("E"). These sources were subsequently found to run through the first four books of the Torah, and the number was later expanded to three when Wilhelm de Wette identified the Deuteronomist as an additional source found only in Deuteronomy ("D"). Later still the Elohist was split into Elohist and Priestly ("P") sources, increasing the number to four.
+These documentary approaches were in competition with two other models, the fragmentary and the supplementary. The fragmentary hypothesis argued that fragments of varying lengths, rather than continuous documents, lay behind the Torah; this approach accounted for the Torah's diversity but could not account for its structural consistency, particularly regarding chronology. The supplementary hypothesis was better able to explain this unity: it maintained that the Torah was made up of a central core document, the Elohist, supplemented by fragments taken from many sources. The supplementary approach was dominant by the early 1860s, but it was challenged by an important book published by Hermann Hupfeld in 1853, who argued that the Pentateuch was made up of four documentary sources, the Priestly, Yahwist, and Elohist intertwined in Genesis-Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers, and the stand-alone source of Deuteronomy. At around the same period, Karl Heinrich Graf argued that the Yahwist and Elohist were the earliest sources and the Priestly source the latest, while Wilhelm Vatke linked the four to an evolutionary framework: the Yahwist and Elohist to a time of primitive nature and fertility cults, the Deuteronomist to the ethical religion of the Hebrew prophets, and the Priestly source to a form of religion dominated by ritual, sacrifice and law.
+
+=== Wellhausen and the new documentary hypothesis ===
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-1.md
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+---
+title: "Documentary hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:19.356229+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 1878, Julius Wellhausen published Geschichte Israels, Bd 1 ('History of Israel, Vol 1').  The second edition was printed as Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels ("Prolegomena to the History of Israel") in 1883, and the work is better known under that name. (The second volume, a synthetic history titled Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte ['Israelite and Jewish History'], did not appear until 1894 and remains untranslated.) Crucially, this historical portrait was based upon two earlier works of his technical analysis: "Die Composition des Hexateuchs" ('The Composition of the Hexateuch') of 1876–77, and sections on the "historical books" (Judges–Kings) in his 1878 edition of Friedrich Bleek's Einleitung in das Alte Testament ('Introduction to the Old Testament').
+Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis owed little to Wellhausen himself but was mainly the work of Hupfeld, Eduard Eugène Reuss, Graf, and others, who in turn had built on earlier scholarship. Wellhausen accepted Hupfeld's four sources and, in agreement with Graf, placed the Priestly work last. J was the earliest document, a product of the 10th century BCE and the court of Solomon; E was from the 9th century BCE in the northern Kingdom of Israel, and had been combined by a redactor (editor) with J to form a document JE; D, the third source, was a product of the 7th century BCE, by 620 BCE, during the reign of King Josiah; P (what Wellhausen first named "Q") was a product of the priest-and-temple dominated world of the 6th century BCE; and the final redaction, when P was combined with JED to produce the Torah as we now know it.
+Wellhausen's explanation of the formation of the Torah was also an explanation of the religious history of Israel. The Yahwist and Elohist described a primitive, spontaneous, and personal world, in keeping with the earliest stage of Israel's history; in Deuteronomy, he saw the influence of the prophets and the development of an ethical outlook, which he felt represented the pinnacle of Jewish religion; and the Priestly source reflected the rigid, ritualistic world of the priest-dominated, post-exilic period. His work, notable for its detailed and wide-ranging scholarship and close argument, entrenched the "new documentary hypothesis" as the dominant explanation of Pentateuchal origins from the late 19th to the late 20th centuries.
+
+== Critical reassessment ==
+
+In the mid to late 20th century, new criticism of the documentary hypothesis formed. Three major publications of the 1970s caused scholars to reevaluate the assumptions of the documentary hypothesis: Abraham in History and Tradition by John Van Seters, Der sogenannte Jahwist ("The So-Called Yahwist") by Hans Heinrich Schmid, and Das überlieferungsgeschichtliche Problem des Pentateuch ("The Tradition-Historical Problem of the Pentateuch") by Rolf Rendtorff. These three authors shared many of the same criticisms of the documentary hypothesis, but were not in agreement about what paradigm ought to replace it.
+Van Seters and Schmid both forcefully argued that the Yahwist source could not be dated to the Solomonic period (c. 950 BCE) as posited by the documentary hypothesis. They instead dated J to the period of the Babylonian captivity (597–539 BCE), or the late monarchic period at the earliest. Van Seters also sharply criticized the idea of a substantial Elohist source, arguing that E extends at most to two short passages in Genesis.
+Some scholars, following Rendtorff, have come to espouse a fragmentary hypothesis, in which the Pentateuch is seen as a compilation of short, independent narratives, which were gradually brought together into larger units in two editorial phases: the Deuteronomic and the Priestly phases. By contrast, scholars such as John Van Seters advocate a supplementary hypothesis, which posits that the Torah is the result of two major additions—Yahwist and Priestly—to an existing corpus of work.
+Some scholars use these newer hypotheses in combination with each other and with a documentary model, making it difficult to classify contemporary theories as strictly one or another. The majority of scholars today continue to recognise Deuteronomy as a source, with its origin in the law-code produced at the court of Josiah as described by De Wette, subsequently given a frame during the exile (the speeches and descriptions at the front and back of the code) to identify it as the words of Moses. Most scholars also agree that some form of Priestly source existed, although its extent, especially its end-point, is uncertain. The remainder is called collectively non-Priestly, a grouping which includes both pre-Priestly and post-Priestly material.
+The general trend in recent scholarship is to recognize the final form of the Torah as a literary and ideological unity, based on earlier sources, likely completed during the Persian period (539–333 BCE). A minority of scholars would place its final compilation somewhat later, however, in the Hellenistic period (333–164 BCE).
+A revised neo-documentary hypothesis still has adherents, especially in North America and Israel. This distinguishes sources by means of plot and continuity rather than stylistic and linguistic concerns, and does not tie them to stages in the evolution of Israel's religious history. Its resurrection of an E source is probably the element most often criticised by other scholars, as it is rarely distinguishable from the classical J source and European scholars have largely rejected it as fragmentary or non-existent.
+
+== The Torah and the history of Israel's religion ==
+
+Wellhausen used the sources of the Torah as evidence of changes in the history of Israelite religion as it moved (in his opinion) from free, simple and natural to fixed, formal and institutional. Modern scholars of Israel's religion have become more circumspect in how they use the Hebrew Bible, not least because many have concluded that the Hebrew Bible is not a reliable witness to the religion of ancient Israel and Judah, representing instead the beliefs of only a segment of the ancient Israelite community centered in Jerusalem and devoted to the exclusive worship of Yahweh.
+
+== See also ==
+Authorship of the Bible
+Biblical criticism
+Books of the Bible
+Dating the Bible
+Mosaic authorship
+Umberto Cassuto, Jewish scholar who was critical of the documentary hypothesis
+Q Source, a similar theory for the construction of the Synoptic Gospels
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+ Media related to Documentary hypothesis at Wikimedia Commons
+Wikiversity – The King James Version according to the documentary hypothesis
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift-barrier_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift-barrier_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Drift-barrier hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift-barrier_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:20.493031+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The drift-barrier hypothesis is an evolutionary hypothesis formulated by Michael Lynch in 2010. It suggests that the perfection of the performance of a trait, in a specific environment, by natural selection will hit a hypothetical barrier. The closer a trait comes to perfection, the smaller the fitness advantages become. Once this barrier is reached, the effects of further beneficial mutations are unlikely to be large enough to overcome the power of random genetic drift. Selection generally favors lower mutation rates due to the associated load of deleterious mutations that come with a high mutation rate.
+
+
+== Description ==
+Every population contains a certain amount of genetic variation, coding for different functional traits. When the environment in which the population lives changes, some of these traits turn out to be more advantageous for this new situation than others. Through natural selection and random genetic drift, the traits with a negative effect on population fitness disappear from the gene pool. The balance between the influence of natural selection and genetic drift on the population mutation rate is mainly determined by the population size. Large populations are predicted to generally have lower mutation rates than smaller populations. Populations containing individuals with high mutation rates are more adaptable to environmental changes. Such populations have a bigger genetic pool, and therefore a bigger chance of containing an advantageous functional trait for this new environment. These advantageous functional traits get fixed in the population due to positive directional selection. The population keeps fixing these advantageous traits over time, pushing the population towards the genetic perfection associated with the environment. This increasing perfection causes mutations to have a higher chance of being deleterious. Individuals with a high mutation rate now increasingly decrease population fitness, and selection causes the mutation rate to decrease again. At the same time, new advantageous alleles have a diminishing positive effect on fitness. At a certain point, natural selection, mutation rate and random genetic drift reach a balance. This is called the drift-barrier.
+
+
+== Exceptions for the drift-barrier hypothesis ==
+Traverse and Ochman showed a striking exception to the drift-barrier hypothesis. In 2016, they measured transcriptional error rates in Escherichia coli as well as two endosymbiotic prokaryotes, Buchnera aphidicola and Carsonella ruddii. The endosymbionts had dramatically reduced genome sizes, increased mutation rates, and other features typical of their small population sizes. This included the loss of several transcriptional fidelity factors. Traverse and Ochman’s results showed that the transcriptional error rates between E. coli and the two endosymbionts were nearly equal, even though their population sizes were very different. Their initial prediction was that the endosymbionts would have higher transcription error rates as they were subject to a large amount of genetic drift. This would mean that they would therefore sustain more deleterious mutations. However, neither Buchnera aphidicola nor Carsonella ruddii had elevated transcription error rates.
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test-0.md
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+---
+title: "Duck test"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:33.627172+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The duck test is a frequently cited colloquial example of abductive reasoning. Its usual expression is:
+
+If it looks like a duck, swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck, then it probably is a duck.
+The test implies that a person can identify an unknown subject by observing that subject's habitual characteristics. It is sometimes used to counter abstract arguments that something might not be what it appears to be.
+
+
+== Notable uses ==
+Indiana poet James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916) may have coined the phrase when he wrote:
+
+When I see a bird that walks like a duck and swims like a duck and quacks like a duck, I call that bird a duck.
+A common variation of the wording of the phrase may have originated much later with Emil Mazey, secretary-treasurer of the United Auto Workers, at a labor meeting in 1946 accusing a person of being a communist:
+
+I can't prove you are a Communist. But when I see a bird that quacks like a duck, walks like a duck, has feathers and webbed feet and associates with ducks—I'm certainly going to assume that he is a duck.
+The term was later popularized in the United States by Richard Cunningham Patterson Jr., United States ambassador to Guatemala in 1950 during the Cold War, who used the phrase when he accused Guatemala's Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán government of being Communist. Patterson explained his reasoning as follows:
+
+Suppose you see a bird walking around in a farm yard. This bird has no label that says 'duck'. But the bird certainly looks like a duck. Also, he goes to the pond and you notice that he swims like a duck. Then he opens his beak and quacks like a duck. Well, by this time you have probably reached the conclusion that the bird is a duck, whether he's wearing a label or not.
+
+Later references to the duck test include Cardinal Richard Cushing's, who used the phrase in 1964 in reference to Fidel Castro.
+Douglas Adams parodied this test in his book Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency:
+
+If it looks like a duck, and quacks like a duck, we have at least to consider the possibility that we have a small aquatic bird of the family Anatidae on our hands.
+Monty Python referenced the test in the Witch Logic scene in their 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, where a mob of villagers reason that because witches burn, they must be made of wood, which floats in water, and since ducks also float in water: 
+
+Villagers: If she weighs the same as a duck, she's made of wood...Bedevere: and therefore...Villagers: a witch!
+In 2015, a variation of the duck test was applied in the revocation of tax exempt "nonprofit" status to Blue Shield of California:In a startling blow to one of California's biggest health insurers, the state has revoked the tax-exempt status of Blue Shield of California, forcing the company to pay tens of millions of dollars in back taxes and unleashing a torrent of calls for it to return billions of dollars to customers. 
+The tax board's action 'was an acknowledgment of what Blue Shield was already doing, or not doing,' said Anthony Wright, head of Health Access California, a consumer advocacy group. 'And if it looks like a duck and talks like a duck, it should be taxed like a duck.
+The Liskov substitution principle in computer science is sometimes expressed as a counter-example to the duck test:
+
+If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck but it needs batteries, you probably have the wrong abstraction.
+Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Sergey Lavrov used a version of the duck test in 2015 in response to allegations that Russian airstrikes in Syria were not targeting terrorist groups, primarily ISIS, but rather West-supported groups such as the Free Syrian Army. When asked to elaborate his definition of 'terrorist groups', he replied:
+
+If it looks like a terrorist, if it acts like a terrorist, if it walks like a terrorist, if it fights like a terrorist, it's a terrorist, right?
+Professor Vladimir Vapnik, a pioneer and co-inventor of Support Vector Machines (SVM) and a major contributor to the theory of machine learning and many foundational ideas in statistical learning, uses the duck test as a way to summarize the importance of simple predicates to classify things. During the discussion he often uses the test to illustrate that the concise format of the duck test is a form of intelligence that machines are not capable of producing.
+The philosopher Slavoj Žižek frequently references the Marx Brothers' rewording of the duck test in Duck Soup: "He may look like an idiot and talk like an idiot, but don't let that fool you. He really is an idiot." The humorousness of this line lies in its violation of an expected opposite.
+
+
+== Elephant test ==
+
+Similarly, the term elephant test refers to situations in which an idea or thing, "is hard to describe, but instantly recognizable when spotted".
+The term is often used in legal cases when there is an issue which may be open to interpretation, such as in the case of Cadogan Estates Ltd v Morris, when Lord Justice Stuart-Smith referred  to "the well known elephant test. It is difficult to describe, but you know it when you see it", and in Ivey v Genting Casinos, when Lord Hughes (in discussing dishonesty) opined "like the elephant, it is characterised more by recognition when encountered than by definition."  Overruling in part R v Ghosh.
+A similar incantation (used however as a rule of exclusion) was invoked by the concurring opinion of Justice Potter Stewart in Jacobellis v. Ohio, 378 U.S. 184 (1964), an obscenity case.  He stated that the Constitution protected all obscenity except "hard-core pornography". Stewart opined, "I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced within that shorthand description; and perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so. But I know it when I see it, and the motion picture involved in this case is not that."
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Christy, Howard Chandler; Betts, Ethel Franklin (1982), The complete works of James Whitcomb Riley
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duhem–Quine_thesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duhem–Quine_thesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Duhem–Quine thesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duhem–Quine_thesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:21.675514+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In philosophy of science, the Duhem–Quine thesis, also called the Duhem–Quine problem, says that unambiguous falsifications of a scientific hypothesis are impossible, because an empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions. Rather than disproving the main hypothesis, the blame can be placed on one of the background beliefs or "auxiliary" hypotheses. It is named after French theoretical physicist Pierre Duhem and American logician Willard Van Orman Quine, who wrote about similar concepts. 
+In recent decades, the set of associated assumptions supporting a thesis sometimes is called a bundle of hypotheses, i.e. a hypothesis and its background assumptions. Although a bundle of hypotheses as a whole can be tested against the empirical world and be falsified if it fails the test, the Duhem–Quine thesis says it is impossible to isolate a single hypothesis in the bundle, a viewpoint called confirmation holism.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+The Duhem–Quine thesis argues that no scientific hypothesis is by itself capable of making predictions. Instead, deriving predictions from the hypothesis typically requires background assumptions that several other hypotheses are correct — that an experiment works as predicted, or that previous scientific theory is accurate. For instance, as evidence against the idea that the Earth is in motion, some people objected that birds did not get thrown off into the sky whenever they let go of a tree branch. Later theories of physics and astronomy, such as classical and relativistic mechanics could account for such observations without positing a fixed Earth, and in due course they replaced the static-Earth auxiliary hypotheses and initial conditions.
+Although a bundle of hypotheses (i.e. a hypothesis and its background assumptions) as a whole can be tested against the empirical world and be falsified if it fails the test, the Duhem–Quine thesis says it is impossible to isolate a single hypothesis in the bundle. One solution to the dilemma thus facing scientists is that when we have rational reasons to accept the background assumptions as true (e.g. explanatory scientific theories together with their respective supporting evidence) we will have rational—albeit nonconclusive—reasons for thinking that the theory under test probably is wrong in at least one respect if the empirical test fails.
+
+As Allan Franklin understands,Consider the modus ponens. If a hypothesis h entails evidence e then not e entails not h. As Duhem and Quine, in slightly different ways, pointed out it is not h alone that entails e, but rather h and b, that entails e, where b is background knowledge. Thus, not e entails not h or not b, and one doesn’t know where to put the not. [sic]
+
+
+== Example from Galilean astronomy ==
+The work of Galileo Galilei in the application of the telescope to astronomical observation met with rejection from influential sceptics. They denied the truth of his most startling reports, such as that there were mountains on the Moon and satellites around Jupiter. In particular, some prominent philosophers, most notably Cesare Cremonini, refused to look through the telescope, arguing that the instrument itself might have introduced artefacts that produced the illusion of mountains or satellites invisible to the naked eye. To neglect such possibilities amounted to underdetermination in which argument for optical artefacts could be urged as being of equal merit to arguments for observation of new celestial effects. On a similar principle in modern times a prevalent view is that "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence".
+In the early 17th century the modern version of the Duhem–Quine thesis had not been formulated, but common-sense objections to such elaborate and ad hoc implicit auxiliary assumptions were urged. To begin with, the mechanism of the (Galilean) telescopes had been explained in terms of geometrical optics, and the nature of the objects that they imaged was consistent; for example, a distant lake would not resemble a tree when seen through a telescope. The behaviour of telescopes on Earth denied any basis for arguing that they could create systematic artefacts in the sky, such as apparent satellites that behaved in the predictable manner of Jovian moons. Evidence also offered no basis to suggest that they could present yet other, more elaborate artefacts, fundamentally different from the satellites, such as lunar mountains that cast shadows varying consistently with the direction of solar illumination.
+In practice the politics and theology of the day determined the result of the dispute, but the nature of the controversy was a clear example of how different bundles of (usually implicit) auxiliary assumptions could support mutually inconsistent hypotheses concerning a single theory. In terms of either version of the Duhem–Quine thesis, it therefore is necessary to study the defensibility of the auxiliary assumptions, together with the primary hypothesis, to arrive at the most viable working hypothesis.
+
+
+== Pierre Duhem ==
+As popular as the Duhem–Quine thesis may be in philosophy of science, in reality Pierre Duhem and Willard Van Orman Quine stated very different theses.  Duhem believed that only in the field of physics can a single individual hypothesis not be isolated for testing.  He says in no uncertain terms that experimental theory in physics is not the same as in fields like physiology and certain branches of chemistry. Also, Duhem's conception of "theoretical group" has its limits, since he states that not all concepts are connected to each other logically. He did not include at all a priori disciplines such as logic and mathematics within the theoretical groups in physics, since they cannot be tested.
+
+
+== Willard Van Orman Quine ==
+
+In "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", Quine presents a stronger form of underdetermination, extending it to all knowledge, even logic and mathematics. For Quine, knowledge constitutes a single web of empirical significance, making even the most abstract components epistemologically akin to mythological posits devised to explain experience. Even logic and mathematics might be revised in light of experience, he once held, citing quantum logic.
+He later recanted, writing in Philosophy of Logic that revising logic would amount to "changing the subject". In classical logic, connectives are defined by truth values. In multi-valued logic or quantum logics, however, they diverge in meaning, with quantum logic abandoning truth-functional semantics altogether. Quine argued that deviant logics tend to lack the simplicity and fruitfulness of classic logic.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Theory-ladenness
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Effort heuristic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:34.737352+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The effort heuristic is a mental rule of thumb in which the quality or worth of an object is determined from the perceived amount of effort that went into producing that object. In brief, the effort  heuristic follows a tendency to judge objects that took a longer time to produce to be of higher value. The more effort invested in an object, the better it is deemed to be. This is especially true in situations where value is difficult to assess or the evaluator lacks expertise in the appraisement of an item. People use whatever information is available to them and effort is thought to generally be a reliable indicator of quality.
+An example of this would be the comparison of $100 earned, and $100 found. If someone finds $100 they are more inclined to go spend it on a whim, but if that $100 is part of a hard-earned paycheck, they are less likely to squander it away. Another way that effort heuristic can be considered is the amount of effort a person will put into an action depending on the goal. If the goal is of little importance, the amount of effort a person is willing to put into it is going to be lower.
+
+== The Kruger study ==
+There is experimental evidence that supports the notion that people sometimes use the effort that has been put into doing something as an estimate for its quality. The seminal study that investigated this phenomenon was done by Kruger, Wirtz, Van Boven, and Altermatt (2004). They conducted three experiments in which participants made judgments of quality—a poem in Experiment 1, paintings in Experiment 2, and medieval arms and armor in Experiment 3. In each experiment, they manipulated the effort seemingly invested in the objects' creation. Despite the fact that the actual quality of the work remained the same, they anticipated that manipulations in supposed effort would influence perceived quality.
+
+=== Experiment 1 ===
+In the first experiment, participants evaluated a poem with respect to how much they enjoyed it, the overall quality of the poem, and the amount of money a poetry magazine would pay for the poem. They were told that the experiment concerned the way in which people evaluate poetry. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of two condition groups in this study: low effort and high effort.  Participants in the low effort condition were told that the writer spent 4 hours on the poem while participants in the high effort condition were told the poet spent 18 hours on the piece.  The researchers combined the liking and quality measures into one composite result and found participants provided more favorable evaluations of the poem when they thought it took the poet 18 hours to compose rather than when they thought it took him 4 hours. They also judged the more effortful poem to be worth more money.
+
+=== Experiment 2 ===
+In the second experiment, non-experts and self-identified experts individually evaluated the quality of two paintings by Deborah Kleven: 12 Lines and Big Abstract. Half of the participants were told that the former took 4 hours to paint and the latter 26 hours, and the other half were told the opposite. After rating each painting separately, participants then compared the two paintings directly.
+The results revealed that participants preferred 12 Lines over Big Abstract when they thought 12 Lines took longer to paint, but the opposite tended to be true when they thought that Big Abstract took longer to paint. The effort manipulation had a similar effect on participants estimates of how much the paintings were worth. Participants who thought 12 Lines took longer to produce thought that it was worth more money than Big Abstract, whereas the opposite tended to be true when participants thought that Big Abstract took longer to paint. The data also indicated that the effect of perceived effort on perceived quality was independent of whether participants had self-professed expertise in the domain. Self-identified art experts did not appear to rely on effort any less than novices, despite the fact that the self-identified experts were presumably more practiced at evaluating art. This points to the generality and intuitive appeal of effort as a heuristic for quality.
+
+=== Experiment 3 ===
+In the third and final experiment, researchers asked participants to rate the quality of several images of medieval arms and armor presented on a computer screen. When rating the final target piece of armor, half of the participants were told that it took the blacksmith 110 hours to complete, and half were told that it took 15 hours. In addition to manipulating the perceived effort invested by the artist, researchers also varied the ambiguity of the stimulus to examine its potential as a moderator in the use of the effort heuristic. This was done by altering the resolution of the image where half of the participants viewed a high-resolution image of the piece, and half viewed a low-resolution image.
+Experiment 3 produced similar results as the first two; participants provided higher ratings of the piece when they thought it took the blacksmith longer to produce. The more effort invested in the object, the better it was assumed to be. The influence of effort on judgment was also bigger in the high-ambiguity condition than in the low-ambiguity condition. This was expected because the quality of the armor was more ambiguous in the low-resolution condition. Participants in this condition had less objective information upon which to make a judgment of quality, and thus were more likely to rely on the perceived effort invested by the blacksmith while evaluating.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-1.md
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+---
+title: "Effort heuristic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:34.737352+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Explanations ==
+Human behavior, like that of most other animals, is often driven by rewards and directed by the energetic cost of an action. It takes effort to attain rewards, and people accordingly weigh the value of rewards against the amount of effort that is required to attain them. At an early age, children learn that good performance due to high effort is valued by adults and that teachers are most likely to reward those who work hard. With experience, they internalize effort as a valuable commodity.
+
+== Alternative theories ==
+Research directly examining and testing the effort heuristic is scarce, however there are other research areas that incorporated this construct and, in some way, manipulated its effects. However, a key distinction between the study done by Kruger et al. and other research on the role of effort on judgment is that the former focused on other-generated effort rather than self-generated effort.
+
+=== Cognitive dissonance ===
+
+==== Effort justification ====
+Over half a century ago, social psychologist Leon Festinger developed the theory of cognitive dissonance. It asserts that inconsistencies among a person's beliefs, attitudes, or opinions produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes. One concept that stemmed from the dissonance theory is that of effort justification in which the subjective value of an outcome is directly related to the effort that went into obtaining it. When people suffer, work hard or make sacrifices, they will attempt to convince themselves that it is worthwhile. People tend to put the most value on goals or items which have required considerable effort to achieve. This is probably because cognitive dissonance would arise if great effort is made to achieve something that is subsequently evaluated negatively.
+
+==== Aronson and Mills (1959) ====
+Aronson and Mills conducted a study where college students underwent a "severe" or a "mild" initiation to join a discussion group. Subjects in the severe initiation group were required to read a sexually explicit passage out loud in front of the experimenter, whereas those in the mild initiation group read a less embarrassing passage. When subjects were asked to evaluate the discussion group, those in the severe initiation condition rated it higher than those in the mild initiation group. Aronson and Mills interpreted their result in terms of cognitive dissonance. According to Aronson and Mills, to resolve the dissonance produced by reading the embarrassing passage, subjects in the severe initiation group gave more value to the discussion group than did subjects in the mild initiation group. The more difficult the task, the greater the value given to sources of reinforcement that followed task completion.
+
+=== Self-perception theory ===
+Daryl Bem (1965) proposed an alternative to the cognitive dissonance theory in explaining how attitudes are shaped. The self-perception theory suggests that people infer their own attitudes, opinions, and other internal states partly by observing their behavior and the circumstances in which that behavior occurs. This pattern of thought unfolds because people are engaged in normal efforts to better understand their own behaviors. Bem suggested that all individuals analyze their own behavior as much as an outside observer might and, as a result of these observations, people make judgments about why they are motivated to do what they do. He originally believed that most findings explained by cognitive dissonance were really due to self-perception. However, studies have shown that self-perception is primarily at work when subjects do not have well-defined attitudes regarding the issue at hand.
+
+== Applications ==
+
+=== Goal evaluations ===
+Research has shown that the amount of energy put towards the achievement of a goal may play a role in the development or change of an individual's attitude towards that goal. While evaluating a goal, one is motivated to place more value on a goal that has required greater effort to achieve. Axsom and Cooper (1985) suggested that if an objective or the way in which a goal is obtained is not initially attractive, an individual may later look to their own past behavior to determine their attitude towards that goal. If much effort has been spent in the attainment of a goal, it should come to be seen as worthwhile and therefore more attractive. This resembles the need to justify one's efforts in accordance with the cognitive dissonance theory but there is evidence supporting that other factors may be at play.
+One study proposed that the experienced goal value and consumers' subsequent motivation vary as a function of whether or not the pursuit of the goal is perceived to be one's autonomous choice. They found that when consumers perceive that the goal they pursue is adopted through an autonomous choice, the initial effort investment is experienced as reflecting the value of the goal; therefore, greater effort increased the value of the goal as well as consumers' subsequent motivation. Conversely, if consumers perceive that the goal has been imposed on them, they experience psychological reactance that is proportional to the amount of effort that they expend in pursuing the goal; thus, they devalue the goal as they invest more effort in its pursuit and show lower subsequent motivation.
+
+=== Consumer appraisal ===
+The study by Kruger et al. demonstrated that when evaluating an item, people have a tendency to judge objects that took a longer time to produce to be of higher value. With this knowledge, companies can manipulate the manner in which a product is viewed to make their products appear desirable to consumers. Because effort is usually required to get the best outcomes, people looking for the best outcomes presume effort must imply the best possible outcome. Briñol, Petty, and Tormala (2006) suggested that the impact of effort on evaluation depends on the meaning people are overtly directed to assign to effort. For example, if people are told that unintelligent people like ease, outcomes associated with ease are judged less favorably.
+
+== See also ==
+Availability heuristic
+Affect heuristic
+Labor theory of value
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The eigenstate thermalization hypothesis (ETH) is a set of ideas which purports to explain when and why an isolated quantum mechanical system can be accurately described using equilibrium statistical mechanics. In particular, it is devoted to understanding how systems which are initially prepared in far-from-equilibrium states can evolve in time to a state which appears to be in thermal equilibrium. The phrase "eigenstate thermalization" was first coined by Mark Srednicki in 1994, after similar ideas had been introduced by Josh Deutsch in 1991. The principal philosophy underlying the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis is that instead of explaining the ergodicity of a thermodynamic system through the mechanism of dynamical chaos, as is done in classical mechanics, one should instead examine the properties of matrix elements of observable quantities in individual energy eigenstates of the system.
+
+== Motivation ==
+In statistical mechanics, the microcanonical ensemble is a particular statistical ensemble which is used to make predictions about the outcomes of experiments performed on isolated systems that are believed to be in equilibrium with an exactly known energy. The microcanonical ensemble is based upon the assumption that, when such an equilibrated system is probed, the probability for it to be found in any of the microscopic states with the same total energy have equal probability. With this assumption, the ensemble average of an observable quantity is found by averaging the value of that observable 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{i}}
+  
+ over all microstates 
+  
+    
+      
+        i
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i}
+  
+ with the correct total energy: 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                A
+                ¯
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            
+              c
+              l
+              a
+              s
+              s
+              i
+              c
+              a
+              l
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\bar {A}}_{\mathrm {classical} }={\frac {1}{N}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}A_{i}}
+  
+
+Importantly, this quantity is independent of everything about the initial state except for its energy.
+The assumptions of ergodicity are well-motivated in classical mechanics as a result of dynamical chaos, since a chaotic system will in general spend equal time in equal areas of its phase space. If we prepare an isolated, chaotic, classical system in some region of its phase space, then as the system is allowed to evolve in time, it will sample its entire phase space, subject only to a small number of conservation laws (such as conservation of total energy). If one can justify the claim that a given physical system is ergodic, then this mechanism will provide an explanation for why statistical mechanics is successful in making accurate predictions. For example, the hard sphere gas has been rigorously proven to be ergodic.
+This argument cannot be straightforwardly extended to quantum systems, even ones that are analogous to chaotic classical systems, because time evolution of a quantum system does not uniformly sample all vectors in Hilbert space with a given energy. Given the state at time zero in a basis of energy eigenstates
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        Ψ
+        (
+        0
+        )
+        ⟩
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        ⟩
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\Psi (0)\rangle =\sum _{\alpha }c_{\alpha }|E_{\alpha }\rangle ,}
+  
+
+the expectation value of any observable 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ⟨
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ⟩
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        ≡
+        ⟨
+        Ψ
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        Ψ
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ⟩
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+            ,
+            β
+          
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            β
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            i
+            
+              (
+              
+                
+                  E
+                  
+                    β
+                  
+                
+                −
+                
+                  E
+                  
+                    α
+                  
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            t
+            
+              /
+            
+            ℏ
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \langle {\hat {A}}\rangle _{t}\equiv \langle \Psi (t)|{\hat {A}}|\Psi (t)\rangle =\sum _{\alpha ,\beta }c_{\alpha }^{*}c_{\beta }A_{\alpha \beta }e^{-i\left(E_{\beta }-E_{\alpha }\right)t/\hbar }.}
+  
+
+Even if the 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{\alpha }}
+  
+ are incommensurate, so that this expectation value is given for long times by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ⟨
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ⟩
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            ≈
+            
+              t
+              →
+              ∞
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        |
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \langle {\hat {A}}\rangle _{t}{\overset {t\to \infty }{\approx }}\sum _{\alpha }\vert c_{\alpha }\vert ^{2}A_{\alpha \alpha },}
+  
+
+the expectation value permanently retains knowledge of the initial state in the form of the coefficients 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{\alpha }}
+  
+.
+In principle it is thus an open question as to whether an isolated quantum mechanical system, prepared in an arbitrary initial state, will approach a state which resembles thermal equilibrium, in which a handful of observables are adequate to make successful predictions about the system. However, a variety of experiments in cold atomic gases have indeed observed thermal relaxation in systems which are, to a very good approximation, completely isolated from their environment, and for a wide class of initial states. The task of explaining this experimentally observed applicability of equilibrium statistical mechanics to isolated quantum systems is the primary goal of the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis.
+
+== Statement ==
+Suppose that we are studying an isolated, quantum mechanical many-body system. In this context, "isolated" refers to the fact that the system has no (or at least negligible) interactions with the environment external to it. If the Hamiltonian of the system is denoted 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              H
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}}
+  
+, then a complete set of basis states for the system is given in terms of the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              H
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        ⟩
+        =
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        ⟩
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|E_{\alpha }\rangle =E_{\alpha }|E_{\alpha }\rangle ,}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        ⟩
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |E_{\alpha }\rangle }
+  
+ is the eigenstate of the Hamiltonian with eigenvalue 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{\alpha }}
+  
+. We will refer to these states simply as "energy eigenstates." For simplicity, we will assume that the system has no degeneracy in its energy eigenvalues, and that it is finite in extent, so that the energy eigenvalues form a discrete, non-degenerate spectrum (this is not an unreasonable assumption, since any "real" laboratory system will tend to have sufficient disorder and strong enough interactions as to eliminate almost all degeneracy from the system, and of course will be finite in size). This allows us to label the energy eigenstates in order of increasing energy eigenvalue. Additionally, consider some other quantum-mechanical observable 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+, which we wish to make thermal predictions about. The matrix elements of this operator, as expressed in a basis of energy eigenstates, will be denoted by
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..f6ed57301
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,857 @@
+---
+title: "Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+        ≡
+        ⟨
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          E
+          
+            β
+          
+        
+        ⟩
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \beta }\equiv \langle E_{\alpha }|{\hat {A}}|E_{\beta }\rangle .}
+  
+
+We now imagine that we prepare our system in an initial state for which the expectation value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ is far from its value predicted in a microcanonical ensemble appropriate to the energy scale in question (we assume that our initial state is some superposition of energy eigenstates which are all sufficiently "close" in energy). The eigenstate thermalization hypothesis says that for an arbitrary initial state, the expectation value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ will ultimately evolve in time to its value predicted by a microcanonical ensemble, and thereafter will exhibit only small fluctuations around that value, provided that the following two conditions are met:
+
+The diagonal matrix elements 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }}
+  
+ vary smoothly as a function of energy, with the difference between neighboring values, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            +
+            1
+            ,
+            α
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            ,
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha +1,\alpha +1}-A_{\alpha ,\alpha }}
+  
+, becoming exponentially small in the system size.
+The off-diagonal matrix elements 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \beta }}
+  
+, with 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+        ≠
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha \neq \beta }
+  
+, are much smaller than the diagonal matrix elements, and in particular are themselves exponentially small in the system size.
+These conditions can be written as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+        ≃
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        
+          δ
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  A
+                  
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                ¯
+              
+              
+                D
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          R
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \beta }\simeq {\overline {A}}\delta _{\alpha \beta }+{\sqrt {\frac {\overline {A^{2}}}{\mathcal {D}}}}R_{\alpha \beta },}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}={\overline {A}}(E_{\alpha })}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          E
+          
+            β
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {A^{2}}}={\overline {A^{2}}}(E_{\alpha },E_{\beta })}
+  
+ are smooth functions of energy, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          e
+          
+            s
+            V
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}=e^{sV}}
+  
+ is the many-body Hilbert space dimension, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R_{\alpha \beta }}
+  
+ is a random variable with zero mean and unit variance. Conversely if a quantum many-body system satisfies the ETH, the matrix representation of any local operator in the energy eigen basis is expected to follow the above ansatz.
+
+== Equivalence of the diagonal and microcanonical ensembles ==
+We can define a long-time average of the expectation value of the operator 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ according to the expression
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        ≡
+        
+          lim
+          
+            τ
+            →
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            1
+            τ
+          
+        
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            τ
+          
+        
+        ⟨
+        Ψ
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        Ψ
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ⟩
+         
+        d
+        t
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}\equiv \lim _{\tau \to \infty }{\frac {1}{\tau }}\int _{0}^{\tau }\langle \Psi (t)|{\hat {A}}|\Psi (t)\rangle ~dt.}
+  
+
+If we use the explicit expression for the time evolution of this expectation value, we can write
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          lim
+          
+            τ
+            →
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            1
+            τ
+          
+        
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            τ
+          
+        
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              ∑
+              
+                α
+                ,
+                β
+                =
+                1
+              
+              
+                D
+              
+            
+            
+              c
+              
+                α
+              
+              
+                ∗
+              
+            
+            
+              c
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+            
+              A
+              
+                α
+                β
+              
+            
+            
+              e
+              
+                −
+                i
+                
+                  (
+                  
+                    
+                      E
+                      
+                        β
+                      
+                    
+                    −
+                    
+                      E
+                      
+                        α
+                      
+                    
+                  
+                  )
+                
+                t
+                
+                  /
+                
+                ℏ
+              
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+         
+        d
+        t
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}=\lim _{\tau \to \infty }{\frac {1}{\tau }}\int _{0}^{\tau }\left[\sum _{\alpha ,\beta =1}^{D}c_{\alpha }^{*}c_{\beta }A_{\alpha \beta }e^{-i\left(E_{\beta }-E_{\alpha }\right)t/\hbar }\right]~dt.}
+  
+
+The integration in this expression can be performed explicitly, and the result is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+        +
+        i
+        ℏ
+        
+          lim
+          
+            τ
+            →
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              ∑
+              
+                α
+                ≠
+                β
+              
+              
+                D
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    c
+                    
+                      α
+                    
+                    
+                      ∗
+                    
+                  
+                  
+                    c
+                    
+                      β
+                    
+                  
+                  
+                    A
+                    
+                      α
+                      β
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  
+                    E
+                    
+                      β
+                    
+                  
+                  −
+                  
+                    E
+                    
+                      α
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              (
+              
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      e
+                      
+                        −
+                        i
+                        
+                          (
+                          
+                            
+                              E
+                              
+                                β
+                              
+                            
+                            −
+                            
+                              E
+                              
+                                α
+                              
+                            
+                          
+                          )
+                        
+                        τ
+                        
+                          /
+                        
+                        ℏ
+                      
+                    
+                    −
+                    1
+                  
+                  τ
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}=\sum _{\alpha =1}^{D}|c_{\alpha }|^{2}A_{\alpha \alpha }+i\hbar \lim _{\tau \to \infty }\left[\sum _{\alpha \neq \beta }^{D}{\frac {c_{\alpha }^{*}c_{\beta }A_{\alpha \beta }}{E_{\beta }-E_{\alpha }}}\left({\frac {e^{-i\left(E_{\beta }-E_{\alpha }\right)\tau /\hbar }-1}{\tau }}\right)\right].}
+  
+
+Each of the terms in the second sum will become smaller as the limit is taken to infinity. Assuming that the phase coherence between the different exponential terms in the second sum does not ever become large enough to rival this decay, the second sum will go to zero, and we find that the long-time average of the expectation value is given by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}=\sum _{\alpha =1}^{D}|c_{\alpha }|^{2}A_{\alpha \alpha }.}
+  
+
+This prediction for the time-average of the observable 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ is referred to as its predicted value in the diagonal ensemble, The most important aspect of the diagonal ensemble is that it depends explicitly on the initial state of the system, and so would appear to retain all of the information regarding the preparation of the system. In contrast, the predicted value in the microcanonical ensemble is given by the equally-weighted average over all energy eigenstates within some energy window centered around the mean energy of the system
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ⟨
+        A
+        
+          ⟩
+          
+            mc
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              N
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            
+              α
+              ′
+            
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            
+              N
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            
+              α
+              ′
+            
+            
+              α
+              ′
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \langle A\rangle _{\text{mc}}={\frac {1}{\mathcal {N}}}\sum _{\alpha '=1}^{\mathcal {N}}A_{\alpha '\alpha '},}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}}
+  
+ is the number of states in the appropriate energy window, and the prime on the sum indices indicates that the summation is restricted to this appropriate microcanonical window. This prediction makes absolutely no reference to the initial state of the system, unlike the diagonal ensemble. Because of this, it is not clear why the microcanonical ensemble should provide such an accurate description of the long-time averages of observables in such a wide variety of physical systems.
+However, suppose that the matrix elements 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }}
+  
+ are effectively constant over the relevant energy window, with fluctuations that are sufficiently small. If this is true, this one constant value A can be effectively pulled out of the sum, and the prediction of the diagonal ensemble is simply equal to this value,
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-2.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..cdf2ef0b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,360 @@
+---
+title: "Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            A
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+        ≈
+        A
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        A
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}=\sum _{\alpha =1}^{D}|c_{\alpha }|^{2}A_{\alpha \alpha }\approx A\sum _{\alpha =1}^{D}|c_{\alpha }|^{2}=A,}
+  
+
+where we have assumed that the initial state is normalized appropriately. Likewise, the prediction of the microcanonical ensemble becomes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ⟨
+        A
+        
+          ⟩
+          
+            mc
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              N
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            
+              α
+              ′
+            
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            
+              N
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            
+              α
+              ′
+            
+            
+              α
+              ′
+            
+          
+        
+        ≈
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              N
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            
+              α
+              ′
+            
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            
+              N
+            
+          
+        
+        A
+        =
+        A
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \langle A\rangle _{\text{mc}}={\frac {1}{\mathcal {N}}}\sum _{\alpha '=1}^{\mathcal {N}}A_{\alpha '\alpha '}\approx {\frac {1}{\mathcal {N}}}\sum _{\alpha '=1}^{\mathcal {N}}A=A.}
+  
+
+The two ensembles are therefore in agreement.
+This constancy of the values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }}
+  
+ over small energy windows is the primary idea underlying the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis. Notice that in particular, it states that the expectation value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ in a single energy eigenstate is equal to the value predicted by a microcanonical ensemble constructed at that energy scale. This constitutes a foundation for quantum statistical mechanics which is radically different from the one built upon the notions of dynamical ergodicity.
+
+== Tests ==
+Several numerical studies of small lattice systems appear to tentatively confirm the predictions of the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis in interacting systems which would be expected to thermalize. Likewise, systems which are integrable tend not to obey the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis.
+Some analytical results can also be obtained if one makes certain assumptions about the nature of highly excited energy eigenstates. The original 1994 paper on the ETH by Mark Srednicki studied, in particular, the example of a quantum hard sphere gas in an insulated box. This is a system which is known to exhibit chaos classically. For states of sufficiently high energy, Berry's conjecture states that energy eigenfunctions in this many-body system of hard sphere particles will appear to behave as superpositions of plane waves, with the plane waves entering the superposition with random phases and Gaussian-distributed amplitudes (the precise notion of this random superposition is clarified in the paper). Under this assumption, one can show that, up to corrections which are negligibly small in the thermodynamic limit, the momentum distribution function for each individual, distinguishable particle is equal to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            
+              M
+              B
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              p
+            
+            ,
+            
+              T
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              2
+              π
+              m
+              k
+              T
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            −
+            3
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            
+              
+                p
+              
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+            m
+            k
+            
+              T
+              
+                α
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{\rm {MB}}\left(\mathbf {p} ,T_{\alpha }\right)=\left(2\pi mkT\right)^{-3/2}e^{-\mathbf {p} ^{2}/2mkT_{\alpha }},}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} }
+  
+ is the particle's momentum, m is the mass of the particles, k is the Boltzmann constant, and the "temperature" 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{\alpha }}
+  
+ is related to the energy of the eigenstate according to the usual equation of state for an ideal gas,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            3
+            2
+          
+        
+        N
+        k
+        
+          T
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{\alpha }={\frac {3}{2}}NkT_{\alpha },}
+  
+
+where N is the number of particles in the gas. This result is a specific manifestation of the ETH, in that it results in a prediction for the value of an observable in one energy eigenstate which is in agreement with the prediction derived from a microcanonical (or canonical) ensemble. Note that no averaging over initial states whatsoever has been performed, nor has anything resembling the H-theorem been invoked. Additionally, one can also derive the appropriate Bose–Einstein or Fermi–Dirac distributions, if one imposes the appropriate commutation relations for the particles comprising the gas.
+Currently, it is not well understood how high the energy of an eigenstate of the hard sphere gas must be in order for it to obey the ETH. A rough criterion is that the average thermal wavelength of each particle be sufficiently smaller than the radius of the hard sphere particles, so that the system can probe the features which result in chaos classically (namely, the fact that the particles have a finite size ). However, it is conceivable that this condition may be able to be relaxed, and perhaps in the thermodynamic limit, energy eigenstates of arbitrarily low energies will satisfy the ETH (aside from the ground state itself, which is required to have certain special properties, for example, the lack of any nodes ).
+
+== Alternatives ==
+Three alternative explanations for the thermalization of isolated quantum systems are often proposed:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-3.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..bc16ebda6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-3.md
@@ -0,0 +1,377 @@
+---
+title: "Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+For initial states of physical interest, the coefficients 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{\alpha }}
+  
+ exhibit large fluctuations from eigenstate to eigenstate, in a fashion which is completely uncorrelated with the fluctuations of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }}
+  
+ from eigenstate to eigenstate. Because the coefficients and matrix elements are uncorrelated, the summation in the diagonal ensemble is effectively performing an unbiased sampling of the values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }}
+  
+ over the appropriate energy window. For a sufficiently large system, this unbiased sampling should result in a value which is close to the true mean of the values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }}
+  
+ over this window, and will effectively reproduce the prediction of the microcanonical ensemble. However, this mechanism may be disfavored for the following heuristic reason. Typically, one is interested in physical situations in which the initial expectation value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ is far from its equilibrium value. For this to be true, the initial state must contain some sort of specific information about 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+, and so it becomes suspect whether or not the initial state truly represents an unbiased sampling of the values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }}
+  
+ over the appropriate energy window. Furthermore, whether or not this were to be true, it still does not provide an answer to the question of when arbitrary initial states will come to equilibrium, if they ever do.
+For initial states of physical interest, the coefficients 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{\alpha }}
+  
+ are effectively constant, and do not fluctuate at all. In this case, the diagonal ensemble is precisely the same as the microcanonical ensemble, and there is no mystery as to why their predictions are identical. However, this explanation is disfavored for much the same reasons as the first.
+Integrable quantum systems are proved to thermalize under condition of simple regular time-dependence of parameters, suggesting that cosmological expansion of the Universe and integrability of the most fundamental equations of motion are ultimately responsible for thermalization.
+
+== Temporal fluctuations of expectation values ==
+The condition that the ETH imposes on the diagonal elements of an observable is responsible for the equality of the predictions of the diagonal and microcanonical ensembles. However, the equality of these long-time averages does not guarantee that the fluctuations in time around this average will be small. That is, the equality of the long-time averages does not ensure that the expectation value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ will settle down to this long-time average value, and then stay there for most times.
+In order to deduce the conditions necessary for the observable's expectation value to exhibit small temporal fluctuations around its time-average, we study the mean squared amplitude of the temporal fluctuations, defined as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                (
+                
+                  
+                    A
+                    
+                      t
+                    
+                  
+                  −
+                  
+                    
+                      A
+                      ¯
+                    
+                  
+                
+                )
+              
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        ≡
+        
+          lim
+          
+            τ
+            →
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            1
+            τ
+          
+        
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            τ
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                A
+                
+                  t
+                
+              
+              −
+              
+                
+                  A
+                  ¯
+                
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        d
+        t
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {\left(A_{t}-{\overline {A}}\right)^{2}}}\equiv \lim _{\tau \to \infty }{\frac {1}{\tau }}\int _{0}^{\tau }\left(A_{t}-{\overline {A}}\right)^{2}dt,}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{t}}
+  
+ is a shorthand notation for the expectation value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ at time t. This expression can be computed explicitly, and one finds that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                (
+                
+                  
+                    A
+                    
+                      t
+                    
+                  
+                  −
+                  
+                    
+                      A
+                      ¯
+                    
+                  
+                
+                )
+              
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            α
+            ≠
+            β
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            α
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            β
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            α
+            β
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {\left(A_{t}-{\overline {A}}\right)^{2}}}=\sum _{\alpha \neq \beta }|c_{\alpha }|^{2}|c_{\beta }|^{2}|A_{\alpha \beta }|^{2}.}
+  
+
+Temporal fluctuations about the long-time average will be small so long as the off-diagonal elements satisfy the conditions imposed on them by the ETH, namely that they become exponentially small in the system size. Notice that this condition allows for the possibility of isolated resurgence times, in which the phases align coherently in order to produce large fluctuations away from the long-time average. The amount of time the system spends far away from the long-time average is guaranteed to be small so long as the above mean squared amplitude is sufficiently small. If a system poses a dynamical symmetry, however, it will periodically oscillate around the long-time average.
+
+== Quantum fluctuations and thermal fluctuations ==
+The expectation value of a quantum mechanical observable represents the average value which would be measured after performing repeated measurements on an ensemble of identically prepared quantum states. Therefore, while we have been examining this expectation value as the principal object of interest, it is not clear to what extent this represents physically relevant quantities. As a result of quantum fluctuations, the expectation value of an observable is not typically what will be measured during one experiment on an isolated system. However, it has been shown that for an observable satisfying the ETH, quantum fluctuations in its expectation value will typically be of the same order of magnitude as the thermal fluctuations which would be predicted in a traditional microcanonical ensemble. This lends further credence to the idea that the ETH is the underlying mechanism responsible for the thermalization of isolated quantum systems.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-4.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..7d046d048
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-4.md
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+---
+title: "Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== General validity ==
+Currently, there is no known analytical derivation of the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis for general interacting systems. However, it has been verified to be true for a wide variety of interacting systems using numerical exact diagonalization techniques, to within the uncertainty of these methods. It has also been proven to be true in certain special cases in the semi-classical limit, where the validity of the ETH rests on the validity of Shnirelman's theorem, which states that in a system which is classically chaotic, the expectation value of an operator 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              A
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}}
+  
+ in an energy eigenstate is equal to its classical, microcanonical average at the appropriate energy. Whether or not it can be shown to be true more generally in interacting quantum systems remains an open question. It is also known to explicitly fail in certain integrable systems, in which the presence of a large number of constants of motion prevent thermalization.
+It is also important to note that the ETH makes statements about specific observables on a case-by-case basis - it does not make any claims about whether every observable in a system will obey ETH. In fact, this certainly cannot be true. Given a basis of energy eigenstates, one can always explicitly construct an operator which violates the ETH, simply by writing down the operator as a matrix in this basis whose elements explicitly do not obey the conditions imposed by the ETH. Conversely, it is always trivially possible to find operators which do satisfy ETH, by writing down a matrix whose elements are specifically chosen to obey ETH. In light of this, one may be led to believe that the ETH is somewhat trivial in its usefulness. However, the important consideration to bear in mind is that these operators thus constructed may not have any physical relevance. While one can construct these matrices, it is not clear that they correspond to observables which could be realistically measured in an experiment, or bear any resemblance to physically interesting quantities. An arbitrary Hermitian operator on the Hilbert space of the system need not correspond to something which is a physically measurable observable.
+Typically, the ETH is postulated to hold for "few-body operators," observables which involve only a small number of particles. Examples of this would include the occupation of a given momentum in a gas of particles, or the occupation of a particular site in a lattice system of particles. Notice that while the ETH is typically applied to "simple" few-body operators such as these, these observables need not be local in space - the momentum number operator in the above example does not represent a local quantity.
+There has also been considerable interest in the case where isolated, non-integrable quantum systems fail to thermalize, despite the predictions of conventional statistical mechanics. Disordered systems which exhibit many-body localization are candidates for this type of behavior, with the possibility of excited energy eigenstates whose thermodynamic properties more closely resemble those of ground states. It remains an open question as to whether a completely isolated, non-integrable system without static disorder can ever fail to thermalize. One intriguing possibility is the realization of "Quantum Disentangled Liquids." It also an open question whether all eigenstates must obey the ETH in a thermalizing system.
+The eigenstate thermalization hypothesis is closely connected to the quantum nature of chaos (see quantum chaos).  Furthermore, since a classically chaotic system is also ergodic, almost all of its trajectories eventually explore uniformly the entire accessible phase space, which would imply the eigenstates of the quantum chaotic system fill the quantum phase space evenly (up to random fluctuations) in the semiclassical limit 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℏ
+        →
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \hbar \rightarrow 0}
+  
+. In particular, there is a quantum ergodicity theorem showing that the expectation value of an operator converges to the corresponding microcanonical classical average as 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℏ
+        →
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \hbar \rightarrow 0}
+  
+. However, the quantum ergodicity theorem leaves open the possibility of non-ergodic states such as quantum scars. In addition to the conventional scarring, there are two other types of quantum scarring, which further illustrate the weak-ergodicity breaking in quantum chaotic systems: perturbation-induced and many-body quantum scars. Since the former arise a combined effect of special nearly-degenerate unperturbed states and the localized nature of the perturbation (potential bums), the scarring can slow down the thermalization process in disordered quantum dots and wells, which is further illustrated by the fact that these quantum scars can be used to propagate quantum wave packets in a disordered nanostructure with high fidelity.  On the other hand, the latter form of scarring has been speculated to be the culprit behind the unexpectedly slow thermalization of cold atoms observed experimentally.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+"Overview of Eigenstate Thermalization Hypothesis" by Mark Srednicki, UCSB, KITP Program: Quantum Dynamics in Far from Equilibrium Thermally Isolated Systems
+"The Eigenstate Thermalization Hypothesis" by Mark Srednicki, UCSB, KITP Rapid Response Workshop: Black Holes: Complementarity, Fuzz, or Fire?
+"Quantum Disentangled Liquids" by Matthew P. A. Fisher, UCSB, KITP Conference: From the Renormalization Group to Quantum Gravity Celebrating the science of Joe Polchinski
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ace9d265b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+---
+title: "Endurance running hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:25.180693+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The endurance running hypothesis is a series of conjectures which presume humans evolved anatomical and physiological adaptations to run long distances 
+and, more strongly, that "running is the only known behavior that would account for the different body plans in Homo as opposed to apes or australopithecines".
+The hypothesis posits a significant role of endurance running in facilitating early hominins' ability to obtain meat. Proponents of this hypothesis assert that endurance running served as a means for hominins to effectively engage in persistence hunting and carcass poaching, thus enhancing their competitive edge in acquiring prey. Consequently, these evolutionary pressures have led to the prominence of endurance running as a primary factor shaping many biomechanical characteristics of modern humans.
+
+== Evolutionary evidence ==
+No primates other than humans are capable of endurance running, and in fact, Australopithecus did not have structural adaptations for running. Instead, forensic anthropology suggests that anatomical features that directly contributed to endurance running capabilities were heavily selected for within the genus Homo dating back to 1.9Ma. Consequently, selecting anatomical features that made endurance running possible radically transformed the hominid body. The general form of human locomotion is markedly distinct from all other animals observed in nature. The unique manner of human locomotion has been described in the Journal of Anatomy:
+
+"… no animal walks or runs as we do. We keep the trunk erect; in walking, our knees are almost straight at mid-stance; the forces our feet exert on the ground are very markedly two-peaked when we walk fast; and in walking and usually in running, we strike the ground initially with the heel alone. No animal walks or runs like that."
+More recent research has shown that so-called heelstrike, the tendency of runners to channel all of their weight through the heel as the leading foot touches the ground, is not universal. This may be an artefact of more comfortable shoes, those specifically designed for running. Runners who have only ever gone barefoot tend to land on the front of the foot, on the heads of the fourth and fifth metatarsal bones. When asked to run on a force plate that records the degree of pressure experienced by the foot over the course of a stride barefoot runners display a markedly flatter and less intense force curve, indicating a reduced impact on the bones of their feet. Researchers whose work has elucidated this detail, such as Harvard's Daniel Lieberman, conclude that this was likely the stride of humanity's earliest upright ancestors. Other authors hold that this "barefoot stride" is both less injurious and more efficient than the "shod stride" typical of runners who wear specialized shoes. Their case rests on the traditional grounds that underlie all arguments from human evolution: namely that millions of years of natural selection have optimized the human body for one mode of locomotion and that modern attempts to surpass this through technological interventions, such as engineered running shoes, cannot compete with human anatomy as delivered by evolution.
+From the perspective of natural selection, scientists acknowledge that specialization in endurance running would not have helped early humans avoid faster predators over short distances. Instead, it could have allowed them to traverse shifting habitat zones more effectively in the African savannas during the Pliocene. Endurance running facilitated the timely scavenging of large animal carcasses and enabled the tracking and chasing of prey over long distances. This tactic of exhausting prey was especially advantageous for capturing large quadrupedal mammals struggling to thermoregulate in hot weather and over extended distances. Conversely, humans possess efficient means to dissipate heat, primarily through sweating. Specifically, evaporative heat dissipation from the scalp and face prevents hyperthermia and heat-induced encephalitis by extreme cardiovascular loads. Furthermore, as humans continued to develop, their posture became more upright and subsequently increased vertically with the elongation of limbs and torso, effectively increasing surface area for corporeal heat dissipation.
+In work exploring the evolution of the human head, paleontologist Daniel Lieberman suggests that certain adaptations to the Homo skull and neck are correlational evidence of traits selective to endurance running optimization. Specifically, he posits that adaptations such as a flattening face and the development of the nuchal ligament promote improved head balance for cranial stabilization during extended periods of running.
+Compared to Australopithecus fossil skeletons, selection for walking by itself would not develop some of these proposed "endurance running" derived traits:
+
+evaporative heat dissipation from the scalp and face prevents hyperthermia
+flatter face makes the head more balanced
+nuchal ligament helps counterbalance the head
+shoulders and body can rotate without rotating the head
+taller body has more skin surface for evaporative heat dissipation
+torso can counter-rotate to balance the rotation of the hindlimbs
+shorter forearms make it easier to counterbalance hindlimbs
+shorter forearms cost less to keep flexed
+backbones are wider, which will absorb more impact
+stronger backbone pelvis connection will absorb more impact
+large gluteal muscles are crucial for erect bipedal locomotion
+longer hindlimbs allow for a longer stride
+Achilles tendon springs conserve energy
+lighter tendons efficiently replace lower limb muscles
+broader hindlimb joints will absorb more impact
+foot bones create a stiff arch for efficient push off
+broader heel bone will absorb more impact
+shorter toes and an aligned big toe provide better push off
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+---
+title: "Endurance running hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:25.180693+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Academic discourse ==
+The derived longer hindlimb was already present in Australopithecus along with evidence for foot bones with a stiff arch. Walking and running in Australopithecus may have been the same as early Homo. Research on the former has shown running to be slower and less efficient than in modern humans. Small changes in joint morphology may indicate neutral evolutionary processes rather than selection.
+The methodology by which the proposed derived traits were chosen and evaluated does not seem to have been stated, and there were immediate, highly technical arguments "dismissing their validity and terming them either trivial or incorrect."
+Most of those proposed traits have not been tested for their effect on walking and running efficiency. The new trunk shape counter-rotations, which help control rotations induced by hip-joint motion, seem active during walking. Elastic energy storage does occur in the plantar soft tissue of the foot during walking. Relative lower-limb length has a slightly larger effect on the economy of walking than running. The heel-down foot posture makes walking economical but does not benefit running.
+Model-based analysis showing that scavengers would reach a carcass within 30 minutes of detection suggests that "endurance running" would not have given earlier access to carcasses and so not result in selection for "endurance running". Earlier access to carcasses may have been selected for running short distances of 5 km or less, with adaptations that generally improved running performance.
+The discovery of more fossil evidence resulted in additional detailed descriptions of hindlimb bones with measurable data reported in the literature. From a study of those reports, hindlimb proposed traits were already present in Australopithecus or early Homo. Those hindlimb characteristics most likely evolved to improve walking efficiency with improved running as a by-product.
+Gluteus maximus activity was substantially higher in maximal effort jumping and punching than sprinting, and substantially higher in sprinting than in running at speeds that can be sustained. The activity levels are not consistent with the suggestion that the muscle size is a result of selection for sustained endurance running. Additionally, gluteus maximus activity was much greater in sprinting than in running, similar in climbing and running, and greater in running than walking. Increased muscle activity seems related to the speed and intensity of the movement rather than the gait itself. The data suggests that the large size of the gluteus maximus reflects multiple roles during rapid and powerful movements rather than a specific adaptation to submaximal endurance running.
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_modelling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_modelling-0.md
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+---
+title: "Enterprise modelling"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:53.796573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Enterprise modelling is the abstract representation, description and definition of the structure, processes, information and resources of an identifiable business, government body, or other large organization.
+It deals with the process of understanding an organization and improving its performance through creation and analysis of enterprise models. This includes the modelling of the relevant business domain (usually relatively stable), business processes (usually more volatile), and uses of information technology within the business domain and its processes.
+
+== Overview ==
+Enterprise modelling is the process of building models of whole or part of an enterprise with process models, data models, resource models and/or new ontologies etc. It is based on knowledge about the enterprise, previous models and/or reference models as well as domain ontologies using model representation languages. An enterprise in general is a unit of economic organization or activity. These activities are required to develop and deliver products and/or services to a customer. An enterprise includes a number of functions and operations such as purchasing, manufacturing, marketing, finance, engineering, and research and development. The enterprise of interest are those corporate functions and operations necessary to manufacture current and potential future variants of a product.
+The term "enterprise model" is used in industry to represent differing enterprise representations, with no real standardized definition. Due to the complexity of enterprise organizations, a vast number of differing enterprise modelling approaches have been pursued across industry and academia. Enterprise modelling constructs can focus upon manufacturing operations and/or business operations; however, a common thread in enterprise modelling is an inclusion of assessment of information technology. For example, the use of networked computers to trigger and receive replacement orders along a material supply chain is an example of how information technology is used to coordinate manufacturing operations within an enterprise.
+The basic idea of enterprise modelling according to Ulrich Frank is "to offer different views on an enterprise, thereby providing a medium to foster dialogues between various stakeholders - both in academia and in practice. For this purpose they include abstractions suitable for strategic planning, organisational (re-) design and software engineering. The views should complement each other and thereby foster a better understanding of complex systems by systematic abstractions. The views should be generic in the sense that they can be applied to any enterprise. At the same time they should offer abstractions that help with designing information systems which are well integrated with a company's long term strategy and its organisation. Hence, enterprise models can be regarded as the conceptual infrastructure that support a high level of integration."
+
+== History ==
+Enterprise modelling has its roots in systems modelling and especially information systems modelling. One of the earliest pioneering works in modelling information systems was done by Young and Kent (1958), who argued for "a precise and abstract way of specifying the informational and time characteristics of a data processing problem". They wanted to create "a notation that should enable the analyst to organize the problem around any piece of hardware". Their work was a first effort to create an abstract specification and invariant basis for designing different alternative implementations using different hardware components. A next step in IS modelling was taken by CODASYL, an IT industry consortium formed in 1959, who essentially aimed at the same thing as Young and Kent: the development of "a proper structure for machine independent problem definition language, at the system level of data processing". This led to the development of a specific IS information algebra.
+The first methods dealing with enterprise modelling emerged in the 1970s. They were the entity-relationship approach of Peter Chen (1976) and SADT of Douglas T. Ross (1977), the one concentrate on the information view and the other on the function view of business entities. These first methods have been followed end 1970s by numerous methods for software engineering, such as SSADM, Structured Design, Structured Analysis and others. Specific methods for enterprise modelling in the context of Computer Integrated Manufacturing appeared in the early 1980s. They include the IDEF family of methods (ICAM, 1981) and the GRAI method by Guy Doumeingts in 1984 followed by GRAI/GIM by Doumeingts and others in 1992.
+These second generation of methods were activity-based methods which have been surpassed on the one hand by process-centred modelling methods developed in the 1990s such as Architecture of Integrated Information Systems (ARIS), CIMOSA and Integrated Enterprise Modeling (IEM). And on the other hand by object-oriented methods, such as Object-oriented analysis (OOA) and Object-modelling technique (OMT).
+
+== Enterprise modelling basics ==
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+---
+title: "Enterprise modelling"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:53.796573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Enterprise model ===
+An enterprise model is a representation of the structure, activities, processes, information, resources, people, behavior, goals, and constraints of a business, government, or other enterprises. Thomas Naylor (1970) defined a (simulation) model as "an attempt to describe the interrelationships among a corporation's financial, marketing, and production activities in terms of a set of mathematical and logical relationships which are programmed into the computer." These interrelationships should according to Gershefski (1971) represent in detail all aspects of the firm including "the physical operations of the company, the accounting and financial practices followed, and the response to investment in key areas" Programming the modelled relationships into the computer is not always necessary: enterprise models, under different names, have existed for centuries and were described, for example, by Adam Smith, Walter Bagehot, and many others.
+According to Fox and Gruninger (1998) from "a design perspective, an enterprise model should provide the language used to explicitly define an enterprise... From an operations perspective, the enterprise model must be able to represent what is planned, what might happen, and what has happened. It must supply the information and knowledge necessary to support the operations of the enterprise, whether they be performed by hand or machine."
+In a two-volume set entitled The Managerial Cybernetics of Organization Stafford Beer introduced a model of the enterprise, the Viable System Model (VSM). Volume 2, The Heart of Enterprise, analyzed the VSM as a recursive organization of five systems: System One (S1) through System Five (S5). Beer's model differs from others in that the VSM is recursive, not hierarchical: "In a recursive organizational structure, any viable system contains, and is contained in, a viable system."
+
+=== Function modelling ===
+
+Function modelling in systems engineering is a structured representation of the functions, activities or processes within the modelled system or subject area.
+A function model, also called an activity model or process model, is a graphical representation of an enterprise's function within a defined scope. The purposes of the function model are: to describe the functions and processes, assist with discovery of information needs, help identify opportunities, and establish a basis for determining product and service costs. A function model is created with a functional modelling perspective. A functional perspectives is one or more perspectives possible in process modelling. Other perspectives possible are for example behavioural, organisational or informational.
+A functional modelling perspective concentrates on describing the dynamic process. The main concept in this modelling perspective is the process, this could be a function, transformation, activity, action, task etc. A well-known example of a modelling language employing this perspective is data flow diagrams. The perspective uses four symbols to describe a process, these being:
+
+Process: Illustrates transformation from input to output.
+Store:	   Data-collection or some sort of material.
+Flow:	   Movement of data or material in the process.
+External Entity: External to the modelled system, but interacts with it.
+Now, with these symbols, a process can be represented as a network of these symbols. This decomposed process is a DFD, data flow diagram. In Dynamic Enterprise Modeling, for example, a division is made in the Control model, Function Model, Process model and Organizational model.
+
+=== Data modelling ===
+ 
+Data modelling is the process of creating a data model by applying formal data model descriptions using data modelling techniques. Data modelling is a technique for defining business requirements for a database. It is sometimes called database modelling because a data model is eventually implemented in a database.
+The figure illustrates the way data models are developed and used today. A conceptual data model is developed based on the data requirements for the application that is being developed, perhaps in the context of an activity model. The data model will normally consist of entity types, attributes, relationships, integrity rules, and the definitions of those objects. This is then used as the start point for interface or database design.
+
+=== Business process modelling ===
+
+Business process modelling, not to be confused with the wider Business Process Management (BPM) discipline, is the activity of representing processes of an enterprise, so that the current ("as is") process may be analyzed and improved in future ("to be"). Business process modelling is typically performed by business analysts and managers who are seeking to improve process efficiency and quality. The process improvements identified by business process modelling may or may not require Information Technology involvement, although that is a common driver for the need to model a business process, by creating a process master.
+Change management programs are typically involved to put the improved business processes into practice. With advances in technology from large platform vendors, the vision of business process modelling models becoming fully executable (and capable of simulations and round-trip engineering) is coming closer to reality every day.
+
+=== Systems architecture ===
+The RM-ODP reference model identifies enterprise modelling as providing one of the five viewpoints of an open distributed system. Note that such a system need not be a modern-day IT system: a banking clearing house in the 19th century may be used as an example ().
+
+== Enterprise modelling techniques ==
+There are several techniques for modelling the enterprise such as 
+
+Active Knowledge Modeling,
+Design & Engineering Methodology for Organizations (DEMO)
+Dynamic Enterprise Modeling
+Enterprise Modelling Methodology/Open Distributed Processing (EMM/ODP)
+Extended Enterprise Modeling Language
+Multi-Perspective Enterprise Modelling (MEMO),
+Process modelling such as BPMN, CIMOSA, DYA, IDEF3, LOVEM, PERA, etc.
+Integrated Enterprise Modeling (IEM), and
+Modelling the enterprise with multi-agent systems.
+More enterprise modelling techniques are developed into Enterprise Architecture framework such as:
+
+ARIS - ARchitecture of Integrated Information Systems
+DoDAF - the US Department of Defense Architecture Framework
+RM-ODP - Reference Model of Open Distributed Processing
+TOGAF - The Open Group Architecture Framework
+Zachman Framework - an architecture framework, based on the work of John Zachman at IBM in the 1980s
+Service-oriented modeling framework (SOMF), based on the work of Michael Bell
+And metamodelling frameworks such as:
+
+Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology
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+---
+title: "Enterprise modelling"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:53.796573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Enterprise engineering ==
+Enterprise engineering is the discipline concerning the design and the engineering of enterprises, regarding both their business and organization. In theory and practice two types of enterprise engineering has emerged. A more general connected to engineering and the management of enterprises, and a more specific related to software engineering, enterprise modelling and enterprise architecture.
+In the field of engineering a more general enterprise engineering emerged, defined as the application of engineering principals to the management of enterprises. It encompasses the application of  knowledge, principles, and disciplines related to the analysis, design, implementation and operation of all elements associated with an enterprise. In essence this is an interdisciplinary field which combines systems engineering and strategic management as it seeks to engineer the entire enterprise in terms of the products, processes and business operations. The view is one of continuous improvement and continued adaptation as firms, processes and markets develop along their life cycles. This total systems approach encompasses the traditional areas of research and development, product design, operations and manufacturing as well as information systems and strategic management. This fields is related to engineering management, operations management, service management and systems engineering.
+In the context of software development a specific field of enterprise engineering has emerged, which deals with the modelling and integration of various organizational and technical parts of business processes. In the context of information systems development it has been the area of activity in the organization of the systems analysis, and an extension of the scope of Information Modelling. It can also be viewed as the extension and generalization of the systems analysis and systems design phases of the software development process. Here Enterprise modelling can be part of the early, middle and late information system development life cycle. Explicit representation of the organizational and technical system infrastructure is being created in order to understand the orderly transformations of existing work practices. This field is also called Enterprise architecture, or defined with Enterprise Ontology as being two major parts of Enterprise architecture.
+
+== Related fields ==
+
+=== Business reference modelling ===
+
+Business reference modelling is the development of reference models concentrating on the functional and organizational aspects of the core business of an enterprise, service organization or government agency. In enterprise engineering a business reference model is part of an enterprise architecture framework. This framework defines in a series of reference models, how to organize the structure and views associated with an Enterprise Architecture.
+A reference model in general is a model of something that embodies the basic goal or idea of something and can then be looked at as a reference for various purposes. A business reference model is a means to describe the business operations of an organization, independent of the organizational structure that perform them. Other types of business reference model can also depict the relationship between the business processes, business functions, and the business area’s business reference model. These reference model can be constructed in layers, and offer a foundation for the analysis of service components, technology, data, and performance.
+
+=== Economic modelling ===
+
+Economic modelling is the theoretical representation of economic processes by a set of variables and a set of logical and/or quantitative relationships between them. The economic model is a simplified framework designed to illustrate complex processes, often but not always using mathematical techniques. Frequently, economic models use structural parameters. Structural parameters are underlying parameters in a model or class of models. A model may have various parameters and those parameters may change to create various properties.
+In general terms, economic models have two functions: first as a simplification of and abstraction from observed data, and second as a means of selection of data based on a paradigm of econometric study. The simplification is particularly important for economics given the enormous complexity of economic processes.  This complexity can be attributed to the diversity of factors that determine economic activity; these factors include: individual  and cooperative decision processes, resource limitations, environmental and geographical constraints, institutional and legal requirements and purely random fluctuations.  Economists therefore must make a reasoned choice of which variables and which relationships between these variables are relevant and which ways of analyzing and presenting this information are useful.
+
+=== Ontology engineering ===
+Ontology engineering or ontology building is a subfield of knowledge engineering that studies the methods and methodologies for building ontologies. In the domain of enterprise architecture, an ontology is an outline or a schema used to structure objects, their attributes and relationships in a consistent manner. As in enterprise modelling, an ontology can be composed of other ontologies. The purpose of ontologies in enterprise modelling is to formalize and establish the sharability, re-usability, assimilation and dissemination of information across all organizations and departments within an enterprise. Thus, an ontology enables integration of the various functions and processes which take place in an enterprise.
+One common language with well articulated structure and vocabulary would enable the company to be more efficient in its operations. A common ontology will allow for effective communication, understanding and thus coordination among the various divisions of an enterprise. There are various kinds of ontologies used in numerous environments. While the language example given earlier dealt with the area of information systems and design, other ontologies may be defined for processes, methods, activities, etc., within an enterprise.
+Using ontologies in enterprise modelling offers several advantages. Ontologies ensure clarity, consistency, and structure to a model. They promote efficient model definition and analysis. Generic enterprise ontologies allow for reusability of and automation of components. Because ontologies are schemata or outlines, the use of ontologies does not ensure proper enterprise model definition, analysis, or clarity. Ontologies are limited by how they are defined and implemented. An ontology may or may not include the potential or capability to capture all of the aspects of what is being modelled.
+
+=== Systems thinking ===
+
+The modelling of the enterprise and its environment could facilitate the creation of enhanced understanding of the business domain and processes of the extended enterprise, and especially of the relations—both those that "hold the enterprise together" and those that extend across the boundaries of the enterprise. Since enterprise is a system, concepts used in system thinking can be successfully reused in modelling enterprises.
+
+== See also ==
+Business process modelling
+Enterprise architecture
+Enterprise Architecture framework
+Enterprise integration
+Enterprise life cycle
+ISO 19439
+Enterprise Data Modeling
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+August-Wilhelm Scheer (1992). Architecture of Integrated Information Systems: Foundations of Enterprise Modelling. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-55131-X
+François Vernadat (1996) Enterprise Modeling and Integration: Principles and Applications, Chapman & Hall, London, ISBN 0-412-60550-3
+
+== External links ==
+
+Agile Enterprise Modeling. by S.W. Ambler, 2003-2008.
+Enterprise Modeling Anti-patterns. by S.W. Ambler, 2005.
+Enterprise Modelling and Information Systems Architectures - An International Journal (EMISA) is a scholarly open access journal with a unique focus on novel and innovative research on Enterprise Models and Information Systems Architectures.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entourage_effect-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entourage_effect-0.md
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+---
+title: "Entourage effect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entourage_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:26.462866+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The entourage effect is a hypothesis that cannabis compounds, other than the cannabinoids tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), act synergistically with cannabinoids to modulate the overall psychoactive effects of the plant. The effect has also been applied in the case of psilocybin mushrooms, with other compounds besides psilocybin having been hypothesized to also contribute to the effects of the mushrooms.
+
+
+== Compounds ==
+
+
+=== Terpenes ===
+There are numerous terpenes present in the cannabis plant and variation in their contents between strains. Some terpenes are under preliminary research for their possible effects in vivo. Various terpenes have been found to independently influence behavioral outcomes in mice, with simultaneous administration of CBD and terpene blends having a significantly greater impact than either substance administered independently.
+
+
+== Hypothetical differences between C. indica and C. sativa ==
+Cannabinoid ratios: On average, Cannabis indica has higher levels of THC compared to CBD, whereas Cannabis sativa has lower levels of THC to CBD. However, huge variability exists within either species. A 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005.
+Terpene ratios: Sativa ancestry is associated with farnesene and bergamotene, while Indica ancestry is associated with myrcene, elemene, and sesquiterpene alcohols.
+
+
+=== Criticism ===
+In 2022, studies found that plants identified as "indica" or "sativa" based on common methods of differentiation (e.g. plant height or leaf shape) are not, in fact, chemically distinguishable, with many identified as "sativa" having cannabinoid ratios predicted of "indica" plants and vice versa. The authors have concluded that the chemical makeup of cannabis plants cannot be reliably determined by simple inspection of the plants' physical characteristics and that the "indica" and "sativa" labels are not informative as to the cannabinoids (or other chemical components) delivered.
+
+
+== Background ==
+The phrase entourage effect was introduced in 1999. While originally identified as a novel method of endocannabinoid regulation by which multiple endogenous chemical species display a cooperative effect in eliciting a cellular response, the term has evolved to describe the polypharmacy effects of combined cannabis phytochemicals or whole plant extracts. The phrase now commonly refers to the compounds present in cannabis purportedly working in concert to create "the sum of all the parts that leads to the magic or power of cannabis". Other cannabinoids, terpenoids, and flavonoids may be part of an entourage effect.
+
+
+== Criticism ==
+A 2020 review of research found no entourage effect in most studies, while other reports claimed mixed results, including the possibility of increased adverse effects. The review concluded that the term, "entourage effect", is  unfounded and used mainly for marketing.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Ergodic hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:28.827738+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In physics and thermodynamics, the ergodic hypothesis says that, for long, the time spent by a system in some region of the phase space of microstates with the same energy is proportional to the volume of this region; i.e., that all accessible microstates are equiprobable for long.
+Liouville's theorem states that, for a  Hamiltonian system, the local density of microstates following a particle path through phase space is constant as viewed by an observer moving with the ensemble—i.e., the convective time derivative is zero. Thus, if the microstates are uniformly distributed in phase space initially, they shall remain so at all times. But Liouville's theorem does not imply that the ergodic hypothesis holds for all Hamiltonian systems.
+The ergodic hypothesis is often assumed in the statistical analysis of computational physics. The analyst would assume that the average of a process parameter over time and the average over the statistical ensemble are the same. This assumption—that it is as good to simulate a system for long as it is to make many independent realizations of the same system—is not always correct. (See, for example, the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou experiment of 1953.)
+Assumption of the ergodic hypothesis allows proof that certain types of perpetual motion machines of the second kind are impossible.
+Systems that are ergodic are said to have the property of ergodicity; a broad range of systems in geometry, physics, and probability are ergodic. Ergodic systems are studied in ergodic theory.
+
+
+== Phenomenology ==
+In macroscopic systems, the timescales over which a system can explore the entirety of its own phase space can be sufficiently large that the thermodynamic equilibrium state exhibits some form of ergodicity breaking. A common example is that of spontaneous magnetization in ferromagnetic systems, whereby below the Curie temperature the system preferentially adopts a non-zero magnetization even though the ergodic hypothesis implies that no net magnetisation should exist by virtue of the system exploring all states whose time-averaged magnetization are zero. The fact that macroscopic systems often violate the literal form of the ergodic hypothesis is an example of spontaneous symmetry breaking.
+However, complex disordered systems such as a spin glass show an even more complicated form of ergodicity breaking where the properties of the thermodynamic equilibrium state seen in practice are much more difficult to predict only by symmetry arguments. Also conventional glasses (e.g. window glasses) violate ergodicity in a complicated manner. In practice this means that on sufficiently short time scales (e.g. those of parts of seconds, minutes, or a few hours) the systems may behave as solids—with a positive shear modulus—but on extremely long scales, e.g. over millennia or eons, as liquids, or with two or more time scales and plateaus  in between.
+
+
+== Ergodic hypothesis in finance ==
+Models used in finance and investment assume ergodicity, explicitly or implicitly. The ergodic hypothesis is prevalent in modern portfolio theory, discounted cash flow (DCF) models, and aggregate indicator models that infuse macroeconomics, among others.
+The situations modeled by these theories can be useful. But often they are only useful during much, but not all, of any particular time period under study. They can therefore miss some of the largest deviations from the standard model, such as financial crises, debt crises, and systemic risk in the banking system that occur only infrequently.
+Nassim Nicholas Taleb has argued that a very important part of empirical reality in finance and investment is non-ergodic. An even statistical distribution of probabilities, where the system returns to every possible state an infinite number of times, is simply not the case we observe in situations where "absorbing states" are reached, a state where ruin is seen. The death of an individual, or total loss of everything, or the devolution or dismemberment of a nation state and the legal regime that accompanied it, are all absorbing states. Thus, in finance, path dependence matters. A path where an individual, firm, or country hits a "stop"—an absorbing barrier ("anything that prevents people with skin in the game from emerging from it, and to which the system will invariably tend. Let us call these situations ruin, as the entity cannot emerge from the condition. The central problem is that if there is a possibility of ruin, cost benefit analyses are no longer possible.") shall be non-ergodic.  All traditional models based on standard probabilistic statistics break down in these extreme situations.
+The emerging field of ergodicity economics is beginning to show how including non-ergodic dynamics addresses some of the criticisms of neoclassical and pluralist economics; and, practically, what investors and entrepreneurs can do to correct for the typical outcome of a business or investment fund (under non-ergodic capital dynamics) being less than the expectation value. This correction is necessary for the regenerative economy to work in practice. 
+
+
+== Ergodic hypothesis in social science ==
+In the social sciences, the ergodic hypothesis corresponds to the assumption that individuals are representative of groups and vice versa that group averages can adequately characterize what might be seen in an individual. This appears to not be the case: group level data often give a poor indication of individual variation, as individual standard deviations (SDs) tend to be eight times more than group SDs of the same people. Subsequently a third of the individual observations fall outside a 99.9% confidence interval of group level data.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ergodic process
+Ergodic theory, a branch of mathematics concerned with a more general formulation of ergodicity
+Ergodicity
+Loschmidt's paradox
+Poincaré recurrence theorem
+Lindy effect
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_laws_of_motion-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_laws_of_motion-0.md
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,589 @@
+---
+title: "Euler's laws of motion"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:15.563165+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In classical mechanics, Euler's laws of motion are equations of motion which extend Newton's laws of motion for point particle to rigid body motion. They were formulated by Leonhard Euler about 50 years after Isaac Newton formulated his laws.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+
+
+=== Euler's first law ===
+Euler's first law states that the rate of change of linear momentum p of a rigid body is equal to the resultant of all the external forces Fext acting on the body:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            F
+          
+          
+            ext
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              
+                p
+              
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{\text{ext}}={\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}.}
+  
+
+Internal forces between the particles that make up a body do not contribute to changing the momentum of the body as there is an equal and opposite force resulting in no net effect.
+The linear momentum of a rigid body is the product of the mass of the body and the velocity of its center of mass vcm.
+
+
+=== Euler's second law ===
+
+Euler's second law states that the rate of change of angular momentum L about a point that is fixed in an inertial reference frame (often the center of mass of the body), is equal to the sum of the external moments of force (torques) acting on that body M about that point: 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              
+                L
+              
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ={d\mathbf {L}  \over dt}.}
+  
+
+Note that the above formula holds only if both M and L are computed with respect to a fixed inertial frame or a frame parallel to the inertial frame but fixed on the center of mass.
+For rigid bodies translating and rotating in only two dimensions, this can be expressed as:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            r
+          
+          
+            
+              c
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        ×
+        
+          
+            a
+          
+          
+            
+              c
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        m
+        +
+        I
+        
+          α
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {r} _{\rm {cm}}\times \mathbf {a} _{\rm {cm}}m+I{\boldsymbol {\alpha }},}
+  
+
+where:
+
+rcm is the position vector of the center of mass of the body with respect to the point about which moments are summed,
+acm is the linear acceleration of the center of mass of the body,
+m is the mass of the body,
+α is the angular acceleration of the body, and
+I is the moment of inertia of the body about its center of mass.
+See also Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics).
+
+
+== Explanation and derivation ==
+The distribution of internal forces in a deformable body are not necessarily equal throughout, i.e. the stresses vary from one point to the next. This variation of internal forces throughout the body is governed by Newton's second law of motion of conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum, which for their simplest use are applied to a mass particle but are extended in continuum mechanics to a body of continuously distributed mass. For continuous bodies these laws are called Euler's laws of motion.
+The total body force applied to a continuous body with mass m, mass density ρ, and volume V, is the volume integral integrated over the volume of the body:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            F
+          
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            V
+          
+        
+        
+          b
+        
+        
+        d
+        m
+        =
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            V
+          
+        
+        
+          b
+        
+        ρ
+        
+        d
+        V
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{B}=\int _{V}\mathbf {b} \,dm=\int _{V}\mathbf {b} \rho \,dV}
+  
+
+where b is the force acting on the body per unit mass (dimensions of acceleration, misleadingly called the "body force"), and dm = ρ dV is an infinitesimal mass element of the body.
+Body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead to corresponding moments (torques) of those forces relative to a given point. Thus, the total applied torque M about the origin is given by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            M
+          
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            M
+          
+          
+            C
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {M} _{B}+\mathbf {M} _{C}}
+  
+
+where MB and MC respectively indicate the moments caused by the body and contact forces.
+Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with respect to the origin of the coordinate system) acting on the body can be given as the sum of a volume and surface integral:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            V
+          
+        
+        
+          a
+        
+        
+        d
+        m
+        =
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            V
+          
+        
+        
+          a
+        
+        ρ
+        
+        d
+        V
+        =
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        
+          t
+        
+        
+        d
+        S
+        +
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            V
+          
+        
+        
+          b
+        
+        ρ
+        
+        d
+        V
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =\int _{V}\mathbf {a} \,dm=\int _{V}\mathbf {a} \rho \,dV=\int _{S}\mathbf {t} \,dS+\int _{V}\mathbf {b} \rho \,dV}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            M
+          
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            M
+          
+          
+            C
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        
+          r
+        
+        ×
+        
+          t
+        
+        
+        d
+        S
+        +
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            V
+          
+        
+        
+          r
+        
+        ×
+        
+          b
+        
+        ρ
+        
+        d
+        V
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {M} _{B}+\mathbf {M} _{C}=\int _{S}\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {t} \,dS+\int _{V}\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {b} \rho \,dV.}
+  
+
+where t = t(n) is called the surface traction, integrated over the surface of the body, in turn n denotes a unit vector normal and directed outwards to the surface S.
+Let the coordinate system (x1, x2, x3) be an inertial frame of reference, r be the position vector of a point particle in the continuous body with respect to the origin of the coordinate system, and v = ⁠dr/dt⁠ be the velocity vector of that point.
+Euler's first axiom or law (law of balance of linear momentum or balance of forces) states that in an inertial frame the time rate of change of linear momentum p of an arbitrary portion of a continuous body is equal to the total applied force F acting on that portion, and it is expressed as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      d
+                      
+                        p
+                      
+                    
+                    
+                      d
+                      t
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  F
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    d
+                    
+                      d
+                      t
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  ∫
+                  
+                    V
+                  
+                
+                ρ
+                
+                  v
+                
+                
+                d
+                V
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  ∫
+                  
+                    S
+                  
+                
+                
+                  t
+                
+                
+                d
+                S
+                +
+                
+                  ∫
+                  
+                    V
+                  
+                
+                
+                  b
+                
+                ρ
+                
+                d
+                V
+                .
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {d\mathbf {p} }{dt}}&=\mathbf {F} \\{\frac {d}{dt}}\int _{V}\rho \mathbf {v} \,dV&=\int _{S}\mathbf {t} \,dS+\int _{V}\mathbf {b} \rho \,dV.\end{aligned}}}
+  
+
+Euler's second axiom or law (law of balance of angular momentum or balance of torques) states that in an inertial frame the time rate of change of angular momentum L of an arbitrary portion of a continuous body is equal to the total applied torque M acting on that portion, and it is expressed as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      d
+                      
+                        L
+                      
+                    
+                    
+                      d
+                      t
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  M
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    d
+                    
+                      d
+                      t
+                    
+                  
+                
+                
+                  ∫
+                  
+                    V
+                  
+                
+                
+                  r
+                
+                ×
+                ρ
+                
+                  v
+                
+                
+                d
+                V
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  ∫
+                  
+                    S
+                  
+                
+                
+                  r
+                
+                ×
+                
+                  t
+                
+                
+                d
+                S
+                +
+                
+                  ∫
+                  
+                    V
+                  
+                
+                
+                  r
+                
+                ×
+                
+                  b
+                
+                ρ
+                
+                d
+                V
+                .
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {d\mathbf {L} }{dt}}&=\mathbf {M} \\{\frac {d}{dt}}\int _{V}\mathbf {r} \times \rho \mathbf {v} \,dV&=\int _{S}\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {t} \,dS+\int _{V}\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {b} \rho \,dV.\end{aligned}}}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
+  
+ is the velocity, 
+  
+    
+      
+        V
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V}
+  
+ the volume, and the derivatives of p and L are material derivatives.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of topics named after Leonhard Euler
+Euler's laws of rigid body rotations
+Newton–Euler equations of motion with 6 components, combining Euler's two laws into one equation.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko-0.md
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+---
+title: "Eurisko"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:35.937717+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Eurisko (Gr., I discover) is a discovery system written by Douglas Lenat in RLL-1, a representation language itself written in the Lisp programming language. A sequel to Automated Mathematician, it consists of heuristics, i.e. rules of thumb, including heuristics describing how to use and change its own heuristics. Lenat was frustrated by Automated Mathematician's constraint to a single domain and so developed Eurisko; his frustration with the effort of encoding domain knowledge for Eurisko led to Lenat's subsequent development of Cyc. Lenat envisioned ultimately coupling the Cyc knowledge base with the Eurisko discovery engine.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+Development commenced at Carnegie Mellon in 1976 and continued at Stanford University in 1978 when Lenat returned to teach. "For the first five years, nothing good came out of it", Lenat said. But when the implementation was changed to a frame language based representation he called RLL (Representation Language Language), heuristic creation and modification became much simpler. Eurisko was then applied to a number of domains with surprising success, including VLSI chip design.
+Previously, Lenat had worked at the automatic-programming research group at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and was coauthor of a report in 1974 on "Program-Understanding Systems". Inspired by work on Eurisko, Lenat proposed that mutations may be highly non-random, since the DNA can code for (meta-)heuristic rules by which likely useful mutations can be made, allowing increasingly rapid evolution over time.
+Lenat and Eurisko gained notoriety by submitting the winning fleet (a large number of stationary, lightly armored ships with many small weapons) to the United States Traveller TCS national championship in 1981, forcing extensive changes to the game's rules. The fleet had 96 ships, 75 of which were of the "Eurisko class". The detailed composition was published.
+However, Eurisko won again in 1982 when the program discovered that the rules permitted the program to destroy its own ships, permitting it to continue to use much the same strategy. Tournament officials announced that if Eurisko won another championship the competition would be abolished; Lenat retired Eurisko from the game. The Traveller TCS wins brought Lenat to the attention of DARPA, who funded much of his subsequent work.
+A screenshot of Eurisko in action is printed in a 1984 Scientific American article.
+Lenat was known for keeping his source code confidential during his lifetime. In 2023, it was reported that source code for both Eurisko and the previous Automated Mathematician system had been found in public code archives. The following year, Eurisko code was shown running under Medley Interlisp.
+
+
+== In popular culture ==
+In the first-season The X-Files episode "Ghost in the Machine", Eurisko is the name of a fictional software company responsible for the episode's "monster of the week", facilities management software known as "Central Operating System", or "COS". COS (described in the episode as an "adaptive network") is shown to be capable of learning when its designer arrives at Eurisko headquarters and is surprised to find that COS has given itself the ability to speak. The designer is forced to create a virus to destroy COS after COS commits a series of murders in an apparent effort to prevent its own destruction.
+Lenat is mentioned and Eurisko is discussed at the end of Richard Feynman's Computer Heuristics Lecture as part of the Idiosyncratic Thinking Workshop Series.
+Lenat and Eurisko are mentioned in the 2019 James Rollins novel Crucible that deals with artificial intelligence and artificial general intelligence.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Understanding Computers: Artificial Intelligence. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books. 1986. pp. 81–84. ISBN 978-0-7054-0915-5.
+Lenat, Douglas; Brown, J.S. (1984). "Why AM and EURISKO appear to work" (PDF). Artificial Intelligence. 23 (3): 269–294. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.565.8830. doi:10.1016/0004-3702(84)90016-X.
+Haase, Kenneth W (February 1990). "Invention and exploration in discovery". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-01-22. Retrieved 2008-12-13.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Eurisko on GitHub
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-0.md
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+---
+title: "Evaluation function"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:37.091312+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An evaluation function, also known as a heuristic evaluation function or static evaluation function, is a function used by game-playing computer programs to estimate the value or goodness of a position (usually at a leaf or terminal node) in a game tree. Most of the time, the value is either a real number or a quantized integer, often in nths of the value of a playing piece such as a stone in go or a pawn in chess, where n may be tenths, hundredths or other convenient fraction, but sometimes, the value is an array of three values in the unit interval, representing the win, draw, and loss percentages of the position. 
+There do not exist analytical or theoretical models for evaluation functions for unsolved games, nor are such functions entirely ad-hoc. The composition of evaluation functions is determined empirically by inserting a candidate function into an automaton and evaluating its subsequent performance. A significant body of evidence now exists for several games like chess, shogi and go as to the general composition of evaluation functions for them.
+Games in which game playing computer programs employ evaluation functions include chess, go, shogi (Japanese chess), othello, hex, backgammon, and checkers. In addition, with the advent of programs such as MuZero, computer programs also use evaluation functions to play video games, such as those from the Atari 2600. Some games like tic-tac-toe are strongly solved, and do not require search or evaluation because a discrete solution tree is available.
+
+== Relation to search ==
+A tree of such evaluations is usually part of a search algorithm, such as Monte Carlo tree search or a minimax algorithm like alpha–beta search. The value is presumed to represent the relative probability of winning if the game tree were expanded from that node to the end of the game. The function looks only at the current position (i.e. what spaces the pieces are on and their relationship to each other) and does not take into account the history of the position or explore possible moves forward of the node (therefore static). This implies that for dynamic positions where tactical threats exist, the evaluation function will not be an accurate assessment of the position. These positions are termed non-quiescent; they require at least a limited kind of search extension called quiescence search to resolve threats before evaluation. Some values returned by evaluation functions are absolute rather than heuristic, if a win, loss or draw occurs at the node.
+There is an intricate relationship between search and knowledge in the evaluation function. Deeper search favors less near-term tactical factors and more subtle long-horizon positional motifs in the evaluation. There is also a trade-off between efficacy of encoded knowledge and computational complexity: computing detailed knowledge may take so much time that performance decreases, so approximations to exact knowledge are often better. Because the evaluation function depends on the nominal depth of search as well as the extensions and reductions employed in the search, there is no generic or stand-alone formulation for an evaluation function. An evaluation function which works well in one application will usually need to be substantially re-tuned or re-trained to work effectively in another application.
+
+== In chess ==
+In computer chess, larger evaluations indicate a material imbalance or positional advantage or that a win of material is usually imminent. Very large evaluations may indicate that checkmate is imminent. An evaluation function also implicitly encodes the value of the right to move, which can vary from a small fraction of a pawn to win or loss. 
+
+=== Handcrafted evaluation functions ===
+The output of a handcrafted evaluation function is typically an integer whose units are typically referred to as pawns. The term 'pawn' refers to the value when the player has one more pawn than the opponent in a position, as explained in Chess piece relative value. The integer 1 usually represents some fraction of a pawn, and commonly used in computer chess are centipawns, which are a hundredth of a pawn.
+Historically in computer chess, the terms of an evaluation function are constructed (i.e. handcrafted) by the engine developer, as opposed to discovered through training neural networks. The general approach for constructing handcrafted evaluation functions is as a linear combination of various weighted terms determined to influence the value of a position. However, not all terms in a handcrafted evaluation function are linear, such as king safety and pawn structure. Each term may be considered to be composed of first order factors (those that depend only on the space and any piece on it), second order factors (the space in relation to other spaces), and nth-order factors (dependencies on history of the position). 
+A handcrafted evaluation function typically has a material balance term that usually dominates the evaluation. The conventional values used for material are Queen=9, Rook=5; Knight or Bishop=3; Pawn=1; the king is assigned an arbitrarily large value, usually larger than the total value of all the other pieces. In addition, it typically has a set of positional terms usually totaling no more than the value of a pawn, though in some positions the positional terms can get much larger, such as when checkmate is imminent. Handcrafted evaluation functions typically contain dozens to hundreds of individual terms. 
+In practice, effective handcrafted evaluation functions are not created by expanding the list of evaluated parameters, but by careful tuning or training of the weights relative to each other, of a modest set of parameters such as those described above. Toward this end, positions from various databases are employed, such as from master games, engine games, Lichess games, or even from self-play, as in reinforcement learning. 
+
+==== Example ====
+An example handcrafted evaluation function for chess might look like the following:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-1.md
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+---
+title: "Evaluation function"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:37.091312+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+c1 * material + c2 * mobility + c3 * king safety + c4 * center control + c5 * pawn structure + c6 * king tropism + ...
+Each of the terms is a weight multiplied by a difference factor: the value of white's material or positional terms minus black's. 
+
+The material term is obtained by assigning a value in pawn-units to each of the pieces.
+Mobility is the number of legal moves available to a player, or alternately the sum of the number of spaces attacked or defended by each piece, including spaces occupied by friendly or opposing pieces. Effective mobility, or the number of "safe" spaces a piece may move to, may also be taken into account.
+King safety is a set of bonuses and penalties assessed for the location of the king and the configuration of pawns and pieces adjacent to or in front of the king, and opposing pieces bearing on spaces around the king.
+Center control is derived from how many pawns and pieces occupy or bear on the four center spaces and sometimes the 12 spaces of the extended center.
+Pawn structure is a set of penalties and bonuses for various strengths and weaknesses in pawn structure, such as penalties for doubled and isolated pawns.
+King tropism is a bonus for closeness (or penalty for distance) of certain pieces, especially queens and knights, to the opposing king.
+
+=== Piece-square tables ===
+An important technique in evaluation since at least the early 1990s is the piece-square table (also called piece-value table). Each table is a set of 64 values corresponding to the squares of the chessboard. The most basic implementation of piece-square table consists of separate tables for each type of piece per player, which in chess results in 12 piece-square tables in total. The values in the tables are bonuses/penalties for the location of each piece on each space, and encode a composite of many subtle factors difficult to quantify analytically. In handcrafted evaluation functions, there are sometimes two sets of tables: one for the opening/middlegame, and one for the endgame; positions of the middle game are interpolated between the two.
+
+=== Neural networks ===
+While neural networks have been used in the evaluation functions of chess engines since the late 1980s, they did not become popular in computer chess until the late 2010s, as the hardware needed to train neural networks was not strong enough at the time, and fast training algorithms and network topology and architectures had not been developed yet. Neural network based evaluation functions generally consist of a neural network trained using reinforcement learning or supervised learning to accept a board state as input and output a real or integer value.
+Deep neural networks have been used, albeit infrequently, in computer chess after Matthew Lai's Giraffe in 2015 and Deepmind's AlphaZero in 2017 demonstrated the feasibility of deep neural networks in evaluation functions. The distributed computing project Leela Chess Zero was started shortly after to attempt to replicate the results of Deepmind's AlphaZero paper. Apart from the size of the networks, the neural networks used in AlphaZero and Leela Chess Zero also differ from those used in traditional chess engines in that they predict a distribution across subsequent moves (the policy head) in addition to the evaluation (the value head). Since deep neural networks are very large, engines using deep neural networks in their evaluation function usually require a graphics processing unit in order to efficiently calculate the evaluation function.
+The evaluation function used by most top engines  is the efficiently updatable neural network (NNUE), a sparse and shallow neural network originally proposed for computer shogi in 2018 by Yu Nasu. In fact, the most basic NNUE architecture is simply the 12 piece-square tables described above, a neural network with only one layer and no activation functions. An efficiently updatable neural network architecture was first ported to chess in a Stockfish derivative called Stockfish NNUE, publicly released on May 30, 2020, and was incorporated into the official Stockfish engine on August 6, 2020.
+
+=== Endgame tablebases ===
+
+Chess engines frequently use endgame tablebases to quickly and accurately evaluate endgame positions.
+
+== In Go ==
+Historically, evaluation functions in Computer Go took into account both territory controlled, influence of stones, number of prisoners and life and death of groups on the board.  However, modern go playing computer programs largely use deep neural networks in their evaluation functions, such as AlphaGo, Leela Zero, Fine Art, and KataGo, and output a win/draw/loss percentage rather than a value in number of stones.
+
+== References ==
+
+Slate, D and Atkin, L., 1983, "Chess 4.5, the Northwestern University Chess Program" in Chess Skill in Man and Machine 2nd Ed., pp. 93–100. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
+Ebeling, Carl, 1987, All the Right Moves: A VLSI Architecture for Chess (ACM Distinguished Dissertation), pp. 56–86. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
+
+== External links ==
+Keys to Evaluating Positions
+GameDev.net - Chess Programming Part VI: Evaluation Functions
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+---
+title: "Ex-Cubs Factor"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:30.051451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Ex-Cub Factor is a seemingly spurious correlation that was seen as essentially a corollary to the Curse of the Billy Goat. Widely published in the 1990s, the hypothesis asserted that since the appearance by the Chicago Cubs in the 1945 World Series, any baseball team headed into the World Series with three or more former Cubs on its roster has "a critical mass of Cubness" and a strong likelihood of failure.
+
+== Ex-Cubs Factor hypothesis ==
+
+The theory was developed in October 15, 1981 by Ron Berler, a freelance journalist and Cubs fan. Berler posited in an article that "it is utterly impossible for a team with three or more ex-Cubs to win the series."  Berler based this on a pattern that he observed in the post-1945 era; 1945 being the last time the Chicago Cubs made it to a World Series until 2016.
+Berler cited many examples of teams with three or more ex-Cubs on their teams that reached the World Series and lost: including the 1958 Milwaukee Braves, the 1966 Los Angeles Dodgers, and the 1978 Los Angeles Dodgers. The 1978 Dodgers, according to Berler, had lost the 1977 World Series with three ex-Cubs on their roster and seemed to be doing well the next season when they traded away one of those ex-Cubs, Mike Garman, and began playing excellently. However, four weeks later, the Dodgers traded for ex-Cub Bill North and, in the words of Berler, the "team suffered an immediate tailspin and barely beat Cincinnati to the pennant" (North was actually traded to the Dodgers first on May 17, and Garman was traded away three days later). The 1978 Dodgers lost the World Series to the Yankees, leading to Berler's hypothesis of three ex-Cubs making it impossible to win a championship. In addition, the 1980 Kansas City Royals lost the World Series with three former Cubs.
+In the original article, Berler predicted that based on this pattern the 1981 New York Yankees would not win the World Series because they had five ex-Cubs on their roster: Oscar Gamble, Bobby Murcer, Dave LaRoche, Rick Reuschel, and Barry Foote. This prediction went against the odds which heavily favored the Yankees at the time. His prediction about the 1981 World Series based on this hypothesis was proved correct with the Yankees losing to the Dodgers, four games to two.
+
+=== Explanation of the relationship ===
+Berler relates the relationship to the inherent "cubness" that ex-Cubs take to their future teams. In the original article, he wrote that "the ballclub possesses eerie, bewitching powers over its players" and that "'Cubness'...is synonymous with the rankest sort of abject failure, and is a condition chronic among all Cubs, past and present."
+Mike Royko, who popularized the term in his columns in Chicago, wrote that Cubness was a "virus" where "Three or more ex-Cubs could infect an entire team with the will to lose, no matter how skillful that team might appear." Berler adopted a similar explanation in later articulations, writing that the virus "attacks all who've played for the Cubs, even if only for a single day. There is no inoculation, no cure. When traded to another team, ex-Cubs become carriers of this debilitating disease—the ticks of baseball. Any World Series team infested with three or more of them turns addled and confused, losing all ability to win."
+
+=== Modified Ex-Cub Factor ===
+
+Mike Royko developed an additional hypothesis contending that "A team with no ex-Cubs probably has the edge on a team that has even one." The key evidence provided for this was the 1986 World Series which had the New York Mets, with no ex-Cubs, defeat the Boston Red Sox, who had ex-Cub Bill Buckner who made a dramatic error.  This hypothesis was largely discredited in the 2003 World Series when the Florida Marlins, who had ex-Cub Lenny Harris, defeated the New York Yankees, who had no ex-Cubs. However, Harris did not play in the World Series.
+
+== Cases for the Ex-Cubs Factor hypothesis ==
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+---
+title: "Ex-Cubs Factor"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:30.051451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Since 1945, of the 25 teams to reach the World Series with three or more Cubs players, only 4 have won the World Series (the 1960 Pirates, the 2001 Diamondbacks, the 2008 Phillies, and the 2012 Giants). Since its articulation in 1981, the Ex-Cubs Factor has been used to predict and explain post-season and World Series defeats for many different baseball teams.
+During the 1980s, the ex-Cubs factor was used to explain a number of losses by teams.  It was used, in a letter to the editor, as a reason for the loss by the 1984 San Diego Padres (who ironically beat the Cubs to get to the Series) in the 1984 World Series (with three ex-Cubs) and by the collapse of the 1985 Toronto Blue Jays who had added ex-Cub Cliff Johnson on August 28 and went on to blow a 3–1 lead over the Royals in the 1985 American League Championship Series.
+While not falling under the curse in the traditional sense, Bill Buckner's infamous gaffe in Game 6 of the 1986 World Series can be interpreted to fit the Ex-Cubs Factor. Buckner, a former Cub, booted a ground ball hit by New York Mets batter Mookie Wilson, allowing Ray Knight to come around and score the winning run. The Mets would go on to win the series in seven games, and Buckner would never win the World Series in his career. Upon video analysis, Buckner was shown to be wearing a Cubs batting glove under his mitt when he made the error.
+The theory became more prominent in 1990 when it was popularized by syndicated Chicago Tribune columnist Mike Royko and continued predictions by Ron Berler. On October 16, 1990, Berler again asserted the ex-Cubs factor as the reason that the favored Oakland Athletics, with ex-Cubs Scott Sanderson, Dennis Eckersley, and Ron Hassey, would lose the 1990 World Series (which they did by getting swept by the Cincinnati Reds). Berler cited it again as a reason for the defeat of the league-leading 1991 Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1991 National League Championship Series to the Atlanta Braves. Mike Royko used the ex-Cubs factor to predict the playoff collapse of the 104-win 1993 Atlanta Braves (which did occur in the 1993 National League Championship Series).
+The ex-Cubs factor hypothesis was used to predict the loss of the San Francisco Giants (with three ex-Cubs Shawon Dunston, Benito Santiago and Tim Worrell) to the Anaheim Angels in the 2002 World Series.
+The ex-Cubs factor hypothesis has also been used to explain the results of the 2004 American League Championship Series (ALCS) and the 2004 World Series, both won by the Boston Red Sox. In the 2004 ALCS, the Yankees, who had six ex-Cubs, squandered a three-game series lead to the Boston Red Sox, the first time in Major League Baseball history. The Red Sox, with only two ex-Cubs, then went on to defeat the St. Louis Cardinals, with three ex-Cubs, in the World Series. The 2009 World Series resulted in a win by the New York Yankees, with two ex-Cubs, over the Philadelphia Phillies, with three ex-Cubs.
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+---
+title: "Ex-Cubs Factor"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:30.051451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Cases against the Ex-Cubs Factor hypothesis ==
+Berler's study of the ex-Cub factor since 1945 revealed only one exception since 1945: the 1960 Pittsburgh Pirates, who won the World Series with three ex-Cubs on their roster. Berler contends that one of those ex-Cubs, Don Hoak, spent so little time in Chicago (121 games in one season), that he did not fully develop what Berler called his "Cubness". Berler quoted pitcher Jim Brosnan, a teammate of Hoak's on the 1956 Cubs, as saying that "Hoak is quite possibly the only man who ever conquered his Cubness".
+The Society for American Baseball Research researched the rosters of each World Series roster from 1946 to 2013 through records and noted each Series that had at least one former Cub while noting the distinct conjectures between Berler's and Royko's theories. Perhaps predictably, the Berler rate was found to be more effective (17/22 as compared to 32/56), although there are a few evident cases against each conjecture.
+Most notably, the 1973 Oakland A's had three ex-Cubs in Pat Bourque, Ken Holtzman, and Bill North all on the roster during their run to the World Series, although North did not play in the Series due to injury. This also applies to the 1979 Pittsburgh Pirates, who won the World Series with three former Cub players in Matt Alexander, Bill Madlock, and Dave Roberts, although Roberts didn't play in the Series itself.
+The 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks similarly had four ex-Cubs on their roster—Miguel Batista, Mark Grace, Mike Morgan, and Luis Gonzalez—but defeated the New York Yankees in the 2001 World Series. Mark Grace declared in a post-game interview that "We beat the ex-Cub Factor!" The sympathy many fans felt for New York City following the September 11 attacks, topped off by the four ex-Cubs on the Arizona roster, seemed to stack up against the Diamondbacks. But Arizona won Game 6 in a lopsided score, and then won Game 7 in a come-from-behind finish, scoring a pair of runs in the ninth inning to win the Series. In fact, two of the four former Cubs played prominent roles in that ninth inning: Grace got a lead-off single and Gonzalez drove in the winning run with a single.
+The 1960 Pittsburgh Pirates and the 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks (both with victories over the New York Yankees) are among the few instances of teams ever having won the World Series in Game 7 walk-off victories. The former was a home run hit by Bill Mazeroski to end the 1960 World Series.
+The 2008 Philadelphia Phillies team was declared prior to the post-season by Berler as "doomed this year by the Ex-Cub Factor", with three ex-Cubs—Scott Eyre, Jamie Moyer, and Matt Stairs—on their roster. However, the Phillies defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers (a team also with three ex-Cubs) in the National League Championship Series and the Tampa Bay Rays (one ex-Cub) in the 2008 World Series.
+
+== Applied to other teams ==
+The Ex-Cubs Factor hypothesis has been applied to other professional baseball teams in both positive and negative references. For example, sportswriter Jeff Blair has argued there exists an "ex-Expos factor" where the number of former Montreal Expos players correlates with post-season success, owing to several careers starting in Montreal that ranged from Randy Johnson (the winning pitcher of the final game in 2001) to Pedro Martínez (part of the Red Sox team who made the epic comeback over the Yankees in 2004) to Gary Carter (who played on the Mets team that won in 1986), each of which whom won a World Series after leaving the Expos. Jim Caple for ESPN.com has similarly proposed an ex-Mariners factor (or XMF) which explores the excellent play by ex-Mariners for other teams in postseason baseball.
+
+== See also ==
+Redskins Rule
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Mike Royko column examples including 1993 explanation of Ex-Cubs Factor
+Ex-Cubs Factor through the years
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Expensive tissue hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:31.235653+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The expensive tissue hypothesis (ETH) relates brain and gut size in evolution (specifically in human evolution). It suggests that in order for an organism to evolve a large brain without a significant increase in basal metabolic rate (as seen in humans), the organism must use less energy on other expensive tissues; the paper introducing the ETH suggests that in humans, this was achieved by eating an easy-to-digest diet and evolving a smaller, less energy-intensive gut. The ETH has inspired many research projects to test its validity in primates and other organisms.
+The human brain stands out among the mammals because of its relative size compared to the rest of the body. The brain of Homo sapiens is about three times larger than that of its closest living relative, the chimpanzee. For a primate of its body size, the relative size of the brain and that of the digestive tract is rather unexpected; the digestive tract is smaller than expected for a primate of a human body size. In 1995, two scientists proposed an attempt to solve this phenomenon of human evolution using the Expensive Tissue Hypothesis.
+
+== Original paper ==
+The original paper introducing the ETH was written by Leslie Aiello and P. E. Wheeler. Availability to new data on basal metabolic rate (BMR) and brain size has shown that energetics is an issue in the maintenance of a relatively large brain, like the human brain. In mammals, brain size is positively correlated with the BMR. In the paper, Aiello and Wheeler sought to explain how humans managed to provide enough energy to their large and metabolically expensive brains while still maintaining a BMR comparable to other primates with smaller brains. They found that humans’ smaller relative gut size almost completely compensated for the metabolic cost of the larger brain. They went on to postulate that a larger brain would allow for more complex foraging behavior, which would result in a higher quality diet, which would then allow the gut to shrink further, freeing up more energy for the brain. This research also presented a case for studying the evolution of organs in a more interconnected manner, rather than in isolation.
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+---
+title: "Expensive tissue hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:31.235653+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further research ==
+Anthropologists have been able to observe a dramatic contrast in relative brain size between humans and our great ape ancestors. Studies have shown that brain size differences underlie major differences in cognitive performance. Brain tissue is energetically expensive, requiring a great amount of energy compared to several other somatic tissues during rest. To understand how the body is able to provide the brain with the right amount of energy to function properly, scientists consider the cost side of the equation and focus on how brain and other expensive tissues such as the gut or the testes may trade off. Another possibility is that there may not be any trading off, rather there are other ways that humans are keeping the brain nourished.
+The academic debate around the ETH is still active, and has inspired a number of similar tests, all attempting to verify or disprove the hypothesis in another species or group of species by looking at encephalization (a ratio between brain size and body size), gut size, and/or diet quality. Primates, being the closest living relatives to humans, are a natural starting point for testing the hypothesis, and as such are examined by many of these tests. One such study supported the expensive tissue hypothesis and found a positive correlation between diet quality and brain size (as would be expected by the original paper), but it did note that there were exceptions among the species tested. A broader study including primates and other mammals disputed the ETH, finding that there is no negative correlation between brain and gut sizes; it did, however, support the idea of energy trade-offs in evolution as it found a negative correlation between encephalization and adipose deposits.
+Studies have also been done in species less similar to humans, such as anurans and fish. The study of anurans found that among the 30 species tested, there was a significant negative correlation between gut size and brain size, as Aiello and Wheeler found in humans and primates in their original research. One study of fish used Peters' elephantnose fish (Gnathonemus petersii), a species of carnivorous fish, which has a uniquely large brain, about three times the size expected for a fish of its body size. The research found that these fish also had significantly smaller guts than other similar carnivorous fish. These further studies enrich the debate over the ETH.
+A 2018 study by Huang, Yu, and Liao investigated the possible effects of gut microbiota in the expensive tissue hypothesis among vertebrates. Researchers have investigated various symbiotic gut bacteria as well as other microorganisms that have coevolved in the digestive tracts of humans and other animals. These microbiotas have evolved to form mutually beneficial relationships with their hosts, and play important roles in immune function, nutrition, and physiology. Any disruption in the gut can lead to gastrointestinal dysfunction like obesity, for example. Several studies have also shown that the diversity and composition of gut microbiota vary topographically and temporarily. This is because specific bacteria have been linked to the host's food intake as well as the use of nutrition and energy metabolism. Any changes or modifications of the microbial landscape in the gut can lead to several complex and dynamic interactions throughout life. Additionally, the choice of the host is strongly associated with the diversification and complexity of the microbiota; for instance, the study illustrated that a diet high in fat increases the number of bacteria belonging to the phylum Bacteroidetes and decreases the number belonging to the Firmicutes in children's guts, and also theorized that diet quality is related to gut size.
+The same study also found that gut size has also seen coevolution alongside brain size, partly because the brain and the gut are both among the most energetically costly organs in vertebrate bodies. Based on the expensive tissue hypothesis, the higher energy expenditure of vertebrates with larger brains is balanced by a corresponding decrease in the energy consumed by other energetically costly organs, e.g. the gut. Some evidence also suggests that vertebrates with large brains have evolved to balance out the energetic expenditure by trading off with gut size. For example, researchers have found a negative correlation between brain size and gut size in guppies as well as the Omei wood frog. Gut microbiota respond to diet quality in a way that influences the metabolism of the host. For instance, improving energy yield in the host by increasing the efficiency of certain metabolic pathways is one of the main processes that drives the trade-off between brain size and gut size. This process is also correlated with the ETH hypothesis because brain size increases when energy input is at a high level due to consumption of high-energy diets and the overall increase in constant energy input. However, after several investigations, the study did not find strong evidence to support the notion that brain size is negatively correlated with gut microbiota in vertebrates.
+A similar study was done by Tsuboi et al., showing clear evidence that brain size is correlated with gut size by controlling the effects of shared ancestral and ecological confounding variables. The study found that the evolution of a larger brain is closely related to an increase in reproductive investment in egg size and parental size. The result of the experiment concluded that the energy cost of encephalization might have played a role in the evolution of brain size in both endothermic as well as ectothermic vertebrates. For example, the study found that homeothermic vertebrates such as the elephantnose fish Gnathonemus petersii have a large brain and a smaller intestine and stomach size, which suggests that energy constraints on brain size are found in highly encephalized tropical species. Additionally, the study found that the evolution of brain size is associated with an increase in egg size and can lead to an extended period of parental care, and that the energetic constraints of encephalization are also applicable to homeothermic vertebrates. Despite this evidence, however, most of the study was done on live-bearing and egg-bearing species within the Chondrichthyes, and cannot necessarily be generalized across all homeothermic and ectothermic vertebrates.
+Further studies did show that there is definitely a positive correlation between brain mass residuals and BMS residuals in mammals, but the relationship is only significant in primates. When considering the expensive tissue hypothesis, one also needs to consider how energy trade-off hypotheses affect the rest of the body, too. Animals might escape energetic constraints by reducing the size of other expensive tissues in the body or by reducing energy allocation to expensive processes such as locomotion or reproduction.
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization-0.md
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+---
+title: "Extremal optimization"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:38.266316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Extremal optimization (EO) is an optimization heuristic inspired by the Bak–Sneppen model of self-organized criticality from the field of statistical physics. This heuristic was designed initially to address combinatorial optimization problems such as the travelling salesman problem and spin glasses, although the technique has been demonstrated to function in optimization domains.
+
+== Relation to self-organized criticality ==
+Self-organized criticality (SOC) is a statistical physics concept to describe a class of dynamical systems that have a critical point as an attractor. Specifically, these are non-equilibrium systems that evolve through avalanches of change and dissipations that reach up to the highest scales of the system. SOC is said to govern the dynamics behind some natural systems that have these burst-like phenomena including landscape formation, earthquakes, evolution, and the granular dynamics of rice and sand piles. Of special interest here is the Bak–Sneppen model of SOC, which is able to describe evolution via punctuated equilibrium (extinction events) – thus modelling evolution as a self-organised critical process.
+
+== Relation to computational complexity ==
+Another piece in the puzzle is work on computational complexity, specifically that critical points have been shown to exist in NP-complete problems, where near-optimum solutions are widely dispersed and separated by barriers in the search space causing local search algorithms to get stuck or severely hampered. It was the evolutionary self-organised criticality model by Bak and Sneppen and the observation of critical points in combinatorial optimisation problems that lead to the development of Extremal Optimization by Stefan Boettcher and Allon Percus.
+
+== The technique ==
+EO was designed as a  local search  algorithm for combinatorial optimization problems. Unlike genetic algorithms, which work with a population of candidate solutions, EO evolves a single solution and makes local modifications to the worst components. This requires that a suitable representation be selected which permits individual solution components to be assigned a quality measure ("fitness"). This differs from holistic approaches such as ant colony optimization and evolutionary computation that assign equal-fitness to all components of a solution based upon their collective evaluation against an objective function. The algorithm is initialized with an initial solution, which can be constructed randomly, or derived from another search process.
+The technique is a fine-grained search, and superficially resembles a hill climbing (local search) technique. A more detailed examination reveals some interesting principles, which may have applicability and even some similarity to broader population-based approaches (evolutionary computation and artificial immune system). The governing principle behind this algorithm is that of improvement through selectively removing low-quality components and replacing them with a randomly selected component. This is obviously at odds with genetic algorithms, the quintessential evolutionary computation algorithm that selects good solutions in an attempt to make better solutions.
+The resulting dynamics of this simple principle is firstly a robust hill climbing search behaviour, and secondly a diversity mechanism that resembles that of multiple-restart search. Graphing holistic solution quality over time (algorithm iterations) shows periods of improvement followed by quality crashes (avalanche) very much in the manner as described by punctuated equilibrium. It is these crashes or dramatic jumps in the search space that permit the algorithm to escape local optima and differentiate this approach from other local search procedures. Although such punctuated-equilibrium behaviour can be "designed" or "hard-coded", it should be stressed that this is an emergent effect of the negative-component-selection principle fundamental to the algorithm.
+EO has primarily been applied to combinatorial problems such as graph partitioning and the travelling salesman problem, as well as problems from statistical physics such as spin glasses.
+
+== Variations on the theme and applications ==
+Generalised extremal optimization (GEO) was developed to operate on bit strings where component quality is determined by the absolute rate of change of the bit, or the bits contribution to holistic solution quality. This work includes application to standard function optimisation problems as well as engineering problem domains. Another similar extension to EO is Continuous Extremal Optimization (CEO).
+EO has been applied to image rasterization as well as used as a local search after using ant colony optimization. EO has been used to identify structures in complex networks. EO has been used on a multiple target tracking problem. Finally, some work has been done on investigating the probability distribution used to control selection.
+
+== See also ==
+Genetic algorithm
+Simulated annealing
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+---
+title: "Extremal optimization"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:38.266316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== References ==
+Bak, Per; Tang, Chao; Wiesenfeld, Kurt (1987-07-27). "Self-organized criticality: An explanation of the 1/fnoise". Physical Review Letters. 59 (4). American Physical Society (APS): 381–384. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..59..381B. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.59.381. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10035754. S2CID 7674321.
+Bak, Per; Sneppen, Kim (1993-12-13). "Punctuated equilibrium and criticality in a simple model of evolution". Physical Review Letters. 71 (24). American Physical Society (APS): 4083–4086. Bibcode:1993PhRvL..71.4083B. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.71.4083. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10055149.
+P Cheeseman, B Kanefsky, WM Taylor, "Where the really hard problems are", Proceedings of the 12th IJCAI, (1991)
+G Istrate, "Computational complexity and phase transitions", Proceedings. 15th Annual IEEE Conference on Computational Complexity, 104–115 (2000)
+Stefan Boettcher, Allon G. Percus, "Extremal Optimization: Methods derived from Co-Evolution", Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (1999)
+Boettcher, Stefan (1999-01-01). "Extremal optimization of graph partitioning at the percolation threshold". Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General. 32 (28). IOP Publishing: 5201–5211. arXiv:cond-mat/9901353. Bibcode:1999JPhA...32.5201B. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/32/28/302. ISSN 0305-4470. S2CID 7925735.
+Boettcher, Stefan; Percus, Allon (2000), "Nature's way of optimizing", Artificial Intelligence, 119 (1–2): 275–286, arXiv:cond-mat/9901351, doi:10.1016/S0004-3702(00)00007-2, S2CID 7128022
+Boettcher, S. (2000). "Extremal optimization: heuristics via coevolutionary avalanches". Computing in Science & Engineering. 2 (6). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 75–82. arXiv:cond-mat/0006374. Bibcode:2000CSE.....2f..75B. doi:10.1109/5992.881710. ISSN 1521-9615. S2CID 7259036.
+Boettcher, Stefan; Percus, Allon G. (2001-06-04). "Optimization with Extremal Dynamics". Physical Review Letters. 86 (23). American Physical Society (APS): 5211–5214. arXiv:cond-mat/0010337. Bibcode:2001PhRvL..86.5211B. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.86.5211. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 11384460. S2CID 3261749.
+Dall, Jesper; Sibani, Paolo (2001). "Faster Monte Carlo simulations at low temperatures. The waiting time method". Computer Physics Communications. 141 (2): 260–267. arXiv:cond-mat/0107475. Bibcode:2001CoPhC.141..260D. doi:10.1016/s0010-4655(01)00412-x. ISSN 0010-4655. S2CID 14585624.
+Boettcher, Stefan; Grigni, Michelangelo (2002-01-28). "Jamming model for the extremal optimization heuristic". Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General. 35 (5). IOP Publishing: 1109–1123. arXiv:cond-mat/0110165. Bibcode:2002JPhA...35.1109B. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/35/5/301. ISSN 0305-4470. S2CID 640976.
+Souham Meshoul and Mohamed Batouche, "Robust Point Correspondence for Image Registration Using Optimization with Extremal Dynamics", Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2449, 330–337 (2002)
+Onody, Roberto N.; De Castro, Paulo A. (2003). "Self-Organized Criticality, Optimization and Biodiversity". International Journal of Modern Physics C. 14 (7). World Scientific Pub Co Pte Lt: 911–916. arXiv:cond-mat/0302260. Bibcode:2003IJMPC..14..911O. doi:10.1142/s0129183103005054. ISSN 0129-1831. S2CID 14553130.
+Boettcher, Stefan; Percus, Allon G. (2004-06-24). "Extremal optimization at the phase transition of the three-coloring problem". Physical Review E. 69 (6) 066703. American Physical Society (APS). arXiv:cond-mat/0402282. Bibcode:2004PhRvE..69f6703B. doi:10.1103/physreve.69.066703. ISSN 1539-3755. PMID 15244779. S2CID 3070942.
+Middleton, A. Alan (2004-05-14). "Improved extremal optimization for the Ising spin glass". Physical Review E. 69 (5) 055701. American Physical Society (APS): 055701(R). arXiv:cond-mat/0402295. Bibcode:2004PhRvE..69e5701M. doi:10.1103/physreve.69.055701. ISSN 1539-3755. PMID 15244875. S2CID 28439352.
+Heilmann, F; Hoffmann, K. H; Salamon, P (2004). "Best possible probability distribution over extremal optimization ranks". Europhysics Letters. 66 (3). IOP Publishing: 305–310. Bibcode:2004EL.....66..305H. doi:10.1209/epl/i2004-10011-3. ISSN 0295-5075. S2CID 250810936.
+[1]  Pontus Svenson, "Extremal optimization for sensor report pre-processing", Proc SPIE  5429, 162–171 (2004)
+Zhou, Tao; Bai, Wen-Jie; Cheng, Long-Jiu; Wang, Bing-Hong (2005-07-06). "Continuous extremal optimization for Lennard-Jones clusters". Physical Review E. 72 (1) 016702. American Physical Society (APS). arXiv:cond-mat/0411428. Bibcode:2005PhRvE..72a6702Z. doi:10.1103/physreve.72.016702. ISSN 1539-3755. PMID 16090129. S2CID 26578844.
+Duch, Jordi; Arenas, Alex (2005-08-24). "Community detection in complex networks using extremal optimization". Physical Review E. 72 (2) 027104. American Physical Society (APS). arXiv:cond-mat/0501368. Bibcode:2005PhRvE..72b7104D. doi:10.1103/physreve.72.027104. ISSN 1539-3755. PMID 16196754. S2CID 13898113.
+Ahmed, E.; Elettreby, M.F. (2006). "On combinatorial optimization motivated by biology". Applied Mathematics and Computation. 172 (1). Elsevier BV: 40–48. doi:10.1016/j.amc.2005.01.122. ISSN 0096-3003.
+
+== External links ==
+Stefan Boettcher – Physics Department, Emory University
+Allon Percus – Claremont Graduate University
+Global Optimization Algorithms – Theory and Application – Archived 2008-09-11 at the Wayback Machine – Thomas Weise
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+---
+title: "Familiarity heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familiarity_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:39.450812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In psychology, a heuristic is an easy-to-compute procedure or rule of thumb that people use when forming beliefs, judgments or decisions. The familiarity heuristic was developed based on the discovery of the availability heuristic by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman; it happens when the familiar is favored over novel places, people, or things. The familiarity heuristic can be applied to various situations that individuals experience in day-to-day life. When these situations appear similar to previous situations, especially if the individuals are experiencing a high cognitive load, they may regress to the state of mind in which they have felt or behaved before. This heuristic is useful in most situations and can be applied to many fields of knowledge; however, there are both positives and negatives to this heuristic as well.
+
+
+== Origin ==
+
+
+=== Availability heuristic ===
+The familiarity heuristic stems from the availability heuristic, which was studied by Tversky and Kahneman. The availability heuristic suggests that the likelihood of events is estimated based on how many examples of such events come to mind. Thus the familiarity heuristic shows how "bias of availability is related to the ease of recall."
+Tversky and Kahneman created an experiment in order to test this heuristic. They devised four lists of 39 names. Each list contained 19 female names and 20 male names. Half of the lists had famous female names, and the other half had famous male names. They showed the lists to two test groups. The first group was shown a list and asked to recall as many names as possible. The second group was shown a list and asked to determine if there were more female or more male names. The subjects who heard the list with famous female names said there were more female names than there were male names. Similarly, the subjects who heard the list with famous male names recalled more male names than female names. Thus the familiarity heuristic is defined as "judging events as more frequent or important because they are more familiar in memory."
+The familiarity heuristic is based on using schemas or past actions as a scaffold for behavior in a new (yet familiar) situation. This is useful because it saves time for the subject who is trying to figure out the appropriate behavior for a situation they have experienced before. Individuals automatically assume that their previous behavior will yield the same results when a similar situation arises. This technique is typically useful. However, certain behaviors can be inappropriate when the situation is different from the time before.
+
+
+=== Hindsight bias ===
+The hindsight bias is the inclination to see events that have already occurred as being more predictable than they were before they took place. For example, after a situation occurs for the first time, you begin to notice it when it reoccurs and therefore because you have now experienced it, it's more readily available in your consciousness and you pull information and predict aspects of the future because of this and think that you "knew it all along." "Hindsight bias results from a biased reconstruction of the original memory trace, using the outcome as a cue"  Hindsight bias can alter memories and therefore future predictions.
+
+
+== Important research ==
+Recent studies have used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to demonstrate that people use different areas of the brain when reasoning about familiar and unfamiliar situations. This holds true over different kinds of reasoning problems. Familiar situations are processed in a system involving the frontal and temporal lobes whereas unfamiliar situations are processed in the frontal and parietal lobes. These two similar but dissociated processes provide a biological explanation for the differences between heuristic reasoning and formal logic.
+
+
+=== Warm glow heuristic ===
+Corneille, Monin & Pleyers (2004) showed that familiarity of human faces is based on attractiveness. In this study the researchers showed their subjects pictures of faces. The subjects were asked to rate how familiar the face was or was not using visual cues. The visual cues were choosing a picture of a butterfly (attractive) when the subject thought the face was familiar, and choosing a picture of a rat (unattractive) when the subject did not find the face familiar. The result of this study was that the subjects were more familiar when the face was attractive regardless of prior exposure to the picture (or person) itself. This has been referred to as the warm glow effect (Monin 2003). The warm glow effect states that positive stimuli seem more familiar because of the positive emotions they evoke in us.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+The familiarity heuristic increases the likelihood that customers will repeatedly buy products of the same brand. This concept is known as brand familiarity in consumer behavior. Due to the familiarity heuristic, the customers have the rule of thumb that their past behavior of buying this specific brand's product was most likely correct and should be repeated. A study examining the choice of various models of microwave ovens based on the subjects' familiarity with them showed that high familiarity with the features of microwave ovens allowed for a faster and more confident choice.
+This effect can also have important implications for medical decision making. Lay people tend to make health decisions that are based on familiarity and availability as opposed to factual knowledge about diseases. This means that they are more likely to take actions and pursue treatment options that have worked in the past, whether they are effective in the current situation or not. This also extends to treatments the patient has not used before but is familiar with. For example, a lay person may request a name-brand medication because they have heard of it before, even though a generic drug may be essentially the same but less expensive. Medical professionals are much more likely to use scientific facts to prescribe treatments.
+
+
+== Current criticisms ==
+There is some criticism of the concept of familiarity heuristic. It mainly focuses on the point that past behavior does influence present behavior but that this inherits from other, and differing contrivances. One study examining multiple possible mechanisms of how previous behavior influences the present found little support for the familiarity heuristic and tends to conclude instead that the influence of past behavior on a present one decreased when subjects were distracted. However, in order for a heuristic to be valid, its effect should be more prevalent when individuals are distracted and their cognitive capacity is highly strained. This result indicates that it is unlikely that a familiarity heuristic was applied during the experiment.
+Another limit of familiarity heuristic according to a study by Ouellette & Wood (1998) is that it might not always be applicable. This study showed that the familiarity heuristic might only occur in situations where the target behavior is habitual and occurs in a stable context within the situation. Thus, the familiarity heuristic could be limited to habits and behaviors in routine situations.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Thin-slicing
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Farrer hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:32.347575+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Farrer hypothesis (also called the L/M hypothesis, the Farrer–Goulder hypothesis and the Farrer–Goulder–Goodacre hypothesis) is a possible solution to the synoptic problem. The theory is that the Gospel of Mark was written first, followed by the Gospel of Matthew and then by the Gospel of Luke, with Matthew and Luke using the earlier gospel(s) as sources.
+It has mainly been advocated by English biblical scholars, and is growing in support within scholarship. It is named for Austin Farrer, who wrote On Dispensing With Q in 1955, but it has been picked up by other scholars including Michael Goulder and Mark Goodacre.
+
+== Overview ==
+The Farrer theory has the advantage of simplicity, as there is no need for hypothetical sources. Instead, advocates of the Farrer theory argue the Gospel of Mark was used as source material by the author of Matthew. Lastly, Luke used both of the previous gospels as sources for his Gospel. The hypothesis is enjoying growing popularity in scholarship.
+Farrer set out his argument in an essay "On dispensing with Q". He says that the two-source hypothesis, as set out by B. H. Streeter thirty years earlier, "wholly depends on the incredibility [i.e., unbelievability] of St Luke having read St Matthew's book", since otherwise the natural assumption would be that one was dependent on the other, rather than that they were both dependent on a further source.
+This assumption could be displaced by, for example, identifying material appearing in both Matthew and Luke that was very different from either of them, which, when extracted, appears to be a work in its own right, with a beginning, middle and end. Neither of these factors are found in Q, as reconstructed by scholars. He also says (writing before the publication of the Gospel of Thomas) that "we have no reason to believe that documents of the Q type were plentiful", which would have made the hypothesis that Matthew and Luke drew on one more likely.
+Nor is it obvious, Farrer says, that a book like Q was likely to be produced as a written manual of the teaching of Christ, since the reconstruction of it requires it to also have significant narrative elements interspersed with the teaching, and to have an interest in symbolism from the Old Testament.
+
+== Arguments for and against ==
+
+=== Arguments for ===
+In his 1955 paper On Dispensing with Q, Austin Farrer made the case that if Luke had been acquainted with the gospel of Matthew, there would be no need to postulate a lost Q gospel. Farrer's case rested on the following points:
+
+The Q hypothesis was formed to answer the question of where Matthew and Luke got their common material if they did not know of each other's gospels. But if Luke had read Matthew, the question that Q answers does not arise.
+We have no evidence from early Christian writings that anything like Q ever existed.
+When scholars have attempted to reconstruct Q from the common elements of Matthew and Luke, the result does not look like a gospel.
+Although many scholars originally thought of Q as a sayings gospel, a collection of teachings with no narrative content, all alleged reconstructions of Q from the common parts of Matthew and Luke include narrative about John the Baptist, Jesus' baptism and temptation in the wilderness, and his healing of a centurion's servant.
+However, they don't include an account of Jesus' death and resurrection.
+But from the earliest Christian writings, we see a strong emphasis on precisely the element that a putative Q omits, Jesus' death and resurrection.
+Some scholars have attempted to overcome problems with Q reconstructions by claiming we cannot know the actual contents of the Q gospel. However, postulating Luke's acquaintance with the gospel of Matthew overcomes these same problems and gives the source for the common material.
+The most notable argument for the Farrer hypothesis is that there are many passages where the text of Matthew and Luke agree in making small changes to that of Mark (what is called the double tradition). This would follow naturally if Luke was using Matthew and Mark, but is hard to explain if he is using Mark and Q. Streeter divides these into six groups and finds separate hypotheses for each.
+Farrer says of Streeter's grouping that "[h]is argument finds its strength in the fewness of the instances for which any one hypothesis needs to be invoked; but the opposing counsel will unkindly point out that the diminution of the instances for each hypothesis is in exact proportion to the multiplication of the hypotheses themselves. One cannot say that Dr. Streeter's plea is incapable of being sustained, but one must concede that it is a plea against apparent evidence".
+Goodacre puts forth an additional argument from fatigue, meaning cases where a derivative passage begins to make changes to its source but fails to sustain them and lapses back into the original version. For example, the parable of the talents is more coherent in Matthew, but less so in Luke, who attempted to increase the number of servants from three to ten. The several instances where this is observed point to Luke using Matthew rather than contrariwise.
+
+=== Streeter's arguments against and Farrer's responses ===
+Five arguments are given by Streeter for the impossibility of Luke relying on Matthew.
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+title: "Farrer hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:32.347575+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The first is that he would not have omitted some of the Matthean texts that he did because they are so striking. Farrer replies that they were omitted because they do not conform to the 'edifice' that Luke is building.
+The second is that Luke sometimes preserves a more primitive version of a text that is also in Matthew. Farrer replies that this depends on being able to identify the more primitive text; for example, "Blessed are the poor in spirit" suits Matthew's theology, but it would be natural for Luke to drop the "in spirit" to fit his concern with the poor.
+The third is that Luke follows Mark's order but does not do the same with Matthew. Farrer asks, in reply, why he should: "Is it surprising that he should lay his plan on Marcan foundations, and quarry St. Matthew for materials to build up his house?"
+The fourth is that Luke uses the material less well than Matthew. Farrer replies that this may be so, but he would not be the first adapter to have produced a less skilful result, the only issue was whether it would suit Luke's message better to have the material arranged in this way.
+The final argument is that Luke does not use the material within the same Marcan paragraphs as Matthew. Farrer points out that he takes them out of a Marcan context and reproduces them elsewhere. In chapters 10–18, Luke reassembles the teaching material in a way which makes the points that he wants to make, often by pairing sayings that have not been paired together before. This may have been to produce a Christian Deuteronomy, just as it was argued that Matthew's gospel was in the form of a Christian Pentateuch.
+
+== See also ==
+Markan priority
+Wilke hypothesis
+Griesbach hypothesis
+Four-document hypothesis
+Gospel of Marcion
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+On Dispensing With Q by Austin Farrer
+The Case Against Q web site by Mark Goodacre
+The Synoptic Problem and the Non-existence of Q, by Evan Powell
+Matthew Conflator (Wilke) Hypothesis, by Alan Garrow
+Overview of proposed solutions by Stephen C. Carlson
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+---
+title: "Fast-and-frugal trees"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:40.653304+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fast-and-frugal tree or matching heuristic (in the study of decision-making) is a simple graphical structure that categorizes objects by asking one question at a time. These decision trees are used in a range of fields: psychology, artificial intelligence, and management science. Unlike other decision or classification trees, such as Leo Breiman's CART, fast-and-frugal trees are intentionally simple, both in their construction as well as their execution, and operate speedily with little information. For this reason, fast-and-frugal-trees are potentially attractive when designing resource-constrained tasks.      
+Laura Martignon, Vitouch, Takezawa and Forster first introduced both the concept and the term in 2003; similar heuristics for other tasks had been used before, building on the formal models created by Gerd Gigerenzer and Herbert A. Simon.       
+In categorization tasks with two options and m cues—also known as features or attributes—available for making such a decision, an FFT is defined as follows: 
+A fast-and-frugal tree is a classification or a decision tree that has m+1 exits, with one exit for each of the first m −1 cues and two exits for the last cue.
+Mathematically, fast-and-frugal trees can be viewed as lexicographic heuristics or as linear classification models with non-compensatory weights and a threshold.[MKW] Their formal properties and construction have also been analyzed using signal detection theory by Luan, Schooler and Gigerenzer in 2011.[LSG]
+
+== Basic organization ==
+
+=== Construction ===
+The basic elements are the cues. The cues are ranked, with one cue at each level of the tree and an exit node at each level (except for two exit nodes for the last cue at the last level of the tree). Whenever a cue is used, a question is asked about the value of the cue. The answers to the questions might immediately lead to an exit, or they might lead to a further question (and eventually to an exit). A characteristic property of fast-and-frugal trees is that, for each question, there is at least one possible answer that leads to an exit. 
+In the literature on fast-and-frugal trees, many different algorithms have been proposed[MKW][LSG] for (1) ordering cues and (2) deciding which possible answer to a question about a cue leads immediately to an exit. A fast-and-frugal tree is fully defined if both the following conditions are met. Often, in order to keep construction simple and intuitive, the algorithms use (1) simple measures of cue "goodness" (e.g., correlation between cue and category, considering each cue independently of the other cues) and (2) make simple choices about exits (e.g., decide on each exit independently of the other exits), but more complex algorithms have been proposed as well.       
+
+=== Execution ===
+To use a fast-and-frugal tree, begin at the root and check one cue at a time.  At each step, one of the possible outcomes is an exit node which allows for a decision (or action)—if an exit is reached, stop; otherwise, continue until an exit is reached. Take an exit, stop; otherwise, continue and ask more questions until an exit is reached.
+
+Figure 1 illustrates a fast-and-frugal tree for classifying a patient as "high risk" of having a heart stroke and thus having to be sent to the "coronary care unit" or as "low risk" and thus having to be sent to a "regular nursing bed" (Green & Mehr, 1997).[GM]
+Consider three patients, John, Mary, and Jack: 
+
+John has ST segment changes thus is classified as "high risk" and sent to the coronary care unit without considering other cues.
+Mary has no ST segment changes, does have chest pain as her chief complaint, but does not have any of the remaining five factors, thus is classified as "low risk" and sent to a regular nursing bed, after all three cues are checked.
+Jack has no ST segment change and does not have chest pain as his chief complaint, thus is classified as "low risk" and sent to a regular nursing bed, by considering these two cues.
+
+=== Performance ===
+The accuracy and robustness of fast-and-frugal trees has been shown to be comparable to that of Bayesian benchmarks in studies by Laskey and Martignon (2014).[LM] Extensive studies comparing the performance of fast-and-frugal trees to that of classification algorithms used in statistics and machine learning, such as naive Bayes, CART, random forests, and logistic regression, have also been carried out by using dozens of real-world datasets.[WHM][MKW]
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+title: "Fast-and-frugal trees"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:40.653304+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Signal detection analysis ===
+Fast-and-frugal trees are used to perform binary classifications or decisions. In psychology, medicine, and other fields, signal detection theory (or detection theory) has been the classic theory under which such tasks are analyzed.
+The theory assumes that there are two categories of events or people (e.g., people with and without heart problems), of which the category more relevant to us is referred as "signal" while the other is referred to as "noise". The two differ in their distribution on an observation scale that we may call "evidence", with the signal distribution having a higher mean. One can make two possible classifications, namely "signal" or "noise", upon gathering the evidence. This leads to four possible outcomes: hit (classify as "signal" when it is indeed a signal), correct rejection (classify as "noise" when it is indeed a noise), miss (classify as "noise" when it is actually a signal), and false alarm (classify as "signal" when it is actually a noise). To maximize overall accuracy or the expected value of a classification, the theory posits that we need to carefully select the classification criterion on the evidence scale, above which we make a "signal" decision and below which "noise". Specially, when the cost of a miss is very high (i.e., classifying a patient with heart problem as normal), a lower, more "liberal" criterion (i.e., toward the left in the evidence scale) needs to be selected, whereas when the cost of a false alarm is very high (e.g., classifying an innocent person as guilty of a murder), a higher, more "conservative" criterion will be better. This implies that a good decision-maker needs to be properly biased in most real-world situations; this is the most critical and relevant insight from signal detection theory on classification and decision making. 
+
+In 2011, Luan, Schooler, and Gigerenzer analyzed characteristics of fast-and-frugal trees from the perspective of signal detection theory. There are several key findings from this analysis. First, the choice of the exit structure of a fast-and-frugal tree corresponds to the setting of the decision criterion in signal detection. In a nutshell, the earlier a "signal exit" appears in a fast-and-frugal tree, the more liberally biased is the tree. The relative biases of two fast-and-frugal trees are determined by the first exit in which the two differ, with the one having the "signal exit" – denoted by "s" – always being more liberal as the one having the "noise exit" – denoted by "n" (Figure 2). For example, an FFTsnnn (here again s = "Signal exit", n = "noise exit")  is more liberally biased than an FFTnsss. This principle is referred to as the "lexicographic decision bias" of fast-and-frugal trees. 
+Second, a series of simulations show that fast-and-frugal trees with different exit structures will lead to different—sometimes drastically different—expected value of a decision when the consequences of a miss and a false alarm differ. Therefore, when constructing and applying a fast-and-frugal tree, one needs to choose an exit structure that matches well the decision payoff structure of a task. 
+Third, the overall sensitivity of a fast-and-frugal tree—that is, how well the tree can discriminate a signal from a noise and which can be measured by d' or A' from signal detection theory—is affected by properties of the cues that make up the tree, such as the mean and variance of the cues' sensitivities and the inter-cue correlations among the cues, but not much by the exit structure of the tree. 
+And finally, the performance of fast-and-frugal trees is robust and comparable to much more sophisticated decision algorithms developed in signal detection theory, including the ideal observer analysis model and the optimal sequential sampling model. In the context of out-of-sample predictions, fast-and-frugal trees perform the best relative to other models when the learning sample size is relatively small (e.g., less than 80 trials). 
+
+== Computing support ==
+In 2017, Phillips, Neth, Woike and Gaissmaier[PNWG] introduced the R package FFTrees, hosted on CRAN (with an accompanying app), which constructs, depicts graphically, and evaluates quantitatively fast and frugal trees in user-friendly ways.
+
+== More examples ==
+There have been many applications of fast-and-frugal trees in both prescribing how a decision should be made and describing how people actually make decisions. Beyond the medical field, an example of their prescriptive applications is instructing soldiers stationed in Afghanistan how to distinguish whether a car approaching a check-point is driven by civilians or potential suicide bombers;[KK] the tree is illustrated in Figure 3. Two examples of fast-and-frugal trees' descriptive uses are shown in Figure 4. The trees on the left and right describe, respectively, how a person decides whether to forgive another person for an offense the latter committed during social interactions[TLK] and how British judges make a bail-or-jail decision.[D] In general, fast-and-frugal trees can be applied to help or model any binary decision-making processes that involve multiple cues.
+
+== Related articles and other sources ==
+
+== References ==
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+title: "First observation of gravitational waves"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:16.701964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The first direct observation of gravitational waves was made on 14 September 2015 and was announced by the LIGO and Virgo collaborations on 11 February 2016. Previously, gravitational waves had been inferred only indirectly, via their effect on the timing of pulsars in binary star systems. The waveform, detected by both LIGO observatories, matched the predictions of general relativity for a gravitational wave emanating from the inward spiral and merger of two black holes (of 36 M☉ and 29 M☉) and the subsequent ringdown of a single, 62 M☉ black hole remnant. The signal was named GW150914 (from gravitational wave and the date of observation 2015-09-14). It was also the first observation of a binary black hole merger, demonstrating both the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems and the fact that such mergers could occur within the current age of the universe.
+This first direct observation was reported around the world as a remarkable accomplishment for many reasons. Efforts to directly prove the existence of such waves had been ongoing for over fifty years, and the waves are so minuscule that Albert Einstein himself doubted that they could ever be detected. The waves given off by the cataclysmic merger of GW150914 reached Earth as a ripple in spacetime that changed the length of a 1,120 km LIGO effective span by a thousandth of the width of a proton, proportionally equivalent to changing the distance to the nearest star outside the Solar System by one hair's width. The energy released by the binary as it spiralled together and merged was immense, with the energy of 3.0+0.5−0.5 c2 M☉ (5.3+0.9−0.8×1047 joules or 5300+900−800 foes) in total radiated as gravitational waves, reaching a peak emission rate in its final few milliseconds of about 3.6+0.5−0.4×1049 watts – a level greater than the combined power of all light radiated by all the stars in the observable universe.
+The observation confirmed the last remaining directly undetected prediction of general relativity and corroborated its predictions of space-time distortion in the context of large scale cosmic events (known as strong field tests). It was heralded as inaugurating a new era of gravitational-wave astronomy, which enables observations of violent astrophysical events that were not previously possible and allows for the direct observation of the earliest history of the universe. On 15 June 2016, two more detections of gravitational waves, made in late 2015, were announced. Eight more observations were made in 2017, including GW170817, the first observed merger of binary neutron stars, which was also observed in electromagnetic radiation.
+
+== Gravitational waves ==
+
+Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916, on the basis of his theory of general relativity. General relativity interprets gravity as a consequence of distortions in spacetime caused by the presence of mass, and further entails that certain movements or acceleration of these masses will cause distortions – or "ripples" – in spacetime which spread outward from the source at the speed of light. Einstein considered this mostly a curiosity, since he understood that these ripples would be far too minuscule to detect using any technology foreseen at that time. As a further consequence following from the conservation of energy, the energy radiated away by gravitational waves from a system of two objects in mutual orbit would cause them to slowly spiral inwards, although again, this effect would be extremely minute and thus challenging to observe.
+One case where gravitational waves would be strongest is during the final moments of the merger of two compact objects such as neutron stars or black holes. Over a span of millions of years, binary neutron stars, and binary black holes lose energy, largely through gravitational waves, and as a result, they spiral in towards each other. At the very end of this process, the two objects will reach extreme velocities, and in the final fraction of a second of their merger a substantial amount of their mass would theoretically be converted into gravitational energy, and travel outward as gravitational waves, allowing a greater than usual chance for detection. However, since little was known about the number of compact binaries in the universe and reaching that final stage can be very slow, there was little certainty as to how often such events might happen.
+
+=== Observation ===
+
+Gravitational waves can be detected indirectly – by observing celestial phenomena caused by gravitational waves – or more directly by means of instruments such as the Earth-based LIGO or the planned space-based LISA instrument.
+
+==== Indirect observation ====
+Evidence of gravitational waves was first deduced in 1974 through the motion of the double neutron star system PSR B1913+16, in which one of the stars is a pulsar that emits electro-magnetic pulses at radio frequencies at precise, regular intervals as it rotates. Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor, who discovered the stars, also showed that over time, the frequency of pulses shortened, and that the stars were gradually spiralling towards each other with an energy loss that agreed closely with the predicted energy that would be radiated by gravitational waves. For this work, Hulse and Taylor were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1993. Further observations of this pulsar and others in multiple systems (such as the double pulsar system PSR J0737-3039) also agree with general relativity to high precision.
+
+==== Direct observation ====
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+title: "First observation of gravitational waves"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:16.701964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Direct observation of gravitational waves was not possible for many decades following their prediction, due to the minuscule effect that would need to be detected and separated from the background of vibrations present everywhere on Earth. A technique called interferometry was suggested in the 1960s and eventually technology developed sufficiently for this technique to become feasible.
+In the present approach used by LIGO, a laser beam is split and the two halves are recombined after traveling different paths. Changes to the length of the paths or the time taken for the two split beams, caused by the effect of passing gravitational waves, to reach the point where they recombine are revealed as "beats". Such a technique is extremely sensitive to tiny changes in the distance or time taken to traverse the two paths. In theory, an interferometer with arms about 4 km long would be capable of revealing the change of space-time – a tiny fraction of the size of a single proton – as a gravitational wave of sufficient strength passed through Earth from elsewhere. This effect would be perceptible only to other interferometers of a similar size, such as the Virgo, GEO 600 and planned KAGRA and INDIGO detectors. In practice at least two interferometers would be needed because any gravitational wave would be detected at both of these, but other kinds of disturbances would generally not be present at both. This technique allows the sought-after signal to be distinguished from noise. This project was eventually founded in 1992 as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO). The original instruments were upgraded between 2010 and 2015 (to Advanced LIGO), giving an increase of around 10 times their original sensitivity.
+LIGO operates two gravitational-wave observatories in unison, located 3,002 km (1,865 mi) apart: the LIGO Livingston Observatory (30°33′46.42″N 90°46′27.27″W) in Livingston, Louisiana, and the LIGO Hanford Observatory, on the DOE Hanford Site (46°27′18.52″N 119°24′27.56″W) near Richland, Washington. The tiny shifts in the length of their arms are continually compared and significant patterns which appear to arise synchronously are followed up to determine whether a gravitational wave may have been detected or if some other cause was responsible.
+Initial LIGO operations between 2002 and 2010 did not detect any statistically significant events that could be confirmed as gravitational waves. This was followed by a multi-year shut-down while the detectors were replaced by much improved "Advanced LIGO" versions.  In February 2015, the two advanced detectors were brought into engineering mode, in which the instruments are operating fully for the purpose of testing and confirming they are functioning correctly before being used for research, with formal science observations due to begin on 18 September 2015.
+Throughout the development and initial observations by LIGO, several "blind injections" of fake gravitational wave signals were introduced to test the ability of the researchers to identify such signals. To protect the efficacy of blind injections, only four LIGO scientists knew when such injections occurred, and that information was revealed only after a signal had been thoroughly analyzed by researchers. On 14 September 2015, while LIGO was running in engineering mode but without any blind data injections, the instrument reported a possible gravitational wave detection. The detected event was given the name GW150914.
+
+== GW150914 event ==
+
+=== Event detection ===
+GW150914 was detected by the LIGO detectors in Hanford, Washington, and Livingston, Louisiana, at 9:50:45 UTC on 14 September 2015. The LIGO detectors were operating in "engineering mode", meaning that they were operating fully but had not yet begun a formal "research" phase (which was due to commence three days later on 18 September), so initially there was a question as to whether the signals had been real detections or simulated data for testing purposes before it was ascertained that they were not tests.
+The chirp signal lasted over 0.2 seconds, and increased in frequency and amplitude in about 8 cycles from 35 Hz to 250 Hz. The signal is in the audible range and has been described as resembling the "chirp" of a bird; astrophysicists and other interested parties the world over excitedly responded by imitating the signal on social media upon the announcement of the discovery. (The frequency increases because each orbit is noticeably faster than the one before during the final moments before merging.)
+The trigger that indicated a possible detection was reported within three minutes of acquisition of the signal, using rapid ('online') search methods that provide a quick, initial analysis of the data from the detectors. After the initial automatic alert at 9:54 UTC, a sequence of internal emails confirmed that no scheduled or unscheduled injections had been made, and that the data looked clean. After this, the rest of the collaborating team was quickly made aware of the tentative detection and its parameters.
+More detailed statistical analysis of the signal, and of 16 days of surrounding data from 12 September to 20 October 2015, identified GW150914 as a real event, with an estimated significance of at least 5.1 sigma or a confidence level of 99.99994%. Corresponding wave peaks were seen at Livingston seven milliseconds before they arrived at Hanford. Gravitational waves propagate at the speed of light, and the disparity is consistent with the light travel time between the two sites. The waves had traveled at the speed of light for more than a billion years.
+At the time of the event, the Virgo gravitational wave detector (near Pisa, Italy) was offline and undergoing an upgrade; had it been online it would likely have been sensitive enough to also detect the signal, which would have greatly improved the positioning of the event. GEO600 (near Hannover, Germany) was not sensitive enough to detect the signal. Consequently, neither of those detectors was able to confirm the signal measured by the LIGO detectors.
+
+=== Astrophysical origin ===
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+title: "First observation of gravitational waves"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:16.701964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The event happened at a luminosity distance of 440+160−180 megaparsecs (determined by the amplitude of the signal), or 1.4±0.6 billion light years, corresponding to a cosmological redshift of 0.093+0.030−0.036 (90% credible intervals). Analysis of the signal along with the inferred redshift suggested that it was produced by the merger of two black holes with masses of 35+5−3 times and 30+3−4 times the mass of the Sun (in the source frame), resulting in a post-merger black hole of 62+4−3 M☉. The mass–energy of the missing 3.0±0.5 M☉ was radiated away in the form of gravitational waves.
+During the final 20 milliseconds of the merger, the power of the radiated gravitational waves peaked at about 3.6×1049 watts or 526 dBm – 50 times greater than the combined power of all light radiated by all the stars in the observable universe. The amount of this energy that was received by the entire planet Earth was about 36 billion joules, of which only a small amount was absorbed.
+Across the 0.2-second duration of the detectable signal, the relative tangential (orbiting) velocity of the black holes increased from 30% to 60% of the speed of light. The orbital frequency of 75 Hz (half the gravitational wave frequency) means that the objects were orbiting each other at a distance of only 350 km by the time they merged. The phase changes to the signal's polarization allowed calculation of the objects' orbital frequency, and taken together with the amplitude and pattern of the signal, allowed calculation of their masses and therefore their extreme final velocities and orbital separation (distance apart) when they merged. That information showed that the objects had to be black holes, as any other kind of known objects with these masses would have been physically larger and therefore merged before that point, or would not have reached such velocities in such a small orbit. The highest observed neutron star mass is 2 M☉, with a conservative upper limit for the mass of a stable neutron star of 3 M☉, so that a pair of neutron stars would not have had sufficient mass to account for the merger (unless exotic alternatives exist, for example, boson stars), while a black hole-neutron star pair would have merged sooner, resulting in a final orbital frequency that was not so high.
+The decay of the waveform after it peaked was consistent with the damped oscillations of a black hole as it relaxed to a final merged configuration. Although the inspiral motion of compact binaries can be described well from post-Newtonian calculations, the strong gravitational field merger stage can only be solved in full generality by large-scale numerical relativity simulations.
+In the improved model and analysis, the post-merger object is found to be a rotating Kerr black hole with a spin parameter of 0.68+0.05−0.06, i.e. one with 2/3 of the maximum possible angular momentum for its mass.
+The two stars which formed the two black holes were likely formed about 2 billion years after the Big Bang with masses of between 40 and 100 times the mass of the Sun.
+
+=== Location in the sky ===
+Gravitational wave instruments are whole-sky monitors with little ability to resolve signals spatially. A network of such instruments is needed to locate the source in the sky through triangulation. With only the two LIGO instruments in observational mode, GW150914's source location could only be confined to an arc on the sky. This was done via analysis of the 6.9+0.5−0.4 ms time-delay, along with amplitude and phase consistency across both detectors. This analysis produced a credible region of 150 deg2 with a probability of 50% or 610 deg2 with a probability of 90% located mainly in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere, in the rough direction of (but much farther than) the Magellanic Clouds.
+For comparison, the area of the constellation Orion is 594 deg2.
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+---
+title: "First observation of gravitational waves"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:16.701964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Coincident gamma-ray observation ===
+The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope reported that its Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor (GBM) instrument detected a weak gamma-ray burst above 50 keV, starting 0.4 seconds after the LIGO event and with a positional uncertainty region overlapping that of the LIGO observation. The Fermi team calculated the odds of such an event being the result of a coincidence or noise at 0.22%. However a gamma ray burst would not have been expected, and observations from the INTEGRAL telescope's all-sky SPI-ACS instrument indicated that any energy emission in gamma-rays and hard X-rays from the event was less than one millionth of the energy emitted as gravitational waves, which "excludes the possibility that the event is associated with substantial gamma-ray radiation, directed towards the observer". If the signal observed by the Fermi GBM was genuinely astrophysical, INTEGRAL would have indicated a clear detection at a significance of 15 sigma above background radiation. The AGILE space telescope also did not detect a gamma-ray counterpart of the event.
+A follow-up analysis by an independent group, released in June 2016, developed a different statistical approach to estimate the spectrum of the gamma-ray transient. It concluded that Fermi GBM's data did not show evidence of a gamma ray burst, and was either background radiation or an Earth albedo transient on a 1-second timescale. A rebuttal of this follow-up analysis, however, pointed out that the independent group misrepresented the analysis of the original Fermi GBM Team paper and therefore misconstrued the results of the original analysis. The rebuttal reaffirmed that the false coincidence probability is calculated empirically and is not refuted by the independent analysis.
+Black hole mergers of the type thought to have produced the gravitational wave event are not expected to produce gamma-ray bursts, as stellar-mass black hole binaries are not expected to have large amounts of orbiting matter. Avi Loeb has theorised that if a massive star is rapidly rotating, the centrifugal force produced during its collapse will lead to the formation of a rotating bar that breaks into two dense clumps of matter with a dumbbell configuration that becomes a black hole binary, and at the end of the star's collapse it triggers a gamma-ray burst. Loeb suggests that the 0.4 second delay is the time it took the gamma-ray burst to cross the star, relative to the gravitational waves.
+
+=== Other follow-up observations ===
+The reconstructed source area was targeted by follow-up observations covering radio, optical, near infra-red, X-ray, and gamma-ray wavelengths along with searches for coincident neutrinos. However, because LIGO had not yet started its science run, notice to other telescopes was delayed.
+The ANTARES telescope detected no neutrino candidates within ±500 seconds of GW150914. The IceCube Neutrino Observatory detected three neutrino candidates within ±500 seconds of GW150914. One event was found in the southern sky and two in the northern sky. This was consistent with the expectation of background detection levels. None of the candidates were compatible with the 90% confidence area of the merger event. Although no neutrinos were detected, the lack of such observations provided a limit on neutrino emission from this type of gravitational wave event.
+Observations by the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission of nearby galaxies in the region of the detection, two days after the event, did not detect any new X-ray, optical or ultraviolet sources.
+
+=== Announcement ===
+
+The announcement of the detection was made on 11 February 2016 at a news conference in Washington, D.C. by David Reitze, the executive director of LIGO, with a panel comprising Gabriela González, Rainer Weiss and Kip Thorne, of LIGO, and France A. Córdova, the director of NSF. Barry Barish delivered the first presentation on this discovery to a scientific audience simultaneously with the public announcement.
+The initial announcement paper was published during the news conference in Physical Review Letters, with further papers either published shortly afterwards or immediately available in preprint form.
+
+=== Awards and recognition ===
+In May 2016, the full collaboration, and in particular Ronald Drever, Kip Thorne, and Rainer Weiss, received the Special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for the observation of gravitational waves. Drever, Thorne, Weiss, and the LIGO discovery team also received the Gruber Prize in Cosmology. Drever, Thorne, and Weiss were also awarded the 2016 Shaw Prize in Astronomy and the 2016 Kavli Prize in Astrophysics. Barish was awarded the 2016 Enrico Fermi Prize from the Italian Physical Society (Società Italiana di Fisica). In January 2017, LIGO spokesperson Gabriela González and the LIGO team were awarded the 2017 Bruno Rossi Prize.
+The 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Rainer Weiss, Barry Barish and Kip Thorne "for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves".
+
+== Implications ==
+The observation was heralded as inaugurating a revolutionary era of gravitational-wave astronomy. Prior to this detection, astrophysicists and cosmologists were only able to make observations based upon electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, X-rays, microwave, radio waves, gamma rays) and particle-like entities (cosmic rays, stellar winds, neutrinos, and so on). These have significant limitations – light and other radiation may not be emitted by many kinds of objects, and can also be obscured or hidden behind other objects. Objects such as galaxies and nebulae can also absorb, re-emit, or modify light generated within or behind them, and compact stars or exotic stars may contain material which is dark and radio silent, and as a result there is little evidence of their presence other than through their gravitational interactions.
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+---
+title: "First observation of gravitational waves"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:16.701964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Expectations for detection of future binary merger events ===
+On 15 June 2016, the LIGO group announced an observation of another gravitational wave signal, named GW151226. The Advanced LIGO was predicted to detect five more black hole mergers like GW150914 in its next observing campaign from November 2016 until August 2017 (it turned out to be seven), and then 40 binary star mergers each year, in addition to an unknown number of more exotic gravitational wave sources, some of which may not be anticipated by current theory.
+Planned upgrades are expected to double the signal-to-noise ratio, expanding the volume of space in which events like GW150914 can be detected by a factor of ten. Additionally, Advanced Virgo, KAGRA, and a possible third LIGO detector in India will extend the network and significantly improve the position reconstruction and parameter estimation of sources.
+Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) is a proposed space based observation mission to detect gravitational waves. With the proposed sensitivity range of LISA, merging binaries like GW150914 would be detectable about 1000 years before they merge, providing for a class of previously unknown sources for this observatory if they exist within about 10 megaparsecs. LISA Pathfinder, LISA's technology development mission, was launched in December 2015 and it demonstrated that the LISA mission is feasible.
+A 2016 model predicted LIGO would detect approximately 1000 black hole mergers per year when it reached full sensitivity following upgrades.
+
+=== Lessons for stellar evolution and astrophysics ===
+The masses of the two pre-merger black holes provide information about stellar evolution. Both black holes were more massive than previously discovered stellar-mass black holes, which were inferred from X-ray binary observations. This implies that the stellar winds from their progenitor stars must have been relatively weak, and therefore that the metallicity (mass fraction of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium) must have been less than about half the solar value.
+The fact that the pre-merger black holes were present in a binary star system, as well as the fact that the system was compact enough to merge within the age of the universe, constrains either binary star evolution or dynamical formation scenarios, depending on how the black hole binary was formed. A significant number of black holes must receive low natal kicks (the velocity a black hole gains at its formation in a core-collapse supernova event), otherwise the black hole forming in a binary star system would be ejected and an event like GW would be prevented. The survival of such binaries, through common envelope phases of high rotation in massive progenitor stars, may be necessary for their survival. The majority of the latest black hole model predictions comply with these added constraints.
+The discovery of the GW merger event increases the lower limit on the rate of such events, and rules out certain theoretical models that predicted very low rates of less than 1 Gpc−3yr−1 (one event per cubic gigaparsec per year). Analysis resulted in lowering the previous upper limit rate on events like GW150914 from ~140 Gpc−3yr−1 to 17+39−13 Gpc−3yr−1.
+
+=== Impact on future cosmological observation ===
+Measurement of the waveform and amplitude of the gravitational waves from a black hole merger event makes accurate determination of its distance possible. The accumulation of black hole merger data from cosmologically distant events may help to create more precise models of the history of the expansion of the universe and the nature of the dark energy that influences it.
+The earliest universe is opaque since the cosmos was so energetic then that most matter was ionized and photons were scattered by free electrons. However, this opacity would not affect gravitational waves from that time, so if they occurred at levels strong enough to be detected at this distance, it would allow a window to observe the cosmos beyond the current visible universe. Gravitational-wave astronomy therefore may some day allow direct observation of the earliest history of the universe.
+
+=== Tests of general relativity ===
+
+The inferred fundamental properties, mass and spin, of the post-merger black hole were consistent with those of the two pre-merger black holes, following the predictions of general relativity. This is the first test of general relativity in the very strong-field regime. No evidence could be established against the predictions of general relativity.
+The opportunity was limited in this signal to investigate the more complex general relativity interactions, such as tails produced by interactions between the gravitational wave and curved space-time background. Although a moderately strong signal, it is much smaller than that produced by binary-pulsar systems. In the future stronger signals, in conjunction with more sensitive detectors, could be used to explore the intricate interactions of gravitational waves as well as to improve the constraints on deviations from general relativity.
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+---
+title: "First observation of gravitational waves"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:16.701964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Speed of gravitational waves and limit on possible mass of graviton ===
+The speed of gravitational waves (vg) is predicted by general relativity to be the speed of light (c). The extent of any deviation from this relationship can be parameterized in terms of the mass of the hypothetical graviton. The graviton is the name given to an elementary particle that would act as the force carrier for gravity, in quantum theories about gravity. It is expected to be massless if, as it appears, gravitation has an infinite range. (This is because the more massive a gauge boson is, the shorter is the range of the associated force; as with the infinite range of electromagnetism, which is due to the massless photon, the infinite range of gravity implies that any associated force-carrying particle would also be massless.) If the graviton were not massless, gravitational waves would propagate below lightspeed, with lower frequencies (ƒ) being slower than higher frequencies, leading to dispersion of the waves from the merger event. No such dispersion was observed. The observations of the inspiral slightly improve (lower) the upper limit on the mass of the graviton from Solar System observations to 2.1×10−58 kg, corresponding to 1.2×10−22 eV/c2 or a Compton wavelength (λg) of greater than 1013 km, roughly 1 light-year. Using the lowest observed frequency of 35 Hz, this translates to a lower limit on vg such that the upper limit on 1-vg /c is ~ 4×10−19.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Gravitational-wave astronomy – Branch of astronomy using gravitational waves
+Gravitational-wave observatory – Device used to measure gravitational waves
+List of gravitational wave observations
+Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Calandrelli, Emily; Escher, Anna (16 December 2016). "The top 15 events that happened in space in 2016". TechCrunch. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
+
+== External links ==
+
+GW150914 data release by the LIGO Open Science Center
+Gravitational wave modelling of GW150914 Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics
+"First detection!" (PDF). LIGO Magazine. No. 8. March 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
+Video: GW150914 discovery press conference (71:29) by the National Science Foundation (11 February 2016)
+Video: "The hunters – the detection of gravitational waves" (11:47) by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (22 February 2016)
+Video: "LIGO Hears Gravitational Waves Einstein Predicted" (4:36) by Dennis Overbye, The New York Times (11 February 2016)
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+---
+title: "Fly algorithm"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:41.802183+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Fly Algorithm is an approach in 3D reconstruction that utilizes clusters of points ("flies") corresponding to different nearby objects via genetic algorithms and stereovision principles. The resulting reconstruction is partial, but can be used to recognize obstacles in robot navigation and other applications. This technique has a high computational load due to numerous inputs and parameters, making performance optimization difficult.
+
+== History ==
+The Fly Algorithm is a type of cooperative coevolution based on the Parisian approach. The Fly Algorithm has first been developed in 1999 in the scope of the application of Evolutionary algorithms to computer stereo vision. Unlike the classical image-based approach to stereovision, which extracts image primitives then matches them in order to obtain 3-D information, the Fly Algorithm is based on the direct exploration of the 3-D space of the scene. A fly is defined as a 3-D point described by its coordinates (x, y, z). Once a random population of flies has been created in a search space corresponding to the field of view of the cameras, its evolution (based on the Evolutionary Strategy paradigm) used a fitness function that evaluates how likely the fly is lying on the visible surface of an object, based on the consistency of its image projections. To this end, the fitness function uses the grey levels, colours and/or textures of the calculated fly's projections.
+The first application field of the Fly Algorithm has been stereovision. While classical `image priority' approaches use matching features from the stereo images in order to build a 3-D model, the Fly Algorithm directly explores the 3-D space and uses image data to evaluate the validity of 3-D hypotheses. A variant called the "Dynamic Flies" defines the fly as a 6-uple (x, y, z, x’, y’, z’) involving the fly's velocity. The velocity components are not explicitly taken into account in the fitness calculation but are used in the flies' positions updating and are subject to similar genetic operators (mutation, crossover).
+The application of Flies to obstacle avoidance in vehicles exploits the fact that the population of flies is a time compliant, quasi-continuously evolving representation of the scene to directly generate vehicle control signals from the flies. The use of the Fly Algorithm is not strictly restricted to stereo images, as other sensors may be added (e.g. acoustic proximity sensors, etc.) as additional terms to the fitness function being optimised. Odometry information can also be used to speed up the updating of flies' positions, and conversely the flies positions can be used to provide localisation and mapping information.
+Another application field of the Fly Algorithm is reconstruction for emission Tomography in nuclear medicine. The Fly Algorithm has been successfully applied in single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography
+. Here, each fly is considered a photon emitter and its fitness is based on the conformity of the simulated illumination of the sensors with the actual pattern observed on the sensors. Within this application, the fitness function has been re-defined to use the new concept of 'marginal evaluation'. Here, the fitness of one individual is calculated as its (positive or negative) contribution to the quality of the global population. It is based on the leave-one-out cross-validation principle. A global fitness function evaluates the quality of the population as a whole; only then the fitness of an individual (a fly) is calculated as the difference between the global fitness values of the population with and without the particular fly whose individual fitness function  has to be evaluated. In  the fitness of each fly is considered as a `level of confidence'. It is used during the voxelisation process to tweak the fly's individual footprint using implicit modelling (such as metaballs). It produces smooth results that are more accurate.
+More recently it has been used in digital art to generate mosaic-like images or spray paint. Examples of images can be found on YouTube
+
+== Parisian evolution ==
+Here, the population of individuals is considered as a society where the individuals collaborate toward a common goal. 
+This is implemented using an evolutionary algorithm that includes all the common genetic operators (e.g. mutation, cross-over, selection). 
+The main difference is in the fitness function. 
+Here two levels of fitness function are used:
+
+A local fitness function to assess the performance of a given individual (usually used during the selection process).
+A global fitness function to assess the performance of the whole population. Maximising (or minimising depending on the problem considered) this global fitness is the goal of the population.
+In addition, a diversity mechanism is required to avoid individuals gathering in only a few areas of the search space. 
+Another difference is in the extraction of the problem solution once the evolutionary loop terminates. In classical evolutionary approaches, the best individual corresponds to the solution and the rest of the population is discarded. 
+Here, all the individuals (or individuals of a sub-group of the population) are collated to build the problem solution.
+The way the fitness functions are constructed and the way the solution extraction is made are of course problem-dependent.
+Examples of Parisian Evolution applications include:
+
+The Fly algorithm.
+Text-mining.
+Hand gesture recognition.
+Modelling complex interactions in industrial agrifood process.
+Positron Emission Tomography reconstruction.
+
+== Disambiguation ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ee0b4a38f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+---
+title: "Fly algorithm"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:41.802183+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Parisian approach vs cooperative coevolution ===
+Cooperative coevolution is a broad class of evolutionary algorithms where a complex problem is solved by decomposing it into subcomponents that are solved independently. 
+The Parisian approach shares many similarities with the cooperative coevolutionary algorithm. The Parisian approach makes use of a single-population whereas multi-species may be used in cooperative coevolutionary algorithm. 
+Similar internal evolutionary engines are considered in classical evolutionary algorithm, cooperative coevolutionary algorithm and Parisian evolution. 
+The difference between cooperative coevolutionary algorithm and Parisian evolution resides in the population's semantics. 
+Cooperative coevolutionary algorithm divides a big problem into sub-problems (groups of individuals) and solves them separately toward the big problem. There is no interaction/breeding between individuals of the different sub-populations, only with individuals of the same sub-population. 
+However, Parisian evolutionary algorithms solve a whole problem as a big component. 
+All population's individuals cooperate together to drive the whole population toward attractive areas of the search space.
+
+=== Fly Algorithm vs particle swarm optimisation ===
+Cooperative coevolution and particle swarm optimisation (PSO) share many similarities. PSO is inspired by the social behaviour of bird flocking or fish schooling. 
+It was initially introduced as a tool for realistic animation in computer graphics. 
+It uses complex individuals that interact with each other in order to build visually realistic collective behaviours through adjusting the individuals' behavioural rules (which may use random generators). 
+In mathematical optimisation, every particle of the swarm somehow follows its own random path biased toward the best particle of the swarm. 
+In the Fly Algorithm, the flies aim at building spatial representations of a scene from actual sensor data; flies do not communicate or explicitly cooperate, and do not use any behavioural model.
+Both algorithms are search methods that start with a set of random solutions, which are iteratively corrected toward a global optimum. 
+However, the solution of the optimisation problem in the Fly Algorithm is the population (or a subset of the population): The flies implicitly collaborate to build the solution. In PSO the solution is a single particle, the one with the best fitness. Another main difference between the Fly Algorithm and with PSO is that the Fly Algorithm is not based on any behavioural model but only builds a geometrical representation.
+
+== Applications of the Fly algorithnm ==
+Computer stereo vision
+Obstacle avoidance
+Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM)
+Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) reconstruction 
+Positron emission tomography (PET) reconstruction 
+Digital art
+
+== Example: Tomography reconstruction ==
+
+Tomography reconstruction is an inverse problem that is often ill-posed due to missing data and/or noise. The answer to the inverse problem is not unique, and in case of extreme noise level it may not even exist. The input data of a reconstruction algorithm may be given as the Radon transform or sinogram 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          Y
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left(Y\right)}
+  
+ of the data to reconstruct 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          f
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left(f\right)}
+  
+. 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ is unknown; 
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y}
+  
+ is known. 
+The data acquisition in tomography can be modelled as:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        =
+        P
+        [
+        f
+        ]
+        +
+        ϵ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y=P[f]+\epsilon }
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+ is the system matrix or projection operator and 
+  
+    
+      
+        ϵ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \epsilon }
+  
+ corresponds to some Poisson noise. 
+In this case the reconstruction corresponds to the inversion of the Radon transform:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        =
+        
+          P
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        [
+        Y
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f=P^{-1}[Y]}
+  
+
+Note that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          P
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P^{-1}}
+  
+ can account for noise, acquisition geometry, etc. 
+The Fly Algorithm is an example of iterative reconstruction. Iterative methods in tomographic reconstruction are relatively easy to model:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              f
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          a
+          r
+          g
+          
+          m
+          i
+          n
+        
+        ⁡
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        Y
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}=\operatorname {arg\,min} ||Y-{\hat {Y}}||_{2}^{2}}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              f
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}}
+  
+ is an estimate of 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+, that minimises an error metrics (here ℓ2-norm, but other error metrics could be used) between 
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {Y}}}
+  
+. Note that a regularisation term can be introduced to prevent overfitting and to smooth noise whilst preserving edges. 
+Iterative methods can be implemented as follows:
+
+  (i) The reconstruction starts using an initial estimate of the image (generally a constant image),
+  (ii) Projection data is computed from this image,
+  (iii) The estimated projections are compared with the measured projections,
+  (iv) Corrections are made to correct the estimated image, and
+  (v) The algorithm iterates until convergence of the estimated and measured projection sets.
+
+The pseudocode below is a step-by-step description of the Fly Algorithm for tomographic reconstruction. The algorithm follows the steady-state paradigm. For illustrative purposes, advanced genetic operators, such as mitosis, dual mutation, etc. are ignored. A JavaScript implementation can be found on Fly4PET.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-2.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9cc45d9b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,402 @@
+---
+title: "Fly algorithm"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:41.802183+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+algorithm fly-algorithm is
+    input: number of flies (N), 
+           input projection data (preference)
+    
+    output: the fly population (F), 
+            the projections estimated from F (pestimated)
+            the 3-D volume corresponding to the voxelisation of F (VF)
+    
+    postcondition: the difference between pestimated and preference is minimal.
+    
+    START
+    
+ 1.   // Initialisation
+ 2.   // Set the position of the N flies, i.e. create initial guess
+ 3.   for each fly i in fly population F do
+ 4.       F(i)x ← random(0, 1)
+ 5.       F(i)y ← random(0, 1)
+ 6.       F(i)z ← random(0, 1)
+ 7.       Add F(i)'s projection in pestimated
+ 8.   
+ 9.   // Compute the population's performance (i.e. the global fitness)
+10.   Gfitness(F) ← Errormetrics(preference, pestimated)
+11.    
+12.   fkill ← Select a random fly of F
+13.    
+14.   Remove fkill's contribution from pestimated
+15.    
+16.   // Compute the population's performance without fkill
+17.   Gfitness(F-{fkill}) ← Errormetrics(preference, pestimated)
+18.    
+19.   // Compare the performances, i.e. compute the fly's local fitness
+20.   Lfitness(fkill) ← Gfitness(F-{fkill}) - Gfitness(F)
+21.    
+22.   If the local fitness is greater than 0, // Thresholded-selection of a bad fly that can be killed
+23.       then go to Step 26.   // fkill is a good fly (the population's performance is better when fkill is included): we should not kill it
+24.       else go to Step 28.   // fkill is a bad fly (the population's performance is worse when fkill is included): we can get rid of it
+25.    
+26.   Restore the fly's contribution, then go to Step 12.
+27.    
+28.   Select a genetic operator
+29.    
+30.   If the genetic operator is mutation,
+31.       then go to Step 34.
+32.       else go to Step 50.
+33.    
+34.   freproduce ← Select a random fly of F
+35.    
+14.   Remove freproduce's contribution from pestimated
+37.    
+38.   // Compute the population's performance without freproduce
+39.   Gfitness(F-{freproduce}) ← Errormetrics(preference, pestimated)
+40.    
+41.   // Compare the performances, i.e. compute the fly's local fitness
+42.   Lfitness(freproduce) ← Gfitness(F-{freproduce}) - Gfitness(F)
+43.    
+44.   Restore the fly's contribution
+45.    
+46.   If the local fitness is lower than or equal to 0, // Thresholded-selection of a good fly that can reproduce
+47.       else go to Step 34.   // freproduce is a bad fly: we should not allow it to reproduce
+48.       then go to Step 53.   // freproduce is a good fly: we can allow it to reproduce
+49.    
+50.   // New blood / Immigration
+51.   Replace fkill by a new fly with a random position, go to Step 57.
+52.    
+53.   // Mutation
+54.   Copy freproduce into fkill
+55.   Slightly and randomly alter fkill's position
+56.    
+57.   Add the new fly's contribution to the population
+58.    
+59.   If stop the reconstruction,
+60.       then go to Step 63.
+61.       else go to Step 10.
+62.    
+63.   // Extract solution
+64.   VF ← voxelisation of F
+65.    
+66.   return VF
+   
+   END
+
+== Example: Digital arts ==
+
+In this example, an input image is to be approximated by a set of tiles (for example as in an ancient mosaic). A tile has an orientation (angle θ), a three colour components (R, G, B), a size (w, h) and a position (x, y, z). If there are N tiles, there are 9N unknown floating point numbers to guess. In other words for 5,000 tiles, there are 45,000 numbers to find. Using a classical evolutionary algorithm where the answer of the optimisation problem is the best individual, the genome of an individual would be made up of 45,000 genes. This approach would be extremely costly in term of complexity and computing time. The same applies for any classical optimisation algorithm. Using the Fly Algorithm, every individual mimics a tile and can be individually evaluated using its local fitness to assess its contribution to the population's performance (the global fitness). Here an individual has 9 genes instead of 9N, and there are N individuals. It can be solved as a reconstruction problem as follows:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+        e
+        c
+        o
+        n
+        s
+        t
+        r
+        u
+        c
+        t
+        i
+        o
+        n
+        =
+        
+          a
+          r
+          g
+          
+          m
+          i
+          n
+        
+        ⁡
+        
+          
+            
+              ∑
+              
+                x
+                =
+                0
+              
+            
+            
+              x
+              <
+              W
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              ∑
+              
+                y
+                =
+                0
+              
+            
+            
+              y
+              <
+              H
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        i
+        n
+        p
+        u
+        t
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+        −
+        P
+        [
+        F
+        ]
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle reconstruction=\operatorname {arg\,min} {\overset {x<W}{\underset {x=0}{\sum }}}{\overset {y<H}{\underset {y=0}{\sum }}}|input(x,y)-P[F](x,y)|}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        i
+        n
+        p
+        u
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle input}
+  
+ is the input image, 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y}
+  
+ are the pixel coordinates along the horizontal and vertical axis respectively, 
+  
+    
+      
+        W
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle W}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H}
+  
+ are the image width and height in number of pixels respectively, 
+  
+    
+      
+        F
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F}
+  
+ is the fly population, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+ is a projection operator that creates an image from flies. This projection operator 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+ can take many forms. In her work, Z. Ali Aboodd  uses OpenGL to generate different effects (e.g. mosaics, or spray paint). For speeding up the evaluation of the fitness functions, OpenCL is used too.
+The algorithm starts with a population 
+  
+    
+      
+        F
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F}
+  
+ that is randomly generated (see Line 3 in the algorithm above). 
+  
+    
+      
+        F
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F}
+  
+ is then assessed using the global fitness to compute 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          G
+          
+            f
+            i
+            t
+            n
+            e
+            s
+            s
+          
+        
+        (
+        F
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              ∑
+              
+                x
+                =
+                0
+              
+            
+            
+              x
+              <
+              W
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              ∑
+              
+                y
+                =
+                0
+              
+            
+            
+              y
+              <
+              H
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        i
+        n
+        p
+        u
+        t
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+        −
+        P
+        [
+        F
+        ]
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        y
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle G_{fitness}(F)={\overset {x<W}{\underset {x=0}{\sum }}}{\overset {y<H}{\underset {y=0}{\sum }}}|input(x,y)-P[F](x,y)|}
+  
+ (see Line 10). 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          G
+          
+            f
+            i
+            t
+            n
+            e
+            s
+            s
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle G_{fitness}}
+  
+ is the objective function that has to be minimized.
+
+== See also ==
+Mathematical optimization
+Metaheuristic
+Search algorithm
+Stochastic optimization
+Evolutionary computation
+Evolutionary algorithm
+Genetic algorithm
+Mutation (genetic algorithm)
+Crossover (genetic algorithm)
+Selection (genetic algorithm)
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-0.md
index 330f9e8c3..74df0b4a9 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-0.md
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/9
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:37:10.258581+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-1.md
index df4a96957..5cebb2732 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:37:10.258581+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-2.md
index 14431cc12..0c8bdffe7 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:37:10.258581+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-3.md
index bda4a25bb..ecf1e1bf6 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
 category: "reference"
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 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-4.md
index db56d0eb8..aca4672dd 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:37:10.258581+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-5.md
index 8c65bd2c9..2cf2e27b6 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
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-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:37:10.258581+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-6.md
index 03a6bd29a..90420c504 100644
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
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+title: "Frecency"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frecency"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:44.201081+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In computing, frecency is any heuristic that combines the frequency and recency into a single measure.
+
+
+== Heuristic ==
+In its simplest form, the frequency and recency rating can be added to form a frecency rating. The ratings can be found by sorting items by most recent and most frequent respectively. A decayed calculation using logarithms can also be used.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Some web browsers use frecency to predict the likelihood of revisiting a given web page or reusing a given HTTP cache entry
+"Frecency is a score given to each unique URI in Places, encompassing bookmarks, history and tags. This score is determined by the amount of revisitation, the type of those visits, how recent they were, and whether the URI was bookmarked or tagged."
+Frecency can be computed from a list of use dates, either as pro-actively while a user browses the web or as needed. Some frecency measures can also be computed in a rolling manner without storing such a list.
+The ZFS filesystem uses this concept in its adaptive replacement cache (ARC) cache with a most recently used (MRU) and most frequently used (MFU) list.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Frecency implementation in Firefox
+ The dictionary definition of frecency at Wiktionary
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+title: "Frequency format hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:33.511693+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The frequency format hypothesis is the idea that the brain understands and processes information better when presented in frequency formats rather than a numerical or probability format. Thus according to the hypothesis, presenting information as 1 in 5 people rather than 20% leads to better comprehension. The idea was proposed by German scientist Gerd Gigerenzer, after compilation and comparison of data collected between 1976 and 1997.
+
+== Origin ==
+
+=== Automatic encoding ===
+Certain information about one's experience is often stored in the memory using an implicit encoding process. Where did you sit last time in class? Do you say the word hello or charisma more? People are very good at answering such questions without actively thinking about it or not knowing how they got that information in the first place. This was the observation that lead to Hasher and Zacks'  1979 study on frequency.
+Through their research work, Hasher and Zacks found out that information about frequency is stored without the intention of the person. Also, training and feedback does not increase ability to encode frequency. Frequency information was also found to be continually registered in the memory, regardless of age, ability or motivation. The ability to encode frequency also does not decrease with old age, depression or multiple task requirements. They called this characteristic of the frequency encoding as  automatic encoding.
+
+=== Infant study ===
+Another important evidence for the hypothesis came through the study of infants. In one study, 40 newborn infants were tested for their ability to discriminate between 2 dots versus 3 dots and 4 dots versus 6 dots. Even though infants were able to make the discrimination between 2 versus 3 dots, they were not able to distinguish between 4 versus 6 dots. The tested new born infants were only 21 hours to 144 hours old.
+Similarly in another study, to test whether infants could recognize numerical correspondences, Starkey et al. designed a series of experiments in which 6 to 8 month old infants were shown pairs of either a display of two objects or a  display of three objects. While the displays were still visible, infants heard either two or three drumbeats. Measurement of looking time revealed that the infants looked significantly longer toward the display that matched the number of sounds.
+
+=== The contingency rule ===
+Later on, Barbara A. Spellmen from University of Texas describes the performance of humans in determining cause and effects as the contingency rule ΔP, defined as
+
+P = P(E|C) - P(E|~C)
+
+where P(E|C) is the probability of the effect given the presence of the proposed cause and P(E|~C) is the probability of the effect given the absence of the proposed cause. Suppose we wish to evaluate the performance of a fertilizer. If the plants bloomed 15 out of 20 times when the fertilizer was used, and only 5 out of 20 plants bloomed in the absence of the fertilizer. In this case
+
+    P(E|C) = 15/20 = 0.75
+    P(E|~C)=  5/20 = 0.25
+    ΔP = P(E|C) - P(E|~C)
+    ΔP = 0.75 - 0.25
+       = 0.50
+
+The ΔP value as a result is always bound between -1 and 1. Even though the contingency rule is a good model of what humans do in predicting one event causation of another, when it comes to predicting outcomes of events with multiple causes, there exists a large deviation from the contingency rule called the cue-interaction-effect.
+
+=== Cue-interaction-effect ===
+In 1993 Baker Mercer and his team used video games to demonstrate this effect. Each test subject is given the task of helping a tank travel across a mine field using a button that sometimes worked correctly in camouflaging and sometimes did not. As a second cause a spotter plane, a friend or an enemy would sometimes fly over the tank. After 40 trials, the test subjects were asked to evaluate the effectiveness of the camouflage and the plane in helping the tank through the minefield. They were asked to give it a number between -100 and 100.
+
+Mathematically, there are two contingency values possible for the plane: the plane was either irrelevant to tank's success, then ΔP=0(.5/0 condition) and the plane was relevant to the plane's success, ΔP=1 (.5/1 condition). Even though the ΔP for the camouflage in either condition is 0.5, the test subjects evaluated the ΔP of camouflage to be much higher in the .5/0 condition than in the .5/1 condition. The results are shown in table below.
+
+In each case, the test subjects are very good in noticing when two events occur together. When the plane is relevant to the camouflage success, they mark the camouflage success high and when the plane doesn't affect the camouflage's success, they mark the camouflage's success value low.
+
+=== Gigerenzer contributions ===
+Several experiments have been performed that shows that ordinary and sometimes skilled people make basic probabilistic fallacies, especially in the case of Bayesian inference quizzes. Gigerenzer claims that the observed errors are consistent with the way we acquired mathematical abilities during the course of human evolution.
+Gigerenzer argues that the problem with these quizzes is the way the information is presented. During these quizzes the information is presented in percentages. Gigerenzer argues that presenting information in frequency format would help in solving these puzzles accurately. He argues that evolutionary the brain  physiologically evolved to understand frequency information better than probability information. Thus if the Bayesian quizzes were asked in frequency format, then test subjects would be better at it. Gigerenzer calls this idea the frequency format hypothesis in his published paper titled "The psychology of good judgment: frequency formats and simple algorithms".
+
+== Supporting arguments ==
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+title: "Frequency format hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:33.511693+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Evolutionary perspective ===
+Gigerenzer argued that from an evolutionary point of view, a frequency method was easier and more communicable compared to conveying information in probability format. He argues that probability and percentages are rather recent forms of representation as opposed to frequency. The first known existence of a representative form of percentages is in the seventeenth century. He also argues that more information is given in the case of frequency representation. For instance, conveying data as 50 out of 100, using the frequency form, as opposed to saying 50%, using the probability format, gives the users more information about the sample size. This can in turn make the data and results more reliable and more appealing.
+
+=== Elaborate encoding ===
+An explanation given as to why people choose encounter frequency is that in the case of frequencies, the subjects are given vivid descriptions, while with probabilities only a dry number is given to the subject. Therefore, in the case of frequency, subjects are given more recall cues. This could in turn mean that the frequency encounters are remembered by the brain more often than in the case of probability numbers. Thus this might be a reason why people in  general intuitively choose frequency encountered choices rather than probability based choices.
+
+=== Sequential input ===
+Yet another explanation offered by the authors is the fact that in the case of frequency, people often come across them multiple times and have a sequential input, compared to a probability value, which is given in one time. From John Medina’s Brain Rules, sequential input can lead to a stronger memory than a onetime input. This can be a primary reason why humans choose frequency encounters over probability.
+
+=== Easier storage ===
+Another rationale provided in justifying the frequency format hypothesis is that using frequencies makes it easier to keep track and update a database of events. For example, if an event happened 3 out of 6 times, the probability format would store this as 50%, whereas in frequency format it is stored as 3 out of 6. Now imagine that the event does not happen this time. The frequency format can be updated to 3 out of 7. However, for the probability format updating is extremely harder.
+
+=== Classifying information ===
+Frequency representation can also be helpful in keeping track of classes and statistical information. Picture a scenario where every 500 out of 1000 people die due to lung cancer. However, 40 of those 1000 were smokers and 20 out of the 40 had a genetic condition predisposed to possible lung cancer. Such class division and information storage can only be done using frequency format, since a number .05% probability of having lung cancer does not give any information or allow to calculate such information.
+
+== Refuting arguments ==
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+---
+title: "Frequency format hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:33.511693+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Nested-sets hypothesis ===
+Frequency-format studies tend to share a confound -- namely that when presenting frequency information, the researchers also make clear the reference class they are referring to. For example, consider these three different ways to formulate the same problem:
+Probability Format
+"Consider a test to detect a disease that a given American has a 1/1000 chance of getting. An individual that does not have the disease has a 50/1000 chance of testing positive. An individual that does have the disease will definitely test positive.
+What is the chance that a person found to have a positive result actually has the disease, assuming that you nothing about the person’s symptoms or signs? _____%"
+Frequency Format
+"One out of every 1000 Americans has disease X. A test has been developed to detect when a person has disease X. Every time the test is given to a person who has the disease, the test comes out positive. But sometimes the test also comes out positive when it is given to a person who is completely healthy. Specifically, out of every 1000 people who are perfectly healthy, 50 of them test positive for the disease.
+Imagine we have assembled a random sample of 1000 Americans. They were selected by lottery. Those who conducted the lottery had no information about the health status of any of these people.
+Given the information above, on average, how many people who test positive for the disease actually have the disease? _____out of_____."
+Probability Format Highlighting Set-Subset Structure of the Problem
+"The prevalence of disease X among Americans is 1/1000. A test has been developed to detect when a person has disease X. Every time the test is given to a person who has the disease, the test comes out positive. But sometimes the test also comes out positive when it is given to a person who is completely healthy. Specifically, the chance is 50/1000 that someone who is perfectly healthy would test positive for the disease.
+Imagine we have just given the test to a random sample of Americans. They were selected by lottery. Those who conducted the lottery had no information about the health status of any of these people.
+What is the chance that a person found to have a positive result actually has the disease? _____%"
+All three problems make clear the set of 1/1000 Americans who have the disease and that the test has perfect sensitivity (100% of people with the disease will receive a positive test) and that 50/1000 healthy people will receive a positive test (e.g., false positives). However, the latter two formats additionally highlights the separate classes within the population (e.g., positive test (with disease/without disease), negative test (without disease)), and therefore makes it easier for people to choose the correct class (people with a positive test) to reason with (thus generating something close to the correct answer—1/51/~2%.) Both frequency and Probability format highlighting set-subset structures lead to similar rates of correct answers, whereas the probability format alone leads to fewer correct answers (as people are likely to rely on the incorrect class in this case.) Research has also shown that one can reduce performance in the frequency format by disguising the set-subset relationships in the problem (just as in the standard probability format), thus demonstrating that it is not, in fact, the frequency format, but instead, the highlighting of the set-subset structure that improves judgments.
+
+=== Ease of comparison ===
+Critics of the frequency format hypothesis argue that probability formats allow for much easier comparison than frequency format representation of data. In some cases, using frequency formats actually does allow for easy comparison. If team A wins 19 of its 29 games, and another team B wins 10 of its 29 games, one can clearly see that team A is much better than team B. However comparison in frequency format is not always this clear and easy. If team A won 19 out of its 29 games, comparing this team with team B that won 6 out of its 11 games becomes much harder in frequency format. But, in the probability format, one could say since  65.6%(19/29) is greater than 54.5%, one could much easily compare the two.
+
+=== Memory burden ===
+Tooby and Cosmides had argued that frequency representation helps update data easier each time one gets new data. However this involves updating both numbers. Referring back to the example of teams, if team A won its 31st game, note that both the number of games won(20->21) and the number of games played(30->31) has to be updated. In the case of probability the only number to be updated is the single percentage number. Also, this number could be updated over the course of 10 games instead of updating each game, which cannot be done in the case of frequency format.
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Freud's seduction theory"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:34.697405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Freud's seduction theory (German: Verführungstheorie) was a hypothesis posited in the mid-1890s by Sigmund Freud that he believed provided the solution to the problem of the origins of hysteria and obsessional neurosis. According to the theory, a repressed memory of child sexual abuse in early childhood or a molestation experience was the essential precondition for hysterical or obsessional symptoms, with the addition of an active sexual experience up to the age of eight for the latter.
+In the traditional account of development of seduction theory, Freud initially thought that his patients were relating more or less factual stories of sexual mistreatment, and that only sexual abuse could be responsible for his patients' neuroses and other mental health problems. Within a few years Freud abandoned his theory, concluding that some of his patients' stories of sexual abuse were not literal and were instead fantasies. He never ruled out that sexual abuse could be the cause of illness, simply that it was not the only possible cause.
+An alternative account that has come to the fore in recent Freudian scholarship emphasizes that the theory, as posited by Freud, was that hysteria and obsessional neurosis result from unconscious memories of sexual abuse in infancy. In the three seduction theory papers published in 1896, Freud stated that with all his current patients he had been able to uncover such abuse, mostly when they were below the age of four. These papers indicate that the patients did not relate stories of having been sexually abused in early childhood; rather, Freud interpreted his patients' symptoms and associations to indicate that they had, and exerted pressure on his patients, in an attempt to induce the "reproduction" of the deeply repressed memories he posited. Though he reported he had succeeded in achieving this aim, he also acknowledged that the patients generally remained unconvinced that what they had experienced indicated that they had actually been sexually abused in infancy. Freud's reports of the seduction theory episode went through a series of changes over the years, culminating in the traditional story based on his last account, in New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis.
+
+== Theory ==
+On the evening of April 21, 1896, Sigmund Freud presented a paper before his colleagues at the Society for Psychiatry and Neurology in Vienna, entitled "The Aetiology of Hysteria". Using a sample of 18 patients—male and female—from his practice, he concluded that all of them had been the victims of sexual assaults by various caretakers. The cause of the patient's distress lay in a trauma inflicted by an actor in the child's social environment. The source of internal psychic pain lay in an act inflicted upon the child from outside. This led to his well-known "seduction theory".
+The medical journals of that time did not report Freud's lecture. In the Wiener klinische Wochenschrift, published weekly in Vienna, on May 14, 1896, three papers were reported from the April 21 meeting (p. 420). Two of the papers were reported in the usual manner. Invariably, the practice was to give the title of a paper, a brief summary of its contents, and an account of the ensuing discussion. But in the citation of the last paper, there was a break with tradition. The report reads as follows: Docent Sigm. Freud: Über die Ätiologie der Hysterie (Sigmund Freud, lecturer: On the Aetiology of Hysteria.) There was no summary and no discussion. Freud published it a few weeks later in the Wiener klinische Rundschau.
+On the other hand, Freud had no trouble publishing three papers on the subject in a matter of months. Doubt has been cast on the notion that the occurrence of child sexual abuse was not acknowledged by most of Freud's colleagues. It has been pointed out that they were skeptical about Freud's claims of one hundred percent confirmation of his theory, and would have been aware of criticisms that his suggestive clinical procedures were liable to produce findings of doubtful validity.
+Freud's seduction theory emphasizes the causative impact of nurture: the shaping of the mind by experience. This theory held that hysteria and obsessional neurosis are caused by repressed memories of infantile sexual abuse. Infantile sexual abuse, the root of all neurosis, is premature introduction of sexuality into the experience of the child. Trauma creates affects and thoughts that simply cannot be integrated. The adult who had a normal, non-traumatic childhood is able to contain and assimilate sexual feelings into a continuous sense of self. Freud proposed that adults who experienced sexual abuse as a child suffer from unconscious memories and feelings incompatible with the central mass of thoughts and feelings that constitute his or her experience. Psychic disorders are a direct consequence of experiences that cannot be assimilated. Infantile sexual abuse was a necessary condition for the development of certain disorders, hysteria in particular. But another condition had to be met: There had to be an unconscious memory of the abuse.
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+---
+title: "Freud's seduction theory"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:34.697405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Reported evidence ==
+Freud had a lot of data as evidence for the seduction theory, but rather than presenting the actual data on which he based his conclusions (his clinical cases and what he had learned from them) or the methods he used to acquire the data (his psychoanalytic technique), he instead addressed only the evidence that the data he reportedly acquired were accurate (that he had discovered genuine abuse). He thought that the community could not yet handle the clinical case stories about sexual abuse. He did not want to present these stories before the seduction theory had become more accepted. Freud made several arguments to support the position that the memories he had uncovered were genuine. One of them was, according to Freud, that the patients were not simply remembering the events as they would normally forgotten material; rather they were essentially reliving the events, with all the accompanying painful sensory experiences.
+On two occasions Freud wrote that he would be presenting the clinical evidence for his claims, but he never did so, which some critics have contended means that they have had to be taken largely on trust. Freud's clinical methodology at the time, involving the symbolic interpretation of symptoms, the use of suggestion and the exerting of pressure to induce his patients to "reproduce" the deeply repressed memories he posited, has led several Freud scholars and historians of psychology to cast doubt on the validity of his findings, whether of actual infantile abuse, or, as he later decided, unconscious fantasies.
+
+== Abandonment ==
+Freud did not publish the reasons that led to his abandoning the seduction theory in 1897–1898. For these we have to turn to a letter he wrote to his confidant Wilhelm Fliess dated 21 September 1897. 
+
+First, he referred to his inability to "bring a single analysis to a real conclusion" and "the absence of complete successes" on which he had counted.
+Second, he wrote of his "surprise that in all cases, the father, not excluding my own, had to be accused of being perverse" if he were to be able to maintain the theory; and the "realization of the unexpected frequency of hysteria... whereas surely such widespread perversions against children are not very probable."
+Third, Freud referred to indications that, he argued, the unconscious is unable to distinguish fact from fiction. In the unconscious there is no sign of reality, so one cannot differentiate between the truth and the fiction invested with feeling.
+Fourth, Freud wrote of his belief that in "deep-reaching psychosis, the unconscious memory does not break through [to the conscious], so the secret of the childhood experiences is not disclosed even in the most confused delirium." (In the same letter Freud wrote that his loss of faith in his theory would remain known only to himself and Fliess, and in fact he did not make known his abandonment of the theory publicly until 1906.)
+The collapse of the seduction theory led in 1897 to the emergence of Freud's new theory of infantile sexuality. The impulses, fantasies and conflicts that Freud claimed to have uncovered beneath the neurotic symptoms of his patients derived not from only external contamination, but also from the mind of the child itself.
+There were some serious negative consequences of this shift. The most obvious negative consequence was that a limited interpretation of Freud's theory of infantile sexuality would cause some therapists and others to deny reported sexual abuse as fantasy; a situation that has given rise to much criticism (e.g. The Freudian Coverup by social worker Florence Rush). However, the rejection of the seduction theory led to the development of concepts such as the unconscious, repressions, the repetition compulsion, transference and resistance, and the unfolding psychosexual stages of childhood.
+In 1998, a century after Freud abandoned the Seduction Theory, a group of analysts and psychologists, including Stephen Mitchell, George Makari, Leonard Shengold, Jacob Arlow, and Anna Ornstein, met at Mount Sinai Hospital to reconsider the Seduction Theory, during which they discussed what any therapist can really know about their patients' true histories and whether that lack of certainty about the truth matters for treatment. Shengold called the meeting, "a Woodstock of epistemology." And the analyst Robert Michaels, defending psychoanalysts' lack of historical truth about their patients said, "We are experts not in helping patients learn facts but in helping them construct useful myths. We are fantasy doctors, not reality doctors."
+
+== See also ==
+Jean Laplanche, psychoanalyst and theorist who took up Freud's abandoned theory and developed his  théorie de la séduction généralisée in 1987
+Emma Eckstein
+Auguste Ambroise Tardieu, French medical doctor and one of the first to examine and report sexual abuse in children
+The Assault on Truth by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson
+The Freudian Coverup by Florence Rush
+In the Freud Archives by Janet Malcolm
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Freud's seduction theory"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:34.697405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Cioffi, Frank (1998 [1973]. "Was Freud a Liar?" Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience. Chicago: Open Court, pp. 199–204.
+Kurt R. Eissler, Freud and the Seduction Theory: A Brief Love Affair, New York: International Universities Press, 2001
+Robert Fliess, Symbol, Dream and Psychosis: Volume III Psychoanalytic Series, 1973
+Esterson, Allen (1998). Jeffrey Masson and Freud's Seduction Theory: a new fable based on old myths. History of the Human Sciences, 11 (1), pp. 1–21. http://human-nature.com/esterson/
+Esterson, Allen (2001). The Mythologizing of Psychoanalytic History: deception and self-deception in Freud's accounts of the seduction theory episode. History of Psychiatry, Vol. 12 (3), pp. 329-352.
+Esterson, Allen (2002). "The myth of Freud's ostracism by the medical community in 1896-1905: Jeffrey Masson's assault on truth". History of Psychology. 5 (2): 115–134. doi:10.1037/1093-4510.5.2.115. PMID 12096757.
+Freud, S. (1896a). Heredity and the aetiology of the neuroses. Standard Edition Vol. 3, 143–156.
+Freud, S. (1896b). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. Standard Edition Vol. 3, 162–185.
+Freud, S. (1896c). The aetiology of hysteria. Standard Edition, Vol. 3, 191–221.
+Israëls, Han and Schatzman, Morton (1993). "The Seduction Theory" History of Psychiatry, iv: 23–59.
+Lothane, Z. (1987). Love, seduction, and trauma. The Psychoanalytic Review, 74(1):83-105.
+Lothane, Z. (2001). Freud's alleged repudiation of his seduction theory revisited, The Psychoanalytic Review, 88(5):673-723.
+Masson, Jeffrey M. (1984). The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
+Masson, Jeffrey M. (editor) (1985). The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess 1887-1904. ed. and trans. J. M. Masson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
+Schimek, J. G. (1987). "Fact and Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: A Historical Review." Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, xxxv: 937–65.
+Wolff, Larry (1995). Child Abuse in Freud's Vienna: Postcards From the End of the World. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0814792871. Originally published in 1988 as Postcards From the End of the World: Child Abuse in Freud's Vienna. New York: Atheneum. ISBN 978-0689118838.
+
+== External links ==
+"Freud and Seduction Theory Reconsidered"
+"Interview with Larry Wolff on Freud and the Seduction Theory"
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudge_factor-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudge_factor-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..556cafdae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudge_factor-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+---
+title: "Fudge factor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudge_factor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:45.370479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A fudge factor is an ad hoc quantity or element introduced into a calculation, formula or model in order to make it fit observations or expectations.  Also known as a correction coefficient, which is defined by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          κ
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            experimental value
+            theoretical value
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \kappa _{\text{c}}={\frac {\text{experimental value}}{\text{theoretical value}}}.}
+  
+
+Examples include Einstein's cosmological constant, dark energy, the initial proposals of dark matter and inflation.
+
+
+== Examples in science ==
+Some quantities in scientific theory are set arbitrarily according to measured results rather than by calculation (for example, the Planck constant). However, in the case of these fundamental constants, their arbitrariness is usually explicit. To suggest that other calculations may include a "fudge factor" may suggest that the calculation has been somehow tampered with to make results give a misleadingly good match to experimental data.
+
+
+=== Cosmological constant ===
+In theoretical physics, when Albert Einstein originally tried to produce a general theory of relativity, he found that the theory seemed to predict the gravitational collapse of the universe: it seemed that the universe should be collapsing, and to produce a model in which the universe was static and stable (which seemed to Einstein at the time to be the "proper" result), he introduced an expansionist variable (called the cosmological constant), whose sole purpose was to cancel out the cumulative effects of gravitation. He later called this "the biggest blunder of my life".
+
+
+== See also ==
+Anthropic principle
+Confidence interval
+Plug (accounting)
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze_heuristic-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9d1a6169f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze_heuristic-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Gaze heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:46.563786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The gaze heuristic falls under the category of tracking heuristics, and it is used in directing correct motion to achieve a goal using one main variable. McLeod & Dienes' (1996) example of the gaze heuristic is catching a ball.
+Gerd Gigerenzer categorizes the gaze heuristic under tracking heuristics, where human animals and non-human animals are able to process large amounts of information quickly and react, regardless of whether the information is consciously processed.
+The gaze heuristic is a critical element in animal behavior, being used in predation heavily. At the most basic level, the gaze heuristic ignores all casual relevant variables to make quick gut reactions.
+
+
+== Example ==
+A catcher using the gaze heuristic observes the initial angle of the ball and runs towards it in such a way as to keep this angle constant. The gaze heuristic does not require knowledge of any of the variables required by the optimizing approach, nor does it require the catcher to integrate information, yet it allows the catcher to catch the ball. The gaze heuristic may therefore be described at ecologically rational at least in the simple case of catching a ball in the air.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Constant bearing, decreasing range
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind–Galaburda_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind–Galaburda_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..106454f66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind–Galaburda_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+---
+title: "Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind–Galaburda_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:35.886367+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis is a neurological theory proposed by Norman Geschwind and Albert Galaburda in 1987. The hypothesis posits there are sex differences in cognitive abilities by relating them to lateralisation of brain function. The maturation rates of cerebral hemispheres differ and are mediated by circuiting testosterone levels, which are substantially influenced during the foetal and post-puberty development stages.
+According to the hypothesis, testosterone delays the maturation of the brain, particularly the left hemisphere, resulting in corresponding regions of the right hemisphere and unaffected areas of the left hemisphere developing more rapidly. This leads to reduced verbal skills and an increased risk of developing language disorders, e.g dyslexia, while a rapid development of the right hemisphere and the skills corresponding to it, such as attention and problem-solving.
+Focusing on foetal testosterone, the rise in levels hinders the development of the individual’s neurology and immunity, potentially explaining how cerebral lateralisation links to learning disorders, giftedness, and immune deficits. In cases of an underdeveloped or functionally impaired left hemisphere, the neuroanatomical asymmetries may lead to compensatory activity in other areas of the brain.
+The field of “neuropsychology of individual differences” is concerned with the understanding the relationship between brain lateralisation and behaviour variation. In their work, Geschwind and Galaburda proposed that in order to explain the differences in cognitive abilities, it is dependent on prenatal exposure to testosterone. This comprehensive theoretical framework links the association between brain development, testosterone levels, and cognitive abilities. The theory gathers a wide range of neuropsychological phenomena and their associations under a single theoretical umbrella.
+
+
+== Relation to dyslexia ==
+Dyslexic individuals have varying degrees of reading, writing, and verbal impairments. The development of dyslexia has been explicitly highlighted in those who have a specific cerebral lateralisation pattern, which have shown difficulties in language processing. Typically, the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant in language processing; however, individuals with dyslexia may have an underdeveloped or functionally impaired left hemisphere, leading to language processing difficulties. In response to this, the right hemisphere and posterior parietal cortex compensate to undertake language processing tasks, resulting in inefficiencies in language processing. This compensatory activity in other areas of the brain may explain the variability in the degree of impairment experienced by dyslexic individuals. Understanding the relationship between cerebral lateralisation and language processing amongst dyslexic individuals could be an effective method of diagnosis and treatment. Further research could design appropriate schemes to enhance the language processing and communication abilities of the individuals.
+
+
+== Studies ==
+The Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis has garnered empirical support from a number of studies. For instance, Witelson et al. discovered that Einstein’s brain exhibited an atypical pattern of cerebral lateralisation, which supports the hypothesis that brain lateralisation is related to cognitive abilities. In relation to the testosterone influence, an increased glial cell density in the left hemisphere caused an increased prenatal exposure to testosterone, which led to the disruption in the development of cerebral lateralisation. Therefore, the increased cell density in Einstein’s left hemisphere suggests the prenatal testosterone may have influenced his cognitive abilities and delayed language processing.
+Another study highlighted how the role of neuroanatomy in an individual leads to developmental dyslexia. Researchers note that while the study of sex differences in dyslexia is still in its early stages, hormonal differences have been shown to cause cerebral asymmetry, which is followed by language and speech difficulties. The regions of the brain that are involved in language processing and phonological awareness, such as the planum temporal and inferior parietal lobule, have been found to differ between individuals with and without dyslexia. Impairments in these brain regions can lead to dyslexia, which is characterised by difficulties in reading and writing.
+
+
+== Contradictions ==
+Although the Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis has been cited in mainstream media and publication resources as a cause for left-handedness, very little research evidence (if any) has been presented to substantiate the theory.  In fact, evidence has emerged suggesting that high prenatal estrogen exposure is just as likely to enhance the gene expression for left-handedness.  In a study endorsed by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), it is suggested that men who were prenatally exposed to diethylstilbestrol (a synthetic estrogen based fertility drug), are more likely to be left-handed than unexposed men. A study by Cornish found no association between sex and handedness, contradicting the expectation that there should be more males and left-handers. While the Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis suggests that higher levels of testosterone should lead to cerebral lateralisation asymmetries, the theory has not been definitively proven or disproven. Further research is needed to fully understand the complexity of this theory and its implications.
+Moreover, the theory has the potential to oversimplify the relationship between brain lateralisation and cognitive abilities. The impacts of brain lateralisation on cognitive abilities are highly complex, and there may be multiple causes that are not fully explained by cerebral lateralisation or circulating testosterone. A more holistic approach may be needed to fully understand the relationship between brain lateralisation and cognitive abilities. The controversial evidence supporting and not supporting the theory suggests that it may not be a reliable explanation for these developments.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillies'_conjecture-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillies'_conjecture-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e3f19acb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillies'_conjecture-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,421 @@
+---
+title: "Gillies' conjecture"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillies'_conjecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:37.037748+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In number theory, Gillies' conjecture is a conjecture about the distribution of prime divisors of Mersenne numbers and was made by Donald B. Gillies in a 1964 paper in which he also announced the discovery of three new Mersenne primes. The conjecture is a specialization of the prime number theorem and is a refinement of conjectures due to I. J. Good and Daniel Shanks. The conjecture remains an open problem: several papers give empirical support, but it disagrees with the widely accepted (but also open) Lenstra–Pomerance–Wagstaff conjecture.
+
+
+== The conjecture ==
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          If 
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\text{If }}}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+        <
+        B
+        <
+        
+          
+            
+              M
+              
+                p
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          , as 
+        
+        B
+        
+          /
+        
+        A
+        
+           and 
+        
+        
+          M
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+        →
+        ∞
+        
+          , the number of prime divisors of 
+        
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A<B<{\sqrt {M_{p}}}{\text{, as }}B/A{\text{ and }}M_{p}\rightarrow \infty {\text{, the number of prime divisors of }}M}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+           in the interval 
+        
+        [
+        A
+        ,
+        B
+        ]
+        
+           is Poisson-distributed with
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\text{ in the interval }}[A,B]{\text{ is Poisson-distributed with}}}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          mean 
+        
+        ∼
+        
+          
+            {
+            
+              
+                
+                  log
+                  ⁡
+                  (
+                  log
+                  ⁡
+                  B
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  log
+                  ⁡
+                  A
+                  )
+                
+                
+                  
+                     if 
+                  
+                  A
+                  ≥
+                  2
+                  p
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  log
+                  ⁡
+                  (
+                  log
+                  ⁡
+                  B
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  log
+                  ⁡
+                  2
+                  p
+                  )
+                
+                
+                  
+                     if 
+                  
+                  A
+                  <
+                  2
+                  p
+                
+              
+            
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\text{mean }}\sim {\begin{cases}\log(\log B/\log A)&{\text{ if }}A\geq 2p\\\log(\log B/\log 2p)&{\text{ if }}A<2p\end{cases}}}
+  
+
+He noted that his conjecture would imply that
+
+The number of Mersenne primes less than 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+         
+        
+          
+            2
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ~{\frac {2}{\log 2}}\log \log x}
+  
+.
+The expected number of Mersenne primes 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M_{p}}
+  
+ with 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ≤
+        p
+        ≤
+        2
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\leq p\leq 2x}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∼
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sim 2}
+  
+.
+The probability that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M_{p}}
+  
+ is prime is 
+  
+    
+      
+         
+        
+          
+            
+              2
+              log
+              ⁡
+              2
+              p
+            
+            
+              p
+              log
+              ⁡
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ~{\frac {2\log 2p}{p\log 2}}}
+  
+.
+
+
+== Incompatibility with Lenstra–Pomerance–Wagstaff conjecture ==
+The Lenstra–Pomerance–Wagstaff conjecture gives different values:
+
+The number of Mersenne primes less than 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+         
+        
+          
+            
+              e
+              
+                γ
+              
+            
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ~{\frac {e^{\gamma }}{\log 2}}\log \log x}
+  
+.
+The expected number of Mersenne primes 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M_{p}}
+  
+ with 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ≤
+        p
+        ≤
+        2
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\leq p\leq 2x}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∼
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sim e^{\gamma }}
+  
+.
+The probability that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M_{p}}
+  
+ is prime is 
+  
+    
+      
+         
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                e
+                
+                  γ
+                
+              
+              log
+              ⁡
+              a
+              p
+            
+            
+              p
+              log
+              ⁡
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ~{\frac {e^{\gamma }\log ap}{p\log 2}}}
+  
+ with a = 2 if p = 3 mod 4 and 6 otherwise.
+Asymptotically these values are about 11% smaller.
+
+
+== Results ==
+While Gillie's conjecture remains open, several papers have added empirical support to its validity, including Ehrman's 1964 paper.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5a4a332b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Glacial buzzsaw"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:38.252917+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The glacial buzzsaw is a hypothesis claiming erosion by warm-based glaciers is key to limit the height of mountains above certain threshold altitude. To this the hypothesis adds that great mountain massifs are leveled towards the equilibrium line altitude (ELA), which would act as a “climatic base level”.  Starting from the hypothesis it has been predicted that local climate restricts the maximum height that mountain massifs can attain by effect of uplifting tectonic forces. It follows that as local climate is cooler at higher latitudes the highest mountains are lower there compared to the tropics where glaciation is and has been more limited. The mechanism behind the glacial buzzsaw effect would be the erosion of small glaciers that are mostly unable to erode much below the equilibrium line altitude since they do not reach these altitudes because of increased ablation. Instead, large valley glaciers may easily surpass the equilibrium line altitude and do therefore not contribute to a glacial buzzsaw effect. This is said to be the case of the Patagonian ice fields where lack of buzzsaw effect results in rapid tectonic uplift rates.
+Mountains massifs proposed to be subject to a glacial buzzsaw effect include the mountains of southeast Alaska, the Teton Range of Wyoming and the Dauphiné Alps of France. Authors such as Egholm and co-workers have claimed that the glacial buzzsaw effect can explain mountain altitudes across the globe. Some of the mountain massifs experiencing the highest uplift rates are those for which glacial buzzsaw effects are discarded.
+The concept has been criticized, as measured erosion rates in the Pyrenees do not indicate a general drive towards any certain level. In the case of Norway the elevated paleic surface has been proposed to have been shaped by a glacial buzzsaw effect. However this proposal is difficult to reconcile with the fact that the paleic surface consist of a series of steps at different levels. Further glacial cirques, that in the buzzsaw hypothesis contribute to belevel the landscape, are not associated to any paleosurface levels of the composite paleic surface, nor does the modern ELA or the Last Glacial Maximum ELA match any given level of the paleic surface.  The elevated plains of West Greenland are also unrelated to any glacial buzzsaw effect.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Climatic geomorphology
+Cryoplanation
+Summit accordance
+Truncated upland
+
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_survival_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_survival_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..97273115f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_survival_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Glacial survival hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_survival_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:39.470253+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+According to the northern cryptic glacial refugial hypothesis (or glacial survival hypothesis), during the last ice age cold tolerant plant and animal species (e.g. Norway spruce and Norwegian lemmings) persisted in ice-free microrefugia north of the Alps in Europe. The alternative hypothesis of no persistence and postglacial immigration of plants and animals from southern refugia in Europe (southern refugia paradigm) is sometimes also called the tabula rasa hypothesis.
+
+Over the past plants and animals have persisted through long periods of climate change including several glacial and interglacial periods. There is a long-standing debate on what happened to the species that were inhabiting high-latitude regions during the Pleistocene ice age. Two main scenarios are usually considered. The first scenario proposes a total extinction of species within glaciated areas with survival events in peripheral refugia in the south and successive massive postglacial migration into empty areas (tabula rasa hypothesis). The second scenario proposes long-term in situ survival within glaciated regions (glacial survival hypothesis), either in isolated northern ice-free micro-refugia at the edge of the ice sheet, or on exposed mountains not covered with ice within the ice sheet (nunatak hypothesis).
+For boreal and cold-tolerant species the glacial survival hypothesis is credible, though controversial, and a growing body of Molecular biology data support it for both plant and animal species. A number of recent studies indicate that several northern regions (above latitudes >45° N) supported low-density boreal and temperate tree populations during the late-glacial or Early Holocene [e.g. North America,  Eurasia, Alps, Scandinavia].
+In recent years several studies have combined lines of evidence coming from three major disciplines to infer the existence of past refugia: fossil records, species distribution models and molecular/phylogeographic surveys. In this way, it should be possible to better describe complex migration routes followed by species and populations in and out of refugia through time and space. 
+There has also been research to suggest that certain cold-tolerant tree species were able to survive the low temperatures thanks to the presence of a co-dependent beetle by the name of Gonioctena intermedia.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Last Glacial Maximum refugia
+Refugium (population biology)
+Glacial refugium
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Chronology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Chronology-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1aac18fb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Chronology-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Glasgow Chronology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Chronology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:40.601406+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Glasgow Chronology is a proposed revision of the Egyptian chronology of ancient Egypt. It was first formulated between the years 1978 and 1982 by a working group following the Glasgow Conference of Society for Interdisciplinary Studies (SIS, a non-profit organization advocating serious academic analysis of the pseudoscientific writings of Immanuel Velikovsky and other catastrophists).
+This chronology placed the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt some five hundred years later than the conventional chronology of Egypt.
+
+
+== Formation ==
+The Glasgow Chronology was initially presented at an SIS conference that was held in 1978 in Glasgow and entitled "Ages in Chaos?" Flaws were pointed out in it almost immediately, and by the 1980s, all of its original proponents had abandoned it in favour of other chronologies.
+The Glasgow Chronology accepted all the character identifications proposed by Velikovsky in Ages in Chaos (1952). Thus Hatshepsut, who visited the Divine Land, was equated with the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon in Jerusalem, whilst Thutmose III, who followed Hatshepsut, was equated with Shishak, who plundered the Jerusalem temple after the death of Solomon. Velikovsky therefore reduced the age of the Eighteenth Dynasty by five centuries. However, in his subsequently published Ramses II and his Time (1978), he brought the Nineteenth dynasty down by roughly seven centuries, thus opening a two-century gap between the Eighteenth and Nineteenth dynasties. Despite the Glasgow Chronology intent of reducing the age of the Nineteenth dynasty by five centuries and allowing it to naturally follow from the Eighteenth dynasty, its original proponents concluded that it was historically unsupportable.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Phantom time hypothesis
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_horizontal_sounding_technique-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_horizontal_sounding_technique-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..33209a3df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_horizontal_sounding_technique-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+---
+title: "Global horizontal sounding technique"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_horizontal_sounding_technique"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:17.862849+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The global horizontal sounding technique (GHOST) program was an atmospheric field research project in the late 1960s for investigating the technical ability to gather weather data using hundreds of simultaneous long-duration balloons for very long-range global scale numerical weather prediction in preparation for the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP).
+
+
+== Technology ==
+The GHOST program was to demonstrate technology for a program that would, ultimately, gather data from thousands of balloons simultaneously.  Unlike radiosonde balloons which collect vertical atmospheric sounding data over the release point during a relatively short ascent lasting a few hours, horizontal sounding balloons stay aloft for much longer periods lasting several weeks or months, floating at a constant-density altitude.
+The GHOST design explored the performance a superpressure balloon with a spherical two-layer PET film envelope holding the gas inside at a higher pressure than the surrounding atmosphere, allowing it to maintain a nearly constant altitude. These gas balloons float at a constant density altitude, where the balloon displaces a mass of air equal to its own mass. Expansion of the lifting gas due to solar heating is avoided in a superpressure balloon, since the inextensible PET film allows the pressure to rise as the gas is heated, rather than allow the volume to expand. This allows them to drift with, and track, horizontal atmospheric air currents at a constant air pressure level (a constant altitude) above the Earth's surface.
+The electronics payload was suspended below the balloon on a tether that also acted as a high frequency band radio antenna. The GHOST payload included a sun angle sensor that varied the repetition rate of its Morse code radio signal to allow technicians on the ground to locate it using an HF receiver and a set of sun angle tables.
+The balloons could not be flown in the Northern Hemisphere because the Soviet Union would not permit overflights at the time.
+
+
+== Results ==
+231 GHOST balloons were launched in a four-year period between March 1966 and December 1969.
+On September 29, 1968, a 10-foot (3.0-meter) GHOST balloon at an altitude of approximately 52,000 feet (16,000 meters) completed a full 365 days in flight, becoming the first balloon to fly for a full year. This record-breaking balloon, launched from Christchurch, New Zealand by the U.S. National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), continued to fly for an additional 76 days, completing 35 circumnavigations of the Earth. The longest flight of the program was 744 days, or just over two years.
+
+
+== Legacy ==
+For the measurements of the GARP program, the demonstrated flight lifetime at low altitudes (below 12 km (7.5 mi)) proved to be too short, despite many redesigns of the balloon system to improve the performance. Without both upper level and lower level long-duration balloons, the GHOST system idea was deemed infeasible for the GARP requirements. The GHOST program was superseded by research on the carrier balloon system, also known as "Mother GHOST".
+The Ghost Project based at Christchurch Airport New Zealand was still running in 1973. A GHOST project balloon was seen by a member of the public in 1985.
+Vincent E. Lally of NCAR received the Otto C. Winzen Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics in 2003 for his pioneering work in the application and development of superpressure balloons for worldwide atmospheric measurements, including the GHOST program. Winzen was a pioneer of modern ballooning, and this award recognizes outstanding contributions to the advancement of free-flight balloon systems or related technologies.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Angell, J.K. (1972). "Some Climatological Aspects of the Circulation in Southern Hemisphere Temperate Latitudes as Determined From 200-Millibar GHOST Balloon Flights". Monthly Weather Review. 100 (2): 107–116. Bibcode:1972MWRv..100..107A. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1972)100<0107:SCAOTC>2.3.CO;2.
+Lally, V.E. (1966). "The Global Horizontal Sounding Technique (ghost) and Southern Hemisphere Test Plans". Problems of Atmospheric Circulation: 27. Bibcode:1966pac..conf...27L.
+Lally, V.E.; Lichfield, E.W. (1969). "Summary of status and plans for the GHOST balloon project". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 50 (11): 867–874. Bibcode:1969BAMS...50..867L. doi:10.1175/1520-0477-50.11.867. Retrieved 2007-10-16.
+Lally, V.E.; Lichfield, E.W. (1969). Summary of Status and Plans for the GHOST Balloon Project. National Center for Atmospheric Research.
+Lally, V.E. (1969). "Results of the GHOST Balloon Project, 1968(GHOST Balloon Project, emphasizing launch and ascent control and location and life expectancy of superpressure balloons in tropical stratosphere)". Retrieved 2007-10-17. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
+Solot, S.B.; Angell, J.K. (1968). "Temperate Latitude 200-mb Zonal Winds from GHOST Balloon Flights in the Southern Hemisphere". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 26 (3): 574–579. Bibcode:1969JAtS...26..574S. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1969)026<0574:TLMZWF>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469.
+Solot, S.B.; Angell, J.K. (1972). "The Mean Upper-Air Flow in Southern Hemisphere Temperate Latitudes Determined from Several Years of GHOST Balloon Flights at 200 and 100 mb". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 30 (1): 3–12. Bibcode:1973JAtS...30....3S. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1973)030<0003:TMUAFI>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469.
+
+
+== External links ==
+MSN Encarta: Ballooning (Archived 2009-10-31)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduated_optimization-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduated_optimization-0.md
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+---
+title: "Graduated optimization"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduated_optimization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:47.716297+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Graduated optimization is a global optimization technique that attempts to solve a difficult optimization problem by initially solving a greatly simplified problem, and progressively transforming that problem (while optimizing) until it is equivalent to the difficult optimization problem.
+
+
+== Technique description ==
+
+Graduated optimization is an improvement to hill climbing that enables a hill climber to avoid settling into local optima. It breaks a difficult optimization problem into a sequence of optimization problems, such that the first problem in the sequence is convex (or nearly convex), the solution to each problem gives a good starting point to the next problem in the sequence, and the last problem in the sequence is the difficult optimization problem that it ultimately seeks to solve. Often, graduated optimization gives better results than simple hill climbing. Further, when certain conditions exist, it can be shown to find an optimal solution to the final problem in the sequence. These conditions are:
+
+The first optimization problem in the sequence can be solved given the initial starting point.
+The locally convex region around the global optimum of each problem in the sequence includes the point that corresponds to the global optimum of the previous problem in the sequence.
+It can be shown inductively that if these conditions are met, then a hill climber will arrive at the global optimum for the difficult problem. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to find a sequence of optimization problems that meet these conditions. Often, graduated optimization yields good results even when the sequence of problems cannot be proven to strictly meet all of these conditions.
+
+
+== Some examples ==
+Graduated optimization is commonly used in image processing for locating objects within a larger image. This problem can be made to be more convex by blurring the images. Thus, objects can be found by first searching the most-blurred image, then starting at that point and searching within a less-blurred image, and continuing in this manner until the object is located with precision in the original sharp image. The proper choice of the blurring operator depends on the geometric transformation relating the object in one image to the other.
+Graduated optimization can be used in manifold learning. The Manifold Sculpting algorithm, for example, uses graduated optimization to seek a manifold embedding for non-linear dimensionality reduction. It gradually scales variance out of extra dimensions within a data set while optimizing in the remaining dimensions. It has also been used to calculate conditions for fractionation with tumors, for object tracking in computer vision, and other purposes.
+A thorough review of the method and its applications can be found in.
+
+
+== Related optimization techniques ==
+Simulated annealing is closely related to graduated optimization. Instead of smoothing the function over which it is optimizing, simulated annealing randomly perturbs the current solution by a decaying amount, which may have a similar effect. Because simulated annealing relies on random sampling to find improvements, however, its computational complexity is exponential in the number of dimensions being optimized. By contrast, graduated optimization smooths the function being optimized, so local optimization techniques that are efficient in high-dimensional space (such as gradient-based techniques, hill climbers, etc.) may still be used.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Numerical continuation
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Grand tack hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In planetary astronomy, the grand tack hypothesis proposes that Jupiter formed at a distance of 3.5 AU from the Sun, then migrated inward to 1.5 AU, before reversing course due to capturing Saturn in an orbital resonance, eventually halting near its current orbit at 5.2 AU. The reversal of Jupiter's planetary migration is likened to the path of a sailboat changing directions (tacking) as it travels against the wind.
+The planetesimal disk is truncated at 1.0 AU by Jupiter's migration, limiting the material available to form Mars. Jupiter twice crosses the asteroid belt, scattering asteroids outward then inward. The resulting asteroid belt has a small mass, a wide range of inclinations and eccentricities, and a population originating from both inside and outside Jupiter's original orbit. Debris produced by collisions among planetesimals swept ahead of Jupiter may have driven an early generation of planets into the Sun.
+
+== Description ==
+In the grand tack hypothesis, Jupiter underwent a two-phase migration after its formation, migrating inward to 1.5 AU before reversing course and migrating outward. Jupiter's formation took place near the ice line, at roughly 3.5 AU.
+After clearing a gap in the gas disk Jupiter underwent type II migration, moving slowly toward the Sun with the gas disk. If uninterrupted, this migration would have left Jupiter in a close orbit around the Sun, similar to hot Jupiters in other planetary systems. Saturn also migrated toward the Sun, but being smaller it migrated faster, undergoing either type I migration or runaway migration. Saturn converged on Jupiter and was captured in a 2:3 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter during this migration. An overlapping gap in the gas disk then formed around Jupiter and Saturn, altering the balance of forces on these planets which began migrating together. Saturn partially cleared its part of the gap reducing the torque exerted on Jupiter by the outer disk. 
+The net torque on the planets then became positive, with the torques generated by the inner Lindblad resonances exceeding those from the outer disk, and the planets began to migrate outward. The outward migration was able to continue because interactions between the planets allowed gas to stream through the gap. The gas exchanged angular momentum with the planets during its passage, adding to the positive balance of torques, allowing the planets to migrate outward relative to the disk; the exchange also transferred mass from the outer disk to the inner disk. The transfer of gas to the inner disk also slowed the reduction of the inner disk's mass relative to the outer disk as it accreted onto the Sun, which otherwise would weaken the inner torque, ending the giant planets' outward migration. In the grand tack hypothesis this process is assumed to have reversed the inward migration of the planets when Jupiter was at 1.5 AU. The outward migration of Jupiter and Saturn continued until they reached a zero-torque configuration within a flared disk, or when the gas disk dissipated. The whole process is presumed to end when Jupiter reached its approximate current orbit.
+
+== Scope of the grand tack hypothesis ==
+The hypothesis can be applied to multiple phenomena in the Solar System.
+
+=== Mars problem ===
+The "Mars problem" is a conflict between some simulations of the formation of the terrestrial planets which end with a 0.5–1.0 M🜨 planet in its region, much larger than the actual mass of Mars: 0.107 M🜨, when begun with planetesimals distributed throughout the inner Solar System. Jupiter's grand tack resolves the Mars problem by limiting the material available to form Mars.
+Jupiter's inward migration alters this distribution of material, driving planetesimals inward to form a narrow dense band with a mix of materials inside 1.0 au, and leaves the Mars region largely empty. Planetary embryos quickly form in the narrow band. Most of these embryos collide and merge to form the larger terrestrial planets (Venus and Earth) over a period of 60 to 130 million years. Others are scattered outside the band where they are deprived of additional material, slowing their growth, and form the lower-mass terrestrial planets Mars and Mercury.
+
+=== Asteroid belt ===
+Jupiter and Saturn drive most asteroids from their initial orbits during their migrations, leaving behind an excited remnant derived from both inside and outside Jupiter's original location. Before Jupiter's migrations the surrounding regions contained asteroids which varied in composition with their distance from the Sun. Rocky asteroids dominated the inner region, while more primitive and icy asteroids dominated the outer region beyond the ice line. As Jupiter and Saturn migrate inward, ~15% of the inner asteroids are scattered outward onto orbits beyond Saturn. After reversing course, Jupiter and Saturn first encounter these objects, scattering about 0.5% of the original population back inward onto stable orbits. Later, as Jupiter and Saturn migrate into the outer region, about 0.5% of the primitive asteroids are scattered onto orbits in the outer asteroid belt. The encounters with Jupiter and Saturn leave many of the captured asteroids with large eccentricities and inclinations. These may be reduced during the giant planet instability described in the Nice model so that the eccentricity distribution resembles that of the current asteroid belt. Some of the icy asteroids are also left in orbits crossing the region where the terrestrial planets later formed, allowing water to be delivered to the accreting planets when the icy asteroids collide with them.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-1.md
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+---
+title: "Grand tack hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Absent super-Earths ===
+The absence of close orbiting super-Earths in the Solar System may also be the result of Jupiter's inward migration. As Jupiter migrates inward, planetesimals are captured in its mean-motion resonances, causing their orbits to shrink and their eccentricities to grow. A collisional cascade follows as the planetesimals' relative velocities became large enough to produce catastrophic impacts. The resulting debris then spirals inward toward the Sun due to drag from the gas disk. If there were super-Earths in the early Solar System, they would have caught much of this debris in resonances and could have been driven into the Sun as the debris spiraled inward. The current terrestrial planets would then form from planetesimals left behind when Jupiter reversed course. However, the migration of close orbiting super-Earths into the Sun could be avoided if the debris coalesced into larger objects, reducing gas drag; and if the protoplanetary disk had an inner cavity, their inward migration could be halted near its edge. If no planets had yet formed in the inner Solar System, the destruction of the larger bodies during the collisional cascade could have left the remaining debris small enough to be pushed outward by the solar wind, which would have been much stronger during the early Solar System, leaving little to form planets inside Mercury's orbit.
+
+=== Post-hypothesis developments ===
+Simulations of the formation of the terrestrial planets using models of the protoplanetary disk that include viscous heating and the migration of the planetary embryos indicate that Jupiter's migration may have reversed at 2.0 AU. In simulations the eccentricities of the embryos are excited by perturbations from Jupiter. As these eccentricities are damped by the denser gas disk of recent models, the semi-major axes of the embryos shrink, shifting the peak density of solids inward. For simulations with Jupiter's migration reversing at 1.5 AU, this resulted in the largest terrestrial planet forming near Venus's orbit rather than at Earth's orbit. Simulations that instead reversed Jupiter's migration at 2.0 AU yielded a closer match to the current Solar System.
+When the fragmentation due to hit and run collisions are included in simulations with an early instability the orbits of the terrestrial planets are better produced. The larger numbers of small bodies resulting from these collisions reduce the eccentricities and inclinations of the growing planets orbits via additional collisions and dynamical friction. This also results in a larger fraction of the terrestrial planets mass being concentrated in Venus and Earth and extends their formation times relative to that of Mars.
+The migration of the giant planets through the asteroid belt creates a spike in impact velocities that could result in the formation of CB chondrites. CB chondrites are metal rich carbonaceous chondrites containing iron/nickel nodules that formed from the crystallization of impact melts 4.8 ±0.3 Myrs after the first solids. The vaporization of these metals requires impacts of greater than 18 km/s, well beyond the maximum of 12.2 km/s in standard accretion models. Jupiter's migration across the asteroid belt increases the eccentricities and inclinations of the asteroids, resulting in a 0.5 Myr period of impact velocities sufficient to vaporize metals. If the formation of CB chondrites was due to Jupiter's migration it would have occurred 4.5–5 Myrs after the formation of the Solar System.
+The presence of a thick atmosphere around Titan and its absence around Ganymede and Callisto may be due to the timing of their formation relative to the grand tack. If Ganymede and Callisto formed before the grand tack their atmospheres would have been lost as Jupiter moved closer to the Sun. However, for Titan to avoid Type I migration into Saturn, and for Titan's atmosphere to survive, it must have formed after the grand tack.
+Encounters with other embryos could destabilize a disk orbiting Mars reducing the mass of moons that form around Mars. After Mars is scattered from the annulus by encounters with other planets it continues to have encounters with other objects until the planets clear material from the inner Solar System. While these encounters enable the orbit of Mars to become decoupled from the other planets and remain on a stable orbit, they can also perturb the disk of material from which the moons of Mars form. These perturbations cause material to escape from  the orbit of Mars or to impact on its surface reducing the mass of the disk resulting in the formation of smaller moons.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-2.md
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+---
+title: "Grand tack hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Potential problems ==
+Most of the accretion of Mars must have taken place outside the narrow annulus of material formed by the grand tack if Mars has a different composition than Earth and Venus. The planets that grow in the annulus created by the grand tack end with similar compositions. If the grand tack occurred early, while the embryo that became Mars was relatively small, a Mars with a differing composition could form if it was instead scattered outward then inward like the asteroids. The chance of this occurring is roughly 2%.
+Later studies have shown that the convergent orbital migration of Jupiter and Saturn in the fading solar nebula is unlikely to establish a 3:2 mean-motion resonance. Instead of supporting a faster runaway migration, nebula conditions lead to a slower migration of Saturn and its capture in a 2:1 mean-motion resonance. Capture of Jupiter and Saturn in the 2:1 mean-motion resonance does not typically reverse the direction of migration, but particular nebula configurations have been identified that may drive outward migration.  These configurations, however, tend to excite Jupiter's and Saturn's orbital eccentricity to values between two and three times as large as their actual values. Also, if the temperature and viscosity of the gas allow Saturn to produce a deeper gap, the resulting net torque can again become negative, resulting in the inward migration of the system.
+The grand tack scenario ignores the ongoing accretion of gas on both Jupiter and Saturn.  In fact, to drive outward migration and move the planets to the proximity of their current orbits, the solar nebula had to contain a sufficiently large reservoir of gas around the orbits of the two planets. However, this gas would provide a source for accretion, which would affect the growth of Jupiter and Saturn and their mass ratio.  The type of nebula density required for capture in the 3:2 mean-motion resonance is especially dangerous for the survival of the two planets, because it can lead to significant mass growth and ensuing planet-planet scattering. But conditions leading to 2:1 mean-motion resonant systems may also put the planets in danger. Accretion of gas on both planets also tends to reduce the supply toward the inner disk, lowering the accretion rate toward the Sun. This process works to deplete somewhat the disk interior to Jupiter's orbit, weakening the torques on Jupiter arising from inner Lindblad resonances and potentially ending the planets' outward migration.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-3.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Grand tack hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Alternatives ==
+Multiple hypotheses have been offered to explain the small mass of Mars. A small Mars may have been a low probability event as it occurs in a small, but non-zero, fraction of simulations that begin with planetesimals distributed across the entire inner Solar System. A small Mars could be the result of its region having been largely empty due to solid material drifting farther inward before the planetesimals formed. Most of the mass could also have been removed from the Mars region before it formed if the giant planet instability described in the Nice model occurred early. If most of the growth of planetesimals and embryos into terrestrial planets was due to pebble accretion, a small Mars could be the result this process having been less efficient with increasing distances from the Sun. Convergent migration of planetary embryos in the gas disk toward 1 AU would result in the formation of terrestrial planets only near this distance leaving Mars as a stranded embryo. Sweeping secular resonances during the clearing of the gas disk could also excite inclinations and eccentricities, increasing relative velocities so that collisions resulted in fragmentation instead of accretion. A number of these hypotheses could also explain the low mass of the asteroid belt.
+A number of hypotheses have also been proposed to explain the orbital eccentricities and inclinations of the asteroids and the low mass of the asteroid belt. If the region of the asteroid belt was initially empty due to few planetesimals forming there it could have been populated by icy planetesimals that were scattered inward during Jupiter's and Saturn's gas accretion, and by stony asteroids that were scattered outward by the forming terrestrial planets. The inward scattered icy planetesimals could also deliver water to the terrestrial region. An initially low-mass asteroid belt could have had its orbital eccentricities and inclinations excited by secular resonances if the resonant orbits of Jupiter and Saturn became chaotic before the instability of the Nice model. The eccentricities and inclinations of the asteroid could also be excited during the giant planet instability, reaching the observed levels if it lasted for a few hundred thousand years. Gravitational interactions between the asteroids and embryos in an initially massive asteroid belt would enhance these effects by altering the asteroids semi-major axes, driving many asteroids into unstable orbits where they were removed due to interactions with the planets, resulting in the loss of more than 99% of its mass. Secular resonance sweeping during the dissipation of the gas disk could have excited the orbits of the asteroids and removed many as they spiraled toward the Sun due to gas drag after their eccentricities were excited. 
+Several hypotheses have also been offered for the lack of any close orbiting super-Earths and the small mass of Mercury. 
+If Jupiter's core formed close to the Sun, its outward migration across the inner Solar System could have pushed material outward in its resonances, leaving the region inside  Venus's orbit depleted. In a protoplanetary disk that was evolving via a disk wind, planetary embryos could have migrated outward before merging to form planets, leaving the Solar System without planets inside Mercury's orbit. Convergent migration of planetary embryos in the gas disk toward 1 AU would also have resulted in the formation of large terrestrial planets near this distance leaving Mercury as a stranded embryo. An early generation of inner planets could have been lost due to catastrophic collisions during an instability, resulting in the debris being ground small enough to be lost due to Poynting-Robertson drag. If planetesimal formation only occurred early, the inner edge of the planetesimal disk might have been located at the silicate condensation line at this time. The formation of planetesimals closer than Mercury's orbit may have required that the magnetic field of the star be aligned with the rotation of the disk, enabling the depletion of the gas so that solid to gas ratios reached values sufficient for streaming instabilities to occur. The formation of super-Earths may require a higher flux of inward drifting pebbles than occurred in the early Solar System. Planetesimals orbiting in a protoplanetary disk closer than 0.6 AU may have eroded away due to a headwind. An early Solar System that was largely depleted of material could have resulted in the formation of small planets that were lost or destroyed in an early instability leaving only Mercury or the formation of only Mercury.
+
+== See also ==
+Formation and evolution of the Solar System
+Jumping-Jupiter scenario
+Late Heavy Bombardment
+Nice model
+Planetary migration
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search-0.md
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+---
+title: "Guided local search"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:48.899341+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Guided local search is a metaheuristic search method. A meta-heuristic method is a method that sits on top of a local search algorithm to change its behavior. 
+Guided local search builds up penalties during a search. It uses penalties to help local search algorithms escape from local minima and plateaus. When the given local search algorithm settles  in a local optimum, GLS modifies the objective function using a specific scheme (explained below). Then the local search will operate using an augmented objective function, which is designed to bring the search out of the local optimum. The key is in the way that the objective function is modified.
+The method in its current form was developed by Dr Christos Voudouris and detailed in his PhD Thesis. GLS was inspired by and extended GENET, a neural network architecture for solving Constraint Satisfaction Problems, which was developed by Chang Wang, Edward Tsang and Andrew Davenport. Both GLS's and GENET's mechanism for escaping from local minima resembles reinforcement learning. 
+
+== Overview ==
+
+=== Solution features ===
+To apply GLS, solution features must be defined for the given problem. Solution features are defined to distinguish between solutions with different characteristics, so that regions of similarity around local optima can be recognized and avoided. The choice of solution features depends on the type of problem, and also to a certain extent on the local search algorithm. For each feature 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{i}}
+  
+ a cost function 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{i}}
+  
+ is defined.
+Each feature is also associated with a penalty 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p_{i}}
+  
+ (initially set to 0) to record the number of occurrences of the feature in local minima.
+The features and costs often come directly from the objective function. For example, in the traveling salesman problem, “whether the tour goes directly from city X to city Y” can be defined to be a feature. The distance between X and Y can be defined to be the cost. In the SAT and weighted MAX-SAT problems, the features can be “whether clause C is satisfied by the current assignments”.
+At the implementation level, we define for each feature 
+  
+    
+      
+        i
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i}
+  
+ an Indicator Function 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{i}}
+  
+ indicating whether the feature is present in the current solution or not. 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{i}}
+  
+ is 1 when solution 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+ exhibits property 
+  
+    
+      
+        i
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i}
+  
+, 0 otherwise.
+
+=== Selective penalty modifications ===
+GLS computes the utility of penalising each feature. When the local search algorithm returns a local minimum x, GLS penalizes all those features (through increments to the penalty of the features) present in that solution which have maximum utility, 
+  
+    
+      
+        util
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        i
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {util} (x,i)}
+  
+, as defined below.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        util
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        ,
+        i
+        )
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                c
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+              (
+              x
+              )
+            
+            
+              1
+              +
+              
+                p
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {util} (x,i)=I_{i}(x){\frac {c_{i}(x)}{1+p_{i}}}.}
+  
+
+The idea is to penalise features that have high costs, although the utility of doing so decreases as the feature is penalised more and more often.
+
+=== Searching through an augmented cost function ===
+GLS uses an augmented cost function (defined below), to allow it to guide the local search algorithm out of the local minimum, through penalising features present in that local minimum. The idea is to make the local minimum more costly than the surrounding search space, where these features are not present.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        +
+        λ
+        a
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            1
+            ≤
+            i
+            ≤
+            m
+          
+        
+        
+          I
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        
+          p
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g(x)=f(x)+\lambda a\sum _{1\leq i\leq m}I_{i}(x)p_{i}}
+  
+
+The parameter λ may be used to alter the intensification of the search for solutions. A higher value for λ will result in a more diverse search, where plateaus and basins are searched more coarsely; a low value will result in a more intensive search for the solution, where the plateaus and basins in the search landscape are searched in finer detail. The coefficient 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a}
+  
+ is used to make the penalty part of the objective function balanced relative to changes in the objective function and is problem specific. A simple heuristic for setting 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a}
+  
+ is simply to record the average change in objective function up until the first local minimum, and then set 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a}
+  
+ to this value divided by the number of GLS features in the problem instance.
+
+=== Extensions of guided local search ===
+Mills (2002) has described an extended guided local search (EGLS) which utilises random moves and an aspiration criterion designed specifically for penalty based schemes. The resulting algorithm improved the robustness of GLS over a range of parameter settings, particularly in the case of the quadratic assignment problem. A general version of the GLS algorithm, using a min-conflicts based hill climber (Minton et al. 1992) and based partly on GENET for constraint satisfaction and optimisation, has also been implemented in the Computer-Aided Constraint Programming project.
+Alsheddy (2011) extended guided local search to multi-objective optimization, and demonstrated its use in staff empowerment in scheduling .
+
+== Related work ==
+GLS was built on GENET, which was developed by Chang Wang, Edward Tsang and Andrew Davenport.
+The breakout method is very similar to GENET. It was designed for constraint satisfaction.
+Tabu search is a class of search methods which can be instantiated to specific methods. GLS can be seen as a special case of Tabu search.
+By sitting GLS on top of genetic algorithm, Tung-leng Lau introduced the guided genetic programming (GGA) algorithm. It was successfully applied to the general assignment problem (in scheduling), processors configuration problem (in electronic design) and a set of radio-link frequency assignment problems (an abstracted military application).
+Choi et al. cast GENET as a Lagrangian search.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search-1.md
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+---
+title: "Guided local search"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:48.899341+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Alsheddy, A., Empowerment scheduling: a multi-objective optimization approach using Guided Local Search, PhD Thesis, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, 2011
+Choi, K.M.F., Lee, J.H.M. & Stuckey, P.J., A Lagrangian Resconstruction of GENET, Artificial Intelligence, 2000, 123(1-2), 1-39
+Davenport A., Tsang E.P.K., Kangmin Zhu & C J Wang, GENET: A connectionist architecture for solving constraint satisfaction problems by iterative improvement, Proc., AAAI, 1994, p. 325-330
+Lau, T.L. & Tsang, E.P.K., Solving the processor configuration problem with a mutation-based genetic algorithm, International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools (IJAIT), World Scientific, Vol.6, No.4, December 1997, 567-585
+Lau, T.L. & Tsang, E.P.K., Guided genetic algorithm and its application to radio link frequency assignment problems, Constraints, Vol.6, No.4, 2001, 373-398
+Lau, T.L. & Tsang, E.P.K., The guided genetic algorithm and its application to the general assignment problems, IEEE 10th International Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence (ICTAI'98), Taiwan, November 1998
+Mills, P. & Tsang, E.P.K., Guided local search for solving SAT and weighted MAX-SAT problems, Journal of Automated Reasoning, Special Issue on Satisfiability Problems, Kluwer, Vol.24, 2000, 205-223
+Mills, P. & Tsang, E.P.K. & Ford, J., Applying an Extended Guided Local Search on the Quadratic Assignment Problem, Annals of Operations Research, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Vol.118, 2003, 121-135
+Minton, S., Johnston, M., Philips, A.B. & Laird, P., Minimizing conflicts: a heuristic repair method for constraint satisfaction and scheduling problems, Artificial Intelligence (Special Volume on Constraint Based Reasoning), Vol.58, Nos.1-3 1992, 161-205
+Tsang, E.P.K. & Voudouris, C., Fast local search and guided local search and their application to British Telecom's workforce scheduling problem, Operations Research Letters, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Vol.20, No.3, March 1997, 119-127
+Voudouris, C., Tsang, E.P.K., Partial Constraint Satisfaction Problems and Guided Local Search, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Practical Application of Constraint Technology (PACT'96), pp 337-356, London, UK, 1996
+Voudouris, C, Guided local search for combinatorial optimisation problems, PhD Thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Essex, Colchester, UK, July, 1997
+Voudouris, C., Guided Local Search—An illustrative example in function optimisation, BT Technology Journal, Vol.16, No.3, July 1998, 46-50
+Voudouris, C., Tsang, E., Solving the Radio Link Frequency Assignment Problems using Guided Local Search, In Proceedings of NATO symposium on Frequency Assignment, Sharing and Conservation in Systems (AEROSPACE), AGARD, paper No. 14, Aalborg, Denmark, 5-7 October 1998
+Voudouris, C. & Tsang, E.P.K., Guided Local Search and its application to the Travelling Salesman Problem,  European Journal of Operational Research,  Anbar Publishing, Vol.113, Issue 2, March 1999, 469-499
+Voudouris, C. & Tsang, E.P.K., Guided local search joins the elite in discrete optimisation, DIMACS Series in Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science Volume 57, 2001, 29-39
+Voudouris, C. & Tsang, E.P.K., Guided local search, in F. Glover (ed.), Handbook of metaheuristics, Kluwer, 2003, 185-218
+Voudouris, C., Tsang, E.P.K. & Alsheddy, A., Guided local search, Chapter 11, in M. Gendreau & J-Y Potvin (ed.), Handbook of Metaheuristics, Springer, 2010, 321-361
+Voudouris, C., Tsang, E., Alsheddy, A., Guided Local Search, Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science, Wiley, 2010
+Voudouris, C., Tsang, E., Alsheddy, A., Effective Application of Guided Local Search, Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science, Wiley, 2010
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Guided Local Search Home Page
+Guided Local Search Resources
+Google OR-Tools - Guided Local Search
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunslinger_effect-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunslinger_effect-0.md
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+---
+title: "Gunslinger effect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunslinger_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:43.038631+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The gunslinger effect, also sometimes called Bohr's law or the gunfighter's dilemma, is a psychophysical theory which says that an intentional or willed movement is slower than an automatic or reaction movement. The concept is named after physicist Niels Bohr, who first deduced that the person who draws second in a gunfight will actually win the shoot-out.
+
+
+== Bohr's experiment ==
+Danish physicist Niels Henrik David Bohr came up with the hypothesis after watching Western films, which frequently depicted the protagonist drawing after his opponent in a gunfight and winning. He hypothesized that a person reacting might move faster than their opponent, who moved deliberately. Bohr and his students staged mock gunfights using toy guns to test this hypothesis, with apparently uncertain results. Bohr suggested that, to the extent the hypothesis is true, the logical alternative to a gunfight would be a peaceful settlement, since neither gunslinger would want to draw first knowing that they would lose.
+
+
+== Experimental evidence ==
+Later research confirmed the basic hypothesis, showing that intentional movements and reaction movements were controlled by two separate systems, and that it was not confined merely to hand or arm movements. The gunslinger effect applies to the initial reaction, not later limb control, but there is no trade-off between that early reaction and later targeting accuracy.
+One study conducted at the University of Birmingham found that subjects moved 10% faster when reacting rather than acting with intention. However, the study also found that reactive movements were less accurate than intentional ones, and that the increased movement speed did not make up for the initial delay. Because of this, the authors of the study felt that the increased speed would not confer much advantage in a gunfight, although it may be advantageous in other situations.
+Some later studies found that although volunteers' reactions were faster than deliberate actions during simple one-step tasks, this advantage was not present in more complex, multi-step actions. Furthermore, the effect was reversed when volunteers were presented with a choice of action, with reacting volunteers moving more slowly.
+A 2020 study did find that Bohr's law held true during full-body actions, and was not confined to simple one-handed tasks.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+The comparison between reaction times and deliberate movement speed has applications for sports and dueling. A 2014 study conducted with two groups, karate practitioners and people without karate training, found that reactions were faster than intentional movements, regardless of training.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Mexican standoff – Type of confrontation
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart–Tipler_conjecture-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart–Tipler_conjecture-0.md
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+---
+title: "Hart–Tipler conjecture"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart–Tipler_conjecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:44.243522+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Hart–Tipler conjecture is the idea that an absence of detectable Von Neumann probes is contrapositive evidence that no intelligent life exists outside of the Solar System. This idea was first proposed in opposition to the Drake equation in a 1975 paper by Michael H. Hart titled "Explanation for the Absence of Extraterrestrials on Earth". Assuming that the probes traveled at 1/10 the speed of light and that no time was lost in building new ships upon arriving at the destination, Hart surmised that a wave of Von Neumann probes could cross the galaxy in approximately 650,000 years, a comparatively minimal span of time relative to the estimated age of the universe at 13.7 billion years. Hart’s argument was extended by cosmologist Frank Tipler in his 1981 paper entitled "Extraterrestrial intelligent beings do not exist". Tipler's article prompted a response from Drake, as well as peers like Gregory Benford and John Daugman.
+The conjecture is the first of many proposed solutions to the Fermi paradox (the conflict between the lack of obvious evidence for alien life and various high probability estimates for its existence). In this case, the solution is that there is no other intelligent life because such estimates are incorrect. The conjecture is named after astrophysicist Michael H. Hart and mathematical physicist and cosmologist Frank Tipler.
+
+
+== Background ==
+
+There is no reliable or reproducible evidence that aliens have visited Earth. No transmissions or evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life have been detected or observed anywhere other than Earth in the Universe. If intelligent life existed, it would have produced enough self-replicating spacecraft, known as von Neumann probes, to cover the universe by now, which runs counter to the knowledge that the Universe is filled with a very large number of planets, some of which likely hold the conditions hospitable for life. Life typically expands until it fills all available niches. These contradictory facts form the basis for the Fermi paradox, of which the Hart–Tipler conjecture is one proposed solution.
+
+
+== Relationship to other proposed Fermi paradox solutions ==
+The firstborn hypothesis is a special case of the Hart–Tipler conjecture which states that no other intelligent life has been discovered because humanity is the first intelligent life in the universe. According to the Berserker hypothesis, the absence of interstellar probes is not evidence of life's absence, since such probes could "go berserk" and destroy other civilizations, before self-destructing.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_isotope_diet-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_isotope_diet-0.md
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+---
+title: "Heavy isotope diet"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_isotope_diet"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:47.708877+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Heavy isotope diet is the consumption of nutrients in which some atoms are replaced with their heavier non-radioactive isotopes, such as deuterium (2H) or heavy carbon (13C). Biomolecules that incorporate heavier isotopes give rise to more stable molecular structures under certain circumstances, which is hypothesized to increase resistance to damage associated with ageing or diseases.
+Medicines with some hydrogen atoms substituted with deuterium are called deuterated drugs, while substances that are essential nutrients can be used as food constituents, making this food "isotopic". Consumed with food, these nutrients become building material for the body. The examples are deuterated polyunsaturated fatty acids, essential aminoacids, DNA bases such as cytosine, or heavy water and glucose.
+
+
+== Suggested mechanism ==
+One of the most pernicious and irreparable types of oxidative damage inflicted by reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon biomolecules involves the carbon-hydrogen bond cleavage (hydrogen abstraction). Intriguingly, the biomolecules most damageable by this type of damage belong to the group of essential nutrients (10 out of 20 amino acids; nucleosides at certain conditions (conditionally essential); all polyunsaturated fatty acids). In theory, replacing hydrogen with deuterium "reinforces" the bond due to the kinetic isotope effect, and such reinforced biomolecules taken up by the body will be more resistant to ROS.
+
+
+== Deuterated omega-6 fatty acids for humans with degenerative diseases ==
+The company Retrotope pioneered the development a source of deuterated omega-6 fatty acid deulinoleate ethyl as a food additive for potential treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Friedreich’s ataxia and infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy. FDA has granted it an orphan drug designation and it passed the Phase I/II clinical trials (as of 2018).
+
+
+== See also ==
+Deuterated drug
+Deulinoleate ethyl
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Shchepinov, Mikhail (2025). Breaking the Chains of Aging, A Biochemical Drama. Cloister House Press. ISBN 978-1913460976.
+a New Scientist article about ifood
+a Scientific American article about content of 13C in American fast food
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development-0.md
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--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development-0.md
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 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:38:16.628412+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:50.131628+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Heuristic"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:51.251656+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A heuristic or heuristic technique (problem solving, mental shortcut, rule of thumb) is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized, perfected, or rationalized, but is nevertheless "good enough" as an approximation or attribute substitution. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision.
+
+Heuristic reasoning is often based on induction, or on analogy ... Induction is the process of discovering general laws ... Induction tries to find regularity and coherence ... Its most conspicuous instruments are generalization, specialization, analogy. [...] Heuristic discusses human behavior in the face of problems [... that have been] preserved in the wisdom of proverbs.
+
+== Context ==
+
+Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier (2011) state that sub-sets of strategy include heuristics, regression analysis, and Bayesian inference.
+
+A heuristic is a strategy that ignores part of the information, with the goal of making decisions more quickly, frugally, and/or accurately than more complex methods...
+Heuristics are strategies based on rules to generate optimal decisions, like the anchoring effect and utility maximization problem. These strategies depend on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings, machines and abstract issues. When an individual applies a heuristic in practice, it generally performs as expected. However it can alternatively create systematic errors.
+The most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems. In mathematics, some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations, additional assumptions, forward/backward reasoning and simplification.
+Dual process theory concerns embodied heuristics.
+
+== Heuristic rigour models ==
+
+Lakatosian heuristics is based on the key term: Justification (epistemology).
+
+=== One-reason decisions ===
+
+One-reason decisions are algorithms that are made of three rules: search rules, confirmation rules (stopping), and decision rules
+
+Take-the-best heuristic – Decision-making strategy
+Hiatus heuristic: a "recency-of-last-purchase rule"
+Default effect – Tendency to accept the default option
+Priority heuristic – Decision strategy
+Take-the-first heuristic
+
+=== Recognition-based decisions ===
+A class whose function is to determine and filter out superfluous things.
+
+Recognition heuristic
+Fluency heuristic – Mental heuristic
+
+=== Tracking heuristics ===
+
+Tracking heuristics is a class of heuristics.
+
+Gaze heuristic
+Pointing and calling – Railway safety technique
+
+=== Trade-off ===
+Trade-off – Situational decision
+Tallying heuristic
+Equality heuristic
+
+=== Social heuristics ===
+Social heuristics – Decision-making processes in social environments
+
+Imitation – Behaviour in which an individual observes and replicates another's behaviour
+Tit for tat – English saying meaning "equivalent retaliation"
+Wisdom of the crowd – Collective perception of a group of people
+
+=== Epistemic heuristics ===
+
+Propositional attitude – Concept in epistemology
+Essence – That which makes or defines an entity
+Analysis – Process of understanding a complex topic or substance
+Falsifiability – Property of a statement that can be logically contradicted
+Hierarchy of evidence – Heuristic ranking science research results
+
+=== Behavioral economics ===
+
+Affect heuristic – Mental shortcut based on emotion
+Feedback – Process where information about current status is used to influence future status
+Reinforcement – Consequence affecting an organism's future behavior
+Stimulus–response model – Conceptual framework in psychology
+
+=== Others ===
+Satisficing – Cognitive heuristic of searching for an acceptable decision
+Representativeness heuristic – Tool for assisting judgement in uncertainty
+Availability heuristic – Bias towards recently acquired information
+Awareness – Perception or knowledge of something
+Base and superstructure – Concepts in Marxist theory
+Social organism – Model of social interactions
+Dialectic – Method of reasoning via argumentation and contradiction
+Continuum limit – Continuum limit in lattice models
+Johari window – Technique in personality development
+Social rationality
+Desert (philosophy) – Condition of being deserving of something, whether good or bad
+Less-is-better effect – Cognitive bias
+Minimalist heuristic
+Unification of theories in physics – Idea of connecting all of physics into one set of equations
+Backward induction – Process of reasoning backwards in sequence
+
+=== Meta-heuristic ===
+
+Optimality
+Survival of the fittest – Phrase to describe the mechanism of natural selection
+Mechanical equilibrium – When the net force on a particle is zero
+Chemical equilibrium – When the ratio of reactants to products of a chemical reaction is constant with time
+Homeostasis – State of steady internal conditions maintained by living things
+Entropy – Property of a thermodynamic system
+
+== History ==
+
+George Polya studied and published on heuristics in 1945. Polya (1945) cites Pappus of Alexandria as having written a text that Polya dubs Heuristic. Pappus' heuristic problem-solving methods consist of analysis and synthesis.
+
+=== Notable ===
+
+==== Figures ====
+George Polya
+Herbert A. Simon
+Daniel Kahneman
+Amos Tversky
+Gerd Gigerenzer
+Judea Pearl
+Robin Dunbar
+David Perkins Page
+Herbert Spencer
+Charles Alexander McMurry
+Frank Morton McMurry
+Lawrence Zalcman
+Imre Lakatos
+William C. Wimsatt
+Alan Hodgkin
+Andrew Huxley
+
+==== Works ====
+Meno
+How to solve it
+Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning
+
+=== Contemporary ===
+The study of heuristics in human decision-making was developed in the 1970s and the 1980s, by the psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, although the concept had been originally introduced by the Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon. Simon's original primary object of research was problem solving that showed that we operate within what he calls bounded rationality. He coined the term satisficing, which denotes a situation in which people seek solutions, or accept choices or judgements, that are "good enough" for their purposes although they could be optimised.
+Rudolf Groner analysed the history of heuristics from its roots in ancient Greece up to contemporary work in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence, proposing a cognitive style "heuristic versus algorithmic thinking", which can be assessed by means of a validated questionnaire.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-1.md
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+---
+title: "Heuristic"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:51.251656+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Adaptive toolbox ===
+The adaptive toolbox contains strategies for fabricating heuristic devices. The core mental capacities are recall (memory), frequency, object permanence, and imitation. Gerd Gigerenzer and his research group argued that models of heuristics need to be formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested. They study the fast and frugal heuristics in the "adaptive toolbox" of individuals or institutions, and the ecological rationality of these heuristics; that is, the conditions under which a given heuristic is likely to be successful. The descriptive study of the "adaptive toolbox" is done by observation and experiment, while the prescriptive study of ecological rationality requires mathematical analysis and computer simulation. Heuristics – such as the recognition heuristic, the take-the-best heuristic and fast-and-frugal trees – have been shown to be effective in predictions, particularly in situations of uncertainty. It is often said that heuristics trade accuracy for effort but this is only the case in situations of risk. Risk refers to situations where all possible actions, their outcomes and probabilities are known. In the absence of this information, that is under uncertainty, heuristics can achieve higher accuracy with lower effort. This finding, known as a less-is-more effect, would not have been found without formal models. The valuable insight of this program is that heuristics are effective not despite their simplicity – but because of it. Furthermore, Gigerenzer and Wolfgang Gaissmaier found that both individuals and organisations rely on heuristics in an adaptive way.
+
+=== Cognitive-experiential self-theory ===
+Heuristics, through greater refinement and research, have begun to be applied to other theories, or be explained by them. For example, the cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST) is also an adaptive view of heuristic processing. CEST breaks down two systems that process information. At some times, roughly speaking, individuals consider issues rationally, systematically, logically, deliberately, effortfully, and verbally. On other occasions, individuals consider issues intuitively, effortlessly, globally, and emotionally. From this perspective, heuristics are part of a larger experiential processing system that is often adaptive, but vulnerable to error in situations that require logical analysis.
+
+=== Attribute substitution ===
+In 2002, Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called attribute substitution, which happens without conscious awareness. According to this theory, when somebody makes a judgement (of a "target attribute") that is computationally complex, a more easily calculated "heuristic attribute" is substituted. In effect, a cognitively difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without being aware of this happening. This theory explains cases where judgements fail to show regression toward the mean. Heuristics can be considered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgments in health care.
+
+== Academic disciplines ==
+
+=== Psychology ===
+
+In psychology, heuristics are simple, efficient rules, either learned or inculcated by evolutionary processes. These psychological heuristics have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgements, and solve problems. These rules typically come into play when people face complex problems or incomplete information. Researchers employ various methods to test whether people use these rules. The rules have been shown to work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases can lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases.
+
+=== Philosophy ===
+A heuristic device is used when an entity X exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some other entity Y.
+A good example is a model that, as it is never identical with what it models, is a heuristic device to enable understanding of what it models. Stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in this sense. A classic example is the notion of utopia as described in Plato's best-known work, The Republic. This means that the "ideal city" as depicted in The Republic is not given as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation-point for development. Rather, it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another (often with highly problematic results), if one opted for certain principles and carried them through rigorously.
+Heuristic is also often used as a noun to describe a rule of thumb, procedure, or method. Philosophers of science have emphasised the importance of heuristics in creative thought and the construction of scientific theories. Seminal works include Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and others by Imre Lakatos, Lindley Darden, and William C. Wimsatt.
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+title: "Heuristic"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:51.251656+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Law ===
+In legal theory, especially in the theory of law and economics, heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case analysis would be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body.
+The present securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects. For instance, in all states in the United States the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary delineation is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one, since the completion of such a course would presumably be voluntary and not uniform across the population.
+The same reasoning applies to patent law. Patents are justified on the grounds that inventors must be protected so they have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued that it is in society's best interest that inventors receive a temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea, so that they can recoup investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period. In the United States, the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the date the patent application was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product to be efficient. A 20-year term is used because it is difficult to tell what the number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some, including University of North Dakota law professor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents – should be protected for different lengths of time.
+
+=== Artificial intelligence ===
+The bias–variance tradeoff gives insight into describing the less-is-more strategy. A heuristic can be used in artificial intelligence systems while searching a solution space. The heuristic is derived by using some function that is put into the system by the designer, or by adjusting the weight of branches based on how likely each branch is to lead to a goal node.
+
+=== Behavioural economics ===
+Heuristics refers to the cognitive shortcuts that individuals use to simplify decision-making processes in economic situations. Behavioral economics is a field that integrates insights from psychology and economics to better understand how people make decisions.
+Anchoring and adjustment is one of the most extensively researched heuristics in behavioural economics. Anchoring is the tendency of people to make future judgements or conclusions based too heavily on the original information supplied to them. This initial knowledge functions as an anchor, and it can influence future judgements even if the anchor is entirely unrelated to the decisions at hand. Adjustment, on the other hand, is the process through which individuals make gradual changes to their initial judgements or conclusions.
+Anchoring and adjustment has been observed in a wide range of decision-making contexts, including financial decision-making, consumer behavior, and negotiation. Researchers have identified a number of strategies that can be used to mitigate the effects of anchoring and adjustment, including providing multiple anchors, encouraging individuals to generate alternative anchors, and providing cognitive prompts to encourage more deliberative decision-making.
+Other heuristics studied in behavioral economics include the representativeness heuristic, which refers to the tendency of individuals to categorize objects or events based on how similar they are to typical examples, and the availability heuristic, which refers to the tendency of individuals to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind.
+
+== Stereotyping ==
+Stereotyping is a type of heuristic that people use to form opinions or make judgements about things they have never seen or experienced. They work as a mental shortcut to assess everything from the social status of a person (based on their actions), to classifying a plant as a tree based on it being tall, having a trunk, and that it has leaves (even though the person making the evaluation might never have seen that particular type of tree before).
+Stereotypes, as first described by journalist Walter Lippmann in his book Public Opinion (1922), are the pictures we have in our heads that are built around experiences as well as what we are told about the world.
+
+== See also ==
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+title: "Heuristic"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ACT-R – SoftwarePages displaying short descriptions with no spaces
+Algorithm – Sequence of operations for a task
+Applied epistemology – Application of epistemology in specific fields
+Branch and bound – Optimization by removing non-optimal solutions to subproblems
+Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy) – Thought experiment, to justify Bayesian probabilityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Decision theory – Branch of applied probability theory
+Embodied cognition – Interdisciplinary theory
+Failure mode and effects analysis – Analysis of potential system failures
+Game theory – Mathematical models of strategic interactions
+Heuristic-systematic model of information processing – Dual-process theory of persuasion
+Heuristics in judgment and decision-making – Simple strategies or mental processes involved in making quick decisionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Ideal type – Typological term
+List of biases in judgment and decision making
+Metalepsis – Figure of speech
+Methodic school – School of medicine in ancient Greece and Rome
+Necessity and sufficiency – Terms to describe a conditional relationship between two statements
+Neuroheuristics
+Nudge theory – Concept in behavioral economics, political theory and behavioral sciences
+Predictive coding – Theory of brain function
+Principle of good enough – Principle of social research
+Priority heuristic – Decision strategy
+Prospect theory – Theory of behavioral economics
+Rule-based system – Type of computer system
+Rule of inference – Method of deriving conclusions
+SCAMPER – Acronym for the creative development process proposed by Alex Faickney Osborn
+Situated cognition – Hypothesis that knowing is inseparable from doing
+Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Maltese Dr. Edward de Bono
+Social heuristics – Decision-making processes in social environments
+Subjective expected utility – Concept in decision theory
+Thought experiment – Hypothetical situation
+TRIZ – Problem-solving tools
+Tutorial – Type of educational intervention
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+How To Solve It: Modern Heuristics, Zbigniew Michalewicz and David B. Fogel, Springer Verlag, 2000. ISBN 3-540-66061-5
+Nadurak, V. (2025). Heuristics and cognitive biases: A conceptual analysis. Memory & Cognition. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-025-01814-w
+Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 9780134610993. LCCN 20190474.
+The Problem of Thinking Too Much Archived 2013-10-19 at the Wayback Machine, 11 December 2002, Persi Diaconis
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+title: "Heuristic-systematic model of information processing"
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+category: "reference"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The heuristic-systematic model of information processing (HSM) is a widely recognized model by Shelly Chaiken that attempts to explain how people receive and process persuasive messages. 
+The model states that individuals can process messages in one of two ways: heuristically or systematically. Systematic processing entails careful and deliberative processing of a message, while heuristic processing entails the use of simplifying decision rules or 'heuristics' to quickly assess the message content. The guiding belief with this model is that individuals are more apt to minimize their use of cognitive resources (i.e., to rely on heuristics), thus affecting the intake and processing of messages. 
+HSM predicts that processing type will influence the extent to which a person is persuaded or exhibits lasting attitude change. HSM is quite similar to the elaboration likelihood model, or ELM. Both models were predominantly developed in the early- to mid-1980s and share many of the same concepts and ideas.
+
+== History ==
+Early research investigating how people process persuasive messaging focused mainly on cognitive theories and the way the mind processed each element of a message. One of the early guiding principles of underlying motivations of persuasive communications came from Leon Festinger's (1950) statement that incorrect or improper attitudes are generally maladaptive and can have deleterious behavioral and affective consequences.
+In 1953, Hovland, Janis, and Kelley noted that a sense of "rightness" accompanies holding opinions similar to the opinions of others. In 1987, Holtz and Miller reaffirmed this line of thought by noting, "When other people are perceived to hold similar attitudes, one's confidence in the validity of one's own attitude is increased."
+Another concept that contributed to the HSM was the sufficiency principle. This principle reflected widespread notions that people use limited cognitive resources, or use an "economy-minded" approach to information processing when presented with persuasive information. Based on this thought, early assumptions said people were at least partially guided by the "principle of least effort". This principle stated that in the interest of economy, the mind would often process with the least amount of effort (i.e., use a heuristic), and for more detailed information processing would use more effortful (systematic) processing. This was the major difference when compared with the ELM, which described the two different ways information was processed, through central and/or peripheral processing.
+The developer and main researcher of the HSM was Shelly Chaiken. Under her direction, the HSM has undergone several major revisions. As she noted in 1980 and 1987, the model specified the two modes of heuristic and systematic processing. Then, Chaiken et al. noted in 1989 that the model was extended to specify the psychological conditions for triggering the modes of processing in terms of the discrepancy between actual and desired subjective confidence. In 1986, Chaiken, and others, updated the model to include underlying motivations.
+
+== Heuristic processing ==
+Heuristic processing uses judgmental rules known as knowledge structures that are learned and stored in memory. The heuristic approach offers an economic advantage by requiring minimal cognitive effort on the part of the recipient. Heuristic processing is related to the concept of "satisficing."
+Heuristic processing is governed by availability, accessibility, and applicability. Availability refers to the knowledge structure, or heuristic, being stored in memory for future use. Accessibility of the heuristic applies to the ability to retrieve the memory for use. Applicability of the heuristic refers to the relevancy of the memory to the judgmental task. Due to the use of knowledge structures, a person using heuristic information processing is likely to agree with messages delivered by experts, or messages that are endorsed by others, without fully processing the semantic content of the message. In comparison to systematic processing, heuristic processing entails judging the validity of messages by relying more on accessible context information, such as the identity of the source or other non-content cues. Thus, heuristic views de-emphasize detailed information evaluation and focus on the role of simple rules or cognitive heuristics in mediating persuasion.
+Individuals may be more likely to use heuristic processing when an issue is less personally important to them (they have low "issue involvement") or when they believe their judgment will not have significant impacts on themselves (low "response involvement").
+
+== Systematic processing ==
+Systematic processing involves comprehensive and analytic, cognitive processing of judgment-relevant information. The systematic approach values source reliability and message content, which may exert stronger impact on persuasion, when determining message validity. Judgments developed from systematic processing rely heavily on in-depth treatment of judgment-relevant information and respond accordingly to the semantic content of the message. Recipients developing attitudes from a systematic basis exert considerable cognitive effort and actively attempt to comprehend and evaluate the message's arguments. When processing systematically, recipients also attempt to assess their validity as it relates to the message's conclusion. Systematic views of persuasion emphasize detailed processing of message content and the role of message-based cognitions in mediating opinion change. While recipients utilizing systematic processing rely heavily on message content, source characteristics and other non-content may supplement the recipients' assessment of validity in the persuasive message.
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+title: "Heuristic-systematic model of information processing"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:54.948181+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Choosing systematic or heuristic processing ==
+Both heuristic and systematic processes may occur independently. It is also possible for both to occur simultaneously in an additive fashion or in a way that the judgmental implications of one process lend a bias nature to the other. The heuristic-systematic model includes the hypothesis that attitudes developed or changed by utilizing heuristic processing alone will likely be less stable, less resistant to counterarguments, and will be less predictive of subsequent behavior than attitudes developed or changed utilizing systematic processing.
+Message recipients using heuristic processing may sometimes choose to accept message conclusions they would otherwise have rejected, or vice versa, had they invested more time and effort to scrutinize the message.
+Source credibility affects persuasion under conditions of low, but not high, issue-involvement and response-involvement.
+When economic concerns are predominant, the recipient will likely use heuristic processing to form a judgement about the persuasive argument. Conversely, when reliability concerns are predominant (i.e., recipients perceive significant importance in accurately judging an argument), they will likely use a systematic processing strategy. Reliability concerns are influenced by the level of the recipient's issue-involvement or response-involvement. When the recipient views their judgment as being less consequential, they will likely place greater value on economic concerns than reliability concerns.
+
+== Practical application ==
+Research into information processing, especially in persuasive messaging, can be applied in advertising. For instance, HSM has been used in Internet webpage considerations.
+In a 2002 study by Wathen & Burkell, they proposed a theory that separated the evaluation process into distinct segments. In the theory, the process began with low-effort examinations of peripheral cues (e.g., appearance, design, organization, and source reputation) then continued to a more high-effort analysis of the content of the information source. The proposed research also drew on social psychological theories of dual-processing, which stated that information processing outcomes were the result of interaction between a fast, associative information-processing mode based on low-effort heuristics, and a slow, rule-based information processing mode based on high-effort systematic reasoning.  Wathen and Burkell proposed (but did not test) that if an individual determines that an online source does not meet an appropriate level of credibility at any one stage, then he or she will leave the site without further evaluation. They theorized that this "easy to discard" behavior was indicative of information-rich environments, where the assumption is that many other potential sources of information exist, and spending too much time on any one source is potentially wasteful.
+The HSM has also been applied in medical decision-making contexts. A 2004 study by Suzanne K. Steginga, PhD, and Stefano Occhipinti, PhD, Queensland Cancer Fund and the School of Applied Psychology at Griffith University investigated the utility of the heuristic-systematic processing model as a framework for the investigation of patient decision making. A total of 111 men diagnosed with localized prostate cancer were assessed using verbal protocol analysis and self-report measures. The results showed: "Most men (68%) preferred that decision making be shared equally between them and their doctor. Men's use of the expert opinion heuristic was related to men's verbal reports of decisional uncertainty and having a positive orientation to their doctor and medical care; a desire for greater involvement in decision making was predicted by a high internal locus of health control. Trends were observed for systematic information processing to increase when the heuristic strategy used was negatively affect-laden and when men were uncertain about the probabilities for cure and side effects. There was a trend for decreased systematic processing when the expert opinion heuristic was used. Findings were consistent with the heuristic-systematic processing model and suggest that this model has utility for future research in applied decision making about health issues.
+
+== Direction of research ==
+Originally the heuristic-systematic model was developed to apply to "validity seeking" persuasion contexts in which peoples' primary motivation is to attain accurate attitudes that align with relevant facts. Chaiken originally assumed that the primary processing goal of accuracy-motivated recipients is to assess the validity of persuasive messages, and that both heuristic and systematic processing can serve this objective. Other motives beyond the validity-seeking persuasion context were later identified by Chaiken and colleagues (1989) who proposed an expanded model that posits two additional motives that heuristic and systematic processing can serve: defense-motivation, the desire to form or defend particular attitudinal positions, and impression-motivation, the desire to form or hold socially acceptable attitudinal positions.
+Contrary to previous viewpoints, the heuristic-systematic model and the elaboration likelihood model is treated as complementary models to create a dual-processing framework for use in research for understanding a variety of social influence phenomena.
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+title: "Heuristic-systematic model of information processing"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:54.948181+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Criticisms ==
+A major criticism of HSM is that the model closely relates to ELM, which is also a dual-processing model discussing two main paths to persuasion. The ELM discusses the two routes as "central" route processing and "peripheral" route processing. ELM's central processing has been likened to systematic processing in HSM, while peripheral processing is similar to HSM's heuristic processing. These two routes of processing define related theories behind attitude change.
+In ELM, the central route is reflective and requires a willingness to process and think about the message. The peripheral route occurs when attitudes are formed without extensive thought, but more from mental shortcuts, credibility, and appearance cues. The route of persuasion processing depends on the level of involvement in the topic or issue. High involvement or elaboration increases central route processing especially when motivation and ability in the message exists. Therefore, low involvement increases peripheral route processing when motivation and ability conditions of persuasion do not exist. However, if the topic or idea is irrelevant to the individual, then the message takes the peripheral route.
+HSM specifically examines validity seeking persuasion settings concerning people's motivations within the social environment. The limitation of HSM exists in the inability to define the specific motivations of persuasion, which is why Chaiken expanded HSM to illustrate that heuristic and systematic processing can "serve defense-motivation, the desire to form or defend particular attitudinal positions, and impression- motivation, the desire to form or hold socially acceptable attitudinal positions" (p. 326).
+Major assumptions exist with both HSM and ELM, which is why both models have generated debate and are often misconstrued. Systematic processing assumes that persuasion has occurred via the recipient's understanding and cognitive elaboration of the persuasive argument. In addition, researchers hypothesize that systematic processing requires and uses cognitive capacity, while heuristic processing makes low cognitive demands. Furthermore, both HSM and ELM assume that "capacity and motivation are important determinants of systematic process" which results in biased modes of processing (p. 327). With heuristic processing, there is less need to process information and cognitively in comparison to systematic processing. Heuristic processing occurs when people simply form immediate decisions and conclusions based on the information available versus analytical processing of information given that obviously requires more cognition. Heuristic processing as defined by HSM, illustrates that people can formulate decisions utilizing basic rules such as "experts' statements can be trusted" and "consensus implies correctness" to establish validity within messages (p. 327). Therefore, individuals who process messages through heuristic processing routes of persuasion, likely formulate decisions based on experts' opinion and what the consensus believes opposed to fully processing the message in its entirety.
+This leads to another similarity between HSM and ELM, as attitudes and opinions developed through heuristic processing will tend to be "less stable, less resistant to counter-propaganda, and less predictive of behavior" in comparison to attitudes and opinions formed through detailed information within systematic processing (p. 327).
+HSM postulates that heuristic and systematic processing can each influence both "independent" and "interdependent" effects on decision making by occurring simultaneously (p. 328). Unlike HSM, ELM does not postulate whether central route processing and peripheral route processing can co-occur or not. Another assumption by Chaiken and her colleagues is that systematic processing does in fact provide people with more judgment relevant information in comparison to heuristic processing of information, which does not account for any weaknesses in expert subject matter material. Therefore, while systematic processing may be prevalent within many social environments, HSM, unlike its model counterpart ELM, does illustrate "the possibility that heuristic processing can exert a significant and independent influence on persuasion" (p 329).
+
+== See also ==
+Attitude change – Theory of change of associated beliefs and behaviours
+Bounded rationality – Making of satisfactory, not optimal, decisions
+Cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST) – Dual-process model of perception
+Dual process theory – Psychological theory of how thought can arise in two different ways
+Dual process theory (moral psychology) – Theory of human moral judgment
+Elaboration likelihood model – Dual process theory of persuasion
+Extended parallel process model – How individuals react to fear-inducing messages
+Extended transportation-imagery model – Psychological theory
+Heuristic (psychology) – Simple strategies or mental processes involved in making quick decisions
+Information processing (psychology) – Approach to understanding human thinking
+Need for cognition – Psychology concept
+Persuasion – Umbrella term of influence and mode of communication
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Heuristic (engineering)"
+chunk: 1/1
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:15.882007+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In engineering, heuristics are experience-based methods used to reduce the need for calculations pertaining to equipment size, performance, or operating conditions.  Heuristics are fallible and do not guarantee a correct solution. It is important to understand their limitations when applying them to different equipment and processes.  Though heuristics are limited, they may be of value.   This is because they offer time-saving approximations in preliminary process design.
+Problem solving methods are intrinsic to forensic engineering methods, where failures are analysed for the root cause or causes. Only when failures have been investigated with conclusive results can remedial action be taken with confidence.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+
+
+=== Storage Vessels ===
+These heuristics were taken from Turton's "Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes".
+
+Use vertical tanks on legs when the tank is less than 3.8 m3.
+Use horizontal tanks on concrete supports when the tank is between 3.8 and 38 m3,
+Use vertical tanks on concrete pads when the tank is beyond 38 m3,
+Liquids subject to breathing losses may be stored in tanks with floating or expansion roofs for conservation.
+Freeboard is 15% below 1.9 m3 and 10% above 1.9 m3.
+Thirty-day capacity often is specified for raw materials and products, but depends on connecting transportation equipment schedules.
+
+
+=== Pumps ===
+These heuristics were taken from Turton's "Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes".
+
+Centrifugal pumps: Single Stage: for of 0.057-18.9 m3/min, 152 m maximum head. Multistage: for 0.076-41.6 m3/min, 1675 m maximum head.  Efficiency is 45% at 0.378 m3/min, 70% at 1.89 m3/min, 80% at 37.8 m3/min.
+Axial pumps: for 0.076–378 m3/min, 12 m head, 65-85% efficiency.
+Rotary pumps: for 0.00378-18.9 m3/min, 15,200 m head, 50-80% efficiency.
+Reciprocating pumps: for 0.0378-37.8 m3/min, 300 km head maximum.  Efficiency is 70% at 7.46 kW, 85% at 37.3 kW, and 90% at 373 kW.
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Heuristic (psychology)"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Heuristics (from Ancient Greek  εὑρίσκω (heurískō) 'to find, discover') is the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions. Heuristics are simple strategies that humans, animals, organizations, and even machines use to quickly form judgments, make decisions, and find solutions to complex problems. Often this involves focusing on the most relevant aspects of a problem or situation to formulate a solution. While heuristic processes are used to find the answers and solutions that are most likely to work or be correct, they are not always right or the most accurate. Judgments and decisions based on heuristics are simply good enough to satisfy a pressing need in situations of uncertainty, where information is incomplete. In that sense they can differ from answers given by logic and probability.
+The economist and cognitive psychologist Herbert A. Simon introduced the concept of heuristics in the 1950s, suggesting there were limitations to rational decision making. In the 1970s, psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman added to the field with their research on cognitive bias. It was their work that introduced specific heuristic models, a field which has only expanded since. While some argue that pure laziness is behind the heuristics process, this could just be a simplified explanation for why people don't act the way we expected them to. Other theories argue that it can be more accurate than decisions based on every known factor and consequence, such as the less-is-more effect.
+
+== History ==
+Herbert A. Simon formulated one of the first models of heuristics, known as satisficing. His more general research program posed the question of how humans make decisions when the conditions for rational choice theory are not met, that is how people decide under uncertainty. Simon is also known as the father of bounded rationality, which he understood as the study of the match (or mismatch) between heuristics and decision environments. This program was later extended into the study of ecological rationality.
+In the early 1970s, psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman took a different approach, linking heuristics to cognitive biases. Their typical experimental setup consisted of a rule of logic or probability, embedded in a verbal description of a judgement problem, and demonstrated that people's intuitive judgement deviated from the rule. The "Linda problem" below gives an example. The deviation is then explained by a heuristic. This research, called the heuristics-and-biases program, challenged the idea that human beings are rational actors and first gained worldwide attention in 1974 with the Science paper "Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases" and although the originally proposed heuristics have been refined over time, this research program has changed the field by permanently setting the research questions.
+The original ideas by Herbert Simon were taken up in the 1990s by Gerd Gigerenzer and others. According to their perspective, the study of heuristics requires formal models that allow predictions of behavior to be made ex ante. Their program has three aspects:
+
+What are the heuristics humans use? (the descriptive study of the "adaptive toolbox")
+Under what conditions should humans rely on a given heuristic? (the prescriptive study of ecological rationality)
+How to design heuristic decision aids that are easy to understand and execute? (the engineering study of intuitive design, for example with human-centered design or user-centered design approaches.)
+Among others, this program has shown that heuristics can lead to fast, frugal, and accurate decisions in many real-world situations that are characterized by uncertainty.
+These two different research programs have led to two kinds of models of heuristics, formal models and informal ones. Formal models describe the decision process in terms of an algorithm, which allows for mathematical proofs and computer simulations. In contrast, informal models are verbal descriptions.
+
+== Formal models of heuristics ==
+List of formal models of heuristics:
+
+Elimination by aspects heuristic
+Fast-and-frugal trees
+Fluency heuristic
+Gaze heuristic
+Recognition heuristic
+Satisficing
+Similarity heuristic
+Take-the-best heuristic
+Tallying
+
+=== Simon's satisficing strategy ===
+
+Herbert Simon's satisficing heuristic can be used to choose one alternative from a set of alternatives in situations of uncertainty. Here, uncertainty means that the total set of alternatives and their consequences is not known or knowable. For instance, professional real-estate entrepreneurs rely on satisficing to decide in which location to invest to develop new commercial areas: "If I believe I can get at least x return within y years, then I take the option." In general, satisficing is defined as:
+
+Step 1: Set an aspiration level α
+Step 2: Choose the first alternative that satisfies α
+If no alternative is found, then the aspiration level can be adapted.
+
+Step 3: If after time β no alternative has satisfied α, then decrease α by some amount δ and return to step 1.
+Satisficing has been reported across many domains, for instance as a heuristic car dealers use to price used BMWs.
+
+=== Elimination by aspects ===
+Unlike satisficing, Amos Tversky's elimination-by-aspect heuristic can be used when all alternatives are simultaneously available. The decision-maker gradually reduces the number of alternatives by eliminating alternatives that do not meet the aspiration level of a specific attribute (or aspect). During a series of selections, people tend to experience uncertainty and exhibit inconsistency. Elimination by aspects could be used when facing selections. In general, the process of elimination by aspects is as follows:
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+category: "reference"
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+---
+
+Step 1: Select one attribute related to decision making
+Step 2: Eliminate all alternatives that exclude this specific attribute
+Step 3: Use another attribute in order to further eliminate alternatives
+Step 4: Repeat step 3 until only one option is left, a decision has then been made
+Elimination by aspects does not speculate that choosing alternatives could help consumers to maximize utility, on the contrary, it holds that selection is the result of a probabilistic process that gradually eliminates alternatives. A simple example is given by Amos Tversky: when someone wants to purchase a new car, the first aspect they will take into account might be the automatic transmission, this will eliminate all alternatives that do not contain such an aspect. Then, when all the alternatives that do not have this feature are eliminated, another aspect will be given such as a $3000 price limit. The process of elimination continues to occur until all alternatives are eliminated.
+Elimination by aspects is well used in the early stage of business angels' decision-making process since it facilitates a fast-decision-making tool - alternatives will be eliminated when investors find a critical defect of the potential opportunities. Another research also demonstrated that elimination by aspects has widely been used in electricity contract choice. The logic behind these two examples is that elimination by aspects helps to make decisions when facing a series of complicated choices. One may need to make a decision among all alternatives while he or she only has limited intuitive computational facilities and time. However, elimination by aspects as a compensatory model could help to make such complex decisions since it is easier to apply and involves nonnumerical computations.
+
+=== Recognition heuristic ===
+
+The recognition heuristic exploits the basic psychological capacity for recognition in order to make inferences about unknown quantities in the world. For two alternatives, the heuristic is:If one of two alternatives is recognized and the other not, then infer that the recognized alternative has the higher value with respect to the criterion. For example, in the 2003 Wimbledon tennis tournament, Andy Roddick played Tommy Robredo. If one has heard of Roddick but not of Robredo, the recognition heuristic leads to the prediction that Roddick will win. The recognition heuristic exploits partial ignorance, if one has heard of both or no player, a different strategy is needed. Studies of Wimbledon 2003 and 2005 have shown that the recognition heuristic applied by semi-ignorant amateur players predicted the outcomes of all gentlemen single games as well and better than the seedings of the Wimbledon experts (who had heard of all players), as well as the ATP rankings. The recognition heuristic is ecologically rational (that is, it predicts well) when the recognition validity is substantially above chance. In the present case, recognition of players' names is highly correlated with their chances of winning.
+
+=== Take-the-best ===
+
+The take-the-best heuristic exploits the basic psychological capacity for retrieving cues from memory in the order of their validity. Based on the cue values, it infers which of two alternatives has a higher value on a criterion. Unlike the recognition heuristic, it requires that all alternatives are recognized, and it thus can be applied when the recognition heuristic cannot. For binary cues (where 1 indicates the higher criterion value), the heuristic is defined as:
+
+The validity vi of a cue i is defined as the proportion of correct decisions ci:
+vi = ci / ti
+where ti is the number of cases the values of the two alternatives differ on cue i. The validity of each cue can be estimated from samples of observation.
+Take-the-best has remarkable properties. In comparison with complex machine learning models, it has been shown that it can often predict better than regression models, classification-and-regression trees, neural networks, and support vector machines. [Brighton & Gigerenzer, 2015]
+Similarly, psychological studies have shown that in situations where take-the-best is ecologically rational, a large proportion of people tend to rely on it. This includes decision making by airport custom officers, professional burglars and police officers  and student populations. The conditions under which take-the-best is ecologically rational are mostly known. Take-the-best shows that the previous view that ignoring part of the information would be generally irrational is incorrect. Less can be more.
+
+=== Fast-and-frugal trees ===
+
+A fast-and-frugal tree is a heuristic that allows to make classifications, such as whether a patient with severe chest pain is likely to have a heart attack or not, or whether a car approaching a checkpoint is likely to be a terrorist or a civilian. It is called "fast and frugal" because, just like take-the-best, it allows for quick decisions with only few cues or attributes. It is called a "tree" because it can be represented like a decision tree in which one asks a sequence of questions. Unlike a full decision tree, however, it is an incomplete tree – to save time and reduce the danger of overfitting.
+
+Figure 1 shows a fast-and-frugal tree used for screening for HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). Just like take-the-best, the tree has a search rule, stopping rule, and decision rule:
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+title: "Heuristic (psychology)"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Persuasion ===
+An example of how persuasion plays a role in heuristic processing can be explained through the heuristic-systematic model. This explains how there are often two ways we are able to process information from persuasive messages, one being heuristically and the other systematically. A heuristic is when we make a quick short judgement into our decision making. On the other hand, systematic processing involves more analytical and inquisitive cognitive thinking. Individuals looks further than their own prior knowledge for the answers. An example of this model could be used when watching an advertisement about a specific medication. One without prior knowledge would see the person in the proper pharmaceutical attire and assume that they know what they are talking about. Therefore, that person automatically has more credibility and is more likely to trust the content of the messages than they deliver. While another who is also in that field of work or already has prior knowledge of the medication will not be persuaded by the ad because of their systematic way of thinking. This was also formally demonstrated in an experiment conducted by Chaiken and Maheswaran (1994). In addition to these examples, the fluency heuristic ties in perfectly with the topic of persuasion. It is described as how we all easily make "the most of an automatic by-product of retrieval from memory". An example would be a friend asking about good books to read. Many could come to mind, but you name the first book recalled from your memory. Since it was the first thought, therefore you value it as better than any other book one could suggest. The effort heuristic is almost identical to fluency. The one distinction would be that objects that take longer to produce are seen with more value. One may conclude that a glass vase is more valuable than a drawing, merely because it may take longer for the vase. These two varieties of heuristics confirms how we may be influenced easily our mental shortcuts, or what may come quickest to our mind.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Citations ==
+
+== References ==
+Baron, Jonathan (2000), Thinking and deciding (3rd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-65030-4, OCLC 316403966
+Gilovich, Thomas; Griffin, Dale W.; Kahneman, Daniel, eds. (2002), Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8, OCLC 47364085
+Hardman, David (2009), Judgment and decision making: psychological perspectives, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-2398-3
+Hastie, Reid; Dawes, Robyn M. (29 September 2009), Rational Choice in an Uncertain World: The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making, SAGE, ISBN 978-1-4129-5903-2
+Koehler, Derek J.; Harvey, Nigel (2004), Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-0746-4
+Kahneman, Daniel; Slovic, Paul; Tversky, Amos, eds. (1982). Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1.
+Kunda, Ziva (1999), Social Cognition: Making Sense of People, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-61143-5, OCLC 40618974
+Mussweiler, Thomas; Englich, Birte; Strack, Fritz (2004), "Anchoring effect", in Pohl, Rüdiger F. (ed.), Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 183–200, ISBN 978-1-84169-351-4, OCLC 55124398
+Plous, Scott (1993), The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-050477-6, OCLC 26931106
+Poundstone, William (2010), Priceless: the myth of fair value (and how to take advantage of it), Hill and Wang, ISBN 978-0-8090-9469-1
+Sutherland, Stuart (2007), Irrationality (2nd ed.), London: Pinter and Martin, ISBN 978-1-905177-07-3, OCLC 72151566
+Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1974), "Judgments Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases" (PDF), Science, 185 (4157): 1124–1131, Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T, doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124, PMID 17835457, S2CID 143452957, archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2019, retrieved 13 November 2014, reprinted in Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982), pp. 3–20.
+Yudkowsky, Eliezer (2011). "Cognitive biases potentially affecting judgment of global risks". In Bostrom, Nick; Cirkovic, Milan M. (eds.). Global Catastrophic Risks. OUP Oxford. pp. 91–119. ISBN 978-0-19-960650-4.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Gilovich, Thomas; Griffin, Dale W. "Introduction – Heuristics and Biases: Then and Now". In Gilovich, Griffin & Kahneman (2002), pp. 1–18.
+Slovic, Paul; Melissa Finucane; Ellen Peters; Donald G. MacGregor. "The Affect Heuristic". In Gilovich, Griffin & Kahneman (2002), pp. 397–420.
+Reber, Rolf (2004), "Availability", in Pohl, Rüdiger F. (ed.), Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 147–163, ISBN 978-1-84169-351-4, OCLC 55124398
+Teigen, Karl Halvor (2004), "Judgements by representativeness", in Pohl, Rüdiger F. (ed.), Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 165–182, ISBN 978-1-84169-351-4, OCLC 55124398
+Gigerenzer, Gerd; Selten, Reinhard (2001). Bounded rationality: The adaptive toolbox. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-585-38828-8. OCLC 49569412.
+Korteling, Johan E.; Brouwer, Anne-Marie; Toet, Alexander (3 September 2018). "A Neural Network Framework for Cognitive Bias". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 1561. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01561. PMC 6129743. PMID 30233451.
+Chow, Sheldon (20 April 2011). "Heuristics, Concepts, and Cognitive Architecture: Toward Understanding How The Mind Works". Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository.
+Todd, P. M. (2001). "Heuristics for Decision and Choice". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 6676–6679. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00629-X. ISBN 978-0-08-043076-8.
+Nadurak, V. (2025). How to evaluate the rationality of heuristics? Thinking & Reasoning, 31(2), 137–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2024.2395063
+Nadurak, V. (2025). Heuristics and cognitive biases: A conceptual analysis. Memory & Cognition. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-025-01814-w
+
+== External links ==
+"Test Yourself: Decision Making and the Availability Heuristic". Annenberg Learner. Annenberg Foundation
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+
+In the HIV tree, an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) test is conducted first. If the outcome is negative, then the testing procedure stops and the client is informed of the good news, that is, "no HIV." If, however, the result is positive, a second ELISA test is performed, preferably from a different manufacturer. If the second ELISA is negative, then the procedure stops and the client is informed of having "no HIV." However, if the result is positive, a final test, the Western blot, is conducted.
+In general, for n binary cues, a fast-and-frugal tree has exactly n + 1 exits – one for each cue and two for the final cue. A full decision tree, in contrast, requires 2n exits. The order of cues (tests) in a fast-and-frugal tree is determined by the sensitivity and specificity of the cues, or by other considerations such as the costs of the tests. In the case of the HIV tree, the ELISA is ranked first because it produces fewer misses than the Western blot test, and also is less expensive. The Western blot test, in contrast, produces fewer false alarms. In a full tree, in contrast, order does not matter for the accuracy of the classifications.
+Fast-and-frugal trees are descriptive or prescriptive models of decision making under uncertainty. For instance, an analysis or court decisions reported that the best model of how London magistrates make bail decisions is a fast and frugal tree. The HIV tree is both prescriptive– physicians are taught the procedure – and a descriptive model, that is, most physicians actually follow the procedure.
+
+=== Tallying ===
+Tallying is a heuristic that considers the most viable choice in a decision making problem to be the one which outperforms its alternatives across most identifiable measures and criteria.
+As opposed to the take-the-best heuristic which considers a weighted-value when assessing the importance of a specific aspect (cues) involved in a choice, a person who tallies merely considers all available aspects of an alternative choice with equal weight and chooses the option with the most aspects in favour.
+In this sense, tallying differentiates from the take-the-best heuristic as the latter naturally discriminates based on the value applied to each aspect, and therefore can lead to opposing results.
+To represent this, consider a scenario where a prediction is taking place as to whether Team A or Team B may be more successful in the upcoming season of basketball. Team A is superior in 3/4 of the contributing aspects to team success, but the aspect Team B is greater in than Team A is weighted as objectively more important than the others for team success. The tallying heuristic would consider Team A to be more successful due to its outperformance in most measures, however, take-the-best would consider the weighted value of the singular one in which Team B is superior in to determine that Team B would be the most successful.
+
+== Informal models of heuristics ==
+In their initial research, Tversky and Kahneman proposed three heuristics—availability, representativeness, and anchoring and adjustment. Subsequent work has identified many more. Heuristics that underlie judgment are called "judgment heuristics". Another type, called "evaluation heuristics", are used to judge the desirability of possible choices.
+List of informal models of heuristics:
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+
+Affect heuristic: A mental shortcut which uses emotion to influence the decision. Emotion is the effect that plays the lead role that makes the decision or solves the problem quickly or efficiently. It is used while judging the risks and benefits of something, depending on the positive or negative feelings that people associate with a stimulus. It can also be considered the gut decision since if the gut feeling is right, then the benefits are high and the risks are low. Anchoring and adjustment: Describes the common human tendency to rely more heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions. For example, in a study done with children, the children were told to estimate the number of jellybeans in a jar. Groups of children were given either a high or low "base" number (anchor). Children estimated the number of jellybeans to be closer to the anchor number that they were given. Availability heuristic: A mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgements about the probability of events by the ease with which examples come to mind. For example, in a 1973 Tversky & Kahneman experiment, the majority of participants reported that there were more words in the English language that start with the letter K than for which K was the third letter. There are actually twice as many words in the English Language that have K as the third letter as those that start with K, but words that start with K are much easier to recall and bring to mind. Balance heuristic: Applies to when an individual balances the negative and positive effects from a decision which makes the choice obvious. It is a mental shortcut that helps individuals achieve peace and harmony in their lives while simultaneously attempting to avoid the potential risks or consequences of a decision. Base rate heuristic: When a decision involves probability this is a mental shortcut that uses relevant data to determine the probability of an outcome occurring. When using this Heuristic there is a common issue where individuals misjudge the likelihood of a situation. For example, if there is a test for a disease which has an accuracy of 90%, people may think it's a 90% they have the disease even though the disease only affects 1 in 500 people. Common sense heuristic: Used frequently by individuals when the potential outcomes of a decision appear obvious. For example, when your television remote stops working, you would probably change the batteries. Contagion heuristic: Follows the Law of Contagion or Similarity. This leads people to avoid others that are viewed as "contaminated" to the observer. This happens due to the fact of the observer viewing something that is seen as bad or to seek objects that have been associated with what seems good. Some things one can view as harmful can tend not to really be. This sometimes leads to irrational thinking on behalf of the observer. Default heuristic: In real world models, it is common for consumers to apply this heuristic when selecting the default option regardless of whether the option was their preference. Educated guess heuristic: When an individual responds to a decision using relevant information they have stored relating to the problem. Effort heuristic: The worth of an object is determined by the amount of effort put into the production of the object. Objects that took longer to produce are more valuable while the objects that took less time are deemed not as valuable. Also applies to how much effort is put into achieving the product. This can be seen as the difference of working and earning the object versus finding the object on the side of the street. It can be the same object but the one found will not be deemed as valuable as the one that we earned. Escalation of commitment: Describes the phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the cost, starting today, of continuing the decision outweighs the expected benefit. This is related to the sunk cost fallacy. Fairness heuristic: Applies to the reaction of an individual to a decision from an authoritative figure. If the decision is enacted in a fair manner the likelihood of the individual to comply voluntarily is higher than if it is unfair. Familiarity heuristic: A mental shortcut applied to various situations in which individuals assume that the circumstances underlying the past behavior still hold true for the present situation and that the past behavior thus can be correctly applied to the new situation. Especially prevalent when the individual experiences a high cognitive load. Naïve diversification: When asked to make several choices at once, people tend to diversify more than when making the same type of decision sequentially. Peak–end rule: A person's subjective perceptions during the most intense and final moments of an event are averaged together into a single judgment. For example, a person might judge the difficulty of a workout by taking into consideration only the most demanding part of the workout (e.g., Tabata sprints) and what happens at the very end (e.g., a cool-down). In this way, a difficult workout such as the one described here could be perceived as "easier" than a more relaxed workout that did not vary in intensity (e.g., 45 minutes of cycling in aerobic zone 3, without cool-down). Representativeness heuristic: A mental shortcut used when making judgements about the probability of an event, or the characteristics of an individual, under uncertainty based on a perceived resemblance between the prospects of the object and a typical case or category. In other words, this heuristic refers to the tendency to evaluate something based on how similar it is to a prototype or a stereotype that already exists in the mind of the perceiver. It often involves overlooking statistical probabilities or other relevant information, making assumptions based on matching attributes between the specific object and a general category instead. For example, in a 1982 Tversky and Kahneman experiment, participants were given a description of a woman named Linda. Based on the description, it was likely that Linda was a feminist. Eighty to ninety percent of participants, choosing from two options, chose that it was more likely for Linda to be a feminist and a bank teller than only a bank teller. The likelihood of two events cannot be greater than that of either of the two events individually. For this reason, the representativeness heuristic is exemplary of the conjunction fallacy. Scarcity heuristic: A cognitive bias where people assign greater value to items or events that are perceived to be in limited supply. This mental shortcut assumes that limited availability signals higher worth, leading individuals to overvalue things that are harder to obtain as exemplified in behavioral economics. The perception of scarcity influences judgments about quality, utility, and desirability, whereby equating rarity with value can cause systematic errors or a cognitive bias in how we assess objects, events, or opportunities. Simulation heuristic: A simplified mental strategy in which people determine the likelihood of an event happening based on how easy it is to mentally picture the event happening.
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+
+People regret the events that are easier to imagine over the ones that would be harder to. It is also thought that people will use this heuristic to predict the likelihood of another's behavior happening. This shows that people are constantly simulating everything around them in order to be able to predict the likelihood of events around them. It is believed that people do this by mentally undoing events that they have experienced and then running mental simulations of the events with the corresponding input values of the altered model. Social proof: Also known as the informational social influence which was named by Robert Cialdini in his 1984 book Influence. It is where people copy the actions of others. It is more prominent when people are uncertain how to behave, especially in ambiguous social situations. Working backward heuristic: When an individual assumes they have already solved a problem they work backwards in order to find how to achieve the solution they originally figured out.
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Availability ===
+
+In psychology, availability is the ease with which a particular idea can be brought to mind. When people estimate how likely or how frequent an event is on the basis of its availability, they are using the availability heuristic. When an infrequent event can be brought easily and vividly to mind, this heuristic overestimates its likelihood. For example, people overestimate their likelihood of dying in a dramatic event such as a tornado or terrorism. Dramatic, violent deaths are usually more highly publicised and therefore have a higher availability. On the other hand, common but mundane events are hard to bring to mind, so their likelihoods tend to be underestimated. These include deaths from suicides, strokes, and diabetes. This heuristic is one of the reasons why people are more easily swayed by a single, vivid story than by a large body of statistical evidence. It may also play a role in the appeal of lotteries: to someone buying a ticket, the well-publicised, jubilant winners are more available than the millions of people who have won nothing.
+When people judge whether more English words begin with T or with K , the availability heuristic gives a quick way to answer the question. Words that begin with T come more readily to mind, and so subjects give a correct answer without counting out large numbers of words. However, this heuristic can also produce errors. When people are asked whether there are more English words with K in the first position or with K in the third position, they use the same process. It is easy to think of words that begin with K, such as kangaroo, kitchen, or kept. It is harder to think of words with K as the third letter, such as lake, or acknowledge, although objectively these are three times more common. This leads people to the incorrect conclusion that K is more common at the start of words. In another experiment, subjects heard the names of many celebrities, roughly equal numbers of whom were male and female. The subjects were then asked whether the list of names included more men or more women. When the men in the list were more famous, a great majority of subjects incorrectly thought there were more of them, and vice versa for women. Tversky and Kahneman's interpretation of these results is that judgments of proportion are based on availability, which is higher for the names of better-known people.
+In one experiment that occurred before the 1976 U.S. Presidential election, some participants were asked to imagine Gerald Ford winning, while others did the same for a Jimmy Carter victory. Each group subsequently viewed their allocated candidate as significantly more likely to win. The researchers found a similar effect when students imagined a good or a bad season for a college football team. The effect of imagination on subjective likelihood has been replicated by several other researchers.
+A concept's availability can be affected by how recently and how frequently it has been brought to mind. In one study, subjects were given partial sentences to complete. The words were selected to activate the concept either of hostility or of kindness: a process known as priming. They then had to interpret the behavior of a man described in a short, ambiguous story. Their interpretation was biased towards the emotion they had been primed with: the more priming, the greater the effect. A greater interval between the initial task and the judgment decreased the effect.
+Tversky and Kahneman offered the availability heuristic as an explanation for illusory correlations in which people wrongly judge two events to be associated with each other. They explained that people judge correlation on the basis of the ease of imagining or recalling the two events together.
+
+=== Representativeness ===
+
+The representativeness heuristic is seen when people use categories, for example when deciding whether or not a person is a criminal. An individual thing has a high representativeness for a category if it is very similar to a prototype of that category. When people categorise things on the basis of representativeness, they are using the representativeness heuristic. "Representative" is here meant in two different senses: the prototype used for comparison is representative of its category, and representativeness is also a relation between that prototype and the thing being categorised. While it is effective for some problems, this heuristic involves attending to the particular characteristics of the individual, ignoring how common those categories are in the population (called the base rates). Thus, people can overestimate the likelihood that something has a very rare property, or underestimate the likelihood of a very common property. This is called the base rate fallacy. Representativeness explains this and several other ways in which human judgments break the laws of probability.
+The representativeness heuristic is also an explanation of how people judge cause and effect: when they make these judgements on the basis of similarity, they are also said to be using the representativeness heuristic. This can lead to a bias, incorrectly finding causal relationships between things that resemble one another and missing them when the cause and effect are very different. Examples of this include both the belief that "emotionally relevant events ought to have emotionally relevant causes", and magical associative thinking.
+
+==== Representativeness of base rates ====
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+---
+title: "Heuristic (psychology)"
+chunk: 7/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A 1973 experiment used a psychological profile of Tom W., a fictional graduate student. One group of subjects had to rate Tom's similarity to a typical student in each of nine academic areas (including Law, Engineering and Library Science). Another group had to rate how likely it is that Tom specialised in each area. If these ratings of likelihood are governed by probability, then they should resemble the base rates, i.e. the proportion of students in each of the nine areas (which had been separately estimated by a third group). If people based their judgments on probability, they would say that Tom is more likely to study Humanities than Library Science, because there are many more Humanities students, and the additional information in the profile is vague and unreliable. Instead, the ratings of likelihood matched the ratings of similarity almost perfectly, both in this study and a similar one where subjects judged the likelihood of a fictional woman taking different careers. This suggests that rather than estimating probability using base rates, subjects had substituted the more accessible attribute of similarity.
+
+==== Conjunction fallacy ====
+
+When people rely on representativeness, they can fall into an error which breaks a fundamental law of probability. Tversky and Kahneman gave subjects a short character sketch of a woman called Linda, describing her as, "31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations". People reading this description then ranked the likelihood of different statements about Linda. Amongst others, these included "Linda is a bank teller", and, "Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement". People showed a strong tendency to rate the latter, more specific statement as more likely, even though a conjunction of the form "Linda is both X and Y" can never be more probable than the more general statement "Linda is X". The explanation in terms of heuristics is that the judgment was distorted because, for the readers, the character sketch was representative of the sort of person who might be an active feminist but not of someone who works in a bank. A similar exercise concerned Bill, described as "intelligent but unimaginative". A great majority of people reading this character sketch rated "Bill is an accountant who plays jazz for a hobby", as more likely than "Bill plays jazz for a hobby".
+Without success, Tversky and Kahneman used what they described as "a series of increasingly desperate manipulations" to get their subjects to recognise the logical error. In one variation, subjects had to choose between a logical explanation of why "Linda is a bank teller" is more likely, and a deliberately illogical argument which said that "Linda is a feminist bank teller" is more likely "because she resembles an active feminist more than she resembles a bank teller". Sixty-five percent of subjects found the illogical argument more convincing.
+Other researchers also carried out variations of this study, exploring the possibility that people had misunderstood the question. They did not eliminate the error. It has been shown that individuals with high CRT scores are significantly less likely to be subject to the conjunction fallacy. The error disappears when the question is posed in terms of frequencies. Everyone in these versions of the study recognised that out of 100 people fitting an outline description, the conjunction statement ("She is X and Y") cannot apply to more people than the general statement ("She is X").
+
+==== Ignorance of sample size ====
+
+Tversky and Kahneman asked subjects to consider a problem about random variation. Imagining for simplicity that exactly half of the babies born in a hospital are male, the ratio will not be exactly half in every time period. On some days, more girls will be born and on others, more boys. The question was, does the likelihood of deviating from exactly half depend on whether there are many or few births per day? It is a well-established consequence of sampling theory that proportions will vary much more day-to-day when the typical number of births per day is small. However, people's answers to the problem do not reflect this fact. They typically reply that the number of births in the hospital makes no difference to the likelihood of more than 60% male babies in one day. The explanation in terms of the heuristic is that people consider only how representative the figure of 60% is of the previously given average of 50%.
+
+==== Dilution effect ====
+Richard E. Nisbett and colleagues suggest that representativeness explains the dilution effect, in which irrelevant information weakens the effect of a stereotype. Subjects in one study were asked whether "Paul" or "Susan" was more likely to be assertive, given no other information than their first names. They rated Paul as more assertive, apparently basing their judgment on a gender stereotype. Another group, told that Paul's and Susan's mothers each commute to work in a bank, did not show this stereotype effect; they rated Paul and Susan as equally assertive. The explanation is that the additional information about Paul and Susan made them less representative of men or women in general, and so the subjects' expectations about men and women had a weaker effect. This means unrelated and non-diagnostic information about certain issue can make relative information less powerful to the issue when people understand the phenomenon.
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+---
+title: "Heuristic (psychology)"
+chunk: 8/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Misperception of randomness ====
+Representativeness explains systematic errors that people make when judging the probability of random events. For example, in a sequence of coin tosses, each of which comes up heads (H) or tails (T), people reliably tend to judge a clearly patterned sequence such as HHHTTT as less likely than a less patterned sequence such as HTHTTH. These sequences have exactly the same probability, but people tend to see the more clearly patterned sequences as less representative of randomness, and so less likely to result from a random process. Tversky and Kahneman argued that this effect underlies the gambler's fallacy; a tendency to expect outcomes to even out over the short run, like expecting a roulette wheel to come up black because the last several throws came up red. They emphasised that even experts in statistics were susceptible to this illusion: in a 1971 survey of professional psychologists, they found that respondents expected samples to be overly representative of the population they were drawn from. As a result, the psychologists systematically overestimated the statistical power of their tests, and underestimated the sample size needed for a meaningful test of their hypotheses.
+
+=== Anchoring and adjustment ===
+
+Anchoring and adjustment is a heuristic used in many situations where people estimate a number. According to Tversky and Kahneman's original description, it involves starting from a readily available number—the "anchor"—and shifting either up or down to reach an answer that seems plausible. In Tversky and Kahneman's experiments, people did not shift far enough away from the anchor. Hence the anchor contaminates the estimate, even if it is clearly irrelevant. In one experiment, subjects watched a number being selected from a spinning "wheel of fortune". They had to say whether a given quantity was larger or smaller than that number. For instance, they might be asked, "Is the percentage of African countries which are members of the United Nations larger or smaller than 65%?" They then tried to guess the true percentage. Their answers correlated well with the arbitrary number they had been given. Insufficient adjustment from an anchor is not the only explanation for this effect. An alternative theory is that people form their estimates on evidence which is selectively brought to mind by the anchor.
+
+The anchoring effect has been demonstrated by a wide variety of experiments both in laboratories and in the real world. It remains when the subjects are offered money as an incentive to be accurate, or when they are explicitly told not to base their judgment on the anchor. The effect is stronger when people have to make their judgments quickly. Subjects in these experiments lack introspective awareness of the heuristic, denying that the anchor affected their estimates.
+Even when the anchor value is obviously random or extreme, it can still contaminate estimates. One experiment asked subjects to estimate the year of Albert Einstein's first visit to the United States. Anchors of 1215 and 1992 contaminated the answers just as much as more sensible anchor years. Other experiments asked subjects if the average temperature in San Francisco is more or less than 558 degrees, or whether there had been more or fewer than 100,025 top ten albums by The Beatles. These deliberately absurd anchors still affected estimates of the true numbers.
+Anchoring results in a particularly strong bias when estimates are stated in the form of a confidence interval. An example is where people predict the value of a stock market index on a particular day by defining an upper and lower bound so that they are 98% confident the true value will fall in that range. A reliable finding is that people anchor their upper and lower bounds too close to their best estimate. This leads to an overconfidence effect. One much-replicated finding is that when people are 98% certain that a number is in a particular range, they are wrong about thirty to forty percent of the time.
+Anchoring also causes particular difficulty when many numbers are combined into a composite judgment. Tversky and Kahneman demonstrated this by asking a group of people to rapidly estimate the product 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1. Another group had to estimate the same product in reverse order; 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8. Both groups underestimated the answer by a wide margin, but the latter group's average estimate was significantly smaller. The explanation in terms of anchoring is that people multiply the first few terms of each product and anchor on that figure. A less abstract task is to estimate the probability that an aircraft will crash, given that there are numerous possible faults each with a likelihood of one in a million. A common finding from studies of these tasks is that people anchor on the small component probabilities and so underestimate the total. A corresponding effect happens when people estimate the probability of multiple events happening in sequence, such as an accumulator bet in horse racing. For this kind of judgment, anchoring on the individual probabilities results in an overestimation of the combined probability.
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+---
+title: "Heuristic (psychology)"
+chunk: 9/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Examples ====
+People's valuation of goods, and the quantities they buy, respond to anchoring effects. In one experiment, people wrote down the last two digits of their social security numbers. They were then asked to consider whether they would pay this number of dollars for items whose value they did not know, such as wine, chocolate, and computer equipment. They then entered an auction to bid for these items. Those with the highest two-digit numbers submitted bids that were many times higher than those with the lowest numbers. When a stack of soup cans in a supermarket was labelled, "Limit 12 per customer", the label influenced customers to buy more cans. In another experiment, real estate agents appraised the value of houses on the basis of a tour and extensive documentation. Different agents were shown different listing prices, and these affected their valuations. For one house, the appraised value ranged from US$114,204 to $128,754.
+Anchoring and adjustment has also been shown to affect grades given to students. In one experiment, 48 teachers were given bundles of student essays, each of which had to be graded and returned. They were also given a fictional list of the students' previous grades. The mean of these grades affected the grades that teachers awarded for the essay.
+One study showed that anchoring affected the sentences in a fictional rape trial. The subjects were trial judges with, on average, more than fifteen years of experience. They read documents including witness testimony, expert statements, the relevant penal code, and the final pleas from the prosecution and defence. The two conditions of this experiment differed in just one respect: the prosecutor demanded a 34-month sentence in one condition and 12 months in the other; there was an eight-month difference between the average sentences handed out in these two conditions. In a similar mock trial, the subjects took the role of jurors in a civil case. They were either asked to award damages "in the range from $15 million to $50 million" or "in the range from $50 million to $150 million". Although the facts of the case were the same each time, jurors given the higher range decided on an award that was about three times higher. This happened even though the subjects were explicitly warned not to treat the requests as evidence.
+Assessments can also be influenced by the stimuli provided. In one review, researchers found that if a stimulus is perceived to be important or carry "weight" to a situation, that people were more likely to attribute that stimulus as heavier physically.
+
+=== Affect heuristic ===
+
+"Affect", in this context, is a feeling such as fear, pleasure or surprise. It is shorter in duration than a mood, occurring rapidly and involuntarily in response to a stimulus. While reading the words "lung cancer" might generate an affect of dread, the words "mother's love" can create an affect of affection and comfort. When people use affect ("gut responses") to judge benefits or risks, they are using the affect heuristic. The affect heuristic has been used to explain why messages framed to activate emotions are more persuasive than those framed in a purely factual way.
+
+=== Escalation of commitment heuristic ===
+Decision makers, whether at an organisational or national level, can come across the dilemma of whether to continue with an operation or withdraw from it. The escalation of commitment heuristic demonstrates that people often tend to lock themselves into losing courses of action in the hopes that investing more resources into an operation will turn around losses. Furthermore, escalation of commitment can be expected to occur in situations where the decision maker can claim credit for operational success, but losses and operational failure are directed and absorbed by others such as a larger entity. Cognitive determinates that can influence escalation of commitment include self-justification, problem framing, sunk costs, goal substitution, self-efficacy, accountability, and illusion of control. The general flow of events that causes implementation of the escalation of commitment heuristic are as follows:
+
+A large amount of resources is invested into an operation and cannot be recovered (sunk cost).
+The operation performs poorly and provides the decision maker with negative feedback.
+The decision maker continues to pour investment into the operation with the hope of turning it around, hence reflecting the escalation of commitment heuristic.
+Aside from being relevant to decision makers in firms and organisations, escalation of commitment is also applicable to decisions made by national leaders. An example of this is decisions relating to further investment in wars. In a war-based scenario, the costs are predominately borne by soldiers and taxpayers. Additionally, decision makers in war scenarios often do not have to directly or immediately bear the costs of their decisions at the same level as soldiers and taxpayers do, hence making their decision to keep investing easier. This reflects the escalation of commitment heuristic, and inevitably creates a cyclical process of reinvestment that has the potential to cause long-term issues economically, socially, and politically at both local and global scales.
+
+=== Others ===
+
+== Theories ==
+There are competing theories of human judgment, which differ on whether the use of heuristics is irrational. A cognitive laziness approach argues that heuristics are inevitable shortcuts given the limitations of the human brain. According to the natural assessments approach, some complex calculations are already done rapidly and automatically by the brain, and other judgments make use of these processes rather than calculating from scratch. This has led to a theory called "attribute substitution", which says that people often handle a complicated question by answering a different, related question, without being aware that this is what they are doing. A third approach argues that heuristics perform just as well as more complicated decision-making procedures, but more quickly and with less information. This perspective emphasises the "fast and frugal" nature of heuristics.
+
+=== Cognitive laziness ===
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+---
+title: "Heuristic (psychology)"
+chunk: 10/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An effort-reduction framework proposed by Anuj K. Shah and Daniel M. Oppenheimer states that people use a variety of techniques to reduce the effort of making decisions.
+
+=== Attribute substitution ===
+
+In 2002 Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed a process called attribute substitution which happens without conscious awareness. According to this theory, when somebody makes a judgment (of a target attribute) which is computationally complex, a rather more easily calculated heuristic attribute is substituted. In effect, a difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without the person being aware this is happening. This explains why individuals can be unaware of their own biases, and why biases persist even when the subject is made aware of them. It also explains why human judgments often fail to show regression toward the mean.
+This substitution is thought of as taking place in the automatic intuitive judgment system, rather than the more self-aware reflective system. Hence, when someone tries to answer a difficult question, they may actually answer a related but different question, without realizing that a substitution has taken place.
+In 1975, psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens proposed that the strength of a stimulus (e.g. the brightness of a light, the severity of a crime) is encoded by brain cells in a way that is independent of modality. Kahneman and Frederick built on this idea, arguing that the target attribute and heuristic attribute could be very different in nature.
+
+Kahneman and Frederick propose three conditions for attribute substitution:
+
+The target attribute is relatively inaccessible.Substitution is not expected to take place in answering factual questions that can be retrieved directly from memory ("What is your birthday?") or about current experience ("Do you feel thirsty now?).
+An associated attribute is highly accessible.This might be because it is evaluated automatically in normal perception or because it has been primed. For example, someone who has been thinking about their love life and is then asked how happy they are might substitute how happy they are with their love life rather than other areas.
+The substitution is not detected and corrected by the reflective system.For example, when asked "A bat and a ball together cost $1.10. The bat costs $1 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?" many subjects incorrectly answer $0.10. An explanation in terms of attribute substitution is that, rather than work out the sum, subjects parse the sum of $1.10 into a large amount and a small amount, which is easy to do. Whether they feel that is the right answer will depend on whether they check the calculation with their reflective system.
+Kahneman gives an example where some Americans were offered insurance against their own death in a terrorist attack while on a trip to Europe, while another group were offered insurance that would cover death of any kind on the trip. Even though "death of any kind" includes "death in a terrorist attack", the former group were willing to pay more than the latter. Kahneman suggests that the attribute of fear is being substituted for a calculation of the total risks of travel. Fear of terrorism for these subjects was stronger than a general fear of dying on a foreign trip.
+
+=== Fast and frugal ===
+Gerd Gigerenzer and colleagues have argued that heuristics can be used to make judgments that are accurate rather than biased. According to them, heuristics are "fast and frugal" alternatives to more complicated procedures, giving answers that are just as good.
+
+== Consequences ==
+
+=== Efficient decision heuristics ===
+Warren Thorngate, a social psychologist, implemented ten simple decision rules or heuristics in a computer program. He determined how often each heuristic selected alternatives with highest-through-lowest expected value in a series of randomly-generated decision situations. He found that most of the simulated heuristics selected alternatives with highest expected value and almost never selected alternatives with lowest expected value.
+
+=== "Beautiful-is-familiar" effect ===
+Psychologist Benoît Monin reports a series of experiments in which subjects, looking at photographs of faces, have to judge whether they have seen those faces before. It is repeatedly found that attractive faces are more likely to be mistakenly labeled as familiar. Monin interprets this result in terms of attribute substitution. The heuristic attribute in this case is a "warm glow"; a positive feeling towards someone that might either be due to their being familiar or being attractive. This interpretation has been criticised, because not all the variance in familiarity is accounted for by the attractiveness of the photograph.
+
+=== Judgments of morality and fairness ===
+Legal scholar Cass Sunstein has argued that attribute substitution is pervasive when people reason about moral, political or legal matters. Given a difficult, novel problem in these areas, people search for a more familiar, related problem (a "prototypical case") and apply its solution as the solution to the harder problem. According to Sunstein, the opinions of trusted political or religious authorities can serve as heuristic attributes when people are asked their own opinions on a matter. Another source of heuristic attributes is emotion: people's moral opinions on sensitive subjects like sexuality and human cloning may be driven by reactions such as disgust, rather than by reasoned principles. Sunstein has been challenged as not providing enough evidence that attribute substitution, rather than other processes, is at work in these cases.
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+---
+title: "Heuristic argument"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_argument"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:53.744118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A heuristic argument is an argument that reasons from the value of a method or principle that has been shown experimentally (especially through trial-and-error) to be useful or convincing in learning, discovery and problem-solving, but whose line of reasoning involves key oversimplifications that make it not entirely rigorous. A widely used and important example of a heuristic argument is Occam's razor.
+It is a speculative, non-rigorous argument that relies on analogy or intuition, and that allows one to achieve a result or an approximation that is to be checked later with more rigor. Otherwise, the results are generally to be doubted. It is used as a hypothesis or a conjecture in an investigation, though it can also be used as a mnemonic as well.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Empirical relationship
+Heuristic
+Probabilistic method
+Rule of thumb
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-income_trap-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-income_trap-0.md
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+---
+title: "High-income trap"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-income_trap"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:45.352478+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The high-income trap refers to the phenomenon of slower growth in most high-income, developed countries compared to lower-income countries. Some economists argue that there is more evidence for a high-income trap than the middle-income trap. Among the countries said to experience this trap are Taiwan and Japan.
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchens's_razor-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchens's_razor-0.md
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+---
+title: "Hitchens's razor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchens's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:56.122921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hitchens's razor is a general rule for rejecting certain claims of knowledge. It states:
+
+What can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence.
+
+The razor is credited to author and journalist Christopher Hitchens, although its provenance can be traced to the Latin Quod gratis asseritur, gratis negatur ("What is asserted gratuitously is denied gratuitously"). It implies that the burden of proof regarding the truthfulness of a claim lies with the one who makes the claim; if this burden is not met, then the claim is unfounded, and its opponents need not argue further in order to dismiss it. Hitchens used this phrase specifically in the context of refuting religious belief.
+
+
+== Analysis ==
+
+The epistemological dictum appears in Hitchens's 2007 book God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything. The term "Hitchens's razor" itself first appeared (as "Hitchens' razor") in an online forum in October 2007, and was used by atheist blogger Rixaeton in December 2010, and popularised by, among others, evolutionary biologist and atheist activist Jerry Coyne after Hitchens died in December 2011.
+Some pages earlier in God Is Not Great, Hitchens also invoked Occam's razor. William Ockham devised a principle of economy, popularly known as Ockham's razor, which relied for its effect on disposing of unnecessary assumptions and accepting the first sufficient explanation or cause: "Do not multiply entities beyond necessity." This principle extends itself: "Everything which is explained through positing something different from the act of understanding can be explained without positing such a distinct thing."
+In 2007, Michael Kinsley observed in The New York Times that Hitchens was rather fond of applying Occam's razor to religious claims,
+and according to The Wall Street Journal's Jillian Melchior in 2017, the phrase "What can be asserted without evidence can be dismissed without evidence" was "Christopher Hitchens's variation of Occam's razor".
+Hitchens's razor has been presented alongside the Sagan standard ("Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence") as an example of evidentialism within the New Atheism movement.
+
+
+== Use in atheism criticism ==
+Academic philosopher Michael V. Antony argued that despite the use of Hitchens's razor to reject religious belief and to support atheism, applying the razor to atheism itself would seem to imply that atheism is epistemically unjustified. According to Antony, the New Atheists (to whom Hitchens also belonged) invoke a number of special arguments purporting to show that atheism can in fact be asserted without evidence.
+
+
+== Criticism ==
+Philosopher C. Stephen Evans outlined some common Christian theological responses to the argument made by Hitchens, Richard Dawkins, and the other New Atheists that if religious belief is not based on evidence, it is not reasonable, and can thus be dismissed without evidence. Characterising the New Atheists as evidentialists, Evans counted himself amongst the Reformed epistemologists together with Alvin Plantinga, who argued for a version of foundationalism, namely that "belief in God can be reasonable even if the believer has no arguments or propositional evidence on which the belief is based". The idea is that all beliefs are based on other beliefs, and some "foundational" or "basic beliefs" just need to be assumed to be true in order to start somewhere, and it is fine to pick God as one of those basic beliefs. 
+Additional criticism includes that, more often than not, the razor is invoked against a position that has at least prima facie evidence supporting it and hence should not be dismissed outright. Whilst the epistemological soundness of the evidence may be disputed, its existence cannot be ignored. Furthermore, Hitchens's razor can prematurely shut down a potentially fruitful discussion if both parties choose to invoke it against each other. Based on these considerations, among others, theologian Randal Rauser sees Hitchens's razor as having a "deeply corrosive impact on reasoned discourse", lamenting that "those who invoke it are far less likely to consider the respective merits of evidence on both sides of an issue".
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Homotopy hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:46.567648+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In category theory, a branch of mathematics, Grothendieck's homotopy hypothesis states, homotopy-theoretically speaking, that the ∞-groupoids are spaces.
+One version of the hypothesis was claimed to be proved in the 1991 paper by Kapranov and Voevodsky. Their proof turned out to be flawed and their result in the form interpreted by Carlos Simpson is now known as the Simpson conjecture.
+In higher category theory, one considers a space-valued presheaf instead of a set-valued presheaf in ordinary category theory. In view of homotopy hypothesis, a space here can be taken to an ∞-groupoid.
+
+
+== Formulations ==
+A precise formulation of the hypothesis very strongly depends on the definition of an ∞-groupoid. One definition is that, mimicking the ordinary category case, an ∞-groupoid is an ∞-category in which each morphism is invertible or equivalently its homotopy category is a groupoid.
+Now, if an ∞-category is defined as a simplicial set satisfying the weak Kan condition, as done commonly today, then ∞-groupoids amounts exactly to Kan complexes (= simplicial sets with the Kan condition) by the following argument. If 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle X}
+  
+ is a Kan complex (viewed as an ∞-category) and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ a morphism in it, consider 
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        :
+        
+          Λ
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        →
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma :\Lambda _{0}^{2}\to X}
+  
+ from the horn such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        (
+        0
+        →
+        1
+        )
+        =
+        f
+        ,
+        
+        σ
+        (
+        0
+        →
+        2
+        )
+        =
+        id
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma (0\to 1)=f,\,\sigma (0\to 2)=\operatorname {id} }
+  
+. By the Kan condition, 
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma }
+  
+ extends to 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            σ
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        :
+        
+          Δ
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        →
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}:\Delta ^{2}\to X}
+  
+ and the image 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        =
+        
+          
+            σ
+            ¯
+          
+        
+        (
+        1
+        →
+        2
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g={\overline {\sigma }}(1\to 2)}
+  
+ is a left inverse of 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+. Similarly, 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ has a right inverse and so is invertible. The converse, that an ∞-groupoid is a Kan complex, is less trivial and is due to Joyal (see Joyal's theorem).
+Because of the above fact, it is common to define ∞-groupoids simply as Kan complexes. Now, a theorem of Milnor and CW approximation say that Kan complexes completely determine the homotopy theory of (reasonable) topological spaces. So, this essentially proves the hypothesis. In particular, if ∞-groupoids are defined as Kan complexes (bypassing Joyal’s result), then the hypothesis is almost trivial.
+However, if an ∞-groupoid is defined in different ways, then the hypothesis is usually still open. In particular, the hypothesis with Grothendieck's original definition of an ∞-groupoid is still open.
+
+
+== n-version ==
+There is also a version of homotopy hypothesis for (weak) n-groupoids, which roughly says
+
+The statement requires several clarifications:
+
+An n-groupoid is typically defined as an n-category where each morphism is invertible. So, in particular, the meaning depends on the meaning of an n-category (e.g., usually some weak version of an n-category),
+"the same as" usually means some equivalence (see below), and the definition of an equivalence typically uses some higher notions like an ∞-category,
+A homotopy n-type means a reasonable topological space with vanishing i-th homotopy groups, i > n at each base point (so a homotopy n-type here is really a weak homotopy n-type to be precise).
+Moreover, the equivalence between the two notions is supposed to be given on one direction by a higher version of a fundamental groupoid, or the fundamental n-groupoid 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Π
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        (
+        X
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Pi _{n}(X)}
+  
+ of a space X where
+
+an object is a point in X,
+a 1-morphism 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        :
+        x
+        →
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f:x\to y}
+  
+ is a path from a point x to a point y, with the compositions the concatenation of two paths,
+a 2-morphism is a homotopy from a path 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        :
+        x
+        →
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f:x\to y}
+  
+ to a path 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        :
+        x
+        →
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g:x\to y}
+  
+,
+a 3-morphism is a "map" between homotopies,
+and so on until n-morphisms.
+The other direction is given by geometric realization.
+This version is still open.
+See also: Eilenberg–MacLane space, crossed module.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Algebraic homotopy
+N-group (category theory)
+Pursuing Stacks
+Quasi-category
+Stratified space
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Baez, John C.; Dolan, James (1995). "Higher-dimensional algebra and topological quantum field theory". Journal of Mathematical Physics. 36 (11): 6073–6105. arXiv:q-alg/9503002. Bibcode:1995JMP....36.6073B. doi:10.1063/1.531236.
+Baez, John C. (1997). "An introduction to n-categories". Category Theory and Computer Science. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1290. pp. 1–33. arXiv:q-alg/9705009. doi:10.1007/BFb0026978. ISBN 978-3-540-63455-3.
+Baez, John C.; Dolan, James (1998). "Categorification". arXiv:math/9802029.
+Baez, John C. (2007). "The Homotopy Hypothesis" (PDF).
+Baez, John C.; Shulman, Michael (2010). "Lectures on N-Categories and Cohomology". Towards Higher Categories. The IMA Volumes in Mathematics and its Applications. Vol. 152. pp. 1–68. arXiv:math/0608420. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1524-5_1. ISBN 978-1-4419-1523-8. MR 2664619.
+Grothendieck, Alexander (2021). "Pursuing Stacks". arXiv:2111.01000 [math.CT].
+Gurski, Nick; Johnson, Niles; Osorno, Angelica M. (2019a). "Topological Invariants from Higher Categories". Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 66 (8): 1. doi:10.1090/NOTI1934.
+Gurski, Nick; Johnson, Niles; Osorno, Angélica M. (2019b). "The 2-dimensional stable homotopy hypothesis". Journal of Pure and Applied Algebra. 223 (10): 4348–4383. arXiv:1712.07218. doi:10.1016/j.jpaa.2019.01.012.
+Haugseng, Rune (2025). "Higher Category Theory". Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics. pp. 1–23. arXiv:2401.14311. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-95703-8.00206-8. ISBN 978-0-323-95706-9.
+Joyal, A. (2002). "Quasi-categories and Kan complexes". Journal of Pure and Applied Algebra. 175 (1–3): 207–222. doi:10.1016/S0022-4049(02)00135-4.
+Lurie, Jacob (2009). Higher Topos Theory (AM-170). Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691140490. JSTOR j.ctt7s47v.
+Land, Markus (2021). "Joyal's Theorem, Applications, and Dwyer–Kan Localizations". Introduction to Infinity-Categories. Compact Textbooks in Mathematics. pp. 97–161. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-61524-6_2. ISBN 978-3-030-61523-9. Zbl 1471.18001.
+Maltsiniotis, Georges (2010). "Grothendieck 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∞
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \infty }
+  
+-groupoids, and still another definition of 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∞
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \infty }
+  
+-categories, §2.8. Grothendieck's conjecture (precise form)". arXiv:1009.2331 [math.CT].
+Nikolaus, Thomas (2011). "Algebraic models for higher categories". Indagationes Mathematicae. 21 (1–2): 52–75. arXiv:1003.1342. doi:10.1016/j.indag.2010.12.004.
+Riehl, Emily (2023). "Could ∞-Category Theory be Taught to Undergraduates?". Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 70 (5): 1. doi:10.1090/noti2692.
+Tamsamani, Zouhair (1999). "Sur des notions de n-categorie et n-groupoide non strictes via des ensembles multi-simpliciaux (On the notions of a nonstrict n-category and n-groupoid via multisimplicial sets)". K-Theory (in French). 16: 51–99. arXiv:alg-geom/9512006. doi:10.1023/A:1007747915317.
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+
+=== Stratified homotopy hypothesis ===
+Ayala, David; Francis, John; Rozenblyum, Nick (2018). "A stratified homotopy hypothesis". Journal of the European Mathematical Society. 21 (4): 1071–1178. arXiv:1502.01713. doi:10.4171/JEMS/856.
+Haine, Peter J. (2018). "On the homotopy theory of stratified spaces". arXiv:1811.01119 [math.AT].
+
+
+=== Simpson conjecture ===
+Hadzihasanovic, Amar (2020). "Diagrammatic sets and rewriting in weak higher categories". arXiv:2007.14505 [math.CT].
+
+
+== External links ==
+Henry, Simon (May 26, 2022). Grothendieck's homotopy hypothesis (PDF). Grothendieck, a Multifarious Giant: Mathematics, Logic and Philosoph.
+Rezk, Charles (2022). "Introduction to quasicategories" (PDF) – via ncatlab.org.
+homotopy hypothesis at the nLab
+"What is the mistake in the proof of the Homotopy hypothesis by Kapranov and Voevodsky?". MathOverflow.
+"Current status of Grothendieck's homotopy hypothesis and Whitehead's algebraic homotopy programme". MathOverflow.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_It-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_It-0.md
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index 000000000..3a7724470
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_It-0.md
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+---
+title: "How to Solve It"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_It"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:57.303829+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+How to Solve It (1945) is a small volume by mathematician George Pólya, describing methods of problem solving. 
+This book has remained in print continually since 1945.
+
+
+== Four principles ==
+How to Solve It suggests the following steps when solving a mathematical problem:
+
+First, you have to understand the problem.
+After understanding, make a plan.
+Carry out the plan.
+Look back on your work. How could it be better?
+If this technique fails, Pólya advises:  "If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some related problem. Could you imagine a more accessible related problem?"
+
+
+=== First principle: Understand the problem ===
+"Understand the problem" is often neglected as being obvious and is not even mentioned in many mathematics classes. Yet students are often stymied in their efforts to solve it, simply because they don't understand it fully, or even in part. In order to remedy this oversight, Pólya taught teachers how to prompt each student with appropriate questions, depending on the situation, such as:
+
+What are you asked to find or show?
+Can you restate the problem in your own words?
+Can you think of a picture or a diagram that might help you understand the problem?
+Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
+Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
+Do you need to ask a question to get the answer?
+The teacher is to select the question with the appropriate level of difficulty for each student to ascertain if each student understands at their own level, moving up or down the list to prompt each student, until each one can respond with something constructive.
+
+
+=== Second principle: Devise a plan ===
+Pólya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included:
+
+Guess and check
+Make an orderly list
+Eliminate possibilities
+Use symmetry
+Consider special cases
+Use direct reasoning
+Solve an equation
+Also suggested:
+
+Look for a pattern
+Draw a picture
+Solve a simpler problem
+Use a model
+Work backward
+Use a formula
+Be creative
+Applying these rules to devise a plan takes your own skill and judgement.
+Pólya lays a big emphasis on the teachers' behavior. A teacher should support students with devising their own plan with a question method that goes from the most general questions to more particular questions, with the goal that the last step to having a plan is made by the student. He maintains that just showing students a plan, no matter how good it is, does not help them.
+
+
+=== Third principle: Carry out the plan ===
+This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to work, discard it and choose another. Don't be misled; this is how mathematics is done, even by professionals. 
+
+
+=== Fourth principle: Review/extend ===
+Pólya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what you have done, what worked and what did not, and with thinking about other problems where this could be useful. Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems, if these relate to the original problem.
+
+
+== Heuristics ==
+The book contains a dictionary-style set of heuristics, many of which have to do with generating a more accessible problem. For example:
+
+
+== Influence ==
+
+The book has been translated into several languages and has sold over a million copies, and has been continuously in print since its first publication.
+Marvin Minsky said in his paper Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence that "everyone should know the work of George Pólya on how to solve problems."
+Pólya's book has had a large influence on mathematics textbooks as evidenced by the bibliographies for mathematics education.
+Russian inventor Genrich Altshuller developed an elaborate set of methods for problem solving known as TRIZ, which in many aspects reproduces or parallels Pólya's work.
+How to Solve it by Computer is a computer science book by R. G. Dromey. It was inspired by Pólya's work.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Inventor's paradox
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Pólya, George (1957). How to Solve It. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. p. 253.
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+More information on Pólya can be found here. Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine
+Softpanorama page about the value of the book in programming
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer-0.md
index 03c89e6e2..91f80609e 100644
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer-0.md
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:36:27.510977+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:58.541393+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulunber_Grassland_Ecosystem_Observation_and_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulunber_Grassland_Ecosystem_Observation_and_Research_Station-0.md
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulunber_Grassland_Ecosystem_Observation_and_Research_Station-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Hulunber Grassland Ecosystem Observation and Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulunber_Grassland_Ecosystem_Observation_and_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:19.075297+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hulunber Grassland Ecosystem Observation and Research Station in Inner Mongolia, China, is managed by the Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning (IARRP) of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS). It was established in 1997 and has an area of 400ha.
+This station is a multi-year fenced scientific observation site for a Stipa baicalensis-dominated temperate meadow steppe. The annual precipitation is 350mm-400mm, with an average of 380mm. The annual average temperature ranges from -3°C to 1°C. The soil structure is dominated by dark chestnut soil, the soil pH is 8.3 on average, and the soil density is 1.13g/cm~3. The main species in the observation site are Stipa Baicalensis, Leymus chinensis, Filifolium sibiricum, Artemisia dracunculus, and Pulsatilla chinensis. There are 25 families and 96 genera in total. The grass coverage of this site is more than 70%, with an average height of the canopy of 50 cm and an average depth of the root of 30 cm.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..70ac78a1b
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+---
+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 1/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Human performance modeling (HPM) is a method of quantifying human behavior, cognition, and processes. It is a tool used by human factors researchers and practitioners for both the analysis of human function and for the development of systems designed for optimal user experience and interaction . It is a complementary approach to other usability testing methods for evaluating the impact of interface features on operator performance.
+
+== History ==
+The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) formed the Human Performance Modeling Technical Group in 2004. Although a recent discipline, human factors practitioners have been constructing and applying models of human performance since World War II. Notable early examples of human performance models include Paul Fitts' model of aimed motor movement (1954), the choice reaction time models of Hick (1952) and Hyman (1953), and the Swets et al. (1964) work on signal detection. It is suggested that the earliest developments in HPM arose out of the need to quantify human-system feedback for those military systems in development during WWII (see Manual Control Theory below), with continued interest in the development of these models augmented by the cognitive revolution (see Cognition & Memory below).
+
+== Human Performance Models ==
+Human performance models predict human behavior in a task, domain, or system. However, these models must be based upon and compared against empirical human-in-the-loop data to ensure that the human performance predictions are correct. As human behavior is inherently complex, simplified representations of interactions are essential to the success of a given model. As no model is able to capture the complete breadth and detail of human performance within a system, domain, or even task, details are abstracted away to these keep models manageable. Although the omission of details is an issue in basic psychological research, it is less of a concern in applied contexts such as those of most concern to the human factors profession. This is related to the internal-external validity trade-off. Regardless, development of a human performance model is an exercise in complexity science. Communication and exploration of the most essential variables governing a given process are often just as important as the accurate prediction of an outcome given those variables.
+The goal of most human performance models is to capture enough detail in a particular domain to be useful for the purposes of investigation, design, or evaluation; thus the domain for any particular model is often quite restricted. Defining and communicating the domain of a given model is an essential feature of the practice - and of the entirety of human factors - as a systems discipline. Human performance models contain both the explicit and implicit assumptions or hypotheses upon which the model depends, and are typically mathematical - being composed of equations or computer simulations - although there are also important models that are qualitative in nature.
+Individual models vary in their origins, but share in their application and use for issues in the human factors perspective. These can be models of the products of human performance (e.g., a model that produces the same decision outcomes as human operators), the processes involved in human performance (e.g., a model that simulates the processes used to reach decisions), or both. Generally, they are regarded as belonging to one of three areas: perception & attention allocation, command & control, or cognition & memory; although models of other areas such as emotion, motivation, and social/group processes continue to grow burgeoning within the discipline. Integrated models are also of increasing importance. Anthropometric and biomechanical models are also crucial human factors tools in research and practice, and are used alongside other human performance models, but have an almost entirely separate intellectual history, being individually more concerned with static physical qualities than processes or interactions.
+The models are applicable in many number of industries and domains including military, aviation, nuclear power, automotive, space operations, manufacturing, user experience/user interface (UX/UI) design, etc. and have been used to model human-system interactions both simple and complex.
+
+== Model Categories ==
+
+=== Command & Control ===
+Human performance models of Command & Control describe the products of operator output behavior, and are often also models of dexterity within the interactions for certain tasks.
+
+==== Hick-Hyman Law ====
+Hick (1952) and Hyman (1953) note that the difficulty of a choice reaction-time task is largely determined by the information entropy of the situation. They suggested that information entropy (H) is a function of the number of alternatives (n) in a choice task, H = log2(n + 1); and that reaction time (RT) of a human operator is a linear function of the entropy: RT = a + bH. This is known as the Hick-Hyman law for choice response time.
+
+==== Pointing ====
+Pointing at stationary targets such as buttons, windows, images, menu items, and controls on computer displays is commonplace and has a well-established modeling tool for analysis - Fitts's law (Fitts, 1954) - which states that the time to make an aimed movement (MT) is a linear function of the index of difficulty of the movement: MT = a + bID. The index of difficulty (ID) for any given movement is a function of the ratio of distance to the target (D) and width of the target (W): ID = log2(2D/W) - a relationship derivable from information theory. Fitts' law is actually responsible for the ubiquity of the computer mouse, due to the research of Card, English, and Burr (1978). Extensions of Fitt's law also apply to pointing at spatially moving targets, via the steering law, originally discovered by C.G. Drury in 1971 and later on rediscovered in the context of human-computer interaction by Accott & Zhai (1997, 1999).
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling-1.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Manual Control Theory ====
+Complex motor tasks, such as those carried out by musicians and athletes, are not well modeled due to their complexity. Human target-tracking behavior, however, is one complex motor task that is an example of successful HPM.
+The history of manual control theory is extensive, dating back to the 1800s in regard to the control of water clocks. However, during the 1940s with the innovation of servomechanisms in WWII, extensive research was put into the continuous control and stabilization of contemporary systems such as radar antennas, gun turrets, and ships/aircraft via feedback control signals.
+Analysis methods were developed that predicted the required control systems needed to enable stable, efficient control of these systems (James, Nichols, & Phillips, 1947). Originally interested in temporal response - the relationship between sensed output and motor output as a function of time - James et al. (1947) discovered that the properties of such systems are best characterized by understanding temporal response after it had been transformed into a frequency response; a ratio of output to input amplitude and lag in response over the range of frequencies to which they are sensitive. For systems that respond linearly to these inputs, the frequency response function could be expressed in a mathematical expression called a transfer function. This was applied first to machine systems, then human-machine systems for maximizing human performance. Tustin (1947), concerned with the design of gun turrets for human control, was first to demonstrate that nonlinear human response could be approximated by a type of transfer function. McRuer and Krenzel (1957) synthesized all the work since Tustin (1947), measuring and documenting the characteristics of the human transfer function, and ushered in the era of manual control models of human performance. As electromechanical and hydraulic flight control systems were implemented into aircraft, automation and electronic artificial stability systems began to allow human pilots to control highly sensitive systems These same transfer functions are still used today in control engineering.
+From this, the optimal control model (Pew & Baron, 1978) developed in order to model a human operator's ability to internalize system dynamics and minimize objective functions, such as root mean square (RMS) error from the target. The optimal control model also recognizes noise in the operator's ability to observe the error signal, and acknowledges noise in the human motor output system.
+Technological progress and subsequent automation have reduced the necessity and desire of manual control of systems, however. Human control of complex systems is now often of a supervisory nature over a given system, and both human factors and HPM have shifted from investigations of perceptual-motor tasks, to the cognitive aspects of human performance.
+
+=== Attention & Perception ===
+
+==== Signal Detection Theory (SDT) ====
+Although not a formal part of HPM, signal detection theory has an influence on the method, especially within the Integrated Models. SDT is almost certainly the best-known and most extensively used modeling framework in human factors, and is a key feature of education regarding human sensation and perception. In application, the situation of interest is one in which a human operator has to make a binary judgement about whether a signal is present or absent in a noise background. This judgement may be applied in any number of vital contexts. Besides the response of the operator, there are two possible "true" states of the world - either the signal was present or it was not. If the operator correctly identifies the signal as present, this is termed a hit (H). If the operator responds that a signal was present when there was no signal, this is termed a false alarm (FA). If the operator correctly responds when no signal is present, this is termed a correct rejection (CR). If a signal is present and the operator fails to identify it, this is termed a miss (M).
+In applied psychology and human factors, SDT is applied to research problems including recognition, memory, aptitude testing, and vigilance. Vigilance, referring to the ability of operators to detect infrequent signals over time, is important for human factors across a variety of domains.
+
+===== Visual Search =====
+A developed area in attention is the control of visual attention - models that attempt to answer, "where will an individual look next?" A subset of this concerns the question of visual search: How rapidly can a specified object in the visual field be located? This is a common subject of concern for human factors in a variety of domains, with a substantial history in cognitive psychology. This research continues with modern conceptions of salience and salience maps. Human performance modeling techniques in this area include the work of Melloy, Das, Gramopadhye, and Duchowski (2006) regarding Markov models designed to provide upper and lower bound estimates on the time taken by a human operator to scan a homogeneous display. Another example from Witus and Ellis (2003) includes a computational model regarding the detection of ground vehicles in complex images. Facing the nonuniform probability that a menu option is selected by a computer user when certain subsets of the items are highlighted, Fisher, Coury, Tengs, and Duffy (1989) derived an equation for the optimal number of highlighted items for a given number of total items of a given probability distribution. Because visual search is an essential aspect of many tasks, visual search models are now developed in the context of integrating modeling systems. For example, Fleetwood and Byrne (2006) developed an ACT-R model of visual search through a display of labeled icons - predicting the effects of icon quality and set size not only on search time but on eye movements.
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+---
+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Visual Sampling ====
+Many domains contain multiple displays, and require more than a simple discrete yes/no response time measurement. A critical question for these situations may be "How much time will operators spend looking at X relative to Y?" or "What is the likelihood that the operator will completely miss seeing a critical event?" Visual sampling is the primary means of obtaining information from the world. An early model in this domain is Sender's (1964, 1983) based upon operators monitoring of multiple dials, each with different rates of change. Operators try, as best as they can, to reconstruct the original set of dials based on discrete sampling. This relies on the mathematical Nyquist theorem stating that a signal at W Hz can be reconstructed by sampling every 1/W seconds. This was combined with a measure of the information generation rate for each signal, to predict the optimal sampling rate and dwell time for each dial. Human limitations prevent human performance from matching optimal performance, but the predictive power of the model influenced future work in this area, such as Sheridan's (1970) extension of the model with considerations of access cost and information sample value.
+A modern conceptualization by Wickens et al. (2008) is the salience, effort, expectancy, and value (SEEV) model. It was developed by the researchers (Wickens et al., 2001) as a model of scanning behavior describing the probability that a given area of interest will attract attention (AOI). The SEEV model is described by p(A) = sS - efEF + (exEX)(vV), in which p(A) is the probability a particular area will be samples, S is the salience for that area; EF represents the effort required in reallocating attention to a new AOI, related to the distance from the currently attended location to the AOI; EX (expectancy) is the expected event rate (bandwidth), and V is the value of the information in that AOI, represented as the product of Relevance and Priority (R*P). The lowercase values are scaling constants. This equation allows for the derivation of optimal and normative models for how an operator should behave, and to characterize how they behave. Wickens et al., (2008) also generated a version of the model that does not require absolute estimation of the free parameters for the environment - just the comparative salience of other regions compared to region of interest.
+
+==== Visual Discrimination ====
+Models of visual discrimination of individual letters include those of Gibson (1969), Briggs and Hocevar (1975), and McClelland and Rumelhart (1981), the last of which is part of a larger model for word recognition noted for its explanation of the word superiority effect. These models are noted to be highly detailed, and make quantitative predictions about small effects of specific letters.
+
+==== Depth Perception ====
+A qualitative HPM example includes te Cutting and Vishton (1995) model of depth perception, which indicates that cues to depth perception are more effective at various distances.
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+---
+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 4/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Workload ====
+Although an exact definition or method for measurement of the construct of workload is debated by the human factors community, a critical part of the notion is that human operators have some capacity limitations and that such limitations can be exceeded only at the risk of degrading performance. For physical workload, it may be understood that there is a maximum amount that a person should be asked to lift repeatedly, for example. However, the notion of workload becomes more contentious when the capacity to be exceeded is in regard to attention - what are the limits of human attention, and what exactly is meant by attention? Human performance modeling produces valuable insights into this area.
+Byrne and Pew (2009) consider an example of a basic workload question: "To what extent do task A and B interfere?" These researchers indicate this as the basis for the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm. Participants perform two choice reaction-time tasks, and the two tasks will interfere to a degree - especially when the participant must react to the stimuli for the two tasks when they are close together in time - but the degree of interference is typically smaller than the total time taken for either task. The response selection bottleneck model (Pashler, 1994) models this situation well - in that each task has three components: perception, response selection (cognition), and motor output. The attentional limitation - and thus locus of workload - is that response selection can only be done for one task at a time. The model makes numerous accurate predictions, and those for which it cannot account are addressed by cognitive architectures (Byrne & Anderson, 2001; Meyer & Kieras, 1997). In simple dual-task situations, attention and workload are quantified, and meaningful predictions made possible.
+Horrey and Wickens (2003) consider the questions: To what extent will a secondary task interfere with driving performance, and does it depend on the nature of the driving and on the interface presented in the second task? Using a model based on multiple resource theory (Wickens, 2002, 2008; Navon & Gopher, 1979), which proposes that there are several loci for multiple-task interference (the stages of processing, the codes of processing, and modalities), the researchers suggest that cross-task interference increases proportional to the extent that the two tasks use the same resources within a given dimension: Visual presentation of a read-back task should interfere more with driving than should auditory presentation, because driving itself makes stronger demands on the visual modality than on the auditory.
+Although multiple resource theory the best known workload model in human factors, it is often represented qualitatively. The detailed computational implementations are better alternatives for application in HPM methods, to include the Horrey and Wickens (2003) model, which is general enough to be applied in many domains. Integrated approaches, such as task network modeling, are also becoming more prevalent in the literature.
+Numerical typing is an important perceptual-motor task whose performance may vary with different pacing, finger strategies and urgency of situations. Queuing network-model human processor (QN-MHP), a computational architecture, allows performance of perceptual-motor tasks to be modelled mathematically. The current study enhanced QN-MHP with a top-down control mechanism, a close-loop movement control and a finger-related motor control mechanism to account for task interference, endpoint reduction, and force deficit, respectively. The model also incorporated neuromotor noise theory to quantify endpoint variability in typing. The model predictions of typing speed and accuracy were validated with Lin and Wu's (2011) experimental results. The resultant root-meansquared errors were 3.68% with a correlation of 95.55% for response time, and 35.10% with a correlation of 96.52% for typing accuracy. The model can be applied to provide optimal speech rates for voice synthesis and keyboard designs in different numerical typing situations.
+The psychological refractory period (PRP) is a basic but important form of dual-task information processing. Existing serial or parallel processing models of PRP have successfully accounted for a variety of PRP phenomena; however, each also encounters at least 1 experimental counterexample to its predictions or modeling mechanisms. This article describes a queuing network-based mathematical model of PRP that is able to model various experimental findings in PRP with closed-form equations including all of the major counterexamples encountered by the existing models with fewer or equal numbers of free parameters. This modeling work also offers an alternative theoretical account for PRP and demonstrates the importance of the theoretical concepts of “queuing” and “hybrid cognitive networks” in understanding cognitive architecture and multitask performance.
+
+=== Cognition & Memory ===
+The paradigm shift in psychology from behaviorism to the study of cognition had a huge impact on the field of Human Performance Modeling. Regarding memory and cognition, the research of Newell and Simon regarding artificial intelligence and the General Problem Solver (GPS; Newell & Simon, 1963), demonstrated that computational models could effectively capture fundamental human cognitive behavior. Newell and Simon were not simply concerned with the amount of information - say, counting the number of bits the human cognitive system had to receive from the perceptual system - but rather the actual computations being performed. They were critically involved with the early success of comparing cognition to computation, and the ability of computation to simulate critical aspects of cognition - thus leading to the creation of the sub-discipline of artificial intelligence within computer science, and changing how cognition was viewed in the psychological community. Although cognitive processes do not literally flip bits in the same way that discrete electronic circuits do, pioneers were able to show that any universal computational machine could simulate the processes used in another, without a physical equivalence (Phylyshyn, 1989; Turing, 1936). The cognitive revolution allowed all of cognition to be approached by modeling, and these models now span a vast array of cognitive domains - from simple list memory, to comprehension of communication, to problem solving and decision making, to imagery, and beyond.
+One popular example is the Atkinson-Shiffrin (1968) "modal" model of memory. Also, please see Cognitive Models for information not included here..
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+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 5/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Routine Cognitive Skill ====
+One area of memory and cognition regards modeling routine cognitive skills; when an operator has the correct knowledge of how to perform a task and simply needs to execute that knowledge. This is widely applicable, as many operators are practiced enough that their procedures become routine. The GOMS (goals, operators, methods, and selection rules) family of Human Performance Models popularized and well-defined by researchers in the field (Card et al., 1983; John & Kieras, 1996a, 1996b) were originally applied to model users of computer interfaces, but have since been extended to other areas. They are useful HPM tools, suitable for a variety of different concerns and sizes of analysis, but are limited in regard to analyzing user error (see Wood & Kieras, 2002, for an effort to extend GOMS to handling errors).
+The simplest form of a GOMS model is a keystroke-level model (KLM) - in which all physical actions are listed (e.g., keystrokes, mouse clicks), also termed operations, that a user must take in order to complete a given task. Mental operations (e.g., find an object on the screen) augment this using a straightforward set of rules. Each operations has a time associated with it (such as 280 ms for a keystroke), and the total time for the task is estimated by adding up operation times. The efficiency of two procedures may then be compared, using their respected estimated execution times. Although this form of model is highly approximate (many assumptions are taken at liberty), it is a form of model still used today (e.g., in-vehicle information systems and mobile phones).
+Detailed versions of GOMS exist, including:
+--CPM-GOMS: "Cognitive, perceptual, motor"" and 'critical path method" (John & Kieras, 1996a, 1996b) - attempts to break down performance into primitive CPM units lasting tens to hundreds of milliseconds (durations for many operations in CPM-GOMS models come from published literature, especially Card et al., 1983).
+--GOMSL / NGOMSL: GOMS Language or Natural GOMS Language, which focus on the hierarchical decomposition of goals, but with an analysis including methods - procedures people use to accomplish those goals. Many generic mental operations in the KLM are replaced with detailed descriptions of the cognitive activity involving the organization of people's procedural knowledge into methods. A detailed GOMSL analysis allows for the prediction of not only execution time, but also the time it takes for learning the procedures, and the amount of transfer that can be expected based on already known procedures (Gong and Kieras, 1994). These models are not only useful for informing redesigns of user-interfaces, but also quantitatively predict execution and learning time for multiple tasks.
+
+==== Decision-Making ====
+Another critical cognitive activity of interest to human factors is that of judgement and decision making. These activities starkly contrast to routine cognitive skills, for which the procedures are known in advance, as many situations require operators to make judgments under uncertaintly - to produce a rating of quality, or perhaps choose among many possible alternatives. Although many disciplines including mathematics and economics make significant contributions to this area of study, the majority of these models do not model human behavior but rather model optimal behavior, such as subjective expected utility theory (Savage, 1954; von Neumann & Morgenstern, 1944). While models of optimal behavior are important and useful, they do not consider a baseline of comparison for human performance - though much research on human decision making in this domain compares human performance to mathematically optimal formulations. Examples of this include Kahneman and Tversky's (1979) prospect theory and Tversky's (1972) elimination by aspects model. Less formal approaches include Tversky and Kahneman's seminal work on heuristics and biases, Gigerenzer's work on 'fast and frugal' shortcuts (Gigerenzer, Todd, & ABC Research Group, 2000), and the descriptive models of Paune, Bettman, and Johnson (1993) on adaptive strategies.
+Sometimes optimal performance is uncertain, one powerful and popular example is the lens model (Brunswick, 1952; Cooksey, 1996; Hammond, 1955), which deals with policy capturing, cognitive control, and cue utilization, and has been used in aviation (Bisantz & Pritchett, 2003), command and control (Bisantz et al., 2000); to investigate human judgement in employment interviews (Doherty, Ebert, & Callender, 1986), financial analysis (Ebert & Kruse, 1978), physicians' diagnoses (LaDuca, Engel, & Chovan, 1988), teacher ratings (Carkenord & Stephens, 1944), and numerous others. Although the model does have limitations [described in Byrne & Pew (2009)], it is very powerful and remains underutilized in the human factors profession.
+
+===== Situation Awareness (SA) =====
+Models of SA range from descriptive (Endsley, 1995) to computational (Shively et al., 1997). The most useful model in HPM is that of McCarley et al. (2002) known as the A-SA model (Attention/Situation Awareness). It incorporates two semi-independent components: a perception/attention module and a cognitive SA-updated module. The P/A model of this A-SA model is based on the Theory of Visual Attention. (Bundesen, 1990) (refer to McCarley et al., 2002).
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+---
+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 6/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Integrated Models ===
+Many of these models described are very limited in their application. Although many extensions of SDT have been proposed to cover a variety of other judgement domains (see T.D. Wickens, 2002, for examples), most of these never caught on, and SDT remains limited to binary situations. The narrow scope of these models is not limited to human factors, however - Newton's laws of motion have little predictive power regarding electromagnetism, for example. However, this is frustrating for human factors professionals, because real human performance in vivo draws upon a wide array of human capabilities. As Byrne & Pew (2009) describe, "in the space of a minute, a pilot might quite easily conduct a visual search, aim for and push a button, execute a routine procedure, make a multiple-cue probabilistic judgement" and do just about everything else described by fundamental human performance models. A fundamental review of HPM by the National Academies (Elkind, Card, Hochberg, & Huey, 1990) described integration as the great unsolved challenge in HPM. This issue remains to be solved, however, there have been efforts to integrate and unify multiple models and build systems that span across domains. In human factors, the two primary modeling approaches that accomplish this and have gained popularity are task network modeling and cognitive architectures.
+
+==== Task Network Modeling ====
+The term network model refers to a modeling procedure involving Monte Carlo simulation rather than to a specific model. Although the modeling framework is atheoretical, the quality of the models that are built with it are only as high of a quality as the theories and data used to create them.
+When a modeler builds a network model of a task, the first step is to construct a flow chart decomposing the task into discrete sub-tasks - each sub-task as a node, the serial and parallel paths connecting them, and the gating logic that governs the sequential flow through the resulting network. When modeling human-system performance, some nodes represent human decision processes and.or human task execution, some represent system execution sub-tasks, and some aggregate human/machine performance into a single node. Each node is represented by a statistically specified completion time distribution and a probability of completion. When all these specifications are programmed into a computer, the network is exercised repeatedly in Monte Carlo fashion to build up distributions of the aggregate performance measures that are of concern to the analyst. The art in this is in the modeler's selection of the right level of abstraction at which to represent nodes and paths and in estimating the statistically defined parameters for each node. Sometimes, human-in-the-loop simulations are conducted to provide support and validation for the estimates.. Detail regarding this, related, and alternative approaches may be found in Laughery, Lebiere, and Archer (2006) and in the work of Schwieckert and colleagues, such as Schweickert, Fisher, and Proctor (2003).
+Historically, Task Network Modeling stems from queuing theory and modeling of engineering reliability and quality control. Art Siegel, a psychologist, first though of extending reliability methods into a Monte Carlo simulation model of human-machine performance (Siegel & Wolf, 1969). In the early 1970s, the U.S. Air Force sponsored the development of SAINT (Systems Analysis of Integrated Networks of Tasks), a high-level programming language specifically designed to support the programming of Monte Carlo simulations of human-machine task networks (Wortman, Pritsker, Seum, Seifert, & Chubb, 1974). A modern version of this software is Micro Saint Sharp (Archer, Headley, & Allender, 2003). This family of software spawned a tree of special-purpose programs with varying degrees of commonality and specificity with Micro Saint. The most prominent of these is the IMPRINT series (Improved Performance Research Integration Tool) sponsored by the U.S. Army (and based on MANPRINT) which provides modeling templates specifically adapted to particular human performance modeling applications (Archer et al., 2003). Two workload-specific programs are W/INDEX (North & Riley, 1989) and WinCrew (Lockett, 1997).
+The network approach to modeling using these programs is popular due to its technical accessibility to individual with general knowledge of computer simulation techniques and human performance analysis. The flowcharts that result from task analysis lead naturally to formal network models. The models can be developed to serve specific purposes - from simulation of an individual using a human-computer interface to analyzing potential traffic flow in a hospital emergency center. Their weakness is the great difficulty required to derive performance times and success probabilities from previous data or from theory or first principles. These data provide the model's principle content.
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+---
+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 7/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Cognitive Architectures ====
+Cognitive Architectures are broad theories of human cognition based on a wide selection of human empirical data and are generally implemented as computer simulations. They are the embodiment of a scientific hypothesis about those aspects of human cognition relatively constant over time and independent of task (Gray, Young, & Kirschenbaum, 1997; Ritter & young, 2001). Cognitive architectures are an attempt to theoretically unify disconnected empirical phenomena in the form of computer simulation models. While theory is inadequate for the application of human factors, since the 1990s cognitive architectures also include mechanisms for sensation, perception, and action. Two early examples of this include the Executive Process Interactive Control model (EPIC; Kieras, Wood, & Meyer, 1995; Meyer & Kieras, 1997) and the ACT-R (Byrne & Anderson, 1998).
+A model of a task in a cognitive architecture, generally referred to as a cognitive model, consists of both the architecture and the knowledge to perform the task. This knowledge is acquired through human factors methods including task analyses of the activity being modeled. Cognitive architectures are also connected with a complex simulation of the environment in which the task is to be performed - sometimes, the architecture interacts directly with the actual software humans use to perform the task. Cognitive architectures not only produce a prediction about performance, but also output actual performance data - able to produce time-stamped sequences of actions that can be compared with real human performance on a task.
+Examples of cognitive architectures include the EPIC system (Hornof & Kieras, 1997, 1999), CPM-GOMS (Kieras, Wood, & Meyer, 1997), the Queuing Network-Model Human Processor (Wu & Liu, 2007, 2008), ACT-R (Anderson, 2007; Anderson & Lebiere, 1998), and QN-ACTR (Cao & Liu, 2013).
+The Queuing Network-Model Human Processor model was used to predict how drivers perceive the operating speed and posted speed limit, make choice of speed, and execute the decided operating speed. The model was sensitive (average d’ was 2.1) and accurate (average testing accuracy was over 86%) to predict the majority of unintentional speeding
+ACT-R has been used to model a wide variety of phenomena. It consists of several modules, each one modeling a different aspect of the human system. Modules are associated with specific brain regions, and the ACT-R has thus successfully predicted neural activity in parts of those regions. Each model essentially represents a theory of how that piece of the overall system works - derived from research literature in the area. For example, the declarative memory system in ACT-R is based on series of equations considering frequency and recency and that incorporate Bayesian notions of need probability given context, also incorporating equations for learning as well as performance, Some modules are of higher fidelity than others, however - the manual module incorporates Fitt's law and other simple operating principles, but is not as detailed as the optimal control theory model (as of yet). The notion, however, is that each of these modules require strong empirical validation. This is both a benefit and a limitation to the ACT-R, as there is still much work to be done in the integration of cognitive, perceptual, and motor components, but this process is promising (Byrne, 2007; Foyle and Hooey, 2008; Pew & Mavor, 1998).
+
+=== Group Behavior ===
+
+==== Team/Crew Performance Modeling ====
+GOMS has been used to model both complex team tasks (Kieras & Santoro, 2004) and group decision making (Sorkin, Hays, & West, 2001).
+
+=== Modeling Approaches ===
+Computer Simulation Models/Approaches
+Example: IMPRINT (Improved Performance Research Integration Tool)
+Mathematical Models/Approaches
+Example: Cognitive model
+Comparing HPM Models
+To compare different HPM models, one of ways is to calculate their AIC (Akaike information criterion) and consider the Cross-validation criterion.
+
+== Benefits ==
+Numerous benefits may be gained from using modeling techniques in the human performance domain.
+
+=== Specificity ===
+A sizable majority of explanations in psychology are not only qualitative but also vague. Concepts such as "attention", "processing capacity", "workload", and "situation awareness" (SA), both general and specific to human factors, are often difficult to quantify in applied domains. Researchers differ in their definitions of such terms, which makes it likewise difficult to specify data for each term. Formal models, in contrast, typically require explicit specification of theoretical terms. Specificity requires that explanations be internally coherent; while verbal theories are often so flexible that they fail to remain consistent, allowing contradictory predictions to be derived from their use. Not all models are quantitative in nature, however, and thus not all provide the benefit of specificity to the same degree.
+
+=== Objectivity ===
+Formal models are generally modeler independent. Although great skill is involved in constructing a specific model, once it is constructed, anybody with the appropriate knowledge can run it or solve it, and the model produces the same predictions regardless of who is running or solving the model. Predictions are no longer leashed to the biases or sole intuition of a single expert but, rather, to a specification that can be made public.
+
+=== Quantitativeness ===
+Many human performance models make quantitative predictions, which are critical in applied situations. Purely empirical methods analyzed with hypothesis testing techniques, as standard in most psychological experiments, focus on providing answers to vague questions such as "Are A and B different?" and then "Is this difference statistically significant?"; while formal models often provide useful quantitative information such as "A is x% slower than B."
+
+=== Clarity ===
+Human performance models provide clarity, in that the model provides an explanation for observed differences; such explanations are not generally provided by strictly empirical methods.
+
+== Issues ==
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+---
+title: "Human performance modeling"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_performance_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:54.973981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Misconceptions ===
+Many human performance models share key features with Artificial Intelligence (AI) methods and systems. The function of AI research is to produce systems that exhibit intelligent behavior, generally without consideration of the degree to which that intelligence resembles or predicts human performance, yet the distinction between AI methods and that of HPM is at times unclear. For example, Bayesian classifiers used to filter spam emails approximate human classification performance (classifying spam emails as spam, and non-spam emails as importation) and are thus highly intelligence systems, but fail to rely on interpretation of the semantics of the messages themselves; instead relying on statistical methods. However, Bayesian analysis can also be essential to human performance models.
+
+=== Usefulness ===
+Models may focus more on the processes involved in human performance rather than the products of human performance, thus limiting their usefulness in human factors practice.
+
+=== Abstraction ===
+The abstraction necessary for understandable models competes with accuracy. While generality, simplicity, and understandability are important to the application of models in human factors practice, many valuable human performance models are inaccessible to those without graduate, or postdoctoral training. For example, while Fitts's law is straightforward for even undergraduates, the lens model requires an intimate understanding of multiple regression, and construction of an ACT-R type model requires extensive programming skills and years of experience. While the successes of complex models are considerable, a practitioner of HPM must be aware of the trade-offs between accuracy and usability.
+
+=== Free Parameters ===
+As is the case in most model-based sciences, free parameters rampant within models of human performance also require empirical data a priori. There may be limitations in regard to collecting the empirical data necessary to run a given model, which may constrains the application of that given model.
+
+=== Validation ===
+Validation of human performance models is of the highest concern to the science of HPM.
+Usually researchers using R square and Root Mean Square (RMS) between the experimental data and the model's prediction.
+In addition, while validity may be assessed with comparison between human data and the model's output, free parameters are flexible to incorrectly fit data.
+
+== Common Terms ==
+-Free Parameter: The parameters of a model whose values are estimated from the data to be modeled to maximally align the model's prediction.
+-Coefficient of determination (R Square): A line or curve indicate how well the data fit a statistic model.
+-Root Mean Square (RMS): A statistical measure defined as the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of a set of numbers.
+
+== See also ==
+Cognitive Architectures
+Cognitive Model
+Cognitive Revolution
+Decision-Making
+Depth Perception
+Human Factors
+Human Factors (Journal)
+Human Factors & Ergonomics Society
+Manual Control Theory
+Markov Models
+Mathematical Psychology
+Monte Carlo
+Salience
+Signal Detection Theory
+Situation Awareness
+Visual Search
+Workload
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Hyper-heuristic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:59.680477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A hyper-heuristic is a heuristic search method that seeks to automate, often by the incorporation of machine learning techniques, the process of selecting, combining, generating or adapting several simpler heuristics (or components of such heuristics) to efficiently solve computational search problems. One of the motivations for studying hyper-heuristics is to build systems which can handle classes of problems rather than solving just one problem.
+There might be multiple heuristics from which one can choose for solving a problem, and each heuristic has its own strength and weakness. The idea is to automatically devise algorithms by combining the strength and compensating for the weakness of known heuristics. In a typical hyper-heuristic framework there is a high-level methodology and a set of low-level heuristics (either constructive or perturbative heuristics). Given a problem instance, the high-level method selects which low-level heuristic should be applied at any given time, depending upon the current problem state (or search stage) determined by features.
+
+== Hyper-heuristics versus metaheuristics ==
+The fundamental difference between metaheuristics and hyper-heuristics is that most implementations of metaheuristics search within a search space of problem solutions, whereas hyper-heuristics always search within a search space of heuristics. Thus, when using hyper-heuristics, we are attempting to find the right method or sequence of heuristics in a given situation rather than trying to solve a problem directly. Moreover, we are searching for a generally applicable methodology rather than solving a single problem instance.
+Hyper-heuristics could be regarded as "off-the-peg" methods as opposed to "made-to-measure" metaheuristics. They aim to be generic methods, which should produce solutions of acceptable quality, based on a set of easy-to-implement low-level heuristics.
+
+== Motivation ==
+Despite the significant progress in building search methodologies for a wide variety of application areas so far, such approaches still require specialists to integrate their expertise in a given problem domain. Many researchers from computer science, artificial intelligence and operational research have already acknowledged the need for developing automated systems to replace the role of a human expert in such situations. One of the main ideas for automating the design of heuristics requires the incorporation of machine learning mechanisms into algorithms to adaptively guide the search. Both learning and adaptation processes can be realised on-line or off-line, and be based on constructive or perturbative heuristics.
+A hyper-heuristic usually aims at reducing the amount of domain knowledge in the search methodology. The resulting approach should be cheap and fast to implement, requiring less expertise in either the problem domain or heuristic methods, and (ideally) it would be robust enough to effectively handle a range of problem instances from a variety of domains. The goal is to raise the level of generality of decision support methodology perhaps at the expense of reduced - but still acceptable - solution quality when compared to tailor-made metaheuristic approaches. In order to reduce the gap between tailor-made schemes and hyperheuristic-based strategies, parallel hyperheuristics have been proposed.
+
+== Origins ==
+The term "hyperheuristics" was first coined in a 2000 publication by Cowling and Soubeiga, who used it to describe the idea of "heuristics to choose heuristics". They used a "choice function" machine learning approach which trades off exploitation and exploration in choosing the next heuristic to use. Subsequently, Cowling, Soubeiga, Kendall, Han, Ross and other authors investigated and extended this idea in areas such as evolutionary algorithms, and pathological low level heuristics. The first journal article to use the term appeared in 2003. The origin of the idea (although not the term) can be traced back to the early 1960s and was independently re-discovered and extended several times during the 1990s. In the domain of Job Shop Scheduling, the pioneering work by Fisher and Thompson, hypothesized  and experimentally proved, using probabilistic learning, that combining scheduling rules (also known as priority or dispatching rules) was superior than any of the rules taken separately.  Although the term was not then in use, this was the first "hyper-heuristic" paper. Another root inspiring the concept of hyper-heuristics comes from the field of artificial intelligence. More specifically, it comes from work on automated planning systems, and its eventual focus towards the problem of learning control knowledge. The so-called COMPOSER system, developed by Gratch et al., was used for controlling satellite communication schedules involving a number of earth-orbiting satellites and three ground stations. The system can be characterized as a hill-climbing search in the space of possible control strategies.
+
+== Classification of approaches ==
+Hyper-heuristic approaches so far can be classified into two main categories. In the first class, captured by the phrase heuristics to choose heuristics, the hyper-heuristic framework is provided with a set of pre-existing, generally widely known heuristics for solving the target problem. The task is to discover a good sequence of applications of these heuristics (also known as low-level heuristics within the domain of hyper-heuristics) for efficiently solving the problem. At each decision stage, a heuristic is selected through a component called selection mechanism and applied to an incumbent solution. The new solution produced from the application of the selected heuristic is accepted/rejected based on another component called acceptance criterion. Rejection of a solution means it is simply discarded while acceptance leads to the replacement of the incumbent solution. In the second class, heuristics to generate heuristics, the key idea is to "evolve new heuristics by making use of the components of known heuristics."  The process requires, as in the first class of hyper-heuristics, the selection of a suitable set of heuristics known to be useful in solving the target problem. However, instead of supplying these directly to the framework, the heuristics are first decomposed into their basic components.
+These two main broad types can be further categorised according to whether they are based on constructive or perturbative search. An
+additional orthogonal classification of hyper-heuristics considers the source providing feedback during the learning process, which can be either one instance (on-line learning) or many instances of the underlying problem studied (off-line learning).
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+---
+title: "Hyper-heuristic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:59.680477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Methodologies to choose heuristics ===
+Discover good combinations of fixed, human-designed, well-known low-level heuristics.
+
+Based on constructive heuristics
+Based on perturbative heuristics
+
+=== Methodologies to generate heuristics ===
+Generate new heuristic methods using basic components of previously existing heuristic methods.
+
+Based on basic components of constructive heuristics
+Based on basic components of perturbative heuristics
+
+=== On-line learning hyper-heuristics ===
+The learning takes place while the algorithm is solving an instance of a problem, therefore, task-dependent local properties can be used by the high-level strategy to determine the appropriate low-level heuristic to apply. Examples of on-line learning approaches within hyper-heuristics are: the use of reinforcement learning for heuristic selection, and generally the use of metaheuristics as high-level search strategies over a search space of heuristics.
+
+=== Off-line learning hyper-heuristics ===
+The idea is to gather knowledge in form of rules or programs, from a set of training instances, which would hopefully generalise to the process of solving unseen instances. Examples of off-line learning approaches
+within hyper-heuristics are: learning classifier systems, case-base reasoning and genetic programming.
+An extended classification of selection hyper-heuristics was provided in 2020, to provide a more comprehensive categorisation of contemporary selection hyper-heuristic methods.
+
+== Applications ==
+Hyper-heuristics have been applied across many different problems. Indeed, one of the motivations of hyper-heuristics is to be able to operate across different problem types. The following list is a non-exhaustive selection of some of the problems and fields in which hyper-heuristics have been explored:
+
+bin packing problem
+boolean satisfiability problem
+educational timetabling
+job shop scheduling
+multi-objective problem solving and space allocation
+nurse rostering
+personnel scheduling
+traveling salesman problem
+vehicle routing problem
+multidimensional knapsack problem
+0-1 knapsack problem
+maximum cut problem
+quadratic assignment problem
+facility layout problem
+wind farm layout
+
+== Related areas ==
+Hyper-heuristics are not the only approach being investigated in the quest for more general and applicable search methodologies. Many researchers from computer science, artificial intelligence and operational research have already acknowledged the need for developing automated systems to replace the role of a human expert in the process of tuning and adapting search methodologies. The following list outlines some related areas of research:
+
+adaptation and self-adaptation of algorithm parameters
+adaptive memetic algorithm
+adaptive large neighborhood search
+algorithm configuration
+algorithm control
+algorithm portfolios
+autonomous search
+genetic programming
+indirect encodings in evolutionary algorithms
+variable neighborhood search
+reactive search
+
+== Existing frameworks ==
+Nowadays, there are several frameworks available, in different programming languages. These include, but are not limited to:
+HyFlex
+ParHyFlex
+EvoHyp
+MatHH
+
+== See also ==
+Constructive heuristic
+Meta-optimization is closely related to hyper-heuristics.
+genetic algorithms
+genetic programming
+evolutionary algorithms
+local search (optimization)
+machine learning
+memetic algorithms
+metaheuristics
+no free lunch in search and optimization
+particle swarm optimization
+reactive search
+
+== References and notes ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+=== Hyper-heuristic bibliographies ===
+https://mustafamisir.github.io/hh.html
+
+=== Research groups ===
+Artificial Intelligence (ART+I) Laboratory Archived 2008-06-07 at the Wayback Machine, Yeditepe University Archived 2013-11-02 at the Wayback Machine, Turkey
+Automated Scheduling, Optimisation and Planning (ASAP) Research Group, University of Nottingham, UK
+Combinatorial Optimisation and Decision Support (CODeS) Research Group Archived 2011-12-30 at the Wayback Machine, KU Leuven Archived 2011-03-05 at the Wayback Machine, Belgium
+Computational-Heuristics, Operations Research and Decision-Support (CHORDS) Research Group, University of Stirling, UK
+Evolutionary Computation Research Group, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
+Intelligent Systems Lab, Heriot-Watt University, UK
+Research Group on Advanced Artificial Intelligence (previously: Intelligent Systems Research Group), Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico.
+Machine lEarning and Operations Research (MEmORy) Lab, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, P.R.China
+Modelling Optimisation Scheduling and Intelligent Control (MOSAIC) Research Group, University of Bradford, UK
+Operational Research (OR) Group, Queen Mary University of London, UK
+Optimising Software by Computation from ARtificial intelligence (OSCAR) Research Group, Dalian University of Technology, P.R.China
+
+=== Recent activities ===
+Stream on Hyper-heuristics @ EURO 2019
+Invited Session on Automated Algorithm Design for Multi-objective Optimization Problems @ MCDM 2019
+8th Workshop on Evolutionary Computation for the Automated Design of Algorithms (ECADA) @ GECCO 2018
+Stream on Hyper-heuristics @ EURO 2018
+Special Session on Automated Algorithm Design as Ensemble Techniques @ IEEE CIEL / SSCI 2017
+Tutorial on Algorithm Selection: Offline + Online Techniques @ SEAL 2017 Archived 2018-03-08 at the Wayback Machine
+1st AISB Symposium on Meta-Optimisation: Hyper-heuristics and Beyond @ AISB Convention 2013
+Modern Hyperheuristics for Large Scale Optimization Problems @ META2012
+Tutorial on Hyper-heuristics and Cross-domain Optimization @ GECCO 2012
+Self-* Search Track @ GECCO 2012
+Special Session on Evolutionary Based Hyperheuristics and Their Applications @ IEEE CEC2012 (WCCI2012)
+Special Session on Cross-domain Heuristic Search (LION-CHESC) @ LION2012
+Cross-domain Heuristic Search Challenge 2011 (CHeSC 2011) Archived 2011-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
+Special Session on Systems to Build Systems @ MISTA 2011
+Tutorial on Automated Heuristic Design @ GECCO 2011
+Special Session on Hybrid Evolutionary Algorithms, Hyper-heuristics and Memetic Computation @ IEEE CEC2010 (WCCI 2010) Archived 2011-09-19 at the Wayback Machine
+Workshop on Self-tuning, self-configuring and self-generating search heuristics (Self* 2010) @ PPSN 2010
+Workshop on Hyper-heuristics @ PPSN 2008
+
+=== Others ===
+Task Force on Hyper-heuristics in the Technical Committee of Intelligent Systems and Applications at the IEEE Computational Intelligence Society.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-0.md
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 category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:51.041584+00:00"
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 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Independence hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:48.900629+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Independence hypothesis is a proposed solution to the synoptic problem. It holds that Matthew, Mark, and Luke are each original compositions formed independently of each other, with no documentary relationship.
+Scholars have long noted that the three synoptic gospels have a great deal in common, not just in content but also in order and precise Greek wording. Most scholars have asserted that this must be due to some sort of literary interrelationship among the gospels, with fragments of text copied from one source to another, but have struggled to find a satisfactory theory of who copied from whom. The independence theory rejects this consensus of documentary dependence; rather, each evangelist has independently drawn from eyewitness accounts and perhaps liturgy and other oral tradition.
+The similarities among the synoptic gospels, the whole basis for the synoptic problem, are held to be, first of all, vastly overstated, and secondly, explainable as artifacts of relying on the same witnesses or of different witnesses to the same events.
+The witnesses to the gospel content, especially apostles such as Peter, would have preached their testimony countless times before contributing to the gospels, and such numerous rehearsals tend to make a story settle into a relatively consistent wording. Any of this material that entered public liturgy (e.g., the Lord's Prayer) would become even more stabilized. On the other hand, different witnesses nearly always preserve different details and present numerous minor inconsistencies. So, too, does a single witness consulted on different occasions. Moreover, sayings and anonymous healings may have recurred many times in a similar fashion, so that seemingly similar accounts actually preserve distinct events. What we would expect to see in the gospels according to this method of composition, goes the theory, is what we find: many similar accounts, often with virtually identical wording, but many additions and omissions, a somewhat different selection of content in each, as well as inconsistencies of order and details.
+Protestant theologian Eta Linnemann argues that the reason for four independent Gospels stems from the legal principle of Deuteronomy 19:15: "On the evidence of two or three witnesses a matter shall be confirmed."
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Oral gospel tradition
+Hebrew gospel hypothesis
+Criterion of multiple attestation
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony (2006).
+Werner Kelber, The Oral-Scribal-Memorial Arts of Communication in Early Christianity (2008).
+Eta Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem?: Rethinking the Literary Dependence of the First Three Gospels (1992).
+Bo Reicke, The Roots of the Synoptic Gospels (1986).
+John M. Rist, On the Independence of Matthew and Mark (1978).
+Robert L. Thomas (ed.), Three Views on the Origins of the Synoptic Gospels (2002).
+John W. Wenham, Redating Matthew, Mark, and Luke: A Fresh Assault on the Synoptic Problem (1991).
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_assessment_modelling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_assessment_modelling-0.md
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+---
+title: "Integrated assessment modelling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_assessment_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:56.130150+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Integrated assessment modelling (IAM) or integrated modelling (IM)  is a term used for a type of scientific modelling that tries to link main features of society and economy with the biosphere and atmosphere into one modelling framework. The goal of integrated assessment modelling is to accommodate informed policy-making, usually in the context of climate change  though also in other areas of human and social development. While the detail and extent of integrated disciplines varies strongly per model, all climatic integrated assessment modelling includes economic processes as well as processes producing greenhouse gases.  Other integrated assessment models also integrate other aspects of human development such as education, health, infrastructure, and governance.
+These models are integrated because they span multiple academic disciplines, including economics and climate science and for more comprehensive models also energy systems, land-use change, agriculture, infrastructure, conflict, governance, technology, education, and health. The word assessment comes from the use of these models to provide information for answering policy questions. To quantify these integrated assessment studies, numerical models are used. Integrated assessment modelling does not provide predictions for the future but rather estimates what possible scenarios look like.
+There are different types of integrated assessment models. One classification distinguishes between firstly models that quantify future developmental pathways or scenarios and provide detailed, sectoral information on the complex processes modelled. Here they are called process-based models. Secondly, there are models that aggregate the costs of climate change and climate change mitigation to find estimates of the total costs of climate change. A second classification makes a distinction between models that extrapolate verified patterns (via econometrics equations), or models that determine (globally) optimal economic solutions from the perspective of a social planner, assuming (partial) equilibrium of the economy.
+
+
+== Process-based models ==
+
+Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has relied on process-based integrated assessment models (PB-IAM) to quantify mitigation scenarios. They have been used to explore different pathways for staying within climate policy targets such as the 1.5 °C target agreed upon in the Paris Agreement. Moreover, these models have underpinned research including energy policy assessment and simulate the Shared socioeconomic pathways. Notable modelling frameworks include IMAGE, MESSAGEix, AIM/GCE, GCAM, REMIND-MAgPIE, and WITCH-GLOBIOM. While these scenarios are highly policy-relevant, interpretation of the scenarios should be done with care.
+Non-equilibrium models include those based on econometric equations and evolutionary economics (such as E3ME), and agent-based models (such as the agent-based DSK-model). These models typically do not assume rational and representative agents, nor market equilibrium in the long term.
+
+
+== Aggregate cost-benefit models ==
+Cost-benefit integrated assessment models are the main tools for calculating the social cost of carbon, or the marginal social cost of emitting one more tonne of carbon (as carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere at any point in time. For instance, the DICE, PAGE, and FUND models have been used by the US Interagency Working Group to calculate the social cost of carbon and its results have been used for regulatory impact analysis.
+This type of modelling is carried out to find the total cost of climate impacts, which are generally considered a negative externality not captured by conventional markets. In order to correct such a market failure, for instance by using a carbon tax, the cost of emissions is required. However, the estimates of the social cost of carbon are highly uncertain and will remain so for the foreseeable future. It has been argued that "IAM-based analyses of climate policy create a perception of knowledge and precision that is illusory, and can fool policy-makers into thinking that the forecasts the models generate have some kind of scientific legitimacy". Still, it has been argued that attempting to calculate the social cost of carbon is useful to gain insight into the effect of certain processes on climate impacts, as well as to better understand one of the determinants international cooperation in the governance of climate agreements.
+Integrated assessment models have not been used solely to assess environmental or climate change-related fields.  They have also been used to analyze patterns of conflict, the Sustainable Development Goals, trends across issue area in Africa, and food security.
+
+
+== Shortcomings ==
+All numerical models have shortcomings. Integrated Assessment Models for climate change, in particular, have been severely criticized for problematic assumptions that led to greatly overestimating the cost/benefit ratio for mitigating climate change while relying on economic models inappropriate to the problem.  In 2021, the integrated assessment modeling community examined gaps in what was termed the "possibility space" and how these might best be consolidated and addressed.  In an October 2021 working paper, Nicholas Stern argues that existing IAMs are inherently unable to capture the economic realities of the climate crisis under its current state of rapid progress. 
+Models undertaking optimisation methodologies have received numerous different critiques, a prominent one however, draws on the ideas of dynamical systems theory which understands systems as changing with no deterministic pathway or end-state.
+This implies a very large, or even infinite, number of possible states of the system in the future with aspects and dynamics that cannot be known to observers of the current state of the system. 
+
+This type of uncertainty around future states of an evolutionary system has been referred to as 'radical' or 'fundamental' uncertainty.
+
+This has led some researchers to call for more work on the broader array of possible futures and calling for modelling research on those alternative scenarios that have yet to receive substantial attention, for example post-growth scenarios.
+IAMs have also been criticised for undervaluing or underestimating the role of primary renewable electricity, generated primarily through wind and solar power, and closely related integration concepts like sector coupling, electrification of end-use and power-to-X, while overvaluing the role of bioenergy and CCS. Researchers also note a major discrepancy between the IAM modelling community and the energy system modelling community, thus arguing for a stronger incorporation of the findings of the energy system modelling community in IAMs.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Integrated Assessment Society
+Integrated Assessment Journal
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+---
+title: "Integrated asset modelling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_asset_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:57.298855+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Integrated asset modelling (IAM) is the generic term used in the oil industry for computer modelling of both the subsurface and the surface elements of a field development. Historically the reservoir has always been modelled separately from the surface network and the facilities. In order to capture the interaction between those two or more standalone models, several time-consuming iterations were required. For example, a change in the water breakthrough leads to a change in the deliverability of the surface network which in turn leads to a production acceleration or deceleration in the reservoir. In order to go through this lengthy process more quickly, the industry has slowly  been adopting a more integrated approach which captures the constraints imposed by the infrastructure on the network immediately.
+
+
+== Basis ==
+As the aim of an IAM is to provide a production forecast which honours both the physical realities of the reservoir and the infrastructure it needs to contain the following elements;
+A pressure network
+A subsurface saturation model
+An availability model
+A constraint manager
+A production optimisation algorithm
+Some but not all models also contain an economics and risk model component so that the IAM can be used for economic evaluation.
+
+
+== IAM vs. IPM ==
+The term Integrated Asset Modeling was first used by British Petroleum (BP), and this term is still maintained till date.
+Integrated asset modeling links individual simulators across technical disciplines, assets, computing environments, and locations. This collaborative methodology represents a shift in oil and gas field management, moving it toward a holistic management approach and away from disconnected teams working in isolation. The open framework of SLB’s Integrated Asset Modeling (IAM) software enables the coupling of a wide number of simulation software applications including reservoir simulation models (Eclipse, Intersect, MBX, IMEX, MBAL), multiphase flow simulation models (Pipesim, Olga, GAP), process and facilities simulation models (Symmetry, HYSYS, Petro-sim, UniSim) and economic domain models (Merak Peep).
+Historically the terms Integrated Production Modeling and Integrated Asset Modeling have been used interchangeably. The modern use of Integrated Production Modeling was coined when Petroleum Experts Ltd. joined their MBAL modeling software with their GAP and Prosper modeling software to form an Integrated Production Model.
+
+
+== Benefits of Integrated Asset Modelling ==
+Having an IAM built of an asset or future project offers several advantages;
+
+Faster runtimes which allow scenario analysis and Monte Carlo analysis
+Insight in the interactions between various components of a development
+An answer in economic rather than recovery terms (not always available)
+
+
+== Difficulties of Integrated Asset Modelling ==
+By its very nature an IAM requires a multi disciplinary approach. Most companies are too compartmentalised for this to be easy, as a result of this an integrated approach has the following drawbacks;
+
+More difficult to spot errors
+Requires constant communication between various departments, ownership is either vague or too much part of one silo.
+The biggest barrier to adoption of IAM is frequently the resistance of reservoir engineers to any simplification of the subsurface. This argument is sometimes valid, sometimes not, see below.
+
+
+== Appropriate use of IAM ==
+As with any other software because of the inherent limitations in any virtual model use of an IAM is only appropriate during various stages of a project life. There are no hard and fast rules for this as there are a variety of software packages on the market which offer very accurate modelling of a very small scope to very rough modelling of a very large scope and anything in between. Currently the definition of IAM contains anything from daily optimisation to portfolio management. The success or failure of an IAM implementation project therefore depends on selecting the tool which is as complex as it needs to be but no more.
+The following contains some examples of areas where an IAM is the appropriate decision support tool
+
+Concept Select
+Debottlenecking and optimisation of very large or complex infrastructures
+Life of field analysis of production optimisation scenarios
+Note that for most of these areas the accuracy of the reservoir proxy is not important, the decision is made based on relative performance differences, not absolute values.
+
+
+== Approach ==
+Several different software packages are commercially available and there is a clear difference in philosophy between some of them. 
+
+
+=== Linked Existing Software ===
+Some vendors who have previously marketed standalone software for the subsurface and the surface are now marketing additional software which provides a datalink between the various packages. The obvious benefit of this approach is that there is no loss in accuracy and it does not require a remodelling exercise. However this approach also has its drawbacks, there is no time gain and the integration component of the entire package requires expertise which is not readily available, external specialist are frequently called upon to build and maintain the links between the components.
+
+
+=== Bespoke Software ===
+There are relatively few software packages on the market which are truly integrated, however these can offer the benefit of shorter runtimes and lower expertise thresholds.
+
+
+=== Software as a service ===
+A number of the established service companies now offer integrated asset modelling as a service. In practice this means that existing models will be either converted or linked by specialists to form an integrated solution. This solution is expensive but frequently the preferred option if the highest accuracy is required.
+
+
+== Comparison of IAM tools ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+reservoir simulation
+petroleum engineering
+
+
+== References ==
+Czwienzek, F., Barreto Perez, J. J., Salve, J., Martinez Ramirez, I., Vasquez, M. G., & Hernandez, R. A. (2009, January 1). Integrated Production Model With Stochastic Simulation to Define Teotleco Exploitation Plan. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/121801-MS
+Fernando Pérez, Edwin Tillero, Ender Pérez, and Pedro Niño PDVSA; José Rojas, Juan Araujo, Milciades Marrocchi, Marisabel Montero, and Maikely Piña, Schlumberger. 2012. An Innovative Integrated Asset Modeling for an Offshore-Onshore Field Development. Tomoporo Field Case. Paper SPE 157556 presented at the International Production and Operations Conference and Exhibition held in Doha Qatar, 14–16 May 2012 
+
+
+== External links ==
+Defining Integrated Asset Modeling Archived 2017-05-27 at the Wayback Machine
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+---
+title: "Janzen–Connell hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:50.084252+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Janzen–Connell hypothesis is a well-known hypothesis for the maintenance of high species biodiversity in the tropics.  It was published independently in the early 1970s by Daniel Janzen, who focused on tropical trees, and Joseph Connell who discussed trees and marine invertebrates. According to their hypothesis, host-specific herbivores, pathogens, or other natural enemies (sometimes also referred to as predators) make the areas near a parent tree (the seed-producing tree) inhospitable for the survival of seeds or seedlings. These natural enemies are referred to as 'distance-responsive predators' if they kill seeds or seedlings near the parent tree, or 'density-dependent predators' if they kill seeds or seedlings where they are most abundant (which is typically near the parent tree). Such predators can prevent any one species from dominating the landscape, because if that species is too common, there will be few safe places for its seedlings to survive. Both Janzen and Connell originally proposed that for natural enemies to increase local diversity, they must be host-specific (also called specialists) and relatively immobile, such that they disproportionately reduce the density of the more locally common tree species. This prevents any one species from becoming dominant and excluding other species through competition, allowing more species to coexist in small areas.  This can be classified as a stabilizing mechanism.
+Notably, Janzen–Connell effects provide a recruitment advantage to locally-rare trees, since they act primarily on seeds and seedlings. These effects promote the establishment of rare tree species, but do nothing to ensure the survival of these species post-germination. 
+The Janzen–Connell hypothesis has been called a special case of keystone predation, predator partitioning or the pest pressure hypothesis. The pest pressure hypothesis states that plant diversity is maintained by specialist natural enemies. The Janzen–Connell hypothesis expands on this, by claiming that the natural enemies are not only specialists, but also are distance-responsive or density-responsive.
+Both Connell and Janzen, but particularly Connell, proposed that natural enemies will be more likely to prevent competitive dominance in more climatically stable environments. This lead both authors to predict that natural enemies contribute to the latitudinal diversity gradient by promoting local coexistence of many species in the warm, stable, highly productive climates of the wet tropics. This does not negate that Janzen-Connell effects may also happen in temperate forests. The black cherry is one such example of a temperate forest species whose growth patterns can be explained by the Janzen–Connell hypothesis.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Daniel Janzen’s hypothesis ===
+Daniel Janzen published his hypothesis in 1970 in The American Naturalist under the article "Herbivores and the Number of Tree Species in Tropical Forests." His hypothesis was based on the observation that in tropical forests (when compared to temperate forests), there were few new adult trees in the immediate vicinity of their parent tree. He explained the low density of tropical trees and lack of "bunching" of tree types around parent trees for two reasons: (1) the number of seeds decline with distance from the parent tree and (2) that the adult tree, its seeds, and seedlings are a source of food for host-specific parasites and diseases.
+Using his observations, Janzen created a model demonstrating the probability of a seed maturation or a seedling survival as a function of distance from the parent tree (as well as total seed count, dispersal mechanism, and predatory activity).
+
+=== Joseph Connell hypothesis ===
+Joseph Connell published his hypothesis in 1970 in Dynamics of Populations. Unlike Janzen, Connell proposed experiments that focused on the key prediction that exclusion of host-specific predators would cause a decrease in diversity as tree species with greater establishment or competitive ability formed low-diversity seedling and sapling communities where dominance was concentrated in a few species.
+He formed his hypothesis through observations in Queensland, Australia.  Along with Jack Greening Tracey and Larry Johnson Webb, he mapped trees in two rainforests and observed that smaller seedlings tended to occur in single-species clumps.  Smaller seedlings also exhibited greater mortality, especially when their nearest neighbor was an individual of the same species. This pattern lessened with growth and age until seedlings exhibited similar pattern diversity to adults. To reinforce these observations, Connell ran an experiment showing that adult trees have a deleterious effect on smaller trees of the same species. In another experiment, Connell found that pre-germination predation was greater on seeds near adults of the same species than those near adults of others. Through these observations, Connell suggests that each tree species has host-specific enemies that attack it and any of its offspring which are close to the parent. This emphasizes the importance of the role of predation in preventing trees from forming single-species groves, which is probably the only way in which one species of tree could exclude others by interspecies competition.
+
+== Effects on forest dynamics ==
+
+=== Disease dynamics and tree density ===
+Plant pathogens follow infectious disease dynamics. The basic reproductive rate 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        
+          R
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (R_{0})}
+  
+ of a disease is dependent on three variables such that:
+R0 = βLS
+where β is the transmission rate or infectiousness of the disease, L is the average infection time of the host, and S is the density of the host population.  By decreasing any one of the variables, the reproduction rate of the disease decreases.  Since seed dispersal is such that the highest density of seeds is around the parent with density decreasing with distance from the parent, the reproduction rate of a disease infecting seeds and seedlings will be highest around the parent and decrease with distance. Thus, seedlings close to the parent are likely to die due to the disease prevalence. However, seedlings farther away are less likely to encounter the disease and therefore will more likely grow into adults.
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+---
+title: "Janzen–Connell hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:50.084252+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Herbivory and tree density ===
+Specialist herbivores who consume plant matter can also be thought of as having a "transmission rate" between individuals similarly to a disease. Tree predators (especially herbivorous insects) are limited by the ease of movement. When individuals are closer together at high density, movement between trees is easier and the predators quickly spread out. However, at low tree density, predators can not find the next individual with as much ease and thus often have low transmission rates leading to less specialist predation.
+
+== Problematic aspects ==
+Many studies examining the Janzen–Connell hypothesis have shown supporting patterns with a number of tree species, but despite this there are also problematic aspects of the hypothesis.
+
+The Janzen–Connell hypothesis explains diversity at a community-wide scale, but most studies have only looked at a single species or a localized region. Most studies do not test the diversity prediction and did not determine the causes for patterns consistent with Janzen–Connell effects. As Wright (2002) pointed out, "field measurements only demonstrate that niche differences, Janzen–Connell effects, and negative density dependence occur. Implications for species coexistence and plant diversity remain conjectural."
+While these host-specific predators may play keystone species roles as they possibly aid in the prevention of superior tree competitors from monopolizing an area, no study has yet to examine species richness and abundance after removing natural enemies, creating a gap in the supporting research for the hypothesis.
+Diversity may be maintained, at least in part, by episodic outbreaks of specialized pests, which may reduce the survivorship, growth, and reproductive success of adults of a species whenever they are particularly aggregated.  Thus, specialist predation also impacts adult density, rather than just that of juveniles, the latter of which has been the focus of research efforts.
+Disease and predation may be just affecting overall density rather than in localized regions around adults alone.
+Theoretical work has suggested that distance-responsive predators are less able to promote coexistence than equivalent predators that are not distance-responsive.
+Many empirical studies have shown that few natural enemies are host-specific specialists, as the original hypothesis claimed.  However, theoretical work has suggested that predators can have broader diets as long as they are more damaging to their primary host than other species.
+The responses of density-dependent predators' may not be restricted to a single trophic level, and when multiple trophic levels interact, Janzen–Connell effects may be negated. This is an example of "the enemy of my enemy is my friend"  and it has been shown that the potential of host-specific insects to induce negative-density dependence in plant populations can be severely limited when the natural enemies of the seed predators are also density responsive.
+
+== Research testing the hypothesis ==
+Many tests of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis focus on whether seed or seedling survival is lower when they are closer to a conspecific (same-species) tree (distance dependence) or when seeds or seedlings are closer to seeds or seedlings of the same species (density dependence), rather than testing the prevalence or attack rates of natural enemies explicitly. Fewer studies assess the geographic implication that Janzen-Connell effects are stronger in the tropics.
+
+=== Supporting research ===
+There have been many studies designed to test predictions of this hypothesis in tropical and other settings. Studies that have supported the Janzen–Connell hypothesis include:
+
+A 2010 study of 8 tree species in Panama found evidence for strong Janzen–Connell effects. Seedlings tended to do worse when grown with soil microorganisms from under their own species or when grown in the field under their own species, compared to when grown under other species. Authors attributed these effects to microorganisms in the soil.
+A 2008 study in grasslands showed that soil-borne pests created a feedback very similar to the Janzen–Connell effect, supporting the hypothesis as a driver of diversity in temperate ecosystems. This study suggests that the predator/density mechanism that promotes species diversity is not contained to tropical forests alone, even if tropical ecosystems do have the highest diversity. This supports the hypothesis as a mechanism for diversity, but not as an explanation latitudinal gradients in species diversity.
+An examination of spatial data for 24 woody tropical rain forest plants showed either density-dependence or distance-dependence in plant offspring, supporting the hypothesis. However, other causal factors such as allelopathy were also suggested in some cases.
+In another field study in Panama, this one following seedling survival of tropical forest trees, Comita et al. found that seedlings generally experienced stronger negative density dependent effects from neighbours of their own species than those of other species, consistent with the Janzen-Connell hypothesis. They found that these effects were stronger in rare species, suggesting Janzen-Connell effects might contribute to their rarity, but reanalysis suggested these species differences were a statistical artifact.
+
+=== Dissenting research ===
+Studies questioning the Janzen–Connell hypothesis:
+
+A 2021 meta-analysis of experimental tests for Janzen-Connell effects found strong evidence for conspecific negative density dependence for seedlings but not seeds, and no increase in these effects toward lower latitudes.
+Hyatt et al. examined the hypothesis across a number of tree species (rather than focusing on the effects on just one) and found no support for the distance-dependence of the hypothesis and concluded that the Janzen–Connell hypothesis was not a mechanism for diversity. They did find however that in temperate settings, distance from parent reduced survivorship. But in tropical settings there was a slight positive correlation between the improved competitive ability of seeds and distance from parent. These findings were later challenged: Using additional data, and slightly different statistical techniques, Comita et al. showed that there was strong evidence for distance-dependence at the seedling stage, but not at the seed stage.
+A 1994 study by Burkey found that seed predation did not follow a pattern supporting that of the Janzen–Connell hypothesis along a meaningful scale. Seeds within 1 metre from the trunk were highly predated. However, seeds reached their peak density while still under the canopy of their parent. The authors concluded that seed predation did not follow the Janzen–Connell hypothesis.
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+---
+title: "Janzen–Connell hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:50.084252+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Current conclusions and further research ==
+It is tricky to form conclusions regarding the accuracy of the Janzen–Connell hypothesis as it is difficult to falsify. This is because:
+
+Heavy predation may keep some species rare and widely spaced, and these species may also be the best competitors (although it is unclear why this would be the case).  If so, these species are most likely to form dense aggregations that would reduce diversity in local areas. But due to their rarity or a belief that rare species are not regulated by density-dependence, these species may be the ones least likely to be studied.
+This means that the failure to find Janzen–Connell effects for what could be hundreds of tree species does not reject the hypothesis, as ecologists are missing the few key species where it does apply. However, dissenting findings do reduce the importance of the hypothesis for explaining overall coexistence of a number species.
+For example, Hyatt et al. (2003) found that there were "individual cases of conformity to the hypothesis," which is all that is needed for the hypothesis to work if the specific cases represent tree species that are excellent competitors, highly shade tolerant, habitat generalists, or some combination of these traits that would allow these species to otherwise dominate the ecosystem.
+It is likely that a number of mechanisms underscore the coexistence of similar species and thus cause biodiversity in ecosystems. It is possible the Janzen–Connell hypothesis is applicable only for some species depending on species characteristics. The hypothesis may also be affected by the kind of predator or pathogen as preliminary research has shown that the hypothesis is true only when host-specific predators have limited mobility with a range less than the seed dispersal range.
+
+== See also ==
+Ecological fitting
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_hypothesis_problem-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_hypothesis_problem-0.md
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+---
+title: "Joint hypothesis problem"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_hypothesis_problem"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:51.300595+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The joint hypothesis problem is the problem that testing for market efficiency is difficult, or even impossible.  Any attempts to test for market (in)efficiency must involve asset pricing models so that there are expected returns to compare to real returns.  It is not possible to measure 'abnormal' returns without expected returns predicted by pricing models.  Therefore, anomalous market returns may reflect market inefficiency, an inaccurate asset pricing model or both. 
+This problem is discussed in Fama's (1970) influential review of the theory and evidence on efficient markets, and was often used to argue against interpreting early stock market anomalies as mispricing.
+Other arguments used by efficient market advocates include the Roll critique, which points at that testing a specific asset pricing model, the capital asset pricing model, is impossible.  Roll's critique centers on the fact that the market portfolio includes all human wealth, and is not observable.  Refinements of the capital asset pricing model imply that the information set of observers is important, and since this information set is not observable, one cannot test the capital asset pricing model even if the market portfolio is observed.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Cochrane, John H. (2005). "Asset Pricing," Chapter 7: "Implications of existence and equivalence theorems," pages 121-129
+Fame, Eugene F. (2013). "Two Pillars of Asset Pricing," Nobel Prize Lecture.
+Ball, Ray (1978). "Anomalies in relationships between securities' yields and yield-surrogates,"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keitai–Kinmei_Civil_War-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keitai–Kinmei_Civil_War-0.md
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+---
+title: "Keitai–Kinmei Civil War"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keitai–Kinmei_Civil_War"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:52.489735+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Keitai–Kinmei Civil War (継体・欽明朝の内乱, Keitai–Kinmeichō no Nairan) is a hypothetical civil war in Japanese history. It is based on the assumption that the death of Emperor Keitai in the first half of the 6th century precipitated a struggle over the succession to the throne, but remains speculative because the documents recording the period contain inconsistencies. The assumed year is sometimes set as 531, the year of Emperor Keitai's death according to the Nihon Shoki. 531 in the sexagenary cycle of dating is Heavenly Stem Metal (辛), Earthly Branch Pig (亥), so it is also known as the "Perverse event of Metal Pig" (辛亥の変, Shingai no Hen).
+
+
+== Outline ==
+According to the Nihon Shoki, the year Keitai died was the Metal Pig year, based on the fragments of the history of Baekche about Waekoku (Japan) called the Kudara Honki (百済本記) in Japanese. Another theory places his death in the year of the Tiger (534). This is considered the year of the accession of the next emperor, Ankan, which is usually interpreted as a two-year vacancy following the death of Emperor Keitai.
+However, several questions emerge here.
+
+The article on the year of the Metal Pig in the Kudara Honki states, "The Japanese emperor, his son, and his son-in-law all collapsed." 
+In the Jōgū Shōtoku Hōō Teisetsu and the Gangōji Garan Engi, the year of Kinmei's accession is 531, as if he had been the next ruler after Keitai.
+In the Kojiki, Keitai is said to have died in the year 527.
+The interpretation of these discrepancies has been the subject of debate since the theory gained attention in the Meiji period.
+The first theory to emerge was that Keitai died in 527 and Kinmei ascended to the throne in 531, with the reigns of Ankan and Senka assumed in the intervening four years. This theory is inconsistent with the fact that both the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki record Ankan's death in 535.
+In the Shōwa era, Kida Sadakichi proposed the hypothesis that a political crisis occurred in 531. As a result, after the death of Emperor Keitai, the Yamato Kingship split into two lines. These would be the Ankan-Senka line, whose mother was Menoko hime, from a local powerful family, and Kinmei, whose mother was Tashiraka hime, the daughter of Ninken.
+This idea was taken one step further by Hayashiya Tatsusaburō after World War II, who proposed that confusion over conflicts over the Korean Peninsula situation (such as the Iwai Rebellion) occurred at the end of the reign of Emperor Keitai, and that after his death, "two parallel dynasties" and a civil war followed. To conceal this fact, the Nihon Shoki is said to have been written as if half-brothers had ascended to the throne in the order of their ages.
+The Kudara Honki is no longer extant. Furthermore, since the Kudara Honki is a history of Baekje, some have questioned the reliability of the articles related to Waekoku. Even if it is true that an emperor died in 531, it is unclear to whom this refers. Therefore, there could have been no "juxtaposition of two dynasties" or civil war. Some scholars believe that the succession to the imperial throne during this period should be based on the account in the Nihon Shoki that states that, after the demise of the successor to the throne, his successors, Ankan and Senka, died within a short period, resulting in the succession from Keitai to Ankan, then to Senka, then to Kinmei.
+Furthermore, even among scholars who support the "two dynasties in parallel," Hayashiya's theory is not always fully supported. For example, Hayashiya argues that behind Kinmei stood the Soga clan, which was married to the emperor, and behind Ankan and Senka stood the Ōtomo clan, which declined during this period. However, others the background as opposing, such as the conflict between the local powerful tribes that supported Keitai and his successor and the powerful Yamato clans that sought to regain power by supporting Kinmei, who was descended from the previous imperial lineage. Another theory is that it was a conflict between two powerful tribes who were identified as 臣 and 連.
+The period from Keitai's reign to Kinmei's in the late Kofun period is said to have been marked by a series of significant events that would later shape the history of Japan, including the official transmission of Buddhism, the establishment of a network of kura for rice, the compilation of the Teiki and Kyūji, the introduction of posthumous names, and the Musashi no Kuni no Miyatsuko Rebellion. It is believed that the existence or non-existence of "two parallel dynasties" and the occurrence of civil wars had no small influence on the interpretation of these events.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+直木孝次郎「継体・欽明朝の内乱」『国史大辞典 5』（吉川弘文館 1985年） ISBN 978-4-642-00505-0
+川口勝康「継体・欽明朝の内乱」『日本史大事典 2』（平凡社 1993年） ISBN 978-4-582-13102-4
+大平聡「継体・欽明朝の内乱」『日本歴史大事典 1』（小学館 2000年） ISBN 978-4-09-523001-6
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Killer heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:00.836666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In competitive two-player games, the killer heuristic is a move-ordering method based on the observation that a strong move or small set of such moves in a particular position may be equally strong in similar positions at the same move (ply) in the game tree.
+Retaining such moves obviates the effort of rediscovering them in sibling nodes.
+This technique improves the efficiency of alpha–beta pruning, which in turn improves the efficiency of the minimax algorithm. Alpha–beta pruning works best when the best moves are considered first. This is because the best moves are the ones most likely to produce a cutoff, a condition where the game-playing program knows that the position it is considering could not possibly have resulted from best play by both sides and so need not be considered further. I.e. the game-playing program will always make its best available move for each position. It only needs to consider the other player's possible responses to that best move, and can skip evaluation of responses to (worse) moves it will not make.
+The killer heuristic attempts to produce a cutoff by assuming that a move that produced a cutoff in another branch of the game tree at the same depth is likely to produce a cutoff in the present position, that is to say that a move that was a very good move from a different (but possibly similar) position might also be a good move in the present position. By trying the killer move before other moves, a game-playing program can often produce an early cutoff, saving itself the effort of considering or even generating all legal moves from a position.
+In practical implementation, game-playing programs frequently keep track of two killer moves for each depth of the game tree (greater than depth of 1) and see if either of these moves, if legal, produces a cutoff before the program generates and considers the rest of the possible moves. If a non-killer move produces a cutoff, it replaces one of the two killer moves at its depth. This idea can be generalized into a set of refutation tables.
+A generalization of the killer heuristic is the history heuristic. The history heuristic can be implemented as a table that is indexed by some characteristic of the move, for example "from" and "to" squares or piece moving and the "to" square. When there is a cutoff, the appropriate entry in the table is incremented, such as by adding d or d² where d is the current search depth.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Negascout
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Informed Search in Complex Games by Mark Winands
+Killer Heuristic Chess Programming Wiki
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Knowledge gap hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:53.646189+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The knowledge gap hypothesis is a mass communication theory created by Philip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice. N Olien in 1970. The theory is based on how a member of society processes information from mass media differently based on education level and socioeconomic status (SES). Since there is already a pre-existing gap in knowledge between groups in a population, mass media amplifies this gap to another level. The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis overviews and covers theoretical concepts that the hypothesis builds upon, historical background, operationalization and the means by which the hypothesis is measured, narrative review, meta-analytic support that draws data from multiple studies, new communication technologies that have affected the hypothesis, as well as the idea of Digital Divide, and the existing critiques and scholarly debates surrounding the hypothesis.
+
+== Historical background ==
+The knowledge gap hypothesis has been implicit throughout the mass communication literature. Research published as early as the 1920s had already begun to examine the influence of individual characteristics on people's media content preferences.
+1929 William S. Gray and Ruth Munroe authors of The Reading Interests and Habits of Adults examined the education advantages of adults which influenced their reading habits. The well educated reader grasped the subject matter in newspaper articles more quickly and moved on to other types of reading materials that fit their interests. The less educated reader spent more time with the newspaper article because it took that person longer to comprehend the topic.  
+1940 Paul Lazarsfeld, head of the Office of Radio Research at Columbia University, set out to examine whether (1) the total amount of time that people listened to the radio and (2) the type of content they listened to correlated with their socioeconomic status. Not only did Lazarsfeld's data indicate people of lower socioeconomic status tended to listen to more radio programming, but also they were simultaneously less likely to listen to "serious" radio content.
+1950 The authors: Shirley A. Star, a professor in the University of Chicago's sociology department and Helen MacGill Hughes, a sociologist of the University of Chicago worte, "Report on an Educational Campaign: The Cincinnati Plan for the United Nations" discovered that while the campaign was successful in reaching better-educated people, those with less education virtually ignored the campaign. Additionally, after realizing that the highly educated people reached by the campaign also tended to be more interested in the topic, Star and Hughes suggested that knowledge, education, and interest may be interdependent.
+1965 Philip Tichenor wrote his doctoral dissertation titled Communication and Knowledge of Science in the Adult Population of the US, which served as a source for some of the information used and analyzed in the later article where the term Knowledge Gap Hypothesis was coined
+1970 Philip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice. N Olien (later known as the Minnesota Team), the authors of the original article Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge, which proposes the hypothesis and applies the idea to social and public life and generally relevant information, and less so to “audience-specific topics such as stock market quotations, society news, sports and lawn and garden care” (Tichenor, Donohue, & Olien, 1970, p. 160)
+1983 Gaziano put out a review of 58 studies on SES-based knowledge inequities, which emphasizes how variations in media exposure, knowledge definitions, and population differences contribute to inconsistent findings on knowledge gaps.
+
+== Theoretical Concepts ==
+Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien suggest five factors why the knowledge gap should exist:
+
+Communication skills: "Persons with more formal education would be expected to have higher reading and comprehension abilities necessary to acquire public affairs or science knowledge." (Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien 1970, pp. 162) For example, higher socioeconomic status, SES, people generally have more education, which improves their reading, writing, and comprehension skills.
+Amount of stored information: "Persons who are already better informed are more likely to be aware of a topic when it appears in mass media and are better prepared to understand it."(Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien 1970, pp. 162) For example, more informed people are more likely to already know of news stories through previous media exposure or through formal education and can relate new information to past exposure.
+Relevant social contact: "Education generally indicates a broader sphere of everyday activity, a greater number of reference groups and more interpersonal contacts, which increase the likelihood of discussing public affairs topics with others." (Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien 1970, pp. 162) For example, higher socioeconomic status, SES, people generally have a network of friends or colleagues that are more likely to have access to more information on news stories and more skilled to research the topics.
+Selective exposure, acceptance, and retention of information: "A persistent theme in mass media research is the apparent tendency to interpret and recall information in ways congruent with existing beliefs and values."(Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien 1970, pp. 162) For example, a viewer of a news program will pay attention more to story that interests them.
+Nature of the mass media system that delivers information. Different media has specific target markets.(Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien 1970, pp. 162) For example, social media platforms like TikTok targets a younger audience whereas daytime television targets an older audience. In the 1970, print media was written for an audience with a higher education level.
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+title: "Knowledge gap hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:53.646189+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Hypothesis operationalization ==
+According to the authors, Jack Rosenberry and Lauren A.Vicker, " A hypothesis is basically a research question: the researcher needs to ask questions and answer them in order to formulate theory.  The term "hypothesis" also can be used to describe a theory that is still in the development stage or that has not been fully researched and verified. Because of the somewhat contradictory nature of the research findings, the knowledge gap has not yet achieved theory status and is still known as a hypothesis."
+Since the 1970s, many policy makers and social scientists have been concerned with how community members acquire information via mass media.  Throughout the years, extensive research has been conducted and taken different approaches to researching the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis.  The hypothesis operationalization consists of the following:
+
+For cross-sectional research, the knowledge gap hypothesis expects that "at any given time, there should be a higher correlation between acquisition of knowledge and education for topics highly publicized in the media than for topics less highly publicized. Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1970) tested this hypothesis using an experiment in which participants were asked to read and discuss two news stories of varying publicity. The results of the experiment support the hypothesis because correlations between education and understanding were significant for high publicity stories but not significant for low publicity stories.
+For time-series research, the knowledge gap hypothesis expects that "over time, acquisition of knowledge of a heavily publicized topic will proceed at a faster rate among better educated persons than among those with less education." Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1970) tested this hypothesis using public opinion surveys gathered between 1949 and 1965 measuring whether participants believed humans would reach the Moon in the foreseeable future. During the 15-year span, belief among grade-school educated people increased only about 25 percentage points while belief among college educated people increased more than 60 percentage points, a trend consistent with the hypothesis.
+
+== Narrative review and meta-analytic support ==
+Since the 1970s, many policy makers and social scientists have been concerned with how community members acquire information via mass media. Throughout the years, extensive research has been conducted and taken different approaches to researching the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis.
+Cecilie Gaziano, a researcher of Communication and Media, Quantitative Social Research and Social Stratification wrote Forecast 2000: Widening Knowledge Gaps, to update her 1983 analysis of knowledge gap studies. Gaziano discusses the connection between education and income disparities between the "haves" and "have-nots." Gaziano conducted two narrative reviews, one of 58 articles with relevant data in 1983  and the other of 39 additional studies in 1997.
+The interconnection between income, education and occupation are factors of the knowledge gap throughout history. Here is a closer look at the economic gaps caused by major economic events:
+
+1929 The Stock Market Crash - causing the major economic turning point.
+1950 Consumerism: Post WWII, automobile and television sales increased rapidly. Working and middle-class families were buying televisions.  All socio economic segments experienced growth.
+1970 Stagflation: rise of inflation and recession due to oil prices, cost of Vietnam War and international competition of consumer goods caused unequal wealth distribution in the United States.
+1997 Economic inequality for the have and have nots was greater than 1929
+Hwang and Jeong (2009) conducted a meta-analysis of 46 knowledge gap studies. Consistent with Gaziano's results, however, Hwang and Jeong found constant knowledge gaps across time. Gaziano writes, "the most consistent result is the presence of knowledge differentials, regardless of topic, methodological, or theoretical variations, study excellence, or other variables and conditions" (1997, p. 240). Evidence from several decades, Gaziano concludes, underscores the enduring character of knowledge gaps and indicates that they transcend topics and research settings.
+Gaziano explains the conceptual framework of the knowledge barriers, the critical conceptual issues are the following measurements:
+
+SES Socioeconomic status: education, income, and occupation
+Knowledge
+Knowledge gap
+Media publicity
+Jeffrey Mondak and Mary Anderson (2004) released a statistical analysis of the knowledge gap hypothesis, finding out that while increased media exposure can enhance political knowledge, pre-existing socioeconomic and gender disparities often determine who benefits the most, reinforcing rather than reducing knowledge inequities.
+"All analyses point to a common conclusion: approximately 50% of the gender gap is illusory, reflecting response patterns that work to the collective advantage of male respondents."
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+title: "Knowledge gap hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:53.646189+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== New communication technologies ==
+The internet has changed how people engage media. The internet-based media has to be accessed with digital devices and accessed to the internet.  In the United States, there is a concern about the digital divide because not all Americans have access to the internet and devices. With the hope that Internet would close the knowledge gap, it has exposed the following inequities: access, motivation and cognitive ability.  The following research displays the link between access to internet and socioeconomic status, SES.
+According to a Pew Research Center survey of U.S. adults conducted Jan. 25-Feb. 8, 2021, Emily Vogels, a research associate focusing on internet and technology, wrote, "More than 30 years after the debut of the World Wide Web, internet use, broadband adoption and smartphone ownership have grown rapidly for all Americans – including those who are less well-off financially. However, the digital lives of Americans with lower and higher incomes remain markedly different."
+"Americans with higher household incomes are also more likely to have multiple devices that enable them to go online. Roughly six-in-ten adults living in households earning $100,000 or more a year (63%) report having home broadband services, a smartphone, a desktop or laptop computer and a tablet, compared with 23% of those living in lower-income households."
+Emily Vogels, continues, "The digital divide has been a central topic in tech circles for decades, with researchers, advocates and policymakers examining this issue. However, this topic has gained special attention during the coronavirus outbreak as much of daily life (such as work and school) moved online, leaving families with lower incomes more likely to face obstacles in navigating this increasing digital environment. For example, in April 2020, 59% of parents with lower incomes who had children in schools that were remote due to the pandemic said their children would likely face at least one of three digital obstacles to their schooling, such as a lack of reliable internet at home, no computer at home, or needing to use a smartphone to complete schoolwork."
+
+== Scholarly debates ==
+The framework of the hypothesis was widely criticized throughout mass communications studies.
+In 1977, Ettema and Kline moved the lens of focus of the Knowledge gap hypothesis from deficits of knowledge acquisition to differences in acquiring knowledge. Central to their argument was the aspect of motivation that people of different SES would demonstrate to learn new information. Ettema and Kline concluded that the less education and knowledge held by people of lower SES was functional, thus enough for them.
+In 1980, Dervin started questioning the traditional source-receiver model of mass communication, as concentrating on receivers’ failure to get and interpret information is “blaming the victim.”
+In 2003, Everett Rogers renamed the Knowledge gap hypothesis to the Communication Effects Gap hypothesis, as the existing gap was attributed to miscommunication and had nothing to do with receivers of information.
+Further debates surrounded the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis regarding the definition of the hypothesis in the textbook as it seemed unattractive to people of different SESs. The idea of posing open-ended questions was introduced to let responders answer the questions more profoundly. However, Gaziano states that gaps in knowledge were still found, and according to Hwang and Jeong (2009), they resulted in smaller gaps compared to other methods of analyzing the hypothesis.
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Knowledge inertia"
+chunk: 1/1
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+category: "reference"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Knowledge inertia  (KI) is a concept in knowledge management. The term initially proposed by Shu-hsien Liao comprises a two dimensional model which incorporates experience inertia and learning inertia. Later, another dimension—the dimension of thinking inertia—has been added based on the theoretical exploration of the existing concepts of experience inertia and learning inertia.
+One of the central problems in knowledge management related to organizational learning is to deal with "inertia". Besides, individuals may also exhibit a natural tendency of inertia when facing problems during utilization of knowledge. Inertia in technical jargon means inactivity or torpor. Inertia in organizational learning context may be referred to as a slowdown in organizational learning-related activities. In fact, there are many other kinds of organizational inertia: e.g., innovation inertia, workforce inertia, productivity inertia, decision inertia, emotional inertia besides others that have different meanings in their own individual contexts. Some organization theorists have adopted the definition proposed by Liao (2002) to extend its further use in organizational learning studies.
+
+
+== Definition ==
+Knowledge inertia (KI) may be defined as a problem solving strategy using old, redundant, stagnant knowledge and past experience without recourse to new knowledge and experience. Inertia is a concept in physics that is used to explain the state of an object either remaining in stationary or uniform motion. Organizational theorists adopted this concept of inertia and applied it to different contexts which resulted in the emergence of diverse concepts—such as, for example, organizational inertia, consumer inertia, outsourcing inertia, and cognitive inertia. Some organization theorists have adopted the definition proposed by Liao (2002) to extend its further use in organizational learning studies. Not every instances of knowledge inertia result in gloomy of negative outcome: one study suggested that knowledge inertia could positively affect a firm's product innovation.
+
+
+== The concept ==
+Knowledge inertia stems from the use of routine problem solving procedures that involves the utilization of redundant, stagnant knowledge and past experience without any recourse to new knowledge and thinking processes.  Different methodologies exist for diverse types of knowledge that could be applied to manage knowledge efficiently. Since KI is a component of knowledge management, it is essential to consider the circulation of various knowledge types in avoiding inertia. The theory of KI supposedly studies the extent to which an organization's ability on problem solving is inhibited. Numerous factors could be attributed as enablers or inhibitors of the abilities on problem solving of an individual or an organization. Knowledge inertia applicable in the context of problem solving, therefore, may require inputs from all these diverse knowledge types, or it may require learning, new thinking, and experience. Emergence of new ideas to supplement the existing knowledge and assimilation of the same could be of help in avoiding the use of stagnant, outdated information while attempting to solve problems.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Cognitive inertia
+Neurathian bootstrap
+Psychological inertia
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Knowledge representation and reasoning"
+chunk: 1/6
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:58.436297+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Knowledge representation (KR) aims to model information in a structured manner to formally represent it as knowledge in knowledge-based systems whereas knowledge representation and reasoning (KRR, KR&R, or KR²) also aims to understand, reason, and interpret knowledge. KRR is widely used in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) with the goal of representing information about the world in a form that a computer system can use to solve complex tasks, such as diagnosing a medical condition or having a natural-language dialog. KR incorporates findings from psychology about how humans solve problems and represent knowledge, in order to design formalisms that make complex systems easier to design and build. KRR also incorporates findings from logic to automate various kinds of reasoning.
+Traditional KRR focuses more on the declarative representation of knowledge. Related knowledge representation formalisms mainly include vocabularies, thesaurus, semantic networks, axiom systems, frames, rules, logic programs, and ontologies. Examples of automated reasoning engines include inference engines, theorem provers, model generators, and classifiers.
+In a broader sense, parameterized models in machine learning — including neural network architectures such as convolutional neural networks and transformers — can also be regarded as a family of knowledge representation formalisms. The question of which formalism is most appropriate for knowledge-based systems has long been a subject of extensive debate. For instance, Frank van Harmelen et al. discussed the suitability of logic as a knowledge representation formalism and reviewed arguments presented by anti-logicists. Paul Smolensky criticized the limitations of symbolic formalisms and explored the possibilities of integrating it with connectionist approaches.
+
+== History ==
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+title: "Knowledge representation and reasoning"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The earliest work in computerized knowledge representation was focused on general problem-solvers such as the General Problem Solver (GPS) system developed by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon in 1959 and the Advice Taker proposed by John McCarthy also in 1959. GPS featured data structures for planning and decomposition. The system would begin with a goal. It would then decompose that goal into sub-goals and then set out to construct strategies that could accomplish each subgoal. The Advisor Taker, on the other hand, proposed the use of the predicate calculus to implement common sense reasoning.
+Many of the early approaches to knowledge representation in Artificial Intelligence (AI) used graph representations and semantic networks, similar to knowledge graphs today. In such approaches, problem solving was a form of graph traversal or path-finding, as in the A* search algorithm. Typical applications included robot plan-formation and game-playing.
+Other researchers focused on developing automated theorem-provers for first-order logic, motivated by the use of mathematical logic to formalise mathematics and to automate the proof of mathematical theorems. A major step in this direction was the development of the resolution method by John Alan Robinson.
+In the meanwhile, John McCarthy and Pat Hayes developed the situation calculus as a logical representation of common sense knowledge about the laws of cause and effect. Cordell Green, in turn, showed how to do robot plan-formation by applying resolution to the situation calculus. He also showed how to use resolution for question-answering and automatic programming.
+In contrast, researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) rejected the resolution uniform proof procedure paradigm and advocated the procedural embedding of knowledge instead. The resulting conflict between the use of logical representations and the use of procedural representations was resolved in the early 1970s with the development of logic programming and Prolog, using SLD resolution to treat Horn clauses as goal-reduction procedures.
+The early development of logic programming was largely a European phenomenon. In North America, AI researchers such as Ed Feigenbaum and Frederick Hayes-Roth advocated the representation of domain-specific knowledge rather than general-purpose reasoning.
+These efforts led to the cognitive revolution in psychology and to the phase of AI focused on knowledge representation that resulted in expert systems in the 1970s and 80s, production systems, frame languages, etc. Rather than general problem solvers, AI changed its focus to expert systems that could match human competence on a specific task, such as medical diagnosis.
+Expert systems gave us the terminology still in use today where AI systems are divided into a knowledge base, which includes facts and rules about a problem domain, and an inference engine, which applies the knowledge in the knowledge base to answer questions and solve problems in the domain. In these early systems the facts in the knowledge base tended to be a fairly flat structure, essentially assertions about the values of variables used by the rules.
+Meanwhile, Marvin Minsky developed the concept of frame in the mid-1970s. A frame is similar to an object class: It is an abstract description of a category describing things in the world, problems, and potential solutions. Frames were originally used on systems geared toward human interaction, e.g. understanding natural language and the social settings in which various default expectations such as ordering food in a restaurant narrow the search space and allow the system to choose appropriate responses to dynamic situations.
+It was not long before the frame communities and the rule-based researchers realized that there was a synergy between their approaches. Frames were good for representing the real world, described as classes, subclasses, slots (data values) with various constraints on possible values. Rules were good for representing and utilizing complex logic such as the process to make a medical diagnosis. Integrated systems were developed that combined frames and rules. One of the most powerful and well known was the 1983 Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE) from Intellicorp. KEE had a complete rule engine with forward and backward chaining. It also had a complete frame-based knowledge base with triggers, slots (data values), inheritance, and message passing. Although message passing originated in the object-oriented community rather than AI it was quickly embraced by AI researchers as well in environments such as KEE and in the operating systems for Lisp machines from Symbolics, Xerox, and Texas Instruments.
+The integration of frames, rules, and object-oriented programming was significantly driven by commercial ventures such as KEE and Symbolics spun off from various research projects. At the same time, there was another strain of research that was less commercially focused and was driven by mathematical logic and automated theorem proving. One of the most influential languages in this research was the KL-ONE language of the mid-'80s. KL-ONE was a frame language that had a rigorous semantics, formal definitions for concepts such as an Is-A relation. KL-ONE and languages that were influenced by it such as Loom had an automated reasoning engine that was based on formal logic rather than on IF-THEN rules. This reasoner is called the classifier. A classifier can analyze a set of declarations and infer new assertions, for example, redefine a class to be a subclass or superclass of some other class that wasn't formally specified. In this way the classifier can function as an inference engine, deducing new facts from an existing knowledge base. The classifier can also provide consistency checking on a knowledge base (which in the case of KL-ONE languages is also referred to as an Ontology).
+Another area of knowledge representation research was the problem of common-sense reasoning. One of the first realizations learned from trying to make software that can function with human natural language was that humans regularly draw on an extensive foundation of knowledge about the real world that we simply take for granted but that is not at all obvious to an artificial agent, such as basic principles of common-sense physics, causality, intentions, etc. An example is the frame problem, that in an event driven logic there need to be axioms that state things maintain position from one moment to the next unless they are moved by some external force. In order to make a true artificial intelligence agent that can converse with humans using natural language and can process basic statements and questions about the world, it is essential to represent this kind of knowledge. In addition to McCarthy and Hayes' situation calculus, one of the most ambitious programs to tackle this problem was Doug Lenat's Cyc project. Cyc established its own Frame language and had large numbers of analysts document various areas of common-sense reasoning in that language. The knowledge recorded in Cyc included common-sense models of time, causality, physics, intentions, and many others.
+The starting point for knowledge representation is the knowledge representation hypothesis first formalized by Brian C. Smith in 1985:
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+title: "Knowledge representation and reasoning"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:58.436297+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Any mechanically embodied intelligent process will be comprised of structural ingredients that a) we as external observers naturally take to represent a propositional account of the knowledge that the overall process exhibits, and b) independent of such external semantic attribution, play a formal but causal and essential role in engendering the behavior that manifests that knowledge.
+One of the most active areas of knowledge representation research is the Semantic Web. The Semantic Web seeks to add a layer of semantics (meaning) on top of the current Internet. Rather than indexing web sites and pages via keywords, the Semantic Web creates large ontologies of concepts. Searching for a concept will be more effective than traditional text only searches. Frame languages and automatic classification play a big part in the vision for the future Semantic Web. The automatic classification gives developers technology to provide order on a constantly evolving network of knowledge. Defining ontologies that are static and incapable of evolving on the fly would be very limiting for Internet-based systems. The classifier technology provides the ability to deal with the dynamic environment of the Internet.
+Recent projects funded primarily by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) have integrated frame languages and classifiers with markup languages based on XML. The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capability to define classes, subclasses, and properties of objects. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) provides additional levels of semantics and enables integration with classification engines.
+
+== Overview ==
+Knowledge-representation is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on designing computer representations that capture information about the world that can be used for solving complex problems.
+The justification for knowledge representation is that conventional procedural code is not the best formalism to use to solve complex problems. Knowledge representation makes complex software easier to define and maintain than procedural code and can be used in expert systems.
+For example, talking to experts in terms of business rules rather than code lessens the semantic gap between users and developers and makes development of complex systems more practical.
+Knowledge representation goes hand in hand with automated reasoning because one of the main purposes of explicitly representing knowledge is to be able to reason about that knowledge, to make inferences, assert new knowledge, etc. Virtually all knowledge representation languages have a reasoning or inference engine as part of the system.
+A key trade-off in the design of knowledge representation formalisms is that between expressivity and tractability. First Order Logic (FOL), with its high expressive power and ability to formalise much of mathematics, is a standard for comparing the expressibility of  knowledge representation languages.
+Arguably, FOL has two drawbacks as a knowledge representation formalism in its own right, namely ease of use and efficiency of implementation. Firstly, because of its high expressive power, FOL allows many ways of expressing the same information, and this can make it hard for users to formalise or even to understand knowledge expressed in complex, mathematically-oriented ways. Secondly, because of its complex proof procedures, it can be difficult for users to understand complex proofs and explanations, and it can be hard for implementations to be efficient. As a consequence, unrestricted FOL can be intimidating for many software developers.
+One of the key discoveries of AI research in the 1970s was that languages that do not have the full expressive power of FOL can still provide close to the same expressive power of FOL, but can be easier for both the average developer and for the computer to understand. Many of the early AI knowledge representation formalisms, from databases to semantic nets to production systems, can be viewed as making various design decisions about how to balance expressive power with naturalness of expression and efficiency. In particular, this balancing act was a driving motivation for the development of IF-THEN rules in rule-based expert systems. 
+A similar balancing act was also a motivation for the development of  logic programming (LP) and the logic programming language Prolog. Logic programs have a rule-based syntax, which is easily confused with the IF-THEN syntax of production rules. But logic programs have a well-defined logical semantics, whereas production systems do not.
+The earliest form of logic programming was based on the Horn clause subset of FOL. But later extensions of LP included the negation as failure inference rule, which turns LP into a non-monotonic logic for default reasoning. The resulting extended semantics of LP is a variation of the standard semantics of Horn clauses and FOL, and is a form of database semantics, which includes the unique name assumption and a form of closed world assumption. These assumptions are much harder to state and reason with explicitly using the standard semantics of FOL.
+In a key 1993 paper on the topic, Randall Davis of MIT outlined five distinct roles to analyze a knowledge representation framework:
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+title: "Knowledge representation and reasoning"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"A knowledge representation (KR) is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself, used to enable an entity to determine consequences by thinking rather than acting,"  i.e., "by reasoning about the world rather than taking action in it."
+"It is a set of ontological commitments", i.e., "an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world?" 
+"It is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) the representation's fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; (ii) the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and (iii) the set of inferences it recommends."
+"It is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation", i.e., "the computational environment in which thinking is accomplished. One contribution to this pragmatic efficiency is supplied by the guidance a representation provides for organizing information"  so as "to facilitate making the recommended inferences."
+"It is a medium of human expression", i.e., "a language in which we say things about the world."
+Knowledge representation and reasoning are a key enabling technology for the Semantic Web. Languages based on the Frame model with automatic classification provide a layer of semantics on top of the existing Internet. Rather than searching via text strings as is typical today, it will be possible to define logical queries and find pages that map to those queries. The automated reasoning component in these systems is an engine known as the classifier. Classifiers focus on the subsumption relations in a knowledge base rather than rules. A classifier can infer new classes and dynamically change the ontology as new information becomes available. This capability is ideal for the ever-changing and evolving information space of the Internet.
+The Semantic Web integrates concepts from knowledge representation and reasoning with markup languages based on XML.  The Resource Description Framework (RDF) provides the basic capabilities to define knowledge-based objects on the Internet with basic features such as Is-A relations and object properties. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) adds additional semantics and integrates with automatic classification reasoners.
+
+== Characteristics ==
+In 1985, Ron Brachman categorized the core issues for knowledge representation as follows:
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Primitives. What is the underlying framework used to represent knowledge? Semantic networks were one of the first knowledge representation primitives. Also, data structures and algorithms for general fast search. In this area, there is a strong overlap with research in data structures and algorithms in computer science. In early systems, the Lisp programming language, which was modeled after the lambda calculus, was often used as a form of functional knowledge representation. Frames and Rules were the next kind of primitive. Frame languages had various mechanisms for expressing and enforcing constraints on frame data. All data in frames are stored in slots. Slots are analogous to relations in entity-relation modeling and to object properties in object-oriented modeling. Another technique for primitives is to define languages that are modeled after First Order Logic (FOL). The most well known example is Prolog, but there are also many special-purpose theorem-proving environments. These environments can validate logical models and can deduce new theories from existing models. Essentially they automate the process a logician would go through in analyzing a model. Theorem-proving technology had some specific practical applications in the areas of software engineering. For example, it is possible to prove that a software program rigidly adheres to a formal logical specification.
+Meta-representation. This is also known as the issue of reflection in computer science. It refers to the ability of a formalism to have access to information about its own state. An example is the meta-object protocol in Smalltalk and CLOS that gives developers runtime access to the class objects and enables them to dynamically redefine the structure of the knowledge base even at runtime. Meta-representation means the knowledge representation language is itself expressed in that language. For example, in most Frame based environments all frames would be instances of a frame class. That class object can be inspected at runtime, so that the object can understand and even change its internal structure or the structure of other parts of the model. In rule-based environments, the rules were also usually instances of rule classes. Part of the meta protocol for rules were the meta rules that prioritized rule firing.
+Incompleteness. Traditional logic requires additional axioms and constraints to deal with the real world as opposed to the world of mathematics. Also, it is often useful to associate degrees of confidence with a statement, i.e., not simply say "Socrates is Human" but rather "Socrates is Human with confidence 50%". This was one of the early innovations from expert systems research which migrated to some commercial tools, the ability to associate certainty factors with rules and conclusions. Later research in this area is known as fuzzy logic.
+Definitions and universals vs. facts and defaults. Universals are general statements about the world such as "All humans are mortal". Facts are specific examples of universals such as "Socrates is a human and therefore mortal". In logical terms definitions and universals are about universal quantification while facts and defaults are about existential quantifications. All forms of knowledge representation must deal with this aspect and most do so with some variant of set theory, modeling universals as sets and subsets and definitions as elements in those sets.
+Non-monotonic reasoning. Non-monotonic reasoning allows various kinds of hypothetical reasoning. The system associates facts asserted with the rules and facts used to justify them and as those facts change updates the dependent knowledge as well. In rule based systems this capability is known as a truth maintenance system.
+Expressive adequacy. The standard that Brachman and most AI researchers use to measure expressive adequacy is usually First Order Logic (FOL). Theoretical limitations mean that a full implementation of FOL is not practical. Researchers should be clear about how expressive (how much of full FOL expressive power) they intend their representation to be.
+Reasoning efficiency. This refers to the runtime efficiency of a system: The ability of the knowledge base to be updated and the reasoner to develop new inferences in a reasonable time. In some ways, this is the flip side of expressive adequacy. In general, the more powerful a representation, the more it has expressive adequacy, the less efficient its automated reasoning engine will be. Efficiency was often an issue, especially for early applications of knowledge representation technology. They were usually implemented in interpreted environments such as Lisp, which were slow compared to more traditional platforms of the time.
+
+== Knowledge extraction ==
+
+== Ontology engineering ==
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+---
+title: "Knowledge representation and reasoning"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:58.436297+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the early years of knowledge-based systems the knowledge-bases were fairly small. The knowledge-bases that were meant to actually solve real problems rather than do proof of concept demonstrations needed to focus on well defined problems. So for example, not just medical diagnosis as a whole topic, but medical diagnosis of certain kinds of diseases.
+As knowledge-based technology scaled up, the need for larger knowledge bases and for modular knowledge bases that could communicate and integrate with each other became apparent. This gave rise to the discipline of ontology engineering, designing and building large knowledge bases that could be used by multiple projects. One of the leading research projects in this area was the Cyc project. Cyc was an attempt to build a huge encyclopedic knowledge base that would contain not just expert knowledge but common-sense knowledge. In designing an artificial intelligence agent, it was soon realized that representing common-sense knowledge, knowledge that humans simply take for granted, was essential to make an AI that could interact with humans using natural language. Cyc was meant to address this problem. The language they defined was known as CycL.
+After CycL, a number of ontology languages have been developed. Most are declarative languages, and are either frame languages, or are based on first-order logic. Modularity—the ability to define boundaries around specific domains and problem spaces—is essential for these languages because as stated by Tom Gruber, "Every ontology is a treaty–a social agreement among people with common motive in sharing." There are always many competing and differing views that make any general-purpose ontology impossible. A general-purpose ontology would have to be applicable in any domain and different areas of knowledge need to be unified.
+There is a long history of work attempting to build ontologies for a variety of task domains, e.g., an ontology for liquids, the lumped element model widely used in representing electronic circuits (e.g.), as well as ontologies for time, belief, and even programming itself. Each of these offers a way to see some part of the world.
+The lumped element model, for instance, suggests that we think of circuits in terms of components with connections between them, with signals flowing instantaneously along the connections. This is a useful view, but not the only possible one. A different ontology arises if we need to attend to the electrodynamics in the device: Here signals propagate at finite speed and an object (like a resistor) that was previously viewed as a single component with an I/O behavior may now have to be thought of as an extended medium through which an electromagnetic wave flows.
+Ontologies can of course be written down in a wide variety of languages and notations (e.g., logic, LISP, etc.); the essential information is not the form of that language but the content, i.e., the set of concepts offered as a way of thinking about the world. Simply put, the important part is notions like connections and components, not the choice between writing them as predicates or LISP constructs.
+
+== See also ==
+Alphabet of human thought – Hypothetical language created by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
+Belief revision – Process of changing beliefs to take into account a new piece of information
+Chunking (psychology) – Cognitive psychology process
+Commonsense knowledge base – Facts assumed to be known to all humans
+Conceptual graph – Formalism for knowledge representation
+DIKW pyramid – Data, information, knowledge, wisdom hierarchy
+DATR, a language for lexical knowledge representation
+FO(.), a KR language based on first-order logic
+Knowledge graph – Type of knowledge base
+Knowledge management – Processing of knowledge to accomplish organizational goals
+Logic programming – Programming paradigm based on formal logic
+Logico-linguistic modeling
+Mind map – Diagram to visually organize information
+Semantic technology – Technology to help machines understand data
+Valuation-based system
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Ronald J. Brachman; What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks; IEEE Computer, 16 (10); October 1983
+Ronald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Morgan Kaufmann, 2004 ISBN 978-1-55860-932-7
+Ronald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque (eds) Readings in Knowledge Representation, Morgan Kaufmann, 1985, ISBN 0-934613-01-X
+Chein, M., Mugnier, M.-L. (2009),Graph-based Knowledge Representation: Computational Foundations of Conceptual Graphs, Springer, 2009,ISBN 978-1-84800-285-2.
+Randall Davis, Howard Shrobe, and Peter Szolovits; What Is a Knowledge Representation? AI Magazine, 14(1):17-33,1993
+Ronald Fagin, Joseph Y. Halpern, Yoram Moses, Moshe Y. Vardi Reasoning About Knowledge, MIT Press, 1995, ISBN 0-262-06162-7
+Jean-Luc Hainaut, Jean-Marc Hick, Vincent Englebert, Jean Henrard, Didier Roland: Understanding Implementations of IS-A Relations. ER 1996: 42-57
+Hermann Helbig: Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of Natural Language, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 2006
+Frank van Harmelen, Vladimir Lifschitz and Bruce Porter: Handbook of Knowledge Representation 2007.
+Arthur B. Markman: Knowledge Representation  Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998
+John F. Sowa: Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations. Brooks/Cole: New York, 2000
+Adrian Walker, Michael McCord, John F. Sowa, and Walter G. Wilson: Knowledge Systems and Prolog, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1990
+Mary-Anne Williams and Hans Rott: "Frontiers in Belief Revision, Kluwer", 2001.
+
+== External links ==
+
+What is a Knowledge Representation? by Randall Davis and others
+Introduction to Knowledge Modeling by Pejman Makhfi
+Introduction to Description Logics course by Enrico Franconi, Faculty of Computer Science, Free University of Bolzano, Italy
+DATR Lexical knowledge representation language Archived 2016-02-17 at the Wayback Machine
+Loom Project Home Page
+Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Incorporated 
+Description Logic in Practice: A CLASSIC Application
+The Rule Markup Initiative
+Nelements KOS - a non-free 3d knowledge representation system
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_lab-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_lab-0.md
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+---
+title: "Land lab"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_lab"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:20.219358+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A land lab is an area of land that has been set aside for use in biological studies.  Thus, it is literally an outdoor laboratory based on an area of land.
+Studies may be elementary or advanced.  For instance, students may simply be given the task of identifying all the tree species in a land lab, or an advanced student may be doing an intensive survey of the microbial life forms found in a soil sample.
+Hands on, tangible, project-base learning is a key aspect of land labs within an educational context.  Land labs can exist anywhere with outdoor access:  educational campuses, residential neighborhoods, peri-urban settings, urban settings, or even a small courtyard.  The driving principle behind land lab education is getting outside and interacting with the world directly.
+Land labs are often marked out in plots or transects for studies.  A plot may be any size, usually marked out in square meters.  This allows for more intensive, delimited studies of changes and inventories of biota.  Transects are straight lines at which, at intervals, measurements are taken for a profile of the ecological community.
+
+Land labs serve an important role in giving students access to a natural environment to observe native plants and wildlife, apply STEM concepts with hands on projects, and build a better understanding of how critical biodiversity is for ecological health.
+
+== Common educational projects conducted at a land lab often include ==
+Surveying pollinator species in pollinator gardens or in the native flora
+Restoring old agricultural land back to original landscapes such as: wetlands, prairie, or forest
+Composting biomass to rebuild healthy soil
+Maintaining beehives or other pollinator habitats for moths, ground bees, and other pollinators
+Recording weather conditions to better understand the microclimate
+Conducting nature studies to identify and observe local flora and fauna
+Planting native trees, grasses, and flowers to increase biodiversity
+Encouraging native riparian plant growth along ponds and streams
+Installing bird houses, bat houses and owl houses
+Holding art classes where students can paint flora, fauna and landscapes
+Collecting and removing trash and other man-made pollutants
+Designing low-impact trails and paths for visitors to explore the land lab
+
+== Studying humans needs and sustainability in land labs ==
+
+Learning to produce food, fiber and energy in sustainable ways is a tremendous opportunity for students of all ages within land labs.  Students can explore biomass energy, biogas fuels, solar energy, permaculture, composting, organic gardening, and many other facets of sustainability through land labs.
+By designing systems that mimic natural processes (biomimicry), we are able to produce food, fiber, and energy in more sustainable ways for local communities.  Numerous environmental and economic benefits exist to growing food locally and producing energy locally.  These biomimicry inspired systems are circular in nature.  Nothing is wasted, as the outputs of one circular system become the inputs of another.
+
+== Circular systems in land labs ==
+Circular system experiments, promoting a circular economy, are a natural fit for educational land labs.  Circular systems function by ensuring that nothing is wasted.  Every output of a system becomes an input for another system.
+For example:  Food scraps feed chickens, chicken manure fertilizes the garden, the garden grows more vegetables, food scraps are then available from the vegetables to feed chickens.
+
+Circular systems that are well-suited for land labs include:
+
+Biogas methane digesters for generating clean cooking fuel and liquid fertilizer for gardens
+Composting rollers for composting leaves, grass clippings, & food scraps
+Raising black soldier fly larvae on food waste to become feed for chickens or fish
+Solar panels for providing on-site power
+Free range chickens for providing eggs and manure
+Greenhouses for growing mushrooms and seedlings
+Raised beds for market garden vegetables
+Beehives for garden pollination, honey, and wax
+Rotationally grazed pastures for goats, cattle, pigs, sheep, etc
+Biochar production to improve soil quality and sequester carbon
+Aquaponics systems for growing fish and greens symbiotically
+Rainwater collection systems for retaining water for gardens
+
+== Multi-disciplinary environment within land labs ==
+Land labs help to form an ecosystem well suited for long-term project-based learning.  Students, teachers, and community members can participate in multi-disciplinary activities ranging from land restoration, animal husbandry, gardening, weather analysis to outdoor art studies.
+
+The multi-disciplinary context within a land lab is perfect for cross-curricular education.  The following disciplines and subjects can all tie into land lab activities in an integrated fashion:
+
+Ecology - nature studies, increasing biodiversity, studying water cycle
+Biology - gardening, agriscience projects, botany
+Sustainable Agriculture - composting, permaculture, local food movement
+Engineering - building aquaponics, rainwater collection, animal shelters
+Chemistry - methane digesters, plant fertilization, solar power
+Life Sciences - carbon cycle, water cycle, composting biomass
+Animal Husbandry - free range chickens, goats, apiary
+Climate Studies - weather observation, weather logging
+History & Culture Studies - local food culture, history of agriculture, natural resources
+Culinary Arts - cooking garden produce using clean energy like biomass, biogas, or solar power
+Multi media arts - designing pollinator landscapes, bird houses, bat houses, murals
+Painting - nature studies, murals
+Pottery - watering pots, plant pots
+Wood working - pollinator houses, chicken coop
+
+== Goals and outcomes of land lab education experiences ==
+
+Land labs exist as perpetual educational projects that can span years to decades or more.  Common goals within a land lab are often:
+
+Restoring degraded land back into a balanced, biodiverse state
+Establishing an environment for native flora and fauna to thrive
+Building deep, rich soil with an active microbiome
+Growing local produce, herbs, and flowers
+Raising livestock with sustainable, ethical methods
+Producing healthy food for local communities
+Producing local energy to power the land lab operations
+Inspiring young people to care about biodiversity, agriculture, and nature
+Building real-life, practical STEM skills for students and adults
+Building strong communities around unique outdoor projects in nature
+Educating people about the benefits and simple joys found in gardening
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+---
+title: "Land lab"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_lab"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:20.219358+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Footprints and Sizes of Land Labs ==
+Land labs can be designed in all shapes and sizes.  The key attributes of a land lab are typically the following:
+
+Building an outdoor learning area designated for cross-curricular studies in a STEM environment
+Establishing a focus on increasing biodiversity and restoring local environmental features
+Educating people about meeting humans needs sustainably through agriculture, energy production, shelter, and sanitation
+
+A small land lab could be as little as a courtyard, balcony garden, or a designated patch of land outside of a classroom window.  Conversely, larger land lab could encompass hundreds of acres.  The ideal size for a flexible land lab space allowing for many different ecological activities and circular systems is between 1/4 of an acre to 5 acres.
+
+== Sustainable societal solutions originating from land labs ==
+Land labs are real-life environments by design.  The project-based environment encourages students, teachers, and community members to experiment with ecological solutions that can be implemented on a small scale.
+Ideally, the solutions and systems implemented in a land lab are transferred beyond the land lab and into the surrounding community.  Composting, rainwater catchment, food-waste upcycling with methane digesters and BSF, local food production, harnessing of solar power, and other land lab systems can all be implemented throughout a community at various scales:  residential, schools, community gardens, and local businesses.
+The purpose of a land lab is to allow students to develop, implement, and learn about practical, sustainable solutions for addressing the five basic physiological needs all humans have:
+
+The need for clean water
+The need for healthy food
+The need for shelter
+The need for energy
+The need for sanitation
+Our industrial systems of providing food, water, energy, shelter, and sanitation have inherent weaknesses to their centralized models.  Long supply chains, fossil-fuel dependence, environmental damage, and the fragmented production of goods are common traits to industrial models.  Land labs tie these 5 basic human needs together in integrated systems.
+Permaculture is a concept of integrating these human needs into local, ecological, human-scale systems.  Land labs can be thought of as an education area for promoting creative solutions for meeting these needs, while ensuring the land and local ecology are being restored in the process.
+Land labs provide students with real-world experiences to help change their behavior as consumers, and get them more involved with meeting their 5 physiological needs.
+Land labs are focused on production rather than just consumption.  Western consumer culture makes the provision of our 5 basic physiological needs very abstract and far removed from the daily life of most people.
+When these 5 basic needs are abstracted away from consumers, it is easier for the underlying systems providing these needs to operate without supervision to ensure they are ethical and sustainable.
+
+== Mental health benefits for students being outside ==
+
+In today's digital world, many students spend inordinate amounts of time on a screen both at home and at school.  Inherent limits exist to project based learning that takes place entirely behind a screen or within a classroom.
+Land labs help break students out of a digital environment by providing much needed time outdoors.  Studies have shown that as our digital landscape of social media has exploded in popularity, depression and mental struggles have increased dramatically in students.
+Studies also show that student's mental health benefits immensely from being outdoors and participating in hands on projects with meaningful outcomes.
+
+== Waste streams used in land labs ==
+
+Multiple types of local "waste" streams, that can often be obtained freely, can be used to supply a land lab with the raw materials to build soil, generate power, grow food, and restore biodiversity.
+
+Woodchips - Used for garden paths, mulch, composting & biochar. Often available from local tree companies or municipalities for free.
+Grass clippings - Used for compost and mulch.  Available from neighbors and onsite.
+Leaves - Used for compost and mulch.  Available from neighbors and onsite.
+Food waste - Used for composting, methane production, liquid fertilizer, and feeding BSF.
+Coffee grounds - Used for composting and BSF production.
+Pallets (Non-treated) - Used for making raised beds, biochar, composting bins, and other structures.
+IBC totes (Food grade) - Used for storing rainwater and liquid fertilizer.
+5 Gallon Buckets - Used for collecting food waste, and other waste streams.
+Shredded paper - Used for composting.
+Shredded cardboard - Used for composting.
+Newspapers - Used for composting and mulching.
+Logs - Used for pollinator habitats.  Freely availably from many tree companies.
+Reclaimed lumber (non treated) - Used for raised beds, biochar, and small building projects.
+Billboard tarps - Used for rainwater catchment, roofing, and shade cloths.  Freely available from billboard companies.
+Part of the process of building a land lab is developing relationships with local businesses, neighbors, restaurants, and community members to begin upcycling these wastes into the materials and systems needed within a land lab.  Many people have a desire to help students who are working hard on a meaningful community project.  Much of the materials listed above can be had for little to no cost as relationships are formed.
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_zodiac-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_zodiac-0.md
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+---
+title: "Landscape zodiac"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_zodiac"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:54.828123+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A landscape zodiac (or terrestrial zodiac) is a purported map of the stars on a gigantic scale, formed by features in the landscape, such as roads, streams and field boundaries. Perhaps the best known alleged example is the Glastonbury Temple of the Stars, situated around Glastonbury in Somerset, England. The temple is thought by some to depict a colossal zodiac.
+
+
+== Theory ==
+The theory was first put forward in 1935 by Katherine Maltwood, an artist who "discovered" the zodiac in a vision, and held that the "temple" was created by Sumerians about 2700 BC. Interest was re-ignited in 1969 by Mary Caine in an article in the magazine Gandalf's Garden.
+The landscape zodiac plays an important role in many occult theories. It has been associated with the Celtic Saints, Grail legend and King Arthur (according to some legends buried in Glastonbury).
+
+
+== Criticism ==
+The idea was examined by two independent studies, one by Ian Burrow in 1975 and the other in 1983 by Tom Williamson and Liz Bellamy, using the standard methods of landscape historical research.  Both studies concluded that the evidence contradicted the idea.  The eye of Capricorn identified by Maltwood was a haystack. The western wing of the Aquarius phoenix was a road laid in 1782 to run around Glastonbury, and older maps dating back to the 1620s show the road had no predecessors.  The Cancer boat (not a crab as would be expected) is made up of a network of eighteenth century drainage ditches and paths.  There are some Neolithic paths preserved in the peat of the bog formerly comprising most of the area, but none of the known paths match the lines of the zodiac features. There is no support for this theory, or for the existence of the "temple" in any form, from conventional archaeologists or mainstream historians.
+
+
+== List of landscape zodiacs ==
+Beside the Glastonbury arrangement further zodiacs have been alleged in Britain in following years including:
+
+Kingston upon Thames Zodiac
+The Lizard Zodiac, Cornwall
+Bodmin Moor Zodiac
+The Pumpsaint Zodiac
+Nuthampstead Terrestrial Zodiac
+The Sheffield Zodiac, South Yorkshire
+There is rarely a strong scientific case for these discoveries. Their nebulous existence is in many ways similar to urban myths, ufology, or ley lines. They seem to play a part in personal belief systems; see Valentine (2016). Some are intentionally fictional; for example "The Brighton Zodiac" – created by Sally Hurst, based on the streets of that town – features as a plot device in Robert Rankin's novel The Brightonomicon.
+
+
+== Landscape zodiacs and psychogeography ==
+In the walks around the M25 motorway documented in psychogeographer Iain Sinclair's 2003 novel London Orbital, the walkers trace the mythical Kingston upon Thames Zodiac.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Psychogeography
+The Brightonomicon
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Brinsley le Poer Trench (1962) Temple of the Stars
+Katherine E. Maltwood (1935) A Guide to Glastonbury's Temple of the Stars
+Peter James and Nick Thorpe (1999) Ancient Mysteries, Ballantine Books, New York, pp 298–304
+Iain Sinclair (2005) London Orbital, Penguin Books, London, ISBN 0-14-101474-1
+Mary Caine (2001) The Kingston Zodiac Capall Barn Publishing ISBN 1-86163-111-1
+Lewis Edwards,  The Welsh Temple of the Zodiac (undated mimeographed pamphlet)
+John Michell (1975) The Earth Spirit - Its Ways, Shrines and Mysteries
+John Michell (1979) Simulacra - with 196 Illustrations of Faces and Figures in Nature London: Thames & Hudson
+Sheila Jeffries (1996) Cornwall's Landscape Zodiac St.Keverne: Elderberry Books
+R. Nichols (1993) Great Zodiac of Glastonbury Mandrake Press, Thame England
+Nigel Ayers (2007) The Bodmin Moor Zodiac Earthly Delights, Lostwithiel, Cornwall
+Oliver L. Reiser (1975) This Holyest Erthe: Glastonbury Zodiac and King Arthur's Avalon TRSP Publications ISBN 0-900588-10-1
+Caroline Hall Hovey (1985) The Somerset Sanctuary, Merlin Books LTD, Devon, ISBN 0-86303-197-8
+Hugh Newman (2008) Earth Grids - the Secret Patterns of Gaia's Sacred Sites Wooden Books ISBN 9781904263647
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Crime_Concentration-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Crime_Concentration-0.md
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+---
+title: "Law of Crime Concentration"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Crime_Concentration"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:56.013628+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The law of crime concentration states that "for a defined measure of crime at a specific micro-geographic unit, the concentration of crime will fall within a narrow bandwidth of percentages for a defined cumulative proportion of crime." This law builds on the well-established empirical observation in the criminology of place that crime concentrates on very small units of geography.
+Criminologist, David Weisburd, first proposed a formal "law of crime concentration" in 2015 after having observed the phenomenon across many cities. In their longitudinal study of street segments in Seattle, WA, Weisburd and colleagues (2012) observed not only that crime was concentrated, but across a 16-year observation period the level of concentration was remarkedly consistent: 50% of crime incidents were found at between 4.7% and 6.1% of street segments in the city each year, despite a decline of more than 20% in overall crime during that period. To test whether the law of crime concentration existed in other cities, Weisburd examined 8 additional cities in 2015. While noting variability between the five larger and three smaller cities, the overall range or bandwidth of crime concentrations observed was between 2.1% and 6.0% of streets producing 50% of city crime, and between 0.4% and 1.6% producing 25% of city crime, which supported a law of crime concentration across cities. 
+Studies examining crime concentration have used a range of micro-geographic units. However, the micro-geographic unit of the street segment has been the most commonly examined unit by researchers to date.
+Since 2015, scholars have continued to test the law of crime concentration in cities across the world and the results continue to support a general framework of a law of crime concentration. For example, Schnell and colleagues (2017) analyzed violent crime incidents reported to the police in Chicago, IL between 2001 and 2014 and found that 56-65% of the total variability in violent crime incidents can be attributed to street segments in Chicago. Haberman and colleagues (2017) tested the law of crime concentration in Philadelphia, PA and the results closely matched the bandwidth percentages expected from Weisburd (2015). The law of crime concentration has even been tested in non-urban settings. Gill and colleagues (2017) tested the law of crime concentration in the suburban city of Brooklyn Park, MN and found that two percent of street segments produced 50% of the crime over the study period and 0.4% of segments produced 25% of the crime.
+A law of crime concentration has important implications for crime prevention policy and practice. Knowing that a disproportionate percentage of crime occurs at a very small percentage of street segments allows jurisdictions to more efficiently allocate often limited resources. This is particularly important for police departments who can conduct focused patrols in the areas with the most crime incidents, also known as hot spots policing.    
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Lectio difficilior potior"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectio_difficilior_potior"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lectio difficilior potior (Latin: "the difficult reading is stronger") is an important, internal criterion in textual criticism. When different manuscripts of a text conflict, this principle requires that the harder, unusual, more obtuse reading is to be preferred. It is based on the assumption that scribes are more likely to replace odd words in difficult places with more familiar vocabulary in more expected positions.
+It was one principle among many that became established in early 18th-century textual criticism, being part of an attempt by scholars of the Age of Enlightenment to provide a neutral basis for discovering an urtext that was independent of the weight of traditional authority.
+
+
+== History ==
+Rabbeinu Tam (1100 – 1171) expressed the idea in his midrash The Book of Jasher (Heb. ספר הישר, Sefer haYashar),
+
+it was written by the author of the Talmud, since students who correct the text do not correct it in order to make the text difficult.
+Erasmus expressed the idea in his Annotations to the New Testament in the early 1500s,
+
+And whenever the Fathers report that there is a variant reading, that one always appears to me to be more esteemed (by them is the one) which at first glance seems the more absurd-since it is reasonable that a reader who is either not very learned or not very attentive was offended by the specter of absurdity and changed the text.
+According to Paolo Trovato, who cites Sebastiano Timpanaro, the principle was first codified by Jean Le Clerc in his Ars critica.
+It was also laid down by Johann Albrecht Bengel as "proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua" in his "Prodromus Novi Testamenti Graeci Rectè Cautèque Adornandi" in 1725 and employed in his "Novum Testamentum Graecum" in 1734.
+Otherwise, it is often attributed to Johann Jakob Wettstein.
+
+
+== Scholarly Use ==
+Many scholars considered the employment of lectio difficilior potior an objective criterion that would even override other evaluative considerations. The poet and scholar A. E. Housman challenged such reactive applications in 1922, in the provocatively titled article "The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism."
+On the other hand, taken as an axiom, the principle lectio difficilior produces an eclectic text, rather than one based on a history of manuscript transmission. "Modern eclectic praxis operates on a variant unit basis without any apparent consideration of the consequences", Maurice A. Robinson warned. He suggested that to the principle "should be added a corollary, difficult readings created by individual scribes do not tend to perpetuate in any significant degree within transmissional history."
+A noted proponent of the superiority of the Byzantine text-type, the form of the Greek New Testament in the largest number of surviving manuscripts, Robinson would use the corollary to explain differences from the Majority Text as scribal errors that were not perpetuated because they were known to be errant or because they existed only in a small number of manuscripts at the time.
+Most textual-critical scholars would explain the corollary by the assumption that scribes tended to "correct" harder readings and so cut off the stream of transmission. Thus, only earlier manuscripts would have the harder readings. Later manuscripts would not see the corollary principle as being a very important one to get closer to the original form of the text.
+However, lectio difficilior is not to be taken as an absolute rule either but as a general guideline. "In general, the more difficult reading is to be preferred" is Bruce Metzger's reservation. "There is truth in the maxim: lectio difficilior lectio potior ('the more difficult reading is the more probable reading')," write Kurt and Barbara Aland.
+However, for scholars like Kurt Aland, who follow a path of reasoned eclecticism based on evidence both internal and external to the manuscripts, "this principle must not be taken too mechanically, with the most difficult reading (lectio difficillima) adopted as original simply because of its degree of difficulty." Also, Martin Litchfield West cautions: "When we choose the 'more difficult reading' ... we must be sure that it is in itself a plausible reading. The principle should not be used in support of dubious syntax, or phrasing that it would not have been natural for the author to use. There is an important difference between a more difficult reading and a more unlikely reading."
+Responding to Tetyana Vilkul's review of his 2003 critical edition of the Primary Chronicle (PVL), Donald Ostrowski (2005) phrased the principle as follows: 'The more difficult reading is preferred to a smoother reading, except, again, where a mechanical copying error would explain the roughness. The rationale is that a copyist is more likely to have tried to make a rough reading smoother than to have made a smooth reading more difficult to understand.'
+
+
+== See also ==
+Bayes' theorem
+Lectio brevior
+Criterion of embarrassment
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Maurice A. Robinson, 2001. "New Testament Textual Criticism: The Case for Byzantine Priority"
+D. A. Carson, 1991. "Silent in the Churches" in Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism, Wayne Grudem and John Piper, eds. (Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood).
+Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, rev, ed. 1995. The Text of the New Testament an Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism
+Martin L. West, 1973. Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique applicable to Greek and Latin texts (Stuttgart: B.G. Teubner)
+Ostrowski, Donald (2005). "Scribal Practices and Copying Probabilities in the Transmission of the Text of the Povest' vremennykh let" (PDF). Palaeoslavica. 13 (2): 48–77. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
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+---
+title: "Liberation hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:57.172817+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In criminal justice, the liberation hypothesis proposes that extra-legal factors (such as race of offender and pretrial publicity) affect sentencing outcomes more in regards to less serious offenses compared to more serious ones, ostensibly because juries and judges will feel less able to follow their personal sentiments with regard to more serious crimes. The hypothesis also proposes that the extent to which extra-legal factors sentencing outcomes is dependent on the strength of the evidence in the case. The hypothesis was first proposed by Harry Kalven and Hans Zeisel in their 1966 book "The American Jury". Since then, multiple studies have found support for it.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Life-cycle hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:58.356118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In economics, the life-cycle hypothesis (LCH) is a model that strives to explain the consumption patterns of individuals.
+
+
+== Theory and evidence ==
+Elderly dissaving is also influenced by the present factors that materially prevent them from the possibility of spending their previous savings. One of them is the loss of the driving license. An extended survey held in 1998, 2000, and 2002 among the U.S. retired citizens highlighted that "about 90% of the trips among people older than age 65 are in a private vehicle" and that driving cessation was highly correlated (46% to 63%, Tobit regression) to a reduction in spending on non basic needs such as trips, tickets, and dinings out.
+It is also relevant to distinguish elderly poor people in two basic tipologies:  people who are poor on income, or those who are poor in terms of both income and consumption. While the life cycle hypothesis predicts the income and the consumption patterns of the elderly population, a series of research papers published in the 2000s highlighted the role of other factors in making the elderly class of people among the income-poor alone, and not people who are both income and consumption-poor. It is the latter class of people the one who is the poorest among the older population. Those influencing factors are: the stock of assets and particularly the house property, the racial and scholarly background as well as the presence of family assistance network.
+According to another extended survey collected among "disadvantaged groups such as rural, female, less educated individuals" in Burkina Faso, the spread of mobile and easy-to-transfer money doesn't show any correlation with the level of saving for predictable events occurring in the future (such as consumption patterns during the age of retirement), while it increases the propensity to save for personal health emergencies and, in the second instance, for unpredictable events.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Attanasio, O. P. (1999). "Consumption". Handbook of Macroeconomics. Vol. 1. New York: Elsevier. pp. 741–812. doi:10.1016/S1574-0048(99)10019-3. ISBN 0-444-82528-2.
+Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Fischer, Stanley; Startz, Richard (2004). Macroeconomics (Ninth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. pp. 339–343. ISBN 0-07-282340-2.
+Deaton, Angus (2005). "Franco Modigliani and the Life Cycle Theory of Consumption". Banca Nazionale del Lavoro Quarterly Review. 58 (233–234): 91–107.
+Mankiw, N. Gregory (2009). Macroeconomics (Seventh ed.). New York: Worth. pp. 509–513. ISBN 978-1-4292-1887-0.
+Modigliani, Franco (1966). "The Life Cycle Hypothesis of Saving, the Demand for Wealth and the Supply of Capital". Social Research. 33 (2): 160–217. JSTOR 40969831.
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+---
+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 1/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Linguistic relativity asserts that language influences worldview or cognition. One form of linguistic relativity, linguistic determinism, regards peoples' languages as determining and influencing the scope of cultural perceptions of their surrounding world.
+Various colloquialisms refer to linguistic relativism: the Whorf hypothesis; the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis ( sə-PEER WHORF); the Whorf–Sapir hypothesis; and Whorfianism.
+The hypothesis is disputed, with many different variations throughout its history. The strong hypothesis of linguistic relativity, now referred to as linguistic determinism, is that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and restrict cognitive categories. This was a claim by some earlier linguists pre-World War II; 
+since then it has fallen out of acceptance by contemporary linguists. Nevertheless, research has produced positive empirical evidence supporting  a weaker version of linguistic relativity: that a language's structures influence a speaker's perceptions, without strictly limiting or obstructing them.
+Although common, the term Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is sometimes considered a misnomer for several reasons. Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941) never stated their ideas in terms of a hypothesis. The distinction between a weak and a strong version of this hypothesis is also a later development; Sapir and Whorf never used such a dichotomy, although often their writings and their opinions of this relativity principle expressed it in stronger or weaker terms.
+The principle of linguistic relativity and the relationship between language and thought has also received attention in varying academic fields, including philosophy, psychology and anthropology. It has also influenced works of fiction and the invention of constructed languages.
+
+== History ==
+The idea was first expressed explicitly by 19th-century thinkers such as Wilhelm von Humboldt and Johann Gottfried Herder, who considered language as the expression of the spirit of a nation. Members of the early 20th-century school of American anthropology including Franz Boas and Edward Sapir also approved versions of the idea to a certain extent, including in a 1928 meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, but Sapir, in particular, wrote more often against than in favor of anything like linguistic determinism. Sapir's student, Benjamin Lee Whorf, came to be considered as the primary proponent as a result of his published observations of how he perceived linguistic differences to have consequences for human cognition and behavior. Harry Hoijer, another of Sapir's students, introduced the term "Sapir–Whorf hypothesis", even though the two scholars never formally advanced any such hypothesis. A strong version of relativist theory was developed from the late 1920s by the German linguist Leo Weisgerber. Whorf's principle of linguistic relativity was reformulated as a testable hypothesis by Roger Brown and Eric Lenneberg who performed experiments designed to determine whether color perception varies between speakers of languages that classified colors differently.
+As the emphasis of the universal nature of human language and cognition developed during the 1960s, the idea of linguistic relativity became disfavored among linguists. From the late 1980s, a new school of linguistic relativity scholars has examined the effects of differences in linguistic categorization on cognition, finding broad support for non-deterministic versions of the hypothesis in experimental contexts. Some effects of linguistic relativity have been shown in several semantic domains, although they are generally weak. Currently, a nuanced opinion of linguistic relativity is espoused by most linguists holding that language influences certain kinds of cognitive processes in non-trivial ways, but that other processes are better considered as developing from connectionist factors. Research emphasizes exploring the manners and extent to which language influences thought.
+
+=== Ancient philosophy to the Enlightenment ===
+The idea that language and thought are intertwined is ancient. In his dialogue Cratylus, Plato explores the idea that conceptions of reality, such as Heraclitean flux, are embedded in language. But Plato has been read as arguing against sophist thinkers such as Gorgias of Leontini, who claimed that the physical world cannot be experienced except through language; this made the question of truth dependent on aesthetic preferences or functional consequences. Plato may have held instead that the world consisted of eternal ideas and that language should represent these ideas as accurately as possible. Nevertheless, Plato's Seventh Letter claims that ultimate truth is inexpressible in words.
+Following Plato, St. Augustine, for example, argued that language was merely like labels applied to concepts existing already. This opinion remained prevalent throughout the Middle Ages. Roger Bacon had the opinion that language was but a veil covering eternal truths, hiding them from human experience. For Immanuel Kant, language was but one of several methods used by humans to experience the world.
+
+=== German Romantic philosophers ===
+During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the idea of the existence of different national characters, or Volksgeister, of different ethnic groups was a major motivator for the German romantics school and the beginning ideologies of ethnic nationalism.
+
+==== Johann Georg Hamann ====
+Johann Georg Hamann is often suggested to be the first among the actual German Romantics to discuss the concept of the "genius" of a language. In his "Essay Concerning an Academic Question", Hamann suggests that a people's language affects their worldview:
+
+The lineaments of their language will thus correspond to the direction of their mentality.
+Herder worked alongside Hamann to establish the idea of whether or not language had a human/rational or a divine origin. Herder added the emotional component of the hypothesis and Humboldt then took this information and applied it to various languages to expand on the hypothesis.
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 2/9
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Wilhelm von Humboldt ====
+ In 1820, Wilhelm von Humboldt associated the study of language with the national romanticist program by proposing that language is the fabric of thought. Thoughts are produced as a kind of internal dialog using the same grammar as the thinker's native language. This opinion was part of a greater idea in which the assumptions of an ethnic nation, their "Weltanschauung", was considered as being represented by the grammar of their language. Von Humboldt argued that languages with an inflectional morphological type, such as German, English and the other Indo-European languages, were the most perfect languages and that accordingly this explained the dominance of their speakers with respect to the speakers of less perfect languages. Wilhelm von Humboldt declared in 1820:
+The diversity of languages is not a diversity of signs and sounds but a diversity of views of the world.In Humboldt's humanistic understanding of linguistics, each language creates the individual's worldview in its particular way through its lexical and grammatical categories, conceptual organization, and syntactic models.
+
+=== Boas and Sapir ===
+
+The idea that some languages are superior to others and that lesser languages maintained their speakers in intellectual poverty was widespread during the early 20th century. American linguist William Dwight Whitney, for example, actively strove to eradicate Native American languages, arguing that their speakers were savages and would be better off learning English and adopting a "civilized" way of life. The first anthropologist and linguist to challenge this opinion was Franz Boas. While performing geographical research in northern Canada he became fascinated with the Inuit and decided to become an ethnographer. Boas stressed the equal worth of all cultures and languages, that there was no such thing as a primitive language and that all languages were capable of expressing the same content, albeit by widely differing means. Boas saw language as an inseparable part of culture and he was among the first to require of ethnographers to learn the native language of the culture to be studied and to document verbal culture such as myths and legends in the original language.
+Boas:
+
+It does not seem likely [...] that there is any direct relation between the culture of a tribe and the language they speak, except in so far as the form of the language will be moulded by the state of the culture, but not in so far as a certain state of the culture is conditioned by the morphological traits of the language."
+Boas' student Edward Sapir referred to the Humboldtian idea that languages were a major factor for understanding the cultural assumptions of peoples. He espoused the opinion that because of the differences in the grammatical systems of languages no two languages were similar enough to allow for perfect cross-translation. Sapir also thought because language represented reality differently, it followed that the speakers of different languages would perceive reality differently.
+Sapir:
+
+No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.
+However, Sapir explicitly rejected strong linguistic determinism by stating, "It would be naïve to imagine that any analysis of experience is dependent on pattern expressed in language."
+Sapir was explicit that the associations between language and culture were neither extensive nor particularly profound, if they existed at all:
+
+It is easy to show that language and culture are not intrinsically associated. Totally unrelated languages share in one culture; closely related languages—even a single language—belong to distinct culture spheres. There are many excellent examples in Aboriginal America. The Athabaskan languages form as clearly unified, as structurally specialized, a group as any that I know of. The speakers of these languages belong to four distinct culture areas... The cultural adaptability of the Athabaskan-speaking peoples is in the strangest contrast to the inaccessibility to foreign influences of the languages themselves.
+Sapir offered similar observations about speakers of so-called "world" or "modern" languages, noting, "possession of a common language is still and will continue to be a smoother of the way to a mutual understanding between England and America, but it is very clear that other factors, some of them rapidly cumulative, are working powerfully to counteract this leveling influence. A common language cannot indefinitely set the seal on a common culture when the geographical, physical, and economics determinants of the culture are no longer the same throughout the area."
+While Sapir never made a practice of studying directly how languages affected thought, some notion of (probably "weak") linguistic relativity affected his basic understanding of language, and would be developed by Whorf.
+
+=== Independent developments in Europe ===
+Drawing on influences such as Humboldt and Friedrich Nietzsche, some European thinkers developed ideas similar to those of Sapir and Whorf, generally working in isolation from each other. Prominent in Germany from the late 1920s through the 1960s were the strongly relativist theories of Leo Weisgerber and his concept of a 'linguistic inter-world', mediating between external reality and the forms of a given language, in ways peculiar to that language. Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky read Sapir's work and experimentally studied the ways in which the development of concepts in children was influenced by structures given in language. His 1934 work "Thought and Language" has been compared to Whorf's and taken as mutually supportive evidence of language's influence on cognition. Drawing on Nietzsche's ideas of perspectivism Alfred Korzybski developed the theory of general semantics that has been compared to Whorf's notions of linguistic relativity. Though influential in their own right, this work has not been influential in the debate on linguistic relativity, which has tended to be based on the American paradigm exemplified by Sapir and Whorf.
+
+=== Benjamin Lee Whorf ===
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 3/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+More than any linguist, Benjamin Lee Whorf has become associated with what he termed the "linguistic relativity principle". Studying Native American languages, he attempted to account for the ways in which grammatical systems and language-use differences affected perception. Whorf's opinions regarding the nature of the relation between language and thought remain under contention. However, a version of theory holds some "merit", for example, "different words mean different things in different languages; not every word in every language has a one-to-one exact translation in a different language" Critics such as Lenneberg, Black, and Pinker attribute to Whorf a strong linguistic determinism, while Lucy, Silverstein and Levinson point to Whorf's explicit rejections of determinism, and where he contends that translation and commensuration are possible.
+Detractors such as Lenneberg, Chomsky and Pinker criticized him for insufficient clarity of his description of how language influences thought, and for not proving his conjectures. Most of his arguments were in the form of anecdotes and speculations that served as attempts to show how "exotic" grammatical traits were associated with what were apparently equally exotic worlds of thought. In Whorf's words:
+
+We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscope flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds—and this means largely by the linguistic systems of our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way—an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language [...] all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar, or can in some way be calibrated.
+
+=== Several terms for a single concept ===
+Among Whorf's best-known examples of linguistic relativity are instances where a non-European language has several terms for a concept that is only described with one word in European languages (Whorf used the acronym SAE "Standard Average European" to allude to the rather similar grammatical structures of the well-studied European languages in contrast to the greater diversity of less-studied languages).
+One of Whorf's examples was the supposedly large number of words for 'snow' in the Inuit languages, an example that later was contested as a misrepresentation.
+Another is the Hopi language's words for water, one indicating drinking water in a container and another indicating a natural body of water.
+These examples of polysemy served the double purpose of showing that non-European languages sometimes made more specific semantic distinctions than European languages and that direct translation between two languages, even of seemingly basic concepts such as snow or water, is not always possible.
+Another example is from Whorf's experience as a chemical engineer working for an insurance company as a fire inspector. While inspecting a chemical plant he observed that the plant had two storage rooms for gasoline barrels, one for the full barrels and one for the empty ones. He further noticed that while no employees smoked cigarettes in the room for full barrels, no-one minded smoking in the room with empty barrels, although this was potentially much more dangerous because of the flammable vapors still in the barrels. He concluded that the use of the word empty in association to the barrels had resulted in the workers unconsciously regarding them as harmless, although consciously they were probably aware of the risk of explosion. This example was later criticized by Lenneberg as not actually demonstrating causality between the use of the word empty and the action of smoking, but instead was an example of circular reasoning. Pinker in The Language Instinct ridiculed this example, claiming that this was a failing of human insight rather than language.
+
+=== Time in Hopi ===
+Whorf's most elaborate argument for linguistic relativity regarded what he believed to be a fundamental difference in the understanding of time as a conceptual category among the Hopi. He argued that in contrast to English and other SAE languages, Hopi does not treat the flow of time as a sequence of distinct, countable instances, like "three days" or "five years", but rather as a single process and that consequently it has no nouns referring to units of time as SAE speakers understand them. He proposed that this view of time was fundamental to Hopi culture and explained certain Hopi behavioral patterns.
+Ekkehart Malotki later claimed that he had found no evidence of Whorf's claims in 1980's era Hopi speakers, nor in historical documents dating back to the arrival of Europeans. Malotki used evidence from archaeological data, calendars, historical documents, and modern speech; he concluded that there was no evidence that Hopi conceptualize time in the way Whorf suggested. Many universalist scholars such as Pinker consider Malotki's study as a final refutation of Whorf's claim about Hopi, whereas relativist scholars such as John A Lucy and Penny Lee criticized Malotki's study for mischaracterizing Whorf's claims and for forcing Hopi grammar into a model of analysis that does not fit the data.
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 4/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Structure-centered approach ===
+Whorf's argument about Hopi speakers' conceptualization of time is an example of the structure-centered method of research into linguistic relativity, which Lucy identified as one of three main types of research of the topic. The "structure-centered" method starts with a language's structural peculiarity and examines its possible ramifications for thought and behavior. The defining example is Whorf's observation of discrepancies between the grammar of time expressions in Hopi and English. More recent research in this vein is Lucy's research describing how usage of the categories of grammatical number and of numeral classifiers in the Mayan language Yucatec result in Mayan speakers classifying objects according to material rather than to shape as preferred by English speakers. However, philosophers including Donald Davidson and Jason Josephson Storm have argued that Whorf's Hopi examples are self-refuting, as Whorf had to translate Hopi terms into English in order to explain how they are untranslatable.
+
+=== Whorf dies ===
+Whorf died in 1941 at age 44, leaving multiple unpublished papers. His ideas were continued by linguists and anthropologists such as Hoijer and Lee, who both continued investigating the effect of language on habitual thought, and Trager, who prepared a number of Whorf's papers for posthumous publishing. The most important event for the dissemination of Whorf's ideas to a larger public was the publication in 1956 of his major writings on the topic of linguistic relativity in a single volume titled Language, Thought and Reality.
+
+=== Brown and Lenneberg ===
+In 1953, Eric Lenneberg criticized Whorf's examples from an objectivist philosophy of language, claiming that languages are principally meant to represent events in the real world, and that even though languages express these ideas in various ways, the meanings of such expressions and therefore the thoughts of the speaker are equivalent. He argued that Whorf's English descriptions of a Hopi speaker's idea of time were in fact translations of the Hopi concept into English, therefore disproving linguistic relativity. However Whorf was concerned with how the habitual use of language influences habitual behavior, rather than translatability. Whorf's point was that while English speakers may be able to understand how a Hopi speaker thinks, they do not think in that way.
+Lenneberg's main criticism of Whorf's works was that he never showed the necessary association between a linguistic phenomenon and a mental phenomenon. With Brown, Lenneberg proposed that proving such an association required directly matching linguistic phenomena with behavior. They assessed linguistic relativity experimentally and published their findings in 1954. Since neither Sapir nor Whorf had ever stated a formal hypothesis, Brown and Lenneberg formulated their own. Their two tenets were (i) "the world is differently experienced and conceived in different linguistic communities" and (ii) "language causes a particular cognitive structure". Brown later developed them into the so-called "weak" and "strong" formulation:
+
+Structural differences between language systems will, in general, be paralleled by nonlinguistic cognitive differences, of an unspecified sort, in the native speakers of the language.
+The structure of anyone's native language strongly influences or fully determines the worldview he will acquire as he learns the language.
+
+Brown's formulations became known widely and were retrospectively attributed to Whorf and Sapir although the second formulation, verging on linguistic determinism, was never advanced by either of them.
+
+=== Joshua Fishman's "Whorfianism of the third kind" ===
+Joshua Fishman argued that Whorf's true assertion was largely overlooked. In 1978, he suggested that Whorf was a "neo-Herderian champion" and in 1982, he proposed "Whorfianism of the third kind" in an attempt to reemphasize what he claimed was Whorf's real interest, namely the intrinsic value of "little peoples" and "little languages". Whorf had criticized Ogden's Basic English thus:
+
+But to restrict thinking to the patterns merely of English [...] is to lose a power of thought which, once lost, can never be regained. It is the 'plainest' English which contains the greatest number of unconscious assumptions about nature. [...] We handle even our plain English with much greater effect if we direct it from the vantage point of a multilingual awareness.
+Where Brown's weak version of the linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that language influences thought and the strong version that language determines thought, Fishman's "Whorfianism of the third kind" proposes that language is a key to culture.
+
+=== Leiden school ===
+The Leiden school is a linguistic theory that models languages as parasites. A notable proponent, Frederik Kortlandt, in a 1985 paper outlining Leiden school theory, advocates a form of linguistic relativity: "The observation that in all Yuman languages the word for 'work' is a loan from Spanish should be a major blow to any current economic theory." In the next paragraph, he quotes directly from Sapir: "Even in the most primitive cultures the strategic word is likely to be more powerful than the direct blow."
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 5/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Rethinking Linguistic Relativity ===
+The publication of the 1996 anthology Rethinking Linguistic Relativity edited by Gumperz and Levinson began a new period of linguistic relativity studies that emphasized cognitive and social aspects. The book included studies on linguistic relativity and universalist traditions. Levinson documented significant linguistic relativity effects in the different linguistic conceptualization of spatial categories in different languages. For example, men speaking the Guugu Yimithirr language in Queensland gave accurate navigation instructions using a compass-like system of north, south, east and west, along with a hand gesture pointing to the starting direction.
+Lucy defines this method as "domain-centered" because researchers select a semantic domain and compare it across linguistic and cultural groups. Space is another semantic domain that has proven fruitful for linguistic relativity studies. Spatial categories vary greatly across languages. Speakers rely on the linguistic conceptualization of space in performing many ordinary tasks. Levinson and others reported three basic spatial categorizations. While many languages use combinations of them, some languages exhibit only one type and related behaviors. For example, Yimithirr only uses absolute directions when describing spatial relations—the position of everything is described by using the cardinal directions. Speakers define a location as "north of the house", while an English speaker may use relative positions, saying "in front of the house" or "to the left of the house".
+Separate studies by Bowerman and Slobin analyzed the role of language in cognitive processes. Bowerman showed that some basic cognitive functions, such as early spatial reasoning and object categorization in infants, develop largely independently of language. This suggests that not all aspects of cognition are shaped by linguistic structures, and therefore some cognitive processes may fall outside the scope of linguistic relativity. Slobin described another kind of cognitive process that he named "thinking for speaking"—- the kind of process in which perceptional data and other kinds of prelinguistic cognition are translated into linguistic terms for communication. These, Slobin argues, are the kinds of cognitive process that are the basis of linguistic relativity.
+
+== Colour terminology ==
+
+=== Brown and Lenneberg ===
+Since Brown and Lenneberg believed that the objective reality denoted by language was the same for speakers of all languages, they decided to test how different languages codified the same message differently and whether differences in codification could be proven to affect behavior. Brown and Lenneberg designed experiments involving the codification of colors. In their first experiment, they investigated whether it was easier for speakers of English to remember color shades for which they had a specific name than to remember colors that were not as easily definable by words. This allowed them to compare the linguistic categorization directly to a non-linguistic task. In a later experiment, speakers of two languages that categorize colors differently (English and Zuni) were asked to recognize colors. In this manner, it could be determined whether the differing color categories of the two speakers would determine their ability to recognize nuances within color categories. Brown and Lenneberg found that Zuni speakers who classify orange and yellow together as a single color did have trouble recognizing and remembering nuances within the orange/yellow category. This method, which Lucy later classified as domain-centered, is acknowledged to be sub-optimal, because color perception, unlike other semantic domains, is hardwired into the neural system and as such is subject to more universal restrictions than other semantic domains.
+
+=== Hugo Magnus ===
+In a similar study done by German ophthalmologist Hugo Magnus during the 1870s, he circulated a questionnaire to missionaries and traders with ten standardized color samples and instructions for using them. These instructions contained an explicit warning that failure of a language to distinguish lexically between two colors did not necessarily imply that speakers of that language did not distinguish the two colors perceptually. Magnus received completed questionnaires on twenty-five African, fifteen Asian, three Australian, and two European languages. He concluded in part, "As regards the range of the color sense of the primitive peoples tested with our questionnaire, it appears in general to remain within the same bounds as the color sense of the civilized nations. At least, we could not establish a complete lack of the perception of the so-called main colors as a special racial characteristic of any one of the tribes investigated for us. We consider red, yellow, green, and blue as the main representatives of the colors of long and short wavelength; among the tribes we tested not a one lacks the knowledge of any of these four colors" (Magnus 1880, p. 6, as trans. in Berlin and Kay 1969, p. 141). Magnus did find widespread lexical neutralization of green and blue, that is, a single word covering both these colors, as have all subsequent comparative studies of color lexicons.
+
+=== Response to Brown and Lenneberg's study ===
+Brown and Lenneberg's study began a tradition of investigation of linguistic relativity through color terminology. The studies showed a correlation between color term numbers and ease of recall in both Zuni and English speakers. Researchers attributed this to focal colors having greater codability than less focal colors, and not to linguistic relativity effects. Berlin/Kay found universal typological color principles that are determined by biological rather than linguistic factors. This study sparked studies into typological universals of color terminology. Researchers such as Lucy, Saunders and Levinson argued that Berlin and Kay's study does not refute linguistic relativity in color naming, because of unsupported assumptions in their study (such as whether all cultures in fact have a clearly defined category of "color") and because of related data problems. Researchers such as Maclaury continued investigation into color naming. Like Berlin and Kay, Maclaury concluded that the domain is governed mostly by physical-biological universals.
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 6/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Berlin and Kay ===
+Studies by Berlin and Kay continued Lenneberg's color research. They studied color terminology formation and showed clear universal trends in color naming. For example, they found that even though languages have different color terminologies, they generally recognize certain hues as more focal than others. They showed that in languages with few color terms, it is predictable from the number of terms which hues are chosen as focal colors: For example, languages with only three color terms always have the focal colors black, white, and red. The fact that what had been believed to be random differences between color naming in different languages could be shown to follow universal patterns was seen as a powerful argument against linguistic relativity. Berlin and Kay's research has since been criticized by relativists such as Lucy, who argued that Berlin and Kay's conclusions were skewed by their insistence that color terms encode only color information. This, Lucy argues, made them unaware of the instances in which color terms provided other information that might be considered examples of linguistic relativity.
+
+== Universalism ==
+Universalist scholars began a period of dissent from ideas about linguistic relativity. Lenneberg was one of the first cognitive scientists to begin development of the Universalist theory of language that was formulated by Chomsky as universal grammar, effectively arguing that all languages share the same underlying structure. The Chomskyan school also includes the belief that linguistic structures are largely innate and that what are perceived as differences between specific languages are surface phenomena that do not affect the brain's universal cognitive processes. This theory became the dominant paradigm of American linguistics from the 1960s through the 1980s, while linguistic relativity became the object of ridicule.
+
+=== Ekkehart Malotki ===
+Other universalist researchers dedicated themselves to dispelling other aspects of linguistic relativity, often attacking Whorf's specific examples. For example, Malotki's monumental study of time expressions in Hopi presented many examples that challenged Whorf's "timeless" interpretation of Hopi language and culture, but seemingly failed to address the linguistic relativist argument actually posed by Whorf (i.e. that the understanding of time by native Hopi speakers differed from that of speakers of European languages due to the differences in the organization and construction of their respective languages; Whorf never claimed that Hopi speakers lacked any concept of time). Malotki himself acknowledges that the conceptualizations are different, but because he ignores Whorf's use of quotes around the word "time" and the qualifier "what we call", takes Whorf to be arguing that the Hopi have no concept of time at all.
+
+=== Steven Pinker ===
+Currently many believers of the universalist school of thought still oppose linguistic relativity. For example, Pinker argues in The Language Instinct that thought is independent of language, that language is itself meaningless in any fundamental way to human thought, and that human beings do not even think in "natural" language, i.e. any language that we actually communicate in; rather, we think in a meta-language, preceding any natural language, termed "mentalese". Pinker attacks what he terms "Whorf's radical position", declaring, "the more you examine Whorf's arguments, the less sense they make".
+Pinker and other universalists have been accused by relativists of misrepresenting Whorf's ideas and committing the strawman fallacy.
+
+== Cognitive linguistics ==
+
+During the late 1980s and early 1990s, advances in cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics renewed interest in the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. One of those who adopted a more Whorfian philosophy was George Lakoff. He argued that language is often used metaphorically and that languages use different cultural metaphors that reveal something about how speakers of that language think. For example, English employs conceptual metaphors likening time to money, so that time can be saved and spent and invested, whereas other languages do not talk about time in that manner. Other such metaphors are common to many languages because they are based on general human experience, for example, metaphors associating up with good and bad with down. Lakoff also argued that metaphor plays an important part in political debates such as the "right to life" or the "right to choose"; or "illegal aliens" or "undocumented workers".
+An unpublished study by Boroditsky et al. in 2003 reported finding empirical evidence favoring the hypothesis and demonstrating that differences in languages' systems of grammatical gender can affect the way speakers of those languages think about objects. Speakers of Spanish and German (which have different gender systems) were asked to use adjectives to describe various objects designated by words that were either masculine or feminine in their respective languages. Speakers tended to describe objects in ways that were consistent with the gender of the noun in their language, indicating that the gender system of a language can influence speakers' perceptions of objects. Despite numerous citations, the experiment was criticised after the reported effects could not be replicated by independent trials. Additionally, a large-scale data analysis using word embeddings of language models found no correlation between adjectives and inanimate noun genders, while another study using large text corpora found a slight correlation between the gender of animate and inanimate nouns and their adjectives as well as verbs by measuring their mutual information.
+Colin Murray Turbayne also argued that the pervasive use of ancient "dead metaphors" by researchers within different linguistic traditions has contributed to needless confusion in the development of modern empirical theories over time. He points to several examples within the Romance and Germanic languages of the subtle manner in which mankind has become unknowingly victimized by such "unmasked metaphors". Cases include the incorporation of mechanistic metaphors first introduced by Rene Descartes and Isaac Newton during the 17th century into scientific theories which were subsequently developed by George Berkeley, David Hume and Immanuel Kant during the 18th century; and the influence exerted by Platonic metaphors in the dialogue  Timaeus upon the development of contemporary theories of language in modern times. 
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 7/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Parameters ===
+In his 1987 book Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, Lakoff reappraised linguistic relativity and especially Whorf's ideas about how linguistic categorization represents and/or influences mental categories. He concluded that the debate had been confused. He identified four parameters on which researchers differed in their opinions about what constitutes linguistic relativity:
+
+The degree and intensity of linguistic relativity. Perhaps a few examples of superficial differences in language and associated behavior are enough to demonstrate the existence of linguistic relativity. Alternatively, perhaps only great differences that permeate the linguistic and cultural system suffice.
+Whether conceptual systems are absolute or whether they can evolve.
+Whether the similarity criterion is translatability or the use of linguistic expressions.
+Whether the emphasis of linguistic relativity is language or the brain.
+Lakoff concluded that many of Whorf's critics had criticized him using novel definitions of linguistic relativity, rendering their criticisms moot.
+
+== Refinements ==
+Researchers such as Boroditsky, Choi, Majid, Lucy and Levinson believe that language influences thought in more limited ways than the broadest early claims. Researchers examine the interface between thought (or cognition), language and culture and describe the relevant influences. They use experimental data to back up their conclusions. Kay ultimately concluded that "[the] Whorf hypothesis is supported in the right visual field but not the left". His findings show that accounting for brain lateralization offers another perspective.
+
+=== Behavior-centered research ===
+Recent studies have also used a "behavior-based" method, which starts by comparing behavior across linguistic groups and then searches for causes for that behavior in the linguistic system. In an early example of this method, Whorf attributed the occurrence of fires at a chemical plant to the workers' use of the word 'empty' to describe barrels containing only explosive vapors.
+More recently, Bloom noticed that speakers of Chinese had unexpected difficulties answering counterfactual questions posed to them in a questionnaire. He concluded that this was related to the way in which counter-factuality is marked grammatically in Chinese. Other researchers attributed this result to Bloom's flawed translations. Strømnes examined why Finnish factories had a greater occurrence of work related accidents than similar Swedish ones. He concluded that cognitive differences between the grammatical usage of Swedish prepositions and Finnish cases could have caused Swedish factories to pay more attention to the work process while Finnish factory organizers paid more attention to the individual worker.
+
+==== Numbers and classifiers ====
+Everett's work on the Pirahã language of the Brazilian Amazon found several peculiarities that he interpreted as corresponding to linguistically rare features, such as a lack of numbers and color terms in the way those are otherwise defined and the absence of certain types of clauses. Everett's conclusions were met with skepticism from universalists who claimed that the linguistic deficit is explained by the lack of need for such concepts.
+Recent research with non-linguistic experiments in languages with different grammatical properties (e.g., languages with and without numeral classifiers or with different gender grammar systems) showed that language differences in human categorization are due to such differences. Experimental research suggests that this linguistic influence on thought diminishes over time, as when speakers of one language are exposed to another.
+
+==== Time perception ====
+Research on time-space congruency suggests that temporal perception is shaped by spatial metaphors embedded in language. Casasanto & Boroditsky (2008) found that people often use spatial metaphors to conceptualize time, linking longer distances with longer durations. Research has shown that linguistic differences can influence the perception of time. Swedish, like English, tends to describe time in terms of spatial distance (e.g., "a long meeting"), whereas Spanish often uses quantity-based metaphors (e.g., "a big meeting"). These linguistic patterns correlate with differences in how speakers estimate temporal durations: Swedish speakers are more influenced by spatial length, while Spanish speakers are more sensitive to volume.
+Expanding on this, research on time-space congruency suggests that temporal perception is shaped by spatial metaphors embedded in language. In many languages, time is conceptualized along a horizontal axis (e.g., "looking forward to the future" in English). However, Mandarin speakers also employ vertical metaphors for time, referring to earlier events as "up" and later events as "down". Experiments have shown that Mandarin speakers are quicker to recognize temporal sequences when they are presented vertically, whereas English speakers exhibit no such bias.
+
+==== Pronoun-dropping and intentionality ====
+Kashima & Kashima observed a correlation between the perceived individualism or collectivism in the social norms of a given country, with the tendency to neglect the use of pronouns in the country's language. They argued that explicit reference to "you" and "I" reinforces a distinction between the self and the other in the speaker.
+Research also suggests that this structural difference influences how speakers attribute intentionality in events. Fausey & Boroditsky (2010) conducted experiments comparing how English and Spanish speakers describe accidental versus intentional actions. Their results showed that English speakers, who are accustomed to using explicit pronouns, were more likely to specify the agent responsible for an accidental event (e.g., "John broke the vase"). In contrast, Spanish speakers, who frequently omit pronouns, were more likely to use agent-neutral descriptions for accidental events (e.g., "The vase broke").
+
+==== Future tense ====
+A 2013 study found that those who speak "futureless" languages with no grammatical marking of the future tense save more, retire with more wealth, smoke less, practice safer sex, and are less obese than those who do not. This effect has come to be termed the linguistic-savings hypothesis and has been replicated in several cross-cultural and cross-country studies. However, a study of Chinese, which can be spoken both with and without the grammatical future marking "will", found that subjects do not behave more impatiently when "will" is used repetitively. This laboratory-based finding of elective variation within a single language does not refute the linguistic savings hypothesis but some have suggested that it shows the effect may be due to culture or other non-linguistic factors.
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Psycholinguistic research ===
+Psycholinguistic studies explored motion perception, emotion perception, object representation and memory. The gold standard of psycholinguistic studies on linguistic relativity is now finding non-linguistic cognitive differences in speakers of different languages (thus rendering inapplicable Pinker's criticism that linguistic relativity is "circular").
+Recent work with bilingual speakers attempts to distinguish the effects of language from those of culture on bilingual cognition including perceptions of time, space, motion, colors, and emotion. Researchers described differences between bilinguals and monolinguals in perception of color, representations of time and other elements of cognition.
+
+== Other domains ==
+Linguistic relativity inspired others to consider whether thought and emotion could be influenced by manipulating language.
+
+=== Science and philosophy ===
+A major question is whether human psychological faculties are mostly innate or whether they are mostly a result of learning, and hence subject to cultural and social processes such as language. The innate opinion is that humans share the same set of basic faculties, variability due to cultural differences is less important, and the human mind is a mostly biological construction, so all humans who share the same neurological configuration can be expected to have similar cognitive patterns.
+Multiple alternatives have advocates. The contrary constructivist position holds that human faculties and concepts are largely influenced by socially constructed and learned categories, without many biological restrictions. Another variant is idealist, which holds that human mental capacities are generally unrestricted by biological-material structures. Another is the essentialist position, which holds that inherent biological or psychological differences between individuals or groups, such as genetic, neurological, or cognitive traits, may influence how they experience and conceptualize the world. Yet another is relativist (cultural relativism), which sees different cultural groups as employing different conceptual schemes that are not necessarily compatible or commensurable, nor more or less in accord with external reality.
+Another debate considers whether thought is a type of internal speech or is independent of and prior to language.
+In the philosophy of language, the question addresses the relations between language, knowledge and the external world, and the concept of truth. Philosophers such as Putnam, Fodor, Davidson, and Dennett see language as directly representing entities from the objective world, and categorization as reflecting that world. Other philosophers (e.g. Quine, Searle, and Foucault) argue that categorization and conceptualization is subjective and arbitrary. Another view, represented by Jason Storm, seeks a third way by emphasizing how language changes and imperfectly represents reality without being completely divorced from ontology.
+Another question is whether language is a tool for representing and referring to objects in the world, or whether it is a system used to construct mental representations that can be communicated.
+
+=== Therapy and self-development ===
+
+Sapir/Whorf contemporary Alfred Korzybski was independently developing his theory of general semantics, which was intended to use language's influence of thinking to maximize human cognitive abilities. Korzybski's thinking was influenced by logical philosophy such as Russell and Whitehead's Principia Mathematica and Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Although Korzybski was not aware of Sapir and Whorf's writings, the philosophy was adopted by Whorf-admirer Stuart Chase, who fused Whorf's interest in cultural-linguistic variation with Korzybski's programme in his popular work "The Tyranny of Words". S. I. Hayakawa was a follower and popularizer of Korzybski's work, writing Language in Thought and Action. The general semantics philosophy influenced the development of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), another therapeutic technique that seeks to use awareness of language use to influence cognitive patterns.
+Korzybski independently described a "strong" version of the hypothesis of linguistic relativity.
+
+We do not realize what tremendous power the structure of an habitual language has. It is not an exaggeration to say that it enslaves us through the mechanism of s[emantic] r[eactions] and that the structure which a language exhibits, and impresses upon us unconsciously, is automatically projected upon the world around us.
+
+=== Artificial languages ===
+
+In their fiction, authors such as Ayn Rand and George Orwell explored how linguistic relativity might be exploited for political purposes. In Rand's Anthem, a fictive communist society removed the possibility of individualism by removing the word "I" from the language. In Orwell's 1984 the authoritarian state created the language Newspeak to make it impossible for people to think critically about the government, or even to contemplate that they might be impoverished or oppressed, by reducing the number of words to reduce the thought of the locutor.
+Others have been fascinated by the possibilities of creating new languages that could enable new, and perhaps better, ways of thinking. Examples of such languages designed to explore the human mind include Loglan, explicitly designed by James Cooke Brown to test the linguistic relativity hypothesis, by exploring whether it would make its speakers think more logically. Suzette Haden Elgin, who was involved with the early development of neuro-linguistic programming, invented the language Láadan to explore linguistic relativity by making it easier to express what Elgin considered the female worldview, as opposed to Standard Average European languages, which she considered to convey a "male centered" worldview. John Quijada's language Ithkuil was designed to explore the limits of the number of cognitive categories a language can keep its speakers aware of at once. Similarly, Sonja Lang's Toki Pona was developed according to a Taoist philosophy for exploring how (or if) such a language would direct human thought.
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+title: "Linguistic relativity"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Programming languages ===
+APL programming language originator Kenneth E. Iverson believed that the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis applied to computer languages (without actually mentioning it by name). His Turing Award lecture, "Notation as a Tool of Thought", was devoted to this theme, arguing that more powerful notations aided thinking about computer algorithms.
+The essays of Paul Graham explore similar themes, such as a conceptual hierarchy of computer languages, with more expressive and succinct languages at the top. Thus, the so-called blub paradox (after a hypothetical programming language of average complexity called Blub) says that anyone preferentially using some particular programming language will know that it is more powerful than some, but not that it is less powerful than others. The reason is that writing in some language means thinking in that language. Hence the paradox, because typically programmers are "satisfied with whatever language they happen to use, because it dictates the way they think about programs".
+In a 2003 presentation at an open source convention, Yukihiro Matsumoto, creator of the programming language Ruby, said that one of his inspirations for developing the language was the science fiction novel Babel-17, based on the Whorf Hypothesis.
+
+=== Science fiction ===
+Numerous examples of linguistic relativity have appeared in science fiction.
+
+The totalitarian regime depicted in George Orwell's 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty Four in effect acts on the basis of the Whorf hypothesis, seeking to replace English with Newspeak, a language constructed specifically with the intention that thoughts subversive of the regime cannot be expressed in it, and therefore people educated to speak and think in it would not have such thoughts.
+In his 1958 science fiction novel The Languages of Pao the author Jack Vance describes how specialized languages are a major part of a strategy to create specific classes in a society, to enable the population to withstand occupation and develop itself.
+In Samuel R. Delany's 1966 science fiction novel Babel-17, the author describes an advanced, information-dense language that can be used as a weapon. Learning it turns one into an unwilling traitor as it alters perception and thought.
+Ted Chiang's 1998 short story "Story of Your Life" developed the concept of the Whorf hypothesis as applied to an alien species that visits Earth. The aliens' biology contributes to their spoken and written languages, which are distinct. In the 2016 American movie Arrival, based on Chiang's short story, the Whorf hypothesis is the premise. The protagonist explains that "the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is the theory that the language you speak determines how you think".
+Gene Wolfe's four volume science fiction novel The Book of the New Sun describes the North American "Ascian" people as speaking a language composed entirely of quotations that have been approved by a small ruling class.
+
+=== Sociolinguistics and linguistic relativity ===
+Sociolinguistics affects some variables within language, including the manner in which words are pronounced, word selection in certain dialogue, context, and tone. It's suggested that these effects may have implications for linguistic relativity.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Citations ==
+
+== Sources ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Alford, Dan Moonhawk, The Great Whorf Hypothesis Hoax, archived from the original on 5 September 2019, retrieved 22 May 2012
+Boroditsky, Lera, "How Does Our Language Shape The Way We Think?", Edge
+Boroditsky, Lera; Schmidt, Lauren; Phillips, Webb, "Sex, syntax, and semantics" (PDF), Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought, pp. 61–79
+Boroditsky, Lera; Segel, Edward (2011). "Grammar in Art". Frontiers in Psychology. 1: 244. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00244. PMC 3153848. PMID 21833297.
+Deutscher, Guy (26 August 2010), "Does Your Language Shape How You Think?", The New York Times Magazine
+Deutscher, Guy (2011), Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different in Other Languages, Arrow Books, ISBN 978-0-09-950557-0
+Everett, Dan (2005), "Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirahã: Another Look at the Design Features of Human Language" (PDF), Current Anthropology, 46 (4): 621, doi:10.1086/431525, hdl:2066/41103, S2CID 2223235, archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2012, retrieved 3 April 2008
+Kay, Paul; Kempton, Willet (1984), "What is the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis?", American Anthropologist, 86 (1): 65–79, doi:10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050, S2CID 15144601
+Kay, Paul; Chad K., McDaniel (1978), "The Linguistic Significance of Meanings of Basic Color Terms", Language, 54 (3): 610–646, doi:10.2307/412789, JSTOR 412789
+McWhorter, John H. (2016). The Language Hoax: Why the World Looks the Same in Any Language. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190468897.
+O'Neill, Sean (2008), Cultural Contact and Linguistic Relativity Among the Indians of Northwestern California, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3922-7
+Swoyer, Chris (2015), "The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive
+"Which comes first, language or thought?", Harvard Gazette, 22 July 2004
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_sampling_techniques-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_sampling_techniques-0.md
index 83a97fa05..1603930bf 100644
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_sampling_techniques-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_sampling_techniques-0.md
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_sampling_techniques"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:27:52.928318+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:21.407271+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlewood's_three_principles_of_real_analysis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlewood's_three_principles_of_real_analysis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..eda21a270
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlewood's_three_principles_of_real_analysis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Littlewood's three principles of real analysis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlewood's_three_principles_of_real_analysis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:04.321104+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Littlewood's three principles of real analysis are heuristics of J. E. Littlewood to help teach the essentials of measure theory in mathematical analysis.
+
+
+== The Principles ==
+Littlewood stated the principles in his 1944 Lectures on the Theory of Functions
+
+as:
+
+There are three principles, roughly expressible in the following terms: Every (measurable) set is nearly a finite sum of intervals; every function (of class Lp) is nearly continuous; every convergent sequence of functions is nearly uniformly convergent.
+The first principle is based on the fact that the inner measure and outer measure are equal for measurable sets, the second is based on Lusin's theorem, and the third is based on Egorov's theorem.
+
+
+== Example ==
+Littlewood's three principles are quoted in several real analysis texts, for example Royden,
+Bressoud,
+and Stein & Shakarchi.
+Royden gives the bounded convergence theorem as an application of the third principle. The theorem states that if a uniformly bounded sequence of functions converges pointwise, then their integrals on a set of finite measure converge to the integral of the limit function. If the convergence were uniform this would be a trivial result, and Littlewood's third principle tells us that the convergence is almost uniform, that is, uniform outside of a set of arbitrarily small measure. Because the sequence is bounded, the contribution to the integrals of the small set can be made arbitrarily small, and the integrals on the remainder converge because the functions are uniformly convergent there.
+
+
+== Notes ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_ticket_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_ticket_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..36cb6e7c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_ticket_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,217 @@
+---
+title: "Lottery ticket hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_ticket_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:00.797214+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In machine learning, the lottery ticket hypothesis is that artificial neural networks with random weights can contain a subnetwork which (entirely by chance) can be tuned to a similar performance as tuning the whole network.
+
+The original statement of the hypothesis is:A randomly-initialized, dense neural network contains a subnetwork that is initialized such that—when trained in isolation—it can match the test accuracy of the original network after training for at most the same number of iterations.The original algorithm is:
+Randomily initialize dense network: weights 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          θ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta _{0}}
+  
+.
+Train for 
+  
+    
+      
+        j
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle j}
+  
+ iterations → weights 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          θ
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta _{j}}
+  
+.
+Magnitude pruning: build a bitmask 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ by setting to 0 the lowest-magnitude weights in each layer (one-shot), or repeat train → prune across rounds to reach higher sparsity (iterative).
+Reset surviving weights to initialization: use 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        ⊙
+        
+          θ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m\odot \theta _{0}}
+  
+ as the starting point. Here 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⊙
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \odot }
+  
+ is elementwise multiplication.
+Train the masked network 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            x
+            ;
+            m
+            ⊙
+            
+              θ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f\!\left(x;m\odot \theta _{0}\right)}
+  
+ with the same optimizer, schedule, and data.
+Declare "winning ticket" if it achieves comparable test accuracy in 
+  
+    
+      
+        ≤
+        j
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \leq j}
+  
+ iterations.
+The term derived from considering the probability of a tunable subnetwork as the equivalent to a winning lottery ticket; the chance of any given ticket winning is tiny, but if you buy enough of them you are certain to win, and the number of possible subnetworks increases exponentially as the power set of the set of connections, making the number of possible subnetworks astronomical for any reasonably large network.
+Such networks are a priori difficult to find, since before training, one does not know which of the exponentially many subnetwork would be "lottery tickets". However, after training, these lottery tickets can be discovered by the pruning algorithm. 
+It was found that during the original training of the initial dense network, the weights that would end up in the winning ticket  change a lot, but the other weights change little.  
+It was found that if instead of 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        ⊙
+        
+          θ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m\odot \theta _{0}}
+  
+, they re-sampled a different random initialization 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          θ
+          
+            0
+          
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta _{0}'}
+  
+, and used 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        ⊙
+        
+          θ
+          
+            0
+          
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m\odot \theta _{0}'}
+  
+ instead, the trained 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            x
+            ;
+            m
+            ⊙
+            
+              θ
+              
+                0
+              
+              ′
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f\!\left(x;m\odot \theta _{0}'\right)}
+  
+ would perform much worse. This indicates that what makes a ticket winning is both its connection graph and the precise initial weights of the connections. 
+
+
+== Subsequent work ==
+Malach et al. proved a stronger version of the hypothesis, namely that a sufficiently overparameterized untuned network will typically contain a subnetwork that is already an approximation to the given goal, even before tuning. A similar result has been proven for the special case of convolutional neural networks.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Grokking (machine learning)
+Pruning (artificial neural network)
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-ratio-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-ratio-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..42803c325
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-ratio-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,170 @@
+---
+title: "M-ratio"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-ratio"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:05.470846+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In no-limit or pot-limit poker, a player's M-ratio (also called "M number", "M factor" or just "M") is a measure of the health of a player's chip stack as a function of the cost to play each round. In simple terms, a player can sit passively in the game, making only compulsory bets, for M laps of the dealer button before running out of chips. A high M means the player can afford to wait a high number of rounds before making a move. The concept applies primarily in tournament poker; in a cash game, a player can in principle manipulate their M at will, simply by purchasing more chips.
+A player with a low M must act soon or be weakened by the inability to force other players to fold with aggressive raises.
+The term was named after Paul Magriel.
+
+
+== Calculation ==
+The M-ratio is calculated by the formula: 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              stack
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  small blind
+                
+              
+              +
+              
+                
+                  big blind
+                
+              
+              +
+              
+                
+                  total antes
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M={\frac {\mbox{stack}}{{\mbox{small blind}}+{\mbox{big blind}}+{\mbox{total antes}}}}}
+  
+
+For example, a player in an eight-player game with blinds of $50/$100, an ante of $10, and a stack of $2,300 has an M-ratio of 10:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        =
+        
+          
+            2300
+            
+              50
+              +
+              100
+              +
+              (
+              10
+              ×
+              8
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            2300
+            230
+          
+        
+        =
+        10
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M={\frac {2300}{50+100+(10\times 8)}}={\frac {2300}{230}}=10}
+  
+
+That is, if the player only makes the compulsory bets, they will be "blinded out" of the game in 10 rounds, or 80 hands.
+Dan Harrington studied the concept in great detail in Harrington on Holdem: Volume II The Endgame, defining several "zones" in which the M-ratio may fall:
+
+
+== Effective M ==
+Harrington further develops the concept to account for shortening tables, as is seen at the closing stages of multi-table tournaments. The M-ratio is simply multiplied by the percentage of players remaining at the table, assuming a ten-player table to be "full".
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+          
+            
+              Effective
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        M
+        ×
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                Players
+              
+              10
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M_{\mbox{Effective}}=M\times \left({\frac {\mbox{Players}}{10}}\right)}
+  
+
+Therefore, for a player with a "simple M ratio" of 9 at a five player table, the effective M is 4.5:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+          
+            
+              Effective
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        9
+        ×
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              5
+              10
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        4.5
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M_{\mbox{Effective}}=9\times \left({\frac {5}{10}}\right)=4.5}
+  
+
+This means that although the player's simple M value places him in the orange zone, their effective M dictates a shift in playing style appropriate for the red zone. In essence, ten times the effective M denotes the expected number of hands a player can let pass before running out of chips.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Q-ratio (poker)
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..060226d04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+---
+title: "Marcan priority"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marcan priority (or Markan priority) is the hypothesis that the Gospel of Mark was the first of the three synoptic gospels to be written, and was used as a source by the other two (Matthew and Luke). It is a central element in discussion of the synoptic problem—the question of the documentary relationship among these three gospels.
+Most scholars since the late 19th century have accepted the concept of Marcan priority, although a number of scholars support different forms of Marcan priority or reject it altogether.  It forms the foundation for the widely accepted two-source theory.
+
+== History ==
+
+The tradition handed down by the Church Fathers regarded Matthew as the first Gospel written in Hebrew, which was later used as a source by Mark and Luke. It is seen as early as in Irenaeus's book Against Heresies. Augustine of Hippo wrote in the 5th century: "Now, those four evangelists whose names have gained the most remarkable circulation over the whole world, and whose number has been fixed as four, ...are believed to have written in the order which follows: first Matthew, then Mark, thirdly Luke, lastly John." And: "Of these four, it is true, only Matthew is reckoned to have written in the Hebrew language; the others in Greek. And however they may appear to have kept each of them a certain order of narration proper to himself, this certainly is not to be taken as if each individual writer chose to write in ignorance of what his predecessor had done...".
+This view of Gospel origins, however, began to be challenged in the late 18th century, when Gottlob Christian Storr proposed in 1786 that Mark was the first to be written.
+Storr's idea met with little acceptance at first, with most scholars favoring either Matthaean priority, under the traditional Augustinian hypothesis or the Griesbach hypothesis, or a fragmentary theory (according to which, stories about Jesus were recorded in several smaller documents and notebooks and combined by the evangelists to create the Synoptic Gospels). Working within the fragmentary theory, Karl Lachmann in 1835 compared the Synoptic Gospels in pairs and noted that, while Matthew frequently agreed with Mark against Luke in the order of passages and Luke agreed frequently with Mark against Matthew, Matthew and Luke rarely agreed with each other against Mark. Lachmann inferred from this that Mark best preserved a relatively fixed order of episodes in Jesus's ministry.
+In 1838, two theologians, Christian Gottlob Wilke and Christian Hermann Weisse, independently extended Lachmann's reasoning to conclude that Mark not only best represented Matthew and Luke's source but also that Mark was Matthew and Luke's source. Their ideas were not immediately accepted, but Heinrich Julius Holtzmann's endorsement in 1863 of a qualified form of Marcan priority won general favor.
+There was much debate at the time over whether Matthew and Luke used Mark itself or some Proto-Mark (Ur-Mark). In 1899 J. C. Hawkins took up the question with a careful statistical analysis and argued for Marcan priority without Proto-Mark, and other British scholars soon followed to strengthen the argument, which then received wide acceptance.
+Most scholars in the 20th century regarded Marcan priority as no longer a hypothesis but an established fact. Still, fresh challenges from B. C. Butler and William R. Farmer proved influential in reviving the rival hypothesis of Matthaean priority, and recent decades have seen scholars less certain about Marcan priority and more eager to explore all the alternatives.
+
+== Dependent hypotheses ==
+
+If Marcan priority is accepted, the next logical question is how to explain the extensive material, some 200 verses, shared between Matthew and Luke but not found at all in Mark—the double tradition. Furthermore, there are hundreds of instances where Matthew and Luke parallel Mark's account but agree against Mark in minor differences—the minor agreements. Different answers to this question give rise to different synoptic hypotheses.
+
+The most widely accepted hypothesis is the two-source hypothesis, that Matthew and Luke each independently drew from both Mark and another hypothetical source, which scholars have termed the Q source. This Q, then, was the origin of the double-tradition material, and many of the minor agreements are instances where both Matthew and Luke followed Q's version of a passage rather than Mark's.
+The foremost alternative hypothesis under Marcan priority is the Farrer hypothesis, which postulates that Mark was written first, then Matthew expanded on the text of Mark, and Luke used both Mark and Matthew as source documents (Mark → Matthew → Luke). The double tradition is then simply portions of Matthew that Luke chose to repeat, so there is no need for Q.
+A hybrid of these two hypotheses is the three-source hypothesis, which posits three sources for Luke: Mark, Q, and Matthew.
+The Matthean Posteriority hypothesis is similar to the Farrer hypothesis but has Matthew using Luke as a source (Mark → Luke → Matthew), rather than vice versa. This hypothesis has found a resurgence of support during the 2010s and has entered the mainstream of scholarship.
+A final hypothesis holds that Matthew and Luke have no literary relationship beyond their dependence on Mark, but rather each supplemented the triple tradition with oral sources. Where these oral sources overlapped with each other, the double tradition arose, and where they overlapped also with Mark, minor agreements arose. This hypothesis, with few supporters, is usually viewed as a variation on the two-source hypothesis, where Q is not a document but a body of oral material, and thus called the oral Q hypothesis.
+
+== Alternatives ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..76ac0ef17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Marcan priority"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marcan posteriority states that Mark's correspondence with other synoptics was due to Mark taking from them.  The view of the Church Fathers such as Augustine was that the order in the New Testament was also the order of publication and inspiration – Matthew, then Mark, then Luke, then John.  This is usually called the Augustinian hypothesis.  A modern tweak of this view that maintains Matthaean priority is the two-gospel (Griesbach) hypothesis which holds that Mark used both Matthew and Luke as a source (thus, in order, Matthew—Luke—Mark).  This view envisions a Mark who mostly collected the common material shared between Matthew and Luke.
+Lucan priority has been revived in recent decades in the complex form of the Jerusalem school hypothesis, which also places Mark in the middle. Here, Mark uses Luke, then Matthew uses Mark but not Luke, while all three Synoptics draw from a hypothetical Greek translation of an earlier Hebrew work.
+Some theories deny literary priority to any one of the Synoptic Gospels, asserting that, whatever their chronological order of composition, none of them draws from any of the others. The multi-source hypothesis has each synoptic gospel combining a distinct mix of earlier documents, while the independence hypothesis denies any documentary relationship and regards each gospel as an original composition utilizing oral sources only.
+Some variations on Marcan priority propose an additional revision of Mark—a Proto-Mark (Ur-Mark) if earlier than the canonical Gospel, or a Deutero-Mark if later—serving as a source for Matthew and/or Luke.
+
+== Evidence ==
+Arguments for Marcan priority are usually made in contrast to its main rival, Matthaean priority, bringing into focus the question of whether Matthew was a source for Mark or vice versa. The evidence supporting Marcan priority is entirely internal.
+Many lines of evidence point to Mark having some sort of special place in the relationship among the Synoptics, as the "middle term" between Matthew and Luke. But this could mean that Mark is the common source of the other two (priority), or that it derives from both (posteriority), or even that it is an intermediary in transmission from one to the other—in other words, many such arguments can support both Marcan priority and its rivals. Famously, the so-called "Lachmann fallacy", concerning the order of pericopae in Mark, was once used to argue for Marcan priority but is now seen as a largely neutral observation.
+Modern arguments for or against Marcan priority tend to center on redactional plausibility, asking, for example, whether it is more reasonable that Matthew and Luke could have written as they did with Mark in hand, or that Mark could have written as he did with Matthew and Luke in hand, and whether any coherent rationale can be discerned underlying the redactional activity of the later evangelists.
+Where matters of detailed wording are concerned, there is some uncertainty in the Gospel texts themselves, as textual criticism of the gospels is still an active field, which cannot even decide, for example, on Mark's original ending. Such issues often intersect with the synoptic problem; for example, B. H. Streeter famously dismissed many of the "minor agreements" so troublesome for the two-source theory by appealing to textual corruption driven typically by harmonization.
+
+=== Marcan style ===
+Mark's style of Greek is unique among the Gospels. Some scholars have argued that Mark's style is unsophisticated and unrefined or awkward. But others find Mark's Greek very dense and detailed. Mark is full of Latinisms, in idioms and vocabulary. Mark tends to conjoin verbs and sentences with καὶ (kai, "and"); in fact, more than half the verses in Mark begin with καὶ. Mark is also notably fond of εὐθὺς (euthùs, "immediately") and πάλιν (pálin, "again"), frequently uses dual expressions, and often prefers the historical present. In essence, then, Mark's style is not so much literary as thoroughly colloquial.
+The parallel passages in Matthew and especially in Luke tend to be in a more polished and eloquent style of literary Greek. Where Mark uses an unusual word or expression, Matthew and Luke often substitute something more natural. Though they often add material of substance, they tend to trim down Mark's redundancies and verbosity and express his meaning more concisely.
+Supporters of Marcan priority see this as Matthew and Luke improving the style of the material they incorporate from Mark. Supporters of Marcan posteriority, however, see Mark as recasting material from Matthew and Luke in his own peculiar style, less like lofty literature and more in a vivid, fast-moving style befitting oral preaching.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-2.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..6a85f1ff6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Marcan priority"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Content not present in Mark ===
+Mark's gospel is by far the shortest, just over half the length of Luke, and omits much found in Matthew and Luke. In fact, while the majority of Mark is included in the other two Synoptics, the additional material shared between Matthew and Luke only is quite extensive.
+While Marcan priority easily sees Matthew and Luke building upon Mark by adding new material, Marcan posteriority must explain some surprising omissions. Mark has no infancy narrative nor any version of the Lord's Prayer, for example.
+Nor does Mark have more than a handful of unique pericopes. This is expected under Marcan priority, where Matthew has reused nearly everything he found in Mark, but if Mark was written last, it is harder to explain why so little new material was added.
+However, Mark's selection of material must be explained in either case, unless it is to be believed that the author of Mark knew nothing more about Jesus than what was written in Mark. Bauckham argues that Mark's content is limited to what Peter himself had witnessed, or at least learned from trusted associates. Powers argues that Mark's purpose is fundamentally kerygmatic, needing to hold the attention of outsiders hearing the Gospel preached for the first time, and so focuses on who Jesus was and what he did, eschewing the sort of lengthy teachings that dominate the double tradition and most of Special Matthew. So, with Mark's selection process better understood, these omissions per se are no longer viewed as such compelling evidence for Marcan priority.
+
+=== Content found only in Mark ===
+There are very few passages in Mark with no parallel in either Matthew or Luke, which makes them all the more significant:
+
+The parable of the growing seed
+The healing of the deaf mute of Decapolis
+The healing of the blind man of Bethsaida
+The naked fugitive
+If Mark is drawn from Matthew and Luke, it is hard to see why so little material would be added, if anything were going to added at all, and the choice of additions is also rather strange. On the other hand, if Mark was written first, it is easier to see why Matthew and Luke would omit these passages. These two healings are the only ones in the Synoptics involving the use of saliva (but cf. the healing of the man born blind in John 9), and the naked runaway is an obscure incident with no obvious meaning or purpose.
+This does not tell the whole story, for altogether Mark has (depending on the method of counting) about 155 verses included in neither Matthew nor Luke—nearly a quarter of the entire Gospel of Mark. Most of these are details omitted in the parallel passages, rather than distinct pericopes. In fact, apart from sayings material, nearly every pericope in Mark is longer than its parallels in Matthew and Luke. An illustrative example is the calming of the storm:
+
+Mark's unique details tend to be, by necessity, non-essential ones. Marcan priority sees Matthew and Luke trimming away trivial narrative details in favor of the extensive material they wished to add elsewhere. But under Marcan posteriority, these details must have been added to Mark to make the stories more vivid and clear. In either case, Mark must have had an independent source (traditionally, Peter) spanning nearly the entire Gospel; but if so, Marcan posteriority requires a complex and skillful weaving together of this source with both Matthew and Luke, even within individual sentences, which would have been a challenging task.
+
+=== Hard readings ===
+Often the differences in Mark from the parallels in Matthew and Luke are "hard readings" (Lectio Difficilior), which seem to portray Jesus or the apostles in a negative light or in ways that a later redactor would likely find uncongenial. Marcan priority argues that these hard readings were more likely original to Mark and then smoothed out or omitted when Matthew and Luke encountered them, rather than added by Mark to accounts lacking them.
+Notable hard readings unique to Mark include:
+
+"He was not able to do a miracle there, except to lay his hands on a few sick people and heal them. And he was amazed because of their unbelief." (Mk 6:5–6), vs. "He did not do many miracles there because of their unbelief." (Mt 13:58).
+Jesus "healed many who were sick" (Mk 1:34), vs. "all who were sick" (Mt 8:16; Lk 4:40).
+"When his family heard this they went out to restrain him, for they said, 'He is out of his mind.'" (Mk 3:21 uniquely).
+In the storm at sea, the disciples ask, "Don't you care that we are about to die?" (Mk 4:38), vs. "We are about to die!" (Mt 8:25; Lk 8:24). Jesus replies, "Do you still have no faith?" (Mk 4:40), vs. "ye of little faith" (Mt 8:26) or "Where is your faith?" (Lk 8:25).
+The disciples' "hearts were hardened" (Mk 6:52, 8:17–18 uniquely).
+James and John ask to sit beside Jesus in his kingdom (Mk 10:35), vs. their mother making the request (Mt 20:20).
+A hungry Jesus curses a fig tree for lacking fruit (Mark 11:12–14). One scholar notes this not only appears self-serving, but also irrational, as Mark adds that "it was not the season for figs." In contrast, Matthew 21:18–22 interprets the incident as a miracle that shows the power of faith.
+Marcan posteriority faces the harder task of accounting for these as Marcan changes, but does so by appealing to Mark's fondness for vivid detail and for starkly contrasting Jesus' teachings with the attitudes of those around him.
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+---
+title: "Marcan priority"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Order ===
+Comparing the sequential order of parallel pericopes among the three Synoptics, the arrangement often varies, but some general patterns emerge. Mark nearly always follows Matthew and Luke where they agree in order and one or the other when they disagree. On the other hand, the double tradition pericopae shared between Matthew and Luke show little agreement in order.
+Such observations have been studied in detail for centuries, but the difficulty has been in how to interpret them. Marcan priority views this order as support for Matthew and Luke each building upon Mark; Marcan posteriority, however, sees this order as proof that Mark drew alternately from Matthew and Luke. Even the Augustinian hypothesis can see Mark adapting Matthew's order, then Luke adapting Mark's order.
+
+=== Dualisms ===
+Mark displays a special fondness for "dualisms" of various kinds, one of which is repeating essentially the same thing in two adjacent phrases. In a majority of cases, the parallel passages in Matthew and Luke, if any, echo only one of the two, and it often happens that Matthew chooses one and Luke chooses the other. Some prominent examples:
+
+"When it was evening, after sunset" vs "When it was evening" + "As the sun was setting"
+"the leprosy left him and he was cleansed" vs "the leprosy left him" + "his leprosy was cleansed"
+"the word that was sown in them" vs "the word from their hearts" + "what was sown in his heart"
+"They came to Jericho. As Jesus and his disciples and a large crowd were leaving Jericho" vs "As Jesus approached Jericho" + "As they were leaving Jericho, a large crowd followed them"
+"immediately as you enter it" vs "immediately" + "as you enter it"
+"were seeking how to seize him by stealth and kill him" vs "were seeking how they might put him to death" + "conspired to seize Jesus by stealth and kill him"
+"Now on the first day of the feast of Unleavened Bread, when the Passover lamb is sacrificed" vs "Now on the first day of the feast of Unleavened Bread" + "Then came the day for the feast of Unleavened Bread, on which the Passover lamb had to be sacrificed"
+"today, on this night" vs "today" + "this very night"
+"Now when evening had already come, since it was the day of preparation" (that is, the day before the Sabbath) vs "Now when it was evening" + "It was the day of preparation and the Sabbath was beginning"
+Supporters of Marcan posteriority advance these as clear cases of Mark conflating the parallel accounts from Matthew and Luke. Supporters of Marcan priority, on the other hand, point to a larger number of instances where both Matthew and Luke have chosen the same half of a Marcan dualism and argue that, when each gospel trimmed down these redundant expressions, sometimes by chance Matthew and Luke made opposite choices.
+Riley observes when Matthew has one or both halves of a Marcan dualism, it usually occurs where Matthew and Mark are following the same sequence; when Luke has one or both halves of a Marcan dualism, it always occurs where Luke and Mark are following the same sequence. This is expected under Marcan posteriority, assuming the Marcan account can more easily refer to Matthew from memory, but more difficult to explain under Marcan priority.
+
+=== Editorial fatigue ===
+Goodacre lists a number of occasions where it appears that Matthew or Luke begin by altering Mark, but become fatigued and lapse into copying Mark directly, even when doing so is inconsistent with the changes they have already made. Alan Kirk, on the other hand, questions the idea that Matthew and Luke had a deficient concentration. Rather than redacting visually the evangelists used their memories to copy passages from Mark. Kirk argues that such skillful writers should not be accused of carelessness, and the instances of fatigue can be explained as a living reactualization of their sources.
+For example, Matthew is more precise than Mark in the titles he gives to rulers, and initially gives Herod Antipas the correct title of "tetrarch", yet he lapses into calling him "king" at a later verse, apparently because he was copying Mark at that point.
+Another example is Luke's version of the Parable of the Sower, regarding the seed sown on rocky ground, where Luke omits several elements of the parable, but then follows Mark in the parable's interpretation.  Luke says merely that the seed withered for lack of moisture and does not mention the seed springing up quickly, nor the lack of roots, nor being scorched by the sun; yet these omissions remain in the interpretation as, respectively, receiving the word with joy, having no firm root, and the time of temptation.
+This phenomenon, along with the lack of counterexamples of fatigue occurring in the opposite direction, supports Marcan priority.
+
+=== Naming of eyewitnesses ===
+Where Mark mentions someone by name, someone not well-known originally who could have been left anonymous, Bauckham argues that it is because his audience at the time could refer to them as living eyewitnesses. Several persons are named only in Mark:
+
+Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46; Mt 20:30; Lk 18:35)
+Alexander and Rufus (Mk 15:21; Mt 27:32; Lk 23:26)
+Salome (Mk 15:40, 16:1; Mt 27:55–56, 28:1; Lk 23:49, 24:10)
+The reverse situation of Matthew or Luke naming those unnamed in Mark never occurs. If, as Bauckham reasons, the reason for the omission of these names in Matthew and Luke is that these persons have since died, this phenomenon lends support to Mark being composed earliest.
+
+=== External evidence ===
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+---
+title: "Marcan priority"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The early patristic evidence records a few traditions on the origins of the Synoptic Gospels. It never indicates that one gospel used another as a source and shows little concern even for their chronological order; the focus was rather on who composed them and on their apostolic authority. What evidence there is as to the order of composition or publication is seen as virtually unanimous agreement on placing Matthew first.
+The earliest relevant source is Papias (c. 105), whose surviving fragments report two notable facts, echoed by most later sources. The evangelist Mark, he says, was Peter's interpreter and compiled his Gospel from the preaching of Peter in Rome, which Peter then sanctioned for use in the churches. Matthew the Apostle, on the other hand, wrote his account himself in the "Hebrew dialect".
+This account of the origin of Mark is seen as likely genuine by many scholars, though hardly all. If so, Mark's source is not the other two Synoptics but Peter—unless Peter himself drew from them, as some propose.
+The curious statement that Matthew's logia (as Papias calls it) was written in the "Hebrew dialect"—the ordinary way of referring to either the Hebrew or the Aramaic language—has been much discussed. The difficulty is that canonical Matthew is in Greek and does not appear to be a translation, nor is any such original Hebrew version known. Some scholars have argued that Papias simply meant "a Semitic style" in Greek. Other synoptic theorists have speculated on some role of this logia as a source for the canonical Gospels; the hypothesis, for example, that canonical Matthew was a recension of the logia making use also of Mark's Gospel was the original foundation for the two-source theory.
+Ephrem the Syrian (c. 350) is more explicit about the Gospels' languages: "Matthew the Hebrew wrote this, and behold it was turned into Greek. [...] Matthew wrote the Gospel in Hebrew, Mark in Latin from Simon in the city of Rome, Luke in Greek," and this is echoed in many later sources such as Gregory of Nazianzus. Mark writing in Latin may have arisen merely by inference, but it is true that canonical Mark exhibits numerous Latinisms, and some have argued that indeed canonical Mark was translated from a Latin original. Most scholars, however, reject this view and consider the Greek original.
+
+Irenaeus (c. 185), who knew the work of Papias, gives the first extant account of the origins of Luke (to which later sources add little) and of all four Gospels together: So Matthew, among the Hebrews in their own dialect, brought forth a writing of the Gospel, while Peter and Paul in Rome were evangelizing and founding the church. But after their departure Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, himself handed what was preached by Peter down to us in writing. And Luke, the follower of Paul, set forth in a book the Gospel that was preached by him. Then John, the disciple of the Lord and also the one who leaned against his chest, also published the Gospel when residing in Ephesus of Asia.
+It is doubtful whether Irenaeus intends a chronological order in this passage; "while" need not be understood temporally, and "after their departure" need not indicate the time of composition, but simply that the apostles' testimony survived in writing even after they themselves were gone. Elsewhere Irenaeus often prefers the order Matthew—Luke—Mark—John when addressing the Gospels together, and this order thereafter recurs commonly in a wide variety of ancient sources. In fact, early Bibles and canons arranged the four Gospels in many different sequences, though most placed Matthew first among the Synoptics.
+From Clement (c. 195), who probably also knew the work of Papias, comes a unique and much-discussed statement that the gospels with genealogies (i.e., Matthew and Luke) were "written before" (progegraphthai), in contrast to Mark. Farmer touted this as support for Marcan posteriority, but Carlson argued that the word was better interpreted as "openly published", in contrast to Mark's initially private circulation.
+Origen (c. 250), a pupil of Clement who also knew the work of Irenaeus well, enumerates the Gospels as follows: "As learned by tradition… the first written was Matthew… the second, Mark… the third, Luke… after all of them, John." Most readers then and now have seen this as a clear statement of chronology, though some have doubted that was Origen's intent. In any case, this canonical order was increasingly well established by this time, and subsequent sources accepted this temporal sequence.
+Augustine (c. 400) recites this traditional chronological order and adds his own influential inferences. Denying that each evangelist wrote in ignorance of his predecessors, he describes Mark as "seemingly an attendant and epitomizer" of Matthew. Later in the same work, Augustine revises his opinion and sees Mark as following not only Matthew but also Luke; Mark "walks with both". This is sometimes seen as the first suggestion that one Gospel used another as a source, but it is not at all clear whether Augustine had literary dependence in mind.
+In summary, the external evidence stands against Matthew using Mark, inasmuch as Matthew was written first, and against Mark directly using Matthew, unless perhaps either of these canonical Gospels is a translation into Greek influenced by the other. The patristic consensus, rather, was literary independence. However, the value of this external evidence is uncertain; most synoptic scholars regard it as being of little help and focus almost entirely on the internal evidence instead.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+Bauckham, Richard (2006). Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 0802831621.
+Goodacre, Mark (2001). The Synoptic Problem: A Way Through the Maze. A&C Black. ISBN 0567080560.
+Powers, B. Ward (2010). The Progressive Publication of Matthew: An Explanation of the Writing of the Synoptic Gospels. B&H Publishing. ISBN 978-0805448481.
+Thomas, Robert L.; Farnell, F. David (1998). "The Synoptic Gospels in the Ancient Church". In Thomas, Robert L.; Farnell, F. David (eds.). The Jesus Crisis: The Inroads of Historical Criticism Into Evangelical Scholarship. Kregel Publications. pp. 39–46. ISBN 082543811X.
+Tuckett, Christopher M. (2008). The current state of the Synoptic Problem (PDF). Oxford Conference on the Synoptic Problem. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 29, 2008. Republished in Foster, Paul; et al., eds. (2011). New Studies in the Synoptic Problem: Oxford Conference, April 2008. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium. Vol. 239. pp. 9–50. ISBN 978-9042924017.
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+---
+title: "Matthean Posteriority hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthean_Posteriority_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:03.216755+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Matthean Posteriority hypothesis, also known as the Wilke hypothesis after Christian Gottlob Wilke, is a proposed solution to the synoptic problem, holding that the Gospel of Mark was used as a source by the Gospel of Luke, then both of these were used as sources by the Gospel of Matthew. Thus, it posits Marcan priority and Matthaean posteriority.
+Wilke's hypothesis received little attention until recent decades, but a resurgence of support for Matthean Posteriority has been one of the defining trends of Synoptic studies during the 2010s, and the theory has entered the mainstream of scholarship.
+
+
+== History ==
+Gottlob Christian Storr, in his 1786 argument for Marcan priority, asked, if Mark was a source for Matthew and Luke, how the latter two were then related. Storr proposed, among other possibilities, that the canonical Matthew (written in Greek) was translated from the original, which was written in either Hebrew or Aramaic (the logia spoken of by Papias) by following Mark primarily but also drawing from Luke, although he later went on to oppose this.
+These ideas were little noticed until 1838, when Christian Gottlob Wilke revived the hypothesis of Marcan priority and extensively developed the argument for Matthaean posteriority. Wilke's contemporary Christian Hermann Weisse at the same time independently argued for Marcan priority but for Matthew and Luke independently using Mark and another source Q—the two-source hypothesis. A few other German scholars supported Wilke's hypothesis in the nineteenth century, but in time most came to accept the two-source hypothesis, which remains the dominant theory to this day. Wilke's hypothesis was accepted by Karl Kautsky in his Foundations of Christianity.
+Wilke's hypothesis received little further attention until recent decades, when it was revived in 1992 by Huggins, then Hengel, then independently by Blair. The resurgence of support for Matthean Posteriority is represented by the works of Alan Garrow, Evan Powell, and most importantly Robert MacEwen. The rise of the Matthaean posteriority hypothesis has been one of the defining trends of Synoptic studies during the 2010s, and the theory has entered the mainstream of scholarship.
+
+
+== Evidence ==
+Most arguments for the Wilke hypothesis follow those of the Farrer hypothesis in accepting Marcan priority but rejecting Q. The difference, then, is in the direction of dependence between Matthew and Luke.
+Arguments advanced in favor of Matthaean posteriority include:
+
+Matthew's version of the double tradition appears more developed in wording and structure than Luke's, which appears more primitive. (The same observation is made by supporters of the two-source hypothesis, who regard Luke adhering better to the original Q.)
+Matthew contains passages that are conflations of elements drawn from Mark and Luke (e.g. Matt 9:14-17, 9:35-10,12:22-30, 12:31-32, 19:23-30, 24:23-28). This phenomenon is unique to Matthew, for there is no similar array of passages in Luke that are composed of elements drawn from Mark and Matthew.
+Matthew seems to have deliberately rearranged his sources to collecting teachings into five large blocks (e.g., the Sermon on the Mount), which makes better sense than Luke rearranging Matthew into scattered fragments.
+In the double tradition, Matthew's language often retains characteristically Lucan features.
+The frequent occurrence of doublets in Matthew may indicate drawing from similar accounts in two different sources.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Two-source hypothesis
+Farrer hypothesis
+Three-source hypothesis
+Four-document hypothesis
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Synoptic Problem and the Non-existence of Q, by Evan Powell
+Matthew Conflator Hypothesis, by Alan Garrow
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+---
+title: "Maximization (psychology)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximization_(psychology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:06.650578+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Maximization is a style of decision-making characterized by seeking the best option through an exhaustive search through alternatives. It is contrasted with satisficing, in which individuals evaluate options until they find one that is "good enough".
+
+
+== Definition ==
+The distinction between "maximizing" and "satisficing" was first made by Herbert A. Simon in 1956. Simon noted that although fields like economics posited maximization or "optimizing" as the rational method of making decisions, humans often lack the cognitive resources or the environmental affordances to maximize. Simon instead formulated an approach known as bounded rationality, which he also referred to as satisficing. This approach was taken to be adaptive and, indeed, necessary, given our cognitive limitations. Thus, satisficing was taken to be a universal of human cognition.
+Although Simon's work on bounded rationality was influential and can be seen as the origin of behavioral economics, the distinction between maximizing and satisficing gained new life 40 years later in psychology. Schwartz, Ward, Monterosso, Lyubomirsky, White, and Lehman (2002) defined maximization as an individual difference, arguing that some people were more likely than others to engage in a comprehensive search for the best option. Thus, instead of conceptualizing satisficing as a universal principle of human cognitive abilities, Schwartz et al. demonstrated that some individuals were more likely than others to display this style of decision-making.
+Based on the work of Schwartz et al. (2002), much of the literature on maximization has defined maximization as comprising three major components:
+
+High standards (wanting the best option)
+Alternative search (engaging in a process of examining all the options)
+Decision difficulty (frustration with making choices)
+Since these components were identified, the majority of the research on maximization has focused on which of these components are relevant (or most relevant) to the definition of maximizing. Researchers have variously argued that decision difficulty is irrelevant to defining maximizing, that high standards is the only relevant component, and that high standards is the only irrelevant component. Many of these attempts to define maximizing have resulted in the creation of new psychological scales to measure the trait.
+Recently, in a theoretical paper Cheek and Schwartz (2016) proposed a two-component model of maximization, defining maximization as the goal of choosing the best option, pursued by the strategy of searching exhaustively through alternatives. Along similar lines, Hughes and Scholer (2017) proposed that researchers could differentiate between the goals and strategies of maximizers. However, they argued that the high standards goal is central to the definition of maximizing, but that some maximizers engage in adaptive or maladaptive strategies in order to pursue that goal. They showed that individuals with high standards could be distinguished by the use of the alternative search strategy, and that this strategy in particular predicted more negative emotions on a decision task.
+
+
+== Outcomes ==
+Initial research on maximizing showed uniformly negative outcomes associated with chronic maximizing tendencies. Such tendencies were associated with lower happiness, self-esteem, and life satisfaction; with greater depression and regret; with lower satisfaction with choices; with greater perfectionism; and with greater decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and rumination. One study by Iyengar, Wells, and Schwartz (2006) tracked job seekers and found that although maximizers were able to find jobs with starting salaries 20% higher than satisficers, they were less satisfied with both the job search process and the job they were about to start. Thus, although maximizers were able to find objectively better options, they ended up subjectively worse off as a result.
+However, as disagreement over the definition of maximizing grew, research began to show diverging effects: some negative, some neutral, and some positive. Diab, Gillespie, and Highhouse (2008), for example, contested that maximizing actually was not related to lower life satisfaction, and was not related to indecisiveness, avoidance, or neuroticism. Other studies showed maximizing to be associated with higher self-efficacy, optimism, and intrinsic motivation; and with higher life satisfaction and positive affect.
+Much of this disagreement can ultimately be ascribed to the different scales that were created to measure maximizing. But research on the three components mentioned above (high standards, alternative search, and decision difficulty) found that these components themselves predicted differing outcomes. High standards has generally shown little association with negative outcomes, and evidence of association with positive outcomes. In contrast, alternative search and decision difficulty have shown much stronger associations with the negative outcomes listed above. Thus, the question of whether maximizing is adaptive or maladaptive may ultimately depend on which of these components one sees as essential to the definition of maximizing itself.
+
+
+== Related psychological constructs ==
+Limited research exists on other psychological constructs to which maximizing is related. However, several studies have shown maximizing to be associated with perfectionism, and Nenkov et al. (2008) qualified this relationship as being true primarily for the high standards component. Some research has also linked maximizing to high need for cognition, again primarily with the high standards component. Finally, research examining the association between maximizing and personality dimensions of the Big Five personality model have found high standards to be associated with high conscientiousness and decision difficulty with low conscientiousness. Alternative search has also been associated with high neuroticism, and high standards has been associated with high openness to experience.
+
+
+== Scales used to measure ==
+Given the disagreement over the definition of maximizing, as well as attempts to increase the reliability of existing measures, several scales have been created to measure maximization. The list below identifies the name of the scale, as well as the components it measures:
+
+Maximization Scale (MS): High standards, alternative search, decision difficulty
+Maximizing Tendencies Scale (MTS): Unidimensional, but primarily correlated with high standards and alternative search
+Lai's maximizing scale: High standards and alternative search
+Maximizing Inventory (MI): Alternative search, decision difficulty, as well as a separate subscale measuring satisficing
+Revised MS and MTS: Same components as the original scales above
+Cheek and Schwartz (2016) reviewed the literature on the measurement of maximization and proposed that researchers interested in studying individual differences in maximization should measure two constructs: the maximization goal and the maximization strategy. They recommended that researchers use the 7-item Maximizing Tendency Scale published by Dalal et al. (2015) to measure the maximization goal. They also tentatively recommended that researchers use the alternative search subscale of the Maximization Inventory, but noted that future research should continue to refine the measurement of the maximization strategy given psychometric concerns. 
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medea_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medea_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Medea hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medea_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:04.440813+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Medea hypothesis is a term coined by paleontologist Peter Ward for a hypothesis that contests the Gaian hypothesis and proposes that multicellular life, understood as a superorganism, may be self-destructive or suicidal.
+The metaphor refers to the mythological Medea (representing the Earth), who kills her own children (multicellular life).
+In this view, microbial-triggered mass extinctions result in returns to the microbial-dominated state Earth has been in for most of its history.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Possible examples of extinction events induced entirely or partially by biotic activities include:
+
+The Great Oxidation Event, 2.45 billion years ago, believed to be responsible for the mass poisoning of anaerobic microbes to which oxygen was toxic, and for the Huronian glaciation that resulted from the reaction of methane with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (a less potent greenhouse gas than methane) and subsequent depletion of atmospheric carbon dioxide by aerobic photosynthesisers
+The Sturtian and Marinoan Snowball Earth glaciations, 715 to 680 and 650 to 632.3 million years ago, respectively, resulting from the sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide during the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event
+The Late Ordovician Mass Extinction (LOME), 445.2 million years ago to 443.8 million years ago, suggested by some studies to have been caused by glaciation resulting from carbon dioxide depletion driven by the radiation of land plants
+Euxinic events, such as during the Great Dying, 251.9 million years ago, and the aforementioned LOME, caused by sulphur-reducing prokaryotes that produce hydrogen sulphide
+The list excludes the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, since this was, at least partially, externally induced by a meteor impact.
+
+
+== Current status and future extinctions ==
+Peter Ward proposes that the current man-made climate change and mass extinction event may be considered to be the most recent Medean event. As these events are anthropogenic, he postulates that Medean events are not necessarily caused by microbes, but by intelligent life as well and that the final mass extinction of complex life, roughly about 500–900 million years in the future, can also be considered a Medean event: "Plant life that still exists then will be forced to adapt to a warming and expanding Sun, causing them to remove even more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (which in turn will have already been lowered due to the increasing heat from the Sun gradually speeding up the weathering process that removes these molecules from the atmosphere), and ultimately accelerating the complete extinction of complex life by making carbon dioxide levels drop down to just 10 ppm, below which plants can no longer survive." However, Ward simultaneously argues that intelligent life such as humans may not necessarily just trigger future Medean events, but may eventually prevent them from occurring.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Death drive
+Fermi paradox
+Future of Earth § Climate impact
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Ward, Peter. TED talk. ted.com (video lecture). Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
+"The Medea Hypothesis: A response to the Gaia hypothesis". Christian Science Monitor (book review). 12 February 2010.
+"Paleontologist Peter Ward's "Medea hypothesis": Life is out to get you". Scientific American (book review). 13 January 2010.
+"The Medea Hypothesis" (book review). Astrobiology Society of Britain. Archived from the original on 25 February 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
+"The Medea hypothesis: Is life on Earth ultimately self-destructive? Outlook for the world is still grim". Times Educational Supplement (Review). The London Times. 24 September 2009.
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+---
+title: "MegaTransect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MegaTransect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:22.552842+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+MegaTransect was the name for a project conducted in Africa in 1999 by J. Michael Fay to spend 465 days on the expedition hike of 2,000 miles (3,219 kilometers) across the Congo Basin of Africa to survey the ecological and environmental status of the region.
+A transect is a term in ecology that denotes a survey of the natural vegetation through a particular area. The concept of a megatransect was conceived as a vegetation transect on a large scale that could be used to take an ecological census of the natural vegetation and ecosystems.
+Shortly after the hike, Fay successfully lobbied alongside the President of Gabon to create 13 new national parks.  In 2002, US Secretary of State Colin Powell and other Bush administration members gave 53 million dollars to help preserve the Congo Basin.
+Mike Fay later went on to carry out the MegaFlyover in 2004.
+
+
+== Madagascar megatransect ==
+Also in 2004, an international team conducted a "Megatransect" of the island of Madagascar.  Dubbed "Hike Madagascar", the journey covered the entire island.  Members met with rural farmers to help them improve their agricultural techniques and discuss their impact on the environment.
+
+
+== History of US megatransects ==
+One of the first megatransects in the United States was conducted by Dr. Robert R. Humphrey when he rephotographed 535 miles of the natural vegetation along with the United States and Mexico border at the 1890s permanent border monument locations, each spaced about five miles apart, and published this work in 90 Years and 535 Miles: Vegetation Changes Along the Mexican Border (1987, pub. Univ. of NM Press, 448 pages).
+In 1997 Craig C. Dremann conducted a megatransect surveying over 3,000 miles and at each mile-marker, noting the roadside vegetation, the perennial native grass, and exotic grass status throughout the Great Basin ecosystem.  The route was from Reno, Nevada eastward to Hot Springs, South Dakota, and from South Dakota through Wyoming, Idaho, Nevada, and California, returning westward to Bishop, California, and then north back to Reno.
+In 2005, Dremann conducted another vegetation megatransect, this time of the California portion of the Mojave desert, mapping over 1,000 miles on a mile-by-mile basis, for a fast-spreading exotic mustard species, Brassica tournefortii, noting the locations and density of the Mojave desert Mustard infestation in California.
+Dremann suggests that a method of remotely conducting a large-scale vegetation megatransect is with photographs. Photographs that have been taken at ground-level at intervals from known locations can be stitched together to create large-scale to Continent-scale megatransect pictures of ecosystems.
+In 2006, Dr. Michael C. McGrann and his wife Amy M. McGrann hiked the length of the California section of Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail (PCT) in the western United States from Mexico to the Oregon border (2,736 km) while systematically collecting avian-habitat data on 3,578 survey plots separated by 10-minute hiking intervals. This work was completed in a single field season from 2 April to 8 September. From this data, Dr. McGrann and his collaborators described the elevation and latitudinal distributions of birds along the PCT and statistically modeled avian species richness relationships with elevation, climate, and environmental factors including temperature, precipitation, and primary productivity. The results from this work showed that birds can exhibit heterogeneous relationships to temperature, precipitation, and productivity depending on the distinct environmental and climate conditions of each of the ecological regions traversed by the PCT. The PCT megatransect is an ongoing research project for Dr. McGrann in collaboration with several other researchers. He has continued his biodiversity surveys along sections of the PCT in 2007, 2010, and 2015, and he is working both to expand taxa surveyed along the PCT and to involve his undergraduate students at William Jessup University in the PCT Mega-Transect.
+In 2007–2008 J. Michael Fay and Lindsey Holm completed a 1300-mile Redwood Transect of 333 days. This was a megatransect that spanned from the southernmost to the northernmost redwood trees in California and Oregon. They walked extensively on private timberland and public land recording data on historical exploitation, current forest stand characteristics, silviculture, and many other aspects of the redwood ecosystem.  The results will be published in National Geographic in 2009.
+The Appalachian Trail Conservancy and the National Park Service are adopting the idea of a megatransect for the Appalachian Trail (A.T.) Like other megatransects, the A.T. MEGA-Transect aims to monitor the natural resources along the trail, understand the status and trends of these resources, and inform and engage the public and stakeholders. The 2,178-mile-long trail crosses 14 states, from Georgia to Maine, and is visited by one to two million people and completed by about 400 people each year. Volunteer citizen scientists are beginning to implement monitoring protocols to track natural resources such as wildlife presence, water quality, forest health, invasive plants, endangered species, mountain birds, phenology, and air quality. Professional scientists are also using the transect for independent research. The A.T. is oriented along the predicted migratory direction of species responding to climate change, making it a particularly important megatransect to establish and maintain.
+
+
+== MegaTransect future ==
+For a rapidly changing planet, megatransects establish baseline data from which to draw future trends, and they can focus attention on particular ecosystems which are disappearing faster than others.
+Establishing standard megatransects on specific regions or through various ecosystems of each continent, and periodic re–measurement of the ecological conditions along routes, every five to ten years, would provide very valuable measured data on environmental trends.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Transect
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+National Geographic page on the transect
+Account of "Hike Madagascar" transect
+1987 Dr. Robert Humphrey's megatransect
+1997 Great Basin megatransect
+2005 Mojave desert Mustard infestation in California
+Continent-sized photographic vegetation megatransects
+2007-2008 transect of the entire range of the redwood tree
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-optimization-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-optimization-0.md
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+---
+title: "Meta-optimization"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-optimization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:07.818383+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Meta-optimization from numerical optimization is the use of one optimization method to tune another optimization method. Meta-optimization is reported to have been used as early as in the late 1970s by Mercer and Sampson for finding optimal parameter settings of a genetic algorithm.
+Meta-optimization and related concepts are also known in the literature as meta-evolution, super-optimization, automated parameter calibration, hyper-heuristics, etc.
+
+
+== Motivation ==
+
+Optimization methods such as genetic algorithm and differential evolution have several parameters that govern their behaviour and efficiency in optimizing a given problem and these parameters must be chosen by the practitioner to achieve satisfactory results. Selecting the behavioural parameters by hand is a laborious task that is susceptible to human misconceptions of what makes the optimizer perform well.
+The behavioural parameters of an optimizer can be varied and the optimization performance plotted as a landscape. This is computationally feasible for optimizers with few behavioural parameters and optimization problems that are fast to compute, but when the number of behavioural parameters increases the time usage for computing such a performance landscape increases exponentially. This is the curse of dimensionality for the search-space consisting of an optimizer's behavioural parameters. An efficient method is therefore needed to search the space of behavioural parameters.
+
+
+== Methods ==
+
+A simple way of finding good behavioural parameters for an optimizer is to employ another overlaying optimizer, called the meta-optimizer. There are different ways of doing this depending on whether the behavioural parameters to be tuned are real-valued or discrete-valued, and depending on what performance measure is being used, etc.
+Meta-optimizing the parameters of a genetic algorithm was done by Grefenstette  and Keane, amongst others, and experiments with meta-optimizing both the parameters and the genetic operators were reported by Bäck. Meta-optimization of the COMPLEX-RF algorithm was done by Krus and Andersson, and, where performance index of optimization based on information theory was introduced and further developed. Meta-optimization of particle swarm optimization was done by Meissner et al., Pedersen and Chipperfield, and Mason et al. Pedersen and Chipperfield applied meta-optimization to differential evolution. Birattari et al. meta-optimized ant colony optimization. Statistical models have also been used to reveal more about the relationship between choices of behavioural parameters and optimization performance, see for example Francois and Lavergne, and Nannen and Eiben. A comparison of various meta-optimization techniques was done by Smit and Eiben.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Automated machine learning (AutoML)
+Hyper-heuristics
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamodeling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamodeling-0.md
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+---
+title: "Metamodeling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamodeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:59.634578+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A metamodel is a model of a model, and metamodeling is the process of generating such metamodels. Thus metamodeling or meta-modeling is the analysis, construction, and development of the frames, rules, constraints, models, and theories applicable and useful for modeling a predefined class of problems. As its name implies, this concept applies the notions of meta- and modeling in software engineering and systems engineering. Metamodels are of many types and have diverse applications.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+A metamodel/ surrogate model is a model of the model, i.e. a simplified model of an actual model of a circuit, system, or software-like entity. Metamodel can be a mathematical relation or algorithm representing input and output relations. A model is an abstraction of phenomena in the real world;  a metamodel is yet another abstraction, highlighting the properties of the model itself.  A model conforms to its metamodel in the way that a computer program conforms to the grammar of the programming language in which it is written. Various types of metamodels include polynomial equations, neural networks, Kriging, etc. "Metamodeling" is the construction of a collection of "concepts" (things, terms, etc.) within a certain domain. Metamodeling typically involves studying the output and input relationships and then fitting the right metamodels to represent that behavior.  
+Common uses for metamodels are:
+
+As a schema for semantic data that needs to be exchanged or stored
+As a language that supports a particular method or process
+As a language to express additional semantics of existing information
+As a mechanism to create tools that work with a broad class of models at run time
+As a schema for modeling and automatically exploring sentences of a language with applications to automated test synthesis
+As an approximation of a higher-fidelity model for use when reducing time, cost, or computational effort is necessary
+Because of the "meta" character of metamodeling, both the praxis and theory of metamodels are of relevance to metascience, metaphilosophy, metatheories and systemics, and meta-consciousness.  The concept can be useful in mathematics, and has practical applications in computer science and computer engineering/software engineering. The latter are the main focus of this article.
+
+
+== Topics ==
+
+
+=== Definition ===
+In software engineering, the use of models is an alternative to more common code-based development techniques. A model always conforms to a unique metamodel. One of the currently most active branches of Model Driven Engineering is the approach named model-driven architecture proposed by OMG. This approach is embodied in the Meta Object Facility (MOF) specification.
+Typical metamodelling specifications proposed by OMG are UML, SysML, SPEM or CWM. ISO has also published the standard metamodel ISO/IEC 24744. All the languages presented below could be defined as MOF metamodels.
+
+
+=== Metadata modeling ===
+Metadata modeling is a type of metamodeling used in software engineering and systems engineering for the analysis and construction of models applicable and useful to some predefined class of problems. (see also: data modeling).
+
+
+=== Model transformations ===
+One important move in model-driven engineering is the systematic use of model transformation languages. The OMG has proposed a standard for this called QVT for Queries/Views/Transformations. QVT is based on the meta-object facility (MOF). Among many other model transformation languages (MTLs), some examples of implementations of this standard are AndroMDA, VIATRA, Tefkat, MT, ManyDesigns Portofino.
+
+
+=== Relationship to ontologies ===
+Meta-models are closely related to ontologies. Both are often used to describe and analyze the relations between concepts:
+
+Ontologies: express something meaningful within a specified universe or domain of discourse by utilizing grammar for using vocabulary. The grammar specifies what it means to be a well-formed statement, assertion, query, etc. (formal constraints) on how terms in the ontology’s controlled vocabulary can be used together.
+Meta-modeling: can be considered as an explicit description (constructs and rules) of how a domain-specific model is built. In particular, this comprises a formalized specification of the domain-specific notations. Typically, metamodels are – and always should follow - a strict rule set. "A valid metamodel is an ontology, but not all ontologies are modeled explicitly as metamodels."
+
+
+=== Types of metamodels ===
+For software engineering, several types of models (and their corresponding modeling activities) can be distinguished:
+
+Metadata modeling (MetaData model)
+Meta-process modeling (MetaProcess model)
+Executable meta-modeling (combining both of the above and much more, as in the general purpose tool Kermeta)
+Model transformation language (see below)
+Polynomial metamodels
+Neural network metamodels
+Kriging metamodels
+Piecewise polynomial (spline) metamodels
+Gradient-enhanced kriging (GEK)
+
+
+=== Zoos of metamodels ===
+A library of similar metamodels has been called a Zoo of metamodels.
+There are several types of meta-model zoos. Some are expressed in ECore. Others are written in MOF 1.4 – XMI 1.2. The metamodels expressed in UML-XMI1.2 may be uploaded in Poseidon for UML, a UML CASE tool.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+Saraju Mohanty (2015). "Chapter 12 Metamodel-Based Fast AMS-SoC  Design Methodologies". Nanoelectronic Mixed-Signal System Design. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0071825719.
+Booch, G., Rumbaugh, J., Jacobson, I. (1999), The Unified Modeling Language User Guide, Redwood City, CA: Addison Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.
+J. P. van Gigch, System Design Modeling and Metamodeling, Plenum Press, New York, 1991
+Gopi Bulusu, hamara.in, 2004 Model Driven Transformation
+P. C. Smolik, Mambo Metamodeling Environment, Doctoral Thesis, Brno University of Technology. 2006
+Gonzalez-Perez, C. and B. Henderson-Sellers, 2008. Metamodelling for Software Engineering. Chichester (UK): Wiley. 210 p. ISBN 978-0-470-03036-3
+M.A. Jeusfeld, M. Jarke, and J. Mylopoulos, 2009. Metamodeling for Method Engineering. Cambridge (USA): The MIT Press. 424 p. ISBN 978-0-262-10108-0, Open access via https://conceptbase.sourceforge.net/2021_Metamodeling_for_Method_Engineering.pdf
+G. Caplat Modèles & Métamodèles,  2008  -  ISBN 978-2-88074-749-7 (in French)
+Fill, H.-G., Karagiannis, D., 2013. On the Conceptualisation of Modelling Methods Using the ADOxx Meta Modelling Platform, Enterprise Modelling and Information Systems Architectures, Vol. 8, Issue 1, 4-25.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metasystem_transition-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metasystem_transition-0.md
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+---
+title: "Metasystem transition"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metasystem_transition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:05.572411+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A metasystem transition is the emergence, through evolution, of a higher level of organization or control.
+A metasystem is formed by the integration of a number of initially independent components, such as molecules (as theorized for instance by hypercycles), cells, or individuals, and the emergence of a system steering or controlling their interactions. As such, the collective of components becomes a new, goal-directed individual, capable of acting in a coordinated way. This metasystem is more complex, more intelligent, and more flexible in its actions than the initial component systems. Prime examples are the origin of life, the transition from unicellular to multicellular organisms, the emergence of eusociality or symbolic thought. 
+The concept of metasystem transition was introduced by the cybernetician Valentin Turchin in his 1970 book The Phenomenon of Science, and developed among others by Francis Heylighen in the Principia Cybernetica Project. Another related idea, that systems ("operators") evolve to become more complex by successive closures encapsulating components in a larger whole, is proposed in "the operator theory", developed by Gerard Jagers op Akkerhuis.
+Turchin has applied the concept of metasystem transition in the domain of computing, via the notion of metacompilation or supercompilation. A supercompiler is a compiler program that compiles its own code, thus increasing its own efficiency, producing a remarkable speedup in its execution.
+
+
+== Evolutionary quanta ==
+The following is the classical sequence of metasystem transitions in the history of animal evolution according to Turchin, from the origin of animate life to sapient culture:
+
+ Control of Position = Motion: the animal or agent develops the ability to control its position in space
+Control of Motion = Irritability: the movement of the agent is no longer given, but a reaction to elementary sensations or stimuli
+Control of Irritability = Reflex: different elementary sensations and their resulting actions are integrated into a coordinated, but still rigid, reflex-like behavior
+Control of Reflex = Association: behavioral routines become flexible or adaptive, through the learning of new associations between experienced stimuli and actions
+Control of Association = Thought: new routines no longer need to be learned through experience; they can be developed by abstract, symbolic reasoning
+Control of Thought = Culture: symbols and concepts are no longer fixed entities; they  adapt through a process of cultural evolution
+
+
+== Contemporary perspectives ==
+
+A number of thinkers have argued that the next human metasystem transition consists of a merger of biological metasystems with technological metasystems, especially information processing technology. Several cumulative major transitions of evolution have transformed life through key innovations in information storage and replication, including RNA, DNA, multicellularity, and also language and culture as inter-human information processing systems. In this sense it can be argued that the carbon-based biosphere has generated a system (human society) capable of creating technology that will result in a comparable evolutionary transition. "Digital information has reached a similar magnitude to information in the biosphere... Like previous evolutionary transitions, the potential symbiosis between biological and digital information will reach a critical point where these codes could compete via natural selection. Alternatively, this fusion could create a higher-level superorganism employing a low-conflict division of labor in performing informational tasks... humans already embrace fusions of biology and technology. We spend most of our waking time communicating through digitally mediated channels, ...most transactions on the stock market are executed by automated trading algorithms, and our electric grids are in the hands of artificial intelligence. With one in three marriages in America beginning online, digital algorithms are also taking a role in human pair bonding and reproduction".
+
+
+== See also ==
+Francis Heylighen
+Valentin Turchin
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Valentin Turchin (1977): The Phenomenon of Science. A cybernetic approach to human evolution, (Columbia University Press, New York).
+Francis Heylighen (1995): "(Meta)systems as Constraints on Variation: a classification and natural history of metasystem transitions", World Futures: the Journal of General Evolution 45, p. 59-85.
+Francis Heylighen (2000): "Evolutionary Transitions: how do levels of complexity emerge?", Complexity 6 (1), p. 53–57
+John Maynard Smith & Eörs Szathmáry (1995): The Major Transitions in Evolution, (W.H. Freeman, Oxford)
+Richard Michod (1999): Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality (Princeton University Press).
+G.A.J.M Jagers op Akkerhuis (2010): "The operator hierarchy: a chain of closures linking matter, life and artificial intelligence".
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-0.md
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+---
+title: "Missing sock"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:09.020749+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A missing sock, lost sock, or odd sock (primarily British English) is a single sock in a pair of socks known or perceived to be permanently or temporarily missing. Socks are usually perceived to be lost immediately before, during, or immediately after doing laundry.
+According to popular media articles regarding missing socks, people almost always report losing one sock in a pair, and hardly ever the entire pair of two socks. Various explanations or theories—some scientific or pseudo-scientific and others humorous or facetious—have been proposed to show how or why single socks go missing or are perceived to have gone missing.
+The terms odd sock and mismatched sock may instead refer to the remaining "orphaned" sock in a pair where the other matching sock is missing or lost.
+
+== Plausible explanations ==
+Two common plausible explanations for missing socks are that they are lost in transit to or from the laundry, or that they are trapped inside, between, or behind components of ("eaten by") washing machines or clothes dryers. Due to the high rotational speeds of modern front-loading washing machines and dryers, it may be possible for small clothes items such as socks to slip through any holes or tears in the rubber gasket between either machine's spinning drums and their outer metal or plastic cases. Socks may also bunch up or unravel and get caught in the water drain pipe of washing machines or in the lint trap of dryers.
+In 2008, American science educator and writer George B. Johnson proposed several hypotheses for why socks go missing:
+
+during the drying cycle, socks are caught inside other clothing such as trousers or long-sleeved shirts due to static cling;
+socks are lost somewhere in the home or elsewhere while being transported to or from the laundry;
+socks are lost during washing, getting stuck inside components of the washing machine; or
+socks are lost during drying, getting stuck inside components of the dryer.
+In his particular case, Johnson rejected all hypotheses except the last one, as it was possible for small items like socks to slip behind the dryer's spinning drum because of gaps between the drum and the dryer's outer metal case.
+A 2016 pseudo-scientific consumer study commissioned by Samsung Electronics UK (to advertise their new washing machines where users could add more laundry to a load one piece at a time) referenced multiple human errors—including errors of human perception or psychology—to explain why socks go missing: they may become mismatched by poor folding and sorting of laundry, be intentionally misplaced or stolen, fall in hard-to-reach or hard-to-see spaces behind furniture or radiators, or blow off of clothes lines in high wind. Diffusion of responsibility, poor heuristics, and confirmation bias were the cited psychological reasons. For example: people may not search for lost socks because they assume others are searching; people search for lost socks in the likeliest places they could have been lost but not in the places where they are actually lost; or people may believe socks are or are not lost because they want to believe so despite evidence to the contrary, respectively.
+The authors of the Samsung study developed an equation called the "sock loss formula" or "sock loss index" which claims to predict the frequency of sock loss for a given individual: 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Sock loss index
+        
+        =
+        (
+        L
+        +
+        C
+        )
+        −
+        (
+        P
+        ×
+        A
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\text{Sock loss index}}=(L+C)-(P\times A)}
+  
+, where L equals laundry size (number of people in a household multiplied by the number of weekly laundry loads), C equals "washing complexity" (the number of types of laundry loads such as dark clothes versus white clothes done in a week multiplied by the total number of socks in those loads), P equals the positive or negative attitude of the individual toward doing laundry on a scale of 1 (most negative) to 5 (most positive), and A equals the "degree of attention" the individual has when doing laundry (the sum of whether the individual checks pockets, unrolls sleeves, turns clothes the right way if they have been turned inside out, and unrolls socks).
+Complementary to the previous explanations, it was also suggested that other small clothes (of which people usually have many items and that get washed often) such as underpants, are lost as often as socks, but people do not notice that as often because they don't come in matching pairs. The existence of the non-paired remaining sock draws attention to the lost sock in a way that cannot happen with clothes that naturally come in singles and not pairs. Another suggestion made in this context is that since most people usually take off their socks, but not their underpants, when going to sleep, there is a higher chance for socks to get lost in the bedroom (e.g. pushed under the bed or taken by a pet as a toy).
+
+== Prevention ==
+Home appliance repair and design specialists from Sears and GE suggest not overloading laundry machines and repairing any holes in the gaskets between the spinning drums and the rest of the machines to avoid losing socks in them. 
+Other practical suggestions include:
+
+Keeping the sock pairs together: Before throwing the socks in the dirty clothes bin securely attach each pair of matching socks together with a safety pin or a rugged clothespin, or a plastic ring. There are also commercial products dedicated for this purpose.
+Separating the socks and other small items from other types of laundry, either by washing them is a separate load or by putting them in the machine in a mesh-bag: This will prevent the small items from getting lost inside larger things such as blanket covers.
+Giving up on preventing the loss of socks and buying many pairs of exactly the same socks. Thus, even if some socks will get lost over time it wouldn't matter so much (or won't even be noticed). Alternatively one can get used to wearing mismatched socks.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-1.md
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+---
+title: "Missing sock"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:09.020749+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Humorous explanations ==
+Some explanations for the phenomenon jokingly suggest that socks have some innate propensity for going missing, and that this may be a physical property of the universe. For example, in the 1996  book The Nature of Space and Time by the physicists Stephen Hawking and Nobel laureate Roger Penrose, they posit that spontaneous black holes are responsible for lost socks.
+In his 2008 examination of the phenomenon, George B. Johnson also rejected two humorous hypotheses for why socks go missing: that an "intrinsic property" of the socks themselves predisposes or causes them to go missing; and that the socks transform into something else, such as clothes hangers.
+
+== In popular culture ==
+The Bobs' 1988 song "Where Does the Wayward Footwear Go?", asks where lost socks disappear to, asking "To the bottom of the ocean? Or to China? Or to Cuba? Or Aruba?". A 1993 album by the American indie rock band Grifters is titled One Sock Missing. In the 2001 American children's film Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge, lost objects including socks are magically transported to the home of a character named Gort, who is a compulsive hoarder. 
+American illustrator and voice actor Harry S. Robins wrote and illustrated a book titled The Meaning of Lost and Mismatched Socks. In the British children's book series Oddies, odd socks are transported to a planet called Oddieworld by a magical washing machine.
+The online sock subscription service and retailer Blacksocks was supposedly started after its founder wore mismatched socks to a Japanese tea ceremony.
+
+== See also ==
+Abductive reasoning
+Effort heuristic
+Guesstimate
+Spherical cow
+Viral phenomenon
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture_theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture_theory-0.md
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+---
+title: "Mixture theory"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:00.780760+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mixture theory is used to model multiphase systems using the principles of continuum mechanics generalised to several interpenetrable continua. The basic assumption is that, at any instant of time, all phases are present at every material point, and momentum and mass balance equations are postulated. Like other models, mixture theory requires constitutive relations to close the system of equations. Krzysztof Wilmanski extended the model by introducing a balance equation of porosity.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-dependent_realism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-dependent_realism-0.md
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+---
+title: "Model-dependent realism"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-dependent_realism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:01.927550+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Model-dependent realism is a view of scientific inquiry that focuses on the role of scientific models of phenomena. It claims reality should be interpreted based upon these models, and where several models overlap in describing a particular subject, multiple, equally valid, realities exist. It claims that it is meaningless to talk about the "true reality" of a model as we can never be absolutely certain of anything. The only meaningful thing is the usefulness of the model. The term "model-dependent realism" was coined by Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow in their 2010 book The Grand Design.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Model-dependent realism asserts that all we can know about "reality" consists of networks of world pictures that explain observations by connecting them by rules to concepts defined in models. Will an ultimate theory of everything be found? Hawking and Mlodinow suggest it is unclear:
+
+In the history of science we have discovered a sequence of better and better theories or models, from Plato to the classical theory of Newton to modern quantum theories. It is natural to ask: Will this sequence eventually reach an end point, an ultimate theory of the universe, that will include all forces and predict every observation we can make, or will we continue forever finding better theories, but never one that cannot be improved upon? We do not yet have a definitive answer to this question...
+A world picture consists of the combination of a set of observations accompanied by a conceptual model and by rules connecting the model concepts to the observations. Different world pictures that describe particular data equally well all have equal claims to be valid. There is no requirement that a world picture be unique, or even that the data selected include all available observations. The universe of all observations at present is covered by a network of overlapping world pictures and, where overlap occurs; multiple, equally valid, world pictures exist. At present, science requires multiple models to encompass existing observations:
+
+Like the overlapping maps in a Mercator projection, where the ranges of different versions overlap, they predict the same phenomena. But just as there is no flat map that is a good representation of the earth's entire surface, there is no single theory that is a good representation of observations in all situations Where several models are found for the same phenomena, no single model is preferable to the others within that domain of overlap.
+
+
+== Model selection ==
+
+While not rejecting the idea of "reality-as-it-is-in-itself", model-dependent realism suggests that we cannot know "reality-as-it-is-in-itself", but only an approximation of it provided by the intermediary of models. The view of models in model-dependent realism also is related to the instrumentalist approach to modern science, that a concept or theory should be evaluated by how effectively it explains and predicts phenomena, as opposed to how accurately it describes objective reality (a matter possibly impossible to establish). A model is a good model if it:
+
+Is elegant
+Contains few arbitrary or adjustable elements
+Agrees with and explains all existing observations
+Makes detailed predictions about future observations that can disprove or falsify the model if they are not borne out.
+"If the modifications needed to accommodate new observations become too baroque, it signals the need for a new model." Of course, an assessment like that is subjective, as are the other criteria. According to Hawking and Mlodinow, even very successful models in use today do not satisfy all these criteria, which are aspirational in nature.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Mark Colyvan (2001). "§4.3 The role of confirmation theory". The Indispensability of Mathematics. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN 0198031440.
+Thomas Kuhn (1977). "Chapter 13: Objectivity, value judgment, and theory choice". The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change (7th ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 321–322. ISBN 0226458067. An on-line excerpt stating Kuhn's criteria is found here and they also are discussed by Bird, Alexander (Aug 11, 2011). "Thomas Kuhn". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition).
+John Worrall (1990). "Scientific revolutions and scientific rationality". In C Wade Savage (ed.). Scientific theories; Volume 14 of Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science. University of Minnesota Press. p. 333. ISBN 0816618011.
+Daniel Williams (2011). "How Concepts of Self-Regulation Explain Human Knowledge" (PDF). The Bent of Tau Beta Pi. Tau Beta Pi.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Edwards, Chris. Stephen Hawking's other controversial theory: Model Dependent Realism in The Grand Design (critical essay), Skeptic (Altadena, CA), March 22, 2011
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_perspective-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_perspective-0.md
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+---
+title: "Modeling perspective"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_perspective"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:03.065120+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A modeling perspective in information systems is a particular way to represent pre-selected aspects of a system. Any perspective has a different focus, conceptualization, dedication and visualization of what the model is representing. 
+The traditional way to distinguish between modeling perspectives is structural, functional and behavioral/processual perspectives. This together with rule, object, communication and actor and role perspectives is one way of classifying modeling approaches.
+
+
+== Types of perspectives ==
+
+
+=== Structural modeling perspective ===
+This approach concentrates on describing the static structure. The main concept in this modeling perspective is the entity, this could be an object, phenomena, concept, thing etc. 
+The data modeling languages have traditionally handled this perspective, examples of such being:	
+
+The ER-language (Entity-Relationship)
+Generic Semantic Modeling language (GSM)
+Other approaches including:
+The NIAM language (Binary relationship language)
+Conceptual graphs (Sowa)
+Looking at the ER-language we have the basic components:
+
+Entities:	Distinctively identifiable phenomenon.
+Relationships:	An association among the entities.
+Attributes:	Used to give value to a property of an entity/relationship.
+Looking at the generic semantic modeling language we have the basic components:
+
+Constructed types built by abstraction: Aggregation, generalization, and association.
+Attributes.
+Primitive types: Data types in GSM are classified into printable and abstract types.
+Printable: Used to specify visible values.
+Abstract: Representing entities.
+
+
+=== Functional modeling perspective ===
+The functional modeling approach concentrates on describing the dynamic process. The main concept in this modeling perspective is the process, this could be a function, transformation, activity, action, task etc. A well-known example of a modeling language employing this perspective is data flow diagrams.
+The perspective uses four symbols to describe a process, these being:
+
+Process: Illustrates transformation from input to output.
+Store:	   Data-collection or some sort of material.
+Flow:	   Movement of data or material in the process.
+External Entity: External to the modeled system, but interacts with it.
+Now, with these symbols, a process can be represented as a network of these symbols.
+This decomposed process is a DFD, data flow diagram.
+
+
+=== Behavioral perspective ===
+Behavioral perspective gives a description of system dynamics. The main concepts in behavioral perspective are states and transitions between states. State transitions are triggered by events. State Transition Diagrams (STD/STM), State charts and Petri-nets are some examples of well-known behaviorally oriented modeling languages. Different types of State Transition Diagrams are used particularly within real-time systems and telecommunications systems.
+
+
+=== Rule perspective ===
+Rule perspective gives a description of goals/means connections. The main concepts in rule perspective are rule, goal and constraint. A rule is something that influences the actions of a set of actors. The standard form of rule is “IF condition THEN action/expression”. Rule hierarchies (goal-oriented modeling), Tempora and Expert systems are some examples of rule oriented modeling.
+
+
+=== Object perspective ===
+The object-oriented perspective describes the world as autonomous, communicating objects. An object is an “entity” which has a unique and unchangeable identifier and a local state consisting of a collection of attributes with assignable values. The state can only be manipulated with a set of methods defined on the object. The value of the state can only be accessed by sending a message to the object to call on one of its methods. An event is when an operation is being triggered by receiving a message, and the trace of the events during the existence of the object is called the object’s life cycle or the process of an object. Several objects that share the same definitions of attributes and operations can be parts of an object class. The perspective is originally based on design and programming of object oriented systems. Unified Modelling Language (UML) is a well known language for modeling with an object perspective.
+
+
+=== Communication perspective ===
+This perspective is based on language/action theory from philosophical linguistics. The basic assumption in this perspective is that person/objects cooperate on a process/action through communication within them.
+An illocutionary act consists of five elements: Speaker, hearer, time, location and circumstances. It is a reason and goal for the communication, where the participations in a communication act is oriented towards mutual agreement. In a communication act, the speaker generally can raise three claims: truth (referring an object), justice (referring a social world of the participations) and claim to sincerity (referring the subjective world of the speaker).
+
+
+=== Actor and role perspective ===
+Actor and role perspective is a description of organisational and system structure. An actor can be defined as a phenomenon that influences the history of another actor, whereas a role can be defined as the behaviour which is expected by an actor, amongst other actors, when filling the role. Modeling within these perspectives is based both on work with object-oriented programming languages and work with intelligent agents in artificial intelligence. I* is an example of an actor oriented language.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Domain-Specific Modeling (DSM)
+Glossary of Unified Modeling Language terms
+General-purpose modeling
+Model Driven Engineering  (MDE)
+Modeling language
+Three schema approach for data modeling
+View model
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Ingeman Arbnor and Björn Bjerke (1997). Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge. California : Sage Publications. (Third Edition 2009).
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_illusion-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_illusion-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+---
+title: "Money illusion"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_illusion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:10.202439+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In economics, money illusion, or price illusion, is a cognitive bias where money is thought of in nominal, rather than real terms. In other words, the face value (nominal value) of money is mistaken for its purchasing power (real value) at a previous point in time. Viewing purchasing power as measured by the nominal value is false, as modern fiat currencies have no intrinsic value and their real value depends purely on the price level. The term was coined by Irving Fisher in Stabilizing the Dollar. It was popularized by John Maynard Keynes in the early twentieth century, and Irving Fisher wrote an important book on the subject, The Money Illusion, in 1928.
+The existence of money illusion is disputed by monetary economists  who contend that people act rationally (i.e. think in real prices) with regard to their wealth. Eldar Shafir, Peter A. Diamond, and Amos Tversky (1997) have provided  empirical evidence for the existence of the effect and it has been shown to affect behaviour in a variety of experimental and real-world situations.
+Shafir et al. also state that money illusion influences economic behaviour in three main ways:
+
+Price stickiness. Money illusion has been proposed as one reason why nominal prices are slow to change even where inflation has caused real prices to fall or costs to rise.
+Contracts and laws are not indexed to inflation as frequently as one would rationally expect.
+Social discourse, in formal media and more generally, reflects some confusion about real and nominal value.
+Money illusion can also influence people's perceptions of outcomes. Experiments have shown that people generally perceive an approximate 2% cut in nominal income with no change in monetary value as unfair, but see a 2% rise in nominal income where there is 4% inflation as fair, despite them being almost rational equivalents. This result is consistent with the 'Myopic Loss Aversion theory'. Furthermore, the money illusion means nominal changes in price can influence demand even if real prices have remained constant.
+
+
+== Explanations and implications ==
+Explanations of money illusion generally describe the phenomenon in terms of heuristics. Nominal prices provide a convenient rule of thumb for determining value and real prices are only calculated if they seem highly salient (e.g. in periods of hyperinflation or in long term contracts).
+Some have suggested that money illusion implies that the negative relationship between inflation and unemployment described by the Phillips curve might hold, contrary to more recent macroeconomic theories such as the "expectations-augmented Phillips curve". If workers use their nominal wage as a reference point when evaluating wage offers, firms can keep real wages relatively lower in a period of high inflation as workers accept the seemingly high nominal wage increase. These lower real wages would allow firms to hire more workers in periods of high inflation.
+Money illusion is believed to be instrumental in the Friedmanian version of the Phillips curve. Actually, money illusion is not enough to explain the mechanism underlying this Phillips curve. It requires two additional assumptions. First, prices respond differently to modified demand conditions: an increased aggregate demand exerts its influence on commodity prices sooner than it does on labour market prices. Therefore, the drop in unemployment is, after all, the result of decreasing real wages and an accurate judgement of the situation by employees is the only reason for the return to an initial (natural) rate of unemployment (i.e. the end of the money illusion, when they finally recognize the actual dynamics of prices and wages). The other (arbitrary) assumption refers to a special informational asymmetry: whatever employees are unaware of in connection with the changes in (real and nominal) wages and prices can be clearly observed by employers. The new classical version of the Phillips curve was aimed at removing the puzzling additional presumptions, but its mechanism still requires money illusion.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Behavioural economics
+Fiscal Illusion
+Framing (social science)
+Homo economicus
+Map-territory relation
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Fehr, Ernst; Tyran, Jean-Robert (2001), "Does Money Illusion Matter?" (PDF), American Economic Review, 91 (5): 1239–1262, doi:10.1257/aer.91.5.1239, hdl:20.500.11850/146556, JSTOR 2677924, S2CID 15342301
+Howitt, P. (1987), "money illusion", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, vol. 3, London: Macmillan, pp. 518–519, ISBN 978-0-333-37235-7
+Weber, Bernd; Rangel, Antonio; Wibral, Matthias; Falk, Armin (2009), "The medial prefrontal cortex exhibits money illusion", PNAS, 106 (13): 5025–5028, Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.5025W, doi:10.1073/pnas.0901490106, PMC 2664018, PMID 19307555
+Akerlof, George A.; Shiller, Robert J. (2009), Animal Spirits, Princeton University Press, pp. 41–50, ISBN 9780691142333
+Thaler, Richard H.(1997) "Irving Fisher: Modern Behavioral Economist" in The American Economic Review Vol 87, No 2, Papers and Proceedings of the Hundred and Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association (May, 1997)
+Huw Dixon (2008), New Keynesian Economics, New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics New Keynesian macroeconomics.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-source_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-source_hypothesis-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Multi-source hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-source_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:06.727631+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Multi-source hypothesis is a proposed solution to the synoptic problem, holding that Matthew, Mark, and Luke are not directly interdependent but have each drawn from a distinct combination of earlier documents. It encompasses a family of theories differing in the particulars of the nature and relationships of these earlier documents.
+An early form of the theory was proposed by Herbert Marsh over two centuries ago. More recently, Marie-Émile Boismard proposed a structurally similar theory, which was further developed by Philippe Rolland and Delbert Burkett. Alan Kirk and Christopher Skinner have critiqued Burkett’s model for the Synoptic Problem.
+According to these theories, the common material among the three synoptic gospels ultimately derives from a proto-gospel somewhat like Mark. This proto-gospel underwent two independent revisions, A and B. Mark was formed by recombining these two revisions. Matthew built upon A and Luke upon B. Both Matthew and Luke also drew from a common source Q, as well as other sources for their unique material.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Two-source hypothesis
+Source criticism
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+=== Sources ===
+Boismard, Marie-Émile (1979). "The Two-Source Theory at an Impasse". New Testament Studies. 26: 1–17. doi:10.1017/s002868850000864x. S2CID 144085583. (translated by Lorraine Caza, Robert Beck and Francis Martin)
+Burkett, Delbert (2004). Rethinking the Gospel Sources: From Proto-Mark to Mark. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-567-02550-0.
+Marsh, Herbert (1823) [1801]. "Dissertation on the Origin of our Three First Canonical Gospels". In Michaelis, John David (ed.). Introduction to the New Testament. Vol. 3, pt. 2 (2 ed.). F. & C. Rivington. pp. 167–409. OCLC 9174154.
+Rolland, Philippe [in French] (1984). Les Premiers Évangiles, un nouveau regard sur le problème synoptique (in French). Les Éditions du Cerf. ISBN 978-2-204-02118-0.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-0.md
index 6cc210137..86d9ab02b 100644
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-0.md
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:38:20.249298+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:11.447609+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-1.md
index 60d9ed2b2..4cd83b14a 100644
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-1.md
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:38:20.249298+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:11.447609+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroheuristics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroheuristics-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..870aa4bb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroheuristics-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Neuroheuristics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroheuristics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:12.597579+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Neuroheuristics (or neuristics) studies the dynamic relations within neuroscientific knowledge, using a transdisciplinary studies approach. It was proposed by Alessandro Villa in 2000.
+
+
+== Etymology ==
+The word comes from the Greek νεύρον (neuron, which refers to the nerve cell) and εύρισκω ("euriskein", heuristic, which refers to problem-solving procedures characterized by informal, intuitive and speculative features).
+
+
+== Paradigm ==
+Neuroheuristics defines a scientific paradigm aimed to develop strategies that can be enabled to understand brain and mind following subsequent problems emerging from transdisciplinary studies including philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, pharmacology, physics, artificial intelligence, engineering, computer science, economics and mathematics.
+The research framework introduced by the neuroheuristic paradigm appears as an essential step for the investigation of the information processing effected by the brain because it is the outcome of nature and nurture, at the crossing of top-down and bottom-up design.
+Neurobiologists apply a bottom-up research strategy in their studies. This strategy has been able to describe a simple organism's nervous system, such as Caenorhabditis elegans. However, it would be impossible to simultaneously examine all neurons and all variables. This limits the value experimentation using this method could provide.
+The top-down strategy with the assistance of black box theory appears easier to complete, but inappropriate for understanding the mechanisms which coordinate neurons.
+The paradigm offers a needed and possibly distinct approach to the study of brain and mind. 
+In this framework, a result cannot be simply positive or negative because the process itself cannot be reduced to proficiency as such. Dynamics is an essential feature of the neuroheuristic paradigm, but it is more than just the neurobiological facet of holism as opposed to reductionism.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-0.md
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index 000000000..225ab16a4
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@@ -0,0 +1,286 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's law of cooling"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:23.867206+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the study of heat transfer, Newton's law of cooling is a physical law which states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its environment. The law is frequently qualified to include the condition that the temperature difference is small and the nature of heat transfer mechanism remains the same. As such, it is equivalent to a statement that the heat transfer coefficient, which mediates between heat losses and temperature differences, is a constant.
+In heat conduction, Newton's law is generally followed as a consequence of Fourier's law.  The thermal conductivity of most materials is only weakly dependent on temperature, so the constant heat transfer coefficient condition is generally met. In convective heat transfer, Newton's Law is followed for forced air or pumped fluid cooling, where the properties of the fluid do not vary strongly with temperature, but it is only approximately true for buoyancy-driven convection, where the velocity of the flow increases with temperature difference. In the case of heat transfer by thermal radiation, Newton's law of cooling holds only for very small temperature differences.
+When stated in terms of temperature differences, Newton's law (with several further simplifying assumptions, such as a low Biot number and a temperature-independent heat capacity) results in a simple differential equation expressing temperature-difference as a function of time. The solution to that equation describes an exponential decrease of temperature-difference over time. This characteristic decay of the temperature-difference is also associated with Newton's law of cooling.
+
+== Historical background ==
+Isaac Newton published his work on cooling anonymously in 1701 as "Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa." in Philosophical Transactions. It was the first heat transfer formulation and serves as the formal basis of convective heat transfer.
+Newton did not originally state his law in the above form in 1701. Rather, using today's terms, Newton noted after some mathematical manipulation that the rate of temperature change of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings. This final simplest version of the law, given by Newton himself, was partly due to confusion in Newton's time between the concepts of heat and temperature, which would not be fully disentangled until much later.
+In 2020, Maruyama and Moriya repeated Newton's experiments with modern apparatus, and they applied modern data reduction techniques. In particular, these investigators took account of thermal radiation at high temperatures (as for the molten metals Newton used), and they accounted for buoyancy effects on the air flow. By comparison to Newton's original data, they concluded that his measurements (from 1692 to 1693) had been "quite accurate".
+
+== Relationship to mechanism of cooling ==
+Convection cooling is sometimes said to be governed by "Newton's law of cooling."  When the heat transfer coefficient is independent, or relatively independent, of the temperature difference between object and environment, Newton's law is followed. The law holds well for forced air and pumped liquid cooling, where the fluid velocity does not rise with increasing temperature difference. Newton's law is most closely obeyed in purely conduction-type cooling. However, the heat transfer coefficient is a function of the temperature difference in natural convective (buoyancy driven) heat transfer. In that case, Newton's law only approximates the result when the temperature difference is relatively small. Newton himself realized this limitation.
+A correction to Newton's law concerning convection for larger temperature differentials by including an exponent, was made in 1817 by Dulong and Petit. (These men are better-known for their formulation of the Dulong–Petit law concerning the molar specific heat capacity of a crystal.)
+Another situation that does not obey Newton's law is radiative heat transfer.  Radiative cooling is better described by the Stefan–Boltzmann law in which the heat transfer rate varies as the difference in the 4th powers of the absolute temperatures of the object and of its environment.
+
+== Mathematical formulation ==
+The statement of Newton's law used in the heat transfer literature puts into mathematics the idea that the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings. For a temperature-independent heat transfer coefficient, the statement is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+        =
+        h
+        
+          (
+          
+            T
+            (
+            t
+            )
+            −
+            
+              T
+              
+                env
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        h
+        
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q=h\left(T(t)-T_{\text{env}}\right)=h\,\Delta T(t),}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q}
+  
+ is the heat flux transferred out of the body (SI unit: watt/m2),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+  
+ is the heat transfer coefficient (assumed independent of T and averaged over the surface) (SI unit: W/(m2⋅K)),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ is the temperature of the object's surface (SI unit: K),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{\text{env}}}
+  
+ is the temperature of the environment; i.e., the temperature suitably far from the surface (SI unit: K),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        −
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta T(t)=T(t)-T_{\text{env}}}
+  
+ is the time-dependent temperature en environment and object (SI unit: K).
+In global parameters by integrating on the surface area the heat flux, it can be also stated as:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∮
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+        h
+        
+          (
+          
+            T
+            (
+            t
+            )
+            −
+            
+              T
+              
+                env
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        d
+        A
+        =
+        
+          ∮
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+        h
+        
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        d
+        A
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}=\oint _{A}h\left(T(t)-T_{\text{env}}\right)dA=\oint _{A}h\,\Delta T(t)dA,}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}}
+  
+ is the rate of heat transfer out of the body (SI unit: watt), 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∮
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+        q
+        d
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}=\oint _{A}qdA}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        h
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle h}
+  
+ is the heat transfer coefficient (assumed independent of T and averaged over the surface) (SI unit: W/(m2⋅K)),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+  
+ is the heat transfer surface area (SI unit: m2),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ is the temperature of the object's surface (SI unit: K),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{\text{env}}}
+  
+ is the temperature of the environment; i.e., the temperature suitably far from the surface (SI unit: K),
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..d85774914
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's law of cooling"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:23.867206+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        −
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta T(t)=T(t)-T_{\text{env}}}
+  
+ is the time-dependent temperature difference between environment and object (SI unit: K).
+If the heat transfer coefficient and the temperature difference are uniform along the heat transfer surface, the above formula simplifies to:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        h
+        A
+        
+          (
+          
+            T
+            (
+            t
+            )
+            −
+            
+              T
+              
+                env
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        h
+        A
+        
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}=hA\left(T(t)-T_{\text{env}}\right)=hA\,\Delta T(t)}
+  
+.
+The heat transfer coefficient h depends upon physical properties of the fluid and the physical situation in which convection occurs. Therefore, a single usable heat transfer coefficient (one that does not vary significantly across the temperature-difference ranges covered during cooling and heating) must be derived or found experimentally for every system that is to be analyzed.
+Formulas and correlations are available in many references to calculate heat transfer coefficients for typical configurations and fluids.  For laminar flows, the heat transfer coefficient is usually smaller than in turbulent flows because turbulent flows have strong mixing within the boundary layer on the heat transfer surface. Note the heat transfer coefficient changes in a system when a transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs.
+
+=== Biot number ===
+
+The Biot number, a dimensionless quantity, is defined for a body as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Bi
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              h
+              
+                L
+                
+                  
+                    C
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              k
+              
+                
+                  b
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\text{Bi}}={\frac {hL_{\rm {C}}}{k_{\rm {b}}}},}
+  
+
+where
+
+h = film coefficient or heat transfer coefficient or convective heat transfer coefficient,
+LC = characteristic length, which is commonly defined as the volume of the body divided by the surface area of the body, such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          L
+          
+            
+              C
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          V
+          
+            body
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            surface
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L_{\rm {C}}=V_{\text{body}}/A_{\text{surface}}}
+  
+,
+kb = thermal conductivity of the body.
+The physical significance of Biot number can be understood by imagining the heat flow from a hot metal sphere suddenly immersed in a pool to the surrounding fluid. The heat flow experiences two resistances: the first outside the surface of the sphere, and the second within the solid metal (which is influenced by both the size and composition of the sphere). The ratio of these resistances is the dimensionless Biot number.
+If the thermal resistance at the fluid/sphere interface exceeds that thermal resistance offered by the interior of the metal sphere, the Biot number will be less than one. For systems where it is much less than one, the interior of the sphere may be presumed always to have the same temperature, although this temperature may be changing, as heat passes into the sphere from the surface. The equation to describe this change in (relatively uniform) temperature inside the object, is the simple exponential one described in Newton's law of cooling expressed in terms of temperature difference (see below).
+In contrast, the metal sphere may be large, causing the characteristic length to increase to the point that the Biot number is larger than one. In this case, temperature gradients within the sphere become important, even though the sphere material is a good conductor. Equivalently, if the sphere is made of a thermally insulating (poorly conductive) material, such as wood or styrofoam, the interior resistance to heat flow will exceed that at the fluid/sphere boundary, even with a much smaller sphere. In this case, again, the Biot number will be greater than one.
+Values of the Biot number smaller than 0.1 imply that the heat conduction inside the body is much faster than the heat convection away from its surface, and temperature gradients are negligible inside of it.  This can indicate the applicability (or inapplicability) of certain methods of solving transient heat transfer problems.  For example, a Biot number less than 0.1 typically indicates less than 5% error will be present when assuming a lumped-capacitance model of transient heat transfer (also called lumped system analysis). Typically, this type of analysis leads to simple exponential heating or cooling behavior ("Newtonian" cooling or heating) since the internal energy of the body is directly proportional to its temperature, which in turn determines the rate of heat transfer into or out of it. This leads to a simple first-order differential equation which describes heat transfer in these systems.
+Having a Biot number smaller than 0.1 labels a substance as "thermally thin," and temperature can be assumed to be constant throughout the material's volume. The opposite is also true: A Biot number greater than 0.1 (a "thermally thick" substance) indicates that one cannot make this assumption, and more complicated heat transfer equations for "transient heat conduction" will be required to describe the time-varying and non-spatially-uniform temperature field within the material body. Analytic methods for handling these problems, which may exist for simple geometric shapes and uniform material thermal conductivity, are described in the article on the heat equation.
+
+== Applications ==
+Simple solutions for transient cooling of an object may be obtained when the internal thermal resistance within the object is small in comparison to the resistance to heat transfer away from the object's surface (by external conduction or convection), which is the condition for which the Biot number is less than about 0.1. This condition allows the presumption of a single, approximately uniform temperature inside the body, which varies in time but not with position. (Otherwise the body would have many different temperatures inside it at any one time.) This single temperature will generally change exponentially as time progresses (see below).
+The condition of low Biot number leads to the so-called lumped capacitance model. In this model, the internal energy (the amount of thermal energy in the body) is calculated by assuming a constant heat capacity. In that case, the internal energy of the body is a linear function of the body's single internal temperature.
+The lumped capacitance solution that follows assumes a constant heat transfer coefficient, as would be the case in forced convection. For free convection, the lumped capacitance model can be solved with a heat transfer coefficient that varies with temperature difference.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-2.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..373e6879c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,677 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's law of cooling"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_cooling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:23.867206+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== First-order transient response of lumped-capacitance objects ===
+A body treated as a lumped capacitance object, with a total internal energy of 
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U}
+  
+ (in joules), is characterized by a single uniform internal temperature, 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T(t)}
+  
+. The heat capacitance, 
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C}
+  
+, of the body is 
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+        =
+        d
+        U
+        
+          /
+        
+        d
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C=dU/dT}
+  
+ (in J/K), for the case of an incompressible material. The internal energy may be written in terms of the temperature of the body, the heat capacitance (taken to be independent of temperature), and a reference temperature at which the internal energy is zero:  
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+        =
+        C
+        (
+        T
+        −
+        
+          T
+          
+            ref
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U=C(T-T_{\text{ref}})}
+  
+.
+Differentiating 
+  
+    
+      
+        U
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle U}
+  
+ with respect to time gives:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              U
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        C
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              T
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {dU}{dt}}=C\,{\frac {dT}{dt}}.}
+  
+
+Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the lumped object gives 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              U
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              Q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle {\frac {dU}{dt}}=-{\dot {Q}}}
+  
+, where the rate of heat transfer out of the body, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}}
+  
+, may be expressed by Newton's law of cooling, and where no work transfer occurs for an incompressible material. Thus,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              T
+              (
+              t
+              )
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              h
+              A
+            
+            C
+          
+        
+        (
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        −
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            τ
+          
+        
+         
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {dT(t)}{dt}}=-{\frac {hA}{C}}(T(t)-T_{\text{env}})=-{\frac {1}{\tau }}\ \Delta T(t),}
+  
+
+where the time constant of the system is 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+        =
+        C
+        
+          /
+        
+        (
+        h
+        A
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau =C/(hA)}
+  
+. The heat capacitance 
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C}
+  
+ may be written in terms of the object's specific heat capacity, 
+  
+    
+      
+        c
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c}
+  
+ (J/kg-K), and mass, 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ (kg). The time constant is then 
+  
+    
+      
+        τ
+        =
+        m
+        c
+        
+          /
+        
+        (
+        h
+        A
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \tau =mc/(hA)}
+  
+.
+When the environmental temperature is constant in time, we may define 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        −
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta T(t)=T(t)-T_{\text{env}}}
+  
+. The equation becomes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              T
+              (
+              t
+              )
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              Δ
+              T
+              (
+              t
+              )
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            τ
+          
+        
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {dT(t)}{dt}}={\frac {d\Delta T(t)}{dt}}=-{\frac {1}{\tau }}\Delta T(t).}
+  
+
+The solution of this differential equation, by integration from the initial condition, is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        0
+        )
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            t
+            
+              /
+            
+            τ
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta T(t)=\Delta T(0)\,e^{-t/\tau }.}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        T
+        (
+        0
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta T(0)}
+  
+ is the temperature difference at time 0. Reverting to temperature, the solution is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+        +
+        (
+        T
+        (
+        0
+        )
+        −
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            t
+            
+              /
+            
+            τ
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T(t)=T_{\text{env}}+(T(0)-T_{\text{env}})\,e^{-t/\tau }.}
+  
+
+The temperature difference between the body and the environment decays exponentially as a function of time.
+
+=== Standard formulation ===
+By defining 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+        =
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        τ
+        =
+        h
+        A
+        
+          /
+        
+        C
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r=1/\tau =hA/C}
+  
+, the differential equation becomes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              T
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        r
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              T
+              
+                env
+              
+            
+            −
+            T
+            (
+            t
+            )
+          
+          )
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {T}}=r\left(T_{\text{env}}-T(t)\right),}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              T
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {T}}}
+  
+ is the rate of heat loss (SI unit: K/second),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ is the temperature of the object's surface (SI unit: K),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{\text{env}}}
+  
+ is the temperature of the environment; i.e., the temperature suitably far from the surface (SI unit: K),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ is the coefficient of heat transfer (SI unit: second
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ^{-1}}
+  
+).
+Solving the initial-value problem using separation of variables gives
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+        +
+        (
+        T
+        (
+        0
+        )
+        −
+        
+          T
+          
+            env
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            r
+            t
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T(t)=T_{\text{env}}+(T(0)-T_{\text{env}})e^{-rt}.}
+  
+
+== See also ==
+Thermal transmittance
+List of thermal conductivities
+Convection–diffusion equation
+R-value (insulation)
+Heat pipe
+Fick's laws of diffusion
+Relativistic heat conduction
+Churchill–Bernstein equation
+Fourier number
+Biot number
+False diffusion
+Mpemba effect
+
+== References ==
+
+See also:
+
+Dehghani, F 2007, CHNG2801 – Conservation and Transport Processes: Course Notes, University of Sydney, Sydney
+
+== External links ==
+Heat conduction – Thermal-FluidsPedia
+Newton's Law of Cooling by Jeff Bryant based on a program by Stephen Wolfram, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
+A Heat Transfer Textbook, 5/e, free ebook.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..485a6c457
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 1/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws, which provide the basis for Newtonian mechanics, can be paraphrased as follows:
+
+A body remains at rest, or in motion at a constant speed in a straight line, unless it is acted upon by a force.
+At any instant of time, the net force on a body is equal to the body's acceleration multiplied by its mass or, equivalently, the rate at which the body's momentum is changing with time.
+If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces have the same magnitude but opposite directions.
+The three laws of motion were first stated by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), originally published in 1687. Newton used them to investigate and explain the motion of many physical objects and systems. In the time since Newton, new insights, especially around the concept of energy, built the field of classical mechanics on his foundations. In modern times, limitations to Newton's laws have been discovered; new theories were consequently developed, such as quantum mechanics and relativity to address the physics of objects in more extreme cases.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ed6b92ad0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,513 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 2/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Prerequisites ==
+Newton's laws are often stated in terms of point or particle masses, that is, bodies whose volume is negligible. This is a reasonable approximation for real bodies when the motion of internal parts can be neglected, and when the separation between bodies is much larger than the size of each. For instance, the Earth and the Sun can both be approximated as pointlike when considering the orbit of the former around the latter, but the Earth is not pointlike when considering activities on its surface.
+The mathematical description of motion, or kinematics, is based on the idea of specifying positions using numerical coordinates. Movement is represented by these numbers changing over time: a body's trajectory is represented by a function that assigns to each value of a time variable the values of all the position coordinates. The simplest case is one-dimensional, that is, when a body is constrained to move only along a straight line. Its position can then be given by a single number, indicating where it is relative to some chosen reference point. For example, a body might be free to slide along a track that runs left to right, and so its location can be specified by its distance from a convenient zero point, or origin, with negative numbers indicating positions to the left and positive numbers indicating positions to the right. If the body's location as a function of time is 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s(t)}
+  
+, then its average velocity over the time interval from 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{0}}
+  
+ to 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{1}}
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Δ
+              s
+            
+            
+              Δ
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              s
+              (
+              
+                t
+                
+                  1
+                
+              
+              )
+              −
+              s
+              (
+              
+                t
+                
+                  0
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            
+              
+                t
+                
+                  1
+                
+              
+              −
+              
+                t
+                
+                  0
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta s}{\Delta t}}={\frac {s(t_{1})-s(t_{0})}{t_{1}-t_{0}}}.}
+  
+Here, the Greek letter 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+ (delta) is used, per tradition, to mean "change in". A positive average velocity means that the position coordinate 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ increases over the interval in question, a negative average velocity indicates a net decrease over that interval, and an average velocity of zero means that the body ends the time interval in the same place as it began. Calculus gives the means to define an instantaneous velocity, a measure of a body's speed and direction of movement at a single moment of time, rather than over an interval. One notation for the instantaneous velocity is to replace 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta }
+  
+ with the symbol 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          d
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} }
+  
+, for example,
+  
+    
+      
+        v
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              s
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v={\frac {\mathrm {d} s}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}
+  
+This denotes that the instantaneous velocity is the derivative of the position with respect to time. It can roughly be thought of as the ratio between an infinitesimally small change in position 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          d
+        
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} s}
+  
+ to the infinitesimally small time interval 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          d
+        
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} t}
+  
+ over which it occurs. More carefully, the velocity and all other derivatives can be defined using the concept of a limit. A function 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(t)}
+  
+ has a limit of 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L}
+  
+ at a given input value 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{0}}
+  
+ if the difference between 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L}
+  
+ can be made arbitrarily small by choosing an input sufficiently close to 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{0}}
+  
+. One writes, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          lim
+          
+            t
+            →
+            
+              t
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        f
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        L
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lim _{t\to t_{0}}f(t)=L.}
+  
+Instantaneous velocity can be defined as the limit of the average velocity as the time interval shrinks to zero:
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              s
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          lim
+          
+            Δ
+            t
+            →
+            0
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              s
+              (
+              t
+              +
+              Δ
+              t
+              )
+              −
+              s
+              (
+              t
+              )
+            
+            
+              Δ
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} s}{\mathrm {d} t}}=\lim _{\Delta t\to 0}{\frac {s(t+\Delta t)-s(t)}{\Delta t}}.}
+  
+ Acceleration is to velocity as velocity is to position: it is the derivative of the velocity with respect to time. Acceleration can likewise be defined as a limit:
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              v
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          lim
+          
+            Δ
+            t
+            →
+            0
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              v
+              (
+              t
+              +
+              Δ
+              t
+              )
+              −
+              v
+              (
+              t
+              )
+            
+            
+              Δ
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a={\frac {\mathrm {d} v}{\mathrm {d} t}}=\lim _{\Delta t\to 0}{\frac {v(t+\Delta t)-v(t)}{\Delta t}}.}
+  
+Consequently, the acceleration is the second derivative of position, often written 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              s
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                t
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}s}{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}}
+  
+.
+Position, when thought of as a displacement from an origin point, is a vector: a quantity with both magnitude and direction. Velocity and acceleration are vector quantities as well. The mathematical tools of vector algebra provide the means to describe motion in two, three or more dimensions. Vectors are often denoted with an arrow, as in  
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              s
+              →
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\vec {s}}}
+  
+, or in bold typeface, such as 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            s
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\bf {s}}}
+  
+. Often, vectors are represented visually as arrows, with the direction of the vector being the direction of the arrow, and the magnitude of the vector indicated by the length of the arrow. Numerically, a vector can be represented as a list; for example, a body's velocity vector might be 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+        =
+        (
+        
+          3
+           
+          m
+          
+            /
+          
+          s
+        
+        ,
+        
+          4
+           
+          m
+          
+            /
+          
+          s
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =(\mathrm {3~m/s} ,\mathrm {4~m/s} )}
+  
+, indicating that it is moving at 3 metres per second along the horizontal axis and 4 metres per second along the vertical axis. The same motion described in a different coordinate system will be represented by different numbers, and vector algebra can be used to translate between these alternatives.
+The study of mechanics is complicated by the fact that household words like energy are used with a technical meaning. Moreover, words which are synonymous in everyday speech are not so in physics: force is not the same as power or pressure, for example, and mass has a different meaning than weight. The physics concept of force makes quantitative the everyday idea of a push or a pull. Forces in Newtonian mechanics are often due to strings and ropes, friction, muscle effort, gravity, and so forth. Like displacement, velocity, and acceleration, force is a vector quantity.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-10.md
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-10.md
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 11/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== General relativity ===
+General relativity is a theory of gravity that advances beyond that of Newton. In general relativity, the gravitational force of Newtonian mechanics is reimagined as curvature of spacetime. A curved path like an orbit, attributed to a gravitational force in Newtonian mechanics, is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: "Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve." Wheeler himself thought of this reciprocal relationship as a modern, generalized form of Newton's third law. The relation between matter distribution and spacetime curvature is given by the Einstein field equations, which require tensor calculus to express.
+The Newtonian theory of gravity is a good approximation to the predictions of general relativity when gravitational effects are weak and objects are moving slowly compared to the speed of light.
+
+=== Quantum mechanics ===
+Quantum mechanics is a theory of physics originally developed in order to understand microscopic phenomena: behavior at the scale of molecules, atoms or subatomic particles. Generally and loosely speaking, the smaller a system is, the more an adequate mathematical model will require understanding quantum effects. The conceptual underpinning of quantum physics is very different from that of classical physics. Instead of thinking about quantities like position, momentum, and energy as properties that an object has, one considers what result might appear when a measurement of a chosen type is performed. Quantum mechanics allows the physicist to calculate the probability that a chosen measurement will elicit a particular result. The expectation value for a measurement is the average of the possible results it might yield, weighted by their probabilities of occurrence.
+The Ehrenfest theorem provides a connection between quantum expectation values and Newton's second law, a connection that is necessarily inexact, as quantum physics is fundamentally different from classical. In quantum physics, position and momentum are represented by mathematical entities known as Hermitian operators, and the Born rule is used to calculate the expectation values of a position measurement or a momentum measurement. These expectation values will generally change over time; that is, depending on the time at which (for example) a position measurement is performed, the probabilities for its different possible outcomes will vary. The Ehrenfest theorem says, roughly speaking, that the equations describing how these expectation values change over time have a form reminiscent of Newton's second law. However, the more pronounced quantum effects are in a given situation, the more difficult it is to derive meaningful conclusions from this resemblance.
+
+== History ==
+
+The concepts invoked in Newton's laws of motion – mass, velocity, momentum, force – have predecessors in earlier work, and the content of Newtonian physics was further developed after Newton's time. Newton combined knowledge of celestial motions with the study of events on Earth and showed that one theory of mechanics could encompass both.
+
+=== Antiquity and medieval background ===
+
+==== Aristotle and "violent" motion ====
+
+The subject of physics is often traced back to Aristotle, but the history of the concepts involved is obscured by multiple factors. An exact correspondence between Aristotelian and modern concepts is not simple to establish: Aristotle did not clearly distinguish what we would call speed and force, used the same term for density and viscosity, and conceived of motion as always through a medium, rather than through space. In addition, some concepts often termed "Aristotelian" might better be attributed to his followers and commentators upon him. These commentators found that Aristotelian physics had difficulty explaining projectile motion. Aristotle divided motion into two types: "natural" and "violent". The "natural" motion of terrestrial solid matter was to fall downwards, whereas a "violent" motion could push a body sideways. Moreover, in Aristotelian physics, a "violent" motion requires an immediate cause; separated from the cause of its "violent" motion, a body would revert to its "natural" behavior. Yet, a javelin continues moving after it leaves the thrower's hand. Aristotle concluded that the air around the javelin must be imparted with the ability to move the javelin forward.
+
+==== Philoponus and impetus ====
+John Philoponus, a Byzantine Greek thinker active during the sixth century, found this absurd: the same medium, air, was somehow responsible both for sustaining motion and for impeding it. If Aristotle's idea were true, Philoponus said, armies would launch weapons by blowing upon them with bellows. Philoponus argued that setting a body into motion imparted a quality, impetus, that would be contained within the body itself. As long as its impetus was sustained, the body would continue to move. In the following centuries, versions of impetus theory were advanced by individuals including Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji, Avicenna, Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, John Buridan, and Albert of Saxony. In retrospect, the idea of impetus can be seen as a forerunner of the modern concept of momentum. The intuition that objects move according to some kind of impetus persists in many students of introductory physics.
+
+=== Inertia and the first law ===
+
+The French philosopher René Descartes introduced the concept of inertia by way of his "laws of nature" in The World (Traité du monde et de la lumière) written 1629–1633. However, The World purported a heliocentric worldview, and in 1633 this view had given rise a great conflict between Galileo Galilei and the Roman Catholic Inquisition. Descartes knew about this controversy and did not wish to get involved. The World was not published until 1664, ten years after his death.
+
+The modern concept of inertia is credited to Galileo. Based on his experiments, Galileo concluded that the "natural" behavior of a moving body was to keep moving, until something else interfered with it. In Two New Sciences (1638) Galileo wrote:
\ No newline at end of file
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-11.md
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 12/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits.
+
+Galileo recognized that in projectile motion, the Earth's gravity affects vertical but not horizontal motion. However, Galileo's idea of inertia was not exactly the one that would be codified into Newton's first law. Galileo thought that a body moving a long distance inertially would follow the curve of the Earth. This idea was corrected by Isaac Beeckman, Descartes, and Pierre Gassendi, who recognized that inertial motion should be motion in a straight line. Descartes published his laws of nature (laws of motion) with this correction in Principles of Philosophy (Principia Philosophiae) in 1644, with the heliocentric part toned down.
+
+First Law of Nature: Each thing when left to itself continues in the same state; so any moving body goes on moving until something stops it.
+Second Law of Nature: Each moving thing if left to itself moves in a straight line; so any body moving in a circle always tends to move away from the centre of the circle.
+According to American philosopher Richard J. Blackwell, Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens had worked out his own, concise version of the law in 1656. It was not published until 1703, eight years after his death, in the opening paragraph of De Motu Corporum ex Percussione.
+
+Hypothesis I: Any body already in motion will continue to move perpetually with the same speed and in a straight line unless it is impeded.
+According to Huygens, this law was already known by Galileo and Descartes among others.
+
+=== Force and the second law ===
+
+Christiaan Huygens, in his Horologium Oscillatorium (1673), put forth the hypothesis that "By the action of gravity, whatever its sources, it happens that bodies are moved by a motion composed both of a uniform motion in one direction or another and of a motion downward due to gravity." Newton's second law generalized this hypothesis from gravity to all forces.
+One important characteristic of Newtonian physics is that forces can act at a distance without requiring physical contact. For example, the Sun and the Earth pull on each other gravitationally, despite being separated by millions of kilometres. This contrasts with the idea, championed by Descartes among others, that the Sun's gravity held planets in orbit by swirling them in a vortex of transparent matter, aether. Newton considered aetherial explanations of force but ultimately rejected them. The study of magnetism by William Gilbert and others created a precedent for thinking of immaterial forces, and unable to find a quantitatively satisfactory explanation of his law of gravity in terms of an aetherial model, Newton eventually declared, "I feign no hypotheses": whether or not a model like Descartes's vortices could be found to underlie the Principia's theories of motion and gravity, the first grounds for judging them must be the successful predictions they made. And indeed, since Newton's time every attempt at such a model has failed.
+
+=== Momentum conservation and the third law ===
+
+Johannes Kepler suggested that gravitational attractions were reciprocal – that, for example, the Moon pulls on the Earth while the Earth pulls on the Moon – but he did not argue that such pairs are equal and opposite. In his Principles of Philosophy (1644), Descartes introduced the idea that during a collision between bodies, a "quantity of motion" remains unchanged. Descartes defined this quantity somewhat imprecisely by adding up the products of the speed and "size" of each body, where "size" for him incorporated both volume and surface area. Moreover, Descartes thought of the universe as a plenum, that is, filled with matter, so all motion required a body to displace a medium as it moved.
+During the 1650s, Huygens studied collisions between hard spheres and deduced a principle that is now identified as the conservation of momentum. Christopher Wren would later deduce the same rules for elastic collisions that Huygens had, and John Wallis would apply momentum conservation to study inelastic collisions. Newton cited the work of Huygens, Wren, and Wallis to support the validity of his third law.
+Newton arrived at his set of three laws incrementally. In a 1684 manuscript written to Huygens, he listed four laws: the principle of inertia, the change of motion by force, a statement about relative motion that would today be called Galilean invariance, and the rule that interactions between bodies do not change the motion of their center of mass. In a later manuscript, Newton added a law of action and reaction, while saying that this law and the law regarding the center of mass implied one another. Newton probably settled on the presentation in the Principia, with three primary laws and then other statements reduced to corollaries, during 1685.
+
+=== After the Principia ===
\ No newline at end of file
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--- /dev/null
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+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 13/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Newton expressed his second law by saying that the force on a body is proportional to its change of motion, or momentum. By the time he wrote the Principia, he had already developed calculus (which he called "the science of fluxions"), but in the Principia he made no explicit use of it, perhaps because he believed geometrical arguments in the tradition of Euclid to be more rigorous. Consequently, the Principia does not express acceleration as the second derivative of position, and so it does not give the second law as 
+  
+    
+      
+        F
+        =
+        m
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F=ma}
+  
+. This form of the second law was written (for the special case of constant force) at least as early as 1716, by Jakob Hermann; Leonhard Euler would employ it as a basic premise in the 1740s. Euler pioneered the study of rigid bodies and established the basic theory of fluid dynamics. Pierre-Simon Laplace's five-volume Traité de mécanique céleste (1798–1825) forsook geometry and developed mechanics purely through algebraic expressions, while resolving questions that the Principia had left open, like a full theory of the tides.
+The concept of energy became a key part of Newtonian mechanics in the post-Newton period. Huygens' solution of the collision of hard spheres showed that in that case, not only is momentum conserved, but kinetic energy is as well (or, rather, a quantity that in retrospect we can identify as one-half the total kinetic energy). The question of what is conserved during all other processes, like inelastic collisions and motion slowed by friction, was not resolved until the 19th century. Debates on this topic overlapped with philosophical disputes between the metaphysical views of Newton and Leibniz, and variants of the term "force" were sometimes used to denote what we would call types of energy. For example, in 1742, Émilie du Châtelet wrote, "Dead force consists of a simple tendency to motion: such is that of a spring ready to relax; living force is that which a body has when it is in actual motion." In modern terminology, "dead force" and "living force" correspond to potential energy and kinetic energy respectively. Conservation of energy was not established as a universal principle until it was understood that the energy of mechanical work can be dissipated into heat. With the concept of energy given a solid grounding, Newton's laws could then be derived within formulations of classical mechanics that put energy first, as in the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations described above.
+Modern presentations of Newton's laws use the mathematics of vectors, a topic that was not developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Vector algebra, pioneered by Josiah Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside, stemmed from and largely supplanted the earlier system of quaternions invented by William Rowan Hamilton.
+
+== See also ==
+Euler's laws of motion
+History of classical mechanics
+List of eponymous laws
+List of equations in classical mechanics
+List of scientific laws named after people
+List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics
+Norton's dome
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Newton's Laws of Dynamics - The Feynman Lectures on Physics
+Chakrabarty, Deepto; Dourmashkin, Peter; Tomasik, Michelle; Frebel, Anna; Vuletic, Vladan (2016). "Classical Mechanics". MIT OpenCourseWare. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-2.md
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 3/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Laws ==
+
+=== First law ===
+
+Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.
+Newton's first law expresses the principle of inertia: the natural behavior of a body is to move in a straight line at constant speed. A body's motion preserves the status quo, but external forces can perturb this.
+The modern understanding of Newton's first law is that no inertial observer is privileged over any other. The concept of an inertial observer makes quantitative the everyday idea of feeling no effects of motion. For example, a person standing on the ground watching a train go past is an inertial observer. If the observer on the ground sees the train moving smoothly in a straight line at a constant speed, then a passenger sitting on the train will also be an inertial observer: the train passenger feels no motion. The principle expressed by Newton's first law is that there is no way to say which inertial observer is "really" moving and which is "really" standing still. One observer's state of rest is another observer's state of uniform motion in a straight line, and no experiment can deem either point of view to be correct or incorrect. There is no absolute standard of rest. Newton himself believed that absolute space and time existed, but that the only measures of space or time accessible to experiment are relative.
+
+=== Second law ===
+The change of motion of an object is proportional to the force impressed; and is made in the direction of the straight line in which the force is impressed.
+By "motion", Newton meant the quantity now called momentum, which depends upon the amount of matter contained in a body, the speed at which that body is moving, and the direction in which it is moving. In modern notation, the momentum of a body is the product of its mass and its velocity:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          v
+        
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =m\mathbf {v} \,,}
+  
+
+where all three quantities can change over time.
+In common cases the mass 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ does not change with time and the derivative acts only upon the velocity. Then force equals the product of the mass and the time derivative of the velocity, which is the acceleration:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                v
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          a
+        
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}=m\mathbf {a} \,.}
+  
+
+As the acceleration is the second derivative of position with respect to time, this can also be written
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                t
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m{\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}\mathbf {s} }{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}.}
+  
+
+Newton's second law, in modern form, states that the time derivative of the momentum is the force:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                p
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\,.}
+  
+
+When applied to systems of variable mass, the equation above is valid only for a fixed set of particles. Applying the derivative as in 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                v
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          v
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              m
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+         
+         
+        
+          (
+          i
+          n
+          c
+          o
+          r
+          r
+          e
+          c
+          t
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}+\mathbf {v} {\frac {\mathrm {d} m}{\mathrm {d} t}}\ \ \mathrm {(incorrect)} }
+  
+
+can lead to incorrect results. For example, the momentum of a water jet system must include the momentum of the ejected water:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            F
+          
+          
+            
+              e
+              x
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                p
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          
+            v
+          
+          
+            
+              e
+              j
+              e
+              c
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              m
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{\mathrm {ext} }={\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p}  \over \mathrm {d} t}-\mathbf {v} _{\mathrm {eject} }{\frac {\mathrm {d} m}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}
+  
+
+ The forces acting on a body add as vectors, and so the total force on a body depends upon both the magnitudes and the directions of the individual forces. When the net force on a body is equal to zero, then by Newton's second law, the body does not accelerate, and it is said to be in mechanical equilibrium. A state of mechanical equilibrium is stable if, when the position of the body is changed slightly, the body remains near that equilibrium. Otherwise, the equilibrium is unstable.
+A common visual representation of forces acting in concert is the free body diagram, which schematically portrays a body of interest and the forces applied to it by outside influences. For example, a free body diagram of a block sitting upon an inclined plane can illustrate the combination of gravitational force, "normal" force, friction, and string tension.
+Newton's second law is sometimes presented as a definition of force, i.e., a force is that which exists when an inertial observer sees a body accelerating. This is sometimes regarded as a potential tautology – acceleration implies force, force implies acceleration. To go beyond tautology, an equation detailing the force might also be specified, like Newton's law of universal gravitation. By inserting such an expression for 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} }
+  
+ into Newton's second law, an equation with predictive power can be written. Newton's second law has also been regarded as setting out a research program for physics, establishing that important goals of the subject are to identify the forces present in nature and to catalogue the constituents of matter.
+
+=== Third law ===
+To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or, the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-3.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..509d95e74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-3.md
@@ -0,0 +1,373 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 4/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In other words, if one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body is also exerting a force on the first body, of equal magnitude in the opposite direction. Overly brief paraphrases of the third law, like "action equals reaction" might have caused confusion among generations of students: the "action" and "reaction" apply to different bodies. For example, consider a book at rest on a table. The Earth's gravity pulls down upon the book. The "reaction" to that "action" is not the support force from the table holding up the book, but the gravitational pull of the book acting on the Earth.
+Newton's third law relates to a more fundamental principle, the conservation of momentum. The latter remains true even in cases where Newton's statement does not, for instance when force fields as well as material bodies carry momentum (e.g., in electromagnetism), and when momentum is defined properly, in quantum mechanics as well. In Newtonian mechanics, if two bodies have momenta 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            p
+          
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} _{1}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            p
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} _{2}}
+  
+ respectively, then the total momentum of the pair is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            p
+          
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            p
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\mathbf {p} _{1}+\mathbf {p} _{2}}
+  
+, and the rate of change of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} }
+  
+ is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                p
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                
+                  p
+                
+                
+                  1
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                
+                  p
+                
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} }{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} _{1}}{\mathrm {d} t}}+{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} _{2}}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}
+  
+ By Newton's second law, the first term is the total force upon the first body, and the second term is the total force upon the second body. If the two bodies are isolated from outside influences, the only force upon the first body can be that from the second, and vice versa. By Newton's third law, these forces have equal magnitude but opposite direction, so they cancel when added, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} }
+  
+ is constant. Alternatively, if 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} }
+  
+ is known to be constant, it follows that the forces have equal magnitude and opposite direction.
+
+=== Candidates for additional laws ===
+Various sources have proposed elevating other ideas used in classical mechanics to the status of Newton's laws. For example, in Newtonian mechanics, the total mass of a body made by bringing together two smaller bodies is the sum of their individual masses. Frank Wilczek has suggested calling attention to this assumption by designating it "Newton's Zeroth Law". Another candidate for a "zeroth law" is the fact that at any instant, a body reacts to the forces applied to it at that instant. Likewise, the idea that forces add like vectors (or in other words obey the superposition principle), and the idea that forces change the energy of a body, have both been described as a "fourth law".
+Moreover, some texts organize the basic ideas of Newtonian mechanics into different postulates, other than the three laws as commonly phrased, with the goal of being more clear about what is empirically observed and what is true by definition.
+
+=== Examples ===
+The study of the behavior of massive bodies using Newton's laws is known as Newtonian mechanics. Some example problems in Newtonian mechanics are particularly noteworthy for conceptual or historical reasons.
+
+==== Uniformly accelerated motion ====
+
+If a body falls from rest near the surface of the Earth, then in the absence of air resistance, it will accelerate at a constant rate. This is known as free fall. The speed attained during free fall is proportional to the elapsed time, and the distance traveled is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. Importantly, the acceleration is the same for all bodies, independently of their mass. This follows from combining Newton's second law of motion with his law of universal gravitation. The latter states that the magnitude of the gravitational force from the Earth upon the body is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        F
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              G
+              M
+              m
+            
+            
+              r
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F={\frac {GMm}{r^{2}}},}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ is the mass of the falling body, 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+ is the mass of the Earth, 
+  
+    
+      
+        G
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle G}
+  
+ is Newton's constant, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ is the distance from the center of the Earth to the body's location, which is very nearly the radius of the Earth. Setting this equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ma}
+  
+, the body's mass 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ cancels from both sides of the equation, leaving an acceleration that depends upon 
+  
+    
+      
+        G
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle G}
+  
+, 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ can be taken to be constant. This particular value of acceleration is typically denoted 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g}
+  
+:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              G
+              M
+            
+            
+              r
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≈
+        
+          9.8
+           
+          m
+          
+            /
+          
+          
+            s
+            
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g={\frac {GM}{r^{2}}}\approx \mathrm {9.8~m/s^{2}} .}
+  
+
+If the body is not released from rest but instead launched upwards and/or horizontally with nonzero velocity, then free fall becomes projectile motion. When air resistance can be neglected, projectiles follow parabola-shaped trajectories, because gravity affects the body's vertical motion and not its horizontal. At the peak of the projectile's trajectory, its vertical velocity is zero, but its acceleration is 
+  
+    
+      
+        g
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle g}
+  
+ downwards, as it is at all times. Setting the wrong vector equal to zero is a common confusion among physics students.
+
+==== Uniform circular motion ====
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-4.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..d5699f740
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-4.md
@@ -0,0 +1,501 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 5/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+When a body is in uniform circular motion, the force on it changes the direction of its motion but not its speed. For a body moving in a circle of radius 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ at a constant speed 
+  
+    
+      
+        v
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v}
+  
+, its acceleration has a magnitude
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              v
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            r
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a={\frac {v^{2}}{r}}}
+  
+and is directed toward the center of the circle. The force required to sustain this acceleration, called the centripetal force, is therefore also directed toward the center of the circle and has magnitude 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        
+          v
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle mv^{2}/r}
+  
+. Many orbits, such as that of the Moon around the Earth, can be approximated by uniform circular motion. In such cases, the centripetal force is gravity, and by Newton's law of universal gravitation has magnitude 
+  
+    
+      
+        G
+        M
+        m
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          r
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle GMm/r^{2}}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+ is the mass of the larger body being orbited. Therefore, the mass of a body can be calculated from observations of another body orbiting around it.
+Newton's cannonball is a thought experiment that interpolates between projectile motion and uniform circular motion. A cannonball that is lobbed weakly off the edge of a tall cliff will hit the ground in the same amount of time as if it were dropped from rest, because the force of gravity only affects the cannonball's momentum in the downward direction, and its effect is not diminished by horizontal movement. If the cannonball is launched with a greater initial horizontal velocity, then it will travel farther before it hits the ground, but it will still hit the ground in the same amount of time. However, if the cannonball is launched with an even larger initial velocity, then the curvature of the Earth becomes significant: the ground itself will curve away from the falling cannonball. A very fast cannonball will fall away from the inertial straight-line trajectory at the same rate that the Earth curves away beneath it; in other words, it will be in orbit (imagining that it is not slowed by air resistance or obstacles).
+
+==== Harmonic motion ====
+
+Consider a body of mass 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ able to move along the 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+ axis, and suppose an equilibrium point exists at the position 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x=0}
+  
+. That is, at 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x=0}
+  
+, the net force upon the body is the zero vector, and by Newton's second law, the body will not accelerate. If the force upon the body is proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium point, and directed to the equilibrium point, then the body will perform simple harmonic motion. Writing the force as 
+  
+    
+      
+        F
+        =
+        −
+        k
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F=-kx}
+  
+, Newton's second law becomes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              x
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                t
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        k
+        x
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m{\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}x}{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}=-kx\,.}
+  
+
+This differential equation has the solution
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        A
+        cos
+        ⁡
+        ω
+        t
+        +
+        B
+        sin
+        ⁡
+        ω
+        t
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x(t)=A\cos \omega t+B\sin \omega t\,}
+  
+
+where the frequency 
+  
+    
+      
+        ω
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \omega }
+  
+ is equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            k
+            
+              /
+            
+            m
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\sqrt {k/m}}}
+  
+, and the constants 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle B}
+  
+ can be calculated knowing, for example, the position and velocity the body has at a given time, like 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t=0}
+  
+.
+One reason that the harmonic oscillator is a conceptually important example is that it is good approximation for many systems near a stable mechanical equilibrium. For example, a pendulum has a stable equilibrium in the vertical position: if motionless there, it will remain there, and if pushed slightly, it will swing back and forth. Neglecting air resistance and friction in the pivot, the force upon the pendulum is gravity, and Newton's second law becomes 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              θ
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                t
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            g
+            L
+          
+        
+        sin
+        ⁡
+        θ
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}\theta }{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}=-{\frac {g}{L}}\sin \theta ,}
+  
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L}
+  
+ is the length of the pendulum and 
+  
+    
+      
+        θ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta }
+  
+ is its angle from the vertical. When the angle 
+  
+    
+      
+        θ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta }
+  
+ is small, the sine of 
+  
+    
+      
+        θ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta }
+  
+ is nearly equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        θ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta }
+  
+ (see small-angle approximation), and so this expression simplifies to the equation for a simple harmonic oscillator with frequency 
+  
+    
+      
+        ω
+        =
+        
+          
+            g
+            
+              /
+            
+            L
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \omega ={\sqrt {g/L}}}
+  
+.
+A harmonic oscillator can be damped, often by friction or viscous drag, in which case energy bleeds out of the oscillator and the amplitude of the oscillations decreases over time. Also, a harmonic oscillator can be driven by an applied force, which can lead to the phenomenon of resonance.
+
+==== Objects with variable mass ====
+
+Newtonian physics treats matter as being neither created nor destroyed, though it may be rearranged. It can be the case that an object of interest gains or loses mass because matter is added to or removed from it. In such a situation, Newton's laws can be applied to the individual pieces of matter, keeping track of which pieces belong to the object of interest over time. For instance, if a rocket of mass 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M(t)}
+  
+, moving at velocity 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (t)}
+  
+, ejects matter at a velocity 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          u
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
+  
+ relative to the rocket, then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        M
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                v
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          u
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              M
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =M{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}-\mathbf {u} {\frac {\mathrm {d} M}{\mathrm {d} t}}\,}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} }
+  
+ is the net external force (e.g., a planet's gravitational pull).
+
+==== Fan and sail ====
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-5.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..dc23586b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-5.md
@@ -0,0 +1,156 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 6/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The fan and sail example is a situation studied in discussions of Newton's third law. In the situation, a fan is attached to a cart or a sailboat and blows on its sail. From the third law, one would reason that the force of the air pushing in one direction would cancel out the force done by the fan on the sail, leaving the entire apparatus stationary. However, because the system is not entirely enclosed, there are conditions in which the vessel will move; for example, if the sail is built in a manner that redirects the majority of the airflow back towards the fan, the net force will result in the vessel moving forward.
+
+== Work and energy ==
+The concept of energy was developed after Newton's time, but it has become an inseparable part of what is considered "Newtonian" physics. Energy can broadly be classified into kinetic, due to a body's motion, and potential, due to a body's position relative to others. Thermal energy, the energy carried by heat flow, is a type of kinetic energy not associated with the macroscopic motion of objects but instead with the movements of the atoms and molecules of which they are made. According to the work-energy theorem, when a force acts upon a body while that body moves along the line of the force, the force does work upon the body, and the amount of work done is equal to the change in the body's kinetic energy. In many cases of interest, the net work done by a force when a body moves in a closed loop — starting at a point, moving along some trajectory, and returning to the initial point — is zero. If this is the case, then the force can be written in terms of the gradient of a function called a scalar potential:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        U
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =-\mathbf {\nabla } U\,.}
+  
+
+This is true for many forces including that of gravity, but not for friction; indeed, almost any problem in a mechanics textbook that does not involve friction can be expressed in this way. The fact that the force can be written in this way can be understood from the conservation of energy. Without friction to dissipate a body's energy into heat, the body's energy will trade between potential and (non-thermal) kinetic forms while the total amount remains constant. Any gain of kinetic energy, which occurs when the net force on the body accelerates it to a higher speed, must be accompanied by a loss of potential energy. So, the net force upon the body is determined by the manner in which the potential energy decreases.
+
+== Rigid-body motion and rotation ==
+
+A rigid body is an object whose size is too large to neglect and which maintains the same shape over time. In Newtonian mechanics, the motion of a rigid body is often understood by separating it into movement of the body's center of mass and movement around the center of mass.
+
+=== Center of mass ===
+
+Significant aspects of the motion of an extended body can be understood by imagining the mass of that body concentrated to a single point, known as the center of mass. The location of a body's center of mass depends upon how that body's material is distributed. For a collection of pointlike objects with masses 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          m
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        
+          m
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m_{1},\ldots ,m_{N}}
+  
+ at positions 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            r
+          
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        
+          
+            r
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} _{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{N}}
+  
+, the center of mass is located at 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                m
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  r
+                
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+            
+            M
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} =\sum _{i=1}^{N}{\frac {m_{i}\mathbf {r} _{i}}{M}},}
+  
+ where 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+ is the total mass of the collection. In the absence of a net external force, the center of mass moves at a constant speed in a straight line. This applies, for example, to a collision between two bodies. If the total external force is not zero, then the center of mass changes velocity as though it were a point body of mass 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+. This follows from the fact that the internal forces within the collection, the forces that the objects exert upon each other, occur in balanced pairs by Newton's third law. In a system of two bodies with one much more massive than the other, the center of mass will approximately coincide with the location of the more massive body.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-6.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..65b9ebc55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-6.md
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 7/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Rotational analogues of Newton's laws ===
+When Newton's laws are applied to rotating extended bodies, they lead to new quantities that are analogous to those invoked in the original laws. The analogue of mass is the moment of inertia, the counterpart of momentum is angular momentum, and the counterpart of force is torque.
+Angular momentum is calculated with respect to a reference point. If the displacement vector from a reference point to a body is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          r
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} }
+  
+ and the body has momentum 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} }
+  
+, then the body's angular momentum with respect to that point is, using the vector cross product, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          L
+        
+        =
+        
+          r
+        
+        ×
+        
+          p
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} =\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {p} .}
+  
+ Taking the time derivative of the angular momentum gives 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                L
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  d
+                
+                
+                  r
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  d
+                
+                t
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        ×
+        
+          p
+        
+        +
+        
+          r
+        
+        ×
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              
+                p
+              
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          v
+        
+        ×
+        m
+        
+          v
+        
+        +
+        
+          r
+        
+        ×
+        
+          F
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {L} }{\mathrm {d} t}}=\left({\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\right)\times \mathbf {p} +\mathbf {r} \times {\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} }{\mathrm {d} t}}=\mathbf {v} \times m\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {F} .}
+  
+ The first term vanishes because 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        
+          v
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m\mathbf {v} }
+  
+ point in the same direction. The remaining term is the torque, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          τ
+        
+        =
+        
+          r
+        
+        ×
+        
+          F
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {\tau } =\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {F} .}
+  
+ When the torque is zero, the angular momentum is constant, just as when the force is zero, the momentum is constant. The torque can vanish even when the force is non-zero, if the body is located at the reference point (
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          r
+        
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} =0}
+  
+) or if the force 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} }
+  
+ and the displacement vector 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          r
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} }
+  
+ are directed along the same line.
+The angular momentum of a collection of point masses, and thus of an extended body, is found by adding the contributions from each of the points. This provides a means to characterize a body's rotation about an axis, by adding up the angular momenta of its individual pieces. The result depends on the chosen axis, the shape of the body, and the rate of rotation.
+
+=== Multi-body gravitational system ===
+
+Newton's law of universal gravitation states that any body attracts any other body along the straight line connecting them. The size of the attracting force is proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Finding the shape of the orbits that an inverse-square force law will produce is known as the Kepler problem. The Kepler problem can be solved in multiple ways, including by demonstrating that the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector is constant, or by applying a duality transformation to a 2-dimensional harmonic oscillator. However it is solved, the result is that orbits will be conic sections, that is, ellipses (including circles), parabolas, or hyperbolas. The eccentricity of the orbit, and thus the type of conic section, is determined by the energy and the angular momentum of the orbiting body. Planets do not have sufficient energy to escape the Sun, and so their orbits are ellipses, to a good approximation; because the planets pull on one another, actual orbits are not exactly conic sections.
+If a third mass is added, the Kepler problem becomes the three-body problem, which in general has no exact solution in closed form. That is, there is no way to start from the differential equations implied by Newton's laws and, after a finite sequence of standard mathematical operations, obtain equations that express the three bodies' motions over time. Numerical methods can be applied to obtain useful, albeit approximate, results for the three-body problem. The positions and velocities of the bodies can be stored in variables within a computer's memory; Newton's laws are used to calculate how the velocities will change over a short interval of time, and knowing the velocities, the changes of position over that time interval can be computed. This process is looped to calculate, approximately, the bodies' trajectories. Generally speaking, the shorter the time interval, the more accurate the approximation.
+
+== Chaos and unpredictability ==
+
+=== Nonlinear dynamics ===
+
+Newton's laws of motion allow the possibility of chaos. That is, qualitatively speaking, physical systems obeying Newton's laws can exhibit sensitive dependence upon their initial conditions: a slight change of the position or velocity of one part of a system can lead to the whole system behaving in a radically different way within a short time. Noteworthy examples include the three-body problem, the double pendulum, dynamical billiards, and the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem.
+Newton's laws can be applied to fluids by considering a fluid as composed of infinitesimal pieces, each exerting forces upon neighboring pieces. The Euler momentum equation is an expression of Newton's second law adapted to fluid dynamics. A fluid is described by a velocity field, i.e., a function 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+        (
+        
+          x
+        
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (\mathbf {x} ,t)}
+  
+ that assigns a velocity vector to each point in space and time. A small object being carried along by the fluid flow can change velocity for two reasons: first, because the velocity field at its position is changing over time, and second, because it moves to a new location where the velocity field has a different value. Consequently, when Newton's second law is applied to an infinitesimal portion of fluid, the acceleration 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          a
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} }
+  
+ has two terms, a combination known as a total or material derivative. The mass of an infinitesimal portion depends upon the fluid density, and there is a net force upon it if the fluid pressure varies from one side of it to another. Accordingly, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          a
+        
+        =
+        
+          F
+        
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} =\mathbf {F} /m}
+  
+ becomes
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-7.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..eb4dc071b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-7.md
@@ -0,0 +1,571 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 8/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              v
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        (
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          v
+        
+        )
+        
+          v
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            ρ
+          
+        
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        P
+        +
+        
+          f
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial v}{\partial t}}+(\mathbf {\nabla } \cdot \mathbf {v} )\mathbf {v} =-{\frac {1}{\rho }}\mathbf {\nabla } P+\mathbf {f} ,}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        ρ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rho }
+  
+ is the density, 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P}
+  
+ is the pressure, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {f} }
+  
+ stands for an external influence like a gravitational pull. Incorporating the effect of viscosity turns the Euler equation into a Navier–Stokes equation:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              v
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        (
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          v
+        
+        )
+        
+          v
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            ρ
+          
+        
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        P
+        +
+        ν
+        
+          ∇
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          v
+        
+        +
+        
+          f
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial v}{\partial t}}+(\mathbf {\nabla } \cdot \mathbf {v} )\mathbf {v} =-{\frac {1}{\rho }}\mathbf {\nabla } P+\nu \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {f} ,}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        ν
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \nu }
+  
+ is the kinematic viscosity.
+
+=== Singularities ===
+It is mathematically possible for a collection of point masses, moving in accord with Newton's laws, to launch some of themselves away so forcefully that they fly off to infinity in a finite time. This unphysical behavior, known as a "noncollision singularity", depends upon the masses being pointlike and able to approach one another arbitrarily closely, as well as the lack of a relativistic speed limit in Newtonian physics.
+It is not yet known whether or not the Euler and Navier–Stokes equations exhibit the analogous behavior of initially smooth solutions "blowing up" in finite time. The question of existence and smoothness of Navier–Stokes solutions is one of the Millennium Prize Problems.
+
+== Relation to other formulations of classical physics ==
+Classical mechanics can be mathematically formulated in multiple different ways, other than the "Newtonian" description (which itself, of course, incorporates contributions from others both before and after Newton). The physical content of these different formulations is the same as the Newtonian, but they provide different insights and facilitate different types of calculations. For example, Lagrangian mechanics helps make apparent the connection between symmetries and conservation laws, and it is useful when calculating the motion of constrained bodies, like a mass restricted to move along a curving track or on the surface of a sphere. Hamiltonian mechanics is convenient for statistical physics, leads to further insight about symmetry, and can be developed into sophisticated techniques for perturbation theory. Due to the breadth of these topics, the discussion here will be confined to concise treatments of how they reformulate Newton's laws of motion.
+
+=== Lagrangian ===
+Lagrangian mechanics differs from the Newtonian formulation by considering entire trajectories at once rather than predicting a body's motion at a single instant. It is traditional in Lagrangian mechanics to denote position with 
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q}
+  
+ and velocity with 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {q}}}
+  
+. The simplest example is a massive point particle, the Lagrangian for which can be written as the difference between its kinetic and potential energies:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        (
+        q
+        ,
+        
+          
+            
+              q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        T
+        −
+        V
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L(q,{\dot {q}})=T-V,}
+  
+
+where the kinetic energy is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            2
+          
+        
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                q
+                ˙
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T={\frac {1}{2}}m{\dot {q}}^{2}}
+  
+
+and the potential energy is some function of the position, 
+  
+    
+      
+        V
+        (
+        q
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V(q)}
+  
+. The physical path that the particle will take between an initial point 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          q
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q_{i}}
+  
+ and a final point 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          q
+          
+            f
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q_{f}}
+  
+ is the path for which the integral of the Lagrangian is "stationary". That is, the physical path has the property that small perturbations of it will, to a first approximation, not change the integral of the Lagrangian. Calculus of variations provides the mathematical tools for finding this path. Applying the calculus of variations to the task of finding the path yields the Euler–Lagrange equation for the particle,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                ∂
+                L
+              
+              
+                ∂
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      q
+                      ˙
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              L
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              q
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\left({\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {q}}}}\right)={\frac {\partial L}{\partial q}}.}
+  
+
+Evaluating the partial derivatives of the Lagrangian gives
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              q
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              V
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              q
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}(m{\dot {q}})=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} V}{\mathrm {d} q}},}
+  
+
+which is a restatement of Newton's second law. The left-hand side is the time derivative of the momentum, and the right-hand side is the force, represented in terms of the potential energy.
+Landau and Lifshitz argue that the Lagrangian formulation makes the conceptual content of classical mechanics more clear than starting with Newton's laws. Lagrangian mechanics provides a convenient framework in which to prove Noether's theorem, which relates symmetries and conservation laws. The conservation of momentum can be derived by applying Noether's theorem to a Lagrangian for a multi-particle system, and so, Newton's third law is a theorem rather than an assumption.
+
+=== Hamiltonian ===
+
+In Hamiltonian mechanics, the dynamics of a system are represented by a function called the Hamiltonian, which in many cases of interest is equal to the total energy of the system. The Hamiltonian is a function of the positions and the momenta of all the bodies making up the system, and it may also depend explicitly upon time. The time derivatives of the position and momentum variables are given by partial derivatives of the Hamiltonian, via Hamilton's equations. The simplest example is a point mass 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ constrained to move in a straight line, under the effect of a potential. Writing 
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q}
+  
+ for the position coordinate and 
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p}
+  
+ for the body's momentum, the Hamiltonian is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            H
+          
+        
+        (
+        p
+        ,
+        q
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              p
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            
+              2
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        V
+        (
+        q
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}(p,q)={\frac {p^{2}}{2m}}+V(q).}
+  
+
+In this example, Hamilton's equations are
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              q
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              
+                
+                  H
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              p
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} q}{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\partial {\mathcal {H}}}{\partial p}}}
+  
+
+and
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              p
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              
+                
+                  H
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              q
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-{\frac {\partial {\mathcal {H}}}{\partial q}}.}
+  
+
+Evaluating these partial derivatives, the former equation becomes
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-8.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..4d7c4731e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-8.md
@@ -0,0 +1,662 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 9/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              q
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            p
+            m
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} q}{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {p}{m}},}
+  
+
+which reproduces the familiar statement that a body's momentum is the product of its mass and velocity. The time derivative of the momentum is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              p
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              V
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              q
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} V}{\mathrm {d} q}},}
+  
+
+which, upon identifying the negative derivative of the potential with the force, is just Newton's second law once again.
+As in the Lagrangian formulation, in Hamiltonian mechanics the conservation of momentum can be derived using Noether's theorem, making Newton's third law an idea that is deduced rather than assumed.
+Among the proposals to reform the standard introductory-physics curriculum is one that teaches the concept of energy before that of force, essentially "introductory Hamiltonian mechanics".
+
+=== Hamilton–Jacobi ===
+The Hamilton–Jacobi equation provides yet another formulation of classical mechanics, one which makes it mathematically analogous to wave optics. This formulation also uses Hamiltonian functions, but in a different way than the formulation described above. The paths taken by bodies or collections of bodies are deduced from a function 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+        (
+        
+          
+            q
+          
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          
+            q
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S(\mathbf {q} _{1},\mathbf {q} _{2},\ldots ,t)}
+  
+ of positions 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            q
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{i}}
+  
+ and time 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  
+. The Hamiltonian is incorporated into the Hamilton–Jacobi equation, a differential equation for 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+. Bodies move over time in such a way that their trajectories are perpendicular to the surfaces of constant 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+, analogously to how a light ray propagates in the direction perpendicular to its wavefront. This is simplest to express for the case of a single point mass, in which 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+ is a function 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+        (
+        
+          q
+        
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S(\mathbf {q} ,t)}
+  
+, and the point mass moves in the direction along which 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+ changes most steeply. In other words, the momentum of the point mass is the gradient of 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            m
+          
+        
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        S
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ={\frac {1}{m}}\mathbf {\nabla } S.}
+  
+
+The Hamilton–Jacobi equation for a point mass is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              S
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        H
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              q
+            
+            ,
+            
+              ∇
+            
+            S
+            ,
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -{\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}=H\left(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\nabla } S,t\right).}
+  
+
+The relation to Newton's laws can be seen by considering a point mass moving in a time-independent potential 
+  
+    
+      
+        V
+        (
+        
+          q
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {q} )}
+  
+, in which case the Hamilton–Jacobi equation becomes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              S
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              2
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                ∇
+              
+              S
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        V
+        (
+        
+          q
+        
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -{\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}={\frac {1}{2m}}\left(\mathbf {\nabla } S\right)^{2}+V(\mathbf {q} ).}
+  
+
+Taking the gradient of both sides, this becomes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              S
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              2
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                ∇
+              
+              S
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        V
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -\mathbf {\nabla } {\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}={\frac {1}{2m}}\mathbf {\nabla } \left(\mathbf {\nabla } S\right)^{2}+\mathbf {\nabla } V.}
+  
+
+Interchanging the order of the partial derivatives on the left-hand side, and using the power and chain rules on the first term on the right-hand side,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        
+          
+            ∂
+            
+              ∂
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        S
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            m
+          
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              ∇
+            
+            S
+            ⋅
+            
+              ∇
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        S
+        +
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        V
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\mathbf {\nabla } S={\frac {1}{m}}\left(\mathbf {\nabla } S\cdot \mathbf {\nabla } \right)\mathbf {\nabla } S+\mathbf {\nabla } V.}
+  
+
+Gathering together the terms that depend upon the gradient of 
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S}
+  
+,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              
+                ∂
+                
+                  ∂
+                  t
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            
+              
+                1
+                m
+              
+            
+            
+              (
+              
+                
+                  ∇
+                
+                S
+                ⋅
+                
+                  ∇
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        S
+        =
+        −
+        
+          ∇
+        
+        V
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left[{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}+{\frac {1}{m}}\left(\mathbf {\nabla } S\cdot \mathbf {\nabla } \right)\right]\mathbf {\nabla } S=-\mathbf {\nabla } V.}
+  
+
+This is another re-expression of Newton's second law. The expression in brackets is a total or material derivative as mentioned above, in which the first term indicates how the function being differentiated changes over time at a fixed location, and the second term captures how a moving particle will see different values of that function as it travels from place to place:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              
+                ∂
+                
+                  ∂
+                  t
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            
+              
+                1
+                m
+              
+            
+            
+              (
+              
+                
+                  ∇
+                
+                S
+                ⋅
+                
+                  ∇
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+        =
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              
+                ∂
+                
+                  ∂
+                  t
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            
+              v
+            
+            ⋅
+            
+              ∇
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+            
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left[{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}+{\frac {1}{m}}\left(\mathbf {\nabla } S\cdot \mathbf {\nabla } \right)\right]=\left[{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}+\mathbf {v} \cdot \mathbf {\nabla } \right]={\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}.}
+  
+
+== Relation to other physical theories ==
+
+=== Thermodynamics and statistical physics ===
+
+In statistical physics, the kinetic theory of gases applies Newton's laws of motion to large numbers (typically on the order of the Avogadro number) of particles. Kinetic theory can explain, for example, the pressure that a gas exerts upon the container holding it as the aggregate of many impacts of atoms, each imparting a tiny amount of momentum.
+The Langevin equation is a special case of Newton's second law, adapted for the case of describing a small object bombarded stochastically by even smaller ones. It can be written
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        
+          a
+        
+        =
+        −
+        γ
+        
+          v
+        
+        +
+        
+          ξ
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m\mathbf {a} =-\gamma \mathbf {v} +\mathbf {\xi } \,}
+  
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        γ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \gamma }
+  
+ is a drag coefficient and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ξ
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {\xi } }
+  
+ is a force that varies randomly from instant to instant, representing the net effect of collisions with the surrounding particles. This is used to model Brownian motion.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-9.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a2e82f910
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion-9.md
@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+---
+title: "Newton's laws of motion"
+chunk: 10/13
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:25.048867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Electromagnetism ===
+Newton's three laws can be applied to phenomena involving electricity and magnetism, though subtleties and caveats exist.
+Coulomb's law for the electric force between two stationary, electrically charged bodies has much the same mathematical form as Newton's law of universal gravitation: the force is proportional to the product of the charges, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and directed along the straight line between them. The Coulomb force that a charge 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          q
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q_{1}}
+  
+ exerts upon a charge 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          q
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q_{2}}
+  
+ is equal in magnitude to the force that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          q
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q_{2}}
+  
+ exerts upon 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          q
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q_{1}}
+  
+, and it points in the exact opposite direction. Coulomb's law is thus consistent with Newton's third law.
+Electromagnetism treats forces as produced by fields acting upon charges. The Lorentz force law provides an expression for the force upon a charged body that can be plugged into Newton's second law in order to calculate its acceleration. According to the Lorentz force law, a charged body in an electric field experiences a force in the direction of that field, a force proportional to its charge 
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q}
+  
+ and to the strength of the electric field. In addition, a moving charged body in a magnetic field experiences a force that is also proportional to its charge, in a direction perpendicular to both the field and the body's direction of motion. Using the vector cross product,
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+        
+        =
+        q
+        
+          E
+        
+        +
+        q
+        
+          v
+        
+        ×
+        
+          B
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =q\mathbf {E} +q\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} .}
+  
+
+If the electric field vanishes (
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+        
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =0}
+  
+), then the force will be perpendicular to the charge's motion, just as in the case of uniform circular motion studied above, and the charge will circle (or more generally move in a helix) around the magnetic field lines at the cyclotron frequency 
+  
+    
+      
+        ω
+        =
+        q
+        B
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \omega =qB/m}
+  
+. Mass spectrometry works by applying electric and/or magnetic fields to moving charges and measuring the resulting acceleration, which by the Lorentz force law yields the mass-to-charge ratio.
+Collections of charged bodies do not always obey Newton's third law: there can be a change of one body's momentum without a compensatory change in the momentum of another. The discrepancy is accounted for by momentum carried by the electromagnetic field itself. The momentum per unit volume of the electromagnetic field is proportional to the Poynting vector.
+There is subtle conceptual conflict between electromagnetism and Newton's first law: Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism predicts that electromagnetic waves will travel through empty space at a constant, definite speed. Thus, some inertial observers seemingly have a privileged status over the others, namely those who measure the speed of light and find it to be the value predicted by the Maxwell equations. In other words, light provides an absolute standard for speed, yet the principle of inertia holds that there should be no such standard. This tension is resolved in the theory of special relativity, which revises the notions of space and time in such a way that all inertial observers will agree upon the speed of light in vacuum.
+
+=== Special relativity ===
+
+In special relativity, the rule that Wilczek called "Newton's Zeroth Law" breaks down: the mass of a composite object is not merely the sum of the masses of the individual pieces. Newton's first law, inertial motion, remains true. A form of Newton's second law, that force is the rate of change of momentum, also holds, as does the conservation of momentum. However, the definition of momentum is modified. Among the consequences of this is the fact that the more quickly a body moves, the harder it is to accelerate, and so, no matter how much force is applied, a body cannot be accelerated to the speed of light. Depending on the problem at hand, momentum in special relativity can be represented as a three-dimensional vector, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+        =
+        m
+        γ
+        
+          v
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =m\gamma \mathbf {v} }
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m}
+  
+ is the body's rest mass and 
+  
+    
+      
+        γ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \gamma }
+  
+ is the Lorentz factor, which depends upon the body's speed. Alternatively, momentum and force can be represented as four-vectors.
+Newton's third law must be modified in special relativity. The third law refers to the forces between two bodies at the same moment in time, and a key feature of special relativity is that simultaneity is relative. Events that happen at the same time relative to one observer can happen at different times relative to another. So, in a given observer's frame of reference, action and reaction may not be exactly opposite, and the total momentum of interacting bodies may not be conserved. The conservation of momentum is restored by including the momentum stored in the field that describes the bodies' interaction.
+Newtonian mechanics is a good approximation to special relativity when the speeds involved are small compared to that of light.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexus_Tools_Platform-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexus_Tools_Platform-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e38ab24b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexus_Tools_Platform-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+---
+title: "Nexus Tools Platform"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexus_Tools_Platform"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:04.200363+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Nexus Tools Platform or NTP is a web-based inventory platform that allows an interactive comparison of environmental models in a statistical way. Developed by the UNU Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and of Resources (UNU-FLORES), the platform helps a user to analyze existing modelling tools related to environmental resource management and associated nexus perspectives, such as a Water-Energy-Food Nexus. As a result, the user can select the most appropriate tools to fit the research needs.
+
+
+== Integrated Resources Management (Nexus Approach) ==
+Considering an increase in the global population, the demand for both food and water is expected to grow by more than 50% by 2050.
+At the same time, agricultural activity already puts significant stress on the quantity and quality of soils and freshwater resources worldwide. This leads to growing rates of land degradation and ecosystem deterioration.
+Long-term solutions to those challenges require integrated management of environmental resources which can be also referred to as a Nexus Approach.
+This approach focuses on the synergies between sectors in order to minimize trade-offs, increase resource use efficiency, and improve environmental policy & governance which is crucial for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.
+For example, the sustainable management of wastewater in crop production is considered as an implementation of a Water-Soil-Waste Nexus.
+
+
+== Mission ==
+Integrated resource management requires the use of integrated environmental modelling tools. However, there is no single model that can cover all complex interactions between natural resources such as water, soil, and waste. Moreover, there is a poor awareness of the available models and their capabilities which results in a time-consuming process of developing new models instead of using or further expanding already existing ones.
+With the objective of addressing the abovementioned problems, the Nexus Tools Platform has been created. It provides detailed visualizations of model descriptions and advanced filtering options using Kibana open-source visualization software. The platform does not attempt to include all possible models, but rather to provide a more efficient way to compare well-established ones and to keep the content updated through the feedback system with model users and developers.
+
+
+== History ==
+The first version of the website was published in April 2015 starting with the database of 60 models from around the world. A year later, a paper was published in Environmental Modelling & Software journal explaining the NTP development, data collection methodology, and application examples. In March 2018, NTP 2.0 was released with a greater number of available models (84), improved classification and visualization. Through the advanced search and filter functions, users could differentiate modelling tools in terms of model types, popularity, considered processes, input and output parameters, application areas (countries), programming language, etc. Recently, the whole database was refreshed and one more model was added making 85 in total.
+
+
+== Data Sources ==
+The data for the platform is collected in two ways:
+
+The open access information which is available on the respective model websites, manuals, and publications. This information is further processed to fit the NTP classification system;
+The information provided directly by the model developers.
+The current list of models includes a wide array of research areas from hydrology and land management to soil and water quality topics from a local to global scale. Some of the most popular examples are SWAT, MODFLOW, HEC-RAS, and CESM.
+The NTP is not intended to promote any of the models listed on the website. The information, whether in graphical or text form, is presented for scientific and educational purposes only.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Scientific article about Nexus Tools Platform
+Nexus Tools Platform website
+The Nexus Approach
+United Nations University Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and of Resources (UNU-FLORES)
+
+
+== See also ==
+UNU-FLORES
+United Nations University (UNU)
+Water, energy and food security nexus
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolausian_discounting-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolausian_discounting-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..31a54b8e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolausian_discounting-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Nicolausian discounting"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolausian_discounting"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:13.887222+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Nicolausian discounting is a heuristic technique meant to simplify decision-making involving very small probabilities by ignoring them.  The term was coined by philosopher Bradley Monton in a 2019 paper. He defined it this way:  "For decision-making, small probabilities should be discounted down to zero before maximizing expected utility."
+Monton named the concept after Nicolaus I Bernoulli, who suggested it as a solution to his St. Petersburg paradox.  Monton translates Bernoulli as writing in 1714 that "cases that have a very small probability must be neglected and assumed to be zero."
+The term has gained some currency and been mentioned in other writings in philosophy.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..70c2f1a8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Nominative determinism"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:07.910812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Nominative determinism is the hypothesis that people tend to gravitate toward areas of work or interest that fit their names. The term was first used in the magazine New Scientist in 1994, after the magazine's humorous "Feedback" column noted several scientific studies carried out by researchers with remarkably fitting surnames. These included a book on polar explorations by Daniel Snowman and an article on urology by researchers named Splatt and Weedon. These and other examples led to lighthearted speculation that some sort of psychological effect was at work. 
+Since the term appeared, nominative determinism has been an irregularly recurring topic in New Scientist, as readers continue to submit examples. Nominative determinism differs from the related concept of the aptronym, and the Latin idea of nomen est omen ("the name is a sign"), in that it focuses on causality. An aptronym merely means the name is fitting, without saying anything about why it has come to fit.
+The idea that people are drawn to professions that fit their name was suggested by the psychologist Carl Jung, citing as an example Sigmund Freud who studied pleasure and whose surname means 'joy'. A few recent empirical studies have indicated that certain professions are disproportionately represented by people with appropriate surnames (and sometimes given names), though the methods of these studies have been challenged. One explanation for nominative determinism is implicit egotism, which states that humans have an unconscious preference for things they associate with themselves.
+
+== Background ==
+
+Historically, before people could gravitate toward areas of work that matched their names, many people were given names that matched their area of work. The way people are named has changed over time. In pre-urban times, people were known by a single name – for example, the Anglo-Saxon name Beornheard. Single names were chosen for their meaning or given as nicknames. In England, it was only after the Norman Conquest that surnames appear, although some pre-Conquest individuals had a byname, such as Edmund Ironside; these bynames were not hereditary. Surnames were created to fit the person, mostly from patronyms (e.g., John, son of William, becomes John Williamson), occupational descriptions (e.g., John Carpenter), character or traits (e.g., John Long), or location (e.g., John from Acton became John Acton). Names were not initially hereditary; only by the mid-14th century did they gradually become so. Surnames relating to trades or craft were the first to become hereditary, as the craft often persisted within the family for generations. The appropriateness of occupational names has decreased over time, because tradesmen did not always follow their fathers: an early example from the 14th century is "Roger Carpenter the pepperer".
+Another aspect of naming was the importance attached to the wider meaning contained in a name. In 17th-century England, it was believed that choosing a name for a child should be done carefully. Children should live according to the message contained therein, or the meaning of their names. In 1652, William Jenkyn, an English clergyman, argued that first names should be "as a thread tyed about the finger to make us mindful of the errand we came into the world to do for our Master". In 1623, at a time when Puritan names such as Faith, Fortitude and Grace were appearing for the first time, the English historian William Camden wrote that names should be chosen with "good and gracious significations", as they might inspire the bearer to good actions. With the rise of the British Empire, the English naming system and English surnames spread across large portions of the globe.
+By the beginning of the 20th century, Smith and Taylor were two of the three most frequently occurring English surnames; both were occupational, though few smiths and tailors remained. When a correspondence between a name and an occupation did occur, it became worthy of note. In an 1888 issue of the Kentish Note Book magazine, a list appeared with "several carriers by the name of Carter; a hosier named Hosegood; an auctioneer named Sales; and a draper named Cuff".  Since then, a variety of terms for the concept of a close relationship between name and occupation have emerged. The term aptronym is thought to have been coined in the early 20th century by the American newspaper columnist Franklin P. Adams. The linguist Frank Nuessel coined "aptonym", without an "r", in 1992. Other synonyms include "euonym", "Perfect Fit Last Name" (PFLN), and "namephreak". In literary science, a name that particularly suits a character is called a "charactonym". Notable authors who frequently used charactonyms as a stylistic technique include Charles Dickens (e.g., Mr. Gradgrind, the tyrannical schoolmaster) and William Shakespeare (e.g., the lost baby Perdita in The Winter's Tale). Unlike nominative determinism, the concept of aptronym and its synonyms do not say anything about causality, such as why the name has come to fit.
+Because of the potentially humorous nature of aptronyms, a number of newspapers have collected them. The San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen reported irregularly on reader-submitted examples, including a substitute teacher Mr. Fillin, a piano teacher Patience Scales, and the Vatican's spokesman on the evils of rock 'n' roll, Cardinal Rapsong. Similarly, the journalist Bob Levey on occasion listed examples sent in by readers of his column in The Washington Post: a food industry consultant named Faith Popcorn, a lieutenant called Sergeant, and a tax accountant called Shelby Goldgrab. A Dutch newspaper, Het Parool, had an irregularly featured column called "Nomen est omen" with Dutch examples. Individual name collectors have also published books of aptronyms. The onomastic scholar R. M. Rennick called for more verification of aptronyms appearing in newspaper columns and books. Lists of aptronyms in science, medicine, and law are more reliable as they tend to be drawn from easily verifiable sources.
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+---
+title: "Nominative determinism"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:07.910812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Though most examples of aptronyms consist of people's surnames, there are also cases of full names which correlate with their holders' careers. A humorous example is Robin Mahfood, who was CEO and president of nonprofit organization Food For The Poor until 2020. His name has a very similar pronunciation with the phrase "robbing my food", and its correlation with his charity work in donating food has made him the subject of internet memes.
+
+== Definition ==
+Nominative determinism, literally "name-driven outcome", is the hypothesis that people tend to gravitate toward areas of work that reflect their names. The name fits because people, possibly subconsciously, made themselves fit. Nominative determinism differs from the concept of aptronyms in that it focuses on causality.
+The term has its origin in the "Feedback" column of the magazine New Scientist in 1994. A series of events raised the suspicion of its editor, John Hoyland, who wrote in the November 5 issue:
+
+We recently came across a new book, Pole Positions—The Polar Regions and the Future of the Planet, by Daniel Snowman. Then, a couple of weeks later, we received a copy of London Under London—A Subterranean Guide, one of the authors of which is Richard Trench. So it was interesting to see Jen Hunt of the University of Manchester stating in the October issue of The Psychologist: "Authors gravitate to the area of research which fits their surname." Hunt's example is an article on incontinence in the British Journal of Urology by A. J. Splatt and D. Weedon.
+We feel it's time to open up this whole issue to rigorous scrutiny. You are invited to send in examples of the phenomenon in the fields of science and technology (with references that check out, please) together with any hypotheses you may have on how it comes about.
+The editors of Feedback, John Hoyland and Mike Holderness, subsequently adopted the term "nominative determinism" as suggested by the reader C. R. Cavonius. The term first appeared in the December 17 issue. Even though the magazine tried to ban the topic numerous times over the decades since, readers kept sending in curious examples. These included the U.S. Navy spokesman put up to answer journalists' questions about the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, one Lieutenant Mike Kafka; authors of the book The Imperial Animal, Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox; and the UK Association of Chief Police Officers' spokesman on knife crime, Alfred Hitchcock.
+As used in New Scientist the term nominative determinism applies only to work. In contributions to other newspapers, New Scientist writers have stuck to this definition, with the exception of the editor Roger Highfield in a column in the Evening Standard, in which he included "key attributes of life".
+Prior to 1994, other terms for the suspected psychological effect were used sporadically. "Onomastic determinism" was used as early as 1970 by Roberta Frank. The German psychologist Wilhelm Stekel spoke of "Die Verpflichtung des Namens" (The obligation of the name) in 1911. Outside of science, "cognomen syndrome" was used by the playwright Tom Stoppard in his 1972 play Jumpers. In Ancient Rome, the predictive power of a person's name was captured by the Latin proverb "nomen est omen", meaning 'the name is a sign'. This saying is still in use today in English and other languages such as French, German, Italian, Dutch, Slovenian and Polish.
+New Scientist coined the term "nominative contradeterminism" for people who move away from their name, creating a contradiction between name and occupation. Examples include Andrew Waterhouse, a professor of wine; a would-be doctor, Thomas Edward Kill, who subsequently changed his name to Jirgensohn; and the Archbishop of Manila, Cardinal Sin. The synonym "inaptronym" is also sometimes used.
+
+== Research ==
+
+=== Theoretical framework ===
+
+The first scientists to discuss the concept that names had a determining effect were early 20th-century German psychologists. Wilhelm Stekel spoke of the "obligation of the name" in the context of compulsive behaviour and choice of occupation; Karl Abraham wrote that the determining power of names might be partially caused by inheriting a trait from an ancestor who was given a fitting name. He made the further inference that families with fitting names might then try to live up to their names in some way. In 1952, Carl Jung referred to Stekel's work in his theory of synchronicity (events without causal relationship that yet seem to be meaningfully related):
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+title: "Nominative determinism"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:07.910812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+We find ourselves in something of a quandary when it comes to making up our minds about the phenomenon which Stekel calls the "compulsion of the name". What he means by this is the sometimes quite gross coincidence between a man's name and his peculiarities or profession. For instance ... Herr Feist (Mr Stout) is the food minister, Herr Rosstäuscher (Mr Horsetrader) is a lawyer, Herr Kalberer (Mr Calver) is an obstetrician ... Are these the whimsicalities of chance, or the suggestive effects of the name, as Stekel seems to suggest, or are they "meaningful coincidences"?
+Jung listed striking instances among psychologists—including himself: "Herr Freud (Joy) champions the pleasure principle, Herr Adler (Eagle) the will to power, Herr Jung (Young) the idea of rebirth ..."
+In 1975, the psychologist Lawrence Casler called for empirical research into the relative frequencies of career-appropriate names to establish if there is an effect at work or whether we are being "seduced by Lady Luck". He proposed three possible explanations for nominative determinism: one's self-image and self-expectation being internally influenced by one's name; the name acting as a social stimulus, creating expectations in others that are then communicated to the individual; and genetics – attributes suited to a particular career being passed down the generations alongside the appropriate occupational surname.
+In 2002, the researchers Pelham, Mirenberg, and Jones explored Casler's first explanation, arguing that people have a basic desire to feel good about themselves and behave according to that desire. These automatic positive associations would influence feelings about almost anything associated with the self. Given the mere ownership effect, which states that people like things more if they own them, the researchers theorised that people would develop an affection for objects and concepts that are associated with the self, such as their name. They called this unconscious power implicit egotism. Uri Simonsohn suggested that implicit egotism applies only to cases where people are nearly indifferent between options, and therefore it would not apply to major decisions such as career choices. Low-stakes decisions such as choosing a charity would show an effect. Raymond Smeets theorised that if implicit egotism stems from a positive evaluation of the self, then people with low self-esteem would not gravitate toward choices associated with the self, but possibly away from them. A lab experiment confirmed this.
+
+=== Empirical evidence ===
+
+Those with fitting names give differing accounts of the effect of their name on their career choices. Igor Judge, former Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, said he has no recollection of anyone commenting on his destined profession when he was a child, adding "I'm absolutely convinced in my case it is entirely coincidental and I can't think of any evidence in my life that suggests otherwise." James Counsell, on the other hand, having chosen a career in law just like his father, his sibling, and two distant relatives, reported having been spurred on to join the bar from an early age and he cannot remember ever wanting to do anything else. Sue Yoo, an American lawyer, said that when she was younger people urged her to become a lawyer because of her name, which she thinks may have helped her decision.  Weather reporter Storm Field was not sure about the influence of his name; his father, Frank Field, also a weather reporter, was his driving force. Psychology professor Lewis Lipsitt, a lifelong collector of aptronyms, was lecturing about nominative determinism in class when a student pointed out that Lipsitt himself was subject to the effect since he studied babies' sucking behaviour. Lipsitt said "That had never occurred to me." Church of England vicar the Reverend Michael Vickers denied being a Vickers had anything to do with him becoming a vicar, suggesting instead that in some cases "perhaps people are actually escaping from their name, rather than moving towards their job".
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+title: "Nominative determinism"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:07.910812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+While reports by owners of fitting names are of interest, some scientists, including Michalos and Smeets, have questioned their value in deciding whether nominative determinism is a real effect. Instead, they argue that the claim that a name affects life decisions is an extraordinary one that requires extraordinary evidence. To select only those cases that seem to give evidence for nominative determinism is to ignore those that do not. Analysis of large numbers of names is therefore needed. In 2002, Pelham, Mirenberg, and Jones analysed various databases containing first names, surnames, occupations, cities and states. In one study, they concluded that people named Dennis gravitate toward dentistry. They did this by retrieving the number of dentists called Dennis (482) from a database of US dentists. They then used the 1990 Census to find out which male first name was the next most popular after Dennis: Walter. The likelihood of a US male being called Dennis was 0.415% and the likelihood of a US male being called Walter was 0.416%. The researchers then retrieved the number of dentists called Walter (257). Comparing the relative frequencies of Dennis and Walter led them to their conclusion that the name Dennis is overrepresented in dentistry. However, in 2011, Uri Simonsohn published a paper in which he criticized Pelham et al. for not considering confounding factors and reported on how the popularity of Dennis and Walter as baby names has varied over the decades. Given Walter was a relatively old-fashioned name, it was far more likely for Pelham et al. to find people named Dennis to have any job, not just that of dentist, and people named Walter to be retired. Simonsohn did indeed find a disproportionally high number of Dennis lawyers compared to Walter lawyers.
+Aware of Simonsohn's critical analyses of their earlier methods, Pelham and Mauricio published a new study in 2015, describing how they now controlled for gender, ethnicity, and education confounds. In one study, they looked at census data and concluded that men disproportionately worked in eleven occupations whose titles matched their surnames; for example, baker, carpenter, and farmer.
+In 2009, Michalos reported the results of an analysis of the occurrences of people with the surname Counsell registered as independent barristers in England and Wales versus those with the name in England and Wales as whole. Given the low frequency of the name in England and Wales as a whole, he expected to find no one registered, but three barristers named Counsell were found.
+
+In 2015, researchers Limb, Limb, Limb and Limb found that British doctors have surnames related to their specialties more often than expected by chance. Reproductive medicine had the largest proportion, with 1 in 52 doctors having specialty-relevant surnames including Horn, Hussey, and Woodcock. Second was urology, with 1 in 59 related names such as Burns, Waterfall, Ball, and Koch. "Dr Pain" appeared most commonly in general surgery.  
+
+In 2010, Abel came to a similar conclusion. In one study, he compared doctors and lawyers whose first or last names began with three-letter combinations representative of their professions – for example, "doc", "law" – and likewise found a significant relationship between name and profession. Abel also found that the initial letters of physicians' last names were significantly related to their subspecialty. For example, Raymonds were more likely to be radiologists than dermatologists.
+As for Casler's third possible explanation for nominative determinism, genetics researchers Voracek, Rieder, Stieger, and Swami found some evidence for it in 2015. They reported that today's Smiths still tend to have the physical capabilities of their ancestors who were smiths. People called Smith reported above-average aptitude for strength-related activities. A similar aptitude for dexterity-related activities among people with the surname Tailor, or equivalent spellings thereof, was found, but it was not statistically significant. In the researchers' view, a genetic-social hypothesis appears more viable than the hypothesis of implicit egotism effects.
+
+== Related theories ==
+The Theory of Deadly Initials was an hypothesis published in the Journal of Psychosomatic Research in 1999, which proposed that there is a link between the lifespan of human males and their initials. The research, carried out by psychologists Nicholas Christenfeld, David Phillips and Laura Glynn, and published in the paper "What's in a Name: Mortality and the Power of Symbols", suggested that men with "negative" sets of initials (e.g. DIE or PIG) have, on average, a shorter lifespan than those with "positive" initials (e.g. ACE, VIP).
+The average increase in life expectancy for a set of positive initials was claimed to be 4.48 years, while the average decrease in life expectancy for negative initials was claimed as 2.8 years.  This is attributed to stress from teasing and lower self-worth in individuals with "deadly" initials.
+In 2005, the hypothesis was investigated by Gary Smith, an economics professor at Pomona College in Claremont, California, and Stilian Morrison, a student there. They were unable to find any pattern in the samples they studied.
+The original research was conducted by comparing the age of people who died within a given year, while the second investigation compared the lifespans of people who were born in a given year.
+
+== See also ==
+Linguistic relativity
+Aptronym
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
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+title: "Nominative determinism"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_determinism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:07.910812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Websites ===
+Colls, Tom (20 December 2011). "When the name fits the job". BBC Radio 4. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
+Highfield, Roger (24 March 2011). "The name game - the weird science of nominative determinism". The Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
+Hoekstra, Hans (16 April 2011). "Nomen est omen" (PDF). Het Parool (in Dutch). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
+Levey, Bob (20 November 1985). "Bob Levey's Washington". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
+Levey, Bob (29 August 2000). "Bob Levey's Washington". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
+Nelson, Graham. "Meet ordinary humans whose names shaped their destiny". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
+Nunn, Gary (31 October 2014). "Reckless by name, reckless by nature?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 August 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
+Silverman, Rachel Emma; Light, Joe (21 June 2011). "Dr. Chopp, Meet Congressman Weiner". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
+Telegraph staff (20 December 2011). "A person's surname can influence their career, experts claim". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 4 September 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
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+---
+title: "Null-move heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null-move_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:15.058839+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In computer chess programs, the null-move heuristic is a heuristic technique used to enhance the speed of the alpha–beta pruning algorithm.
+
+
+== Rationale ==
+Alpha–beta pruning speeds the minimax algorithm by identifying cutoffs, points in the game tree where the current position is so good for the side to move that best play by the other side would have avoided it.  Since such positions could not have resulted from best play, they and all branches of the game tree stemming from them can be ignored.  The faster the program produces cutoffs, the faster the search runs. The null-move heuristic is designed to guess cutoffs with less effort than would otherwise be required, whilst retaining a reasonable level of accuracy.
+The null-move heuristic is based on the fact that most reasonable chess moves improve the position for the side that played them.  So, if the player whose turn it is to move can forfeit the right to move (or make a null move – an illegal action in chess) and still have a position strong enough to produce a cutoff, then the current position would almost certainly produce a cutoff if the current player actually moved.
+
+
+== Implementation ==
+In employing the null-move heuristic, the computer program first forfeits the turn of the side whose turn it is to move, and then performs an alpha–beta search on the resulting position to a shallower depth than it would have searched the current position had it not used the null move heuristic.  If this shallow search produces a cutoff, it assumes the full-depth search in the absence of a forfeited turn would also have produced a cutoff.  Because a shallow search is faster than deeper search, the cutoff is found faster, accelerating the computer chess program.  If the shallow search fails to produce a cutoff, then the program must make the full-depth search.
+This approach makes two assumptions.  First, it assumes that the disadvantage of forfeiting one's turn is greater than the disadvantage of performing a shallower search.  Provided the shallower search is not too much shallower (in practical implementation, the null-move search is usually 2 or 3 plies shallower than the full search would have been), this is usually true.  Second, it assumes that the null-move search will produce a cutoff frequently enough to justify the time spent performing null-move searches instead of full searches.  In practice, this is also usually true.
+
+
+== Problems with the null-move heuristic ==
+There are a class of chess positions where employing the null-move heuristic can result in severe tactical blunders.  In these zugzwang (German for "forced to move") positions, the player whose turn it is to move has only bad moves as their legal choices, and so would actually be better off if allowed to forfeit the right to move.  In these positions, the null-move heuristic may produce a cutoff where a full search would not have found one, causing the program to assume the position is very good for a side when it may in fact be very bad for them.
+To avoid using the null-move heuristic in zugzwang positions, most chess-playing programs that use the null-move heuristic put restrictions on its use.  Such restrictions often include not using the null-move heuristic if
+
+the side to move is in check
+the side to move has only its king and pawns remaining
+the side to move has a small number of pieces remaining
+the previous move in the search was also a null move.
+
+
+== Verified null-move pruning ==
+Another heuristic for dealing with the zugzwang problem is Omid David and Nathan Netanyahu's verified null-move pruning. In verified null-move pruning, whenever the shallow null-move search indicates a fail-high, instead of cutting off the search from the current node, the search is continued with reduced depth.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Goetsch, G.; Campbell, M. S. (1990). "Experiments with the null-move heuristic". In Marsland, T. Anthony; Schaeffer, Jonathan (eds.). Computers, Chess, and Cognition. Springer-Verlag. pp. 159–168. ISBN 3-540-97415-6.
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+---
+title: "Obesity paradox"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity_paradox"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:09.182908+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The obesity paradox is the finding in some studies of a lower mortality rate for overweight or obese people within certain subpopulations. The paradox has been observed in people with cardiovascular disease and cancer. Explanations for the paradox range from excess weight being protective to the statistical association being caused by methodological flaws such as confounding, detection bias, reverse causality, or selection bias.
+
+== Description ==
+The terminology "reverse epidemiology" was first proposed by Kamyar Kalantar-Zadeh in the journal Kidney International in 2003 and in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology in 2004. It is a contradiction to prevailing medical concepts of prevention of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease; however, active prophylactic treatment of heart disease in otherwise healthy, asymptomatic people has been and is controversial in the medical community for several years.
+The mechanism responsible for this reversed association is unknown, but it has been theorized that, in chronic kidney disease patients, "The common occurrence of persistent inflammation and protein energy wasting in advanced CKD [chronic kidney disease] seems to a large extent to account for this paradoxical association between traditional risk factors and CV [cardiovascular] outcomes in this patient population." Other research has proposed that the paradox also may be explained by adipose tissue storing lipophilic chemicals that would otherwise be toxic to the body.
+The obesity paradox (excluding the cholesterol paradox) was first described in 1999 in overweight and obese people undergoing hemodialysis, and has subsequently been found in those with heart failure, myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndrome, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary embolisms, and in older nursing home residents.
+While obese people have twice the risk of developing heart failure compared to individuals with a normal BMI, once a person experiences heart failure, those with a BMI between 30.0 and 34.9 had lower mortality than those with a normal BMI. This observation fits into the broader concept of Cuomo's paradox, in which a factor associated with disease occurrence bears the opposite association with mortality among individuals with the disease. The obesity paradox has been attributed to the fact that people often lose weight when they have severe and chronic illness (a syndrome called cachexia). Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. Among people with heart disease, those with class I obesity do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight. In people with greater degrees of obesity, however, risk of further events is increased.  Even after cardiac bypass surgery, no increase in mortality is seen in the overweight and obese. One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more aggressive treatment obese people receive after a cardiac event. Another found that if one takes into account COPD in those with peripheral artery disease, the benefit of obesity no longer exists.
+The obesity paradox is also relevant in discussion of weight loss as a preventative health measure – weight-cycling (a repeated pattern of losing and then regaining weight) is more common in obese people, and has health effects commonly assumed to be caused by obesity, such as hypertension, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases.
+
+== Criticisms ==
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+---
+title: "Obesity paradox"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity_paradox"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:09.182908+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Methodology ===
+The obesity paradox has been criticized on the grounds of being an artifact arising from biases in observational studies. Strong confounding by smoking has been noted by several researchers, although others have suggested that smoking does not account for the observed patterns. Since smokers, who are subject to higher mortality rates, also tend to be leaner, inadequate adjustment for smoking would lead to underestimations of the risk ratios associated with the overweight and obese categories of BMI among non-smokers. In an analysis of 1.46 million individuals, restriction to never-smoking participants greatly reduced the mortality estimates in the underweight group, as well as strengthening the estimates in the overweight and obese groups. This study concluded that, for non-Hispanic white adults who have never smoked, the BMI range of 20.0 to 24.9 was associated with the lowest mortality rates. A similar 2016 study found that, of the BMI ranges studied (which ranged from 18.5 to >30), the "normal" 18.5–22.4 BMI range combined with healthy eating, high levels of physical activity, not smoking, and no more than moderate alcohol consumption was associated with the lowest risk of premature death.
+Another concern is reverse causation due to illness-induced weight loss. That is, it may not be low BMI that is causing death (and thereby making obesity seem protective) but rather imminent death causing low BMI. Indeed, unintentional weight loss is an extremely significant predictor of mortality. Terminally ill individuals often undergo weight loss before death, and classifying those individuals as lean greatly inflates the mortality rate in the normal and underweight categories of BMI, while lowering the risk in the higher BMI categories. Studies that employ strategies to reduce reverse causation such as excluding sick individuals at baseline and introducing time lag to exclude deaths at the beginning of follow-up have yielded estimates of increased risk for body mass indices above 25 kg/m2.
+The obesity paradox may therefore result from people becoming lean due to smoking, sedentary lifestyles, and unhealthy diets – all factors which also negatively impact health.
+Critics of the paradox have also argued that studies supporting its existence almost always use BMI as the only measure of obesity. However, because BMI is an imperfect method of measuring obesity, critics argue that studies using other measures of obesity in addition to BMI, such as waist circumference and waist to hip ratio, render the existence of the paradox questionable.
+One probable methodological explanation for the obesity paradox in regards to cardiovascular disease is collider stratification bias, which commonly emerges when one restricts or stratifies on a factor (the "collider") that is caused by both the exposure (or its descendants) of an unmeasured variable and the outcome (or its ancestors or risk factors). In the example of the obesity-cardiovascular disease relationship, the obesity is the collider, the outcome is cardiovascular disease, and the unmeasured variables are environmental and genetic factors – given that obesity and cardiovascular disorders are often associated with each other, medical professionals may be reluctant to consider both other causes of cardiovascular disease or other causes of protection against said diseases.
+A study from 2018 found that overweight or obese patients may live longer with cardiovascular disease than people of normal weight due to overweight/obese patients having earlier onset of cardiovascular disease in the life course, suggesting an explanation for the observation. This paper suggests a driver of the paradoxical observation, in that the reason for higher survival rates in the sick may be that normal weight individuals may largely avoid cardiovascular conditions.
+
+=== Ties to Coca-Cola ===
+It has also been noted that Coca-Cola has promoted the hypothesis and funded researchers who agree with the hypothesis, which has raised questions about what research the company supports and why.
+
+=== Weight relativism ===
+Dixon et al. have proposed that a paradox does not actually exist, as people can be healthy at a range of sizes. As one study puts it, "There is no 'obesity paradox' to explain, if we accept the premise that varying ideal weight ranges apply to individuals over different stages of the life span, accordingly allowing us to abandon the rigid biologically implausible concept of a single 'ideal weight' (for height) or weight range."
+
+== See also ==
+French paradox
+Israeli paradox
+Low birth-weight paradox (Low birth-weight babies born to smokers have a lower mortality than low birth-weight babies born to non-smokers, because other causes of low birth-weight are more harmful than smoking.)
+Katherine Flegal
+Social stigma of obesity
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Carnethon, Mercedes R.; De Chavez, Peter John D.; Biggs, Mary L.; Lewis, Cora E.; Pankow, James S.; Bertoni, Alain G.; Golden, Sherita H.; Liu, Kiang; et al. (2012-08-12). "Association of Weight Status With Mortality in Adults With Incident Diabetes". JAMA. 308 (8): 9000–9001. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.9282. PMC 3467944. PMID 22871870.
+Florez, Hermes; Castillo-Florez, Sumaya (2012). "Beyond the Obesity Paradox in Diabetes: Fitness, Fatness, and Mortality". JAMA. 308 (6): 619–620. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.9776. PMID 22871873.
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+title: "Observational astronomy"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_astronomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:26.206992+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Observational astronomy is a division of astronomy that is concerned with recording data about the observable universe, the practice and study of observing celestial objects with the use of telescopes and other astronomical instruments.
+As a science, the study of astronomy does not rely on direct experiments with the objects in a distant universe. Rather astronomers have a vast number of visible examples of stellar phenomena that can be examined. This allows for observational data to be plotted on graphs, and general trends recorded. Nearby examples of specific phenomena, such as variable stars, can then be used to infer the behavior of more distant representatives. Those distant yardsticks can then be employed to measure other phenomena in that neighborhood, including the distance to a galaxy.
+Galileo Galilei turned a telescope to the heavens and recorded what he saw. Since that time, observational astronomy has made steady advances with each improvement in telescope technology.
+
+== Subdivisions ==
+
+A traditional division of observational astronomy is based on the region of the electromagnetic spectrum observed:
+
+Radio astronomy detects radiation of millimetre to decametre wavelength. The receivers are similar to those used in radio broadcast transmission but much more sensitive. See also Radio telescopes.
+Infrared astronomy deals with the detection and analysis of infrared radiation (this typically refers to wavelengths longer than the detection limit of silicon solid-state detectors, about 1 μm wavelength). The most common tool is the reflecting telescope, but with a detector sensitive to infrared wavelengths. Space telescopes are used at certain wavelengths where the atmosphere is opaque, or to eliminate noise (thermal radiation from the atmosphere).
+Optical astronomy is the part of astronomy that uses optical instruments (mirrors, lenses, and solid-state detectors) to observe light from near-infrared to near-ultraviolet wavelengths. Visible-light astronomy, using wavelengths detectable with the human eyes (about 400–700 nm), falls in the middle of this spectrum.
+High-energy astronomy includes X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, and extreme UV astronomy.
+
+=== Methods ===
+In addition to using electromagnetic radiation, modern astrophysicists can also make observations using neutrinos, cosmic rays or gravitational waves. Observing a source using multiple methods is known as multi-messenger astronomy.
+
+Optical and radio astronomy can be performed with ground-based observatories, because the atmosphere is relatively transparent at the wavelengths being detected. Observatories are usually located at high altitudes so as to minimise the absorption and distortion caused by the Earth's atmosphere. Some wavelengths of infrared light are heavily absorbed by water vapor, so many infrared observatories are located in dry places at high altitude, or in space.
+The atmosphere is opaque at the wavelengths used by X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, UV astronomy and (except for a few wavelength "windows") far infrared astronomy, so observations must be carried out mostly from balloons or space observatories. Powerful gamma rays can, however be detected by the large air showers they produce, and the study of cosmic rays is a rapidly expanding branch of astronomy.
+Occultation is the observation of the instant one celestial object occults or eclipses another.  Multi-chord asteroid occultation observations measure the profile of the asteroid to the kilometre level.
+
+=== Important factors ===
+For much of the history of observational astronomy, almost all observation was performed in the visual spectrum with optical telescopes. While the Earth's atmosphere is relatively transparent in this portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, most telescope work is still dependent on seeing conditions and air transparency, and is generally restricted to the night time. The seeing conditions depend on the turbulence and thermal variations in the air. Locations that are frequently cloudy or suffer from atmospheric turbulence limit the resolution of observations. Likewise the presence of the full Moon can brighten up the sky with scattered light, hindering observation of faint objects.
+For observation purposes, the optimal location for an optical telescope is undoubtedly in outer space. There the telescope can make observations without being affected by the atmosphere. However, at present it remains costly to lift telescopes into orbit. Thus the next best locations are certain mountain peaks that have a high number of cloudless days and generally possess good atmospheric conditions (with good seeing conditions). The peaks of the islands of Mauna Kea, Hawaii and La Palma possess these properties, as to a lesser extent do inland sites such as Llano de Chajnantor, Paranal, Cerro Tololo and La Silla in Chile. These observatory locations have attracted an assemblage of powerful telescopes, totalling many billion US dollars of investment.
+The darkness of the night sky is an important factor in optical astronomy. With the size of cities and human populated areas ever expanding, the amount of artificial light at night has also increased. These artificial lights produce a diffuse background illumination that makes observation of faint astronomical features very difficult without special filters. In a few locations such as the state of Arizona and in the United Kingdom, this has led to campaigns for the reduction of light pollution. The use of hoods around street lights not only improves the amount of light directed toward the ground, but also helps reduce the light directed toward the sky.
+Atmospheric effects (astronomical seeing) can severely hinder the resolution of a telescope. Without some means of correcting for the blurring effect of the shifting atmosphere, telescopes larger than about 15–20 cm in aperture can not achieve their theoretical resolution at visible wavelengths. As a result, the primary benefit of using very large telescopes has been the improved light-gathering capability, allowing very faint magnitudes to be observed. However the resolution handicap has begun to be overcome by adaptive optics, speckle imaging and interferometric imaging, as well as the use of space telescopes.
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+title: "Observational astronomy"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_astronomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:26.206992+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Measuring results ===
+Astronomers have a number of observational tools that they can use to make measurements of the heavens. For objects that are relatively close to the Sun and Earth, direct and very precise position measurements can be made against a more distant (and thereby nearly stationary) background. Early observations of this nature were used to develop very precise orbital models of the various planets, and to determine their respective masses and gravitational perturbations. Such measurements led to the discovery of the planets Uranus, Neptune, and (indirectly) Pluto. They also resulted in an erroneous assumption of a fictional planet Vulcan within the orbit of Mercury (but the explanation of the precession of Mercury's orbit by Einstein is considered one of the triumphs of his general relativity theory).
+
+== Developments and diversity ==
+
+In addition to examination of the universe in the optical spectrum, astronomers have increasingly been able to acquire information in other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The earliest such non-optical measurements were made of the thermal properties of the Sun. Instruments employed during a solar eclipse could be used to measure the radiation from the corona.
+
+=== Radio astronomy ===
+With the discovery of radio waves, radio astronomy began to emerge as a new discipline in astronomy. The long wavelengths of radio waves required much larger collecting dishes in order to make images with good resolution, and later led to the development of the multi-dish interferometer for making high-resolution aperture synthesis radio images (or "radio maps"). The development of the microwave horn receiver led to the discovery of the microwave background radiation associated with the Big Bang.
+Radio astronomy has continued to expand its capabilities, even using radio astronomy satellites to produce interferometers with baselines much larger than the size of the Earth. However, the ever-expanding use of the radio spectrum for other uses is gradually drowning out the faint radio signals from the stars. For this reason, in the future radio astronomy might be performed from shielded locations, such as the far side of the Moon.
+
+=== Late 20th-century developments ===
+The last part of the twentieth century saw rapid technological advances in astronomical instrumentation. Optical telescopes were growing ever larger, and employing adaptive optics to partly negate atmospheric blurring. New telescopes were launched into space, and began observing the universe in the infrared, ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, as well as observing cosmic rays. Interferometer arrays produced the first extremely high-resolution images using aperture synthesis at radio, infrared and optical wavelengths. Orbiting instruments such as the Hubble Space Telescope produced rapid advances in astronomical knowledge, acting as the workhorse for visible-light observations of faint objects. New space instruments under development are expected to directly observe planets around other stars, perhaps even some Earth-like worlds.
+In addition to telescopes, astronomers have begun using other instruments to make observations.
+
+=== Other instruments ===
+Neutrino astronomy is the branch of astronomy that observes astronomical objects with neutrino detectors in special observatories, usually huge underground tanks. Nuclear reactions in stars and supernova explosions produce very large numbers of neutrinos, very few of which may be detected by a neutrino telescope. Neutrino astronomy is motivated by the possibility of observing processes that are inaccessible to optical telescopes, such as the Sun's core.
+Gravitational wave detectors are being designed that may capture events such as collisions of massive objects such as neutron stars or black holes.
+Robotic spacecraft are also being increasingly used to make highly detailed observations of planets within the Solar System, so that the field of planetary science now has significant cross-over with the disciplines of geology and meteorology.
+
+== Observation tools ==
+
+=== Telescopes ===
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+title: "Observational astronomy"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_astronomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:26.206992+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The key instrument of nearly all modern observational astronomy is the telescope. This serves the dual purposes of gathering more light so that very faint objects can be observed, and magnifying the image so that small and distant objects can be observed. Optical astronomy requires telescopes that use optical components of great precision. Typical requirements for grinding and polishing a curved mirror, for example, require the surface to be within a fraction of a wavelength of light of a particular conic shape. Many modern "telescopes" actually consist of arrays of telescopes working together to provide higher resolution through aperture synthesis.
+Large telescopes are housed in domes, both to protect them from the weather and to stabilize the environmental conditions.  For example, if the temperature is different from one side of the telescope to the other, the shape of the structure changes, due to thermal expansion pushing optical elements out of position. This can affect the image.  For this reason, the domes are usually bright white (titanium dioxide) or unpainted metal.  Domes are often opened around sunset, long before observing can begin, so that air can circulate and bring the entire telescope to the same temperature as the surroundings.  To prevent wind-buffet or other vibrations affecting observations, it is standard practice to mount the telescope on a concrete pier whose foundations are entirely separate from those of the surrounding dome and building.
+To do almost any scientific work requires that telescopes track objects as they wheel across the visible sky.  In other words, they must smoothly compensate for the rotation of the Earth.  Until the advent of computer controlled drive mechanisms, the standard solution was some form of equatorial mount, and for small telescopes this is still the norm.   However, this is a structurally poor design and becomes more and more cumbersome as the diameter and weight of the telescope increases.  The world's largest equatorial mounted telescope is the 200 inch (5.1 m) Hale Telescope, whereas recent 8–10 m telescopes use the structurally better altazimuth mount, and are actually physically smaller than the Hale, despite the larger mirrors.  As of 2006, there are design projects underway for gigantic alt-az telescopes: the Thirty Metre Telescope [1], and the 100 m diameter Overwhelmingly Large Telescope.
+Amateur astronomers use such instruments as the Newtonian reflector, the Refractor and the increasingly popular  Maksutov telescope.
+
+=== Photography ===
+The photograph has served a critical role in observational astronomy for over a century, but in the last 30 years it has been largely replaced for imaging applications by digital sensors such as CCDs and CMOS chips. Specialist areas of astronomy such as photometry and interferometry have utilised electronic detectors for a much longer period of time. Astrophotography uses specialised photographic film (or usually a glass plate coated with photographic emulsion), but there are a number of drawbacks, particularly a low quantum efficiency, of the order of 3%, whereas CCDs can be tuned for a QE >90% in a narrow band.  Almost all modern telescope instruments are electronic arrays, and older telescopes have been either been retrofitted with these instruments or closed down.  Glass plates are still used in some applications, such as surveying, because the resolution possible with a chemical film is much higher than any electronic detector yet constructed.
+
+==== Advantages ====
+Prior to the invention of photography, all astronomy was done with the naked eye.  However, even before films became sensitive enough, scientific astronomy moved entirely to film, because of the overwhelming advantages:
+
+The human eye discards what it sees from split-second to split-second, but photographic film gathers more and more light for as long as the shutter is open.
+The resulting image is permanent, so many astronomers can use the same data.
+It is possible to see objects as they change over time (SN 1987A is a spectacular example).
+
+==== Blink comparator ====
+The blink comparator is an instrument that is used to compare two nearly identical photographs made of the same section of sky at different points in time. The comparator alternates illumination of the two plates, and any changes are revealed by blinking points or streaks. This instrument has been used to find asteroids, comets, and variable stars.
+
+=== Micrometer ===
+The position or cross-wire micrometer is an implement that has been used to measure double stars. This consists of a pair of fine, movable lines that can be moved together or apart. The telescope lens is lined up on the pair and oriented using position wires that lie at right angles to the star separation. The movable wires are then adjusted to match the two star positions. The separation of the stars is then read off the instrument, and their true separation determined based on the magnification of the instrument.
+
+=== Spectrograph ===
+A vital instrument of observational astronomy is the spectrograph. The absorption of specific wavelengths of light by elements allows specific properties of distant bodies to be observed. This capability has resulted in the discovery of the element of helium in the Sun's emission spectrum, and has allowed astronomers to determine a great deal of information concerning distant stars, galaxies, and other celestial bodies. Doppler shift (particularly "redshift") of spectra can also be used to determine the radial motion or distance with respect to the Earth.
+Early spectrographs employed banks of prisms that split light into a broad spectrum. Later the grating spectrograph was developed, which reduced the amount of light loss compared to prisms and provided higher spectral resolution. The spectrum can be photographed in a long exposure, allowing the spectrum of faint objects (such as distant galaxies) to be measured.
+Stellar photometry came into use in 1861 as a means of measuring stellar colors. This technique measured the magnitude of a star at specific frequency ranges, allowing a determination of the overall color, and therefore temperature of a star. By 1951 an internationally standardized system of UBV-magnitudes (Ultraviolet-Blue-Visual) was adopted.
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+---
+title: "Observational astronomy"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_astronomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:26.206992+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Photoelectric photometry ===
+Photoelectric photometry using the CCD is now frequently used to make observations through a telescope. These sensitive instruments can record the image nearly down to the level of individual photons, and can be designed to view in parts of the spectrum that are invisible to the eye. The ability to record the arrival of small numbers of photons over a period of time can allow a degree of computer correction for atmospheric effects, sharpening up the image. Multiple digital images can also be combined to further enhance the image, often known as "stacking". When combined with the adaptive optics technology, image quality can approach the theoretical resolution capability of the telescope.
+Filters are used to view an object at particular frequencies or frequency ranges. Multilayer film filters can provide very precise control of the frequencies transmitted and blocked, so that, for example, objects can be viewed at a particular frequency emitted only by excited hydrogen atoms. Filters can also be used to partially compensate for the effects of light pollution by blocking out unwanted light. Polarization filters can also be used to determine if a source is emitting polarized light, and the orientation of the polarization.
+
+== Observing ==
+
+Astronomers observe a wide range of astronomical sources, including high-redshift galaxies, AGNs, the afterglow from the Big Bang, and many different types of stars and protostars.
+A variety of data can be observed for each object. The position coordinates locate the object in the sky using the techniques of spherical astronomy, and the magnitude determines its brightness as seen from the Earth. The relative brightness in different parts of the spectrum yields information about the temperature and physics of the object. Photographs of the spectra allow the chemistry of the object to be examined.
+Parallax shifts of a star against the background can be used to determine the distance, up to a limit imposed by the resolution of the instrument. The radial velocity of the star and changes in its position over time (proper motion) can be used to measure its velocity relative to the Sun. Variations in the brightness of the star give evidence of instabilities in the star's atmosphere, or else the presence of an occulting companion. The orbits of binary stars can be used to measure the relative masses of each companion, or the total mass of the system. Spectroscopic binaries can be found by observing Doppler shifts in the spectrum of the star and its close companion.
+Stars of identical masses that formed at the same time and under similar conditions typically have nearly identical observed properties. Observing a mass of closely associated stars, such as in a globular cluster, allows data to be assembled about the distribution of stellar types. These tables can then be used to infer the age of the association.
+For distant galaxies and AGNs, observations are made of the overall shape and properties of the galaxy, as well as the groupings where they are found. Observations of certain types of variable stars and supernovae of known luminosity, called standard candles, in other galaxies allow the inference of the distance to the host galaxy. The expansion of space causes the spectra of these galaxies to be shifted, depending on the distance, and modified by the Doppler effect of the galaxy's radial velocity. Both the size of the galaxy and its redshift can be used to infer something about the distance of the galaxy. Observations of large numbers of galaxies are referred to as redshift surveys, and are used to model the evolution of galaxy forms.
+
+== See also ==
+Lunar observation
+Observational study
+Observatory
+Space telescope
+Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology
+
+== Related lists ==
+List of astronomical observatories
+List of radio telescopes
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Archives and iconography from 17th century preserved by the Paris Observatory library
+
+ Media related to Observational astronomy at Wikimedia Commons
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-0.md
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+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 1/8
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In philosophy, Occam's razor (also spelled Ockham's razor or Ocham's razor; Latin: novacula Occami) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements. It is also known as the principle of parsimony or the law of parsimony (Latin: lex parsimoniae). Attributed to William of Ockham, a 14th-century English philosopher and theologian, it is frequently cited as Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem, which translates as "Entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity", although Occam never used those exact words. Popularly, the principle is sometimes paraphrased as "of two competing theories, the simpler explanation of an entity is to be preferred".
+This philosophical razor advocates that when presented with competing hypotheses about the same prediction and both hypotheses have equal explanatory power, one should prefer the hypothesis that requires the fewest assumptions, and that this is not meant to be a way of choosing between hypotheses that make different predictions. Similarly, in science, Occam's razor is used as an abductive heuristic in the development of theoretical models rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models.
+
+== History ==
+The phrase Occam's razor did not appear until a few centuries after William of Ockham's death in 1347. Libert Froidmont, in his 1649 Philosophia Christiana de Anima (On Christian Philosophy of the Soul) claimed to have coined the phrase novacula occami when he described Gregory of Rimini, one of Ockham's critics. Ockham did not invent this principle, but its fame – and its association with him – may be due to the frequency and effectiveness with which he used it. Ockham stated the principle in various ways, but the most popular version – "Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity" (Non sunt multiplicanda entia sine necessitate) – was formulated by the Irish Franciscan philosopher John Punch in his 1639 commentary on the works of Duns Scotus.
+
+=== Formulations before William of Ockham ===
+
+The origins of what has come to be known as Occam's razor are traceable to the works of earlier philosophers such as John Duns Scotus (1265–1308), Robert Grosseteste (1175–1253), Maimonides (Moses ben-Maimon, 1138–1204), and even Aristotle (384–322 BC). Aristotle writes in his Posterior Analytics, "We may assume the superiority ceteris paribus [all other things being equal] of the demonstration which derives from fewer postulates or hypotheses." Ptolemy (c. AD 90 – c. 168) stated, "We consider it a good principle to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis possible."
+
+Phrases such as "It is vain to do with more what can be done with fewer" and "A plurality is not to be posited without necessity" were commonplace in 13th-century scholastic writing. Robert Grosseteste, in Commentary on [Aristotle's] the Posterior Analytics Books (Commentarius in Posteriorum Analyticorum Libros) (c. 1217–1220), declares: "That is better and more valuable which requires fewer, other circumstances being equal ... For if one thing were demonstrated from many and another thing from fewer equally known premises, clearly that is better which is from fewer because it makes us know quickly, just as a universal demonstration is better than particular because it produces knowledge from fewer premises. Similarly in natural science, in moral science, and in metaphysics the best is that which needs no premises and the better that which needs the fewer, other circumstances being equal."The Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) states that "it is superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by a few principles has been produced by many". Aquinas uses this principle to construct an objection to God's existence, an objection that he in turn answers and refutes generally (cf. quinque viae), and specifically, through an argument based on causality. Hence, Aquinas acknowledges the principle that today is known as Occam's razor, but prefers causal explanations to other simple explanations (cf. also Correlation does not imply causation).
+
+=== William of Ockham ===
+
+William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347) was an English Franciscan friar and theologian, an influential medieval philosopher and a nominalist. His popular fame as a great logician rests chiefly on the maxim attributed to him and known as Occam's razor. The term razor refers to distinguishing between two hypotheses either by "shaving away" unnecessary assumptions or cutting apart two similar conclusions.
+While it has been claimed that Occam's razor is not found in any of William's writings, one can cite statements such as Numquam ponenda est pluralitas sine necessitate ("Plurality must never be posited without necessity"), which occurs in his theological work on the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Quaestiones et decisiones in quattuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi; ed. Lugd., 1495, i, dist. 27, qu. 2, K).
+Nevertheless, the precise words sometimes attributed to William of Ockham, Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem (Entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity), are absent in his extant works; this particular phrasing comes from John Punch, who described the principle as a "common axiom" (axioma vulgare) of the Scholastics. William of Ockham himself seems to restrict the operation of this principle in matters pertaining to miracles and God's power, considering a plurality of miracles possible in the Eucharist simply because it pleases God.
+This principle is sometimes phrased as Pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate ("Plurality should not be posited without necessity"). In his Summa Totius Logicae, i. 12, William of Ockham cites the principle of economy, Frustra fit per plura quod potest fieri per pauciora ("It is futile to do with more things that which can be done with fewer"; Thorburn, 1918, pp. 352–53; Kneale and Kneale, 1962, p. 243.)
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+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Later formulations ===
+To quote Isaac Newton, "We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes." In the sentence hypotheses non fingo ("I contrive no hypotheses"), Newton affirms the success of this approach.
+Bertrand Russell offers a particular version of Occam's razor: "Whenever possible, substitute constructions out of known entities for inferences to unknown entities."
+Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based on observations –  for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. The only assumption is that the environment follows some unknown but computable probability distribution. This theory is a mathematical formalization of Occam's razor.
+Another technical approach to Occam's razor is ontological parsimony. Parsimony means spareness and is also referred to as the Rule of Simplicity. This is considered a strong version of Occam's razor. A variation used in medicine is called the "Zebra": a physician should reject an exotic medical diagnosis when a more commonplace explanation is more likely, derived from Theodore Woodward's dictum "When you hear hoofbeats, think of horses not zebras".
+Ernst Mach formulated the stronger version of Occam's razor into physics, which he called the Principle of Economy stating: "Scientists must use the simplest means of arriving at their results and exclude everything not perceived by the senses."
+This principle goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who wrote "Nature operates in the shortest way possible." The idea of parsimony or simplicity in deciding between theories, though not the intent of the original expression of Occam's razor, has been assimilated into common culture as the widespread layman's formulation that "the simplest explanation is usually the correct one".
+
+== Justifications ==
+
+=== Aesthetic ===
+Prior to the 20th century, it was a commonly held belief that nature itself was simple and that simpler hypotheses about nature were thus more likely to be true. This notion was deeply rooted in the aesthetic value that simplicity holds for human thought and the justifications presented for it often drew from theology. Thomas Aquinas made this argument in the 13th century, writing, "If a thing can be done adequately by means of one, it is superfluous to do it by means of several; for we observe that nature does not employ two instruments [if] one suffices."
+Beginning in the 20th century, epistemological justifications based on induction, logic, pragmatism, and especially probability theory have become more popular among philosophers.
+
+=== Empirical ===
+Occam's razor has gained strong empirical support in helping to converge on better theories (see Uses section below for some examples).
+In the related concept of overfitting, excessively complex models are affected by statistical noise (a problem also known as the bias–variance tradeoff), whereas simpler models may capture the underlying structure better and may thus have better predictive performance. It is, however, often difficult to deduce which part of the data is noise (cf. model selection, test set, minimum description length, Bayesian inference, etc.).
+
+==== Testing the razor ====
+
+The razor's statement that "other things being equal, simpler explanations are generally better than more complex ones" is amenable to empirical testing. Another interpretation of the razor's statement would be that "simpler hypotheses are generally better than the complex ones". The procedure to test the former interpretation would compare the track records of simple and comparatively complex explanations. If one accepts the first interpretation, the validity of Occam's razor as a tool would then have to be rejected if the more complex explanations were more often correct than the less complex ones (while the converse would lend support to its use). If the latter interpretation is accepted, the validity of Occam's razor as a tool could possibly be accepted if the simpler hypotheses led to correct conclusions more often than not.
+Even if some increases in complexity are sometimes necessary, there still remains a justified general bias toward the simpler of two competing explanations. To understand why, consider that for each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there is always an infinite number of possible, more complex, and ultimately incorrect, alternatives. This is so because one can always burden a failing explanation with an ad hoc hypothesis. Ad hoc hypotheses are justifications that prevent theories from being falsified.
+
+For example, if a man, accused of breaking a vase, makes supernatural claims that leprechauns were responsible for the breakage, a simple explanation might be that the man did it, but ongoing ad hoc justifications (e.g., "... and that's not me breaking it on the film; they tampered with that, too") could successfully prevent complete disproof. This endless supply of elaborate competing explanations, called saving hypotheses, cannot be technically ruled out – except by using Occam's razor.
+Any more complex theory might still possibly be true. A study of the predictive validity of Occam's razor found 32 published papers that included 97 comparisons of economic forecasts from simple and complex forecasting methods. None of the papers provided a balance of evidence that complexity of method improved forecast accuracy. In the 25 papers with quantitative comparisons, complexity increased forecast errors by an average of 27 percent.
+
+=== Practical considerations and pragmatism ===
+
+=== Mathematical ===
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+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+One justification of Occam's razor is a direct result of basic probability theory. By definition, all assumptions introduce possibilities for error; if an assumption does not improve the accuracy of a theory, its only effect is to increase the probability that the overall theory is wrong.
+There have also been other attempts to derive Occam's razor from probability theory, including notable attempts made by Harold Jeffreys and E. T. Jaynes. The probabilistic (Bayesian) basis for Occam's razor is elaborated by David J. C. MacKay in chapter 28 of his book Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, where he emphasizes that a prior bias in favor of simpler models is not required.
+William H. Jefferys and James O. Berger (1991) generalize and quantify the original formulation's "assumptions" concept as the degree to which a proposition is unnecessarily accommodating to possible observable data. They state, "A hypothesis with fewer adjustable parameters will automatically have an enhanced posterior probability, due to the fact that the predictions it makes are sharp." The use of "sharp" here is not only a tongue-in-cheek reference to the idea of a razor, but also indicates that such predictions are more accurate than competing predictions. The model they propose balances the precision of a theory's predictions against their sharpness, preferring theories that sharply make correct predictions over theories that accommodate a wide range of other possible results. This, again, reflects the mathematical relationship between key concepts in Bayesian inference (namely marginal probability, conditional probability, and posterior probability).
+The bias–variance tradeoff is a framework that incorporates the Occam's razor principle in its balance between overfitting (associated with lower bias but higher variance) and underfitting (associated with lower variance but higher bias).
+
+=== Other philosophers ===
+
+==== Karl Popper ====
+Karl Popper argues that a preference for simple theories need not appeal to practical or aesthetic considerations. Our preference for simplicity may be justified by the falsifiability criterion: we prefer simpler theories to more complex ones "because their empirical content is greater; and because they are better testable". The idea here is that a simple theory applies to more cases than a more complex one, and is thus more easily falsifiable. This is again comparing a simple theory to a more complex theory where both explain the data equally well.
+
+==== Elliott Sober ====
+The philosopher of science Elliott Sober once argued along the same lines as Popper, tying simplicity with "informativeness": The simplest theory is the more informative, in the sense that it requires less information to a question. He has since rejected this account of simplicity, purportedly because it fails to provide an epistemic justification for simplicity. He now believes that simplicity considerations (and considerations of parsimony in particular) do not count unless they reflect something more fundamental. Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the error of hypostatizing simplicity (i.e., endowed it with a sui generis existence), when it has meaning only when embedded in a specific context (Sober 1992). If we fail to justify simplicity considerations on the basis of the context in which we use them, we may have no non-circular justification: "Just as the question 'why be rational?' may have no non-circular answer, the same may be true of the question 'why should simplicity be considered in evaluating the plausibility of hypotheses?'"
+
+==== Richard Swinburne ====
+Richard Swinburne argues for simplicity on logical grounds:
+
+... the simplest hypothesis proposed as an explanation of phenomena is more likely to be the true one than is any other available hypothesis, that its predictions are more likely to be true than those of any other available hypothesis, and that it is an ultimate a priori epistemic principle that simplicity is evidence for truth.
+According to Swinburne, since our choice of theory cannot be determined by data (see Underdetermination and Duhem–Quine thesis), we must rely on some criterion to determine which theory to use. Since it is absurd to have no logical method for settling on one hypothesis amongst an infinite number of equally data-compliant hypotheses, we should choose the simplest theory: "Either science is irrational [in the way it judges theories and predictions probable] or the principle of simplicity is a fundamental synthetic a priori truth."
+
+==== Ludwig Wittgenstein ====
+From the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus:
+
+3.328 "If a sign is not necessary then it is meaningless. That is the meaning of Occam's Razor."
+(If everything in the symbolism works as though a sign had meaning, then it has meaning.)
+4.04 "In the proposition, there must be exactly as many things distinguishable as there are in the state of affairs, which it represents. They must both possess the same logical (mathematical) multiplicity (cf. Hertz's Mechanics, on Dynamic Models)."
+5.47321 "Occam's Razor is, of course, not an arbitrary rule nor one justified by its practical success. It simply says that unnecessary elements in a symbolism mean nothing. Signs which serve one purpose are logically equivalent; signs which serve no purpose are logically meaningless."
+and on the related concept of "simplicity":
+
+6.363 "The procedure of induction consists in accepting as true the simplest law that can be reconciled with our experiences."
+
+== Uses ==
+
+=== Science and the scientific method ===
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+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 4/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In science, Occam's razor is used as a heuristic to guide scientists in developing theoretical models rather than as an arbiter between published models. In physics, parsimony was an important heuristic in the development and application of the principle of least action by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Leonhard Euler, in Albert Einstein's formulation of special relativity, and in the development of quantum mechanics by Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie.
+In chemistry, Occam's razor is often an important heuristic when developing a model of a reaction mechanism. Although it is useful as a heuristic in developing models of reaction mechanisms, it has been shown to fail as a criterion for selecting among some selected published models. In this context, Einstein himself expressed caution when he formulated Einstein's Constraint: "It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience." An often-quoted version of this constraint (which cannot be verified as posited by Einstein himself) reduces this to "Everything should be kept as simple as possible, but not simpler."
+In the scientific method, Occam's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion. For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives. Since failing explanations can always be burdened with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they tend to be more testable. As a logical principle, Occam's razor would demand that scientists accept the simplest possible theoretical explanation for existing data. However, science has shown repeatedly that future data often support more complex theories than do existing data. Science prefers the simplest explanation that is consistent with the data available at a given time, but the simplest explanation may be ruled out as new data become available. That is, science is open to the possibility that future experiments might support more complex theories than demanded by current data and is more interested in designing experiments to discriminate between competing theories than favoring one theory over another based merely on philosophical principles.
+When scientists use the idea of parsimony, it has meaning only in a very specific context of inquiry. Several background assumptions are required for parsimony to connect with plausibility in a particular research problem. The reasonableness of parsimony in one research context may have nothing to do with its reasonableness in another. It is a mistake to think that there is a single global principle that spans diverse subject matter.
+It has been suggested that Occam's razor is a widely accepted example of extraevidential consideration, even though it is entirely a metaphysical assumption. Most of the time, however, Occam's razor is a conservative tool, cutting out "crazy, complicated constructions" and assuring "that hypotheses are grounded in the science of the day", thus yielding "normal" science: models of explanation and prediction. There are, however, notable exceptions where Occam's razor turns a conservative scientist into a reluctant revolutionary. For example, Max Planck interpolated between the Wien and Jeans radiation laws and used Occam's razor logic to formulate the quantum hypothesis, even resisting that hypothesis as it became more obvious that it was correct.
+Appeals to simplicity were used to argue against the phenomena of meteorites, ball lightning, continental drift, and reverse transcriptase. One can argue for atomic building blocks for matter, because it provides a simpler explanation for the observed reversibility of both mixing and chemical reactions as simple separation and rearrangements of atomic building blocks. At the time, however, the atomic theory was considered more complex because it implied the existence of invisible particles that had not been directly detected. Ernst Mach and the logical positivists rejected John Dalton's atomic theory until the reality of atoms was more evident in Brownian motion, as shown by Albert Einstein.
+In the same way, postulating the aether is more complex than transmission of light through a vacuum. At the time, however, all known waves propagated through a physical medium, and it seemed simpler to postulate the existence of a medium than to theorize about wave propagation without a medium. Likewise, Isaac Newton's idea of light particles seemed simpler than Christiaan Huygens's idea of waves, so many favored it. In this case, as it turned out, neither the wave – nor the particle – explanation alone suffices, as light behaves like waves and like particles.
+Three axioms presupposed by the scientific method are realism (the existence of objective reality), the existence of natural laws, and the constancy of natural law. Rather than depend on provability of these axioms, science depends on the fact that they have not been objectively falsified. Occam's razor and parsimony support, but do not prove, these axioms of science. The general principle of science is that theories (or models) of natural law must be consistent with repeatable experimental observations. This ultimate arbiter (selection criterion) rests upon the axioms mentioned above.
+If multiple models of natural law make exactly the same testable predictions, they are equivalent and there is no need for parsimony to choose a preferred one. For example, Newtonian, Hamiltonian and Lagrangian classical mechanics are equivalent. Physicists have no interest in using Occam's razor to say the other two are wrong. Likewise, there is no demand for simplicity principles to arbitrate between wave and matrix formulations of quantum mechanics. Science often does not demand arbitration or selection criteria between models that make the same testable predictions.
+
+=== Biology ===
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+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 5/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Biologists or philosophers of biology use Occam's razor in either of two contexts both in evolutionary biology: the units of selection controversy and systematics. George C. Williams in his book Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966) argues that the best way to explain altruism among animals is based on low-level (i.e., individual) selection as opposed to high-level group selection. Altruism is defined by some evolutionary biologists (e.g., R. Alexander, 1987; W. D. Hamilton, 1964) as behavior that is beneficial to others (or to the group) at a cost to the individual, and many posit individual selection as the mechanism that explains altruism solely in terms of the behaviors of individual organisms acting in their own self-interest (or in the interest of their genes, via kin selection). Williams was arguing against the perspective of others who propose selection at the level of the group as an evolutionary mechanism that selects for altruistic traits (e.g., D. S. Wilson & E. O. Wilson, 2007). The basis for Williams's contention is that of the two, individual selection is the more parsimonious theory. In doing so he is invoking a variant of Occam's razor known as Morgan's Canon: "In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development." (Morgan 1903).
+However, more recent biological analyses, such as Richard Dawkins's The Selfish Gene, have contended that Morgan's Canon is not the simplest and most basic explanation. Dawkins argues the way evolution works is that the genes propagated in most copies end up determining the development of that particular species, i.e., natural selection turns out to select specific genes, and this is really the fundamental underlying principle that automatically gives individual and group selection as emergent features of evolution.
+Zoology provides an example. Muskoxen, when threatened by wolves, form a circle with the males on the outside and the females and young on the inside. This is an example of a behavior by the males that seems to be altruistic. The behavior is disadvantageous to them individually but beneficial to the group as a whole; thus, it was seen by some to support the group selection theory. Another interpretation is kin selection: if the males are protecting their offspring, they are protecting copies of their own alleles. Engaging in this behavior would be favored by individual selection if the cost to the male musk ox is less than half of the benefit received by his calf – which could easily be the case if wolves have an easier time killing calves than adult males. It could also be the case that male musk oxen would be individually less likely to be killed by wolves if they stood in a circle with their horns pointing out, regardless of whether they were protecting the females and offspring. That would be an example of regular natural selection – a phenomenon called "the selfish herd".
+Systematics is the branch of biology that attempts to establish patterns of relationship among biological taxa, today generally thought to reflect evolutionary history. It is also concerned with their classification. There are three primary camps in systematics: cladists, pheneticists, and evolutionary taxonomists. Cladists hold that classification should be based on synapomorphies (shared, derived character states), pheneticists contend that overall similarity (synapomorphies and complementary symplesiomorphies) is the determining criterion, while evolutionary taxonomists say that both genealogy and similarity count in classification (in a manner determined by the evolutionary taxonomist).
+It is among the cladists that Occam's razor is applied, through the method of cladistic parsimony. Cladistic parsimony (or maximum parsimony) is a method of phylogenetic inference that yields phylogenetic trees (more specifically, cladograms). Cladograms are branching,  diagrams used to represent hypotheses of relative degree of relationship, based on synapomorphies. Cladistic parsimony is used to select as the preferred hypothesis of relationships the cladogram that requires the fewest implied character state transformations (or smallest weight, if characters are differentially weighted). Critics of the cladistic approach often observe that for some types of data, parsimony could  produce the wrong results, regardless of how much data is collected (this is called statistical inconsistency, or long branch attraction). However, this criticism is also potentially true for any type of phylogenetic inference, unless the model used to estimate the tree reflects the way that evolution actually happened. Because this information is not empirically accessible, the criticism of statistical inconsistency against parsimony holds no force. For a book-length treatment of cladistic parsimony, see Elliott Sober's Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference (1988). For a discussion of both uses of Occam's razor in biology, see Sober's article "Let's Razor Ockham's Razor" (1990).
+Other methods for inferring evolutionary relationships use parsimony in a more general way. Likelihood methods for phylogeny use parsimony as they do for all likelihood tests, with hypotheses requiring fewer differing parameters (i.e., numbers or different rates of character change or different frequencies of character state transitions) being treated as null hypotheses relative to hypotheses requiring more differing parameters. Thus, complex hypotheses must predict data much better than do simple hypotheses before researchers reject the simple hypotheses. Recent advances employ information theory, a close cousin of likelihood, which uses Occam's razor in the same way. The choice of the "shortest tree" relative to a not-so-short tree under any optimality criterion (smallest distance, fewest steps, or maximum likelihood) is always based on parsimony.
+Francis Crick has commented on potential limitations of Occam's razor in biology. He advances the argument that because biological systems are the products of (an ongoing) natural selection, the mechanisms are not necessarily optimal in an obvious sense. He cautions: "While Ockham's razor is a useful tool in the physical sciences, it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in biological research."  This is an ontological critique of parsimony.
+In biogeography, parsimony is used to infer ancient vicariant events or migrations of species or populations by observing the geographic distribution and relationships of existing organisms. Given the phylogenetic tree, ancestral population subdivisions are inferred to be those that require the minimum amount of change.
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+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 6/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Religion ===
+
+In the philosophy of religion, Occam's razor is sometimes applied to the existence of God. William of Ockham himself was a Christian. He believed in God, and in the authority of Christian scripture; he writes that "nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is self-evident (literally, known through itself) or known by experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture." Ockham believed that an explanation has no sufficient basis in reality when it does not harmonize with reason, experience, or the Bible. Unlike many theologians of his time, though, Ockham did not believe God could be logically proven with arguments. To Ockham, science was a matter of discovery; theology was a matter of revelation and faith. He states: "Only faith gives us access to theological truths. The ways of God are not open to reason, for God has freely chosen to create a world and establish a way of salvation within it apart from any necessary laws that human logic or rationality can uncover."
+Thomas Aquinas, in the Summa Theologica, uses a formulation of Occam's razor to construct an objection to the idea that God exists, which he refutes directly with a counterargument:
+
+Further, it is superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by a few principles has been produced by many. But it seems that everything we see in the world can be accounted for by other principles, supposing God did not exist. For all natural things can be reduced to one principle which is nature; and all voluntary things can be reduced to one principle which is human reason, or will. Therefore there is no need to suppose God's existence.
+In turn, Aquinas answers this with the quinque viae, and addresses the particular objection above with the following answer:
+
+Since nature works for a determinate end under the direction of a higher agent, whatever is done by nature must needs be traced back to God, as to its first cause. So also whatever is done voluntarily must also be traced back to some higher cause other than human reason or will, since these can change or fail; for all things that are changeable and capable of defect must be traced back to an immovable and self-necessary first principle, as was shown in the body of the Article.
+Rather than argue for the necessity of a god, some theists base their belief upon grounds independent of, or prior to, reason, making Occam's razor irrelevant. This was the stance of Søren Kierkegaard, who viewed belief in God as a leap of faith that sometimes directly opposed reason. This is also the doctrine of Gordon Clark's presuppositional apologetics, with the exception that Clark never thought the leap of faith was contrary to reason (see also Fideism).
+Various arguments in favor of God establish God as a useful or even necessary assumption. Contrastingly some anti-theists hold firmly to the belief that assuming the existence of God introduces unnecessary complexity (e.g., the Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit from Dawkins's The God Delusion).
+Another application of the principle is to be found in the work of George Berkeley (1685–1753). Berkeley was an idealist who believed that all of reality could be explained in terms of the mind alone. He invoked Occam's razor against materialism, stating that matter was not required by his metaphysics and was thus eliminable. One potential problem with this belief is that it's possible, given Berkeley's position, to find solipsism itself more in line with the razor than a God-mediated world beyond a single thinker.
+Occam's razor may also be recognized in the apocryphal story about an exchange between Pierre-Simon Laplace and Napoleon. It is said that in praising Laplace for one of his recent publications, the emperor asked how it was that the name of God, which featured so frequently in the writings of Lagrange, appeared nowhere in Laplace's. At that, he is said to have replied, "It's because I had no need of that hypothesis." Though some points of this story illustrate Laplace's atheism, more careful consideration suggests that he may instead have intended merely to illustrate the power of methodological naturalism, or even simply that the fewer logical premises one assumes, the stronger is one's conclusion.
+
+=== Philosophy of mind ===
+In his article "Sensations and Brain Processes" (1959), J. J. C. Smart invoked Occam's razor with the aim to justify his preference of the mind–brain identity theory over spirit–body dualism. Dualists state that there are two kinds of substances in the universe: physical (including the body) and spiritual, which is non-physical. In contrast, identity theorists state that everything is physical, including consciousness, and that there is nothing nonphysical. Though it is impossible to appreciate the spiritual when limiting oneself to the physical, Smart maintained that identity theory explains all phenomena by assuming only a physical reality. Subsequently, Smart has been severely criticized for his use (or misuse) of Occam's razor and ultimately retracted his advocacy of it in this context. Paul Churchland (1984) states that by itself Occam's razor is inconclusive regarding duality. In a similar way, Dale Jacquette (1994) stated that Occam's razor has been used in attempts to justify eliminativism and reductionism in the philosophy of mind. Eliminativism is the thesis that the ontology of folk psychology including such entities as "pain", "joy", "desire", "fear", etc., are eliminable in favor of an ontology of a completed neuroscience.
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+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 7/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Penal ethics ===
+In penal theory and the philosophy of punishment, parsimony refers specifically to taking care in the distribution of punishment in order to avoid excessive punishment. In the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of punishment, Jeremy Bentham's "parsimony principle" states that any punishment greater than is required to achieve its end is unjust. The concept is related but not identical to the legal concept of proportionality. Parsimony is a key consideration of the modern restorative justice, and is a component of utilitarian approaches to punishment, as well as the prison abolition movement. Bentham believed that true parsimony would require punishment to be individualised to take account of the sensibility of the individual – an individual more sensitive to punishment should be given a proportionately lesser one, since otherwise needless pain would be inflicted. Later utilitarian writers have tended to abandon this idea, in large part due to the impracticality of determining each alleged criminal's relative sensitivity to specific punishments.
+
+=== Probability theory and statistics ===
+Marcus Hutter's universal artificial intelligence builds upon Solomonoff's mathematical formalization of the razor to calculate the expected value of an action.
+There are various papers in scholarly journals deriving formal versions of Occam's razor from probability theory, applying it in statistical inference, and using it to come up with criteria for penalizing complexity in statistical inference. Papers have suggested a connection between Occam's razor and Kolmogorov complexity.
+One of the problems with the original formulation of the razor is that it only applies to models with the same explanatory power (i.e., it only tells us to prefer the simplest of equally good models). A more general form of the razor can be derived from Bayesian model comparison, which is based on Bayes factors and can be used to compare models that do not fit the observations equally well. These methods can sometimes optimally balance the complexity and power of a model. Generally, the exact Occam factor is intractable, but approximations such as Akaike information criterion, Bayesian information criterion, Variational Bayesian methods, false discovery rate, and Laplace's method are used. Many artificial intelligence researchers are now employing such techniques, for instance through work on Occam Learning or more generally on the Free energy principle.
+Statistical versions of Occam's razor have a more rigorous formulation than what philosophical discussions produce. In particular, they must have a specific definition of the term simplicity, and that definition can vary. For example, in the Kolmogorov–Chaitin minimum description length approach, the subject must pick a Turing machine whose operations describe the basic operations believed to represent "simplicity" by the subject. However, one could always choose a Turing machine with a simple operation that happened to construct one's entire theory and would hence score highly under the razor. This has led to two opposing camps: one that believes Occam's razor is objective, and one that believes it is subjective.
+
+==== Objective razor ====
+The minimum instruction set of a universal Turing machine requires approximately the same length description across different formulations, and is small compared to the Kolmogorov complexity of most practical theories. Marcus Hutter has used this consistency to define a "natural" Turing machine of small size as the proper basis for excluding arbitrarily complex instruction sets in the formulation of razors. Describing the program for the universal program as the "hypothesis", and the representation of the evidence as program data, it has been formally proven under Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory that "the sum of the log universal probability of the model plus the log of the probability of the data given the model should be minimized." Interpreting this as minimising the total length of a two-part message encoding model followed by data given model gives us the minimum message length (MML) principle.
+One possible conclusion from mixing the concepts of Kolmogorov complexity and Occam's razor is that an ideal data compressor would also be a scientific explanation/formulation generator. Some attempts have been made to re-derive known laws from considerations of simplicity or compressibility.
+According to Jürgen Schmidhuber, the appropriate mathematical theory of Occam's razor already exists, namely, Solomonoff's theory of optimal inductive inference and its extensions. See discussions in David L. Dowe's "Foreword re C. S. Wallace" for the subtle distinctions between the algorithmic probability work of Solomonoff and the MML work of Chris Wallace, and see Dowe's "MML, hybrid Bayesian network graphical models, statistical consistency, invariance and uniqueness" both for such discussions and for (in section 4) discussions of MML and Occam's razor. For a specific example of MML as Occam's razor in the problem of decision tree induction, see Dowe and Needham's "Message Length as an Effective Ockham's Razor in Decision Tree Induction".
+
+==== Mathematical arguments against Occam's razor ====
+
+The no free lunch (NFL) theorems for inductive inference prove that Occam's razor must rely on ultimately arbitrary assumptions concerning the prior probability distribution found in our world. Specifically, suppose one is given two inductive inference algorithms, A and B, where A is a Bayesian procedure based on the choice of some prior distribution motivated by Occam's razor (e.g., the prior might favor hypotheses with smaller Kolmogorov complexity). Suppose that B is the anti-Bayes procedure, which calculates what the Bayesian algorithm A based on Occam's razor will predict – and then predicts the exact opposite. Then there are just as many actual priors (including those different from the Occam's razor prior assumed by A) in which algorithm B outperforms A as priors in which the procedure A based on Occam's razor comes out on top. In particular, the NFL theorems show that the "Occam factors" Bayesian argument for Occam's razor must make ultimately arbitrary modeling assumptions.
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+---
+title: "Occam's razor"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Software development ===
+In software development, the rule of least power argues the correct programming language to use is the one that is simplest while also solving the targeted software problem. In that form the rule is often credited to Tim Berners-Lee since it appeared in his design guidelines for the original Hypertext Transfer Protocol.  Complexity in this context is measured either by placing a language into the Chomsky hierarchy or by listing idiomatic features of the language and comparing according to some agreed to scale of difficulties between idioms. Many languages once thought to be of lower complexity have evolved or later been discovered to be more complex than originally intended; so, in practice this rule is applied to the relative ease of a programmer to obtain the power of the language, rather than the precise theoretical limits of the language.
+
+=== Artificial intelligence ===
+Scientists have discovered that deep neural networks (DNN) prefer simpler mathematical functions while learning. This simplicity bias enables DNNs to overcome overfitting – a scenario where the model gets overwhelmed with noise due to the presence of too many parameters.
+
+== Controversial aspects ==
+Occam's razor is not an embargo against the positing of any kind of entity, or a recommendation of the simplest theory come what may. Occam's razor is used to adjudicate between theories that have already passed "theoretical scrutiny" tests and are equally well-supported by evidence. Furthermore, it may be used to prioritize empirical testing between two equally plausible but unequally testable hypotheses; thereby minimizing costs and wastes while increasing chances of falsification of the simpler-to-test hypothesis.
+Another contentious aspect of the razor is that a theory can become more complex in terms of its structure (or syntax), while its ontology (or semantics) becomes simpler, or vice versa. Quine, in a discussion on definition, referred to these two perspectives as "economy of practical expression" and "economy in grammar and vocabulary", respectively.
+Galileo Galilei lampooned the misuse of Occam's razor in his Dialogue. The principle is represented in the dialogue by Simplicio. The telling point that Galileo presented ironically was that if one really wanted to start from a small number of entities, one could always consider the letters of the alphabet as the fundamental entities, since one could construct the whole of human knowledge out of them.
+Instances of using Occam's razor to justify belief in less complex and more simple theories have been criticized as using the razor inappropriately. For instance Francis Crick stated that "While Occam's razor is a useful tool in the physical sciences, it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in biological research."
+
+== Anti-razors ==
+Occam's razor has met some opposition from people who consider it too extreme or rash. Walter Chatton (c. 1290–1343) was a contemporary of William of Ockham who took exception to Occam's razor and Ockham's use of it. In response he devised his own anti-razor: "If three things are not enough to verify an affirmative proposition about things, a fourth must be added and so on." Although there have been several philosophers who have formulated similar anti-razors since Chatton's time, no one anti-razor has perpetuated as notably as Chatton's anti-razor, although this could be the case of the Late Renaissance Italian motto of unknown attribution Se non è vero, è ben trovato ("Even if it is not true, it is well conceived") when referred to a particularly artful explanation.
+Anti-razors have also been created by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), and Karl Menger (1902–1985). Leibniz's version took the form of a principle of plenitude, as Arthur Lovejoy has called it: the idea being that God created the most varied and populous of possible worlds. Kant felt a need to moderate the effects of Occam's razor and thus created his own counter-razor: "The variety of beings should not rashly be diminished."
+Karl Menger found mathematicians to be too parsimonious with regard to variables so he formulated his Law Against Miserliness, which took one of two forms: "Entities must not be reduced to the point of inadequacy" and "It is vain to do with fewer what requires more." A less serious but even more extremist anti-razor is 'Pataphysics, the "science of imaginary solutions" developed by Alfred Jarry (1873–1907). Perhaps the ultimate in anti-reductionism, "'Pataphysics seeks no less than to view each event in the universe as completely unique, subject to no laws but its own." Variations on this theme were subsequently explored by the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges in his story/mock-essay "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius". Physicist R. V. Jones contrived Crabtree's Bludgeon, which states that "[n]o set of mutually inconsistent observations can exist for which some human intellect cannot conceive a coherent explanation, however complicated."
+Recently, American physicist Igor Mazin argued that because high-profile physics journals prefer publications offering exotic and unusual interpretations, the Occam's razor principle is being replaced by an "Inverse Occam's razor", implying that the simplest possible explanation is usually rejected.
+
+== Other ==
+Since 2012, The Skeptic magazine annually awards the Ockham Awards, or simply the Ockhams, named after Occam's razor, at QED. The Ockhams were introduced by editor-in-chief Deborah Hyde to "recognise the effort and time that have gone into the community's favourite skeptical blogs, skeptical podcasts, skeptical campaigns and outstanding contributors to the skeptical cause." The trophies, designed by Neil Davies and Karl Derrick, carry the upper text "Ockham's" and the lower text "The Skeptic. Shaving away unnecessary assumptions since 1285." Between the texts, there is an image of a double-edged safety razorblade, and both lower corners feature an image of William of Ockham's face.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Ockham's Razor, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sir Anthony Kenny, Marilyn Adams & Richard Cross (In Our Time, 31 May 2007)
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus_Unbound-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus_Unbound-0.md
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+---
+title: "Odysseus Unbound"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus_Unbound"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:10.299236+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Odysseus Unbound: The Search for Homer's Ithaca is a 2005 book by Robert Bittlestone, with appendices by the philologist James Diggle and the geologist John Underhill.  The book investigates the location of Homer's Ithaca, arguing that Paliki, a peninsula of Kefalonia, was an island at the time of the Trojan War, and that it was the island referred to as Ithaca in the Odyssey.
+
+The accuracy of Homer's geography has been disputed since antiquity, and Bittlestone's book is one of several published by non-academic authors in the 1990s and 2000s that attempts to identify Homer's Ithaca based on the geographical evidence given in the Odyssey.  Bittlestone's argument that Paliki should be identified with Homer's Ithaca has received favourable reviews, with Mary Beard considering that there is "a very fair chance indeed" that he is correct, and Peter Green calling it "almost certainly correct".However, reviewers criticised the hyperbolic claims made for the book.  G. L. Huxley and Christina Haywood both criticised Odysseus Unbound for not taking the argument that Homer's Ithaca was the same island as modern Ithaca seriously enough, and Huxley argues that even if Bittlestone's case that Paliki was once a separate island from Kefalonia is accepted, the book does not prove that it is the location of Homer's Ithaca.  Haywood concludes that Bittlestone "was carried too far by his enthusiasm", while Beard, though convinced by the argument that Paliki was an island in the Mycenaean period, concludes that "the end of the book descends into fantasy", and criticises Bittlestone for his excessive concern with speculatively identifying every geographical feature of Ithaca mentioned in the Odyssey with a real location on Paliki.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Works cited ==
+Beard, Mary (7 October 2005). "Cephalonia, alas". TLS. Archived from the original on 29 September 2006.
+Green, Peter (30 November 2006). "Finding Ithaca". New York Review of Books.
+Haywood, Christina (2007). "Review: Odysseus Unbound: The Search for Homer's Ithaca by R. Brittlestone, James Diggle and John Underhill". Classics Ireland. 14. JSTOR 25528473.
+Huxley, G. L. (2007). "Review: Odysseus Unbound: The search for Homer's Ithaca by Robert Bittlestone, James Diggle and John Underhill". Hermathena. 182. JSTOR 23041723.
+van Wijngaarden, Gert Jan (2011). "Immaterial Landscapes: Homeric Geography and the Ionian Islands". Quaternary International. 30.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Odysseus Unbound website; Odysseus Unbound discussion forum
+James Diggle, Emeritus Professor of Greek and Latin, Cambridge University
+Professor John Underhill, Chair of Exploration Geoscience and Chief Scientist, Shell Centre for Exploration Geoscience, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh
\ No newline at end of file
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:28.689584+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch-1.md
index c700aa9f4..8af75313f 100644
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-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:52:40.252373+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:28.689584+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_DNA-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_DNA-0.md
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+---
+title: "Origin of DNA"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_DNA"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:11.447085+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Origin of DNA encompasses the scientific theories and discoveries surrounding the emergence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as the primary genetic material for all known forms of life. DNA contains the genetic information that allows organisms to function, grow, and reproduce. However, the exact timeline and mechanisms by which DNA assumed this role during the 4-billion-year history of life remain active areas of scientific inquiry. While the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) is thought to have possessed DNA, it is currently widely proposed that the earliest forms of life may have relied on RNA as their genetic material, with DNA evolving later as a more chemically stable repository for genetic information.
+
+
+== History ==
+Research into the origins of DNA is fundamentally constrained by the lack of direct physical evidence of ancient genetic systems. Investigating the early evolution of nucleic acids is notoriously difficult because DNA survives in the natural environment for less than one million years. Once an organism dies, its DNA slowly degrades into short fragments in solution, making the recovery of DNA from most ancient fossils impossible.
+While claims for older DNA have been made in the literature, they are met with significant skepticism within the scientific community. Notably, a 2000 report claimed the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal that was 250 million years old. These claims remain highly controversial, with subsequent studies strongly suggesting that the recovered DNA was likely the result of modern environmental contamination. Because empirical fossil evidence of the first DNA is unavailable, researchers must rely on studying extant molecular biology, viral genetics, and astrochemistry to piece together how the molecule originated.
+
+
+== Extraterrestrial origins ==
+
+The foundational components of DNA may have an extraterrestrial origin. Astrobiological research has shown that the building blocks of DNA, including adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules, can form in outer space. In 2022, scientists confirmed that all five primary nucleobases for DNA and RNA (including the pyrimidines uracil, cytosine, and thymine) are present in carbonaceous meteorites.
+Complex organic compounds essential for life have also been synthesized in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in outer space. By using starting chemicals like pyrimidine, which is found in meteorites, researchers have successfully formed uracil, cytosine, and thymine. Pyrimidine, similar to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are among the most carbon-rich chemicals found in the universe, may have originally formed in the atmospheres of red giants or within interstellar cosmic dust and gas clouds. These findings suggest that the prebiotic chemical ingredients necessary for the emergence of DNA could have been delivered to early Earth by meteoritic impacts.
+
+
+== Transition from RNA world ==
+
+ 
+Under the RNA world hypothesis, early life forms used RNA rather than DNA as their central genetic material. RNA is uniquely suited for early cell metabolism because it is capable of both transmitting genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (acting as ribozymes). This ancient RNA world likely influenced the evolution of the current genetic code, which is based on four nucleotide bases. The limitation to four bases is thought to be an evolutionary trade-off: a small number of bases increases the accuracy of genetic replication, while a larger number of bases would have increased the catalytic efficiency and versatility of ribozymes.
+One of the primary challenges posed by the RNA world hypothesis is explaining the exact evolutionary pathway by which an RNA-based biological system transitioned to a DNA-based one. The study of modern viruses has provided significant insights into this transition. Researchers Geoffrey Diemer and Ken Stedman from Portland State University discovered potential evidence of this pathway while conducting a virological survey in a hot acidic lake in Lassen Volcanic National Park, California. They uncovered a simple DNA virus that had naturally acquired a gene from a completely unrelated RNA-based virus, demonstrating that functional genetic chimeras can occur between the two nucleic acid domains.
+Building on such mechanisms, virologist Luis P. Villarreal of UC Irvine, has suggested that viruses played a critical evolutionary role in the creation of DNA genomes. According to Villarreal, viruses capable of converting RNA-based genes into DNA and incorporating them into more complex DNA-based genomes might have been highly common in the ancient "virus world." This RNA-to-DNA viral transition likely occurred around 4 billion years ago, bolstering the argument that information transfer from the RNA world to the emerging DNA world was facilitated by viruses prior to the emergence of the last universal common ancestor. From this research, it is evident that the genetic diversity and mechanisms of this ancient virus world are still present in modern viral ecosystems.
+
+
+== Prebiotic synthesis on Earth ==
+Alongside extraterrestrial delivery, organic molecules relevant to DNA may also have formed on early Earth through prebiotic chemistry. The Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated that amino acids could be synthesised abiotically from simple inorganic compounds under conditions simulating the early Earth's atmosphere and ocean. Subsequent work showed that purines, including adenine, could be produced from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) under similar prebiotic conditions.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_tempering-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_tempering-0.md
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+---
+title: "Parallel tempering"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_tempering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:17.377976+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Parallel tempering, in physics and statistics, is a computer simulation method typically used to find the lowest energy state of a system of many interacting particles. It addresses the problem that at high temperatures, one may have a stable state different from low temperature, whereas simulations at low temperatures may become "stuck" in a metastable state.  It does this by using the fact that the high temperature simulation may visit states typical of both stable and metastable low temperature states.
+More specifically, parallel tempering  (also known as replica exchange MCMC sampling), is a simulation method aimed at improving the dynamic properties of Monte Carlo method simulations of physical systems, and of Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling methods more generally.  The replica exchange method was originally devised by Robert Swendsen and J. S. Wang, then extended by Charles J. Geyer, and later developed further by Giorgio Parisi, 
+Koji Hukushima and Koji Nemoto, 
+and others.
+Y. Sugita and Y. Okamoto also formulated a molecular dynamics version of parallel tempering; this is usually known as replica-exchange molecular dynamics or REMD.
+Essentially, one runs N copies of the system, randomly initialized, at different temperatures. Then, based on the Metropolis criterion  one exchanges configurations at different temperatures. The idea of this method
+is to make configurations at high temperatures available to the simulations at low temperatures and vice versa.
+This results in a very robust ensemble which is able to sample both low and high energy configurations.
+In this way, thermodynamical properties such as the specific heat, which is in general not well computed in the canonical ensemble, can be computed with great precision.
+
+
+== Background ==
+Typically a Monte Carlo simulation using a Metropolis–Hastings update consists of a single stochastic process that evaluates the energy of the system and accepts/rejects updates based on the temperature T.  At high temperatures updates that change the energy of the system are comparatively more probable.  When the system is highly correlated, updates are rejected and the simulation is said to suffer from critical slowing down.
+If we were to run two simulations at temperatures separated by a ΔT, we would find that if ΔT is small enough, then the energy histograms obtained by collecting the values of the energies over a set of Monte Carlo steps N will create two distributions that will somewhat overlap. The overlap can be defined by the area of the histograms that falls over the same interval of energy values, normalized by the total number of samples. For ΔT = 0 the overlap should approach 1.
+Another way to interpret this overlap is to say that system configurations sampled at temperature T1 are likely to appear during a simulation at T2. Because the Markov chain should have no memory of its past, we can create a new update for the system composed of the two systems at T1 and T2.  At a given Monte Carlo step we can update the global system by swapping the configuration of the two systems, or alternatively trading the two temperatures. The update is accepted according to the Metropolis–Hastings criterion with probability
+
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+    
+    {\displaystyle p=\min \left(1,{\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {E_{j}}{kT_{i}}}-{\frac {E_{i}}{kT_{j}}}\right)}{\exp \left(-{\frac {E_{i}}{kT_{i}}}-{\frac {E_{j}}{kT_{j}}}\right)}}\right)=\min \left(1,e^{(E_{i}-E_{j})\left({\frac {1}{kT_{i}}}-{\frac {1}{kT_{j}}}\right)}\right),}
+  
+
+and otherwise the update is rejected. The detailed balance condition has to be satisfied by ensuring that the reverse update has to be equally likely, all else being equal. This can be ensured by appropriately choosing regular Monte Carlo updates or parallel tempering updates with probabilities that are independent of the configurations of the two systems or of the Monte Carlo step.
+This update can be generalized to more than two systems.
+By a careful choice of temperatures and number of systems one can achieve an improvement in the mixing properties of a set of Monte Carlo simulations that exceeds the extra computational cost of running parallel simulations.
+Other considerations to be made: increasing the number of different temperatures can have a detrimental effect, as one can think of the 'lateral' movement of a given system across temperatures as a diffusion process.
+Set up is important as there must be a practical histogram overlap to achieve a reasonable probability of lateral moves.
+The parallel tempering method can be used as a super simulated annealing that does not need restart, since a system at high temperature can feed new local optimizers to a system at low temperature, allowing tunneling between metastable states and improving convergence to a global optimum.
+
+
+== Implementations ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Bennett acceptance ratio
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_modeling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_modeling-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Participatory modeling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_modeling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:05.335906+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Participatory modeling is a purposeful learning process for action that engages the implicit and explicit knowledge of stakeholders to create formalized and shared representation(s) of reality. In this process, the participants co-formulate the problem and use modeling practices to aid in the description, solution, and decision-making actions of the group. Participatory modeling is often used in environmental and resource management contexts. It can be described as engaging non-scientists in the scientific process. The participants structure the problem, describe the system, and create a shared understanding of how the system works. This can  further lead to more  quantitative analyses, and may  sometimes result in a computer model of the system, which  is  then  jointly  used to test policy interventions, and propose one or more solutions. Participatory modeling is often used in natural resources management, such as forests or water.
+There are numerous benefits from this type of modeling, including a high degree of ownership and motivation towards change for the people involved in the modeling process. It also helps to develop more acceptable solutions and often creates more consensus among the stakeholders involved. 
+
+
+== See also ==
+Model-driven architecture
+Participatory design
+Participatory GIS
+Public participation GIS
+Problem structuring methods
+Shared vision planning
+SEQUAL framework
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Peak–end rule"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:18.581650+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The peak–end rule is a psychological heuristic in which people judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak (i.e., its most intense point) and at its end, rather than based on the total sum or average of every moment of the experience. The effect occurs regardless of whether the experience is pleasant or unpleasant. To the heuristic, other information aside from that of the peak and end of the experience is not lost, but it is not used. This includes net pleasantness or unpleasantness and how long the experience lasted. The peak–end rule is thereby a specific form of the more general extension neglect and duration neglect.
+
+== Overview ==
+The peak–end rule is an elaboration on the snapshot model of remembered utility proposed by Barbara Fredrickson and Daniel Kahneman. This model dictates that an event is not judged by the entirety of an experience, but by prototypical moments (or snapshots)  as a result of the representativeness heuristic. The remembered value of snapshots dominates the actual value of an experience. Fredrickson and Kahneman theorized that these snapshots are actually the average of the most affectively intense moment of an experience and the feeling experienced at the end. The effects of the duration of an experience upon retrospective evaluation are extremely slight. Fredrickson and Kahneman labeled this phenomenon duration neglect. The peak–end rule is applicable only when an experience has definite beginning and end periods.
+
+== Research and examples ==
+A 1993 study titled "When More Pain Is Preferred to Less: Adding a Better End" by Kahneman, Fredrickson, Charles Schreiber, and Donald Redelmeier provided groundbreaking evidence for the peak–end rule. Participants were subjected to two different versions of a single unpleasant experience. The first trial had subjects submerge a hand in 14 °C water for 60 seconds. The second trial had subjects submerge the other hand in 14 °C water for 60 seconds, but then keep their hand submerged for an additional 30 seconds, during which the temperature was raised to 15 °C. Subjects were then offered the option of which trial to repeat. Against the law of temporal monotonicity, subjects were more willing to repeat the second trial, despite a prolonged exposure to uncomfortable temperatures. Kahneman et al. concluded that "subjects chose the long trial simply because they liked the memory of it better than the alternative (or disliked it less)."
+Similarly, a 1996 study by Kahneman and Redelmeier assessed patients' appraisals of uncomfortable colonoscopy or lithotripsy procedures and correlated the remembered experience with real-time findings. They found that patients consistently evaluated the discomfort of the experience based on the intensity of pain at the worst (peak) and final (end) moments. This occurred regardless of length or variation in intensity of pain within the procedure.
+Another study by Kahneman and Ziv Carmon identified a boundary condition for the peak–end rule. Participants interacted with a computer program that had them wait to be served, while assessing their satisfaction as they were waiting. Kahneman and Carmon found that how participants felt at the final moment of the experience was a good predictor of their responses when they were asked to retrospectively evaluate their experiences. For example, participants who felt very dissatisfied during much of the experience but were satisfied in the final few seconds (because the waiting line moved faster than expected toward the end) summarized the experience as satisfying. Kahneman and Carmon concluded that real time experiences that are based on expectations are discounted after the fact if those expectations are unfulfilled.
+A third study by Kahneman, Redelmeier, and Joel Katz corroborated and expanded upon the discoveries made in the 1996 study. Colonoscopy patients were randomly divided into two groups. One underwent a colonoscopy procedure wherein the scope was left in for three extra minutes, but not moved, creating a sensation that was uncomfortable, but not painful. The other group underwent a typical colonoscopy procedure. Kahneman et al. found that, when asked to retrospectively evaluate their experiences, patients who underwent the longer procedure rated their experience as less unpleasant than patients who underwent the typical procedure. Moreover, the patients in the prolonged discomfort group were far more likely to return for subsequent procedures because a less painful end led them to evaluate the procedure more positively than those who faced a shorter procedure.
+
+== Causes ==
+
+=== Memory bias for more emotional events (i.e., why the peak is memorable) ===
+People exhibit better memory for more intensely emotional events than less intensely emotional events. The precise cause of this is unclear, but it has been demonstrated, for decades, across a wide variety of surveys and experiments. In addition, people do not always recognize that the events that they remember are more emotionally intense than the "average" event of its kind. This failure to correct for the atypicality of extreme memories can lead people to believe those extreme moments are representative of the "set" being judged. Boston Red Sox fans asked to recall any one game they saw when the Red Sox won, for example, tended to recall the best game they could remember. They only realized this game was unrepresentative of past winning games by the Red Sox if they were explicitly asked to recall the best game they could remember, as evidenced by their subsequent affective forecasts. This bias for more intense emotional experiences is evident in nostalgic preferences. People asked to recall a television show or movie from the past tend to recall the most enjoyable show or movie that they can remember, and use this extreme example to rate all shows from its era unless they are also able to spontaneously recall shows or movies that are worse than the first show or movie they remember.
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+---
+title: "Peak–end rule"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:18.581650+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Recency bias in memory (i.e., why the end is memorable) ===
+People exhibit serial position effects such that they have better memory for both the beginning and end of sequences, phenomena known as primacy bias and recency bias, respectively. A paper by Garbinsky, Morewedge, and Shiv (2014) found evidence that for extended hedonic experiences, better memory for the end of the experience than the beginning (recency > primacy) can be attributed to memory interference effects. As a person eats potato chips, for example, the formation of a new memory of the most recently eaten chip makes it harder for them to recall how the previously eaten chips tasted. Garbinsky and colleagues found that (1) recency effects better predicted recalled enjoyment of a small meal (e.g., eating 5 or 15 chips) than did primacy effects, (2) that people had a worse memory for the first bite of the meal than the last bite of the meal, but (3) providing people with their ratings of the first bite lead them to use their enjoyment of that first bite as much as their enjoyment of the last bite when rating their overall enjoyment of the meal.
+
+== Applications ==
+
+=== Business ===
+
+==== Customer Service ====
+Since most consumer interactions have set beginnings and ends, they fit the peak–end model. As a consequence, negative occurrences in any consumer interaction can be counteracted by establishing a firmly positive peak and end. This can be accomplished through playing music customers enjoy, giving out free samples, or paying a clerk to hold the door for patrons as they leave. As Scott Stratten has suggested, "A really great salesperson who helps with an exchange can erase negative experiences along the way. The long wait in line and the bad music in the changing room are forgotten". However, as research by Talya Miron-Shatz suggests, retrospective evaluations of day-long experiences do not appear to follow the peak–end rule, which brings into question the applicability of this rule to approximately day-length consumer–business interactions, such as hotel stays.
+
+==== Pricing Strategy ====
+Another business application is the price setting strategy in marketing practice. The peak-end rule suggests that reference price, an internal price benchmark, is formed as a weighted average of the highest observed price and the most recent price. Among all four reference price models (the peak-end model, extrapolative expectations model, adaptive expectations model, and rational expectations model), the peak-end model is the most plausible representation of consumer's cognitive processes at an individual level.
+De Maeyer and Estelami suggest that occasionally raising the price of the brand above the desirable level may restore the reference price for the brand. However, due to its inherent risks, this tactic may only be effective under certain circumstances. First, the tactic should be used only sparingly and for a short period. If the brand adjusts its price level too often, it could confuse customers and may be regarded as "unreliable". A long period of exceptionally high price may distort consumers' price perceptions on the brand and result in a loss of consumers. Second, the tactic is best suited to frequently purchased products (e.g., food, music, fragrance) where the frequency of sales minimizes the impact of the lost sale during the peak-price period.
+Another study by Nasiry and Popescu examines the effect of low peak price and its interaction with loss aversion in optimal pricing strategies. They discovered that steep discounts could permanently erode demand in the future, as lowest prices remain salient in the memory anchoring process. Thus, companies should avoid deep discounts to maintain their brand price perception. They also pointed out the limitation of temporary price-raising strategy as being short-lived because these high prices affect only the reference price in the next period.
+
+==== Turnover ====
+A study by Kang, Daniels, and Schweitzer proposed a "streak-end rule" which extends the peak-end rule to sequences of binary events. They argued that, for sequences of binary events (such as workers being repeatedly assigned to do tasks that are either hard or easy), streaks are the psychological analogue of peaks. They found that volunteer workers' turnover decisions were disproportionately influenced by "streaks" (i.e., when a worker experienced many hard tasks in a row) and "ends" (i.e., when a worker's most recent task was a hard task).
+
+=== Vacations ===
+In 2006, a study was carried out at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand, analyzing the implications of the peak–end rule on the perceived happiness experienced on vacations. The study found that participants' remembered overall happiness was approximately predicted by the peak–end rule, although it was actually better predicted by their happiness during the "most memorable or most unusual 24-h period". Still, the duration of a vacation appeared to have negligible effects on remembered happiness. The results of the study could be applied to choosing more economical durations for vacations.
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+---
+title: "Peak–end rule"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:18.581650+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Medical procedures ===
+The peak–end rule is particularly salient in regard to medical procedures, since it suggests that it is preferable to have longer procedures that include a period of decreased discomfort than to have shorter procedures. In particular, the rule "suggests that the memory of a painful medical treatment is likely to be less aversive if relief from the pain is gradual than if relief is abrupt". Furthermore, the quality of a remembered procedure can drastically influence medical futures. If people recall necessary but onerous procedures more positively, then they are more likely to return for repeat procedures later in life.
+However, factoring the effect of the peak–end rule upon evaluations of medical procedures is problematic, since adding a period of decreasing pain to a procedure is still added pain.  Even though this certainly yields a better memory of the process, the patient still endures more pain than is strictly necessary. Doctors and patients are forced to confront the choice between objectively less painful forms of treatment and forms of treatment that will be remembered more favorably. Kahneman claims that "it is safe to assume that few patients will agree to expose themselves to pain for the sole purpose of improving a future memory".
+
+=== Education ===
+The peak-end rule also applies to educational practice, especially to peer assessment. A study by Hoogerheide and his team analyzes the effects of the peak-end rule in children's experience of receiving peer assessments. The result shows that the peak-end rule likely influences children's perception and memory of the assessment as well as their learning outcomes and motivation.
+The study contains two experiments with different overall tones, one positive and one negative. In each experiment, students received two versions of assessments with different lengths. In the overall negative assessment, the extended version comprises an extra moderately negative rating at the end. Similarly, the extended positive assessment ends with an additional moderately positive rating. In both experiments, the students reported that the extended assessment was remembered as more pleasant and less difficult to deal with. Based on the result, Hoogerheide advises that teachers should structure the feedback by ending with the best part of the assessment. When the assessment is overall negative, it is better to end with the most pleasant or most easily acceptable part of the negative feedbacks. Similarly, the positive assessment should end on a high note rather than the most unpleasant part.
+
+=== Restaurants ===
+While the peak-end rule in human eating behavior may not be as general as in other contexts, studies have discovered some contextual factors that are influenced by the rule. For example, the peak-end rule works for the evaluation of food when the price is low. Conversely, for expensive food, people tend to rely on their initial experience rather than the peak or end experience. A potential reason is that high-price payers form a higher expectation on the service than low-price payers do. If their high expectation initially deviates from the actual experience, the valuation on the overall service could be driven primarily by the beginning experience. Those paying low price may not have much expectation and therefore consider the peak to be much higher than high-price payers do. Thus, they are more likely to be influenced by the peak-end rule when evaluating the overall experience.
+The theory is formed in a pizza study where people chose to pay $4 or $8 for their pizza buffet. For those paid $4, both the tastes of the last and the peak slices significantly predict the general evaluation for overall food taste. In contrast, for those paid $8, the first slice is more important in predicting the overall enjoyment. Therefore, in order to maximize customer satisfaction, higher-priced restaurants should put their best food in front of the consumer first. In a buffet setting, they could provide some signage to make more popular items salient or place the most popular foods first in the line. In lower-priced restaurants, serving tasty desserts at the end may increase customer's overall satisfaction.
+The effect of the peak-end rule in eating behavior also depends on personal factors such as self-restraint level on food choice. Robinson et al. discovered that for unrestrained eaters key moments in eating experiences have a disproportionately large influence on remembered enjoyment of eating. However, restrained eaters' judgements on food are not influenced by the peak or end of the recent eating experience but by other cognitive factors such as semantic knowledge and beliefs about food that are already formed.
+
+== Criticism ==
+Critiques of the peak–end rule typically derive from its conflation of a complex mental evaluation into a simplistic framework. A 2008 study found some support for the peak–end rule, but also found that it was "not an outstandingly good predictor" of remembered experiential value, and that the happiness of the most memorable part of an experience predicted remembered happiness better than did the happiness of the peak or of the end. Additionally, the extreme effect of peaks fades more rapidly over time, causing peaks to be recalled less positively and troughs recalled less negatively over time. Episodic memory endures for only a few weeks; at some point, mental accounting shifts over to semantic memory, leading to potential over-valuation of the "end" and diminished weighting of the peak. Additionally, memories that are available for evaluation may change due to the fading affect associated with memory or differing goals in recall. Goal orientation or initial expectations can also affect the weighting of a peak or an end, causing an end to be over-weighted as the culmination of a goal. Finally, Ariely and Carmon have theorized that evaluations of past events are affected by feelings at the time of evaluation.
+
+== See also ==
+Emotion and memory
+List of cognitive biases
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-0.md
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+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 1/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Modelling of a transmission line is done to analyse its performance and characteristics. The gathered information vis simulating the model can be used to reduce losses or to compensate these losses. Moreover, it gives more insight into the working of transmission lines and helps to find a way to improve the overall transmission efficiency with minimum cost.
+
+== Performance modelling ==
+Performance modelling is the abstraction of a real system into a simplified representation to enable the prediction of performance. The creation of a model can provide insight into how a proposed or actual system will or does work. This can, however, point towards different things to people belonging to different fields of work.
+Performance modelling has many benefits, which includes:
+
+Relatively inexpensive prediction of future performance.
+A clearer understanding of a system's performance characteristics.
+Additionally it may include, a mechanism for risk management and reduction with design support for future projects.
+A model will often be created specifically so that it can be interpreted by a software tool that simulates the system's behaviour, based on the information contained in the performance model. Such tools provide further insight into the system's behaviour and can be used to identify bottlenecks or hot spots where the design is inadequate. Solutions to the problems identified might involve the provision of more physical resources or change in the structure of the design.
+Performance modelling is found helpful, in case of:
+
+Estimating the performance of a new system.
+Estimating the impact on the performance of an existing system when a new system is interacting with it.
+Estimating the impact of a change of workload or input on an existing system.
+
+== Overview ==
+
+Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation and is different from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The interconnected network which facilitates this movement is known as a transmission line. A transmission line is a set of electrical conductors carrying an electrical signal from one place to another. Coaxial cable and twisted pair cable are examples. The transmission line is capable of transmitting electrical power from one place to another. In many electric circuits, the length of the wires connecting the components can, for the most part, be ignored. That is, the voltage on the wire at a given time can be assumed to be the same at all points. However, when the voltage changes in a time interval comparable to the time it takes for the signal to travel down the wire, the length becomes important and the wire must be treated as a transmission line. Stated another way, the length of the wire is important when the signal includes frequency components with corresponding wavelengths comparable to or less than the length of the wire. So far transmission lines are categorized and defined in many ways. Few approaches to modelling have also being done by different methods. Most of them are mathematical and assumed circuit-based models.
+Transmission can be of two types :
+
+HVDC Transmission (High Voltage Direct Current transmission)
+HVAC Transmission (High Voltage Alternating Current Transmission)
+
+=== HVDC transmission ===
+
+High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is to be transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and it is less expensive to use direct current instead of alternating current.  For a very long transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the additional cost of the required converter stations at each end.In DC transmission line, the mercury arc rectifier converts the alternating current into the DC. The DC transmission line transmits the bulk power over long distance. At the consumer ends the thyratron converts the DC into the AC.
+
+=== HVAC transmission ===
+The AC transmission line is used for transmitting the bulk of the power generation end to the consumer end. The power is generated in the generating station. The transmission line transmits the power from generation to the consumer end. High-voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive losses over long distances in the wiring. This efficiency of high voltage transmission allows for the transmission of a larger proportion of the generated power to the substations and in turn to the loads, translating to operational cost savings. The power is transmitted from one end to another with the help of step-up and step down transformer. Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (115 kV or above) to reduce the energy loss which occurs in long-distance transmission.
+Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but reduced maintenance costs. Underground transmission is sometimes used in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations.
+
+== Terminologies ==
+
+=== Lossless line ===
+
+The lossless line approximation is the least accurate model; it is often used on short lines when the inductance of the line is much greater than its resistance. For this approximation, the voltage and current are identical at the sending and receiving ends.
+The characteristic impedance is purely real, which means resistive for that impedance, and it is often called surge impedance for a lossless line. When a lossless line is terminated by surge impedance, there is no voltage drop. Though the phase angles of voltage and current are rotated, the magnitudes of voltage and current remain constant along the length of the line. For load >  SIL, the voltage will drop from sending end and the line will "consume" VARs. For load <  SIL, the voltage will increase from sending end, and the line will generate VARs.
+
+=== Power factor ===
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of −1 to 1. 
+A power factor of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the instantaneous product of the two. A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates power, which then flows back towards the source.
+
+Real power is the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work.
+Apparent power is the average product of current and voltage. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be greater than the real power(pf ≤0.5).
+In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase energy loss in the distribution system and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.
+
+=== Surge impedance ===
+
+The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually written Z0) of a uniform transmission line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave propagating along the line; that is, a wave travelling in one direction in the absence of reflections in the other direction. Alternatively and equivalently it can be defined as the input impedance of a transmission line when its length is infinite. Characteristic impedance is determined by the geometry and materials of the transmission line and, for a uniform line, is not dependent on its length. The SI unit of characteristic impedance is Ohm (Ώ)
+Surge impedance determines the loading capability of the line and reflection coefficient of the current or voltage propagating waves.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              L
+              C
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{0}={\sqrt {\frac {L}{C}}}}
+  
+
+Where,
+Z0 = Characteristic Impedance of the Line
+L = Inductance per unit length of the Line
+C = Capacitance per unit length of the Line
+
+=== Line parameters ===
+The transmission line has mainly four parameters, resistance, inductance, and capacitance and shunt conductance. These parameters are uniformly distributed along the line. Hence, it is also called the distributed parameter of the transmission line.
+
+=== Ferranti Effect ===
+
+In electrical engineering, the Ferranti effect is the increase in voltage occurring at the receiving end of a very long (> 200 km) AC electric power transmission line, relative to the voltage at the sending end, when the load is very small, or no load is connected. It can be stated as a factor, or as a percent increase:.
+The capacitive line charging current produces a voltage drop across the line inductance that is in-phase with the sending-end voltage, assuming negligible line resistance. Therefore, both line inductance and capacitance are responsible for this phenomenon. This can be analysed by considering the line as a transmission line where the source impedance is lower than the load impedance (unterminated). The effect is similar to an electrically short version of the quarter-wave impedance transformer, but with smaller voltage transformation.
+The Ferranti effect is more pronounced the longer the line and the higher the voltage applied. The relative voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line length and the square of frequency.
+The Ferranti effect is much more pronounced in underground cables, even in short lengths, because of their high capacitance per unit length, and lower electrical impedance.
+
+=== Corona discharge ===
+A corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a fluid such as air surrounding a conductor that is electrically charged. Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in high-voltage systems unless care is taken to limit the electric field strength. A corona will occur when the strength of the electric field (potential gradient) around a conductor is high enough to form a conductive region, but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or arcing to nearby objects. It is often seen as a bluish (or another colour) glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages and emits light by the same property as a gas discharge lamp.
+In many high voltage applications, the corona is an unwanted side effect. Corona discharge from high voltage electric power transmission lines constitutes an economically significant waste of energy. Corona discharges are suppressed by improved insulation, corona rings, and making high voltage electrodes in smooth rounded shapes.
+
+=== ABCD parameters ===
+A, B, C, D are the constants also known as the transmission parameters or chain parameters. These parameters are used for the analysis of an electrical network. It is also used for determining the performance of input, output voltage and current of the transmission network.
+
+=== Propagation constant ===
+The propagation constant of the sinusoidal electromagnetic wave is a measure of the change undergone by the amplitude and phase of the wave as it propagates in a given direction. The quantity being measured can be the voltage, the current in a circuit, or a field vector such as electric field strength or flux density. The propagation constant itself measures the change per unit length, but it is otherwise dimensionless. In the context of two-port networks and their cascades, propagation constant measures the change undergone by the source quantity as it propagates from one port to the next.
+
+==== Attenuation constant ====
+The real part of the propagation constant is the attenuation constant and is denoted by Greek lowercase letter α (alpha). It causes signal amplitude to decrease along a transmission line.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Phase constant ====
+The imaginary part of the propagation constant is the phase constant and is denoted by Greek lowercase letter β (beta). It causes the signal phase to shift along a transmission line. Generally denoted in radians per meter (rad/m).
+The propagation constant is denoted by Greek lowercase letter γ (gamma), and γ = α + jβ
+
+=== Voltage Regulation ===
+Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the voltage magnitude between the sending and receiving end of a component, such as a transmission or distribution line. It is given in percentage for different lines.
+Mathematically, voltage regulation is given by,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        V
+        .
+        R
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                V
+                
+                  n
+                  o
+                  −
+                  l
+                  o
+                  a
+                  d
+                
+              
+              −
+              
+                V
+                
+                  f
+                  u
+                  l
+                  l
+                  −
+                  l
+                  o
+                  a
+                  d
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              V
+              
+                n
+                o
+                −
+                l
+                o
+                a
+                d
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V.R={\frac {V_{no-load}-V_{full-load}}{V_{no-load}}}}
+  
+
+== Line parameters of AC transmission ==
+The AC transmission has four line parameters, these are the series resistance & inductance, and shunt capacitance and admittance. These parameters are responsible for distinct behavior of voltage and current waveforms along the transmission line. Line parameters are generally represented in their respective units per km of length in transmission lines. So these parameters depend upon the geometric alignment of transmission lines (number of conductors used, shape of conductors, physical spacing between conductors and height above the ground etc.). These parameters are independent of current and voltage of any of the sending or receiving ends.
+
+=== Series resistance ===
+
+==== Definition ====
+The electrical resistance of an object is property of a substance due to which it restricts the flow of electric current resulted from a potential difference in its two ends. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes.  Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).
+
+==== Characteristics ====
+The resistance of an object depends in large part on the material it is made of—objects made of electrical insulators like rubber tend to have very high resistance and low conductivity, while objects made of electrical conductors like metals tend to have very low resistance and high conductivity. This material dependence is quantified by resistivity or conductivity. However, resistance and conductance are extensive rather than bulk properties, meaning that they also depend on the size and shape of an object. For example, a wire's resistance is higher if it is long and thin, and lower if it is short and thick. All objects show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
+The resistance (R) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it (V) to current through it (I), while the conductance (G) is the inverse:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        R
+        =
+        
+          
+            V
+            I
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+        G
+        =
+        
+          
+            I
+            V
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R={V \over I},\qquad G={I \over V}={\frac {1}{R}}}
+  
+
+For a wide variety of materials and conditions, V and I are directly proportional to each other, and therefore R and G are constants (although they will depend on the size and shape of the object, the material it is made of, and other factors like temperature or strain). This proportionality is called Ohm's law, and materials that satisfy it are called ohmic materials. In other cases, such as a transformer, diode or battery, V and I are not directly proportional. The ratio V/I is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a "chordal resistance" or "static resistance", since it corresponds to the inverse slope of a chord between the origin and an I–V curve. In other situations, the derivative 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              V
+            
+            
+              d
+              I
+            
+          
+        
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {dV}{dI}}\,\!}
+  
+ may be most useful; this is called the "differential resistance".
+Transmission lines, as they consist of conducting wires of very long length, have an electrical resistance that can't be neglected at all.
+
+=== Series inductance ===
+
+==== Definition ====
+When current flows within a conductor, magnetic flux is set up. With the variation of current in the conductor, the number of lines of flux also changes, and an emf is induced in it (Faraday's Law). This induced emf is represented by the parameter known as inductance (L).
+In the SI system, the unit of inductance is the henry (H), which is the amount of inductance which causes a voltage of 1 volt when the current is changing at a rate of one ampere per second.
+
+==== Types of inductance ====
+The flux linking with the conductor consists of two parts, namely, the internal flux and the external flux :
+
+The internal flux is induced due to the current flow in the conductor.
+The external flux is produced around the conductor due to its current and the current of the other conductors place around it.
+The total inductance of the conductor is determined by the calculation of the internal and external flux.
+
+==== Characteristics ====
+The transmission line wiring is also inductive in nature and, the inductance of a single circuit line can be given mathematically by :
+
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              μ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            
+              2
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        l
+        n
+        
+          
+            D
+            
+              r
+              ′
+            
+          
+        
+        H
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L={\frac {\mu _{0}}{2\pi }}ln{\frac {D}{r\prime }}H/m}
+  
+
+Where,
+
+D is the physical spacing between the conductors.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+        ′
+        =
+        r
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            1
+            
+              /
+            
+            4
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r\prime =re^{-1/4}}
+  
+ is the radius of the fictitious conductor having no internal flux linkages but with the same inductace as the original conductor of radius r. A quantity of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            1
+            
+              /
+            
+            4
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle e^{-1/4}}
+  
+(=0.7788 appx.) is multiplied with the actual radius of conductor in order to account for the internal flux linkages(applicable to solid round conductors only).
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          μ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mu _{0}}
+  
+ is the permeability of free space and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            μ
+            
+              0
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        4
+        π
+        ×
+        
+          10
+          
+            −
+            7
+          
+        
+        H
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mu _{0}}=4\pi \times 10^{-7}H/m}
+  
+.
+For transposed lines with two or more phases, the inductance between any two lines can be calculated using : 
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-3.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..437bfff74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-3.md
@@ -0,0 +1,371 @@
+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 4/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              μ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            
+              2
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        l
+        n
+        
+          
+            
+              D
+              
+                G
+                M
+                D
+              
+            
+            
+              r
+              ′
+            
+          
+        
+        H
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L={\frac {\mu _{0}}{2\pi }}ln{\frac {D_{GMD}}{r\prime }}H/m}
+  
+.
+Where, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          D
+          
+            G
+            M
+            D
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle D_{GMD}}
+  
+ is the geometric mean distance in between the conductors.
+If the lines are not properly transposed,  the inductances become unequal and contain imaginary terms due to mutual inductances. In case of proper transposition, all the conductors occupy the available positions equal distance and thus the imaginary terms are cancelled out. And all the line inductances become equal.
+
+=== Shunt capacitance ===
+
+==== Definition ====
+Capacitance is the ratio of the change in an electric charge in a system to the corresponding change in its electric potential. The capacitance is a function only of the geometry of the design (e.g. area of the plates and the distance between them) and the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates of the capacitor. For many dielectric materials, the permittivity and thus the capacitance is independent of the potential difference between the conductors and the total charge on them.
+The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F). A 1 farad capacitor, when charged with 1 coulomb of electrical charge, has a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates. The reciprocal of capacitance is called elastance.
+
+==== Types of capacitance ====
+There are two closely related notions of capacitance self-capacitance and mutual capacitance : 
+
+For an isolated conductor, there exists a property called self-capacitance, which is the amount of electric charge that must be added to an isolated conductor to raise its electric potential by one unit (i.e. one volt, in most measurement systems). The reference point for this potential is a theoretical hollow conducting sphere, of infinite radius, with the conductor centered inside this sphere. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits self-capacitance. A material with a large self-capacitance holds a more electric charge at a given voltage than one with low self-capacitance.
+In electrical circuits, the term capacitance is usually a shorthand for the mutual capacitance between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor.
+
+==== Characteristics ====
+Transmission line conductors constitute a capacitor between them, exhibiting mutual capacitance. The conductors of the transmission line act as a parallel plate of the capacitor and the air is the dielectric medium between them. The capacitance of a line gives rise to the leading current between the conductors. It depends on the length of the conductor. The capacitance of the line is proportional to the length of the transmission line. Their effect is negligible on the performance of lines with a short length and low voltage, but significant on the performance of lines with a long length and high voltage. The shunt capacitance of the line is responsible for Ferranti effect.
+The capacitance of a single phase transmission line can be given mathematically by :
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          C
+          
+            a
+            b
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              
+                ϵ
+                
+                  0
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              l
+              n
+              
+                
+                  D
+                  r
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        F
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C_{ab}={\frac {\pi \epsilon _{0}}{ln{\frac {D}{r}}}}F/m}
+  
+
+Where,
+
+D is the physical spacing between the conductors.
+r is the radius of each conductor.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ϵ
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \epsilon _{0}}
+  
+ is the permittivity of air and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            ϵ
+            
+              0
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        8.854
+        ×
+        
+          10
+          
+            −
+            12
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\epsilon _{0}}=8.854\times 10^{-12}}
+  
+
+For lines with two or more phases, the capacitance between any two lines can be calculated using : 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              
+                ϵ
+                
+                  0
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              l
+              n
+              
+                
+                  
+                    D
+                    
+                      G
+                      M
+                      D
+                    
+                  
+                  r
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        F
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C={\frac {\pi \epsilon _{0}}{ln{\frac {D_{GMD}}{r}}}}F/m}
+  
+
+Where, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          D
+          
+            G
+            M
+            D
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle D_{GMD}}
+  
+ is the geometric mean distance of the conductors.
+The effect of self-capacitance, on a transmission line, is generally neglected because the conductors are not isolated and thus there exists no detectable self-capacitance.
+
+=== Shunt admittance ===
+
+==== Definition ====
+In electrical engineering, admittance is a measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow a current to flow. It is defined as the reciprocal of impedance. The SI unit of admittance is the siemens (S); the older, synonymous unit is mho (℧) .
+Admittance is defined as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        ≡
+        
+          
+            1
+            Z
+          
+        
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y\equiv {\frac {1}{Z}}\,}
+  
+
+where 
+
+Y is the admittance, measured in siemens
+Z is the impedance, measured in ohms
+
+==== Characteristics ====
+Resistance is a measure of the opposition of a circuit to the flow of a steady current, while impedance takes into account not only the resistance but also dynamic effects (known as reactance). Likewise, admittance is not only a measure of the ease with which a steady current can flow but also the dynamic effects of the material's susceptance to polarization:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        =
+        G
+        +
+        j
+        B
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y=G+jB\,}
+  
+
+where 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y}
+  
+ is the admittance, measured in siemens.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        G
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle G}
+  
+ is the conductance, measured in siemens.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle B}
+  
+ is the susceptance, measured in siemens.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          j
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle j^{2}=-1}
+  
+
+The dynamic effects of the material's susceptance relate to the universal dielectric response, the power-law scaling of a system's admittance with frequency under alternating current conditions.
+In the context of electrical modelling of transmission lines, shunt components that provide paths of least resistance in certain models are generally specified in terms of their admittance. Transmission lines can span hundreds of kilometres, over which the line's capacitance can affect voltage levels. For short length transmission line analysis, this capacitance can be ignored and shunt components are not necessary for the model. Lines with more length, contain a shunt admittance governed by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        =
+        y
+        l
+        =
+        j
+        ω
+        C
+        l
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y=yl=j\omega Cl}
+  
+
+where
+Y – total shunt admittance
+y – shunt admittance per unit length
+l – length of the line
+C – capacitance of the line
+
+== Modelling of transmission lines ==
+
+=== Two port networks ===
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-4.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e204ccbb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-4.md
@@ -0,0 +1,416 @@
+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 5/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network or quadripole) is an electrical network (circuit) or device with two pairs of terminals to connect to external circuits. Two terminals constitute a port if the currents applied to them satisfy the essential requirement known as the port condition: the electric current entering one terminal must equal the current emerging from the other terminal on the same port.  The ports constitute interfaces where the network connects to other networks, the points where signals are applied or outputs are taken.  In a two-port network, often port 1 is considered the input port and port 2 is considered the output port.
+The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques to isolate portions of larger circuits.  A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its properties specified by a matrix of numbers.  This allows the response of the network to signals applied to the ports to be calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages and currents in the network.  It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily.  For example, transistors are often regarded as two-ports, characterized by their h-parameters (see below) which are listed by the manufacturer. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be regarded as a two-port network provided that it does not contain an independent source and satisfies the port conditions.
+
+=== Transmission matrix and ABCD parameters ===
+Oftentimes, we are only interested in the terminal characteristics of the transmission line, which are the voltage and current at the sending and receiving ends, for performance analysis of the line. The transmission line itself is then modelled as a "black box" and a 2 by 2 transmission matrix is used to model its behaviour, as follows
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            [
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    V
+                    
+                      
+                        S
+                      
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  
+                    I
+                    
+                      
+                        S
+                      
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            ]
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            [
+            
+              
+                
+                  A
+                
+                
+                  B
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  C
+                
+                
+                  D
+                
+              
+            
+            ]
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            [
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    V
+                    
+                      
+                        R
+                      
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  
+                    I
+                    
+                      
+                        R
+                      
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            ]
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {S} }\\I_{\mathrm {S} }\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}A&B\\C&D\\\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {R} }\\I_{\mathrm {R} }\\\end{bmatrix}}}
+  
+
+==== Derivation ====
+This equation in matrix form, consists of two individual equations as stated below:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        =
+        A
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        +
+        B
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{S}=AV_{R}+BI_{R}}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        =
+        C
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        +
+        D
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}=CV_{R}+DI_{R}}
+  
+
+Where,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{S}}
+  
+ is the sending end voltage
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{R}}
+  
+ is the receiving end voltage
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}}
+  
+ is the sending end current
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{R}}
+  
+ is the receiving end current
+
+Now, if we apply open circuit at the receiving end, the effective load current will be zero (i.e. IR = 0)
+1.
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              V
+              
+                S
+              
+            
+            
+              V
+              
+                R
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A={\frac {V_{S}}{V_{R}}}}
+  
+
+So, the parameter A is the ratio of sending end voltage to receiving end voltage, thus called the voltage ratio. Being the ratio of two same quantities, the parameter A is unitless.
+2.
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              I
+              
+                S
+              
+            
+            
+              V
+              
+                R
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C={\frac {I_{S}}{V_{R}}}}
+  
+
+So, the parameter C is the ratio of sending end current to receiving end voltage, thus called the transfer admittance and the unit of C is Mho (
+  
+    
+      
+        ℧
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mho }
+  
+).
+
+Now, if we apply short circuit at the receiving end, the effective receiving end voltage will be zero (i.e. VR = 0)
+1.
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              V
+              
+                S
+              
+            
+            
+              I
+              
+                R
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle B={\frac {V_{S}}{I_{R}}}}
+  
+
+So, the parameter B is the ratio of sending end voltage to receiving end current, thus called the transfer impedance and the unit of C is Ohm (Ω).
+2.
+  
+    
+      
+        D
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              I
+              
+                S
+              
+            
+            
+              I
+              
+                R
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle D={\frac {I_{S}}{I_{R}}}}
+  
+
+So, the parameter D is the ratio of sending end current to receiving end current, thus called the current ratio. Being the ratio of two same quantities, the parameter D is unitless.
+
+==== ABCD parameter values ====
+To summarize, ABCD Parameters for a two port(four terminal) passive, linear and bilateral network is given as :
+
+==== Properties ====
+The line is assumed to be a reciprocal, symmetrical network, meaning that the receiving and sending labels can be switched with no consequence. The transmission matrix T also has the following properties:
+
+The A, B, C and D constants are complex numbers due to the complex values of transmission parameters. And because of the complex nature, they are represented as Vectors in the Complex Plane (phasors).
+
+  
+    
+      
+        det
+        (
+        T
+        )
+        =
+        A
+        D
+        −
+        B
+        C
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \det(T)=AD-BC=1}
+  
+ (Condition for reciprocity)
+
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+        =
+        D
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A=D}
+  
+ (condition for symmetry)
+The parameters A, B, C, and D differ depending on how the desired model handles the line's resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C), and shunt (parallel, leak) conductance G. The four main models are the short line approximation, the medium line approximation, the long line approximation (with distributed parameters), and the lossless line. In all models described, a capital letter such as R refers to the total quantity summed over the line and a lowercase letter such as r refers to the per-unit-length quantity.
+
+== Classification of AC transmission line ==
+
+=== Classification overview ===
+The AC transmission line has resistance R, inductance L, capacitance C and the shunt or leakage conductance G. These parameters along with the load and the transmission line determines the performance of the line. The term performance means the sending end voltage, sending
+end currents, sending end factor, power loss in the line, efficiency of the transmission line, regulate and limit of power flow during efficiency and transmission, regulation and limits of power during the steady-state and transient condition. AC transmission line is
+generally categorized into three classes
+
+Short Transmission Line (line length ≤ 60 km)
+Medium Transmission Line (80 km ≤ Line length ≤ 250 km)
+Long Transmission Line (Line length ≥ 250 km)
+The classification of the transmission line depends on the frequency of power transfer and is an assumption made for ease of calculation of line performance parameters and its losses. And because this, the range of length for the categorization of a transmission line is not rigid.  The ranges of length may vary (a little), and all of them are valid in their areas of approximation.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-5.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..72431ea6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-5.md
@@ -0,0 +1,439 @@
+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 6/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Basis of classification ===
+
+==== Derivation of voltage\current wavelength ====
+Current and voltage propagate in a transmission line with a speed equal to the speed of light (c) i.e. appx. 
+  
+    
+      
+        3
+        ×
+        
+          10
+          
+            8
+          
+        
+        m
+        
+          /
+        
+        s
+        e
+        c
+        =
+        3
+        ×
+        
+          10
+          
+            5
+          
+        
+        k
+        m
+        
+          /
+        
+        s
+        e
+        c
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 3\times 10^{8}m/sec=3\times 10^{5}km/sec}
+  
+ and the frequency (f) of voltage or current is 50 Hz ( although in the America and parts of Asia it is typically 60 Hz)
+Therefore, wavelength (λ) can be calculated as below :
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        λ
+        =
+        c
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f\lambda =c}
+  
+
+or, 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+        =
+        
+          
+            c
+            f
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {c}{f}}}
+  
+
+or, 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              3
+              ×
+              
+                10
+                
+                  5
+                
+              
+            
+            50
+          
+        
+        =
+        6000
+        K
+        m
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {3\times 10^{5}}{50}}=6000Km}
+  
+
+==== Reason behind classification ====
+
+A transmission line with 60 km of length is very very small(
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              100
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{100}}}
+  
+ times) when compared with wavelength i.e. 6000 km. Up to 240  km (
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              25
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{25}}}
+  
+ times of wavelength) (250 km is taken for easy remembering) length of the line, current or voltage waveform is so small that it can be approximated to a straight line for all practical purposes. For line length of about 240  km parameters are assumed to be lumped (though practically these parameters are always distributed). Therefore, the response of transmission line for a length up to 250  km can be considered linear and hence the equivalent circuit of the line can be approximated to a linear circuit. 
+But if the length of the line is more than 250  km say 400 km i.e. 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              15
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{15}}}
+  
+ times of wavelength, then the waveform of current or voltage can not be considered linear and therefore we need to use integration for the analysis of these lines.
+
+For the lines of up to 60 km of length is so short, that the effect of shunt parameters are nearly undetectable throughout the line. And hence, these linear lines are categorized as Short Transmission Lines.
+For the lines of effective length in between 60 km to 250 km, the effect of shunt parameters can not be neglected. And hence, they are assumed as lumped either at the middle of the line (a nominal T representation) or at the two ends of the line (a nominal Π representation). These linear lines are categorized as Medium Transmission Lines
+For transmission lines of effective length above 250 km, the equivalent circuit can not be considered as linear. The parameters are distributed and rigorous calculations are required for performance analysis. These non-linear lines are categorized as Long Transmission Lines.
+
+== Short transmission line ==
+
+The transmission lines which have a length less than 60 km are generally referred to as short transmission lines. For its short length, parameters like electrical resistance, impedance and inductance of these short lines are assumed to be lumped. The shunt capacitance for a short line is almost negligible and thus, are not taken into account (or assumed to be zero).
+
+=== Derivation of ABCD parameter values ===
+Now, if the impedance per km for an l km of line is, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          z
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        =
+        r
+        +
+        j
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle z_{0}=r+jx}
+  
+ and the sending end & receiving end voltages make an angle of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            s
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi _{s}}
+  
+ & 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Φ
+          
+            r
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi _{r}}
+  
+ respectively, with the receiving end current. Then, the total impedance of the line will be,  
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+        =
+        l
+        r
+        +
+        l
+        j
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z=lr+ljx}
+  
+
+The sending end voltage and current for this approximation are given by :
+
+In this, the sending and receiving end voltages are denoted by 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{S}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{R}}
+  
+ respectively. Also the currents 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{R}}
+  
+ are entering and leaving the network respectively.
+So, by considering the equivalent circuit model for the short transmission line, the transmission matrix can be obtained as follows:
+
+Therefore, the ABCD parameters are given by :
+A = D =1, B = Z Ω and C = 0
+
+== Medium transmission line ==
+The transmission line having its effective length more than 80 km but less than 250 km is generally referred to as a medium transmission line. Due to the line length being considerably high, shunt capacitance along with admittance Y  of the network does play a role in calculating the effective circuit parameters, unlike in the case of short transmission lines. For this reason, the modelling of a medium length transmission line is done using lumped shunt admittance along with the lumped impedance in series to the circuit.
+Counterintuitive behaviours of medium-length transmission lines:
+
+voltage rise at no load or small current (Ferranti effect)
+receiving-end current can exceed sending-end current
+These lumped parameters of a medium length transmission line can be represented using two different models, namely :
+
+=== Nominal Π representation ===
+
+In case of a nominal Π representation, the total lumped shunt admittance is divided into 2 equal halves, and each half with value Y ⁄ 2 is placed at both the sending & receiving end, while the entire circuit impedance is lumped in between the two halves. The circuit, so formed resembles the symbol of pi (Π), hence is known as the nominal Π (or Π network representation) of a medium transmission line. It is mainly used for determining the general circuit parameters and performing load flow analysis.
+
+==== Derivation of ABCD parameter values ====
+Applying KCL at the two shunt ends, we get
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          I
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            Y
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            Y
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}=I_{1}+I_{2}={\frac {Y}{2}}V_{S}+{\frac {Y}{2}}V_{R}+I_{R}}
+  
+
+In this,
+The sending and receiving end voltages are denoted by 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{S}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{R}}
+  
+ respectively. Also the currents 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{R}}
+  
+ are entering and leaving the network respectively.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-6.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b9926dafe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-6.md
@@ -0,0 +1,891 @@
+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 7/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        &
+        
+          I
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{1}\&I_{3}}
+  
+ are the currents through the shunt capacitances at the sending and receiving end respectively whereas 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{2}}
+  
+ is the current through the series impedance.
+Again,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        =
+        Z
+        
+          I
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        =
+        Z
+        (
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            Y
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        )
+        +
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{S}=ZI_{2}+V_{R}=Z(V_{R}{\frac {Y}{2}}+I_{R})+V_{R}}
+  
+
+or, 
+So, by substituting we get :
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            Y
+            2
+          
+        
+        [
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              Z
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        +
+        Z
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        ]
+        +
+        
+          
+            Y
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}={\frac {Y}{2}}[(1+{\frac {YZ}{2}})V_{R}+ZI_{R}]+{\frac {Y}{2}}V_{R}+I_{R}}
+  
+
+or,
+The equation obtained thus, eq(4) & (5) can be written into matrix form as follows :
+
+so, the ABCD parameters are :
+A = D =
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              Z
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (1+{\frac {YZ}{2}})}
+  
+ per unit
+B =Z Ω
+C = 
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              Z
+            
+            4
+          
+        
+        )
+        ℧
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y(1+{\frac {YZ}{4}})\mho }
+  
+
+=== Nominal T representation ===
+
+In the nominal T model of a medium transmission line, the net series impedance is divided into two halves and placed on either side of the lumped shunt admittance i.e. placed in the middle. The circuit so formed resembles the symbol of a capital T or star(Y), and hence is known as the nominal T network of a medium length transmission line.
+
+==== derivation of ABCD parameter values ====
+The application of KCL at the juncture(the neutral point for Y connection) gives,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            J
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                V
+                
+                  S
+                
+              
+              −
+              
+                V
+                
+                  J
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              Z
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        Y
+        
+          V
+          
+            J
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                V
+                
+                  J
+                
+              
+              −
+              
+                V
+                
+                  R
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              Z
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{J}={\frac {V_{S}-V_{J}}{\frac {Z}{2}}}=YV_{J}+{\frac {V_{J}-V_{R}}{\frac {Z}{2}}}}
+  
+
+The above equation can be rearranged as,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            J
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            2
+            
+              Y
+              Z
+              +
+              4
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{J}={\frac {2}{YZ+4}}(V_{S}+V_{R})}
+  
+
+Here, the sending and receiving end voltages are denoted by 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{S}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{R}}
+  
+ respectively. Also the currents 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{R}}
+  
+ are entering and leaving the network respectively
+Now, for the receiving end current, we can write :
+
+By rearranging the equation and replacing the value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            J
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{J}}
+  
+ with the derived value, we get :
+
+Now, the sending end current can be written as:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        =
+        Y
+        
+          V
+          
+            J
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          I
+          
+            R
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}=YV_{J}+I_{R}}
+  
+
+Replacing the value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            J
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{J}}
+  
+ in the above equation :
+
+The equation obtained thus, eq.(8) & eq.(9) can be written into matrix form as follows :
+
+So, the ABCD parameters are :
+A = D =
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              Z
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (1+{\frac {YZ}{2}})}
+  
+ per unit
+B = 
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              Z
+            
+            4
+          
+        
+        )
+        Ω
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z(1+{\frac {YZ}{4}})\Omega }
+  
+
+C =
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        ℧
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y\mho }
+  
+
+== Long Transmission Line ==
+
+A transmission line having a length more than 250 km is considered as a long transmission line. Unlike short and medium lines the line parameters of long transmission line are assumed to be distributed at each point of line uniformly. Thus modelling of a long line is somewhat difficult. But a few approaches can be made based on the length and values of line parameters. For a long transmission line, it is considered that the line may be divided into various sections, and each section consists of inductance, capacitance, resistance and conductance, as shown in the RLC (resistance and inductance in series, with shunt capacitance) cascade model.
+
+=== Derivation of ABCD parameter values ===
+
+==== Cascaded Model approach ====
+
+Considering a bit smaller part of a long transmission line having length dx situated at a distance x from the receiving end. The series impedance of the line is represented by zdx and ydx is the shunt impedance of the line. Due to charging current and corona loss, the current is not uniform along the line. Voltage is also different in different parts of the line because of inductive reactance.
+
+Where,
+z – series impedance per unit length, per phase
+y – shunt admittance per unit length, per phase to neutral
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        V
+        =
+        I
+        z
+        Δ
+        x
+        ⇒
+        
+          
+            
+              Δ
+              V
+            
+            
+              Δ
+              x
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        I
+        z
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta V=Iz\Delta x\Rightarrow {\frac {\Delta V}{\Delta x}}=Iz}
+  
+
+Again, as 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        x
+        →
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta x\rightarrow 0}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Δ
+              V
+            
+            
+              Δ
+              x
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        I
+        z
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta V}{\Delta x}}=Iz}
+  
+
+Now for the current through the strip, applying KCL we get,
+
+The second term of the above equation is the product of two small quantities and therefore can be neglected.
+For 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        x
+        →
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta x\rightarrow 0}
+  
+ we have, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              I
+            
+            
+              d
+              x
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        V
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {dI}{dx}}=Vy}
+  
+
+Taking the derivative concerning x of both sides, we get
+
+Substitution in the above equation results
+
+The roots of the above equation are located at 
+  
+    
+      
+        ±
+        
+          
+            y
+            z
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pm {\sqrt {yz}}}
+  
+.
+Hence the solution is of the form,
+
+Taking derivative with respect to x we get,
+
+Combining these two we have,
+
+The following two quantities are defined as,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              z
+              y
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{c}={\sqrt {\frac {z}{y}}}}
+  
+ , which is called the characteristic impedance
+
+  
+    
+      
+        γ
+        =
+        
+          
+            y
+            z
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \gamma ={\sqrt {yz}}}
+  
+ , which is called the propagation constant
+Then the previous equations can be written in terms of the characteristic impedance and propagation constant as,
+
+Now, at 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x=0}
+  
+ we have, 
+  
+    
+      
+        V
+        =
+        
+          V
+          
+            r
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V=V_{r}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            r
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I=I_{r}}
+  
+
+Therefore, by putting 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x=0}
+  
+ at eq.(17) & eq.(18) we get,
+
+Solving eq.(19) & eq.(20) we get the following values for 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        &
+        
+          A
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{1}\&A_{2}}
+  
+ :
+
+Also, for 
+  
+    
+      
+        l
+        =
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle l=x}
+  
+, we have 
+  
+    
+      
+        V
+        =
+        
+          V
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V=V_{S}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        I
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I=I_{S}}
+  
+.
+Therefore, by replacing x by l we get,
+
+Where,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                V
+                
+                  r
+                
+              
+              +
+              
+                Z
+                
+                  c
+                
+              
+              
+                I
+                
+                  r
+                
+              
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+            l
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {V_{r}+Z_{c}I_{r}}{2}}e^{\gamma l}}
+  
+ is called incident voltage wave
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-7.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..11e55ff40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission-7.md
@@ -0,0 +1,594 @@
+---
+title: "Performance and modelling of AC transmission"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:06.523639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                V
+                
+                  r
+                
+              
+              −
+              
+                Z
+                
+                  c
+                
+              
+              
+                I
+                
+                  r
+                
+              
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            γ
+            l
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {V_{r}-Z_{c}I_{r}}{2}}e^{-\gamma l}}
+  
+ is called reflected voltage wave
+We can rewrite the eq.(22) & eq.(23) as,
+
+So, by considering the corresponding analogy for long transmission line, the obtained equations i.e. eq.(24) eq.(25) can be written into matrix form as follows:
+
+The ABCD parameters are given by :
+A = D = 
+  
+    
+      
+        cosh
+        ⁡
+        γ
+        l
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \cosh \gamma l}
+  
+
+B = 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Z
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        sinh
+        ⁡
+        γ
+        l
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z_{c}\sinh \gamma l}
+  
+
+C = 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              sinh
+              ⁡
+              γ
+              l
+            
+            
+              Z
+              
+                c
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\sinh \gamma l}{Z_{c}}}}
+  
+
+==== Π Representation approach ====
+Like the medium transmission line, the long line can also be approximated into an equivalent Π representation. In the Π-equivalent of a long transmission line, the series impedance is denoted by Z′ while the shunt admittance is denoted by Y′.
+So, the ABCD parameters of this long line can be defined like medium transmission line as :
+A = D = 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ′
+              Z
+              ′
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (1+{\frac {Y\prime Z\prime }{2}})}
+  
+ per unit
+B = Z′ Ω
+C = 
+  
+    
+      
+        Y
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ′
+              Z
+              ′
+            
+            4
+          
+        
+        )
+        ℧
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Y(1+{\frac {Y\prime Z\prime }{4}})\mho }
+  
+
+Comparing it with the ABCD parameters of cascaded long transmission model, we can write :
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+        ′
+        =
+        
+          Z
+          
+            C
+          
+        
+        sinh
+        ⁡
+        γ
+        l
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              z
+              y
+            
+            
+
+            
+          
+        
+        sinh
+        ⁡
+        γ
+        l
+        =
+        z
+        l
+        
+          
+            
+              sinh
+              ⁡
+              γ
+              l
+            
+            
+              l
+              
+                
+                  
+                    y
+                    z
+                  
+                  
+
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z\prime =Z_{C}\sinh \gamma l={\sqrt[{}]{\frac {z}{y}}}\sinh \gamma l=zl{\frac {\sinh \gamma l}{l{\sqrt[{}]{yz}}}}}
+  
+
+or, 
+  
+    
+      
+        Z
+        ′
+        =
+        Z
+        
+          
+            
+              sinh
+              ⁡
+              γ
+              l
+            
+            
+              γ
+              l
+            
+          
+        
+        Ω
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Z\prime =Z{\frac {\sinh \gamma l}{\gamma l}}\Omega }
+  
+
+Where Z(= zl), is the total impedance of the line.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        cosh
+        ⁡
+        γ
+        l
+        =
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ′
+              Z
+              ′
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ′
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          Z
+          
+            C
+          
+        
+        sinh
+        ⁡
+        γ
+        l
+        +
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \cosh \gamma l=1+{\frac {Y\prime Z\prime }{2}}={\frac {Y\prime }{2}}Z_{C}\sinh \gamma l+1}
+  
+
+By rearranging the above equation,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ′
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              Z
+              
+                C
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              cosh
+              ⁡
+              γ
+              l
+              −
+              1
+            
+            
+              sinh
+              ⁡
+              γ
+              l
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {Y\prime }{2}}={\frac {1}{Z_{C}}}{\frac {\cosh \gamma l-1}{\sinh \gamma l}}}
+  
+
+or,
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ′
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              Z
+              
+                C
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        tanh
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              γ
+              l
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              y
+              z
+            
+            
+
+            
+          
+        
+        tanh
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              γ
+              l
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {Y\prime }{2}}={\frac {1}{Z_{C}}}\tanh({\frac {\gamma l}{2}})={\sqrt[{}]{\frac {y}{z}}}\tanh({\frac {\gamma l}{2}})}
+  
+
+This can be further reduced to,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              Y
+              ′
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              y
+              l
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              tanh
+              ⁡
+              (
+              
+                
+                  
+                    γ
+                    l
+                  
+                  2
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  l
+                  2
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  
+                    y
+                    z
+                  
+                  
+
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            Y
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              tanh
+              ⁡
+              (
+              
+                
+                  
+                    γ
+                    l
+                  
+                  2
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    (
+                    γ
+                    l
+                  
+                  2
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {Y\prime }{2}}={\frac {yl}{2}}{\frac {\tanh({\frac {\gamma l}{2}})}{{\frac {l}{2}}{\sqrt[{}]{yz}}}}={\frac {Y}{2}}{\frac {\tanh({\frac {\gamma l}{2}})}{{\frac {(\gamma l}{2}})}}}
+  
+
+where Y(= yl) is called the total admittance of the line.
+Now, if the line length(l) is small, 
+  
+    
+      
+        sinh
+        ⁡
+        γ
+        l
+        ≡
+        γ
+        l
+        
+        &
+        
+        tanh
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              γ
+              l
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+        ≡
+        
+          
+            
+              γ
+              l
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sinh \gamma l\equiv \gamma l\quad \&\quad \tanh({\frac {\gamma l}{2}})\equiv {\frac {\gamma l}{2}}}
+  
+.
+Now, if the line length (l) is small, it is found that Z = Z′ and Y = Y′.
+This refers that if the line length(l) is small, the nominal-π representation incorporating the assumption of lumped parameters can be befitting. But if the length of the line(l) exceeds a certain boundary(near about 240 to 250) the nominal-π representation becomes erroneous and can not be used further, for performance analysis.
+
+=== Travelling waves ===
+
+Travelling waves are the current and voltage waves that create a disturbance and moves along the transmission line from the sending end of a transmission line to the other end at a constant speed.  The travelling wave plays a major role in knowing the voltages and currents at all the points in the power system. These waves also help in designing the insulators, protective equipment, the insulation of the terminal equipment, and overall insulation coordination.
+When the switch is closed at the transmission line's starting end, the voltage will not appear instantaneously at the other end. This is caused by the transient behaviour of inductor and capacitors that are present in the transmission line. The transmission lines may not have physical inductor and capacitor elements but the effects of inductance and capacitance exist in a line. Therefore, when the switch is closed the voltage will build up gradually over the line conductors. This phenomenon is usually called as the voltage wave is travelling from the transmission line's sending end to the other end. And similarly, the gradual charging of the capacitances happens due to the associated current wave.
+If the switch is closed at any instant of time, the voltage at load does not appear instantly. The 1st section will charge first and then it will charge the next section. Until and unless a section gets charged the successive section will not be charged .thus this process is a gradual one. It can be realized such that several water tanks are placed connectively and water flows from the 1st tank to the last tank.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Grigsby, L. L., et al. The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press. (2001). ISBN 0-8493-8578-4
+The Physics of Everyday Stuff - Transmission Lines Archived April 5, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..71e2305ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+---
+title: "Permanent income hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:12.694267+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The permanent income hypothesis (PIH) is a model in the field of economics to explain the formation of consumption patterns. It suggests consumption patterns are formed from future expectations and consumption smoothing. The theory was developed by Milton Friedman and published in his A Theory of the Consumption Function, published in 1957 and subsequently formalized by Robert Hall in a rational expectations model. Originally applied to consumption and income, the process of future expectations is thought to influence other phenomena. In its simplest form, the hypothesis states changes in permanent income (human capital, property, assets), rather than changes in temporary income (unexpected income), are what drive changes in consumption. 
+The formation of consumption patterns opposite to predictions was an outstanding problem faced by the Keynesian orthodoxy. Friedman's predictions of consumption smoothing, where people spread out transitory changes in income over time, departed from the traditional Keynesian emphasis on a higher marginal propensity to consume out of current income.
+Income consists of a permanent (anticipated and planned) component and a transitory (unexpected and surprising) component. In the permanent income hypothesis model, the key determinant of consumption is an individual's lifetime income, not their current income. Unlike permanent income, transitory incomes are volatile.
+
+== Background and history ==
+Until A Theory of Consumption Function, the Keynesian absolute income hypothesis and interpretation of the consumption function were the most advanced and sophisticated. In its post-war synthesis, the Keynesian perspective was responsible for pioneering many innovations in recession management, economic history, and macroeconomics. Like the neoclassical school that preceded it, early inconsistencies had their roots in socio-political events contrary to the predictions put forward.
+The introduction of the absolute income hypothesis is often attributed to John Maynard Keynes, a British economist, who wrote several books which are now the basis for Keynesian economics. The hypothesis put forward by Keynes was accepted and placed into the post–war synthesis. However, inconsistencies were not resolved swiftly, and economists were unable to explain the consistency of the savings rate in the face of rising real incomes (Fig. 1).
+
+Before the neoclassical synthesis was established, Keynes and his hypothesis challenged the orthodoxy of neoclassical economics. As a result of the Great Depression, Keynes rapidly became among the leaders of economic thought. His MPC and MPS spending multipliers developed into the absolute income hypothesis (1), and were influential to the government responses to the ensuing depression.
+
+== Origins ==
+The American economist Milton Friedman developed the permanent income hypothesis in his 1957 book A Theory of the Consumption Function. In his book, Friedman posits a theory that explained how and why future expectations change consumption.
+Friedman's 1957 book A Theory of the Consumption Function created the basis for consumption smoothing. He argued the consumption model, in which outcomes are stochastic, where consumers face risks and uncertainty to their labor incomes, complicates interpretations of indifference curves, and causes consumers to spread out or 'smooth' their spending based on their permanent income, which represents their anticipated income over their lifetimes. Friedman explains this by how, for example, consumers would consistently save more when they expect their long-term income to increase. A further elaboration is provided below:
+
+'Yet from another point of view, the assumption seems highly implausible. Will not a man who receives an unexpected windfall use at least some part of it in "riotous living," i.e. in consumption expenditures? Would he be likely to add the whole of it to his wealth? The answer to these questions depends greatly on how "consumption" is defined. The offhand affirmative answer reflects in large measure, I believe, an implicit definition of consumption in terms of purchases, including durable goods, rather than in terms of the value of services. If the latter definition is adopted, as seems highly desirable in applying the hypothesis to empirical data—though unfortunately I have been able to do so to only a limited extent—much that one classifies offhand as consumption is reclassified as savings. Is not the windfall likely to be used for the purchase of durable goods? Or, to put it differently, is not the timing of the replacement of durable goods and of additions to the stock of such goods likely to some extent to be adjusted so as to coincide with windfalls?'
+
+== Theoretical considerations ==
+In his theory, John Maynard Keynes supported economic policy makers by his argument emphasizing their capability of macroeconomic fine tuning. For Keynes, consumption expenditures are linked to disposable income by a parameter called the marginal propensity to consume (the amount per dollar consumers are willing to spend; 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        −
+        M
+        P
+        S
+        =
+        M
+        P
+        C
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1-MPS=MPC}
+  
+). Since the marginal propensity to consume itself is a function of income, it is also true that additional increases in disposable income lead to diminishing increases in consumption expenditures. It must be stressed that the relation characterized by substantial stability links current consumption expenditures to current disposable income—and, on these grounds, a considerable leeway is provided for aggregate demand stimulation, since a change in income immediately results in a multiplied shift in aggregate demand (this is the essence of the Keynesian case of the multiplier effect). The same is true of tax cut policies. According to the basic theory of Keynes, governments are always capable of countercyclical fine tuning of macroeconomic systems through demand management, although Friedman disputes this, arguing in a 1961 journal article that Keynesian macroeconomic fine tuning will succumb to 'long and variable lags.'
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e28af4779
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,576 @@
+---
+title: "Permanent income hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:12.694267+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The permanent income hypothesis questions this ability of governments. However, it is also true that permanent income theory is concentrated mainly on long run dynamics and relations, while Keynes focused primarily on short run considerations. Friedman's argument, which challenged the use of fiscal policy in smoothing out business cycles, was challenged by stressing the relation between consumption and disposable income still follows (more or less) the mechanism supposed by Keynes.
+Friedman starts elaborating his theory under the assumption of complete certainty. Under such circumstances, for Friedman, two motives exist for a consumer unit to spend more or less on consumption than its income: The first is to smooth its consumption expenditures through appropriate timing of borrowing and lending; and the second is either to realize interest earnings on deposits if the relevant rate of interest is positive, or to benefit from borrowing if the interest rate is negative.
+According to the PIH, the distribution of consumption across consecutive periods is the result of an optimizing method by which each consumer tries to maximize his utility. At the same time, whatever ratio of income one devotes to consumption in each period, all these consumption expenditures are allocated in the course of an optimization process—that is, consumer units try to optimize not only across periods but within each period.
+
+== Calculation of income and consumption ==
+Friedman's 1957 book also made an argument for an entirely new way of calculating income (income is represented by the variable 
+  
+    
+      
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y}
+  
+) by differentiating between transitory and permanent income (which was also taken to include ordinal elements like human capital and talents). In A Theory of Consumption Function, Friedman develops: 
+  
+    
+      
+        y
+        =
+        
+          y
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y=y_{p}+y_{t}}
+  
+ as a formula. In an earlier study, Friedman, Kuznets (1945), he proposes the idea of transitory and permanent income.
+Friedman also developed a consumption formula, 
+  
+    
+      
+        c
+        =
+        
+          c
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c=c_{p}+c_{t}}
+  
+, with 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{p}}
+  
+ meaning the permanent component of consumption, with 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{t}}
+  
+ being the transitory component. Friedman also drew a distinction between 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y_{t}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{t}}
+  
+. Transitory consumption can be interpreted as surprising or unexpected bills, such as a high water bill, or unexpected doctor's visit, which, in Friedman's mind, cannot be spurred by 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y_{t}}
+  
+, because unexpected or 'surprise' consumption is not often financed through windfall gains.
+
+== Simple model ==
+Consider a (potentially infinitely lived) consumer who maximizes his expected lifetime utility from the consumption of a stream of goods 
+  
+    
+      
+        c
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c}
+  
+ between periods 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+, as determined by one period utility function 
+  
+    
+      
+        u
+        (
+        ⋅
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle u(\cdot )}
+  
+. In each period 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  
+, he receives an income 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y_{t}}
+  
+, which he can either spend on a consumption good 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{t}}
+  
+ or save in the form of an asset 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{t}}
+  
+ that pays a constant real interest rate 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ in the next period.
+The utility of consumption in future periods is discounted at the rate 
+  
+    
+      
+        β
+        ∈
+        (
+        0
+        ,
+        1
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta \in (0,1)}
+  
+.
+Finally, let 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        [
+        ⋅
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {E} _{t}[\cdot ]}
+  
+ denote the expected value conditional on the information available in period 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  
+.
+Formally, the consumer's problem is then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          max
+          
+            {
+            
+              c
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+            
+              }
+              
+                k
+                =
+                t
+              
+              
+                T
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          E
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            k
+            =
+            0
+          
+          
+            T
+            −
+            t
+          
+        
+        
+          β
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        u
+        (
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+            +
+            k
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \max _{\{c_{k}\}_{k=t}^{T}}\operatorname {E} _{t}\sum _{k=0}^{T-t}\beta ^{k}u(c_{t+k})}
+  
+
+subject to
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            t
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        r
+        )
+        (
+        
+          A
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{t+1}=(1+r)(A_{t}+y_{t}-c_{t}).}
+  
+
+Assuming the utility function is quadratic, and that 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        r
+        )
+        β
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (1+r)\beta =1}
+  
+, the optimal consumption choice of the consumer is governed by the Euler equation
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          E
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        [
+        
+          c
+          
+            t
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        ]
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c_{t}=\operatorname {E} _{t}[c_{t+1}].}
+  
+
+Given a finite time horizon of length 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        −
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T-t}
+  
+, we set 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            T
+            +
+            1
+          
+        
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{T+1}=0}
+  
+ with the understanding the consumer spends all his wealth by the end of the last period. Solving the consumer's budget constraint forward to the last period, we determine the consumption function is given by
+
+Over an infinite time horizon, we instead impose a no Ponzi game condition, which prevents the consumer from continuously borrowing and rolling over their debt to future periods, by requiring
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          lim
+          
+            t
+            →
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                1
+                
+                  1
+                  +
+                  r
+                
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        =
+        0.
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lim _{t\to \infty }\left({\frac {1}{1+r}}\right)^{t}A_{t}=0.}
+  
+
+The resulting consumption function is then
+
+Both expressions (2) and  (3) capture the essence of the permanent income hypothesis: current consumption is determined by a combination of current non human wealth 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{t}}
+  
+ and human capital wealth 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          y
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y_{t}}
+  
+.
+The fraction of total wealth consumed today further depends on the interest rate 
+  
+    
+      
+        r
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r}
+  
+ and the length of the time horizon over which the consumer is optimizing.
+
+=== Liquidity constraints ===
+Some have attempted to improve Friedman's original hypothesis by including liquidity constraints, most notably Christopher D. Carroll.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-2.md
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Permanent income hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_income_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:12.694267+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Empirical evidence ==
+Observations, recorded from 1888 to 1941, of stagnant average propensity to consume in the face of rising real incomes provide strong evidence for the existence of the permanent income hypothesis. An early test of the permanent income hypothesis was reported by Robert Hall in 1978, and, assuming rational expectations, finds consumption follows a martingale sequence. Hall & Mishkin (1982) analyze data from 2,000 households and find consumption responds much more strongly to permanent than to transitory movements of income, and reinforce the compatibility of the PIH with 80% of households in the sample. Bernanke (1984) finds 'no evidence against the permanent income hypothesis' when looking at data on automobile consumption.
+In contrast, Flavin (1981) finds consumption is very sensitive to transitory income shocks ('excess sensitivity'), while Mankiw & Shapiro (1985) dispute these findings, arguing that Flavin's test specification (which assumes income is stationary) is biased towards finding excess sensitivity.
+Souleles (1999) uses income tax refunds to test the PIH. Since a refund depends on income in the previous year, it is predictable income and should thus not alter consumption in the year of its receipt. The evidence finds that consumption is sensitive to the income refund, with a marginal propensity to consume between 35 and 60%. Stephens (2003) finds the consumption patterns of social security recipients in the United States is not well explained by the permanent income hypothesis.
+Stafford (1974) argues that Friedman's explanation cannot account for market failures such as liquidity constraints. Carroll (1997) and Carroll (2001) dispute this, and adjust the model for limits on borrowing. A comprehensive analysis of 3000 tests of the hypothesis provides another explanation. It argues that rejections of the hypothesis are based on publication bias and that after correction, it is consistent with data.
+
+== Policy implications ==
+According to Costas Meghir, unresolved inconsistencies explain the failure of transitory Keynesian demand management techniques to achieve its policy targets. In a simple Keynesian framework the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is assumed constant, and so temporary tax cuts can have a large stimulating effect on demand. Shapiro & Slemrod (2003) find that consumers spread tax rebates over their temporal horizon.
+
+== Reception ==
+
+=== Criticism ===
+Some critics of the permanent income hypothesis, such as Frank Stafford, have criticized the permanent income hypothesis for its lack of liquidity constraints. However, some studies have adapted the hypothesis for certain circumstances and found that the permanent income hypothesis is compatible with liquidity constraints and other market failures unaccounted for in the original hypothesis.
+Alvarez-Cuadrado & Van Long (2011) argue that more affluent consumers save more of their permanent incomes, against what would be expected given the permanent income hypothesis.
+
+=== Praise ===
+Friedman received the 1976 Sveriges Riksbank prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 'For his achievements in the field of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy.' The 'consumption analysis' has been interpreted by Worek (2010) as representing Friedman's contributions in the form of the permanent income hypothesis, while the monetary history and stabilization section has been interpreted to refer to his work on monetary policy and history, and monetarism, which seeks to stabilize a currency, preventing erratic swings, respectively.
+The Permanent Income Hypothesis has been met with praise from Austrian economists, such as Robert Mulligan.
+
+== See also ==
+Consumption smoothing
+Income#Economic definitions
+Milton Friedman
+Ricardian equivalence
+Risk compensation
+Milton Friedman bibliography
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Planetarium hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:13.935407+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The planetarium hypothesis, conceived in 2001 by Stephen Baxter, attempts to provide a solution to the Fermi paradox  by holding that our astronomical observations represent an illusion, created by a Type III civilization capable of manipulating matter and energy on galactic scales. He postulates that we do not see evidence of extraterrestrial life because the universe has been engineered so that it appears empty of other life.
+
+
+== Background ==
+
+There is no reliable or reproducible evidence that aliens have visited Earth. No transmissions or evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life have been detected or observed anywhere other than Earth in the Universe. This runs counter to the knowledge that the Universe is filled with a very large number of planets, some of which likely hold the conditions hospitable for life. Life on Earth has shown the tendency to typically expand until it fills all available niches. These contradictory facts form the basis for the Fermi paradox, of which the planetarium hypothesis is one proposed solution.
+
+
+== Criticism ==
+The hypothesis has been considered by some authors as speculative and even next to useless in any practical scientific sense and more related to the theological mode of thinking along with the zoo hypothesis.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Michaud, Michael (2006). Contact with Alien Civilizations: Our Hopes and Fears about Encountering Extraterrestrials. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-28598-6.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_calendar-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_calendar-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a05dc83a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_calendar-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+---
+title: "Pollen calendar"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_calendar"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:19.787742+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A pollen calendar is used to show the peak pollen times for different types of plant pollen, which causes allergic reactions in certain people.
+
+
+== In forensics ==
+A pollen calendar can be a very useful tool in forensic science, because it can be used to place the month, or week, or date of death.  The use of pollen for criminal investigation purposes is called "forensic palynology".
+However, the use of a pollen calendar to set the date of death should be used with extreme caution, and only by a carefully trained expert witness.  The CSI effect has put pressure on some police officers and district attorneys to provide pollen-based evidence, but such evidence "appear[s] to be of limited use in the forensic context where outcomes are scrutinised in court."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Aeroallergen
+National Pollen and Aerobiology Research Unit
+Hay fever
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+United States pollen calendars (Does not lead to any pollen calendars)
+Pollen calendar for the UK created by the National Pollen and Aerobiology Research Unit at the University of Worcester
+New Zealand allergy pages and New Zealand pollen calendar (printable PDF)
+Australian pollen calendar (printable PDF)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_astonishment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_astonishment-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b9d4e9aa2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_astonishment-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+---
+title: "Principle of least astonishment"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_astonishment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:20.938491+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In user interface design and software design, 
+the principle of least astonishment (POLA), also known as principle of least surprise (POLS), proposes that a component of a system should behave in a way that most users will expect it to behave, and therefore not astonish or surprise users. The following is a corollary of the principle: "If a necessary feature has a high astonishment factor, it may be necessary to redesign the feature."
+The principle has been in use in relation to computer interaction since at least the 1970s. Although first formalized in the field of computer technology, the principle can be applied broadly in other fields. For example, in writing, a cross-reference to another part of the work or a hyperlink should be phrased in a way that accurately tells the reader what to expect.
+
+
+== Origin ==
+An early reference to the "Law of Least Astonishment" appeared in the PL/I Bulletin in 1967 (PL/I is a programming language released by IBM in 1966).  By the late 1960s, PL/I had become infamous for violating the law, for example because, due to PL/I's precision conversion rules, the expressions 25 + 1/3 and 1/3 + 25 would either produce a fatal error, or, if errors were suppressed, 5.33333333333 instead of the correct 25.33333333333.
+The law first appeared in print in 1972:
+
+For those parts of the system which cannot be adjusted to the peculiarities of the user, the designers of a systems programming language should obey the "Law of Least Astonishment." In short, this law states that every construct in the system should behave exactly as its syntax suggests. Widely accepted conventions should be followed whenever possible, and exceptions to previously established rules of the language should be minimal.
+
+
+== Formulation ==
+A textbook formulation is: "People are part of the system. The design should match the user's experience, expectations, and mental models."
+The principle aims to leverage the existing knowledge of users to minimize the learning curve, for instance by designing interfaces that borrow heavily from "functionally similar or analogous programs with which your users are likely to be familiar". User expectations in this respect may be closely related to a particular computing platform or tradition. For example, Unix command line programs are expected to follow certain conventions with respect to switches, and widgets of Microsoft Windows programs are expected to follow certain conventions with respect to keyboard shortcuts. In more abstract settings like an API, the expectation that function or method names intuitively match their behavior is another example. This practice also involves the application of sensible defaults.
+When two elements of an interface conflict, or are ambiguous, the behavior should be that which will least surprise the user; in particular a programmer should try to think of the behavior that will least surprise someone who uses the program, rather than that behavior that is natural from knowing the inner workings of the program.
+The choice of "least surprising" behavior can depend on the expected audience (for example, end users, programmers, or system administrators).
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Websites offering keyboard shortcuts often allow pressing ? to see the available shortcuts.  Examples include Gmail, YouTube, and Jira.
+In Windows operating systems and some desktop environments for Linux, the F1 function key typically opens the help program for an application.  A similar keyboard shortcut in macOS is ⌘ Command+⇧ Shift+/. Users expect a help window or context menu when they press the usual help shortcut key(s). Software that instead uses this shortcut for another feature is likely to cause astonishment if no help appears.
+A programming language's standard library usually provides a function similar to the pseudocode ParseInteger(string, radix), which creates a machine-readable integer from a string of human-readable digits. The radix conventionally defaults to 10, meaning the string is interpreted as decimal (base 10). This function usually supports other bases, like binary (base 2) and octal (base 8), but only when they are specified explicitly. In a departure from this convention, JavaScript originally defaulted to base 8 for strings beginning with "0", causing developer confusion and software bugs. This was discouraged in ECMAScript 3 and dropped in ECMAScript 5.
+Some development communities like FreeBSD use POLA as one of the guidelines for what makes an unsurprising user experience.
+
+
+== See also ==
+DWIM (do what I mean)
+Convention over configuration
+Human interface guidelines
+Look and feel
+Occam's razor
+WYSIWYG
+List of software development philosophies
+User experience design
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Principle of Least Astonishment at Portland Pattern Repository
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Priority heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:22.097689+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The priority heuristic is a simple, lexicographic decision strategy that helps decide for a good option.
+
+
+== Psychology ==
+In psychology, priority heuristics correctly predict classic violations of expected utility theory such as the Allais paradox, the four-fold pattern, the certainty effect, the possibility effect, or intransitivities. 
+The heuristic maps onto Rubinstein’s three-step model, according to which people first check dominance and stop if it is present, otherwise they check for dissimilarity. To highlight Rubinstein’s model consider the following choice problem:
+
+Dominance is absent, and while chances are similar monetary outcomes are not. Rubinstein’s model predicts that people check for dissimilarity and consequently choose Gamble I. Unfortunately, dissimilarity checks are often not decisive, and Rubinstein suggested that people proceed to a third step that he left unspecified. The priority heuristic elaborates on Rubinstein’s framework by specifying this Step 3.
+
+
+=== Priority heuristic ===
+For illustrative purposes consider a choice between two simple gambles of the type “a chance c of winning monetary amount x; a chance (100 - c) of winning amount y.” A choice between two such gambles contain four reasons for choosing: the maximum gain, the minimum gain, and their respective chances; because chances are complementary, three reasons remain: the minimum gain, the chance of the minimum gain, and the maximum gain.
+For choices between gambles in which all outcomes are positive or 0, the priority heuristic consists of the following three steps (for all other choices see Brandstätter et al. 2006):
+
+Priority rule: Go through reasons in the order of minimum gain, the chance of minimum gain, and maximum gain.
+Stopping rule: Stop examination if the minimum gains differ by 1/10 (or more) of the maximum gain; otherwise, stop examination if chances differ by 10% (or more).
+Decision rule: Choose the gamble with the more attractive gain (chance). The term “attractive” refers to the gamble with the higher (minimum or maximum) gain and to the lower chance of the minimum gain.
+
+
+=== Examples ===
+Consider the following two choice problems, which were developed to support prospect theory, not the priority heuristic.
+Problem 1
+
+Most people (80%) chose B. The priority heuristic starts by comparing the minimum gains of the Gambles A ($0) and B ($3,000). The difference is $3,000, which is larger than $400 (10% of the maximum gain), the examination is stopped; and the heuristic predicts that people prefer the sure gain B, which is in fact the majority choice.A
+Problem 2
+
+Most people (86%) chose Gamble D. The priority heuristic starts by comparing the minimum gains ($0 and $0). Because they do not differ, the probabilities (.45 and .90 or their logical complements .55 and .10) are compared. This difference is larger than 10%, examination stops and people are correctly predicted to choose D because of its higher probability of winning.
+
+
+=== Empirical support and limitations ===
+The priority heuristic correctly predicted the majority choice in all (one-stage) gambles in Kahneman and Tversky (1979). Across four different data sets with a total of 260 problems, the heuristic predicted the majority choice better than (a) cumulative prospect theory, (b) two other modifications of expected utility theory, and (c) ten well-known heuristics (such as minimax or equal-weight) did. However, the priority heuristic fails to predict many simple decisions (that are typically not tested in experiments) and has no free parameters (which means that it cannot explain the heterogeneity of decisions between subjects), which triggered criticism,
+and countercriticism.
+
+
+== Production ==
+In production, priority heuristics help optimize the execution of jobs, through scheduling.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Single-machine scheduling
+Queueing theory
+Economics
+Combinatorics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+https://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/ft/eb/EB_Priority_2006.pdf
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-0.md
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+---
+title: "Priority of the Gospel of Marcion"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:15.126494+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marcion priority is the hypothesis that the Gospel of Marcion preceded the other gospels and is an attempted solution to the synoptic problem. This hypothesis claims that the first produced or compiled gospel was that of Marcion and that this gospel was used as inspiration for some, or all, of the canonical gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Matthias Klinghardt is a modern proponent of this hypothesis. The majority of scholars agree that this gospel was a later revised version of the Gospel of Luke rather than with Marcionite Priority.
+
+== Context ==
+
+Marcion of Sinope (c. 85 – c. 160) is considered to be the founder of an early Christian movement called Marcionism. He is regarded by numerous scholars as having produced the first New Testament canon which included a gospel, called the Evangelion (or Euangelion), which he either acquired or significantly developed, or even fully wrote. Some have called it or even still call it the Gospel of Marcion.
+Some Church Fathers said that the Marcionite Evangelion was a revision of the gospel of Luke with some passages expunged from it to fit Marcion's theology; this hypothesis on the relationship between the gospels of Marcion and of Luke is called the patristic hypothesis. However, some scholars have argued that the Marcionite gospel preceded the gospel of Luke and that the gospel of Luke is a revision of the Gospel of Marcion: the Schwegler hypothesis. Others argue that the Marcionite Evangelion and the gospel of Luke are two independent versions of another, prior gospel-text, with the gospel of Marcion being 'more faithful' to such a source than the gospel of Luke, or even being an unaltered version of that proposed source (the Semler hypothesis). Some go further and propose that the Gospel of Marcion was the very first gospel ever produced, preceding all others including the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (the Marcion priority hypothesis).
+"[T]here has been a long line of scholars" who, against what the Church Fathers said, claimed "that our canonical Luke forms an enlarged version of a 'Proto-Luke' which was also used by Marcion. This dispute [...] was especially vivid in nineteenth century German scholarship". In 1942, John Knox published his, Marcion and the New Testament, in which he proposed that the gospel of Marcion had the chronological priority over Luke. No defence of this theory was made again until two 2006 articles: one by Joseph Tyson, and one by Matthias Klinghardt. "Knox and Tyson believe that Marcion used and falsified 'Proto-Luke'", while Klinghardt, who, at that time, did not propose that the gospel of Marcion was the very first gospel ever produced, asserted "that Marcion used Proto-Luke as he found it, that is, Marcion's Gospel and 'Proto-Luke' are identical".
+
+== Gospel of Marcion as Preceding Canonical Luke ==
+Some scholars argue the Gospel of Marcion predates the version of Luke present today. Judith Lieu argues that Marcion had access and edited a work extremely similar to the Canonical Gospel of Luke, though this older work would have lacked certain passages. As such the currently extant Gospel of Luke would have appeared after the Gospel of Marcion.
+
+== Gospel of Marcion as the first of all gospels ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-1.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+---
+title: "Priority of the Gospel of Marcion"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_of_the_Gospel_of_Marcion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:15.126494+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In his 2013 book, The First New Testament: Marcion's Scriptural Canon, Jason BeDuhn said he considers that the gospel of Marcion was not produced or adapted by Marcion, but instead that the Gospel of Marcion was a preexisting gospel adopted by Marcion and his movement. He believes that: "On the whole, the differences between Luke and the Evangelion [i.e. the Gospel of Marcion] resist explanation on ideological grounds, and point instead toward Semler's original suggestion 250 years ago: the two gospels could be alternative versions adapted for primarily Jewish and primarily Gentile readers, respectively. In other words, the differences served practical, mission-related purposes rather than ideological, sectarian ones. Under such a scenario, the Evangelion would be transmitted within exactly the wing of emerging Christianity in which we can best situate Marcion’s own religious background". Semler's hypothesis being that "the Evangelion and Luke are both pre-Marcionite versions going back to a common original".
+In his 2014 book Marcion and the Dating of the Synoptic Gospels, Markus Vinzent proposed, based on his interpretation of aspects of Tertullian's Against Marcion (and other works of Tertullian), that the Marcionite Evangelion was first written as a document "for his classroom (without Antitheses and perhaps without Paul's letters)," i.e. not meant for publication, but which was circulated and plagiarized by the four canonical gospels authors; and that, in response to that plagiarism, Marcion wrote an Antitheses and published it along with his gospel and a ten letter collection of the Pauline epistles. That is, a first edition of an Evangelion Marcion had (or even wrote) preceded the four canonical gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—and that it influenced the four canonical gospel writers and hence the four canonical gospels they wrote (and that Marcion produced a second edition of his Evangelion along with his response).
+In a study published in a 2015 book in German, Matthias Klinghardt had changed his mind comparing to his 2008 article in which he had said that the Marcionite gospel was based on the Gospel of Mark, that the Gospel of Matthew was an expansion of the Gospel of Mark with reference to the Gospel of Marcion, and that the Gospel of Luke was an expansion of the Gospel of Marcion with reference to the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. In that 2015 book (subsequently published in English), Klinghardt shared the same opinion as BeDuhn and Vinzent on the priority and influence of the Marcionite gospel. Like Vinzent, he proposed that the Gospel of Marcion preceded and influenced the four canonical gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Klinghardt and BeDuhn reaffirmed their opinions in two 2017 articles.
+The Marcion priority hypothesis implies the dating of the New Testament Gospels to the mid 2nd century – a thesis that goes back to David Trobisch, who, in 1996 in his habilitation thesis accepted in Heidelberg, presented a thesis of an early, uniform final editing of the New Testament canon in the 2nd century.
+
+== Criticism ==
+The majority of scholars view the Gospel of Marcion as a second century work that edited Luke rather than agreeing with arguments like Vinzent's to the contrary.
+Christopher Hays contends that Klinghardt's 2006 case made a number of philological errors, misunderstood the nature of how Marcion is contended to have redacted Luke, and offered an inconsistent case that Luke had redacted Marcion. For example, while one argument for Marcionite priority over Luke rests on the claim that it is unlikely that Marcion deleted significant portions of Luke, rather than Luke having expanded significant portions of Marcion, Hays held that Marcion also deleted significant portions of Paul's letters to create his Apostolikon. Thus, Hays sees it as special pleading to acknowledge that Marcion edited down Paul and to also hold that Marcion did not edit down Luke.
+Sebastian Moll has said that all surviving sources say that Marcion is the one who edited Luke, and therefore the burden of proof is on advocates of Marcionite priority to provide the counter-argument.
+Dieter Roth has responded to Markus Vinzent's thesis (that Marcion was the author of the first Gospel and that the four canonical Gospels only came after it). According to Roth, Vinzent advances this thesis based on a number of misreadings of Tertullian.
+James Barker finds Vinzent's case “wholly unconvincing”, citing Clare Rothschild's review relegating his monograph to “a nonscientific genre.”
+
+== See also ==
+Farrer hypothesis
+Griesbach hypothesis
+Markan priority
+Synoptic problem
+Two-source hypothesis
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+BeDuhn, Jason (2013) The First New Testament: Marion's Scriptural Canon
+BeDuhn, Jason (2015) "The New Marcion: Rethinking The Arch-Heretic". Forum. 3 (Fall 2015): 163–179.
+Farrin, Cassandra J. (2013). "Marcion: Forgotten "Father" and Inventor of the New Testament". Westar Institute. Retrieved 2020-09-05.
+Guignard, Christophe (2013). "Marcion et les Évangiles canoniques. À propos d'un livre récent". Études théologiques et religieuses (in French). 88 (3): 347–363. doi:10.3917/etr.0883.0347.
+Klinghart, Matthias (2015) Das älteste Evangelium und die Entstehung der kanonischen Evangelien, Francke A. Verlag (in German); translated in English as The Oldest Gospel and the Formation of the Canonical Gospels. Peeters Publishers. 2021. ISBN 9789042943094.
+Klinghardt, Matthias (2018), The Oldest gospel: Klinghardt Edition, Quiet Waters Publications ISBN 978-1931475716
+Vinzent, Markus (2014) Marcion and the Dating of the Synoptic Gospels, Studia Patristica, Peeters.
+Vinzent, Markus (2015), Marcion's gospel and the Beginnings of Christianity
+"Quaestiones Disputatae". New Testament Studies. 63 (2): 318–334. April 2017. Retrieved 2020-08-01 – via Cambridge Core.
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+---
+title: "Process map"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_map"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:07.708970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Process map is a global-system process model that is used to outline the processes that make up the business system and how they interact with each other. Process map shows the processes as objects, which means it is a static and non-algorithmic view of the processes. It should be differentiated from a detailed process model, which shows a dynamic and algorithmic view of the processes, usually known as a process flow diagram. There are different notation standards that can be used for modelling process maps, but the most notable ones are TOGAF Event Diagram, Eriksson-Penker notation, and ARIS Value Added Chain.
+
+== Global process models ==
+Global characteristics of the business system are captured by global or system models. Global process models are presented using different methodologies and sometimes under different names. Most notably, they are named process map in Visual Paradigm and MMABP, value-added chain in ARIS, and process diagram in Eriksson-Penker notation – which can easily lead to the confusion with process flow (detailed process model).
+Global models are mainly object-oriented and present a static view of the business system; they do not describe dynamic aspects of processes. A process map shows the presence of processes and their mutual relationships. The requirement for the global perspective of the system as a supplementary to the internal process logic description results from the necessity of taking into consideration not only the internal process logic but also its significant surroundings. The algorithmic process model cannot take the place of this perspective since it represents the system model of the process. The detailed process model and the global process model represent different perspectives on the same business system, so these models must be mutually consistent.
+A macro process map represents the major processes required to deliver a product or service to the customer. These macro process maps can be further detailed in sub-diagrams. It is often the case that process maps cross different functional areas of the organization.
+Process maps are used by many companies to have a holistic view of all processes and the connections between them. Maps help in navigating the sub-processes and make understanding of the organization's operations easier. The process map shows relationships and dependencies between processes and its focus should be on core business processes of the organization.
+A process map can be seen as the most abstract level of the process architecture, and it acts as the introduction to the more detailed levels. A process map that is correctly designed is able to provide a general understanding of a company's operations. Designing the process map is an important and strategic step for the organization, and it is followed by further business process modelling implementation.
+
+== Context ==
+Methodology for Modelling and Analysis of Business Process (MMABP) is a business process modelling methodology developed at the Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Informatics and Statistics of the Prague University of Economics and Business. The methodology is defined as a “general methodology for modelling business systems using informatics methods and approaches”.
+Methodology is used to analyse business processes and to develop a comprehensive model of the system. The goal of developing a model is to be used for process optimization. The model should be created following the characteristics and specifics of the organization in question and following external influences that can affect the organization. The model should be optimal from an economic perspective, but it should also be optimal from a factual perspective, meaning that it should be as simple as possible while maintaining complete functionality.
+Business system modelling is based on a two-dimensional approach:
+
+Real World structure (substance) – set of objects and their relationships
+Real World behaviour – set of mutually connected business processes
+Additionally, there are also two views of the systems:
+
+Global view of the system
+Detailed view of the system's parts
+This results in the need to model the system from four different perspectives in order to achieve the complete and comprehensive view of the business system. MMABP also proposes which notation languages can be used for modelling each perspective, and it also suggests some improvements to the notation languages in order to fit the purpose.
+
+Global view of the objects – Conceptual model (Class diagram)
+Detailed view of the objects – Object life cycle (State Chart)
+Global view of the processes – Process map (Eriksson-Penker Diagram/TOGAF Event Diagram/ARIS VAC)
+Detailed view of the processes – Model of the process flow (BPMN Diagram)
+Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is additional diagram used for describing the required functionalities of the information system.
+
+== Notation standards ==
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+---
+title: "Process map"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_map"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:07.708970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Eriksson-Penker Diagram ===
+Eriksson-Penker diagram is a tool used in business model analysis and design. It is named after Hans-Erik Eriksson and Magnus Penker, who developed the concept in their book "Business modelling with UML: Business Patterns at Work”.
+Eriksson-Penker diagrams are used to map out the key components of a business model and how they interact with one another. The diagrams typically consist of a series of boxes and lines that represent the different elements of the business model, such as the value proposition, customer segments, channels, revenue streams, and key resources. The lines between the boxes represent the relationships and dependencies between the different elements of the business model. These diagrams are useful for visualizing and understanding the various components of a business model, and can help organizations identify potential areas for improvement or areas of risk. They can also be used as a communication tool to help stakeholders understand the business model and its underlying assumptions.
+These diagrams are useful for visualizing and understanding the various components of a business model, and can help organizations identify potential areas for improvement or areas of risk. They can also be used as a communication tool to help stakeholders understand the business model and its underlying assumptions. It is possible to use Eriksson-Penker diagrams to create a global process view of a business. In this case, a diagram would be used to map out the key processes and activities that are involved in the business, as well as the relationships and dependencies between these processes. For example, an Eriksson-Penker diagram could be used to depict the various steps involved in the product development process, from concept development to market launch. It could also be used to show how different functions within the organization, such as marketing, sales, and production, interact and depend on one another to support the overall business.
+Eriksson-Penker diagram is one of the most popular de facto standards that can be used for an object-oriented global view of business processes. It is developed as an extension of the UML, and it is often used together with the BPMN to compensate for the lack of possibility to model the global view with this widely accepted standard.
+
+=== TOGAF Event Diagram ===
+TOGAF (The Open Group Architecture Framework) is a framework for enterprise architecture that provides a common language and set of standards for designing, planning, implementing, and governing an enterprise's IT architecture. TOGAF event diagrams are diagrams used in the TOGAF framework to represent the flow of events within a system or process.
+The TOGAF Event Diagram is a visual representation of the events within an organization or system. It can be used to show the sequence of events that occur in a particular process, as well as the relationships between the events and the stakeholders involved. TOGAF Event Diagrams can be useful in creating a global process view because they provide a visual representation of the events, which can be helpful in understanding how the process fits into the larger context of the organization.
+TOGAF Event Diagram is the most perspective standard for the system view of processes today. It is used to represent the system of processes as well as their connections to the functional organizational structure.
+
+=== ARIS Value Added Chain ===
+ARIS (Architecture of Integrated Information Systems) is a methodology and a set of tools for designing and managing business processes. It is based on the idea that business processes are the core of an organization and that they can be modelled and optimized to improve efficiency and effectiveness. The ARIS methodology provides a framework for understanding and analysing business processes, as well as for designing and implementing improvements to those processes. It includes a set of graphical modelling languages and tools for creating process models, as well as a database for storing and managing process information.
+In the context of the ARIS methodology, a value added chain (VAC) diagram is a specific type of process model that is created using the ARIS modelling languages and tools. The ARIS methodology recognizes the distinction between a global view of the system of processes and a detailed view of one process. VAC notation can be used in ARIS for modelling the global view.
+
+== Model consistency ==
+Business process models should be consistent, both within a single model and in terms of mutual consistency with other models. Consistency applies to both global (Process Map) and detailed (Process Diagram) views. In order to be considered consistent, models should satisfy two consistency criteria: completeness and correctness.
+In terms of a single model, business process models should be:
+
+Complete – A process must be defined for every product, and all relevant events must be used as action reasoning in at least one model.
+Correct – Process aim must be met by the process. Process actions and their sequence, inputs, outputs, and all other process properties must be valid for all potential process instances.
+In terms of mutual consistency with other models, business process models should be:
+
+Consistency between the class diagram and business process model relates to the correctness and completeness of object roles. All object classes have to be mentioned in business processes as some external factor, and the other way around too.
+Consistency between the state chart and business process model relates to the correctness and completeness of actions. Every action from business process must have at least one equivalent state transition in state chart, and the other way around too.
+Consistency between all diagrams (class diagram, state chart, and business process models) relates to the correctness and completeness of reasons. Every event that represents a reason for transitioning between states in the state chart should have an equivalent event that represents a reason for the process activity in the business process model, and the other way around too.
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_leverage_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_leverage_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Protein leverage hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_leverage_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:16.332370+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The protein leverage hypothesis states that human beings will prioritize the consumption of protein in food over other dietary components, and will eat until protein needs have been met, regardless of energy content, thus leading to over-consumption of foodstuffs when their protein content is low.
+This hypothesis has been put forward as a potential explanation of the obesity epidemic. Empirical tests have provided some evidence to confirm the hypothesis with one study suggesting that this could be a link between ultra-processed foods and the prevalence of obesity in the developed world.
+In the 1980s, David Raubenheimer and Stephen Simpson, researchers now at the University of Sydney, began to study appetite and food intake in locusts. By studying responses to artificial diets with differing compositions of protein and carbohydrate, they developed the protein leverage hypothesis.  Their experiments showed that those who aren't getting enough protein in their diet will continue to be hungry, even when their overall caloric intake is high.  "Protein decoys", such as ultraprocessed savory foods that contain little protein (e.g., barbecue chips), are likely to be attractive and to result in overeating.  The hormone FGF21, which is released from the liver, can drive savory-seeking behavior under conditions of low protein intake.  However, extremely high protein diets can also have drawbacks.  In 2020 Simpson and Raubenheimer published the popular science book Eat Like the Animals: What Nature Teaches Us about the Science of Healthy Eating, which details their experiments. For lifelong health they recommend eating a balanced diet with more fiber and fewer fats and carbohydrates rather than an extremely high protein diet.
+In 1995, Australian researcher Susanna Holt developed the concept of satiety value, a measure of how much a given food is likely to satisfy the hunger of someone. High protein foods have been found to have high satiety values, though these are outmatched by potatoes and oats (which have a low glycemic index). Fruits rank similarly to high protein foods (likely due to their high level of dietary fibre).
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians-0.md
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+---
+title: "Proto-Ionians"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:17.537507+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Proto-Ionians are the hypothetical earliest speakers of the Ionic dialects of Ancient Greek, chiefly in the works of Jean Faucounau. The relation of Ionic to the other Greek dialects has been subject to some debate. It is mostly grouped with Arcadocypriot as opposed to Doric, reflecting two waves of migration into Greece following the Proto-Greek period, but sometimes also as separate from Arcadocypriot on equal footing with Doric, suggesting three distinct waves of migration.
+
+== Position of Ionic Greek ==
+Mainstream Greek linguistics separates the Greek dialects into two large genetic groups, one including Doric Greek and the other including both Arcadocypriot and Ionic Greek. But alternative approaches proposing three groups are not uncommon; Thumb and Kieckers (1932) propose three groups, classifying Ionic as genetically just as separate from Arcadocypriot as from Doric. Like a few other linguists (Vladimir Georgiev, C. J. Rhuijgh, Pierre Lévêque, etc.), the bipartite classification is known as the "Risch–Chadwick theory", named after its two famous proponents, Ernst Risch and John Chadwick.[1]
+The "Proto-Ionians" first appear in the work of Ernst Curtius (1887), who believed that the Attic-Ionic dialect group was due to an "Ionicization" of Attica by immigration from Ionia in historical times. Curtius hypothesized that there had been a "Proto-Ionian" migration from the Balkans to western Anatolia in the same period that brought the Arcadic dialect (the successor of the Mycenean Greek stage yet undiscovered in the time of Curtius) to mainland Greece.[2] Curtius' hypothesis was endorsed by George Hempl in 1920.[3] Hempl preferred to call these hypothetical, early Anatolian Greeks "Javonians". Hempl attempted to defend a reading of Hittite cuneiform as Greek, in spite of the establishment of the Hittite language as a separate branch of Indo-European by Bedřich Hrozný in 1917.
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+---
+title: "Proto-Ionians"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:17.537507+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Faucounau ==
+The tripartite theory was revived by amateur linguist Jean Faucounau. In his view, the first Greek settlers in their historical territory were the (Pelasgic) "proto-Ionians", who were separated around 3000 BC from both the proto-Dorians and the proto-Mycenaeans. Faucounau traces this three-wave model to similar views put forward by Paul Kretschmer in the 1890s and the 1900s (i.e., before the decipherment of Linear B), with a modification: the (proto-Ionic) First wave came by sea, the "Proto-Ionians" settling first in the Cycladic Islands, then in Euboea and Attica. The last two waves are the generally accepted arrival of the Mycenaean Greeks (the linguistic predecessors of the Arcadocypriot speakers) in around 1700 BC and the Dorian invasion around 1100 BC.
+Following Georgiev,[4][5] Faucounau makes three arguments for the proto-Ionic language.[6] The first is the explanation of certain Mycenaean forms as loan-words from the proto-Ionians already present in Greece: he asserts that digamma is unexpectedly absent from some Mycenaean words,[7] the occasional resolution of Indo-European vocalic r to -or/ro- instead of -ar/ra-; to-pe-za for τράπεζα,[8] and the explanation of Mycenaean pa-da-yeu as Greek παδάω/πηδάω,[9] "spring leap, bound", which he interprets as both cognate with, and having the same meaning as, English paddle.[10]
+The second argument is a refinement of a long-established argument in archaeoastronomy, developed most recently by Michael Ovenden,[11] which considers the motion of the North Pole with respect to the fixed stars, because of the precession of the equinoxes. Ovenden concluded, from the slant of the constellations in the present sky and the hypothesis that Aratus and Hipparchus (insofar as his work survives) correctly and completely represent immemorial tradition, that the constellations we now use had been devised when the Pole was in Draco, about 2800 BC. He also concluded that the inventors probably lived between 34°30' and 37°30' N., north of most ancient civilizations, and so were likely to be the Minoans.
+Dr. Crommelin, FRAS, has disputed this latitude, arguing that the constellation makers could only see to 54° S, but that this was compatible with latitudes as low as the 31°N of Alexandria; stars which only skirt the southern horizon by a few degrees are not effectively visible. Assuming a Greek latitude would render Canopus and Fomalhaut invisible. Crommelin estimates the constellators at 2460 BC; R. A. Proctor has estimated 2170 BC. E. W. Maunder 2700 BC.[12]
+Faucounau's addition to this is the argument that Crete is also too far south, that the names of the constellations are (Ionic) Greek, not Minoan, and therefore that the constellation makers must be the proto-Ionians in the Cyclades.[13] The south coast of Crete follows 35°N latitude; Syros, which he identifies as a center of proto-Ionian civilization,[14] is at 37°20'.[15] On this basis, he identifies the proto-Ionians with the archaeological Early Cycladic II culture: after all, they made round "frying pans," and one of them with an incised spiral, and the Phaistos Disc is round with an incised spiral.[16]
+His third argument depends on Herodotus's somewhat obscure use of the word Pelasgian for various peoples, Greek-speaking and otherwise, around the Aegean basin. Faucounau claims that the word, which he derives idiosyncratically from πελαγος, "sea",[17] means the descendants of the proto-Ionians. Some of them lost their language because they settled among foreigners; others, such as the Athenians, preserved their language - Attic, apparently, arises from a mixture of proto-Ionian and other dialects. He does not explain why Homer speaks of Dodona, inland in north-western Greece, as Pelasgian (Il, 16,233); nor why no place in historic Ionia is called Pelasgian.
+He adds to the above arguments with archaeological facts. For example, the Treaty of Alaksandu between Wilusa and the Hittite empire bore a Greek name at a time when there was no Mycenaean pottery at Troy. Faucounau considers that all these arguments are an indirect confirmation of his own decipherment claim of the Phaistos Disk as proto-Ionic.
+Faucounau's "Proto-Ionic Disk Language" has most of the properties of Homeric Greek, including loss of labiovelars and even of digamma (both are preserved intact in the Mycenaean of the 14th century BC). Digamma, in Faucounau's reading of the Phaistos Disk, has in some instances passed to y, a sound shift not known from any other Greek dialect, but suspected in Ionic (e.g. Ion. païs v/etym. paus). For Faucounau, the Pelasgians, the Trojans, the Carians and the Philistines are all descended from the Proto-Ionians.
+Faucounau's work on this subject has received two scholarly notices. Paul Faure, as below, writes warmly of many parts of the Proto-Ionian theory. He declines to address the decipherment, and omits the Celts; he also dates the Middle Cycladic culture only from 2700 BC, not 2900. Yves Duhoux expresses his disbelief in the decipherment, but does not mention the wider theory, except to deny that the Disc came from Syros. Faucounau's paper on the statistical problem of how many glyphs are likely to be omitted from a short text has never been cited. Most of it addresses the long-solved case in which the glyphs are equally likely.
+
+== See also ==
+Pelasgians
+Greek dialects
+Dorian invasion
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+---
+title: "Proto-Ionians"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Ionians"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:17.537507+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== References ==
+Jean Faucounau, Le déchiffrement du Disque de Phaistos, Paris 1999.
+^Jean Faucounau, Les Proto-Ioniens : histoire d'un peuple oublié, Paris 2001. Esp. pp. ^33ff, ^35ff, ^37f, ^p. 57, ^p. 61, ^p. 63 ^124.
+Review: Paul Faure, Revue des études grecques Vol. 15 (2002), p. 424f.
+Jean Faucounau, Les Peuples de la Mer et leur Histoire, Paris 2003.
+Jean Faucounau, Les Origines Grecques à l'Age de Bronze, Paris 2005.
+^Vladimir Georgiev, "Mycénien et homérique: Le problème du digamma" in Proceedings of the Cambridge Colloquium on Mycenaean Studies, Cambridge 1966, p. 104-124.
+^Vladimir Georgiev, "Le traitement des sonantes voyelles indo-européennes et le problème du caractère de la langue mycénienne" in Acta Mycenaea, Salamanca 1972, p. 361-379.
+^Jonathan M. Hallm, Hellenicity: between ethnicity and culture. University of Chicago Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-226-31329-0, p. 39.
+^George Hempl, Prehistoric Wanderings of the Hittite Greeks, in Mediterranean Studies, Vol III. Stanford University Press (1931), ISBN 978-0-8047-0838-8
+Paul Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache (1896).
+Pierre Lévêque, L'aventure grecque, p. 16-29.
+^Michael W. Ovenden, The Origin of the Constellations in The Philosophical Journal 3 (1966), p. 1-18.
+^A. C. D. Crommelin "The ancient Constellation Figures" in Hutchinson's Splendour of the Heavens London, 1923 Vol . II pp. 640–669.
+Cornelis J. Ruijgh, in Les Civilisations égéennes, René Treuil et al. edit, (Paris 1989), p. 401-423.
+Cornelis J. Ruijgh, Sur la position dialectale du Mycénien in Atti e Memorie del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Micenologia (Roma 1996) p. 115-124.
+A. Thumb, E. Kieckers, Handbuch der griechischen Dialekte (1932).
+^Liddell, Scott, Jones, A Greek–English Lexicon, s.v. πηδάω.
+^National Geographic Atlas of the World (1992 ed.) p. 66.
+
+== External links ==
+^Discussion by Faucounau of the "Risch-Chadwick Theory"
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+---
+title: "Quantitative storytelling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_storytelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:09.221216+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Quantitative storytelling (QST) is a systematic approach to exploring the many frames potentially legitimate in a scientific study or controversy. QST assumes that, in an interconnected society, multiple frameworks and worldviews are legitimately upheld by different entities and social actors. QST looks critically at models used in evidence-based policy. Such models are often reductionist in that tractability (i.e. the possibility of proceeding towards a solution to a given problem) is achieved at the expense of suppressing available evidence. QST suggests corrective approaches to this practice.
+
+
+== Description ==
+Quantitative storytelling (QST) addresses evidence-based policy and can be considered a reaction to methods of quantification with cost-benefit analysis or risk analysis.
+Jerome Ravetz and Steve Rayner discuss the concept that some of the evidence needed for policy is removed from view. They suggest that 'uncomfortable knowledge' is subtracted from the policy discourse with the objective of easing tractability or to advance a given agenda. The word 'hypo-cognition' has been used in the context of these instrumental uses of frames.
+According to Rayner, a phenomenon of "displacement" takes place when a model becomes the objective instead of the tool, for example, when an institution chooses to monitor and manage the outcome of a model rather than what happens in reality. Once exposed, the strategic use of hypocognition erodes the trust in the involved actors and institutions.
+
+
+== Approach ==
+QST suggests acknowledging ignorance, as to work out 'clumsy solutions', which may permit negotiation to be had among parties with different normative orientations. QST is also sensitive to power and knowledge asymmetries, as interest groups have more scope to capture regulators than the average citizen and consumer.
+QST does not forbid the use of quantitative tools altogether. It suggests instead to quantitatively explore multiple narratives, avoiding spurious accuracy and focusing on some salient features of the selected stories. Rather than attempting to amass evidence in support of a given reading or policy, or to optimise it with modelling, QST tries to test whether a given policy option or framing conflicts with existing social or biophysical constraints. These are:
+
+Feasibility (is the policy permissible given the existing resources?);
+Viability (is it compatible with existing social arrangements or rules?);
+Desirability (will society subscribe to it?).
+
+
+== Applications ==
+A recent application of QST exploring the transition to intermittent electrical energy supply in has been made in Germany and Spain. They use QST to explore a case of water and agricultural governance in the Canary Islands.
+Applications are to composite indicators, use of biofuels,
+innovation,
+bioplastic, gender
+perspectives in urban household energy transition, and in the
+context of Post-normal science.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_invariance-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_invariance-0.md
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+---
+title: "Racial invariance"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_invariance"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:18.678549+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In criminology, racial invariance refers to a hypothesis that the effects of structural disadvantage on rates of violent crime are the same for all racial groups. This hypothesis is a major component of structural perspectives on the causes of crime, such as social disorganization theory and anomie. It can be traced back to William Julius Wilson's 1987 book The Truly Disadvantaged, which argued that racial differences in crime rates are due to differences in the communities in which American whites and blacks live. Since then, it has become a major component of the general theory of crime.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In planetary astronomy and astrobiology, the Rare Earth hypothesis argues that the origin of life and the evolution of biological complexity, such as sexually reproducing, multicellular organisms on Earth, and subsequently human intelligence, required an improbable combination of astrophysical and geological events and circumstances. According to the hypothesis, complex extraterrestrial life is an improbable phenomenon and likely to be rare throughout the universe as a whole. The term "Rare Earth" originates from Rare Earth: Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe (2000), a book by Peter Ward, a geologist and paleontologist, and Donald E. Brownlee, an astronomer and astrobiologist, both faculty members at the University of Washington. The hypothesis has been argued to be a possible solution to the Fermi paradox.
+In the 1970s and 1980s, Carl Sagan and Frank Drake, among others, argued that Earth is a typical rocky planet in a typical planetary system, located in a non-exceptional region of a common galaxy, now known to be a barred spiral galaxy. From the principle of mediocrity (extended from the Copernican principle), they argued that the evolution of life on Earth, including human beings, was also typical, and therefore that the universe teems with complex life. In contrast, Ward and Brownlee argue that planets which have all the requirements for complex life are not typical at all but actually exceedingly rare.
+
+== Fermi paradox ==
+
+There is no reliable or reproducible evidence that extraterrestrial organisms of any kind have visited Earth. No transmissions or evidence of intelligent life have been detected or observed anywhere other than Earth in the Universe. This runs counter to the knowledge that the Universe is filled with a very large number of planets, some of which likely hold the conditions hospitable for life. Life typically expands until it fills all available niches. These contradictory facts form the basis for the Fermi paradox, of which the Rare Earth hypothesis is one proposed solution.
+
+== Requirements for complex life ==
+
+The Rare Earth hypothesis argues that the evolution of biological complexity anywhere in the universe requires the coincidence of a large number of fortuitous circumstances, including, among others, a galactic habitable zone; a central star and planetary system having the requisite character (i.e. a circumstellar habitable zone); a terrestrial planet of the right mass; the advantage of one or more gas giant guardians like Jupiter (which deflect or absorb potential impactors) and possibly a large natural satellite to shield the planet from frequent impact events; conditions needed to ensure the planet has a magnetosphere and plate tectonics; a chemistry similar to that present in the Earth's lithosphere, atmosphere, and oceans; the influence of periodic "evolutionary pumps" such as massive glaciations and bolide impacts; and whatever factors may have led to the emergence of eukaryotic cells, sexual reproduction, and the Cambrian explosion of animal, plant, and fungi phyla. The evolution of human beings and of human intelligence may have required yet further specific events and circumstances, all of which are extremely unlikely to have happened were it not for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago removing dinosaurs as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
+In order for a small rocky planet to support complex life, Ward and Brownlee argue, the values of several variables must fall within narrow ranges. The universe is so vast that it might still contain many Earth-like planets, but if such planets exist, they are likely to be separated from each other by many thousands of light-years. Such distances may preclude communication among any intelligent species that may evolve on such planets, which would solve the Fermi paradox which wonders: if extraterrestrial aliens are common, why aren't they obvious?
+
+=== The right location in the right kind of galaxy ===
+Rare Earth suggests that much of the known universe, including large parts of the Milky Way galaxy, are "dead zones" unable to support complex life. Those parts of a galaxy where complex life is possible make up the galactic habitable zone, which is primarily characterized by distance from the Galactic Center.
+
+As that distance increases, star metallicity declines. Metals (which in astronomy refers to all elements other than hydrogen and helium) are necessary for the formation of terrestrial planets.
+The X-ray and gamma ray radiation from the black hole at the Galactic Center, and from nearby neutron stars, becomes less intense as distance increases. Thus the early universe, and present-day galactic regions where stellar density is high and supernovae are common, will be dead zones.
+Gravitational perturbation of planets and planetesimals by nearby stars becomes less likely as the density of stars decreases. Hence the further a planet lies from the Galactic Center or a spiral arm, the less likely it is to be struck by a large bolide which could extinguish all complex life on a planet.
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Item #1 rules out the outermost reaches of a galaxy; #2 and #3 rule out galactic inner regions. Hence a galaxy's habitable zone may be a relatively narrow ring of adequate conditions sandwiched between its uninhabitable center and outer reaches.
+Also, a habitable planetary system must maintain its favorable location long enough for complex life to evolve. A star with an eccentric (elliptical or hyperbolic) galactic orbit will pass through some spiral arms, unfavorable regions of high star density; thus a life-bearing star must have a galactic orbit that is nearly circular, with a close synchronization between the orbital velocity of the star and of the spiral arms. This further restricts the galactic habitable zone within a fairly narrow range of distances from the Galactic Center. Lineweaver et al. calculate this zone to be a ring 7 to 9 kiloparsecs in radius, including no more than 10% of the stars in the Milky Way, about 20 to 40 billion stars. Gonzalez et al. would halve these numbers; they estimate that at most 5% of stars in the Milky Way fall within the galactic habitable zone.
+Approximately 77% of observed galaxies are spiral, two-thirds of all spiral galaxies are barred, and more than half, like the Milky Way, exhibit multiple arms. According to Rare Earth, our own galaxy is unusually quiet and dim (see below), representing just 7% of its kind. Even so, this would still represent more than 200 billion galaxies in the known universe.
+The Milky Way galaxy also appears unusually favorable in suffering fewer collisions with other galaxies over the last 10 billion years, which can cause more supernovae and other disturbances. Also, the Milky Way's central black hole seems to have neither too much nor too little activity.
+The orbit of the Sun around the center of the Milky Way is indeed almost perfectly circular, with a period of 226 Ma (million years), closely matching the rotational period of the galaxy. However, the majority of stars in barred spiral galaxies populate the spiral arms rather than the halo and tend to move in gravitationally aligned orbits, so there is little that is unusual about the Sun's orbit. While the Rare Earth hypothesis predicts that the Sun should rarely, if ever, have passed through a spiral arm since its formation, astronomer Karen Masters has calculated that the orbit of the Sun takes it through a major spiral arm approximately every 100 million years. Some researchers have suggested that several mass extinctions do indeed correspond with previous crossings of the spiral arms.
+
+=== The right orbital distance from the right type of star ===
+
+The terrestrial example suggests that complex life requires liquid water, the maintenance of which requires an orbital distance neither too close nor too far from the central star, another scale of habitable zone or Goldilocks principle. 
+The habitable zone varies with the star's type and age.
+For advanced life, the star must also be highly stable, which is typical of middle star life, about 4.6 billion years old. Proper metallicity and size are also important to stability. The Sun has a low (0.1%) luminosity variation. To date, no solar twin star, with an exact match of the Sun's luminosity variation, has been found, though some come close. The star must also have no stellar companions, as in binary systems, which would disrupt the orbits of any planets. Estimates suggest 50% or more of all star systems are binary. Stars gradually brighten over time and it takes hundreds of millions or billions of years for animal life to evolve. The requirement for a planet to remain in the habitable zone even as its boundaries move outwards over time restricts the size of what Ward and Brownlee call the "continuously habitable zone" for animals. They cite a calculation that it is very narrow, within 0.95 and 1.15 astronomical units (one AU is the distance between the Earth and the Sun), and argue that even this may be too large because it is based on the whole zone within which liquid water can exist, and water near boiling point may be much too hot for animal life.
+The liquid water and other gases available in the habitable zone bring the benefit of the greenhouse effect. Even though the Earth's atmosphere contains a water vapor concentration from 0% (in arid regions) to 4% (in rainforest and ocean regions) and – as of November 2022 – only 417.2 parts per million of CO2, these small amounts suffice to raise the average surface temperature by about 40 °C, with the dominant contribution being due to water vapor.
+All known life requires the complex chemistry of metallic elements. The absorption spectrum of a star reveals the presence of metals within, and studies of stellar spectra reveal that many, perhaps most, stars are poor in metals. Because heavy metals originate in supernova explosions, metallicity increases in the universe over time. Low metallicity characterizes the early universe: globular clusters and other stars that formed when the universe was young, stars in most galaxies other than large spirals, and stars in the outer regions of all galaxies. Metal-rich central stars capable of supporting complex life are therefore believed to be most common in the less dense regions of the larger spiral galaxies—where radiation also happens to be weak.
+The chemical compositon of a planet can affect the redox conditions at the planet's surface; for example, Hycean planets would have extremely reducing, hydrogen-rich atmospheres, while oxide-rich planets may lose their surface water rapidly through photolysis. Complex biospheres may be limited to a small minority of planetary systems with Sun-like compositions. For example, Walton et al. (2026) argue that a precise balance of the amount of oxygen in the mantle is necessary to ensure that enough nitrogen and phosphorus remains in the mantle during formation.
+
+=== The right arrangement of planets around the star ===
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Rare Earth proponents argue that a planetary system capable of sustaining complex life must be structured more or less like the Solar System, with small, rocky inner planets and massive outer gas giants. Without the protection of such "celestial vacuum cleaner" planets, such as Jupiter, with strong gravitational pulls, other planets would be subject to more frequent catastrophic asteroid collisions. An asteroid only twice the size of the one which caused the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction might have wiped out all complex life.
+Observations of exoplanets have shown that arrangements of planets similar to the Solar System are rare. Most planetary systems have super-Earths, several times larger than Earth, close to their star, whereas the Solar System's inner region has only a few small rocky planets and none inside Mercury's orbit. Only 10% of stars have giant planets similar to Jupiter and Saturn, and those few rarely have stable, nearly circular orbits distant from their star. Konstantin Batygin and colleagues argue that these features can be explained if, early in the history of the Solar System, Jupiter and Saturn drifted towards the Sun, sending showers of planetesimals towards the super-Earths which sent them spiralling into the Sun, and ferrying icy building blocks into the terrestrial region of the Solar System which provided the building blocks for the rocky planets. The two giant planets then drifted out again to their present positions. In the view of Batygin and his colleagues: "The concatenation of chance events required for this delicate choreography suggest that small, Earth-like rocky planets – and perhaps life itself – could be rare throughout the cosmos."
+
+=== A continuously stable orbit ===
+Rare Earth proponents argue that a gas giant also must not be too close to a body where life is developing. Close placement of one or more gas giants could disrupt the orbit of a potential life-bearing planet, either directly or by drifting into the habitable zone.
+Newtonian dynamics can produce chaotic planetary orbits, especially in a system having large planets at high orbital eccentricity.
+The need for stable orbits rules out stars with planetary systems that contain large planets with orbits close to the host star (called "hot Jupiters"). It is believed that hot Jupiters have migrated inwards to their current orbits. In the process, they would have catastrophically disrupted the orbits of any planets in the habitable zone. To exacerbate matters, hot Jupiters are much more common orbiting F and G class stars.
+
+=== A terrestrial planet of the right size ===
+
+The Rare Earth hypothesis argues that life requires terrestrial planets like Earth, and since gas giants lack such a surface, that complex life cannot arise there.
+A planet that is too small cannot maintain much atmosphere, rendering its surface temperature low and variable and oceans impossible. A small planet will also tend to have a rough surface, with large mountains and deep canyons. The core will cool faster, and plate tectonics will be brief or entirely absent. On Earth heat loss is balanced by heat production from radioactive decay, resulting in a thin crust and plate tectonics. On a significantly larger planet, heat production would exceed heat loss and Earth would probably not have developed an outer crust, making plate tectonics and life impossible.
+
+=== Plate tectonics ===
+
+Rare Earth proponents argue that plate tectonics and a strong magnetic field are essential for biodiversity, global temperature regulation, and the carbon cycle. The lack of mountain chains elsewhere in the Solar System is evidence that Earth is the only body which now has plate tectonics, and thus the only one capable of supporting life.
+Plate tectonics depend on the right chemical composition and a long-lasting source of heat from radioactive decay. Continents must be made of less dense felsic rocks that "float" on underlying denser mafic rock. Taylor emphasizes that tectonic subduction zones require the lubrication of oceans of water. Plate tectonics also provide a means of biochemical cycling.
+Plate tectonics and, as a result, continental drift and the creation of separate landmasses would create diversified ecosystems and biodiversity, one of the strongest defenses against extinction. An example of species diversification and later competition on Earth's continents is the Great American Interchange. North and Middle America drifted into South America at around 3.5 to 3 Ma. The fauna of South America had already evolved separately for about 30 million years, since Antarctica separated, but, after the merger, many species were wiped out, mainly in South America, by competing North American animals.
+
+=== A large moon ===
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Moon is unusual because the other rocky planets in the Solar System either have no satellites (Mercury and Venus), or only relatively tiny satellites which are most likely captured asteroids (Mars). After Charon, the Moon is also the largest natural satellite in the Solar System relative to the size of its parent body, being 27% the size of Earth.
+The giant-impact theory hypothesizes that the Moon resulted from the impact of a roughly Mars-sized body, dubbed Theia, with the young Earth. This giant impact also gave the Earth its axial tilt (inclination) and velocity of rotation. Rapid rotation reduces the daily variation in temperature and makes photosynthesis viable. The Rare Earth hypothesis further argues that the axial tilt cannot be too large or too small (relative to the orbital plane). A planet with a large tilt will experience extreme seasonal variations in climate. A planet with little or no tilt will lack the stimulus to evolution that climate variation provides. In this view, the Earth's tilt is "just right". The gravity of a large satellite also stabilizes the planet's tilt; without this effect, the variation in tilt would be chaotic, probably making complex life forms on land impossible.
+If the Earth had no Moon, the ocean tides resulting solely from the Sun's gravity would be only half that of the lunar tides. A large satellite gives rise to tidal pools, which may be essential for the formation of complex life, though this is far from certain.
+A large satellite also increases the likelihood of plate tectonics through the effect of tidal forces on the planet's crust. The impact that formed the Moon may also have initiated plate tectonics, without which the continental crust would cover the entire planet, leaving no room for oceanic crust. It is possible that the large-scale mantle convection needed to drive plate tectonics could not have emerged if the crust had a uniform composition. A further theory indicates that such a large moon may also contribute to maintaining a planet's magnetic shield by continually acting upon a metallic planetary core as dynamo, thus protecting the surface of the planet from charged particles and cosmic rays, and helping to ensure the atmosphere is not stripped over time by solar winds.
+
+=== An atmosphere ===
+
+A terrestrial planet must be the right size, like Earth and Venus, in order to retain an atmosphere. On Earth, once the giant impact of Theia thinned Earth's atmosphere, other events were needed to make the atmosphere capable of sustaining life. The Late Heavy Bombardment reseeded Earth with water lost after the impact of Theia. The development of an ozone layer generated a protective shield against ultraviolet (UV) sunlight. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are needed in a correct ratio for life to form. Lightning is needed for nitrogen fixation. The gaseous carbon dioxide needed for life comes from sources such as volcanoes and geysers. Carbon dioxide is preferably needed at relatively low levels (currently at approximately 400 ppm on Earth) because at high levels it is poisonous. Precipitation is needed to have a stable water cycle. A proper atmosphere must reduce diurnal temperature variation.
+
+=== One or more evolutionary triggers for complex life ===
+
+Regardless of whether planets with similar physical attributes to the Earth are rare or not, some argue that life tends not to evolve into anything more complex than simple bacteria without being provoked by rare and specific circumstances. Biochemist Nick Lane argues that simple cells (prokaryotes) emerged soon after Earth's formation, but since almost half the planet's life had passed before they evolved into complex ones (eukaryotes), all of whom share a common ancestor, this event can only have happened once. According to some views, prokaryotes lack the cellular architecture to evolve into eukaryotes because a bacterium expanded up to eukaryotic proportions would have tens of thousands of times less energy available to power its metabolism. Two billion years ago, one simple cell incorporated itself into another, multiplied, and evolved into mitochondria that supplied the vast increase in available energy that enabled the evolution of complex eukaryotic life. If this incorporation occurred only once in four billion years or is otherwise unlikely, then life on most planets remains simple. An alternative view is that the evolution of mitochondria was environmentally triggered, and that mitochondria-containing organisms appeared soon after the first traces of atmospheric oxygen.
+The evolution and persistence of sexual reproduction is another mystery in biology. The purpose of sexual reproduction is unclear, as in many organisms it has a 50% cost (fitness disadvantage) in relation to asexual reproduction. Mating types (types of gametes, according to their compatibility) may have arisen as a result of anisogamy (gamete dimorphism), or the male and female sexes may have evolved before anisogamy. It is also unknown why most sexual organisms use a binary mating system, and why some organisms have gamete dimorphism. Charles Darwin was the first to suggest that sexual selection drives speciation; without it, complex life would probably not have evolved.
+
+=== The right time in evolutionary history ===
+ 
+While life on Earth is regarded to have spawned relatively early in the planet's history, the evolution from multicellular to intelligent organisms took around 800 million years. Civilizations on Earth have existed for about 12,000 years, and radio communication reaching space has existed for little more than 100 years. Relative to the age of the Solar System (~4.57 Ga) this is a short time, in which extreme climatic variations, super volcanoes, and large meteorite impacts were absent. These events would severely harm intelligent life, as well as life in general. For example, the Permian-Triassic mass extinction, caused by widespread and continuous volcanic eruptions in an area the size of Western Europe, led to the extinction of 95% of known species around 251.2 Ma ago. About 65 million years ago, the Chicxulub impact at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (~65.5 Ma) on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico led to a mass extinction.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 5/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Rare Earth equation ==
+The following discussion is adapted from Cramer. The Rare Earth equation is Ward and Brownlee's riposte to the Drake equation. It calculates 
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N}
+  
+, the number of Earth-like planets in the Milky Way having complex life forms, as:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+        =
+        
+          N
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          n
+          
+            e
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            g
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            p
+            m
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            l
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+            e
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N=N^{*}\cdot n_{e}\cdot f_{g}\cdot f_{p}\cdot f_{pm}\cdot f_{i}\cdot f_{c}\cdot f_{l}\cdot f_{m}\cdot f_{j}\cdot f_{me}}
+  
+
+where:
+
+N* is the number of stars in the Milky Way. This number is not well-estimated, because the Milky Way's mass is not well estimated, with little information about the number of small stars. N* is at least 100 billion, and may be as high as 500 billion, if there are many low visibility stars.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          n
+          
+            e
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n_{e}}
+  
+ is the average number of planets in a star's habitable zone. This zone is fairly narrow, being constrained by the requirement that the average planetary temperature be consistent with water remaining liquid throughout the time required for complex life to evolve. Thus, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          n
+          
+            e
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n_{e}}
+  
+=1 is a likely upper bound.
+We assume 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          N
+          
+            ∗
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          n
+          
+            e
+          
+        
+        =
+        5
+        ⋅
+        
+          10
+          
+            11
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N^{*}\cdot n_{e}=5\cdot 10^{11}}
+  
+. The Rare Earth hypothesis can then be viewed as asserting that the product of the other nine Rare Earth equation factors listed below, which are all fractions, is no greater than 10−10 and could plausibly be as small as 10−12. In the latter case, 
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N}
+  
+ could be as small as 0 or 1. Ward and Brownlee do not actually calculate the value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N}
+  
+, because the numerical values of quite a few of the factors below can only be conjectured. They cannot be estimated simply because we have but one data point: the Earth, a rocky planet orbiting a G2 star in a quiet suburb of a large barred spiral galaxy, and the home of the only intelligent species we know; namely, ourselves.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            g
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{g}}
+  
+ is the fraction of stars in the galactic habitable zone (Ward, Brownlee, and Gonzalez estimate this factor as 0.1).
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{p}}
+  
+ is the fraction of stars in the Milky Way with planets.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            p
+            m
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{pm}}
+  
+ is the fraction of planets that are rocky ("metallic") rather than gaseous.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{i}}
+  
+ is the fraction of habitable planets where microbial life arises. Ward and Brownlee believe this fraction is unlikely to be small.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{c}}
+  
+ is the fraction of planets where complex life evolves. For 80% of the time since microbial life first appeared on the Earth, there was only bacterial life. Hence Ward and Brownlee argue that this fraction may be small.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            l
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{l}}
+  
+ is the fraction of the total lifespan of a planet during which complex life is present. Complex life cannot endure indefinitely, because the energy put out by the sort of star that allows complex life to emerge gradually rises, and the central star eventually becomes a red giant, engulfing all planets in the planetary habitable zone. Also, given enough time, a catastrophic extinction of all complex life becomes ever more likely.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{m}}
+  
+ is the fraction of habitable planets with a large moon. If the giant impact theory of the Moon's origin is correct, this fraction is small.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{j}}
+  
+ is the fraction of planetary systems with large Jovian planets. This fraction could be large.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+            e
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{me}}
+  
+ is the fraction of planets with a sufficiently low number of extinction events. Ward and Brownlee argue that the low number of such events the Earth has experienced since the Cambrian explosion may be unusual, in which case this fraction would be small.
+Lammer, Scherf et al. define Earth-like habitats (EHs) as rocky exoplanets within the habitable zone of complex life (HZCL) on which Earth-like N2-O2-dominated atmospheres with minor amounts of CO2 can exist. They estimate the maximum number of EHs in the Milky Way as 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            2.54
+          
+          
+            −
+            2.48
+          
+          
+            +
+            71.64
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          10
+          
+            5
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {2.54}_{-2.48}^{+71.64}\cdot 10^{5}}
+  
+, with the actual number of EHs being possibly much less than that.
+This would reduce the Rare Earth equation to:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          N
+          
+            max
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            2.54
+          
+          
+            −
+            2.48
+          
+          
+            +
+            71.64
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          10
+          
+            5
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            l
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+            e
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N_{\max }={2.54}_{-2.48}^{+71.64}\cdot 10^{5}\cdot f_{i}\cdot f_{c}\cdot f_{l}\cdot f_{m}\cdot f_{j}\cdot f_{me}}
+  
+
+The Rare Earth equation, unlike the Drake equation, does not factor the probability that complex life evolves into intelligent life that discovers technology. Barrow and Tipler review the consensus among such biologists that the evolutionary path from primitive Cambrian chordates, e.g., Pikaia to Homo sapiens, was a highly improbable event. For example, the large brains of humans have marked adaptive disadvantages, requiring as they do an expensive metabolism, a long gestation period, and a childhood lasting more than 25% of the average total life span. Other improbable features of humans include:
+
+Being one of a handful of extant bipedal land (non-avian) vertebrate. Combined with an unusual eye–hand coordination, this permits dextrous manipulations of the physical environment with the hands;
+A vocal apparatus far more expressive than that of any other mammal, enabling speech. Speech makes it possible for humans to interact cooperatively, to share knowledge, and to acquire a culture;
+The capability of formulating abstractions to a degree permitting the invention of mathematics, and the discovery of science and technology. Only recently did humans acquire anything like their current scientific and technological sophistication.
+
+== Advocates ==
+Writers who support the Rare Earth hypothesis:
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 6/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Stuart Ross Taylor, a specialist on the Solar System, firmly believed in the hypothesis. Taylor concluded that the Solar System is probably unusual, because it resulted from so many chance factors and events.
+Stephen Webb, a physicist, mainly presents and rejects candidate solutions for the Fermi paradox. The Rare Earth hypothesis emerges as one of the few solutions left standing by the end of his book Where is Everybody?
+Simon Conway Morris, a paleontologist, endorses the Rare Earth hypothesis in chapter 5 of his Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe, and cites Ward and Brownlee's book with approval.
+John D. Barrow and Frank J. Tipler, cosmologists, vigorously defend the hypothesis that humans are likely to be the only intelligent life in the Milky Way, and perhaps the entire universe. But this hypothesis is not central to their book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, a thorough study of the anthropic principle and of how the laws of physics are peculiarly suited to enable the emergence of complexity in nature.
+Ray Kurzweil, a computer pioneer and self-proclaimed Singularitarian, argues in his 2005 book The Singularity Is Near that the coming Singularity requires that Earth be the first planet on which sapient, technology-using life evolved. Although other Earth-like planets could exist, Earth must be the most evolutionarily advanced, because otherwise we would have seen evidence that another culture had experienced the Singularity and expanded to harness the full computational capacity of the physical universe.
+John Gribbin, a prolific science writer, defends the hypothesis in Alone in the Universe: Why our planet is unique (2011).
+Marc J. Defant, professor of geochemistry and volcanology, elaborated on several aspects of the rare Earth hypothesis in his TEDx talk entitled: Why We are Alone in the Galaxy. He also wrote in his book in 1998: "I do not believe that we were the destined outcome of evolution. In fact, we are probably the result of an incredible number of chance circumstances (one example is the meteorite impact at the end of the Cretaceous which probably destroyed the dinosaurs and led to mammal domination). The coincidental nature of our evolution should be clear from this book. I might even contend that so many "coincidences" had to take place during the history of the universe, that intelligent life on this planet may be the only life in our universe. I do not mean to suggest that we must have been "created." I mean to say that maybe there is not as much chance of finding life in our galaxy or universe as some would have us believe. We may be it."
+Brian Cox, physicist and popular science celebrity confesses his support for the hypothesis in his 2014 BBC production of the Human Universe.
+Richard Dawkins, evolutionary biologist, notes the Fermi paradox in his book, The Greatest Show on Earth, while discussing how life first evolved on Earth. Although we do not yet know the precise process for how life first began on Earth, Dawkins's view is that it is an implausible theory (i.e., improbable) given we have not encountered any evidence for life existing elsewhere in the universe. He concludes that life is probably very rare throughout the universe.
+
+== Criticism ==
+Cases against the Rare Earth hypothesis take various forms.
+
+=== The hypothesis appears anthropocentric ===
+The hypothesis concludes, more or less, that complex life is rare because it can evolve only on the surface of an Earth-like planet or on a suitable satellite of a planet. Some biologists, such as Jack Cohen, believe this assumption too restrictive and unimaginative; they see it as a form of circular reasoning.
+According to David Darling, the Rare Earth hypothesis is neither hypothesis nor prediction, but merely a description of how life arose on Earth. In his view, Ward and Brownlee have done nothing more than select the factors that best suit their case.
+
+What matters is not whether there's anything unusual about the Earth; there's going to be something idiosyncratic about every planet in space. What matters is whether any of Earth's circumstances are not only unusual but also essential for complex life. So far we've seen nothing to suggest there is.
+Critics also argue that there is a link between the Rare Earth hypothesis and the unscientific idea of intelligent design.
+
+=== Exoplanets around main sequence stars are being discovered in large numbers ===
+
+An increasing number of extrasolar planet discoveries are being made, with 6,416 planets in 4,809 planetary systems known as of 23 April 2026. Rare Earth proponents argue life cannot arise outside Sun-like systems, due to tidal locking and ionizing radiation outside the F7–K1 range. However, some exobiologists have suggested that stars outside this range may give rise to life under the right circumstances; this possibility is a central point of contention to the theory because these late-K and M category stars make up about 82% of all hydrogen-burning stars.
+Current technology limits the testing of important Rare Earth criteria: surface water, tectonic plates, a large moon and biosignatures are currently undetectable. Though planets the size of Earth are difficult to detect and classify, scientists now think that rocky planets are common around Sun-like stars. The Earth Similarity Index (ESI) of mass, radius and temperature provides a means of measurement, but falls short of the full Rare Earth criteria.
+
+=== Rocky planets orbiting within habitable zones may not be rare ===
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 7/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Some argue that Rare Earth's estimates of rocky planets in habitable zones (
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          n
+          
+            e
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n_{e}}
+  
+ in the Rare Earth equation) are too restrictive. James Kasting cites the Titius–Bode law to contend that it is a misnomer to describe habitable zones as narrow when there is a 50% chance of at least one planet orbiting within one. In 2013, astronomers using the Kepler space telescope's data estimated that about one-fifth of G-type and K-type stars (sun-like stars and orange dwarfs) are expected to have an Earth-sized or super-Earth-sized planet (1–2 Earths wide) close to an Earth-like orbit (0.25–4 F🜨), yielding about 8.8 billion of them for the entire Milky Way Galaxy.
+
+=== Uncertainty over Jupiter's role ===
+The requirement for a system to have a Jovian planet as protector (Rare Earth equation factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            j
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{j}}
+  
+) has been challenged, affecting the number of proposed extinction events (Rare Earth equation factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+            e
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{me}}
+  
+). Kasting's 2001 review of Rare Earth questions whether a Jupiter protector has any bearing on the incidence of complex life. Computer modelling including the 2005 Nice model and 2007 Nice 2 model yield inconclusive results in relation to Jupiter's gravitational influence and impacts on the inner planets. A study by Horner and Jones (2008) using computer simulation found that while the total effect on all orbital bodies within the Solar System is unclear, Jupiter has caused more impacts on Earth than it has prevented. Lexell's Comet, a 1770 near miss that passed closer to Earth than any other comet in recorded history, was known to be caused by the gravitational influence of Jupiter. 
+
+=== Plate tectonics may not be unique to Earth or a requirement for complex life ===
+
+Ward and Brownlee argue that for complex life to evolve (Rare Earth equation factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{c}}
+  
+), tectonics must be present to generate biogeochemical cycles, and predicted that such geological features would not be found outside of Earth, pointing to a lack of observable mountain ranges and subduction. There is, however, no scientific consensus on the evolution of plate tectonics on Earth. Though it is believed that tectonic motion first began around three billion years ago, by this time photosynthesis and oxygenation had already begun. Furthermore, recent studies point to plate tectonics as an episodic planetary phenomenon, and that life may evolve during periods of "stagnant-lid" rather than plate tectonic states.
+Recent evidence also points to similar activity either having occurred or continuing to occur elsewhere. The geology of Pluto, for example, described by Ward and Brownlee as "without mountains or volcanoes ... devoid of volcanic activity", has since been found to be quite the contrary, with a geologically active surface possessing organic molecules and mountain ranges like Tenzing Montes and Hillary Montes comparable in relative size to those of Earth, and observations suggest the involvement of endogenic processes. Plate tectonics has been suggested as a hypothesis for the Martian dichotomy, and in 2012 geologist An Yin put forward evidence for active plate tectonics on Mars. Europa has long been suspected to have plate tectonics and in 2014 NASA announced evidence of active subduction. Like Europa, analysis of the surface of Jupiter's largest moon Ganymede strike-strip faulting and surface materials of possible endogenic origin suggests that plate tectonics has also taken place there.
+
+In 2017, scientists studying the geology of Charon confirmed that icy plate tectonics also operated on Pluto's largest moon. Since 2017 several studies of the geodynamics of Venus have also found that, contrary to the view that the lithosphere of Venus is static, it is actually being deformed via active processes similar to plate tectonics, though with less subduction, implying that geodynamics are not a rare occurrence in Earth sized bodies.
+Kasting suggests that there is nothing unusual about the occurrence of plate tectonics in large rocky planets and liquid water on the surface as most should generate internal heat even without the assistance of radioactive elements. Studies by Valencia and Cowan suggest that plate tectonics may be inevitable for terrestrial planets Earth-sized or larger, that is, Super-Earths, which are now known to be more common in planetary systems.
+
+=== Free oxygen may be neither rare nor a prerequisite for multicellular life ===
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The hypothesis that molecular oxygen, necessary for animal life, is rare and that a Great Oxygenation Event (Rare Earth equation factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{c}}
+  
+) could only have been triggered and sustained by tectonics, appears to have been invalidated by more recent discoveries.
+Ward and Brownlee ask "whether oxygenation, and hence the rise of animals, would ever have occurred on a world where there were no continents to erode". Extraterrestrial free oxygen has recently been detected around other solid objects, including Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter's four Galilean moons, Saturn's moons Enceladus, Dione and Rhea and even the atmosphere of a comet. This has led scientists to speculate whether processes other than photosynthesis could be capable of generating an environment rich in free oxygen. Wordsworth (2014) concludes that oxygen generated other than through photodissociation may be likely on Earth-like exoplanets, and could actually lead to false positive detections of life. Narita (2015) suggests photocatalysis by titanium dioxide as a geochemical mechanism for producing oxygen atmospheres.
+Since Ward & Brownlee's assertion that "there is irrefutable evidence that oxygen is a necessary ingredient for animal life", anaerobic metazoa have been found that indeed do metabolise without oxygen. Spinoloricus cinziae, for example, a species discovered in the hypersaline anoxic L'Atalante basin at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea in 2010, appears to metabolise with hydrogen, lacking mitochondria and instead using hydrogenosomes. Studies since 2015 of the eukaryotic genus Monocercomonoides that lack mitochondrial organelles are also significant as there are no detectable signs that mitochondria are part of the organism. Since then further eukaryotes, particularly parasites, have been identified to be completely absent of mitochondrial genome, such as the 2020 discovery in Henneguya zschokkei. Further investigation into alternative metabolic pathways used by these organisms appear to present further problems for the premise.
+Stevenson (2015) has proposed other membrane alternatives for complex life in worlds without oxygen. In 2017, scientists from the NASA Astrobiology Institute discovered the necessary chemical preconditions for the formation of azotosomes on Saturn's moon Titan, a world that lacks atmospheric oxygen. Independent studies by Schirrmeister and by Mills concluded that Earth's multicellular life existed prior to the Great Oxygenation Event, not as a consequence of it.
+NASA scientists Hartman and McKay argue that plate tectonics may in fact slow the rise of oxygenation (and thus stymie complex life rather than promote it). Computer modelling by Tilman Spohn in 2014 found that plate tectonics on Earth may have arisen from the effects of complex life's emergence, rather than the other way around as the Rare Earth might suggest. The action of lichens on rock may have contributed to the formation of subduction zones in the presence of water. Kasting argues that if oxygenation caused the Cambrian explosion then any planet with oxygen producing photosynthesis should have complex life.
+
+=== A magnetosphere may not be rare or a requirement ===
+The importance of Earth's magnetic field to the development of complex life has been disputed. The origin of Earth's magnetic field remains a mystery though the presence of a magnetosphere appears to be relatively common for larger planetary mass objects as all Solar System planets larger than Earth possess one. There is increasing evidence of present or past magnetic activity in terrestrial bodies such as the Moon, Ganymede, Mercury and Mars. Without sufficient measurement present studies rely heavily on modelling methods developed in 2006 by Olson & Christensen to predict field strength. Using a sample of 496 planets such models predict Kepler-186f to be one of few of Earth size that would support a magnetosphere (though such a field around this planet has not currently been confirmed). However current recent empirical evidence points to the occurrence of much larger and more powerful fields than those found in the Solar System, some of which cannot be explained by these models.
+Kasting argues that the atmosphere provides sufficient protection against cosmic rays even during times of magnetic pole reversal and atmosphere loss by sputtering. Kasting also dismisses the role of the magnetic field in the evolution of eukaryotes, citing the age of the oldest known magnetofossils.
+
+=== A large moon may be neither rare nor necessary ===
+The requirement of a large moon (Rare Earth equation factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          f
+          
+            m
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f_{m}}
+  
+) has also been challenged. Even if it were required, such an occurrence may not be as unique as predicted by the Rare Earth Hypothesis. Work by Edward Belbruno and J. Richard Gott of Princeton University suggests that giant impactors such as those that may have formed the Moon can indeed form in planetary trojan points (L4 or L5 Lagrangian point) which means that similar circumstances may occur in other planetary systems.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Rare Earth hypothesis"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Earth_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:19.880934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The assertion that the Moon's stabilization of Earth's obliquity and spin is a requirement for complex life has been questioned. Kasting argues that a moonless Earth would still possess habitats with climates suitable for complex life and questions whether the spin rate of a moonless Earth can be predicted. Although the giant impact theory posits that the impact forming the Moon increased Earth's rotational speed to make a day about 5 hours long, the Moon has slowly "stolen" much of this speed to reduce Earth's solar day since then to about 24 hours and continues to do so: in 100 million years Earth's solar day will be roughly 24 hours 38 minutes (the same as Mars's solar day); in 1 billion years, 30 hours 23 minutes. Larger secondary bodies would exert proportionally larger tidal forces that would in turn decelerate their primaries faster and potentially increase the solar day of a planet in all other respects like Earth to over 120 hours within a few billion years. This long solar day would make effective heat dissipation for organisms in the tropics and subtropics extremely difficult in a similar manner to tidal locking to a red dwarf star. Short days (high rotation speed) cause high wind speeds at ground level. Long days (slow rotation speed) cause the day and night temperatures to be too extreme.
+Many Rare Earth proponents argue that the Earth's plate tectonics would probably not exist if not for the tidal forces of the Moon or the impact of Theia (prolonging mantle effects). The hypothesis that the Moon's tidal influence initiated or sustained Earth's plate tectonics remains unproven, though at least one study implies a temporal correlation to the formation of the Moon. Evidence for the past existence of plate tectonics on planets like Mars which may never have had a large moon would counter this argument, although plate tectonics may fade anyway before a moon is relevant to life. Kasting argues that a large moon is not required to initiate plate tectonics.
+
+=== Complex life may arise in alternative habitats ===
+
+Rare Earth proponents argue that simple life may be common, though complex life requires specific environmental conditions to arise. Critics consider life could arise on a moon of a gas giant, though this is less likely if life requires volcanicity. The moon must have stresses to induce tidal heating, but not so dramatic as seen on Jupiter's Io. However, the moon is within the gas giant's intense radiation belts, sterilizing any biodiversity before it can get established. Dirk Schulze-Makuch disputes this, hypothesizing alternative biochemistries for alien life. While Rare Earth proponents argue that only microbial extremophiles could exist in subsurface habitats beyond Earth, some argue that complex life can also arise in these environments. Examples of extremophile animals such as the Hesiocaeca methanicola, an animal that inhabits ocean floor methane clathrates substances more commonly found in the outer Solar System, the tardigrades which can survive in the vacuum of space or Halicephalobus mephisto which exists in crushing pressure, scorching temperatures and extremely low oxygen levels 3.6 kilometres ( 2.2 miles) deep in the Earth's crust, are sometimes cited by critics as complex life capable of thriving in "alien" environments. Jill Tarter counters the classic counterargument that these species adapted to these environments rather than arose in them, by suggesting that we cannot assume conditions for life to emerge which are not actually known. There are suggestions that complex life could arise in sub-surface conditions which may be similar to those where life may have arisen on Earth, such as the tidally heated subsurfaces of Europa or Enceladus. Ancient circumvental ecosystems such as these support complex life on Earth such as Riftia pachyptila that exist completely independent of the surface biosphere.
+
+== See also ==
+Fine-tuned universe - the hypothesis that life could not exist if several, mostly cosmologic natural constants had been even slightly different
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Cirkovic, Milan M.; Bradbury, Robert J. (2006). "Galactic Gradients, Postbiological Evolution, and the Apparent Failure of SETI" (PDF). New Astronomy. 11 (8): 628–639. arXiv:astro-ph/0506110. Bibcode:2006NewA...11..628C. doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.04.003. S2CID 1540494.
+Kasting, James; Whitmire, D. P.; Reynolds, R. T. (1993). "Habitable zones around main sequence stars". Icarus. 101 (1): 108–28. Bibcode:1993Icar..101..108K. doi:10.1006/icar.1993.1010. PMID 11536936.
+Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Ripperdan, Robert L.; Evans, David A. (1997). "Evidence for a Large-Scale Reorganization of Early Cambrian Continental Masses by Inertial Interchange True Polar Wander". Science. 277 (5325): 541–45. doi:10.1126/science.277.5325.541. S2CID 177135895.
+Knoll, Andrew H (2003). Life on a Young Planet: The First Three Billion Years of Evolution on Earth. Princeton University Press.
+Prantzos, Nikos (March 2008). Bada, J.; et al. (eds.). "On the Galactic Habitable Zone". Space Science Reviews. 135 (1–4): 313–322. arXiv:astro-ph/0612316. Bibcode:2008SSRv..135..313P. doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9236-9. S2CID 119441813.
+Raymond, Sean N.; Scalo, John; Meadows, Victoria S. (November 2007). "A Decreased Probability of Habitable Planet Formation around Low-Mass Stars". The Astrophysical Journal. 669 (1): 606–614. arXiv:0707.1711. Bibcode:2007ApJ...669..606R. doi:10.1086/521587. S2CID 1247176.
+Ross, Hugh (1993). "Some of the parameters of the galaxy-sun-earth-moon system necessary for advanced life". The Creator and the Cosmos (2nd ed.). Colorado Springs CO: NavPress.
+Stenger V (1999). "The Anthropic Coincidences: A Natural Explanation". The Skeptical Intelligencer. 3: 3. Archived from the original on 12 November 2007.
+Tipler FJ (2003). "Intelligent Life in Cosmology". International Journal of Astrobiology. 2 (2): 141–8. arXiv:0704.0058. Bibcode:2003IJAsB...2..141T. doi:10.1017/S1473550403001526. S2CID 119283361.
+Waltham, David (2013). Lucky Planet. Basic Books. A defense of the Rare Earth Hypothesis by a UK geologist.
+Henderson, Lawrence Joseph (1913). The Fitness of the Environment. The Macmillan Company
+Gonzales, Guillermo; Richards, Jay W (2004). The Privileged Planet. Regnery Publishing, Inc.
+
+== External links ==
+Home page of Rare Earth (archival)
+Reviews of Rare Earth:
+Athena Andreadis, PhD in molecular biology.
+Kendrick Frazier, editor, Skeptical Inquirer.
+"Galactic Habitable Zone". Astrobiology Magazine. 18 May 2001. Archived from the original on 15 May 2003.
+Gregg Easterbrook, "Are We Alone?" The Atlantic Monthly, August 1988. Article that anticipates REH in some respects.
+Solstation.com: "Stars and Habitable Planets."
+Recer, Paul (1 June 1999). "Radio astronomers measure sun's orbit around Milky Way". Houston Chronicle. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 11 October 1999.
+Falcon-Lang, Howard (9 December 2011). "Life on Earth: Is our planet special?". BBC News.
+Morison, Ian (24 September 2014). "Are We Alone? The search for life beyond the Earth". Gresham College.
+Hall, Shannon (20 July 2017). "Earth's Tectonic Activity May Be Crucial for Life--and Rare in Our Galaxy". Scientific American.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Recognition heuristic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:24.478211+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The recognition heuristic, originally termed the recognition principle, has been used as a model in the psychology of judgment and decision making and as a heuristic in artificial intelligence. The goal is to make inferences about a criterion that is not directly accessible to the decision maker, based on recognition retrieved from memory. This is possible if recognition of alternatives has relevance to the criterion. For two alternatives, the heuristic is defined as: If one of two objects is recognized and the other is not, then infer that the recognized object has the higher value with respect to the criterion.
+The recognition heuristic is part of the "adaptive toolbox" of "fast and frugal" heuristics proposed by Gigerenzer and Goldstein. It is one of the most frugal of these, meaning it is simple or economical. In their original experiment, Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer quizzed students in Germany and the United States on the populations of both German and American cities. Participants received pairs of city names and had to indicate which city has more inhabitants. In this and similar experiments, the recognition heuristic typically describes about 80–90% of participants' choices, in cases where they recognize one but not the other object (see criticism of this measure below). Surprisingly, American students scored higher on German cities, while German participants scored higher on American cities, despite only recognizing a fraction of the foreign cities. This has been labeled the "less-is-more effect" and mathematically formalized.
+
+== Domain specificity ==
+The recognition heuristic is posited as a domain-specific strategy for inference. It is ecologically rational to rely on the recognition heuristic in domains where there is a correlation between the criterion and recognition. The higher the recognition validity α for a given criterion, the more ecologically rational it is to rely on this heuristic and the more likely people will rely on it. For each individual, α can be computed by
+
+α = C/(C+W)
+where C is the number of correct inferences the recognition heuristic would make, computed across all pairs in which one alternative is recognized and the other is not, and W is the number of wrong inferences. Domains in which the recognition heuristic was successfully applied include the prediction of geographical properties (such as the size of cities, mountains, etc.), of sports events (such as Wimbledon and soccer championships) and elections. Research also shows that the recognition heuristic is relevant to marketing science. Recognition based heuristics help consumers choose which brands to buy in frequently purchased categories. A number of studies addressed the question of whether people rely on the recognition heuristic in an ecologically rational way. For instance, name recognition of Swiss cities is a valid predictor of their population (α = 0.86) but not their distance from the center of Switzerland (α = 0.51). Pohl reported that 89% of inferences accorded with the model in judgments of population, compared to only 54% in judgments of the distance. More generally, there is a positive correlation of r = 0.64 between the recognition validity and the proportion of judgments consistent with the recognition heuristic across 11 studies. Another study by Pachur suggested that the recognition heuristic is more likely a tool for exploring natural rather than induced recognition (i.e. not provoked in a laboratory setting) when inferences have to be made from memory. In one of his experiments, the results showed that there was a difference between participants in an experimental setting vs. a non-experimental setting.
+
+== Less-is-more effect ==
+
+If α > β, and α, β are independent of n, then a less-is-more effect will be observed. Here, β is the knowledge validity, measured as C/(C+W) for all pairs in which both alternatives are recognized, and n is the number of alternatives an individual recognizes. A less-is-more effect means that the function between accuracy and n is inversely U-shaped rather than monotonically increasing. Some studies reported less-is-more effects empirically among two, three, or four alternatives and in group decisions), whereas others failed to do so, possibly because the effect is predicted to be small (see Katsikopoulos).
+Smithson explored the "less-is-more effect" (LIME) with the recognition heuristic and challenges some of the original assumptions. The LIME occurs when a "recognition-dependent agent has a greater probability of choosing the better item than a more knowledgeable agent who recognizes more items." A mathematical model is used in describing the LIME and Smithson’s study used it and attempted to modify it. The study was meant to mathematically provide an understanding of when the LIME occurs and explain the implications of the results. The main implication is "that the advantage of the recognition cue depends not only on the cue validities, but also on the order in which items are learned".
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+---
+title: "Recognition heuristic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:24.478211+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Neuropsychological evidence ==
+The recognition heuristic can also be depicted using neuroimaging techniques. A number of studies have shown that people do not automatically use the recognition heuristic when it can be applied, but evaluate its ecological validity. It is less clear, however, how this evaluation process can be modeled. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study tested whether the two processes, recognition and evaluation, can be separated on a neural basis. Participants were given two tasks; the first involved only a recognition judgment ("Have you ever heard of Modena? Milan?"), while the second involved an inference in which participants could rely on the recognition heuristic ("Which city has the larger population: Milan or Modena?"). For mere recognition judgments, activation in the precuneus, an area that is known from independent studies to respond to recognition confidence, was reported. In the inference task, precuneus activation was also observed, as predicted, and activation was detected in the anterior frontomedian cortex (aFMC), which has been linked in earlier studies to evaluative judgments and self-referential processing. The aFMC activation could represent the neural basis of this evaluation of ecological rationality.
+Some researchers have used event-related potentials (ERP) to test psychological mechanisms behind the recognition heuristic. Rosburg, Mecklinger, and Frings used a standard procedure with a city-size comparison task, similar to that used by Goldstein and Gigerenzer. They used ERP and analyzed familiarity-based recognition occurring 300-450 milliseconds after stimulus onset in order to predict the participants’ decisions. Familiarity-based recognition processes are relatively automatic and fast so these results provide evidence that simple heuristics like the recognition heuristic utilize basic cognitive processes.
+
+== Controversies ==
+Research on the recognition heuristic has sparked a number of controversies.
+
+=== Trade-offs ===
+The recognition heuristic is a model that relies on recognition only. This leads to the testable prediction that people who rely on it will ignore strong, contradicting cues (i.e., do not make trade-offs; so-called noncompensatory inferences). In an experiment by Daniel M. Oppenheimer participants were presented with pairs of cities, which included actual cities and fictional cities.  Although the recognition heuristic predicts that participants would judge the actual (recognizable) cities to be larger, participants judged the fictional (unrecognizable) cities to be larger, showing that more than recognition can play a role in such inferences.
+Newell & Fernandez performed two experiments to try to test the claims that the recognition heuristic is distinguished from availability and fluency through binary treatment of information and inconsequentiality of further knowledge. The results of their experiments did not support these claims. Newell & Fernandez  and Richter & Späth tested the non-compensatory prediction of the recognition heuristic and stated that "recognition information is not used in an all-or-none fashion but is integrated with other types of knowledge in judgment and decision making."
+A reanalysis of these studies at an individual level, however, showed that typically about half of the participants consistently followed the recognition heuristic in every single trial, even in the presence of up to three contradicting cues. Furthermore, in response to those criticisms, Marewski et al. pointed out that none of the studies above formulated and tested a compensatory strategy against the recognition heuristic, leaving the strategies that participants relied on unknown. They tested five compensatory models and found that none could predict judgments better than the simple model of the recognition heuristic.
+
+=== Measurement ===
+One major criticism of studies on the recognition heuristic that was raised was that mere accordance with the recognition heuristic is not a good measure of its use. As an alternative, Hilbig et al. proposed to test the recognition heuristic more precisely devised a multinomial processing tree model for the recognition heuristic. A multinomial processing tree model is a simple statistical model often used in cognitive psychology for categorical data. Hilbig et al. claimed that a new model of recognition heuristic use was needed due to the confound between recognition and further knowledge. The multinomial processing tree model was shown to be effective and Hilbig et al. claimed that it provided an unbiased measure of the recognition heuristic.
+Pachur stated that it is an imperfect model but currently it is still the best model to predict people’s recognition-based inferences. He believes that precise tests have a limited value basically because certain aspects of the recognition heuristic are often ignored and so the results could be inconsequential or misleading.
+
+=== Intuitive strategy ===
+Hilbig et al. state that heuristics are meant to reduce effort and that the recognition heuristic reduces effort in making judgments by relying on one single cue and ignoring other information. In their study, they found that the recognition heuristic is more useful in deliberate thought than in intuitive thought. This means it is more useful when thoughts are intentional and not impulsive as opposed to intuitive thought, which is based more on impulse rather than conscious reasoning. 
+In contrast, a study by Pachur and Hertwig found that it is actually the faster responses that are more in line with the recognition heuristic. Also, judgments accorded more strongly with the recognition heuristic under time pressure. In line with these findings, neural evidence suggests that the recognition heuristic may be relied upon by default.
+
+== Support ==
+Goldstein and Gigerenzer state that due to its simplicity, the recognition heuristic shows to what degree and in what situations behavior can be predicted.  Some researchers suggest that the idea of the recognition heuristic should be retired but Pachur believes that a different approach should be taken in testing it. There are some researchers who believe that the recognition heuristic should be investigated using precise tests of the exclusive use of recognition.
+Another study by Pachur suggested that the recognition heuristic is more likely a tool for exploring natural rather than induced recognition (i.e. not provoked in a laboratory setting) when inferences have to be made from memory. In one of his experiments, the results showed that there was a difference between participants in an experimental setting vs. a non-experimental setting.
+
+== Synopsis ==
+Using an adversarial collaboration approach, three special issues of the open access journal Judgment and Decision Making have been devoted to unravel the support for and problems with the recognition heuristic, providing the most recent and comprehensive synopsis of the epistemic status quo. In their Editorial to Issue III, the three guest editors strive for a cumulative theory integration.
+
+== Notes ==
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+---
+title: "Relative income hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_income_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:21.052401+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The relative income hypothesis was developed by James Duesenberry in 1949. It consists of two separate consumption hypothesis.
+The first hypothesis states that an individual's attitude to consumption is dictated more by their income in relation to others than by an abstract standard of living. The percentage of income consumed by an individual depends on their percentile position within the income distribution.
+The second hypothesis states that the present consumption is influenced not merely by present levels of absolute and relative income but also by levels of consumption attained in a previous period. In Duesenberry's opinion, it is difficult for a family to reduce a level of consumption once it is attained. The aggregate ratio of consumption to income is assumed to depend on the level of present income relative to past peak income.
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Duesenberry, J. S. Income, Saving and the Theory of Consumer Behaviour. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949.[1]
+Frank, Robert H., 2005. “The Mysterious Disappearance of James Duesenberry,” The New York Times, June 9, 2005.
+Hollander, Heinz, 2001. “On the validity of utility statements: standard theory versus Duesenberry’s,” Journal of economic Behavior & Organization 45, 3: 227–249.
+McCormick, Ken (2018). "James Duesenberry as a practitioner of behavioral economics". Journal of Behavioral Economics for Policy. 2 (1): 13–18.
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+---
+title: "Representativeness heuristic"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The representativeness heuristic is used when making judgments about the probability of an event being representational in character and essence of a known prototypical event. It is one of a group of heuristics (simple rules governing judgment or decision-making) proposed by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in the early 1970s as "the degree to which [an event] (i) is similar in essential characteristics to its parent population, and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated".  
+The representativeness heuristic works by comparing an event to a prototype or stereotype that we already have in mind. For example, if we see a person who is dressed in eccentric clothes and reading a poetry book, we might be more likely to think that they are a poet than an accountant. This is because the person's appearance and behavior are more representative of the stereotype of a poet than an accountant.
+The representativeness heuristic can be a useful shortcut in some cases, but it can also lead to errors in judgment. For example, if we only see a small sample of people from a particular group, we might overestimate the degree to which they are representative of the entire group. 
+Heuristics are described as "judgmental shortcuts that generally get us where we need to go – and quickly – but at the cost of occasionally sending us off course." Heuristics are useful because they use effort-reduction and simplification in decision-making.
+When people rely on representativeness to make judgments, they are likely to judge wrongly because the fact that something is more representative does not actually make it more likely. The representativeness heuristic is simply described as assessing similarity of objects and organizing them based around the category prototype (e.g., like goes with like, and causes and effects should resemble each other).
+This heuristic is used because it is an easy computation. The problem is that people overestimate its ability to accurately predict the likelihood of an event. Thus, it can result in neglect of relevant base rates and other cognitive biases.
+
+== Determinants of representativeness ==
+The representativeness heuristic is more likely to be used when the judgement or decision to be made has certain factors.
+
+=== Similarity ===
+
+When judging the representativeness of a new stimulus/event, people usually pay attention to the degree of similarity between the stimulus/event and a standard/process. It is also important that those features be salient. Nilsson, Juslin, and Olsson (2008) found this to be influenced by the exemplar account of memory (concrete examples of a category are stored in memory) so that new instances were classified as representative if highly similar to a category as well as if frequently encountered.
+Several examples of similarity have been described in the representativeness heuristic literature. This research has focused on medical beliefs. People often believe that medical symptoms should resemble their causes or treatments. For example, people have long believed that ulcers were caused by stress, due to the representativeness heuristic, when in fact bacteria cause ulcers. In a similar line of thinking, in some alternative medicine beliefs patients have been encouraged to eat organ meat that corresponds to their medical disorder. Use of the representativeness heuristic can be seen in even simpler beliefs, such as the belief that eating fatty foods makes one fat. Even physicians may be swayed by the representativeness heuristic when judging similarity, in diagnoses, for example. The researcher found that clinicians use the representativeness heuristic in making diagnoses by judging how similar patients are to the stereotypical or prototypical patient with that disorder.
+
+=== Randomness ===
+
+Irregularity and local representativeness affect judgments of randomness. Things that do not appear to have any logical sequence are regarded as representative of randomness and thus more likely to occur. For example, THTHTH as a series of coin tosses would not be considered representative of randomly generated coin tosses as it is too well ordered.
+Local representativeness is an assumption wherein people rely on the law of small numbers, whereby small samples are perceived to represent their population to the same extent as large samples (Tversky & Kahneman 1971). A small sample which appears randomly distributed would reinforce the belief, under the assumption of local representativeness, that the population is randomly distributed. Conversely, a small sample with a skewed distribution would weaken this belief.If a coin toss is repeated several times and the majority of the results consists of "heads", the assumption of local representativeness will cause the observer to believe the coin is biased toward "heads".
+
+== Tversky and Kahneman's classic studies ==
+
+=== Tom W. ===
+In a study done in 1973, Kahneman and Tversky divided their participants into three groups:
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+title: "Representativeness heuristic"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Base-rate group", who were given the instructions: "Consider all the first-year graduate students in the U.S. today. Please write down your best guesses about the percentage of students who are now enrolled in the following nine fields of specialization." The nine fields given were business administration, computer science, engineering, humanities and education, law, library science, medicine, physical and life sciences, and social science and social work.
+"Similarity group", who were given a personality sketch. "Tom W. is of high intelligence, although lacking in true creativity. He has a need for order and clarity, and for neat and tidy systems in which every detail finds its appropriate place. His writing is rather dull and mechanical, occasionally enlivened by somewhat corny puns and by flashes of imagination of the sci-fi type. He has a strong drive for competence. He seems to feel little sympathy for other people and does not enjoy interacting with others. Self-centered, he nonetheless has a deep moral sense." The participants in this group were asked to rank the nine areas listed in part 1 in terms of how similar Tom W. is to the prototypical graduate student of each area.
+"Prediction group", who were given the personality sketch described in 2, but were also given the information "The preceding personality sketch of Tom W. was written during Tom's senior year in high school by a psychologist, on the basis of projective tests. Tom W. is currently a graduate student. Please rank the following nine fields of graduate specialization in order of the likelihood that Tom W. is now a graduate student in each of these fields."
+The judgments of likelihood were much closer for the judgments of similarity than for the estimated base rates. The findings supported the authors' predictions that people make predictions based on how representative something is (similar), rather than based on relative base rate information. For example, more than 95% of the participants said that Tom would be more likely to study computer science than education or humanities, when there were much higher base rate estimates for education and humanities than computer science.
+
+=== The taxicab problem ===
+In another study done by Tversky and Kahneman, subjects were given the following problem:
+
+A cab was involved in a hit and run accident at night. Two cab companies, the Green and the Blue, operate in the city. 85% of the cabs in the city are Green and 15% are Blue.
+A witness identified the cab as Blue. The court tested the reliability of the witness under the same circumstances that existed on the night of the accident and concluded that the witness correctly identified each one of the two colors 80% of the time and failed 20% of the time.
+What is the probability that the cab involved in the accident was Blue rather than Green knowing that this witness identified it as Blue?
+
+Most subjects gave probabilities over 50%, and some gave answers over 80%. The correct answer, found using Bayes' theorem, is lower than these estimates:
+
+There is a 12% probability (0.12 = 0.15 × 0.80) that the blue cab is (correctly) identified by the witness as blue.
+There is a 17% probability (0.17 = 0.85 × 0.20) that the green cab is (incorrectly) identified by the witness as blue.
+There is therefore a 29% probability (0.29 = 0.12 + 0.17) that the cab is identified by the witness as blue.
+This results in a 41% probability (0.41 ≈ 0.12 ÷ 0.29) that the cab identified as blue was actually blue.
+
+This result can be achieved by Bayes' theorem which states:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        B
+        
+          |
+        
+        I
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              P
+              (
+              I
+              
+                |
+              
+              B
+              )
+              
+              P
+              (
+              B
+              )
+            
+            
+              P
+              (
+              I
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(B|I)={\frac {P(I|B)\,P(B)}{P(I)}}.}
+  
+
+where:
+P(x) - a probability of x, 
+B - the cab was blue,
+I - the cab is identified by the witness as blue,
+B | I -  the cab that is identified as blue, was blue,
+I | B - the cab that was blue, is identified by the witness as blue.
+
+Representativeness is cited in the similar effect of the gambler's fallacy, the regression fallacy and the conjunction fallacy.
+
+== Biases attributed to the representativeness heuristic ==
+
+=== Base rate neglect and base rate fallacy ===
+
+The use of the representativeness heuristic will likely lead to violations of Bayes' theorem:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        H
+        
+          |
+        
+        D
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              P
+              (
+              D
+              
+                |
+              
+              H
+              )
+              
+              P
+              (
+              H
+              )
+            
+            
+              P
+              (
+              D
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(H|D)={\frac {P(D|H)\,P(H)}{P(D)}}.}
+  
+
+However, judgments by representativeness only look at the resemblance between the hypothesis and the data, thus inverse probabilities are equated:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        H
+        
+          |
+        
+        D
+        )
+        =
+        P
+        (
+        D
+        
+          |
+        
+        H
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(H|D)=P(D|H)}
+  
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+---
+title: "Representativeness heuristic"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+As can be seen, the base rate P(H) is ignored in this equation, leading to the base rate fallacy. A base rate is a phenomenon's basic rate of incidence. The base rate fallacy describes how people do not take the base rate of an event into account when solving probability problems. This was explicitly tested by Dawes, Mirels, Gold and Donahue (1993) who had people judge both the base rate of people who had a particular personality trait and the probability that a person who had a given personality trait had another one. For example, participants were asked how many people out of 100 answered true to the question "I am a conscientious person" and also, given that a person answered true to this question, how many would answer true to a different personality question. They found that participants equated inverse probabilities (e.g., 
+  
+    
+      
+        P
+        (
+        c
+        o
+        n
+        s
+        c
+        i
+        e
+        n
+        t
+        i
+        o
+        u
+        s
+        
+          |
+        
+        n
+        e
+        u
+        r
+        o
+        t
+        i
+        c
+        )
+        =
+        P
+        (
+        n
+        e
+        u
+        r
+        o
+        t
+        i
+        c
+        
+          |
+        
+        c
+        o
+        n
+        s
+        c
+        i
+        e
+        n
+        t
+        i
+        o
+        u
+        s
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle P(conscientious|neurotic)=P(neurotic|conscientious)}
+  
+) even when it was obvious that they were not the same (the two questions were answered immediately after each other). 
+A medical example is described by Axelsson. Say a doctor performs a test that is 99% accurate, and the patient tests positive for the disease. However, the incidence of the disease is 1/10,000. The patient's actual risk of having the disease is 1%, because the population of healthy people is so much larger than the disease. This statistic often surprises people, due to the base rate fallacy, as many people do not take the basic incidence into account when judging probability. Research by Maya Bar-Hillel (1980) suggests that perceived relevancy of information is vital to base-rate neglect: base rates are only included in judgments if they seem equally relevant to the other information.
+Some research has explored base rate neglect in children, as there was a lack of understanding about how these judgment heuristics develop. The authors of one such study wanted to understand the development of the heuristic, if it differs between social judgments and other judgments, and whether children use base rates when they are not using the representativeness heuristic. The authors found that the use of the representativeness heuristic as a strategy begins early on and is consistent. The authors also found that children use idiosyncratic strategies to make social judgments initially, and use base rates more as they get older, but the use of the representativeness heuristic in the social arena also increase as they get older. The authors found that, among the children surveyed, base rates were more readily used in judgments about objects than in social judgments. After that research was conducted, Davidson (1995) was interested in exploring how the representativeness heuristic and conjunction fallacy in children related to children's stereotyping. Consistent with previous research, children based their responses to problems off of base rates when the problems contained nonstereotypic information or when the children were older. There was also evidence that children commit the conjunction fallacy. Finally, as students get older, they used the representativeness heuristic on stereotyped problems, and so made judgments consistent with stereotypes. There is evidence that even children use the representativeness heuristic, commit the conjunction fallacy, and disregard base rates. 
+Research suggests that use or neglect of base rates can be influenced by how the problem is presented, which reminds us that the representativeness heuristic is not a "general, all purpose heuristic", but may have many contributing factors. Base rates may be neglected more often when the information presented is not causal. Base rates are used less if there is relevant individuating information. Groups have been found to neglect base rate more than individuals do. Use of base rates differs based on context. Research on use of base rates has been inconsistent, with some authors suggesting a new model is necessary.
+
+=== Conjunction fallacy ===
+
+A group of undergraduates were provided with a description of Linda, modelled to be representative of an active feminist. Then participants were then asked to evaluate the probability of her being a feminist, the probability of her being a bank teller, or the probability of being both a bank teller and feminist. Probability theory dictates that the probability of being both a bank teller and feminist (the conjunction of two sets) must be less than or equal to the probability of being either a feminist or a bank teller. A conjunction cannot be more probable than one of its constituents. However, participants judged the conjunction (bank teller and feminist) as being more probable than being a bank teller alone. Some research suggests that the conjunction error may partially be due to subtle linguistic factors, such as inexplicit wording or semantic interpretation of "probability". The authors argue that both logic and language use may relate to the error, and it should be more fully investigated.
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+---
+title: "Representativeness heuristic"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Disjunction fallacy ===
+From probability theory the disjunction of two events is at least as likely as either of the events individually. For example, the probability of being either a physics or biology major is at least as likely as being a physics major, if not more likely. However, when a personality description (data) seems to be very representative of a physics major (e.g., having a pocket protector) over a biology major, people judge that it is more likely for this person to be a physics major than a natural sciences major (which is a superset of physics). 
+Evidence that the representativeness heuristic may cause the disjunction fallacy comes from Bar-Hillel and Neter (1993). They found that people judge a person who is highly representative of being a statistics major (e.g., highly intelligent, does math competitions) as being more likely to be a statistics major than a social sciences major (superset of statistics), but they do not think that he is more likely to be a Hebrew language major than a humanities major (superset of Hebrew language). Thus, only when the person seems highly representative of a category is that category judged as more probable than its superordinate category. These incorrect appraisals remained even in the face of losing real money in bets on probabilities. 
+
+=== Insensitivity to sample size ===
+
+Representativeness heuristic is also employed when subjects estimate the probability of a specific parameter of a sample. If the parameter highly represents the population, the parameter is often given a high probability. This estimation process usually ignores the impact of the sample size. 
+A concept proposed by Tversky and Kahneman provides an example of this bias in a problem about two hospitals of differing size.
+
+Approximately 45 babies are born in the large hospital while 15 babies are born in the small hospital. Half (50%) of all babies born in general are boys. However, the percentage changes from 1 day to another. For a 1-year period, each hospital recorded the days on which >60% of the babies born were boys. The question posed is: Which hospital do you think recorded more such days?
+
+The larger hospital (21)
+The smaller hospital (21)
+About the same (that is, within 5% of each other) (53)
+
+The values shown in parentheses are the number of students choosing each answer.
+The results show that more than half the respondents selected the wrong answer (third option). This is due to the respondents ignoring the effect of sample size. The respondents selected the third option most likely because the same statistic represents both the large and small hospitals. According to statistical theory, a small sample size allows the statistical parameter to deviate considerably compared to a large sample. Therefore, the large hospital would have a higher probability to stay close to the nominal value of 50%.
+
+=== Misconceptions of chance and gambler's fallacy ===
+
+=== Regression fallacy ===
+
+== See also ==
+
+Affect heuristic
+Attribute substitution
+Availability heuristic
+List of biases in judgment and decision-making
+Extension neglect
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Works by Kahneman and Tversky ===
+Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1971). "Belief in the law of small numbers". Psychological Bulletin. 76 (2): 105–110. Bibcode:1971PsycB..76..105T. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.592.3838. doi:10.1037/h0031322. S2CID 5883140.
+Kahneman, Daniel; Tversky, Amos (1972). "Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness" (PDF). Cognitive Psychology. 3 (3): 430–454. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(72)90016-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-12-14. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
+Kahneman, Daniel; Tversky, Amos (1973). "On the psychology of prediction". Psychological Review. 80 (4): 237–251. doi:10.1037/h0034747.
+Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1974). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases" (PDF). Science. 185 (4157): 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-05-28. Retrieved 2014-11-12.
+Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1982). "Evidential Impact of Base Rates". In Kahneman, Daniel; Slovic, Paul; Tversky, Amos (eds.). Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Vol. 185. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1124–31. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
+Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1983). "Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment". Psychological Review. 90 (4): 293–315. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.90.4.293.
+
+=== General references ===
+Baron, Jonathan (2000). Thinking and Deciding (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65972-7.
+Plous, Scott (1993). The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-050477-6.
+
+== External links ==
+Powerpoint presentation on the representativeness heuristic (with further links to presentations of classical experiments) Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_test-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_test-0.md
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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+---
+title: "Reversal test"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_test"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:26.858290+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The reversal test is a heuristic designed to spot and eliminate status quo bias, an emotional bias irrationally favouring the current state of affairs. The test is applicable to the evaluation of any decision involving a potential deviation from the status quo along some continuous dimension. The reversal test was introduced in the context of the bioethics of human enhancement by Nick Bostrom and Toby Ord.
+
+
+== Concept ==
+Bostrom and Ord introduced the reversal test to provide an answer to the question of how one can, given that humans might suffer from irrational status quo bias, distinguish between valid criticisms of a proposed increase in some human trait and criticisms merely motivated by resistance to change. The reversal test attempts to do this by asking whether it would be a good thing if the trait was decreased: An example given is that if someone objects that an increase in intelligence would be a bad thing due to more dangerous weapons being made etc., the objector to that position would then ask "Shouldn't we decrease intelligence then?"
+
+"Reversal Test: When a proposal to change a certain parameter is thought to have bad overall consequences, consider a change to the same parameter in the opposite direction. If this is also thought to have bad overall consequences, then the onus is on those who reach these conclusions to explain why our position cannot be improved through changes to this parameter. If they are unable to do so, then we have reason to suspect that they suffer from status quo bias." (p. 664)
+Ideally, the test will help reveal whether status quo bias is an important causal factor in the initial judgement.
+A similar thought experiment in regards to dampening traumatic memories was described by Adam J. Kolber, imagining whether aliens naturally resistant to traumatic memories should adopt traumatic "memory enhancement". The "trip to reality" rebuttal to Nozick's experience machine thought experiment (where one's entire current life is shown to be a simulation and one is offered to return to reality) can also be seen as a form of reversal test.
+
+
+== Double reversal test ==
+A further elaboration on the reversal test is suggested as the double reversal test:
+
+"Double Reversal Test: Suppose it is thought that increasing a certain parameter and decreasing it would both have bad overall consequences. Consider a scenario in which a natural factor threatens to move the parameter in one direction and ask whether it would be good to counterbalance this change by an intervention to preserve the status quo. If so, consider a later time when the naturally occurring factor is about to vanish and ask whether it would be a good idea to intervene to reverse the first intervention. If not, then there is a strong prima facie case for thinking that it would be good to make the first intervention even in the absence of the natural countervailing factor." (p. 673)
+An example may be the parameter of life expectancy, moving in the downward direction because of a sudden natural disease. People might intervene to invest in better health infrastructure to preserve the current life expectancy. If the disease is then cured, the double reversal test asks: should the investment be reversed to defund the health services created for the disease now that it is gone? If not, the argument proposes that people should invest in health infrastructure even if there never is a disease in the first place. In this case, the status quo bias is turned against itself, greatly reducing its impact on the reasoning. It also purports to handle arguments of evolutionary adaptation, transition costs, risk, and societal ethics that can counter the other test.
+Christian Weidemann has noted that although sometimes useful, the double reversal test can muddy the water, because guaranteeing and weighing transition costs versus benefits might be the relevant practical ethical question for much human enhancement analysis.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_logistics_network_modelling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_logistics_network_modelling-0.md
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_logistics_network_modelling-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+---
+title: "Reverse logistics network modelling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_logistics_network_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:28.013867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Reverse logistics is for all operations related to the reuse of products and materials. It is "the process of moving goods from their typical final destination for the purpose of capturing value, or proper disposal. Remanufacturing and refurbishing activities also may be included in the definition of reverse logistics."
+In order to model reverse logistics network from an economics point of view, the following simplified reverse logistics system has to be set.
+In this model, the products are gathered from the consumers and transferred back to the producers, hence the direction of the flow in the distribution supply chain is reversed, and the model is expanded with the recovery centre. First of all, the used products are collected from the consumers and moved to the recovery centre, where the condition of the products are examined according to their end of life cycle. If there is still recapture value, then the product is disassembled as preparation for further reprocessing, which means physical transformation to new customer. Otherwise, the used product is disposed and transferred to the landfill site. According to the introduced model the main differences between forward and reverse logistics can be identified:	
+
+Uncertainty on the quantity, quality and timing
+Complex system due to more participants and more interactions
+Mismatch between demand and supply occurs
+Unexplored market opportunities, but the low value of return flow means a limit
+
+
+== Modelling techniques for optimizing in reverse logistics network ==
+In case of a reverse logistics network, the nodes represent the different kind of facilities such as; the manufacturers, distribution centres, recovery centres and warehouses. The opening of a facility is marked with a binary integer number. The links are acted for flow between facilities, and the weights are continuous variables showing the quantity of flow. The two common way of designing reverse logistics network are the Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) and Mixed Integer Non-Linear Programming (MINLP) methods, where the objective function, decision variables and constraint have to be defined
+
+
+=== Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) ===
+
+
+==== Remanufacturing model ====
+This model is a two-level location problem with three type of facilities, integrated forward and reverse flow of goods. It means that the used items are gathered from consumers, transported back to plants and after remanufacturing get into the logistics network of new products. Objective function: 
+
+minimizing linear cost function including fix and variable costs
+Decision variables: 
+
+location of manufacturer and distribution centre amount of production demand
+quantity of returned used products
+Constraints: 
+
+satisfaction of the demand
+opening of facilities
+
+
+==== Refurbishment model ====
+This model take into account just reverse flow of goods. Objective function: 
+
+minimizing linear cost function incorporating fix cost of settling sites and transportation cost of returning goods
+Decision variables: 
+
+location of collector and refurbishing site
+fraction of transported products to refurbishing site
+Constraints: 
+
+capacity
+opening of facilities
+maximum and minimum number of sites to be open in order uninterrupted flow
+
+
+==== Generic reverse logistics network model ====
+Objective function: 
+
+minimizing linear total cost function encompassing fix cost of facilities (plant, warehouse, disassembly locations), transportation cost and processing cost (recycling, disassembly, disposal, inventory)
+Decision variables:	
+
+identification of facilities to be opened
+quantity of transported products between facilities
+Constraints:
+
+number of facilities
+opening of facilities
+demand and capacity satisfaction
+flow and inventory constraints
+This model can be further developed by introducing penalty cost for not collecting returned items and a compulsory minimal disposal fraction as a feasibility technical constraints of reuse. Moreover, the static approach can be partly eliminated by multi-period programming, as a result trade-off between investment and operational cost and long run effect can be analysed.
+
+
+=== Mixed Integer Non-Linear Programming (MINLP) ===
+The most severe drawback of MILP is the static aspect, hence MINLP try to relieve these restriction and develop further the existing model with dynamic elements, such as integrating cycle time, time and inventory positions. By this way, uncertainty appears stronger in the model. The main objective is to maximize profit by determining the optimal number of facilities in order to:
+
+collection point be close to the consumers
+returning process be simple
+collection period be appropriate
+
+
+== Manage uncertainty in reverse logistics networks ==
+Sensitivity analysis: Through sensitivity analysis it can be tested how the output of the model will be changed if the decision variables such as the returned amount, number of disassembly and cost are varying.
+Scenario analysis: The process is about generating scenarios for input parameters and calculate optimal solution at each case.
+Robust optimization: This method is calibrating the model in that way to minimize the deviation of the values of the objective function at each scenario. This process is more elaborated, than scenario analysis and a good substitute of stochastic programming when there is lack of quality information
+Stochastic programming: Mathematical programming technique. It applies probability distribution instead of deterministic number. It is a two-stage process, where at the first stage the decision binary variables, representing openness are determined, then happens the random events and finally at the second stage recourse (flow) actions ensures the justification of the formerly set constraints
+
+
+== Solution techniques of reverse logistics network models ==
+
+
+=== Genetic algorithm ===
+It is applicable for large size complex problems, Main steps of the algorithm: 
+
+objective function: minimize a combination of overall costs
+identifying the number of facilities their locations, capacities, and topology of the network.
+encoding scheme selected is a binary-coded string reflecting one-gene-one facility correspondence on a linear string, whose substrings represent different types of facilities
+
+
+=== Tabu search ===
+The algorithm pursues local search and if it finds a local optimum it is prevented to get back formerly visited solution, which were recorded in the so-called tabu list
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..229eeba8e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,686 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In mathematics, the Riemann hypothesis is the conjecture that the Riemann zeta function has its zeros only at the negative even integers and complex numbers with real part ⁠1/2⁠. Many consider it to be the most important unsolved problem in pure mathematics. It is of great interest in number theory because it implies results about the distribution of prime numbers. It was proposed by Bernhard Riemann, after whom it is named. According to a 2026 survey, there is overwhelming numerical evidence for the hypothesis, but no proof is known.
+The Riemann hypothesis and some of its generalizations, along with Goldbach's conjecture and the twin prime conjecture, make up Hilbert's eighth problem in David Hilbert's list of twenty-three unsolved problems; it is also one of the Millennium Prize Problems of the Clay Mathematics Institute, which offers US$1 million for a solution to any of them. The name is also used for some closely related analogues, some of which have been proved, such as the Riemann hypothesis for curves over finite fields, which was proved by André Weil.
+The Riemann zeta function 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta }
+  
+ is a function whose argument may be any complex number other than 1, and whose values are also complex. It has zeros at the negative even integers; that is, 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)=0}
+  
+ when 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ is one of 
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        2
+        ,
+        −
+        4
+        ,
+        −
+        6
+        ,
+        …
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -2,-4,-6,\dots }
+  
+ These are called its trivial zeros. The zeta function is also zero for other values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+, which are called nontrivial zeros. The Riemann hypothesis is concerned with the locations of these nontrivial zeros, and states that:
+
+The real part of every nontrivial zero of the Riemann zeta function is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            1
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}}
+  
+.
+Thus, the hypothesis states that all the nontrivial zeros lie on the critical line, consisting of the complex numbers 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        i
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}+it}
+  
+ where 
+  
+    
+      
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t}
+  
+ is a real number and 
+  
+    
+      
+        i
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i}
+  
+ is the imaginary unit.
+
+== Riemann zeta function ==
+The Riemann zeta function is defined for complex 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ with real part greater than 1 by the absolutely convergent infinite series
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              n
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              1
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              2
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              3
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        ⋯
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{s}}}={\frac {1}{1^{s}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{s}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{s}}}+\cdots }
+  
+
+Leonhard Euler considered this series in the 1730s for real values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+, in conjunction with his solution to the Basel problem. He also proved that it equals the Euler product
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∏
+          
+            p
+            
+               prime
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              1
+              −
+              
+                p
+                
+                  −
+                  s
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              1
+              −
+              
+                2
+                
+                  −
+                  s
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              1
+              −
+              
+                3
+                
+                  −
+                  s
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              1
+              −
+              
+                5
+                
+                  −
+                  s
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ⋅
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              1
+              −
+              
+                7
+                
+                  −
+                  s
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ⋯
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)=\prod _{p{\text{ prime}}}{\frac {1}{1-p^{-s}}}={\frac {1}{1-2^{-s}}}\cdot {\frac {1}{1-3^{-s}}}\cdot {\frac {1}{1-5^{-s}}}\cdot {\frac {1}{1-7^{-s}}}\cdots }
+  
+
+where the infinite product extends over all prime numbers 
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p}
+  
+.
+The Riemann hypothesis discusses zeros outside the region of convergence of this series and Euler product. To make sense of the hypothesis, it is necessary to analytically continue the function to obtain a form that is valid for all complex 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+. Because the zeta function is meromorphic, all choices of how to perform this analytic continuation will lead to the same result, by the identity theorem. A first step in this continuation observes that the series for the zeta function and the Dirichlet eta function satisfy the relation
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            1
+            −
+            
+              
+                2
+                
+                  2
+                  
+                    s
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        η
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              (
+              −
+              1
+              
+                )
+                
+                  n
+                  +
+                  1
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              n
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              1
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              2
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              3
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        −
+        ⋯
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left(1-{\frac {2}{2^{s}}}\right)\zeta (s)=\eta (s)=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n+1}}{n^{s}}}={\frac {1}{1^{s}}}-{\frac {1}{2^{s}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{s}}}-\cdots ,}
+  
+
+within the region of convergence for both series. But the eta function series on the right converges not just when the real part of 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ is greater than one, but more generally whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ has positive real part. Thus, the zeta function can be redefined as 
+  
+    
+      
+        η
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        2
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          2
+          
+            s
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \eta (s)/(1-2/2^{s})}
+  
+, extending it from 
+  
+    
+      
+        Re
+        ⁡
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        >
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (s)>1}
+  
+ to the larger domain 
+  
+    
+      
+        Re
+        ⁡
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (s)>0}
+  
+, except for the points where 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        −
+        2
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          2
+          
+            s
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1-2/2^{s}}
+  
+ is zero. These are the points 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+        =
+        1
+        +
+        2
+        π
+        i
+        n
+        
+          /
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s=1+2\pi in/\log 2}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+ can be any nonzero integer; the zeta function can be extended to these values too by taking limits (see the article on the Dirichlet eta function), giving a finite value for all values of 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ with positive real part except the simple pole at 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s=1}
+  
+.
+In the strip 
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        <
+        Re
+        ⁡
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        <
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0<\operatorname {Re} (s)<1}
+  
+ this extension of the zeta function satisfies the functional equation
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            s
+          
+        
+        
+          π
+          
+            s
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+         
+        sin
+        ⁡
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                π
+                s
+              
+              2
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+         
+        Γ
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        s
+        )
+         
+        ζ
+        (
+        1
+        −
+        s
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)=2^{s}\pi ^{s-1}\ \sin \left({\frac {\pi s}{2}}\right)\ \Gamma (1-s)\ \zeta (1-s).}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-1.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5424968ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,732 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+One may then define 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)}
+  
+ for all remaining nonzero complex numbers 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ (
+  
+    
+      
+        Re
+        ⁡
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        ≤
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (s)\leq 0}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+        ≠
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s\neq 0}
+  
+) by applying this equation outside the strip, and letting 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)}
+  
+ equal the right side of the equation whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ has non-positive real part (and 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+        ≠
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s\neq 0}
+  
+).
+If 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ is a negative even integer, then 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)=0}
+  
+, because the factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        sin
+        ⁡
+        (
+        π
+        s
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sin(\pi s/2)}
+  
+ vanishes; these are the zeta function's trivial zeros. (If 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ is a positive even integer this argument does not apply because the zeros of the sine function are canceled by the poles of the gamma function as it takes negative integer arguments.)
+
+The value ζ(0) = −1/2 is not determined by the functional equation, but is the limiting value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (s)}
+  
+ as 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ approaches zero. The functional equation also implies that the zeta function has no zeros with negative real part other than the trivial zeros, so all nontrivial zeros lie in the critical strip where 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s}
+  
+ has real part between 0 and 1.
+
+== Origin ==
+... es ist sehr wahrscheinlich, dass alle Wurzeln reell sind. Hiervon wäre allerdings ein strenger Beweis zu wünschen; ich habe indess die Aufsuchung desselben nach einigen flüchtigen vergeblichen Versuchen vorläufig bei Seite gelassen, da er für den nächsten Zweck meiner Untersuchung entbehrlich schien.... it is very probable that all roots are real. Of course one would wish for a rigorous proof here; I have for the time being, after some fleeting vain attempts, provisionally put aside the search for this, as it appears dispensable for the immediate objective of my investigation.At the death of Riemann, a note was found among his papers, saying "These properties of ζ(s) (the function in question) are deduced from an expression of it which, however, I did not succeed in simplifying enough to publish it."
+We still have not the slightest idea of what the expression could be. As to the properties he simply enunciated, some thirty years elapsed before I was able to prove all of them but one [the Riemann Hypothesis itself].
+Riemann's original motivation for studying the zeta function and its zeros was their occurrence in his explicit formula for the number of primes 
+  
+    
+      
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pi (x)}
+  
+ less than or equal to a given number 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+, which he published in his 1859 paper "On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude". His formula was given in terms of the related function
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              (
+              
+                x
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  2
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              (
+              
+                x
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  3
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            3
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              (
+              
+                x
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  4
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            4
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              (
+              
+                x
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  5
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            5
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              π
+              (
+              
+                x
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  6
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            6
+          
+        
+        +
+        ⋯
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Pi (x)=\pi (x)+{\frac {\pi (x^{1/2})}{2}}+{\frac {\pi (x^{1/3})}{3}}+{\frac {\pi (x^{1/4})}{4}}+{\frac {\pi (x^{1/5})}{5}}+{\frac {\pi (x^{1/6})}{6}}+\cdots }
+  
+
+which counts the primes and prime powers up to 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+, counting a prime power 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p^{n}}
+  
+ as 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1/n}
+  
+. The number of primes can be recovered from this function by using the Möbius inversion formula:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                π
+                (
+                x
+                )
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                
+                  ∑
+                  
+                    n
+                    =
+                    1
+                  
+                  
+                    ∞
+                  
+                
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      μ
+                      (
+                      n
+                      )
+                    
+                    n
+                  
+                
+                Π
+                (
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    1
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    n
+                  
+                
+                )
+              
+            
+            
+              
+              
+                
+                =
+                Π
+                (
+                x
+                )
+                −
+                
+                  
+                    1
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                Π
+                (
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    1
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                )
+                −
+                
+                  
+                    1
+                    3
+                  
+                
+                Π
+                (
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    1
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    3
+                  
+                
+                )
+                −
+                
+                  
+                    1
+                    5
+                  
+                
+                Π
+                (
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    1
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    5
+                  
+                
+                )
+                +
+                
+                  
+                    1
+                    6
+                  
+                
+                Π
+                (
+                
+                  x
+                  
+                    1
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    6
+                  
+                
+                )
+                −
+                ⋯
+                ,
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\pi (x)&=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {\mu (n)}{n}}\Pi (x^{1/n})\\&=\Pi (x)-{\frac {1}{2}}\Pi (x^{1/2})-{\frac {1}{3}}\Pi (x^{1/3})-{\frac {1}{5}}\Pi (x^{1/5})+{\frac {1}{6}}\Pi (x^{1/6})-\cdots ,\end{aligned}}}
+  
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        μ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mu }
+  
+ is the Möbius function. Riemann's formula is then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Π
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            ρ
+          
+        
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            ρ
+          
+        
+        )
+        −
+        log
+        ⁡
+        2
+        +
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            x
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+            
+              t
+              (
+              
+                t
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              −
+              1
+              )
+              log
+              ⁡
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Pi _{0}(x)=\operatorname {li} (x)-\sum _{\rho }\operatorname {li} (x^{\rho })-\log 2+\int _{x}^{\infty }{\frac {dt}{t(t^{2}-1)\log t}}}
+  
+,
+where the sum is over the nontrivial zeros of the zeta function and where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Π
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Pi _{0}}
+  
+ is a slightly modified version of 
+  
+    
+      
+        Π
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Pi }
+  
+ that replaces its value at its points of discontinuity by the average of its upper and lower limits:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Π
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          lim
+          
+            ε
+            →
+            0
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              Π
+              (
+              x
+              −
+              ε
+              )
+              +
+              Π
+              (
+              x
+              +
+              ε
+              )
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Pi _{0}(x)=\lim _{\varepsilon \to 0}{\frac {\Pi (x-\varepsilon )+\Pi (x+\varepsilon )}{2}}.}
+  
+
+The summation in Riemann's formula is not absolutely convergent, but may be evaluated by taking the zeros 
+  
+    
+      
+        ρ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rho }
+  
+ in order of the absolute value of their imaginary part. The function 
+  
+    
+      
+        li
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {li} }
+  
+ occurring in the first term is the (unoffset) logarithmic integral function given by the Cauchy principal value of the divergent integral
+
+  
+    
+      
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {li} (x)=\int _{0}^{x}{\frac {dt}{\log t}}.}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-10.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c5021d897
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-10.md
@@ -0,0 +1,681 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 11/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Zero-free regions ===
+The most extensive computer search by Platt and Trudgian for counterexamples of the Riemann hypothesis has verified it for |t| ≤ 3.0001753328×1012. Beyond that zero-free regions are known as inequalities concerning σ + i t, which can be zeroes. The oldest version is from De la Vallée-Poussin (1899–1900), who proved there is a region without zeroes that satisfies 1 − σ ≥ ⁠C/log(t)⁠ for some positive constant C. In other words, zeros cannot be too close to the line σ = 1: there is a zero-free region close to this line. This has been enlarged by several authors using methods such as Vinogradov's mean-value theorem.
+The most recent paper by Mossinghoff, Trudgian and Yang is from December 2022 and provides four zero-free regions that improved the previous results of Kevin Ford from 2002, Mossinghoff and Trudgian themselves from 2015 and Pace Nielsen's slight improvement of Ford from October 2022:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        ≥
+        1
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              5.558691
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                |
+              
+              t
+              
+                |
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma \geq 1-{\frac {1}{5.558691\log |t|}}}
+  
+ whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        t
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≥
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |t|\geq 2}
+  
+,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        ≥
+        1
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              55.241
+              (
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                
+                  |
+                
+                t
+                
+                  |
+                
+              
+              
+                )
+                
+                  2
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  3
+                
+              
+              (
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                log
+                ⁡
+                
+                  
+                    |
+                  
+                  t
+                  
+                    |
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                )
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  3
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma \geq 1-{\frac {1}{55.241(\log {|t|})^{2/3}(\log {\log {|t|}})^{1/3}}}}
+  
+ whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        t
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≥
+        3
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |t|\geq 3}
+  
+ (largest known region in the bound 
+  
+    
+      
+        3.0001753328
+        ⋅
+        
+          10
+          
+            12
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          |
+        
+        t
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≤
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        (
+        64.1
+        )
+        ≈
+        6.89
+        ⋅
+        
+          10
+          
+            27
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 3.0001753328\cdot 10^{12}\leq |t|\leq \exp(64.1)\approx 6.89\cdot 10^{27}}
+  
+),
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        ≥
+        1
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              0.04962
+              −
+              
+                
+                  0.0196
+                  
+                    1.15
+                    +
+                    log
+                    ⁡
+                    3
+                    +
+                    
+                      
+                        1
+                        6
+                      
+                    
+                    log
+                    ⁡
+                    t
+                    +
+                    log
+                    ⁡
+                    log
+                    ⁡
+                    t
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              0.685
+              +
+              log
+              ⁡
+              3
+              +
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  6
+                
+              
+              log
+              ⁡
+              t
+              +
+              1.155
+              ⋅
+              log
+              ⁡
+              log
+              ⁡
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma \geq 1-{\frac {0.04962-{\frac {0.0196}{1.15+\log 3+{\frac {1}{6}}\log t+\log \log t}}}{0.685+\log 3+{\frac {1}{6}}\log t+1.155\cdot \log \log t}}}
+  
+ whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        t
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≥
+        1.88
+        ⋅
+        
+          10
+          
+            14
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |t|\geq 1.88\cdot 10^{14}}
+  
+ (largest known region in the bound 
+  
+    
+      
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        (
+        64.1
+        )
+        ≤
+        
+          |
+        
+        t
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≤
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        (
+        1000
+        )
+        ≈
+        1.97
+        ⋅
+        
+          10
+          
+            434
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \exp(64.1)\leq |t|\leq \exp(1000)\approx 1.97\cdot 10^{434}}
+  
+) and
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        ≥
+        1
+        −
+        
+          
+            0.05035
+            
+              
+                
+                  27
+                  164
+                
+              
+              (
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                
+                  |
+                
+                t
+                
+                  |
+                
+              
+              )
+              +
+              7.096
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          
+            0.0349
+            
+              (
+              
+                
+                  27
+                  164
+                
+              
+              (
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                
+                  |
+                
+                t
+                
+                  |
+                
+              
+              )
+              +
+              7.096
+              
+                )
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma \geq 1-{\frac {0.05035}{{\frac {27}{164}}(\log {|t|})+7.096}}+{\frac {0.0349}{({\frac {27}{164}}(\log {|t|})+7.096)^{2}}}}
+  
+ whenever 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        t
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≥
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        (
+        1000
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |t|\geq \exp(1000)}
+  
+ (largest known region in its own bound)
+The paper also presents an improvement to the second zero-free region, whose bounds are unknown on account of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        t
+        
+          |
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |t|}
+  
+ being merely assumed to be "sufficiently large" to fulfill the requirements of the paper's proof. This region is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        ≥
+        1
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              48.1588
+              (
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                
+                  |
+                
+                t
+                
+                  |
+                
+              
+              
+                )
+                
+                  2
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  3
+                
+              
+              (
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                log
+                ⁡
+                
+                  
+                    |
+                  
+                  t
+                  
+                    |
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                )
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  3
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma \geq 1-{\frac {1}{48.1588(\log {|t|})^{2/3}(\log {\log {|t|}})^{1/3}}}}
+  
+.
+
+== Zeros on the critical line ==
+Hardy (1914) and Hardy & Littlewood (1921) showed there are infinitely many zeros on the critical line, by considering moments of certain functions related to the zeta function. Selberg (1942) proved that at least a (small) positive proportion of zeros lie on the line. Levinson (1974) improved this to one-third of the zeros by relating the zeros of the zeta function to those of its derivative, and Conrey (1989) improved this further to two-fifths. In 2020, this estimate was extended to five-twelfths by Pratt, Robles, Zaharescu and Zeindler by considering extended mollifiers that can accommodate higher order derivatives of the zeta function and their associated Kloosterman sums.
+Most zeros lie close to the critical line. More precisely, Bohr & Landau (1914) showed that for any positive ε, the number of zeros with real part at least 1/2+ε and imaginary part at between −T and T is 
+  
+    
+      
+        O
+        (
+        T
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle O(T)}
+  
+. Combined with the facts that zeros on the critical strip are symmetric about the critical line and that the total number of zeros in the critical strip is 
+  
+    
+      
+        Θ
+        (
+        T
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Theta (T\log T)}
+  
+, almost all non-trivial zeros are within a distance ε of the critical line. Ivić (1985) gives several more precise versions of this result, called zero density estimates, which bound the number of zeros in regions with imaginary part at most T and real part at least 1/2 + ε.
+
+=== Hardy–Littlewood conjectures ===
+In 1914 Godfrey Harold Hardy proved that 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            i
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+it\right)}
+  
+ has infinitely many real zeros.
+The next two conjectures of Hardy and John Edensor Littlewood on the distance between real zeros of 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            i
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+it\right)}
+  
+ and on the density of zeros of 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            i
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+it\right)}
+  
+ on the interval 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        T
+        ,
+        T
+        +
+        H
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (T,T+H]}
+  
+ for sufficiently large 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T>0}
+  
+, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            a
+            +
+            ε
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H=T^{a+\varepsilon }}
+  
+ and with as small as possible value of 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a>0}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        ε
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0}
+  
+ is an arbitrarily small number, open two new directions in the investigation of the Riemann zeta function:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-11.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..04f5a5fb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-11.md
@@ -0,0 +1,883 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 12/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+For any 
+  
+    
+      
+        ε
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0}
+  
+ there exists a lower bound 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        ε
+        )
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{0}=T_{0}(\varepsilon )>0}
+  
+ such that for 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        ≥
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T\geq T_{0}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  4
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            ε
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H=T^{{\tfrac {1}{4}}+\varepsilon }}
+  
+ the interval 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        T
+        ,
+        T
+        +
+        H
+        ]
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (T,T+H]}
+  
+ contains a zero of odd order of the function 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        
+          
+            (
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        i
+        t
+        
+          
+            )
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta {\bigl (}{\tfrac {1}{2}}+it{\bigr )}}
+  
+.
+Let 
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+        (
+        T
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N(T)}
+  
+ be the total number of real zeros, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        T
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N_{0}(T)}
+  
+ be the total number of zeros of odd order of the function 
+  
+    
+      
+         
+        ζ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            i
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle ~\zeta \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+it\right)~}
+  
+ lying on the interval 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        0
+        ,
+        T
+        ]
+         
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (0,T]~}
+  
+.
+
+ For any 
+  
+    
+      
+        ε
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0}
+  
+ there exists 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        ε
+        )
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{0}=T_{0}(\varepsilon )>0}
+  
+ and some 
+  
+    
+      
+        c
+        =
+        c
+        (
+        ε
+        )
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c=c(\varepsilon )>0}
+  
+, such that for 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        ≥
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T\geq T_{0}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            ε
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H=T^{{\tfrac {1}{2}}+\varepsilon }}
+  
+ the inequality 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        T
+        +
+        H
+        )
+        −
+        
+          N
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        T
+        )
+        ≥
+        c
+        H
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N_{0}(T+H)-N_{0}(T)\geq cH}
+  
+ is true.
+
+=== Selberg's zeta function conjecture ===
+
+Atle Selberg investigated the problem of Hardy–Littlewood 2 and proved that for any ε > 0 there exists such 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        (
+        ε
+        )
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T_{0}=T_{0}(\varepsilon )>0}
+  
+ and c = c(ε) > 0, such that for 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        ≥
+        
+          T
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T\geq T_{0}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            0.5
+            +
+            ε
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H=T^{0.5+\varepsilon }}
+  
+ the inequality  
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+        (
+        T
+        +
+        H
+        )
+        −
+        N
+        (
+        T
+        )
+        ≥
+        c
+        H
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N(T+H)-N(T)\geq cH\log T}
+  
+ is true. Selberg conjectured that this could be tightened to 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            0.5
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H=T^{0.5}}
+  
+. Anatoly Karatsuba proved that for a fixed ε satisfying the condition 0 < ε < 0.001, a sufficiently large T and 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            a
+            +
+            ε
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H=T^{a+\varepsilon }}
+  
+, 
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              27
+              82
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              3
+            
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              246
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a={\tfrac {27}{82}}={\tfrac {1}{3}}-{\tfrac {1}{246}}}
+  
+, the interval (T, T+H) contains at least cH log(T) real zeros of the Riemann zeta function 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            i
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+it\right)}
+  
+ and therefore confirmed the Selberg conjecture. The estimates of Selberg and Karatsuba can not be improved in respect of the order of growth as T → ∞.
+Karatsuba (1992) proved that an analog of the Selberg conjecture holds for almost all intervals (T, T+H], 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        =
+        
+          T
+          
+            ε
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H=T^{\varepsilon }}
+  
+, where ε is an arbitrarily small fixed positive number. The Karatsuba method permits to investigate zeros of the Riemann zeta function on "supershort" intervals of the critical line, that is, on the intervals (T, T+H], the length H of which grows slower than any, even arbitrarily small degree T. In particular, he proved that for any given numbers ε, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ε
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{1}}
+  
+ satisfying the conditions 
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        <
+        ε
+        ,
+        
+          ε
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        <
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0<\varepsilon ,\varepsilon _{1}<1}
+  
+ almost all intervals (T, T+H] for 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        ≥
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        
+          {
+          (
+          log
+          ⁡
+          T
+          
+            )
+            
+              ε
+            
+          
+          }
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H\geq \exp {\{(\log T)^{\varepsilon }\}}}
+  
+ contain at least 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        (
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        
+          )
+          
+            1
+            −
+            
+              ε
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H(\log T)^{1-\varepsilon _{1}}}
+  
+ zeros of the function 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            +
+            i
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+it\right)}
+  
+. This estimate is quite close to the one that follows from the Riemann hypothesis.
+
+=== Numerical calculations ===
+The function
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          π
+          
+            −
+            
+              
+                s
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        Γ
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              s
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pi ^{-{\frac {s}{2}}}\Gamma ({\tfrac {s}{2}})\zeta (s)}
+  
+
+has the same zeros as the zeta function in the critical strip, and is real on the critical line because of the functional equation, so one can prove the existence of zeros exactly on the real line between two points by checking numerically that the function has opposite signs at these points. Usually one writes
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        i
+        t
+        )
+        =
+        Z
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            i
+            θ
+            (
+            t
+            )
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta ({\tfrac {1}{2}}+it)=Z(t)e^{-i\theta (t)}}
+  
+
+where Hardy's Z function and the Riemann–Siegel theta function θ are uniquely defined by this and the condition that they are smooth real functions with θ(0) = 0.
+By finding many intervals where the function Z changes sign one can show that there are many zeros on the critical line. To verify the Riemann hypothesis up to a given imaginary part T of the zeros, one also has to check that there are no further zeros off the line in this region. This can be done by calculating the total number of zeros in the region using Turing's method and checking that it is the same as the number of zeros found on the line. This allows one to verify the Riemann hypothesis computationally up to any desired value of T (provided all the zeros of the zeta function in this region are simple and on the critical line).
+These calculations can also be used to estimate 
+  
+    
+      
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pi (x)}
+  
+ for finite ranges of 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+. For example, using the latest result from 2020 (zeros up to height 
+  
+    
+      
+        3
+        ×
+        
+          10
+          
+            12
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 3\times 10^{12}}
+  
+), it has been shown that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        <
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              8
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        ,
+        
+        
+          for 
+        
+        2657
+        ≤
+        x
+        ≤
+        1.101
+        ×
+        
+          10
+          
+            26
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\pi (x)-\operatorname {li} (x)|<{\frac {1}{8\pi }}{\sqrt {x}}\log(x),\qquad {\text{for }}2657\leq x\leq 1.101\times 10^{26}.}
+  
+
+In general, this inequality holds if
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ≥
+        2657
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\geq 2657}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            9.06
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                log
+                ⁡
+                
+                  x
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              
+                log
+                ⁡
+                
+                  x
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        T
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {9.06}{\log {\log {x}}}}{\sqrt {\frac {x}{\log {x}}}}\leq T,}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-12.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..89d42f821
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-12.md
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 13/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+where 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ is the largest known value such that the Riemann hypothesis is true for all zeros 
+  
+    
+      
+        ρ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rho }
+  
+ with 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℑ
+        
+          
+            (
+            ρ
+            )
+          
+        
+        ∈
+        
+          (
+          
+            0
+            ,
+            T
+          
+          ]
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Im {\left(\rho \right)}\in \left(0,T\right]}
+  
+.
+Some calculations of zeros of the zeta function are listed below, where the "height" of a zero is the magnitude of its imaginary part, and the height of the nth zero is denoted by γn. So far all zeros that have been checked are on the critical line and are simple. (A multiple zero would cause problems for the zero finding algorithms, which depend on finding sign changes between zeros.) For tables of the zeros, see Haselgrove & Miller (1960) or Odlyzko.
+
+=== Gram points ===
+A Gram point is a point on the critical line 1/2 + it where the zeta function is real and non-zero. Using the expression for the zeta function on the critical line, ζ(1/2 + it) = Z(t)e−iθ(t), where Hardy's function, Z, is real for real t, and θ is the Riemann–Siegel theta function, we see that zeta is real when sin(θ(t)) = 0. This implies that θ(t) is an integer multiple of π, which allows for the location of Gram points to be calculated fairly easily by inverting the formula for θ. They are usually numbered as gn for n = 0, 1, ..., where gn is the unique solution of θ(t) = nπ.
+Gram observed that there was often exactly one zero of the zeta function between any two consecutive Gram points; Hutchinson called this observation Gram's law. There are several other closely related statements that are also sometimes called Gram's law: for example, (−1)nZ(gn) is usually positive, or Z(t) usually has opposite sign at consecutive Gram points. The imaginary parts γn of the first few zeros (in blue) and the first few Gram points gn are given in the following table
+
+ The first failure of Gram's law occurs at the 127th zero and the Gram point g126, which are in the "wrong" order.
+
+A Gram point t is called good if the zeta function is positive at 1/2 + it. The indices of the "bad" Gram points where Z has the "wrong" sign are 126, 134, 195, 211, ... (sequence A114856 in the OEIS). A Gram block is an interval bounded by two good Gram points such that all the Gram points between them are bad. A refinement of Gram's law called Rosser's rule due to Rosser, Yohe & Schoenfeld (1969) says that Gram blocks often have the expected number of zeros in them (the same as the number of Gram intervals), even though some of the individual Gram intervals in the block may not have exactly one zero in them. For example, the interval bounded by g125 and g127 is a Gram block containing a unique bad Gram point g126, and contains the expected number 2 of zeros although neither of its two Gram intervals contains a unique zero. Rosser et al. checked that there were no exceptions to Rosser's rule in the first 3 million zeros, although there are infinitely many exceptions to Rosser's rule over the entire zeta function.
+Gram's rule and Rosser's rule both say that in some sense zeros do not stray too far from their expected positions. The distance of a zero from its expected position is controlled by the function S defined above, which grows extremely slowly: its average value is of the order of (log log T)1/2, which only reaches 2 for T around 1024. This means that both rules hold most of the time for small T but eventually break down often. Indeed, Trudgian (2011) showed that both Gram's law and Rosser's rule fail in a positive proportion of cases. To be specific, it is expected that in about 66% one zero is enclosed by two successive Gram points, but in 17% no zero and in 17% two zeros are in such a Gram-interval on the long run Hanga (2020).
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-13.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..723e05256
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-13.md
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 14/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Random matrix theory and quantum chaos ===
+Assuming the Riemann hypothesis one can ask what further regularities might govern the distribution of the zeros of the zeta function on the critical line. One conjectural picture is that the critical zeros of the zeta function behave statistically like the eigenvalues of large random Hermitian matrices.  The idea began with Hugh Montgomery's work on the pair correlation conjecture for the zeros of the zeta function. After a suitable rescaling to account for the increasing density of zeros with height, the conjectured pair correlation function agrees with that of eigenvalues in the Gaussian unitary ensemble (GUE) in random matrix theory.
+The connection was tested numerically by Andrew Odlyzko, who found that the spacing statistics of zeros high on the critical line agree closely with the predictions of GUE random matrix theory.  The agreement extends beyond nearest-neighbor spacings to higher correlation functions, and is widely regarded as strong evidence that the zeros are modeled by the same local statistics as random matrices.
+The random matrix analogy is also related to the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture, and to ideas from quantum chaos. In quantum chaotic systems, eigenvalues often obey random matrix statistics, so the appearance of the same statistics in the zeros of the zeta function can be interpreted as evidence that they may arise from a selfadjoint operator or from a chaotic dynamical system. This gives a heuristic picture of why the zeros might lie on a spectral line and why their spacings exhibit strong repulsion rather than random clustering.
+This viewpoint was adopt by Nicholas Katz and Peter Sarnak, who proposed that families of L-functions have symmetry types governed by the compact classical groups (unitary, orthogonal, or symplectic), and that the distributions of their low-lying zeros should match the corresponding random-matrix ensembles. For the Riemann zeta function, the relevant ensemble is that of the unitary group.
+Random matrix theory has also led to conjectures about the growth of moments of the zeta function on the critical line. In particular, Jonathan Keating and Nina Snaith used averages over random unitary matrices to predict the main constants in asymptotic moment formulas such as
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            1
+            T
+          
+        
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            T
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        +
+        i
+        t
+        )
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+            k
+          
+        
+        
+        d
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{T}}\int _{0}^{T}|\zeta (1/2+it)|^{2k}\,dt}
+  
+
+as 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        →
+        ∞
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T\to \infty }
+  
+. Their conjectures separate a universal random-matrix factor from an arithmetic Euler product factor, and have influenced later work on moments and ratios of L-functions.
+Random matrix theory and quantum chaos are thus heuristic framework surrounding the Riemann hypothesis, even though no proof of the hypothesis is known from this approach.
+
+== Arguments for and against the Riemann hypothesis ==
+Mathematical papers about the Riemann hypothesis tend to be cautiously noncommittal about its truth. Of authors who express an opinion, most of them, such as Riemann (1859) and Bombieri (2000), imply that they expect (or at least hope) that it is true. The few authors who express serious doubt about it include Ivić (2008), who lists some reasons for skepticism, and Littlewood (1962), who flatly states that he believes it false, that there is no evidence for it and no imaginable reason it would be true. The consensus of the survey articles (Bombieri 2000, Conrey 2003, and Sarnak 2005) is that the evidence for it is strong but not overwhelming, so that while it is probably true there is reasonable doubt.
+Some of the arguments for and against the Riemann hypothesis are listed by Sarnak (2005), Conrey (2003), and Ivić (2008), and include the following:
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-14.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..0dc6118cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-14.md
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 15/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Several analogues of the Riemann hypothesis have already been proved. The proof of the Riemann hypothesis for varieties over finite fields by Deligne (1974) is possibly the single strongest theoretical reason in favor of the Riemann hypothesis. This provides some evidence for the more general conjecture that all zeta functions associated with automorphic forms satisfy a Riemann hypothesis, which includes the classical Riemann hypothesis as a special case. Similarly Selberg zeta functions satisfy the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis, and are in some ways similar to the Riemann zeta function, having a functional equation and an infinite product expansion analogous to the Euler product expansion. But there are also some major differences; for example, they are not given by Dirichlet series. The Riemann hypothesis for the Goss zeta function was proved by Sheats (1998). In contrast to these positive examples, some Epstein zeta functions do not satisfy the Riemann hypothesis even though they have an infinite number of zeros on the critical line. These functions are quite similar to the Riemann zeta function, and have a Dirichlet series expansion and a functional equation, but the ones known to fail the Riemann hypothesis do not have an Euler product and are not directly related to automorphic representations.
+At first, the numerical verification that many zeros lie on the line seems strong evidence for it. But analytic number theory has had many conjectures supported by substantial numerical evidence that turned out to be false. See Skewes number for a notorious example, where the first exception to a plausible conjecture related to the Riemann hypothesis probably occurs around 10316; a counterexample to the Riemann hypothesis with imaginary part this size would be far beyond anything that can currently be computed using a direct approach. The problem is that the behavior is often influenced by very slowly increasing functions such as log log T, that tend to infinity, but do so so slowly that this cannot be detected by computation. Such functions occur in the theory of the zeta function controlling the behavior of its zeros; for example the function S(T) above has average size around (log log T)1/2. As S(T) jumps by at least 2 at any counterexample to the Riemann hypothesis, one might expect any counterexamples to the Riemann hypothesis to start appearing only when S(T) becomes large. It is never much more than 3 as far as it has been calculated, but is known to be unbounded, suggesting that calculations may not have yet reached the region of typical behavior of the zeta function.
+Denjoy's probabilistic argument for the Riemann hypothesis is based on the observation that if μ(x) is a random sequence of "1"s and "−1"s then, for every ε > 0, the partial sums 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            ≤
+            x
+          
+        
+        μ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M(x)=\sum _{n\leq x}\mu (n)}
+  
+ (the values of which are positions in a simple random walk) satisfy the bound 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        O
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            1
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+            +
+            ε
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M(x)=O(x^{1/2+\varepsilon })}
+  
+ with probability 1. The Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to this bound for the Möbius function μ and the Mertens function M derived in the same way from it. In other words, the Riemann hypothesis is in some sense equivalent to saying that μ(x) behaves like a random sequence of coin tosses. When μ(x) is nonzero its sign gives the parity of the number of prime factors of x, so informally the Riemann hypothesis says that the parity of the number of prime factors of an integer behaves randomly. Such probabilistic arguments in number theory often give the right answer, but tend to be very hard to make rigorous, and occasionally give the wrong answer for some results, such as Maier's theorem.
+The calculations in Odlyzko (1987) show that the zeros of the zeta function behave very much like the eigenvalues of a random Hermitian matrix, suggesting that they are the eigenvalues of some self-adjoint operator, which would imply the Riemann hypothesis. All attempts to find such an operator have failed.
+There are several theorems, such as Goldbach's weak conjecture for sufficiently large odd numbers, that were first proved using the generalized Riemann hypothesis, and later shown to be true unconditionally. This could be considered as weak evidence for the generalized Riemann hypothesis, as several of its "predictions" are true.
+Lehmer's phenomenon, where two zeros are sometimes very close, is sometimes given as a reason to disbelieve the Riemann hypothesis. But one would expect this to happen occasionally by chance even if the Riemann hypothesis is true, and Odlyzko's calculations suggest that nearby pairs of zeros occur just as often as predicted by Montgomery's conjecture.
+Patterson suggests that the most compelling reason for the Riemann hypothesis for most mathematicians is the hope that primes are distributed as regularly as possible.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Popular expositions ===
+Sabbagh, Karl (2003a), The greatest unsolved problem in mathematics, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, ISBN 978-0-374-25007-2, MR 1979664
+Sabbagh, Karl (2003b), Dr. Riemann's zeros, Atlantic Books, London, ISBN 978-1-843-54101-1
+du Sautoy, Marcus (2003), The music of the primes, HarperCollins Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-621070-4, MR 2060134
+Rockmore, Dan (2005), Stalking the Riemann hypothesis, Pantheon Books, ISBN 978-0-375-42136-5, MR 2269393
+Derbyshire, John (2003), Prime Obsession, Joseph Henry Press, Washington, DC, ISBN 978-0-309-08549-6, MR 1968857
+Watkins, Matthew (2015), Mystery of the Prime Numbers, Liberalis Books, ISBN 978-1782797814, MR 0000000
+Frenkel, Edward (2014), The Riemann Hypothesis Numberphile, Mar 11, 2014 (video)
+Nahin, Paul J. (2021). In Pursuit of Zeta-3: The World's Most Mysterious Unsolved Math Problem. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691206073.
+Note: Derbyshire 2003, Rockmore 2005, Sabbagh 2003a, Sabbagh 2003b, Sautoy 2003, and Watkins 2015 are non-technical. Edwards 1974, Patterson 1988, Borwein/Choi/Rooney/Weirathmueller 2008, Mazur/Stein 2015, Broughan 2017, and Nahin 2021 give mathematical introductions. Titchmarsh 1986, Ivić 1985, and Karatsuba/Voronin 1992 are advanced monographs.
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Riemann hypothesis at Wikimedia Commons
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-15.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 16/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+American Institute of Mathematics, Riemann hypothesis
+Zeroes database, 103 800 788 359 zeroes
+Apostol, Tom, Where are the zeros of zeta of s? Poem about the Riemann hypothesis, sung by John Derbyshire.
+Borwein, Peter, The Riemann Hypothesis (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-27 (Slides for a lecture)
+Conrad, K. (2010), Consequences of the Riemann hypothesis
+Conrey, J. Brian; Farmer, David W, Equivalences to the Riemann hypothesis, archived from the original on 2010-03-16
+Gourdon, Xavier; Sebah, Pascal (2004), Computation of zeros of the Zeta function (Reviews the GUE hypothesis, provides an extensive bibliography as well).
+Odlyzko, Andrew, Home page including papers on the zeros of the zeta function and tables of the zeros of the zeta function
+Odlyzko, Andrew (2002), Zeros of the Riemann zeta function: Conjectures and computations (PDF) Slides of a talk
+Pegg, Ed (2004), Ten Trillion Zeta Zeros, Math Games website, archived from the original on 2004-11-02, retrieved 2004-10-20. A discussion of Xavier Gourdon's calculation of the first ten trillion non-trivial zeros
+Rubinstein, Michael, algorithm for generating the zeros, archived from the original on 2007-04-27.
+du Sautoy, Marcus (2006), Prime Numbers Get Hitched, Seed Magazine, archived from the original on 2017-09-22, retrieved 2006-03-27
+Watkins, Matthew R. (2021-02-27), Proposed (dis)proofs of the Riemann Hypothesis, archived from the original on December 9, 2022
+Zetagrid (2002) A distributed computing project that attempted to disprove Riemann's hypothesis; closed in November 2005
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-2.md
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index 000000000..7d32c86dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,642 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The terms 
+  
+    
+      
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          x
+          
+            ρ
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {li} (x^{\rho })}
+  
+ involving the zeros of the zeta function need some care in their definition as 
+  
+    
+      
+        li
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {li} }
+  
+ has branch points at 0 and 1, and are defined (for 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        >
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x>1}
+  
+) by analytic continuation in the complex variable 
+  
+    
+      
+        ρ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rho }
+  
+ in the region 
+  
+    
+      
+        Re
+        ⁡
+        (
+        ρ
+        )
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (\rho )>0}
+  
+; i.e., they should be considered as Ei(ρ log x). The other terms also correspond to zeros: the dominant term 
+  
+    
+      
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {li} (x)}
+  
+ comes from the pole at 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+        =
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s=1}
+  
+, considered as a zero of multiplicity 
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -1}
+  
+, and the remaining small terms come from the trivial zeros. For some graphs of the sums of the first few terms of this series see Riesel & Göhl (1970) or Zagier (1977).
+This formula says that the zeros of the Riemann zeta function control the oscillations of primes around their "expected" positions. Riemann knew that the non-trivial zeros of the zeta function were symmetrically distributed about the line 
+  
+    
+      
+        s
+        =
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        +
+        i
+        t
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle s=1/2+it}
+  
+, and he knew that all of its non-trivial zeros must lie in the range 
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        ≤
+        Re
+        ⁡
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        ≤
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0\leq \operatorname {Re} (s)\leq 1}
+  
+. He checked that a few of the zeros lay on the critical line with real part 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1/2}
+  
+ and suggested that they all do; this is the Riemann hypothesis.
+
+The result has caught the imagination of most mathematicians because it is so unexpected, connecting two seemingly unrelated areas in mathematics; namely, number theory, which is the study of the discrete, and complex analysis, which deals with continuous processes.
+
+== Consequences ==
+The practical uses of the Riemann hypothesis include many propositions known to be true under the Riemann hypothesis, and some that can be shown to be equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis.
+
+=== Distribution of prime numbers ===
+Riemann's explicit formula for the number of primes less than a given number states that, in terms of a sum over the zeros of the Riemann zeta function, the magnitude of the oscillations of primes around their expected position is controlled by the real parts of the zeros of the zeta function. In particular, the error term in the prime number theorem is closely related to the position of the zeros. For example, if 
+  
+    
+      
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta }
+  
+ is the upper bound of the real parts of the zeros, then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        O
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              x
+              
+                β
+              
+            
+            log
+            ⁡
+            x
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pi (x)-\operatorname {li} (x)=O\!\left(x^{\beta }\log x\right)}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pi (x)}
+  
+ is the prime-counting function and 
+  
+    
+      
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \operatorname {li} (x)}
+  
+ is the logarithmic integral function.
+It is already known that 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        ≤
+        β
+        ≤
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1/2\leq \beta \leq 1}
+  
+.
+
+Helge von Koch proved that the Riemann hypothesis implies the "best possible" bound for the error of the prime number theorem. A precise version of von Koch's result, due to Schoenfeld (1976), says that the Riemann hypothesis implies
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        <
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              8
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\pi (x)-\operatorname {li} (x)|<{\frac {1}{8\pi }}{\sqrt {x}}\log(x)}
+  
+
+for all 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ≥
+        2657
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\geq 2657}
+  
+. Schoenfeld (1976) also showed that the Riemann hypothesis implies
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        ψ
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        x
+        
+          |
+        
+        <
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              8
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        
+          log
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\psi (x)-x|<{\frac {1}{8\pi }}{\sqrt {x}}\log ^{2}x}
+  
+
+for all 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ≥
+        73.2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\geq 73.2}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        ψ
+        (
+        x
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \psi (x)}
+  
+ is Chebyshev's second function.
+Adrian Dudek proved that the Riemann hypothesis implies that for 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        ≥
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x\geq 2}
+  
+, there is a prime 
+  
+    
+      
+        p
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle p}
+  
+ satisfying
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        −
+        
+          
+            4
+            π
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        x
+        <
+        p
+        ≤
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x-{\frac {4}{\pi }}{\sqrt {x}}\log x<p\leq x}
+  
+.
+The constant 
+  
+    
+      
+        4
+        
+          /
+        
+        π
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 4/\pi }
+  
+ may be reduced to 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        +
+        ε
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1+\varepsilon }
+  
+ provided that 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+ is taken to be sufficiently large. This is an explicit version of a theorem of Cramér.
+
+=== Growth of arithmetic functions ===
+The Riemann hypothesis implies strong bounds on the growth of many other arithmetic functions, in addition to the primes counting function above.
+One example involves the Möbius function μ. The statement that the equation
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            1
+            
+              ζ
+              (
+              s
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              μ
+              (
+              n
+              )
+            
+            
+              n
+              
+                s
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\zeta (s)}}=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {\mu (n)}{n^{s}}}}
+  
+
+is valid for every s with real part greater than 1/2, with the sum on the right hand side converging, is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis. From this we can also conclude that if the Mertens function is defined by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            ≤
+            x
+          
+        
+        μ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M(x)=\sum _{n\leq x}\mu (n)}
+  
+
+then the claim that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        O
+        
+          (
+          
+            x
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+              +
+              ε
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M(x)=O\left(x^{{\frac {1}{2}}+\varepsilon }\right)}
+  
+
+for every positive ε is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis (J. E. Littlewood, 1912; see for instance: paragraph 14.25 in Titchmarsh (1986)). The determinant of the order n Redheffer matrix is equal to M(n), so the Riemann hypothesis can also be stated as a condition on the growth of these determinants. Littlewood's result has been improved several times since then, by Edmund Landau, Edward Charles Titchmarsh, Helmut Maier and Hugh Montgomery, and Kannan Soundararajan.  Soundararajan's result is that, conditional on the Riemann hypothesis,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        O
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              x
+              
+                1
+                
+                  /
+                
+                2
+              
+            
+            exp
+            ⁡
+            
+              (
+              
+                (
+                log
+                ⁡
+                x
+                
+                  )
+                  
+                    1
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    2
+                  
+                
+                (
+                log
+                ⁡
+                log
+                ⁡
+                x
+                
+                  )
+                  
+                    14
+                  
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M(x)=O\left(x^{1/2}\exp \left((\log x)^{1/2}(\log \log x)^{14}\right)\right).}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-3.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..d3e76f84c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-3.md
@@ -0,0 +1,639 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Riemann hypothesis puts a rather tight bound on the growth of M, since Odlyzko & te Riele (1985) disproved the slightly stronger Mertens conjecture
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        M
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |M(x)|\leq {\sqrt {x}}.}
+  
+
+Another closely related result is due to Björner (2011), that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the statement that the Euler characteristic of the simplicial complex determined by the lattice of integers under divisibility is 
+  
+    
+      
+        o
+        (
+        
+          n
+          
+            1
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+            +
+            ϵ
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle o(n^{1/2+\epsilon })}
+  
+ for all 
+  
+    
+      
+        ϵ
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \epsilon >0}
+  
+ (see incidence algebra).
+The Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to many other conjectures about the rate of growth of other arithmetic functions aside from μ(n). A typical example is Robin's theorem, which states that if σ(n) is the sigma function, given by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            d
+            ∣
+            n
+          
+        
+        d
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma (n)=\sum _{d\mid n}d}
+  
+
+then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        <
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+          
+        
+        n
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma (n)<e^{\gamma }n\log \log n}
+  
+
+for all n > 5040 if and only if the Riemann hypothesis is true, where γ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.
+A related bound was given by Jeffrey Lagarias in 2002, who proved that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the statement that:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        σ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        <
+        
+          H
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        +
+        log
+        ⁡
+        (
+        
+          H
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          e
+          
+            
+              H
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma (n)<H_{n}+\log(H_{n})e^{H_{n}}}
+  
+
+for every natural number n > 1, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          H
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H_{n}}
+  
+ is the nth harmonic number.
+The Riemann hypothesis is also true if and only if the inequality
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            n
+            
+              φ
+              (
+              n
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        <
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        n
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                e
+                
+                  γ
+                
+              
+              (
+              4
+              +
+              γ
+              −
+              log
+              ⁡
+              4
+              π
+              )
+            
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              n
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {n}{\varphi (n)}}<e^{\gamma }\log \log n+{\frac {e^{\gamma }(4+\gamma -\log 4\pi )}{\sqrt {\log n}}}}
+  
+
+is true for all n ≥ 120569#, where φ(n) is Euler's totient function and 120569# is the product of the first 120569 primes.
+Another example was found by Jérôme Franel, and extended by Landau (see Franel & Landau (1924)). The Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to several statements showing that the terms of the Farey sequence are fairly regular. One such equivalence is as follows: if Fn is the Farey sequence of order n, beginning with 1/n and up to 1/1, then the claim that for all ε > 0
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            m
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          F
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        (
+        i
+        )
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              i
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        =
+        O
+        
+          (
+          
+            n
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  2
+                
+              
+              +
+              ϵ
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{m}|F_{n}(i)-{\tfrac {i}{m}}|=O\left(n^{{\frac {1}{2}}+\epsilon }\right)}
+  
+
+is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis. Here
+
+  
+    
+      
+        m
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        φ
+        (
+        i
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle m=\sum _{i=1}^{n}\varphi (i)}
+  
+
+is the number of terms in the Farey sequence of order n.
+For an example from group theory, if g(n) is Landau's function given by the maximal order of elements of the symmetric group Sn of degree n, then Massias, Nicolas & Robin (1988) showed that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the bound
+
+  
+    
+      
+        log
+        ⁡
+        g
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        <
+        
+          
+            
+              Li
+              
+                −
+                1
+              
+            
+            ⁡
+            (
+            n
+            )
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \log g(n)<{\sqrt {\operatorname {Li} ^{-1}(n)}}}
+  
+
+for all sufficiently large n.
+
+=== Lindelöf hypothesis and growth of the zeta function ===
+The Riemann hypothesis has various weaker consequences as well; one is the Lindelöf hypothesis on the rate of growth of the zeta function on the critical line, which says that, for any ε > 0,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                1
+                2
+              
+            
+            +
+            i
+            t
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        O
+        (
+        
+          t
+          
+            ε
+          
+        
+        )
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta \left({\frac {1}{2}}+it\right)=O(t^{\varepsilon }),}
+  
+
+as t → 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∞
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \infty }
+  
+.
+The Riemann hypothesis also implies quite sharp bounds for the growth rate of the zeta function in other regions of the critical strip. For example, it implies that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          lim sup
+          
+            t
+            →
+            +
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                |
+              
+              ζ
+              (
+              1
+              +
+              i
+              t
+              )
+              
+                |
+              
+            
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              log
+              ⁡
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        2
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle e^{\gamma }\leq \limsup _{t\rightarrow +\infty }{\frac {|\zeta (1+it)|}{\log \log t}}\leq 2e^{\gamma }}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            6
+            
+              π
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          lim sup
+          
+            t
+            →
+            +
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              
+                /
+              
+              
+                |
+              
+              ζ
+              (
+              1
+              +
+              i
+              t
+              )
+              
+                |
+              
+            
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              log
+              ⁡
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        ≤
+        
+          
+            12
+            
+              π
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            γ
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {6}{\pi ^{2}}}e^{\gamma }\leq \limsup _{t\rightarrow +\infty }{\frac {1/|\zeta (1+it)|}{\log \log t}}\leq {\frac {12}{\pi ^{2}}}e^{\gamma }}
+  
+
+so the growth rate of ζ(1 + it) and its inverse would be known up to a factor of 2.
+
+=== Large prime gap conjecture ===
+The prime number theorem implies that on average, the gap between the prime p and its successor is log p. However, some gaps between primes may be much larger than the average. Cramér proved that, assuming the Riemann hypothesis, every gap is O(√p log p). This is a case in which even the best bound that can be proved using the Riemann hypothesis is far weaker than what seems true: Cramér's conjecture implies that every gap is O((log p)2), which, while larger than the average gap, is far smaller than the bound implied by the Riemann hypothesis. Numerical evidence supports Cramér's conjecture.
+
+=== Analytic criteria equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis ===
+Many statements equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis have been found, though so far none of them have led to much progress in proving (or disproving) it. Some typical examples are as follows. (Others involve the divisor function σ(n).)
+The Riesz criterion was given by Riesz (1916), to the effect that the bound
+
+  
+    
+      
+        −
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            k
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              (
+              −
+              x
+              
+                )
+                
+                  k
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              (
+              k
+              −
+              1
+              )
+              !
+              ζ
+              (
+              2
+              k
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        O
+        
+          (
+          
+            x
+            
+              
+                
+                  1
+                  4
+                
+              
+              +
+              ϵ
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle -\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-x)^{k}}{(k-1)!\zeta (2k)}}=O\left(x^{{\frac {1}{4}}+\epsilon }\right)}
+  
+
+holds for all ε > 0 if and only if the Riemann hypothesis holds. See also the Hardy–Littlewood criterion.
+Nyman (1950) proved that the Riemann hypothesis is true if and only if the space of functions of the form
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-4.md
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index 000000000..397a33e2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-4.md
@@ -0,0 +1,376 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 5/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            ν
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            ν
+          
+        
+        ρ
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                θ
+                
+                  ν
+                
+              
+              x
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f(x)=\sum _{\nu =1}^{n}c_{\nu }\rho \left({\frac {\theta _{\nu }}{x}}\right)}
+  
+
+where ρ(z) is the fractional part of z, 0 ≤ θν ≤ 1, and
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            ν
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          c
+          
+            ν
+          
+        
+        
+          θ
+          
+            ν
+          
+        
+        =
+        0
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sum _{\nu =1}^{n}c_{\nu }\theta _{\nu }=0,}
+  
+
+is dense in the Hilbert space L2(0,1) of square-integrable functions on the unit interval. Beurling (1955) extended this by showing that the zeta function has no zeros with real part greater than 1/p if and only if this function space is dense in Lp(0,1). This Nyman-Beurling criterion was strengthened by Baez-Duarte to the case where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          θ
+          
+            ν
+          
+        
+        ∈
+        {
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        k
+        
+          }
+          
+            k
+            ≥
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \theta _{\nu }\in \{1/k\}_{k\geq 1}}
+  
+.
+Salem (1953) showed that the Riemann hypothesis is true if and only if the integral equation
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                z
+                
+                  −
+                  σ
+                  −
+                  1
+                
+              
+              φ
+              (
+              z
+              )
+            
+            
+              
+                
+                  e
+                  
+                    x
+                    
+                      /
+                    
+                    z
+                  
+                
+              
+              +
+              1
+            
+          
+        
+        
+        d
+        z
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {z^{-\sigma -1}\varphi (z)}{{e^{x/z}}+1}}\,dz=0}
+  
+
+has no non-trivial bounded solutions 
+  
+    
+      
+        φ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varphi }
+  
+ for 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        <
+        σ
+        <
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1/2<\sigma <1}
+  
+.
+Weil's criterion is the statement that the positivity of a certain function is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis. Related is Li's criterion, a statement that the positivity of a certain sequence of numbers is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis.
+Speiser (1934) proved that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the statement that ζ′(s), the derivative of ζ(s), has no zeros in the strip
+
+  
+    
+      
+        0
+        <
+        ℜ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        <
+        
+          
+            1
+            2
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 0<\Re (s)<{\frac {1}{2}}.}
+  
+
+That ζ(s) has only simple zeros on the critical line is equivalent to its derivative having no zeros on the critical line.
+The Farey sequence provides two equivalences, due to Jerome Franel and Edmund Landau in 1924.
+The de Bruijn–Newman constant denoted by Λ and named after Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn and Charles M. Newman, is defined
+as the unique real number such that the function
+
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        (
+        λ
+        ,
+        z
+        )
+        :=
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            λ
+            
+              u
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        Φ
+        (
+        u
+        )
+        cos
+        ⁡
+        (
+        z
+        u
+        )
+        
+        d
+        u
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H(\lambda ,z):=\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{\lambda u^{2}}\Phi (u)\cos(zu)\,du}
+  
+,
+that is parametrised by a real parameter λ, has a complex variable z and is defined using a super-exponentially decaying function
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Φ
+        (
+        u
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        (
+        2
+        
+          π
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          n
+          
+            4
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            9
+            u
+          
+        
+        −
+        3
+        π
+        
+          n
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            5
+            u
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            π
+            
+              n
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+            
+              e
+              
+                4
+                u
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Phi (u)=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }(2\pi ^{2}n^{4}e^{9u}-3\pi n^{2}e^{5u})e^{-\pi n^{2}e^{4u}}}
+  
+,
+has only real zeros if and only if λ ≥ Λ.
+Since the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the claim that all the zeroes of H(0, z) are real, the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the conjecture that Λ ≤ 0. Brad Rodgers and Terence Tao discovered the equivalence is actually Λ = 0 by proving zero to be the lower bound of the constant. Proving zero is also the upper bound would therefore prove the Riemann hypothesis. Newman noted that this conjecture (now theorem) "is a quantitative version of the dictum that the Riemann hypothesis, if true, is only barely so." As of April 2020 the upper bound is Λ ≤ 0.2.
+
+=== Consequences of the generalized Riemann hypothesis ===
+Several applications use the generalized Riemann hypothesis for Dirichlet L-series or zeta functions of number fields rather than just the Riemann hypothesis. Many basic properties of the Riemann zeta function can easily be generalized to all Dirichlet L-series, so it is plausible that a method that proves the Riemann hypothesis for the Riemann zeta function would also work for the generalized Riemann hypothesis for Dirichlet L-functions. Several results first proved using the generalized Riemann hypothesis were later given unconditional proofs without using it, though these were usually much harder. Many of the consequences on the following list are taken from Conrad (2010).
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-5.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..711ff0cdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-5.md
@@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 6/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 1913, Grönwall showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that Gauss's list of imaginary quadratic fields with class number 1 is complete, though Baker, Stark and Heegner later gave unconditional proofs of this without using the generalized Riemann hypothesis.
+In 1917, Hardy and Littlewood showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies a conjecture of Chebyshev that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          lim
+          
+            x
+            →
+            
+              1
+              
+                −
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            p
+            >
+            2
+          
+        
+        (
+        −
+        1
+        
+          )
+          
+            (
+            p
+            +
+            1
+            )
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          x
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+        =
+        +
+        ∞
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to 1^{-}}\sum _{p>2}(-1)^{(p+1)/2}x^{p}=+\infty ,}
+  
+ which says that primes 3 mod 4 are more common than primes 1 mod 4 in some sense. (For related results, see Prime number theorem § Prime number race.)
+In 1923, Hardy and Littlewood showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies a weak form of the Goldbach conjecture for odd numbers: that every sufficiently large odd number is the sum of three primes, though in 1937 Vinogradov gave an unconditional proof. In 1997 Deshouillers, Effinger, te Riele, and Zinoviev showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that every odd number greater than 5 is the sum of three primes. In 2013 Harald Helfgott proved the ternary Goldbach conjecture without the GRH dependence, subject to some extensive calculations completed with the help of David J. Platt.
+In 1934, Chowla showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that the first prime in the arithmetic progression a mod m is at most Km2log(m)2 for some fixed constant K.
+In 1967, Hooley showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies Artin's conjecture on primitive roots.
+In 1973, Weinberger showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that Euler's list of idoneal numbers is complete.
+Weinberger (1973) showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the zeta functions of all algebraic number fields implies that any number field with class number 1 is either Euclidean or an imaginary quadratic number field of discriminant −19, −43, −67, or −163.
+In 1976, G. Miller showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that one can test if a number is prime in polynomial time via the Miller test. In 2002, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena proved this result unconditionally using the AKS primality test.
+Odlyzko (1990) discussed how the generalized Riemann hypothesis can be used to give sharper estimates for discriminants and class numbers of number fields.
+Ono & Soundararajan (1997) showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that Ramanujan's integral quadratic form x2 + y2 + 10z2 represents all integers that it represents locally, with exactly 18 exceptions.
+In 2021, Alexander (Alex) Dunn and Maksym Radziwill proved Patterson's conjecture on cubic Gauss sums, under the assumption of the GRH.
+
+=== Excluded middle ===
+Some consequences of the RH are also consequences of its negation, and are thus theorems. In their discussion of the Hecke, Deuring, Mordell, Heilbronn theorem, Ireland & Rosen (1990, p. 359) say
+
+The method of proof here is truly amazing. If the generalized Riemann hypothesis is true, then the theorem is true. If the generalized Riemann hypothesis is false, then the theorem is true. Thus, the theorem is true!!
+Care should be taken to understand what is meant by saying the generalized Riemann hypothesis is false: one should specify exactly which class of Dirichlet series has a counterexample.
+
+==== Littlewood's theorem ====
+This concerns the sign of the error in the prime number theorem.
+It has been computed that π(x) < li(x) for all x ≤ 1025 (see this table), and no value of x is known for which π(x) > li(x).
+In 1914, Littlewood proved that there are arbitrarily large values of x for which
+
+  
+    
+      
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        >
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        +
+        
+          
+            1
+            3
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+            
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              x
+            
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        x
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pi (x)>\operatorname {li} (x)+{\frac {1}{3}}{\frac {\sqrt {x}}{\log x}}\log \log \log x,}
+  
+
+and that there are also arbitrarily large values of x for which
+
+  
+    
+      
+        π
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        <
+        li
+        ⁡
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            3
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+            
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              x
+            
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        x
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \pi (x)<\operatorname {li} (x)-{\frac {1}{3}}{\frac {\sqrt {x}}{\log x}}\log \log \log x.}
+  
+
+Thus the difference π(x) − li(x) changes sign infinitely many times. Skewes' number is an estimate of the value of x corresponding to the first sign change.
+Littlewood's proof is divided into two cases: the RH is assumed false (about half a page of Ingham 1932, Chapt. V), and the RH is assumed true (about a dozen pages). Stanisław Knapowski followed this up with a paper on the number of times 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta (n)}
+  
+ changes sign in the interval 
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta (n)}
+  
+.
+
+==== Gauss's class number conjecture ====
+This is the conjecture (first stated in article 303 of Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae) that there are only finitely many imaginary quadratic fields with a given class number. One way to prove it would be to show that as the discriminant D → −∞ the class number h(D) →  ∞.
+The following sequence of theorems involving the Riemann hypothesis is described in Ireland & Rosen 1990, pp. 358–361:
+
+(In the work of Hecke and Heilbronn, the only L-functions that occur are those attached to imaginary quadratic characters, and it is only for those L-functions that GRH is true or GRH is false is intended; a failure of GRH for the L-function of a cubic Dirichlet character would, strictly speaking, mean GRH is false, but that was not the kind of failure of GRH that Heilbronn had in mind, so his assumption was more restricted than simply GRH is false.)
+In 1935, Carl Siegel strengthened the result without using RH or GRH in any way.
+
+==== Growth of Euler's totient ====
+In 1983 J. L. Nicolas proved that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        φ
+        (
+        n
+        )
+        <
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            γ
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            n
+            
+              log
+              ⁡
+              log
+              ⁡
+              n
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \varphi (n)<e^{-\gamma }{\frac {n}{\log \log n}}}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-6.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..79e1814b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-6.md
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 7/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+for infinitely many n, where φ(n) is Euler's totient function and γ is Euler's constant. Ribenboim remarks that: "The method of proof is interesting, in that the inequality is shown first under the assumption that the Riemann hypothesis is true, secondly under the contrary assumption."
+
+== Generalizations and analogs ==
+
+=== Dirichlet L-series and other number fields ===
+The Riemann hypothesis can be generalized by replacing the Riemann zeta function by the formally similar, but much more general, global L-functions. In this broader setting, one expects the non-trivial zeros of the global L-functions to have real part 1/2. It is these conjectures, rather than the classical Riemann hypothesis only for the single Riemann zeta function, which account for the true importance of the Riemann hypothesis in mathematics.
+The most common generalized Riemann hypothesis extends the Riemann hypothesis to all Dirichlet L-functions. In particular it implies the conjecture that Siegel zeros (zeros of L-functions between 1/2 and 1) do not exist.
+The extended Riemann hypothesis extends the Riemann hypothesis to all Dedekind zeta functions of algebraic number fields. Since Dedekind zeta function for abelian extension of the rationals can be expressed as product of Dirichlet L-functions and only possible pole is in 1 for Riemann zeta function (thus no pole can cancel nontrivial zero), this version of Riemann hypothesis implies generalized Riemann hypothesis. 
+The Riemann hypothesis can also be extended to the L-functions of Hecke characters of number fields. Since Dirichlet L-functions are Hecke L-functions for finite characters, then this hypothesis directly implies generalized Riemann hypothesis. Dedekind zeta functions can be expressed as product of Hecke L-functions and only possible pole of Hecke L-function is at 1, then this version of Riemann Hypothesis implies also version for Dedekind zeta functions.
+There are two approaches for extension of Riemann hypothesis that seem to be the most general. The grand Riemann hypothesis extends it to all Automorphic L-functions, such as Mellin transforms of Hecke eigenforms. The Riemann hypothesis for Selberg class extends it rather for functions satisfying some properties (at least conjecturaly satisfied by most functions usually called zeta functions or L-functions) than for functions defined by direct formula. Though it is expected that Selberg class should be equal to class of automorphic L-functions, and thus this approaches should be equivalent, this is important open problem itself and part of Langlands program.
+
+=== Function fields and zeta functions of varieties over finite fields ===
+Artin (1924) introduced global zeta functions of (quadratic) function fields and conjectured an analogue of the Riemann hypothesis for them, which has been proved by Hasse in the genus 1 case and by Weil (1948) in general. For instance, the fact that the Gauss sum, of the quadratic character of a finite field of size q (with q odd), has absolute value 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            q
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\sqrt {q}}}
+  
+ is actually an instance of the Riemann hypothesis in the function field setting. This led Weil (1949) to conjecture a similar statement for all algebraic varieties; the resulting Weil conjectures were proved by Pierre Deligne.
+
+=== Arithmetic zeta functions of arithmetic schemes and their L-factors ===
+Arithmetic zeta functions generalise the Riemann and Dedekind zeta functions as well as the zeta functions of varieties over finite fields to every arithmetic scheme or a scheme of finite type over integers. The arithmetic zeta function of a regular connected equidimensional arithmetic scheme of Kronecker dimension n can be factorized into the product of appropriately defined L-factors and an auxiliary factor. Assuming a functional equation and meromorphic continuation, the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the L-factor states that its zeros inside the critical strip 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℜ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        ∈
+        (
+        0
+        ,
+        n
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Re (s)\in (0,n)}
+  
+ lie on the central line. Correspondingly, the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the arithmetic zeta function of a regular connected equidimensional arithmetic scheme states that its zeros inside the critical strip lie on vertical lines 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℜ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        ,
+        3
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        n
+        −
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Re (s)=1/2,3/2,\dots ,n-1/2}
+  
+ and its poles inside the critical strip lie on  vertical lines 
+  
+    
+      
+        ℜ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        1
+        ,
+        2
+        ,
+        …
+        ,
+        n
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Re (s)=1,2,\dots ,n-1}
+  
+. This is known for schemes in positive characteristic and follows from Pierre Deligne, but remains entirely unknown in characteristic zero.
+
+=== Selberg zeta functions ===
+
+Selberg (1956) introduced the Selberg zeta function of a Riemann surface. These are similar to the Riemann zeta function: they have a functional equation, and an infinite product similar to the Euler product but taken over closed geodesics rather than primes. The Selberg trace formula is the analogue for these functions of the explicit formulas in prime number theory. Selberg proved that the Selberg zeta functions satisfy the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis, with the imaginary parts of their zeros related to the eigenvalues of the Laplacian operator of the Riemann surface.
+
+=== Ihara zeta functions ===
+The Ihara zeta function of a finite graph is an analogue of the Selberg zeta function, which was first introduced by Yasutaka Ihara in the context of discrete subgroups of the two-by-two p-adic special linear group. A regular finite graph is a Ramanujan graph, a mathematical model of efficient communication networks, if and only if its Ihara zeta function satisfies the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis as was pointed out by T. Sunada.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-7.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..586635318
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-7.md
@@ -0,0 +1,311 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 8/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Montgomery's pair correlation conjecture ===
+Montgomery (1973) suggested the pair correlation conjecture that the correlation functions of the (suitably normalized) zeros of the zeta function should be the same as those of the eigenvalues of a random hermitian matrix. Odlyzko (1987) showed that this is supported by large-scale numerical calculations of these correlation functions.
+Montgomery showed that (assuming the Riemann hypothesis) at least 2/3 of all zeros are simple, and a related conjecture is that all zeros of the zeta function are simple (or more generally have no non-trivial integer linear relations between their imaginary parts). Dedekind zeta functions of algebraic number fields, which generalize the Riemann zeta function, often do have multiple complex zeros. This is because the Dedekind zeta functions factorize as a product of powers of Artin L-functions, so zeros of Artin L-functions sometimes give rise to multiple zeros of Dedekind zeta functions. Other examples of zeta functions with multiple zeros are the L-functions of some elliptic curves: these can have multiple zeros at the real point of their critical line; the Birch-Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture predicts that the multiplicity of this zero is the rank of the elliptic curve.
+
+=== Other zeta functions ===
+There are many other examples of zeta functions with analogues of the Riemann hypothesis, some of which have been proved. Goss zeta functions of function fields have a Riemann hypothesis, proved by Sheats (1998). The main conjecture of Iwasawa theory, proved by Barry Mazur and Andrew Wiles for cyclotomic fields, and Wiles for totally real fields, identifies the zeros of a p-adic L-function with the eigenvalues of an operator, so can be thought of as an analogue of the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture for p-adic L-functions.
+
+== Attempted proofs ==
+Several mathematicians have addressed the Riemann hypothesis, but none of their attempts has yet been accepted as a proof. Watkins (2021) lists some incorrect solutions.
+
+=== Operator theory ===
+
+Hilbert and Pólya suggested that one way to derive the Riemann hypothesis would be to find a self-adjoint operator, from the existence of which the statement on the real parts of the zeros of ζ(s) would follow when one applies the criterion on real eigenvalues. Some support for this idea comes from several analogues of the Riemann zeta functions whose zeros correspond to eigenvalues of some operator: the zeros of a zeta function of a variety over a finite field correspond to eigenvalues of a Frobenius element on an étale cohomology group, the zeros of a Selberg zeta function are eigenvalues of a Laplacian operator of a Riemann surface, and the zeros of a p-adic zeta function correspond to eigenvectors of a Galois action on ideal class groups.
+Odlyzko (1987) showed that the distribution of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function shares some statistical properties with the eigenvalues of random matrices drawn from the Gaussian unitary ensemble. This gives some support to the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture.
+In 1999, Michael Berry and Jonathan Keating conjectured that there is some unknown quantization 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              H
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}}
+  
+ of the classical Hamiltonian H = xp so that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        +
+        i
+        
+          
+            
+              H
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta (1/2+i{\hat {H}})=0}
+  
+
+and even more strongly, that the Riemann zeros coincide with the spectrum of the operator 
+  
+    
+      
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        +
+        i
+        
+          
+            
+              H
+              ^
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 1/2+i{\hat {H}}}
+  
+. This is in contrast to canonical quantization, which leads to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          σ
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        
+          σ
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+        ≥
+        
+          
+            ℏ
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sigma _{x}\sigma _{p}\geq {\frac {\hbar }{2}}}
+  
+ and the natural numbers as spectrum of the quantum harmonic oscillator. The crucial point is that the Hamiltonian should be a self-adjoint operator so that the quantization would be a realization of the Hilbert–Pólya program. In a connection with this quantum mechanical problem Berry and Connes had proposed that the inverse of the potential of the Hamiltonian is connected to the half-derivative of the function
+
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            π
+          
+        
+        Arg
+        ⁡
+        ξ
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        +
+        i
+        
+          
+            s
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N(s)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\operatorname {Arg} \xi (1/2+i{\sqrt {s}})}
+  
+
+then, in Hilbert-Polya approach
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            −
+            1
+          
+        
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            4
+            π
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                d
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  2
+                
+              
+              N
+              (
+              x
+              )
+            
+            
+              d
+              
+                x
+                
+                  1
+                  
+                    /
+                  
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V^{-1}(x)={\sqrt {4\pi }}{\frac {d^{1/2}N(x)}{dx^{1/2}}}.}
+  
+
+This yields a Hamiltonian whose eigenvalues are the square of the imaginary part of the Riemann zeros, and also that the functional determinant of this Hamiltonian operator is just the Riemann Xi function. In fact the Riemann Xi function would be proportional to the functional determinant (Hadamard product)
+
+  
+    
+      
+        det
+        (
+        H
+        +
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        4
+        +
+        s
+        (
+        s
+        −
+        1
+        )
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \det(H+1/4+s(s-1))}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              ξ
+              (
+              s
+              )
+            
+            
+              ξ
+              (
+              0
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              det
+              (
+              H
+              +
+              s
+              (
+              s
+              −
+              1
+              )
+              +
+              1
+              
+                /
+              
+              4
+              )
+            
+            
+              det
+              (
+              H
+              +
+              1
+              
+                /
+              
+              4
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\xi (s)}{\xi (0)}}={\frac {\det(H+s(s-1)+1/4)}{\det(H+1/4)}}.}
+  
+
+However this operator is not useful in practice since it includes the inverse function (implicit function) of the potential but not the potential itself.
+The analogy with the Riemann hypothesis over finite fields suggests that the Hilbert space containing eigenvectors corresponding to the zeros might be some sort of first cohomology group of the spectrum Spec (Z) of the integers. Deninger (1998) described some of the attempts to find such a cohomology theory.
+Zagier (1981) constructed a natural space of invariant functions on the upper half plane that has eigenvalues under the Laplacian operator that correspond to zeros of the Riemann zeta function—and remarked that in the unlikely event that one could show the existence of a suitable positive definite inner product on this space, the Riemann hypothesis would follow. Cartier (1982) discussed a related example, where due to a bizarre bug a computer program listed zeros of the Riemann zeta function as eigenvalues of the same Laplacian operator.
+Schumayer & Hutchinson (2011) surveyed some of the attempts to construct a suitable physical model related to the Riemann zeta function.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-8.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..17c64f8d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-8.md
@@ -0,0 +1,301 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 9/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Lee–Yang theorem ===
+The Lee–Yang theorem states that the zeros of certain partition functions in statistical mechanics all lie on a "critical line" with their real part equal to 0, and this has led to some speculation about a relationship with the Riemann hypothesis.
+
+=== Turán's result ===
+Pál Turán showed that if the functions
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          n
+          
+            −
+            s
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{N}n^{-s}}
+  
+
+have no zeros when the real part of s is greater than one then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+        (
+        x
+        )
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            n
+            ≤
+            x
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              λ
+              (
+              n
+              )
+            
+            n
+          
+        
+        ≥
+        0
+        
+           for 
+        
+        x
+        >
+        0
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T(x)=\sum _{n\leq x}{\frac {\lambda (n)}{n}}\geq 0{\text{ for }}x>0,}
+  
+
+where λ(n) is the Liouville function given by (−1)r if n has r prime factors. He showed that this in turn would imply that the Riemann hypothesis is true. But Haselgrove (1958) proved that T(x) is negative for infinitely many x (and also disproved the closely related Pólya conjecture), and Borwein, Ferguson & Mossinghoff (2008) showed that the smallest such x is 72185376951205. Spira (1968) showed by numerical calculation that the finite Dirichlet series above for N = 19 has a zero with real part greater than 1. Turán also showed that a somewhat weaker assumption, the nonexistence of zeros with real part greater than 1 + N−1/2+ε for large N in the finite Dirichlet series above, would also imply the Riemann hypothesis, but Montgomery (1983) showed that for all sufficiently large N these series have zeros with real part greater than 1 + (log log N)/(4 log N). Therefore, Turán's result is vacuously true and cannot help prove the Riemann hypothesis.
+
+=== Noncommutative geometry ===
+Alain Connes has described a relationship between the Riemann hypothesis and noncommutative geometry, and showed that a suitable analog of the Selberg trace formula for the action of the idèle class group on the adèle class space would imply the Riemann hypothesis. Some of these ideas are elaborated in Lapidus (2008).
+
+=== Hilbert spaces of entire functions ===
+Louis de Branges showed that the Riemann hypothesis would follow from a positivity condition on a certain Hilbert space of entire functions.
+However Conrey & Li (2000) showed that the necessary positivity conditions are not satisfied. Despite this obstacle, de Branges has continued to work on an attempted proof of the Riemann hypothesis along the same lines, but this has not been widely accepted by other mathematicians.
+
+=== Quasicrystals ===
+The Riemann hypothesis implies that the zeros of the zeta function form a quasicrystal, a distribution with discrete support whose Fourier transform also has discrete support.
+Dyson (2009) suggested trying to prove the Riemann hypothesis by classifying, or at least studying, 1-dimensional quasicrystals.
+
+=== Arithmetic zeta functions of models of elliptic curves over number fields ===
+When one goes from geometric dimension one, e.g. an algebraic number field, to geometric dimension two, e.g. a regular model of an elliptic curve over a number field, the two-dimensional part of the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the arithmetic zeta function of the model deals with the poles of the zeta function. In dimension one the study of the zeta integral in Tate's thesis does not lead to new important information on the Riemann hypothesis. Contrary to this, in dimension two work of Ivan Fesenko on two-dimensional generalisation of Tate's thesis includes an integral representation of a zeta integral closely related to the zeta function. In this new situation, not possible in dimension one, the poles of the zeta function can be studied via the zeta integral and associated adele groups. Related conjecture of Ivan Fesenko on the positivity of the fourth derivative of a boundary function associated to the zeta integral essentially implies the pole part of the generalized Riemann hypothesis. Suzuki (2011) proved that the latter, together with some technical assumptions, implies Fesenko's conjecture.
+
+=== Multiple zeta functions ===
+Deligne's proof of the Riemann hypothesis over finite fields used the zeta functions of product varieties, whose zeros and poles correspond to sums of zeros and poles of the original zeta function, in order to bound the real parts of the zeros of the original zeta function. By analogy, Kurokawa (1992) introduced multiple zeta functions whose zeros and poles correspond to sums of zeros and poles of the Riemann zeta function. To make the series converge he restricted to sums of zeros or poles all with non-negative imaginary part. So far, the known bounds on the zeros and poles of the multiple zeta functions are not strong enough to give useful estimates for the zeros of the Riemann zeta function.
+
+== Location of the zeros ==
+
+=== Number of zeros ===
+The functional equation combined with the argument principle implies that the number of zeros of the zeta function with imaginary part between 0 and T is given by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+        (
+        T
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            π
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            A
+            r
+            g
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        (
+        ξ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            π
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            A
+            r
+            g
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        (
+        Γ
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              s
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          π
+          
+            −
+            
+              
+                s
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        s
+        (
+        s
+        −
+        1
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle N(T)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\mathop {\mathrm {Arg} } (\xi (s))={\frac {1}{\pi }}\mathop {\mathrm {Arg} } (\Gamma ({\tfrac {s}{2}})\pi ^{-{\frac {s}{2}}}\zeta (s)s(s-1)/2)}
+  
+
+for s = 1/2 + iT, where the argument is defined by varying it continuously along the line with Im(s) = T, starting with argument 0 at ∞ + iT. This is the sum of a large but well understood term
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            1
+            π
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            A
+            r
+            g
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        (
+        Γ
+        (
+        
+          
+            
+              s
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        )
+        
+          π
+          
+            −
+            s
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        s
+        (
+        s
+        −
+        1
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            T
+            
+              2
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        
+          
+            T
+            
+              2
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        −
+        
+          
+            T
+            
+              2
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        7
+        
+          /
+        
+        8
+        +
+        O
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        T
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\pi }}\mathop {\mathrm {Arg} } (\Gamma ({\tfrac {s}{2}})\pi ^{-s/2}s(s-1)/2)={\frac {T}{2\pi }}\log {\frac {T}{2\pi }}-{\frac {T}{2\pi }}+7/8+O(1/T)}
+  
+
+and a small but rather mysterious term
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-9.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..d900a28e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis-9.md
@@ -0,0 +1,586 @@
+---
+title: "Riemann hypothesis"
+chunk: 10/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:22.283607+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+        (
+        T
+        )
+        =
+        
+          
+            1
+            π
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            A
+            r
+            g
+          
+        
+        ⁡
+        (
+        ζ
+        (
+        1
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+        +
+        i
+        T
+        )
+        )
+        =
+        O
+        (
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle S(T)={\frac {1}{\pi }}\mathop {\mathrm {Arg} } (\zeta (1/2+iT))=O(\log T).}
+  
+
+So the density of zeros with imaginary part near T is about log(T)/(2π), and the function S describes the small deviations from this. The function S(t) jumps by 1 at each zero of the zeta function, and for t ≥ 8 it decreases monotonically between zeros with derivative close to −log t.
+Trudgian (2014) proved that, if T > e, then
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        N
+        (
+        T
+        )
+        −
+        
+          
+            T
+            
+              2
+              π
+            
+          
+        
+        log
+        ⁡
+        
+          
+            T
+            
+              2
+              π
+              e
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≤
+        0.112
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        +
+        0.278
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        +
+        3.385
+        +
+        
+          
+            0.2
+            T
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |N(T)-{\frac {T}{2\pi }}\log {\frac {T}{2\pi e}}|\leq 0.112\log T+0.278\log \log T+3.385+{\frac {0.2}{T}}}
+  
+.
+Karatsuba (1996) proved that every interval (T, T + H] for 
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        ≥
+        
+          T
+          
+            
+              
+                27
+                82
+              
+            
+            +
+            ε
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H\geq T^{{\frac {27}{82}}+\varepsilon }}
+  
+ contains at least
+
+  
+    
+      
+        H
+        (
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        
+          )
+          
+            
+              1
+              3
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            c
+            
+              
+                log
+                ⁡
+                log
+                ⁡
+                T
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H(\log T)^{\frac {1}{3}}e^{-c{\sqrt {\log \log T}}}}
+  
+
+points where the function S(t) changes sign.
+Selberg (1946) showed that the average moments of even powers of S are given by
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            0
+          
+          
+            T
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        S
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+            k
+          
+        
+        d
+        t
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              (
+              2
+              k
+              )
+              !
+            
+            
+              k
+              !
+              (
+              2
+              π
+              
+                )
+                
+                  2
+                  k
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        T
+        (
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        
+          )
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        +
+        O
+        (
+        T
+        (
+        log
+        ⁡
+        log
+        ⁡
+        T
+        
+          )
+          
+            k
+            −
+            1
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{T}|S(t)|^{2k}dt={\frac {(2k)!}{k!(2\pi )^{2k}}}T(\log \log T)^{k}+O(T(\log \log T)^{k-1/2}).}
+  
+
+This suggests that S(T)/(log log T)1/2 resembles a Gaussian random variable with mean 0 and variance 2π2 (Ghosh (1983) proved this fact).
+In particular |S(T)| is usually somewhere around (log log T)1/2, but occasionally much larger. The exact order of growth of S(T) is not known. There has been no unconditional improvement to Riemann's original bound S(T) = O(log T), though the Riemann hypothesis implies the slightly smaller bound S(T) = O(log T/log log T). The true order of magnitude may be somewhat less than this, as random functions with the same distribution as S(T) tend to have growth of order about log(T)1/2. In the other direction it cannot be too small: Selberg (1946) showed that S(T) ≠ o((log T)1/3/(log log T)7/3), and assuming the Riemann hypothesis Montgomery showed that S(T) ≠ o((log T)1/2/(log log T)1/2).
+Numerical calculations confirm that S grows very slowly: |S(T)| < 1 for T < 280, |S(T)| < 2 for T < 6800000, and the largest value of |S(T)| found so far is not much larger than 3.
+Riemann's estimate S(T) = O(log T) implies that the gaps between zeros are bounded, and Littlewood improved this slightly, showing that the gaps between their imaginary parts tend to 0.
+
+=== Theorem of Hadamard and de la Vallée-Poussin ===
+Hadamard (1896) and de la Vallée-Poussin (1896) independently proved that no zeros could lie on the line Re(s) = 1. Together with the functional equation and the fact that there are no zeros with real part greater than 1, this showed that all non-trivial zeros must lie in the interior of the critical strip 0 < Re(s) < 1. This was a key step in their first proofs of the prime number theorem.
+Both the original proofs that the zeta function has no zeros with real part 1 are similar, and depend on showing that if ζ(1 + it) vanishes, then ζ(1 + 2it) is singular, which is not possible. One way of doing this is by using the inequality
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        σ
+        
+          )
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        σ
+        +
+        i
+        t
+        
+          )
+          
+            4
+          
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        σ
+        +
+        2
+        i
+        t
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        ≥
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\zeta (\sigma )^{3}\zeta (\sigma +it)^{4}\zeta (\sigma +2it)|\geq 1}
+  
+
+for σ > 1, t real, and looking at the limit as σ → 1. This inequality follows by taking the real part of the log of the Euler product to see that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        σ
+        +
+        i
+        t
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        =
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        ℜ
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            
+              p
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              p
+              
+                −
+                n
+                (
+                σ
+                +
+                i
+                t
+                )
+              
+            
+            n
+          
+        
+        =
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            
+              p
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                p
+                
+                  −
+                  n
+                  σ
+                
+              
+              cos
+              ⁡
+              (
+              t
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                p
+                
+                  n
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            n
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\zeta (\sigma +it)|=\exp \Re \sum _{p^{n}}{\frac {p^{-n(\sigma +it)}}{n}}=\exp \sum _{p^{n}}{\frac {p^{-n\sigma }\cos(t\log p^{n})}{n}},}
+  
+
+where the sum is over all prime powers pn, so that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        σ
+        
+          )
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        σ
+        +
+        i
+        t
+        
+          )
+          
+            4
+          
+        
+        ζ
+        (
+        σ
+        +
+        2
+        i
+        t
+        )
+        
+          |
+        
+        =
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            
+              p
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          p
+          
+            −
+            n
+            σ
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              3
+              +
+              4
+              cos
+              ⁡
+              (
+              t
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                p
+                
+                  n
+                
+              
+              )
+              +
+              cos
+              ⁡
+              (
+              2
+              t
+              log
+              ⁡
+              
+                p
+                
+                  n
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\zeta (\sigma )^{3}\zeta (\sigma +it)^{4}\zeta (\sigma +2it)|=\exp \sum _{p^{n}}p^{-n\sigma }{\frac {3+4\cos(t\log p^{n})+\cos(2t\log p^{n})}{n}}}
+  
+
+which is at least 1 because all the terms in the sum are positive, due to the inequality
+
+  
+    
+      
+        3
+        +
+        4
+        cos
+        ⁡
+        (
+        θ
+        )
+        +
+        cos
+        ⁡
+        (
+        2
+        θ
+        )
+        =
+        2
+        (
+        1
+        +
+        cos
+        ⁡
+        (
+        θ
+        )
+        
+          )
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ≥
+        0.
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 3+4\cos(\theta )+\cos(2\theta )=2(1+\cos(\theta ))^{2}\geq 0.}
+  
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rippling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rippling-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+---
+title: "Rippling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rippling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:29.200961+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In computer science, more particularly in automated theorem proving, rippling is a group of meta-level heuristics, developed primarily in the Mathematical Reasoning Group in the School of Informatics at the University of Edinburgh, and most commonly used to guide inductive proofs in automated theorem proving systems. Rippling may be viewed as a restricted form of rewrite system, where special object level annotations are used to ensure fertilization upon the completion of rewriting, with a measure decreasing requirement ensuring termination for any set of rewrite rules and expression.
+
+
+== History ==
+Raymond Aubin was the first person to use the term "rippling out" whilst working on his 1976 PhD thesis at the University of Edinburgh. He recognised a common pattern of movement during the rewriting stage of inductive proofs. Alan Bundy later turned this concept on its head by defining rippling to be this pattern of movement, rather than a side effect.
+Since then, "rippling sideways", "rippling in" and "rippling past" were coined, so the term was generalised to rippling. Rippling continues to be developed at Edinburgh, and elsewhere, as of 2007.
+Rippling has been applied to many problems traditionally viewed as being hard in the inductive theorem proving community, including Bledsoe's limit theorems and a proof of the Gordon microprocessor, a miniature computer developed by Michael J. C. Gordon and his team at Cambridge.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Very often, when attempting to prove a proposition, we are given a source expression and a target expression, which differ only by the inclusion of a few extra syntactic elements.
+This is especially true in inductive proofs, where the given expression is taken to be the inductive hypothesis, and the target expression the inductive conclusion. Usually, the differences between the hypothesis and conclusion are only minor, perhaps the inclusion of a successor function (e.g., +1) around the induction variable.
+At the start of rippling the differences between the two expressions, known as wave-fronts in rippling parlance, are identified. Typically these differences prevent the completion of the proof and need to be "moved away". The target expression is annotated to distinguish the wavefronts (differences) and skeleton (common structure) between the two expressions. Special rules, called wave rules, can then be used in a terminating fashion to manipulate the target expression until the source expression can be used to complete the proof.
+
+
+== Example ==
+We aim to show that the addition of natural numbers is commutative.  This is an elementary property, and the proof is by routine induction.  Nevertheless, the search space for finding such a proof may become quite large.
+Typically, the base case of any inductive proof is solved by methods other than rippling.  For this reason, we will concentrate on the step case.
+Our step case takes the following form, where we have chosen to use x as the induction variable:
+
+We may also possess several rewrite rules, drawn from lemmas, inductive definitions or elsewhere, that can be used to form wave-rules.
+Suppose we have the following three rewrite rules:
+
+then these can be annotated, to form:
+
+Note that all these annotated rules preserve the skeleton (x + y = y + x, in the first case and x + y in the second/third).  Now, annotating the inductive step case, gives us:
+
+And we are all set to perform rippling:
+
+Note that the final rewrite causes all wave-fronts to disappear, and we may now apply fertilization, the application of the inductive hypotheses, to complete the proof.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+David A. Basin and Toby Walsh (1996). "A Calculus for and Termination of Rippling" (PDF). Journal of Automated Reasoning. 16 (1–2): 147–180. doi:10.1007/BF00244462. S2CID 14427821.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe_effect-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe_effect-0.md
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe_effect-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+---
+title: "Roe effect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:23.501870+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Roe effect is a hypothesis about the long-term effect of abortion on the political balance of the United States, which suggests that since supporters of the legalization of abortion cause the erosion of their own political base, the practice of abortion will eventually lead to the restriction or illegalization of abortion. It is named after Roe v. Wade, the U.S. Supreme Court case that effectively legalized abortion nationwide in the U.S. Its best-known proponent is James Taranto of The Wall Street Journal who coined the phrase "Roe effect" in Best of the Web Today, his OpinionJournal.com column.
+Put simply, this hypothesis holds that:
+
+Those who favor legal abortion are much more likely to have the procedure than those who oppose it.
+Children usually follow their parents' political leanings.
+Therefore, pro-abortion rights parents will have more abortions and, hence, fewer children.
+Therefore, the pro-abortion rights population gradually shrinks in proportion to the anti-abortion population.
+Therefore, support for legal abortions will decline over time.
+A similar argument suggests that political groups that oppose abortion will tend to have more supporters in the long run than those who support it. In 2005, the Wall Street Journal published a detailed explanation and statistical evidence that Taranto says supports his hypothesis.
+Taranto first discussed the concept in January 2003, and named it in December 2003. He later suggested that the Roe effect serves as an explanation for the fact that the fall in teen birth rates is "greatest in liberal states, where pregnant teenagers would be more likely to [have abortions] and thus less likely to carry their babies to term."
+The Journal has also published articles about this topic by Larry L. Eastland and Arthur C. Brooks. Eastland has argued that Democrats have had higher rates of abortion than Republicans following Roe, while Brooks points out liberals have a lower fertility rate than conservatives.
+According to American historian Elizabeth Fox-Genovese the existence of such an effect "cannot be doubted" but "its nature, causes, and consequences may be." Fox-Genovese said that "Taranto has advanced an arresting argument that deserves more extended treatment."
+Wellesley College Professor of Economics Phillip Levine, while acknowledging that Taranto's hypothesis cannot be dismissed out of hand, has said there are several flaws in Taranto's reasoning. He writes that the conditions laid out by Taranto make several incorrect assumptions, most notably that pregnancies are events that are completely out of the control of the women. He writes, "If people engage in sexual activity (or not), or choose to use birth control (or not), independent of outside influences, then [Taranto's and Eastland's] statistical statements would be valid." Levine concludes that the hypothesis passes the test of plausibility but that it "would be unwarranted to draw any definitive conclusions regarding the actual contribution of the Roe Effect in determining contemporary political outcomes."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Abortion in the United States
+Legalized abortion and crime effect
+William Bennett
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-0.md
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+---
+title: "Rosy retrospection"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:30.436035+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Rosy retrospection is a proposed psychological phenomenon of recalling the past more positively than it was actually experienced. The highly unreliable nature of human memory is well documented and accepted amongst psychologists. Some research suggests a 'blue retrospective' which also exaggerates negative emotions, creating a bipolar distortion of affective memory that depends on personality, time, and developmental stage. 
+Though it is a cognitive bias which distorts one's view of reality, it is suggested that rosy retrospection serves a useful purpose in increasing self-esteem and sense of well-being. Simplifications and exaggerations of memories that occur in rosy retrospection may make it easier for the brain to store long-term memories, as removing details may reduce the burden of those memories by requiring the generation and maintenance of fewer neural connections. In evolutionary terms, such bias may have persisted because it encourages repeated engagement in adaptive behaviors, such as social bonding, exploration, and caregiving, even when those experiences were mixed or mildly unpleasant at the time. This cognitive efficiency allows the brain to preserve core meaningful experiences without being overwhelmed by trivial or distressing details.
+Rosy retrospection is closely related to nostalgia, but differs in that it specifically involves perceiving the past as better than the present. Declinism, the predisposition to view the past more favourably and the future more negatively, may be related to cognitive biases like rosy retrospection. Nostalgia is usually a sentimental longing for personal or cultural pasts; rosy retrospection functions as a more general evaluative distortion that can apply to mundane daily events as well as significant life experiences. Together, these biases can shape collective cultural narratives, leading societies to idealize historical eras as “golden ages” despite evidence of hardship and inequality.
+The English idiom "rose-colored glasses" or "rose-tinted glasses" refers to perceiving something more positively than it is in reality, with similar turns of phrase in other languages. The Romans occasionally referred to this phenomenon as memoria praeteritorum bonorum, which translates into English roughly as "memory of good past", or more idiomatically as "good old days". Cross-cultural studies indicate that this cognitive tendency exists worldwide, though the specific events and time periods targeted by rosy retrospection vary based on cultural values, historical events, and social norms.
+
+== Research ==
+In one group of experiments, three groups going on different vacations were interviewed before, during, and after their vacations. Most followed the pattern of initially positive anticipation, followed by mild disappointment thereafter. Generally, most subjects reviewed the events more favorably some time after the events had occurred than they did while experiencing them. Even for vacations with record of hardship – flight delays, inclement weather or an inadequate quality of accommodations – this pattern persisted, suggesting negatively related peripheral details tend to fade more rapidly than positively associated core experiences.
+A 2003 pair of studies tracked 68 and 117 undergraduates, suggesting rosy retrospection is caused by high self-esteem. Participants journaled the day's events and associated emotions each night for seven nights. They later recalled their emotions when asked about said events. Those with higher self-esteem recalled their positive emotions being stronger than they journaled. They did not also recall their negative emotions more strongly. However, this result varied in its strength and did not occur consistently. It is proposed that this bias is more acute in others with (often-secure) attachment styles whose past social encounters are more positive.
+A 1995 study tracked 30 employed adults over 2 working weeks, having them report their mood every 2 hours during their waking day, as well as end-of-day and end-of-week reflection. It suggests a rosy bias which grows with time. For positive emotions, it found that end-of-day reflections were stronger than an average of the 2-hourly ratings of that day; likewise end-of-week reflections were stronger than an average of the end-of-days. But for negative emotions, there was no such significant difference neither between the averaged hourly and daily ratings nor the averaged daily and weekly ratings. This temporal gradient implies that positive affective memories are selectively reinforced during the consolidation of memory over days and weeks.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-1.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Rosy retrospection"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:30.436035+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Exaggeration of both negative and positive emotions ===
+Some studies have found evidence of a bias to exaggerating negative emotions - a.k.a. a 'blue' retrospective - as well as positive ones. These results run counter to the assumption that memory distortion is universally positive and suggest that it is flexible and that memory distortion is a response to individual differences and circumstances.
+A 2016 study of 179 adults tracked their emotional state at regular intervals over 10 days, upon reflection after one day, and again after 1-2 months. It found that for both positive and negative emotions, stronger peak emotions (the strongest rating of the day) were more likely to result in exaggerated recollections upon reflection. Unlike the study above, it did not find that this effect increased with time. It also found a negative correlation with the average rating and the exaggerated recollections; suggesting those who consistently experienced stronger emotion recall more accurately. Additionally, it found extraverted personalities were more likely to have ‘rosy’ positive bias whereas neurotic personalities were more likely to have negative 'blue' bias on recall. This coincides with wider personality studies suggesting that extraversion facilitates positive emotional processing, and neuroticism increases sensitivity towards negative stimuli. 
+A 2021 work studied a group of 120 Swiss children aged about 12, later repeating the study on the same group aged about 15. For a week, the children filled in short emotional questionnaires at random points during their school day. Afterwards, they were asked to recall their week’s emotions in retrospect. Note they were asked only about the preceding week: the 15-year-olds were not asked to recall their emotions at age 12. It found evidence of a ‘rosy’ positive bias for the 12-year-olds. But this was the opposite for the 15-year-olds, who showed a 'blue' negative bias instead. This developmental transition is also consistent with changes in emotion regulation, social comparison, and self-identity formation that go hand in hand with puberty.
+A 2003 study surveyed 41 participants around the time of their vacations. Subjects predicted their emotions before vacating, reported their emotions during (in-situ), and recalled their emotions after. It indeed found a rosy effect as subjects recalled (and predicted) their positive emotions being stronger than they actually were. But it also found recollections of negative emotions were recalled and predicted more intensely than was reported at the time (as an aside, the only significant predictor of a desire to repeat a holiday was the recalled emotions, but not the predicted nor in-situ reports). This suggests that both rosy and blue retrospection are essential in informing future behavioral choices and decisions. 
+
+=== Neural and cognitive mechanisms ===
+Recent neuroscientific research is starting to uncover brain systems contributing to the rosy retrospection. The hippocampus — which is vital to producing memories — partners with the amygdala, which handles emotional salience, to give primacy to positive memories in consolidation.  The medial prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain responsible for self-referential thinking, further amplifies this awareness, integrating positive memories with existing thoughts in the present self. Brain imaging fMRI studies reveal the areas related to critical analysis are downactive and reward-related areas upactive during rosy retrospection. 
+Cognitively, rosy retrospection depends on two central processes, selective encoding and selective reconstruction. If nothing else, people are good at encoding experiences. At retrieval they replace missing or misleading information in the past with positive assumptions.  Schema theory supports this process, as existing positive self-schemas mediate memory retrieval processes to maintain coherence with the self-image.Conner, Tamlin (2003). Remembering Everyday Experience Through the Prism of Self-Esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 29(1): 51–62. Slowly, these reconstructed memories become part of the life narrative and shape identity and expectations about the future.
+
+=== Real-world applications ===
+Rosy retrospection is having serious practical benefits in many aspects of daily life. In consumer behavior, people judge past buying, travel and leisure experiences (travel, hobbies etc.) more positively over time, making them to be fond of repeat purchases even in the context of mixed in-the-moment experiences.[13] This bias is often exploited by marketers, through nostalgic branding and drawing on past associations with positive associations, to establish loyalty.
+In the field of mental health, understanding rosy retrospection allows clinicians to take a more positive approach to mood and anxiety disorders. People with depression frequently engage in excessive blue retrospection, and with interventions that can facilitate client awareness of and counterbalancing this retrospection process for clients through the recognition of positive, past experiences, clients with depression are more likely to benefit from this type of intervention. By encouraging partners to engage in rosy retrospective memory of shared history, couples can lower the effect of past conflicts on relationship satisfaction.
+Teachers are able to use guided reflection of past academic successes to build up resilience and motivation students resilience and motivating to carry on in an educational setting. Students may also be more likely to persevere through challenging tasks and cultivate a growth mindset if they remember difficult learning periods positively. Moreover, at work environment, if your managers recognize and interpret past adversities as worthwhile learning opportunities to promote a healthier and more productive organizational atmosphere.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-2.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Rosy retrospection"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:30.436035+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Limitations ===
+Relying on subjective ratings, the above studies could suffer from demand characteristics: participants may guess the study's goals and expected results, unconsciously changing their answers thinking they are 'supposed' to recall their emotions inaccurately. Experiments may lack ecological validity.
+These studies may be vulnerable to sample biases. They rely on small samples which are more likely to be unrepresentative of the general population by unlucky chance. Many of the samples are homogenous to varying extents, with subjects often being relatively young, in education, and western. A similar sample bias may occur in the way researchers find subjects. Potentially those who come across and are appealed to join and remain in studies will be those with relatively more free-time, better education, higher wealth and income, etc. Though the studies took varying efforts to reduce this by ensuring a balance of ages, ethnicities, sexes, etc. While the studies attempted to balance it on different levels (age, ethnic group, sex, etc.), it is less researched cross-culturally or by socioeconomic stratification. 
+These studies typically asked subjects to recall their emotions only days or weeks after an event. Thus they may predict little for rosy retrospection on the scale of months, years, and decades. Longitudinal follow-up studies of memory distortion over years or decades are infrequent and are necessary to decipher lifelong trends of rosy and blue retrospection. 
+A suggested cause of such findings may be in the social and linguistic norms of the subjects, rather than their actual emotions. Especially if a subject fails to fully recall their emotions, social convention may bias them to more positive terms in an attempt to answer. Though this raises the question as to if evidence exists or can be found of such a norm and bias.   
+Most of the previous research has been on mild, everyday events. Little is currently known about the workings of rosy retrospection when in the domain of trauma, the effects of grief, or highly negative life events, wherein memory processes may have different trajectories. 
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Mitchell, T.; Thompson, L. (1994). "A theory of temporal adjustments of the evaluation of events: Rosy Prospection & Rosy Retrospection" (PDF). In Stubbart, C.; Porac, J.; Meindl, J. (eds.). Advances in managerial cognition and organizational information-processing. Vol. 5. Greenwich, CT: JAI press. pp. 85–114. ISBN 978-1-55938-447-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-12-02.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing-0.md
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Satisficing"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Satisficing is a decision-making strategy or cognitive heuristic that entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met, without necessarily maximizing any specific objective. The term satisficing, a portmanteau of satisfy and suffice, was introduced by Herbert A. Simon in 1956, although the concept was first posited in his 1947 book Administrative Behavior. Simon used satisficing to explain the behavior of decision makers under circumstances in which an optimal solution cannot be determined. He maintained that many natural problems are characterized by computational intractability or a lack of information, both of which preclude the use of mathematical optimization procedures. He observed in his Nobel Prize in Economics speech that "decision makers can satisfice either by finding optimum solutions for a simplified world, or by finding satisfactory solutions for a more realistic world. Neither approach, in general, dominates the other, and both have continued to co-exist in the world of management science".
+Simon formulated the concept within a novel approach to rationality, which posits that rational choice theory is an unrealistic description of human decision processes and calls for psychological realism. He referred to this approach as bounded rationality. Moral satisficing is a branch of bounded rationality that views moral behavior as based on pragmatic social heuristics rather than on moral rules or optimization principles. These heuristics are neither good nor bad per se, but only in relation to the environments in which they are used. Some consequentialist theories in moral philosophy use the concept of satisficing in a similar sense, though most call for optimization instead.
+
+== In decision-making research ==
+Two traditions of satisficing exist in decision-making research: Simon's program of studying how individuals or institutions rely on heuristic solutions in the real world, and the program of finding optimal solutions to problems simplified by convenient mathematical assumptions (so that optimization is possible).
+
+=== Heuristic Satisficing ===
+Heuristic satisficing refers to the use of aspiration levels when choosing from different paths of action. By this account, decision-makers select the first option that meets a given need or select the option that seems to address most needs rather than the "optimal" solution. The basic model of aspiration-level adaptation is as follows: 
+Step 1: Set an aspiration level α.
+Step 2: Choose the first option that meets or exceeds α.
+
+Step 3: If no option has satisfied α after time β, then change α by an amount γ and continue until a satisfying option is found.Example: Consider pricing commodities. An analysis of 628 used car dealers showed that 97% relied on a form of satisficing. Most set the initial price α in the middle of the price range of comparable cars and lowered the price if the car was not sold after 24 days (β) by about 3% (γ). A minority (19%), mostly smaller dealerships, set a low initial price and kept it unchanged (no Step 3). The car dealers adapted the parameters to their business environment. For instance, they decreased the waiting time β by about 3% for each additional competitor in the area.Note that aspiration-level adaptation is a process model of actual behavior rather than an as-if optimization model, and accordingly requires an analysis of how people actually make decisions. It allows for predicting surprising effects such as the "cheap twin paradox", where two similar cars have substantially different price tags in the same dealership.[4] The reason is that one car entered the dealership earlier and had at least one change in price at the time the second car arrived. 
+Example: A task is to sew a patch onto a pair of blue pants. The best needle to do the threading is a 4-cm-long needle with a 3-millimeter eye. This needle is hidden in a haystack along with 1,000 other needles varying in size from 1 cm to 6 cm. Satisficing claims that the first needle that can sew on the patch is the one that should be used. Spending time searching for that one specific needle in the haystack is a waste of energy and resources.
+A crucial determinant of a satisficing decision strategy concerns the construction of the aspiration level. In many circumstances, the individual may be uncertain about the aspiration level.
+
+Example: An individual who only seeks a satisfactory retirement income may not know what level of wealth is required—given uncertainty about future prices—to ensure a satisfactory income. In this case, the individual can only evaluate outcomes on the basis of their probability of being satisfactory. If the individual chooses that outcome which has the maximum chance of being satisfactory, then this individual's behavior is theoretically indistinguishable from that of an optimizing individual under certain conditions.
+Another key issue concerns an evaluation of satisficing strategies. Although often regarded as an inferior decision strategy, specific satisficing strategies for inference have been shown to be ecologically rational, that is in particular decision environments, they can outperform alternative decision strategies.
+Satisficing also occurs in consensus building when the group looks towards a solution everyone can agree on even if it may not be the best.
+
+Example: A group spends hours projecting the next fiscal year's budget. After hours of debating they eventually reach a consensus, only to have one person speak up and ask if the projections are correct. When the group becomes upset at the question, it is not because this person is wrong to ask, but rather because the group has already come up with a solution that works. The projection may not be what will actually come, but the majority agrees on one number and thus the projection is good enough to close the book on the budget.
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+---
+title: "Satisficing"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:31.658331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Optimization ===
+One popular method for rationalizing satisficing is optimization when all costs, including the cost of the optimization calculations themselves and the cost of getting information for use in those calculations, are considered. As a result, the eventual choice is usually sub-optimal in regard to the main goal of the optimization, i.e., different from the optimum in the case that the costs of choosing are not taken into account.
+
+==== As a form of optimization ====
+Alternatively, satisficing can be considered to be just constraint satisfaction, the process of finding a solution satisfying a set of constraints, without concern for finding an optimum. Any such satisficing problem can be formulated as an (equivalent) optimization problem using the indicator function of the satisficing requirements as an objective function. More formally, if X denotes the set of all options and  S ⊆ X denotes the set of "satisficing" options, then selecting a satisficing solution (an element of S) is equivalent to the following optimization problem
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          max
+          
+            s
+            ∈
+            X
+          
+        
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        (
+        s
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \max _{s\in X}I_{S}(s)}
+  
+
+where Is denotes the Indicator function of S, that is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        (
+        s
+        )
+        :=
+        
+          
+            {
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      
+                        
+                          1
+                        
+                        
+                          ,
+                        
+                        
+                          s
+                          ∈
+                          S
+                        
+                      
+                      
+                        
+                          0
+                        
+                        
+                          ,
+                        
+                        
+                          s
+                          ∉
+                          S
+                        
+                      
+                    
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            
+          
+        
+         
+        ,
+         
+        s
+        ∈
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{S}(s):={\begin{cases}{\begin{array}{ccc}1&,&s\in S\\0&,&s\notin S\end{array}}\end{cases}}\ ,\ s\in X}
+  
+
+A solution s ∈ X to this optimization problem is optimal if, and only if, it is a satisficing option (an element of S). Thus, from a decision theory point of view, the distinction between "optimizing" and "satisficing" is essentially a stylistic issue (that can nevertheless be very important in certain applications) rather than a substantive issue. What is important to determine is what should be optimized and what should be satisficed. The following quote from Jan Odhnoff's 1965 paper is appropriate:
+
+In my opinion there is room for both 'optimizing' and 'satisficing' models in business economics. Unfortunately, the difference between 'optimizing' and 'satisficing' is often referred to as a difference in the quality of a certain choice. It is a triviality that an optimal result in an optimization can be an unsatisfactory result in a satisficing model. The best things would therefore be to avoid a general use of these two words.
+
+==== Applied to the utility framework ====
+In economics, satisficing is a behavior which attempts to achieve at least some minimum level of a particular variable, but which does not necessarily maximize its value. The most common application of the concept in economics is in the behavioral theory of the firm, which, unlike traditional accounts, postulates that producers treat profit not as a goal to be maximized, but as a constraint. Under these theories, a critical level of profit must be achieved by firms; thereafter, priority is attached to the attainment of other goals.
+More formally, as before if X denotes the set of all options s, and we have the payoff function U(s) which gives the payoff enjoyed by the agent for each option. Suppose we define the optimum payoff U* the solution to
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          max
+          
+            s
+            ∈
+            X
+          
+        
+        U
+        (
+        s
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \max _{s\in X}U(s)}
+  
+
+with the optimum actions being the set O of options such that U(s*) = U* (i.e. it is the set of all options that yield the maximum payoff). Assume that the set O has at least one element.
+The idea of the aspiration level was introduced by Herbert A. Simon and developed in economics by Richard Cyert and James March in their 1963 book A Behavioral Theory of the Firm. The aspiration level is the payoff that the agent aspires to: if the agent achieves at least this level it is satisfied, and if it does not achieve it, the agent is not satisfied. Let us define the aspiration level A and assume that A ≤ U*. Clearly, whilst it is possible that someone can aspire to something that is better than the optimum, it is in a sense irrational to do so. So, we require the aspiration level to be at or below the optimum payoff.
+We can then define the set of satisficing options S as all those options that yield at least A: s ∈ S if and only if A ≤ U(s). Clearly since A ≤ U*, it follows that O ⊆ S. That is, the set of optimum actions is a subset of the set of satisficing options. So, when an agent satisfices, then she will choose from a larger set of actions than the agent who optimizes. One way of looking at this is that the satisficing agent is not putting in the effort to get to the precise optimum or is unable to exclude actions that are below the optimum but still above aspiration.
+An equivalent way of looking at satisficing is epsilon-optimization (that means you choose your actions so that the payoff is within epsilon of the optimum). If we define the "gap" between the optimum and the aspiration as ε where ε = U* − A. Then the set of satisficing options S(ε) can be defined as all those options s such that U(s) ≥ U* − ε.
+
+==== Other applications in economics ====
+Apart from the behavioral theory of the firm, applications of the idea of satisficing behavior in economics include the Akerlof and Yellen model of menu cost, popular in New Keynesian macroeconomics. Also, in economics and game theory there is the notion of an Epsilon-equilibrium, which is a generalization of the standard Nash equilibrium in which each player is within ε of his or her optimal payoff (the standard Nash-equilibrium being the special case where ε = 0).
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+---
+title: "Satisficing"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:31.658331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Endogenous aspiration levels ===
+What determines the aspiration level may be derived from past experience (some function of an agent's or firm's previous payoffs), or some organizational or market institutions. For example, if we think of managerial firms, the managers will be expected to earn normal profits by their shareholders. Other institutions may have specific targets imposed externally (for example state-funded universities in the UK have targets for student recruitment).
+An economic example is the Dixon model of an economy consisting of many firms operating in different industries, where each industry is a duopoly. The endogenous aspiration level is the average profit in the economy. This represents the power of the financial markets: in the long-run firms need to earn normal profits or they die (as Armen Alchian once said, "This is the criterion by which the economic system selects survivors: those who realize positive profits are the survivors; those who suffer losses disappear"). We can then think what happens over time. If firms are earning profits at or above their aspiration level, then they just stay doing what they are doing (unlike the optimizing firm which would always strive to earn the highest profits possible). However, if the firms are earning below aspiration, then they try something else, until they get into a situation where they attain their aspiration level. It can be shown that in this economy, satisficing leads to collusion amongst firms: competition between firms leads to lower profits for one or both of the firms in a duopoly. This means that competition is unstable: one or both of the firms will fail to achieve their aspirations and hence try something else. The only situation which is stable is one where all firms achieve their aspirations, which can only happen when all firms earn average profits. In general, this will only happen if all firms earn the joint-profit maximizing or collusive profit.
+
+== In personality and happiness research ==
+
+Some research has suggested that satisficing/maximizing and other decision-making strategies, like personality traits, have a strong genetic component and endure over time. This genetic influence on decision-making behaviors has been found through classical twin studies, in which decision-making tendencies are self-reported by each member of a twinned pair and then compared between monozygotic and dizygotic twins. This implies that people can be categorized into "maximizers" and "satisficers", with some people landing in between.
+The distinction between satisficing and maximizing not only differs in the decision-making process, but also in the post-decision evaluation. Maximizers tend to use a more exhaustive approach to their decision-making process: they seek and evaluate more options than satisficers do to achieve greater satisfaction. However, whereas satisficers tend to be relatively pleased with their decisions, maximizers tend to be less happy with their decision outcomes. This is thought to be due to limited cognitive resources people have when their options are vast, forcing maximizers to not make an optimal choice. Because maximization is unrealistic and usually impossible in everyday life, maximizers often feel regretful in their post-choice evaluation.
+
+== In survey methodology ==
+As an example of satisficing, in the field of social cognition, Jon Krosnick proposed a theory of statistical survey satisficing which says that optimal question answering by a survey respondent involves a great deal of cognitive work and that some people would use satisficing to reduce that burden.
+Some people may shortcut their cognitive processes in two ways:
+
+Weak satisficing: Respondent executes all cognitive steps involved in optimizing, but less completely and with bias.
+Strong satisficing: Respondent offers responses that will seem reasonable to the interviewer without any memory search or information integration.
+Likelihood to satisfice is linked to respondent ability, respondent motivation and task difficulty.
+Regarding survey answers, satisficing manifests in:
+
+choosing explicitly offered no-opinion or 'don't know' response option
+choosing socially desirable responses
+non-differentiation or straight-lining when a battery of questions asks for ratings of multiple objects on the same response scale
+acquiescence response bias, which is the tendency to agree with any assertion, regardless of its content
+selecting the first reasonable looking option
+randomly selecting a response
+skipping items
+abandoning the survey or terminating the survey early
+rushing on online surveys
+choosing minimally acceptable answers when verbal answers are required
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Byron, Michael (1998). "Satisficing and Optimality". Ethics. 109 (1): 67–93. doi:10.1086/233874. S2CID 170867023. A paper on satisficing considered from a philosophical viewpoint.
+Byron, M. (2004). Satisficing and Maximizing: Moral Theorists on Practical Reason. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521811491.
+Bearden, J. N.; Connolly, T. (2008). "On Optimal Satisficing: How simple policies can achieve excellent results". In Kugler, T.; Smith, J. C.; Connolly, T.; et al. (eds.). Decision Modeling in Uncertain and Complex Environments. New York: Springer. ISBN 9780387771311.
+Dixon, Huw (2001). "Donut world and the duopoly archipelago" (PDF). Surfing Economics: Essays for the Inquiring Economist. New York: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0333760611.
+Holbrook, A.; Green, M.; Krosnick, J. (2003). "Telephone versus Face-to-Face Interviewing of National Probability Samples with Long Questionnaires: Comparisons of Respondent Satisficing and Social Desirability Response Bias". Public Opinion Quarterly. 67 (1): 79–125. doi:10.1086/346010.
+Krosnick, J. (1991). "Response Strategies for coping with the cognitive demands of attitude measures in surveys". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 5 (3): 213–236. doi:10.1002/acp.2350050305.
+Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of Man: Social and Rational. New York: Wiley.
+Simon, H. A. (1978). "Rationality as Process and Product of Thought". American Economic Review. 68 (1): 1–16. JSTOR 1816653.
+Simon, H. A. (1983). Reason in Human Affairs. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804711791.
+
+== External links ==
+Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems definition of "satisficing"
+A web page dedicated to a discussion on the "satisficing" vs "optimizing" debate.
+Schwartz's Tech Talk ("The Paradox of Choice – Why More Is Less") given at Google on April 27, 2006
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+---
+title: "Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe–Goldstein_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:24.686477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In archaeology, the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between a society's funerary practices and its social organization. It predicts a correlation between two phenomena: the use of specific areas to dispose of the dead, and the legitimation of control over restricted resources through claims of descent from dead ancestors. The hypothesis was first formulated by the American anthropologist Arthur Saxe in 1970, as the last in a series of eight, and was refined by Lynne Goldstein later in the 1970s. In reference to its origin, it is sometimes known as Hypothesis Eight.
+Saxe's work drew on the ethnographic work of Mervyn Meggitt and the role theory developed by Ward Goodenough. He predicted that, if a society contained groups of people with a shared identity (known as "corporate groups") that legitimized their claims to important, restricted resources by claiming ties to ancestors, that society would be more likely to use formal areas, such as cemeteries, for the disposal of the dead. Conversely, societies using such areas would be more likely to contain such corporate groups. His work coincided with that of Lewis Binford, who argued that funerary practices provided useful evidence for social organization and for the status of the deceased in life. Studying the treatment of the dead to investigate these areas came to be known as the Saxe–Binford program. Lynne Goldstein modified the hypothesis to stipulate that formal disposal areas were only one possible means of claiming ties to ancestors, and therefore that the lack of such areas need not imply the lack of corporate groups using those ties to compete over resources. As a result, it became known as the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis. 
+The Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis was credited with revitalizing interest in funerary archaeology. It was widely adopted, particularly by adherents of processual archaeology, a body of theory that sought to bring archaeology closer to the natural sciences. In the 1980s and 1990s, it was applied to (among others) the distribution of megalithic tombs in the European Stone Age, to prehistoric Aboriginal burial grounds near Australia's Murray River, and to the different levels of state control over cemeteries in classical Athens and ancient Rome. Within the processual movement, the hypothesis was criticized for failing to account for practices that do not leave traces in the archaeological record. It was also criticized by post-processual archaeologists, such as Ian Hodder, who viewed it as ignoring the beliefs, motivations and competing interests of those responsible for disposing of the dead. By the twenty-first century, explicit use of the hypothesis was considered a minority pursuit. However, it was also described as part of the "theoretical unconscious" of Neolithic archaeologists by James Whitley in 2002, and as part of "the realm of archaeological common sense" by Robert Rosenswig, Margaret Briggs, and Marilyn Masson in 2020.
+
+== Background ==
+
+In the 1970s and 1980s, the American archaeologist Lewis Binford was a leading figure in the theoretical movement known as the "New Archaeology" (later called processual archaeology). In a 1962 article, Binford had called on archaeologists to make greater use of observations of living societies made by anthropologists as analogies for how societies may have operated in the past. He adapted an earlier comment by the archaeologists Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips to write that "archaeology is anthropology or it is nothing".
+In a 1971 article titled "Mortuary Practices: Their Study and Their Potential", Binford argued that funerary practices reflect the social organization of the people who carry them out. This conflicted with the cultural diffusionist or culture-historical model then prevalent in archaeology, which instead saw them as determined by the ancestry of the cultural groups performing them, or by cultural exchange between different groups. Binford set out to test the degree to which a society's treatment of the dead ("mortuary practices") reflected the deceased individuals' social status and the whole society's level of social complexity. He predicted that simpler societies would have fewer criteria on which to mark out individuals in death (that is, they would "show fewer dimensions of differentiation"), while more complex societies would have more such criteria. From a study of 40 societies, he concluded that more complex societies indeed showed more degrees of differentiation in their funerary rituals between different individuals, and that they marked that differentiation in more abstract ways. He also considered that mortuary differentiation according to age correlated negatively with the level of hereditary inequality in a society. 
+
+== Saxe's formulation of the hypothesis ==
+
+The anthropologist Arthur Saxe, then a graduate student at the University of Michigan, proposed Hypothesis Eight in his 1970 doctoral dissertation. It was developed from the work of Mervyn Meggitt, who had made anthropological observations of the Mae Enga people of Papua New Guinea between 1933 and the early 1960s. He had concluded that, in Mae Enga society, claims of descent from the ancestors who had once settled a piece of land were used to determine who legitimately owned it. Saxe's work was further based on the role theory developed by Ward Goodenough in the 1960s, which interpreted acts in everyday life as acting out socially defined roles and categories. The archaeologist and philologist Matthew Suriano has also suggested that Saxe was inspired by the work of Fustel de Coulanges, a nineteenth-century historian who connected funerary practices with the growth of property rights in ancient cities. 
+In his dissertation, Saxe proposed eight hypotheses concerning the relationship between mortuary practices and the social structure of the society that uses them. The eighth argues that a society's use of formal areas to dispose of the dead, such as cemeteries, correlates with certain other cultural features. Specifically, it focuses on corporate groups (groups of people sharing a common identity), which legitimize their claims to restricted resources by claiming ties to ancestors. According to the hypothesis, societies with these corporate groups are more likely to use such areas; conversely, societies using such areas are more likely to contain corporate groups using ancestral ties in this way. In Saxe's phrasing:
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+---
+title: "Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe–Goldstein_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:24.686477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+To the degree that corporate group rights to use and/or control crucial but restricted resources are attained and/or legitimized by means of lineal descent from the dead (i.e. lineal ties to ancestors), such groups will maintain formal disposal areas for the exclusive disposal of their dead, and conversely.
+Saxe considered the hypothesis supported by the cases he studied – the Kapauku, Asante, and Bontoc peoples, respectively of Central Papua, Ghana, and Luzon – but to require further testing on a larger sample.
+As applied to past societies, the hypothesis is an example of middle-range theory, in that it attempts to draw general conclusions about the relationship between the archaeological record and the people who produced it. It is within the tradition of processual archaeology, a movement begun in the 1960s which aimed to model archaeology on the scientific method of the natural sciences. Processual archaeology emphasized the development and testing of hypotheses about general laws of human behavior. In this respect, it was part of the larger positivist school of thought, in which knowledge is considered to be based upon observable ("empirical") facts, which can themselves be predicted from consistent rules, laws and patterns. The belief that an individual's treatment in death can be used to infer information about both their status in life and the organization of their society has been termed the "Saxe–Binford program" or "Saxe–Binford hypothesis". The archaeologist Robert Chapman has characterized the work of both Saxe and Binford in this area as "exploratory rather than ... fully theorized [or] theoretical".
+
+== Development by Lynne Goldstein ==
+Saxe's eighth hypothesis was widely adopted and developed by processual archaeologists during the 1970s. Joseph Tainter used it in a study of a cemetery at Kaloko in Hawaii, where the community was made up of the inhabitants of four residential units. He argued, based on the hypothesis, that the unified nature of the cemetery reflected a unified identity shared between the inhabitants of different units. Lynne Goldstein, then a doctoral student in archaeology at Northwestern University, wrote her own thesis on the hypothesis, reanalyzing Saxe's data and producing a study of 30 societies in relation to Hypothesis Eight. In a 1981 chapter, Goldstein agreed with Saxe that formal disposal areas for the dead generally occur in societies with social structures organized around lineal descent. However, she further argued, against Saxe, that maintaining such areas was not an essential part of expressing these social structures.  
+Goldstein reframed Saxe's single hypothesis as three related sub-hypotheses. Her reformulation made Hypothesis Eight a one-way argument: while formal disposal areas could be taken as evidence that corporate groups used claims of ancestry to claim control of restricted resources, it did not follow that a society that included such groups would always institute such disposal areas. Instead, different cultures may have different ways of legitimizing ancestral claims to resources, including through non-funerary symbols and rituals. Goldstein's formulation largely displaced that of Saxe, with the result that the overall idea became generally known as the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis. 
+Goldstein first hypothesised that corporate groups making claims based on ties to ancestors would express these through regular religious or ritual acts. She stated that these acts would be more prominent in societies where claims based on ancestors were more important, and that one form of such acts could be to maintain formal disposal areas:
+
+To the degree that corporate group rights to use and/or control crucial but restricted resources are attained and/or legitimized by lineal descent from the dead (i.e. lineal ties to ancestors), such groups will, by the popular religion and its ritualization, regularly reaffirm the lineal corporate group and its rights. One means of ritualization is the maintenance of a permanent, specialized, bounded area for the exclusive disposal of their dead.
+She then argued that the existence of such formal disposal areas could be taken as evidence for corporate groups making these kinds of claims, either based on biological ancestry or traditions of inheritance:
+
+If a permanent, specialized, bounded area for the exclusive disposal of the group's dead exists, then it is likely that this represents a corporate group that has rights over the use and/or control of crucial but restricted resources. This corporate control is most likely to be attained and/or legitimized by means of lineal descent from the dead, either in terms of an actual lineage or in the form of a strong, established tradition of the critical resource passing from parent to offspring.
+Finally, she argued that researchers could be more confident in linking formal disposal areas with claims based on ancestors if those disposal areas were more rigorously defined and organized:
+
+The more structured and formal the disposal area, the fewer alternative explanations of social organization apply, and conversely.
+Having assessed these sub-hypotheses against the Mississippian societies studied in her doctoral research, Goldstein concluded that: 
+
+If there is a formal bounded disposal area, used exclusively for the dead, then the culture is probably one which has a corporate group structure in the form of a lineal descent system. The more organized and formal the disposal area is, the more conclusive this interpretation.
+
+== Application ==
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+title: "Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe–Goldstein_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:24.686477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In collaboration with L. P. Gall, Saxe studied itinerant swidden farmers in Malaysia who had been forced to move into permanent villages. In a 1977 publication of this study, Saxe and Gall noted that these farmers subsequently shifted toward burying their dead in formal cemeteries, and took this as evidence for Hypothesis Eight. Robert Chapman, in 1981, argued that the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis could be used to explain the distribution of megalithic tombs in prehistoric Europe. In 1982, Maurice Bloch made a study of the Merina people of Madagascar, for whom he concluded that "the notion of ancestral land, that is land belonging to the deme [community], is totally merged with the notion of ancestors. The ancestors had lived and were buried in the ancestral land; the land, in the form of terraces, had been made by the ancestors". The anthropologist James A. Brown considers this reinforcing evidence for the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis.  
+In 1981, Brown described the methods of Saxe and Binford as a means of applying to material culture the social theories of Morton Fried and Elman Service, who studied the development and evolution of socio-political organization. In 1984, Jack Glazier made a study of the Mbeere people of Kenya, who traditionally disposed of corpses with little ritual until a 1930 government decree mandated the burial of the dead. Glazier concluded that, after the Mbeere were forced to use fixed cemeteries, those cemeteries began to be used to legitimize claims of hereditary control over the land around them. This conclusion has been cited as evidence in support of the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis. Subsequent studies used the hypothesis as part of an explanation of the links between funerary practices and social structure. In 1988, Colin Pardoe applied it to prehistoric Aboriginal burial grounds in southeastern Australia, interpreting these burial grounds as a means of legitimizing control over territory near the Murray River. 
+The hypothesis has been applied to societies in diverse geographical areas and across different time periods. In 1983, Douglas Charles and Jane E. Buikstra made a study of Mississippian funerary sites from the Archaic period (c. 8000 – c. 1000 BCE). They connected the hypotheses of Saxe and Goldstein to modes of subsistence (that is, the means by which a society acquires the resources necessary for survival). They argued that sedentary modes of subsistence correlated with the use of formal cemetery areas, and that the inclusion of individuals in cemeteries implied their inclusion in corporate groups competing for restricted resources. Umesh Chattopadhyaya concluded in 1996 that the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis could be applied to Mesolithic (middle Stone Age) hunter-gatherer societies of the Ganges valley. It has also been used to explain the establishment of Neolithic (later Stone Age) cemeteries in northwest Europe. Patricia McAnany popularized the hypothesis among Mesoamerican archaeologists through her 1995 book Living with the Ancestors, in which she argued for the use of burial as creating a "principle of first occupancy", giving claims to land through descent from those who originally farmed it. Carla Antonaccio, also in 1995, used the hypothesis as a foundation of her study of the use of cemeteries between the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in Greece. She argued that the evidence of feasting and libations at ancient tombs, as well as their re-entry and re-use, was evidence for the ancestor worship of mythical heroes. 
+Certain studies have employed the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis alongside typically post-processual theoretical focuses, such as an emphasis on individual agency (that is, the ability of people to act as they wish) and how material culture can be used to challenge or assert the social order, rather than passively reflecting it. Ian Morris invoked the hypothesis in 1991 to explain the differences in burial practice between the classical cities of Athens and Rome, by which cemeteries were tightly controlled by the state in Athens but comparatively unregulated in Rome. He added a cognitive explanation, based on the use of textual evidence, to suggest that Athenian cemeteries were used to legitimize claims to citizenship, which was comparatively more restricted and more valuable in Athens than in Rome. Morris qualified the hypothesis by emphasizing that claims of descent from ancestors need not be associated with ancestor worship.  Matthew C. Velasco's 2014 study of pre-Hispanic burials in Peru's Colca Valley used the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis alongside explanations centering the agency of material objects (that is, the ability of objects to influence or constrain the actions of human beings) and the role of funerary rituals in constructing social identities. Luca Cherstich employed the hypothesis in his 2024 study of the tombs of classical Cyrene, but wrote that it was necessary to temper it with a post-processual investigation of the intent and agency behind the formation of the funerary record.
+
+== Reception ==
+
+=== Criticism ===
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+---
+title: "Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe–Goldstein_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:24.686477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis was criticized by post-processual archaeologists of the 1980s, who argued that it did not leave sufficient room for the beliefs and intentions of those who lived in the past and created the archaeological record. Ian Hodder, in 1982, used the example of the Mesakin people of Sudan to argue that the burial record may only represent an idealized fraction of the social relations within a society, drawing attention to what he called "the disjunction between burial pattern and social pattern". In the same year, Hodder's students Michael Shanks and Christopher Tilley criticized the functionalist position adopted by Saxe and other processualists, by which social phenomena are analyzed primarily in terms of their observable outcomes. Shanks and Tilley wrote that such arguments were inadequate to explain the specific content and context of funerary ritual, and that mortuary practices may be used to invert and misrepresent the social order as much as they may reflect it. Mike Parker Pearson, another of Hodder's students, later wrote that "to reduce the significance of ancestors and tombs to a means of subsistence management is to relegate human aspiration and motivation to wondering where the next meal is coming from". 
+Attempts to use the treatment of the dead to infer social status or organization fell from scholarly favor in the 1980s, and were generally replaced by investigations of what funerary practices meant to those who carried them out. In 1984, Hodder again criticized the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis as presenting a "relatively passive view of society", in which cultural context was ignored, and the meanings of funerary actions were lost. Other criticisms leveled by Morris, among others, included that burial itself represents only part of the funerary ritual, and that excessive reliance on it in archaeological explanation may neglect the role of other aspects that are less archaeologically visible. In a 1986 dissertation, R. A. Kerber argued that the framework proposed by Saxe and Binford only held where the transfer of power between generations was unquestioned, rather than being a site of negotiation, contention or competition. 
+Over the course of the 1980s, the hypothesis came to be generally rejected. James Whitley suggests that this was the result of a mistaken belief among archaeologists that it must be used as a rigid law rather than a general relationship. It was criticized, including from within the processual movement, on both ethnographic and archaeological grounds. John M. O'Shea argued that the living might mark social distinctions between the dead in ways which would not necessarily be preserved in the archaeological record. In 1991, Whitley questioned the validity of the ethnographic evidence behind the hypothesis, writing that the burial practices of the Merina (used as evidence by Saxe) owed more to ideology and beliefs about the dead than to the social position of the deceased, and that it was "seriously misleading" to use them as straightforward confirmation of Saxe's hypothesis. In 2002, William Rathje, Vincent Lamotta, and William Longacre used the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis as an example of what they called the "black hole" of archaeological explanation, namely that archaeologists were unwilling to incorporate observations from their own societies into supposedly general models of human behavior. In support of this, they argued that it fitted poorly with burial practices in the contemporary United States.
+Whitley considered the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis a generalization, rather than a universal truth, and that it could not be considered proven. He further suggested that it placed too little emphasis on the agency of people involved in the burial process, and on their potentially competing interests. He also criticized the hypothesis (as used by Morris) for relying excessively on ancestors as an explanation, arguing that ethnographic parallels did not give ancestors the same central social role as Saxe, Goldstein, and their followers assumed they must hold. In 2012, André Strauss wrote that the hypothesis had little value in interpreting Brazilian sites of the Archaic period, particularly because of the difficulty of precisely defining a "formal disposal area" within the terms of the prediction.
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+---
+title: "Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe–Goldstein_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:24.686477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Legacy ===
+Some post-processual archaeologists returned to using funerary evidence to infer social hierarchies in the 1990s. However, during this period, funerary archaeology played a comparatively small role in archaeology, particularly in the United States, due both to cultural changes among archaeologists and to methodological difficulties with its study. The Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis remained fairly rarely used, particularly among British archaeologists. Parker Pearson wrote in 1999 that the hypothesis could partially explain why cemeteries may be constructed, but did not explain why a society would choose to adopt cemeteries rather than other means of highlighting individuals' descent from certain ancestors. He also argued that the hypothesis did not encompass the full significance of relationships between the living and the ancestors. In 2010, Emma Elder wrote that it was "in the graveyard of disused theoretical tools", though she considered that it could still be useful if applied with proper qualification. In 2013, David Edwards wrote that the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis could be applied to certain African burial rites, such as the below-house burial practiced in West Africa, though these rituals also contained other meanings and alternative methods could be used alongside them to assert territorial claims.  
+Hypothesis Eight was described by Chapman in 2013 as the most famous of Saxe's eight hypotheses, and by Parker Pearson as the only one that had continued to be used and discussed by 1999. While generally rejecting it as excessively reductionist and deterministic, Parker Pearson credited the hypothesis with focusing archaeologists' attention on the use of ancestors to create legitimacy for structures of social hierarchy. In 2017, the archaeologist Joanne Curtin described the work of Saxe and Binford as the most significant recent development in funerary archaeology. 
+In 2002, Whitley wrote that the Saxe–Goldstein hypothesis had become part of the "theoretical unconscious" of Neolithic archaeologists, including those who subscribed to post-processual theories that generally rejected its processual basis. Brown wrote in 2007 that it was the "most enduring accomplishment" of the processual approach to mortuary studies, and that it had remained useful into the present. While he judged that the hypothesis had been of "limited success in producing durable findings", he credited it with renewing interest in funerary practices among archaeologists, other scholars, and the public. Robert Rosenswig, Margaret Briggs, and Marilyn Masson similarly considered it part of "the realm of archaeological common sense" in 2020.
+
+== See also ==
+Veneration of the dead
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+=== Explanatory notes ===
+
+=== References ===
+
+== Bibliography ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus-0.md
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+---
+title: "Scientific consensus"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:32.876488+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the vast majority of active, qualified experts on a conclusion in a specific scientific discipline. Scientific consensus results from the self-correcting scientific process of peer review, replication of the event through the scientific method, scholarly debate, meta-analysis, and publication of high-quality review articles, monographs, or guidelines in reputable books and journals to establish facts and durable knowledge about the topic.
+Reaching consensus requires significant scientific agreement among qualified experts, a process based on scientific substantiation of a claim that meets the burden of proof by proposing a possible cause-and-effect mechanism supported by the totality of evidence, leading to agreement among experts. In many countries, scientific consensus established on significant scientific agreement is the basis for regulatory approval of drugs to specify a health claim for the properties of the approved therapeutic agent.
+
+Consensus is achieved through scholarly communication at conferences, the publication process, replication of reproducible results by others, debate, and peer review. A conference meant to create a consensus is called a consensus conference. Such measures within a discipline can establish a consensus, although communicating to the lay public that consensus exists may be difficult because the "normal" debates toward gaining consensus may appear to outsiders as revealing uncertainty.
+
+== Scientific substantiation ==
+Scientific substantiation for any specific claim is the result of competent and reliable scientific evidence meeting the burden of proof, such as for the confirmed functions of food nutrients on body functions, child growth and development, and reduction of disease risk factors. Such substantiation results from rigorous scientific analysis by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) of applications by manufacturers for labeling of marketed food and dietary supplement products, and by Health Canada.
+For health claims associated with dietary supplements, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Federal Trade Commission (FTC) have a "substantiation standard" defined as "tests, analyses, research, studies, or other evidence based on the expertise of professionals in the relevant area, that has been conducted and evaluated in an objective manner by persons qualified to do so, using procedures generally accepted in the profession to yield accurate and reliable results." Supplement labeling requires manufacturers to have substantiation for each claim using a standard consistent with the FTC definition of "competent and reliable scientific evidence". In the European Union, EFSA organizes members of the Scientific Committee, scientific panels and working groups, and external experts to publish scientific opinions on the potential health effects of foods and supplements.
+
+== Significant scientific agreement ==
+Significant scientific agreement (SSA) is a high threshold used by international organizations and government agencies where a claim is supported by the totality of the available evidence, giving broad consensus among experts; an example of SSA is the work of climate scientists participating in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and World Meteorological Organization of the United Nations. 
+Particularly in food or supplement regulation, SSA is used by the FDA to assess applications by manufacturers wishing to obtain an authorized claim for product labeling. In the United States, claims meeting the SSA standard are called Authorized Health Claims (or "unqualified health claims"), and can be used on product labels without a disclaimer because the evidence supporting them meets SSA. EFSA committees and panels report the results of the collective scientific assessments of foods and supplements for safety and efficacy, with each member having equal input and no one member dominating committee decisions.
+
+== Drug approval process ==
+Country by country, the drug approval process, preceded by multiple years of step-wise phases of clinical research, relies on significant scientific agreement, which supports regulatory agencies and drug committee consensus to grant legally-binding approval for marketing of the agent. The strength of scientific consensus based on significant scientific agreement enables regulatory language to describe the approved drug for its specific disease effects, effective doses, side effects, long-term drug safety, and potential interactions with other drugs. Rigorous evaluations derived from scientific consensus are applied in many countries, such as Canada, the European Union, Japan, and United States, among others.
+
+=== Example of vaccine efficacy and safety ===
+The Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety of the World Health Organization is an example of multicountry participation in the process of significant scientific agreement to reach scientific consensus on the efficacy and safety of vaccines.
+
+== Position statements ==
+
+On occasion, medical organizations or scientific institutes issue position statements,  consensus review articles or surveys intended to communicate the science from "inside" the expert source to the "outside" of the scientific community. In cases where there is little controversy regarding the subject under study, such as the human causes of climate change, establishing the consensus is straightforward.
+Popular or political debate on subjects that are controversial within the public sphere, but not necessarily controversial within the scientific community, may invoke scientific consensus; such topics include evolution, climate change, the safety of genetically modified organisms, or the lack of causality between MMR vaccinations and autism.
+Scientific consensus is related to (and sometimes used to mean) convergent evidence, meaning independent sources of evidence converge on a conclusion.
+
+== Change of consensus over time ==
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Scientific consensus"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:32.876488+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There are many philosophical and historical theories as to how scientific consensus changes over time. Because the history of scientific change is extremely complicated, and because there is a tendency to project "winners" and "losers" onto the past in relation to the current scientific consensus, it is very difficult to come up with accurate and rigorous models for scientific change. This is made exceedingly difficult also in part because each of the various branches of science functions in somewhat different ways with different forms of evidence and experimental approaches.
+Most models of scientific change rely on new data produced by scientific experiment. Karl Popper proposed that since no amount of experiments could ever prove a scientific theory, but a single experiment could disprove one, science should be based on falsification. Whilst this forms a logical theory for science, it is in a sense "timeless" and does not necessarily reflect a view on how science should progress over time.
+Among the most influential challengers of this approach was Thomas Kuhn, who argued instead that experimental data always provide some data which cannot fit completely into a theory, and that falsification alone did not result in scientific change or an undermining of scientific consensus. He proposed that scientific consensus worked in the form of "paradigms", which were interconnected theories and underlying assumptions about the nature of the theory itself which connected various researchers in a given field. Kuhn argued that only after the accumulation of many "significant" anomalies would scientific consensus enter a period of "crisis". At this point, new theories would be sought out, and eventually one paradigm would triumph over the old one – a series of paradigm shifts rather than a linear progression towards truth. Kuhn's model also emphasized more clearly the social and personal aspects of theory change, demonstrating through historical examples that scientific consensus was never truly a matter of pure logic or pure facts. However, these periods of 'normal' and 'crisis' science are not mutually exclusive. Research shows that these are different modes of practice, more than different historical periods.
+
+== Perception and public opinion ==
+
+Perception of whether a scientific consensus exists on a given issue, and how strong that conception is, has been described as a "gateway belief" upon which other beliefs and then action are based.
+
+== Politicization of science ==
+
+In public policy debates, the assertion that there exists a consensus of scientists in a particular field is often used as an argument for the validity of a theory. Similarly arguments for a lack of scientific consensus are often used to support doubt about the theory.
+For example, the scientific consensus on the causes of global warming is that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused primarily by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. The historian of science Naomi Oreskes published an article in Science reporting that a survey of the abstracts of 928 science articles published between 1993 and 2003 showed none which disagreed explicitly with the notion of anthropogenic global warming. In an editorial published in The Washington Post, Oreskes stated that those who opposed these scientific findings are amplifying the normal range of scientific uncertainty about any facts into an appearance that there is a great scientific disagreement, or a lack of scientific consensus. Oreskes's findings were replicated by other methods that require no interpretation.
+The theory of evolution through natural selection is also supported by an overwhelming scientific consensus; it is one of the most reliable and empirically tested theories in science. Opponents of evolution claim that there is significant dissent on evolution within the scientific community. The wedge strategy, a plan to promote intelligent design, depended greatly on seeding and building on public perceptions of absence of consensus on evolution.
+The inherent uncertainty in science, where theories are never proven but can only be disproven (see falsifiability), poses a problem for politicians, policymakers, lawyers, and business professionals. Where scientific or philosophical questions can often languish in uncertainty for decades within their disciplinary settings, policymakers are faced with the problems of making sound decisions based on the currently available data, even if it is likely not a final form of the "truth". The tricky part is discerning what is close enough to "final truth". For example, social action against smoking probably came too long after science was 'pretty consensual'.
+Certain domains, such as the approval of certain technologies for public consumption, can have vast and far-reaching political, economic, and human effects should things run awry with the predictions of scientists. However, insofar as there is an expectation that policy in a given field reflect knowable and pertinent data and well-accepted models of the relationships between observable phenomena, there is little good alternative for policy makers than to rely on so much of what may fairly be called 'the scientific consensus' in guiding policy design and implementation, at least in circumstances where the need for policy intervention is compelling. While science cannot supply 'absolute truth' (or even its complement 'absolute error') its utility is bound up with the capacity to guide policy in the direction of increased public good and away from public harm. Seen in this way, the demand that policy rely only on what is proven to be "scientific truth" would be a prescription for policy paralysis and amount in practice to advocacy of acceptance of all of the quantified and unquantified costs and risks associated with policy inaction.
+No part of policy formation on the basis of the ostensible scientific consensus precludes persistent review either of the relevant scientific consensus or the tangible results of policy. Indeed, the same reasons that drove reliance upon the consensus drives the continued evaluation of this reliance over time – and adjusting policy as needed.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
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 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:28:52.291223+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:34.090678+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling-0.md
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+---
+title: "Scientific modelling"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:52.576146+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientific modelling is an activity that produces models representing empirical objects, phenomena, and physical processes, to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to understand, define, quantify, visualize, or simulate. It requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then developing a model to replicate a system with those features. Different types of models may be used for different purposes, such as conceptual models to better understand, operational models to operationalize, mathematical models to quantify, computational models to simulate, and graphical models to visualize the subject. 
+Modelling is an essential and inseparable part of many scientific disciplines, each of which has its own ideas about specific types of modelling. The following was said by John von Neumann.
+
+... the sciences do not try to explain, they hardly even try to interpret, they mainly make models. By a model is meant a mathematical construct which, with the addition of certain verbal interpretations, describes observed phenomena. The justification of such a mathematical construct is solely and precisely that it is expected to work—that is, correctly to describe phenomena from a reasonably wide area.
+There is also an increasing attention to scientific modelling in fields such as science education, philosophy of science, systems theory, and knowledge visualization. There is a growing collection of methods, techniques and meta-theory about all kinds of specialized scientific modelling.
+
+== Overview ==
+
+A scientific model seeks to represent empirical objects, phenomena, and physical processes in a logical and objective way. All models are in simulacra, that is, simplified reflections of reality that, despite being approximations, can be extremely useful. Building and disputing models is fundamental to the scientific enterprise. Complete and true representation may be impossible, but scientific debate often concerns which is the better model for a given task, e.g., which is the more accurate climate model for seasonal forecasting.
+Attempts to formalize the principles of the empirical sciences use an interpretation to model reality, in the same way logicians axiomatize the principles of logic. The aim of these attempts is to construct a formal system that will not produce theoretical consequences that are contrary to what is found in reality. Predictions or other statements drawn from such a formal system mirror or map the real world only insofar as these scientific models are true.
+For the scientist, a model is also a way in which the human thought processes can be amplified. For instance, models that are rendered in software allow scientists to leverage computational power to simulate, visualize, manipulate and gain intuition about the entity, phenomenon, or process being represented. Such computer models are in silico. Other types of scientific models are in vivo (living models, such as laboratory rats) and in vitro (in glassware, such as tissue culture).
+
+== Basics ==
+
+=== Modelling as a substitute for direct measurement and experimentation ===
+Models are typically used when it is either impossible or impractical to create experimental conditions in which scientists can directly measure outcomes. Direct measurement of outcomes under controlled conditions (see Scientific method) will always be more reliable than modeled estimates of outcomes.
+Within modeling and simulation, a model is a task-driven, purposeful simplification and abstraction of a perception of reality, shaped by physical, legal, and cognitive constraints. It is task-driven because a model is captured with a certain question or task in mind. Simplifications leave all the known and observed entities and their relation out that are not important for the task. Abstraction aggregates information that is important but not needed in the same detail as the object of interest. Both activities, simplification, and abstraction, are done purposefully. However, they are done based on a perception of reality. This perception is already a model in itself, as it comes with a physical constraint. There are also constraints on what we are able to legally observe with our current tools and methods, and cognitive constraints that limit what we are able to explain with our current theories. This model comprises the concepts, their behavior, and their relations informal form and is often referred to as a conceptual model. In order to execute the model, it needs to be implemented as a computer simulation. This requires more choices, such as numerical approximations or the use of heuristics. Despite all these epistemological and computational constraints, simulation has been recognized as the third pillar of scientific methods: theory building, simulation, and experimentation.
+
+=== Simulation ===
+
+A simulation is a way to implement the model, often employed when the model is too complex for the analytical solution. A steady-state simulation provides information about the system at a specific instant in time (usually at equilibrium, if such a state exists).  A dynamic simulation provides information over time. A simulation shows how a particular object or phenomenon will behave. Such a simulation can be useful for testing, analysis, or training in those cases where real-world systems or concepts can be represented by models.
+
+=== Structure ===
+Structure is a fundamental and sometimes intangible notion covering the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is an essential foundation of nearly every mode of inquiry and discovery in science, philosophy, and art.
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+---
+title: "Scientific modelling"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:52.576146+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Systems ===
+A system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. In general, a system is a construct or collection of different elements that together can produce results not obtainable by the elements alone.  The concept of an 'integrated whole' can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and form relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime.  There are two types of system models: 1) discrete in which the variables change instantaneously at separate points in time and, 2) continuous where the state variables change continuously with respect to time.
+
+=== Generating a model ===
+Modelling is the process of generating a model as a conceptual representation of some phenomenon. Typically a model will deal with only some aspects of the phenomenon in question, and two models of the same phenomenon may be essentially different—that is to say, that the differences between them comprise more than just a simple renaming of components.
+Such differences may be due to differing requirements of the model's end users, or to conceptual or aesthetic differences among the modelers and to contingent decisions made during the modelling process. Considerations that may influence the structure of a model might be the modeler's preference for a reduced ontology, preferences regarding statistical models versus deterministic models, discrete versus continuous time, etc. In any case, users of a model need to understand the assumptions made that are pertinent to its validity for a given use.
+Building a model requires abstraction.  Assumptions are used in modelling in order to specify the domain of application of the model. For example, the special theory of relativity assumes an inertial frame of reference. This assumption was contextualized and further explained by the general theory of relativity. A model makes accurate predictions when its assumptions are valid, and might well not make accurate predictions when its assumptions do not hold. Such assumptions are often the point with which older theories are succeeded by new ones (the general theory of relativity works in non-inertial reference frames as well).
+
+=== Evaluating a model ===
+
+A model is evaluated first and foremost by its consistency to empirical data; any model inconsistent with reproducible observations must be modified or rejected. One way to modify the model is by restricting the domain over which it is credited with having high validity. A case in point is Newtonian physics, which is highly useful except for the very small, the very fast, and the very massive phenomena of the universe. However, a fit to empirical data alone is not sufficient for a model to be accepted as valid.  Factors important in evaluating a model include:
+
+Ability to explain past observations
+Ability to predict future observations
+Cost of use, especially in combination with other models
+Refutability, enabling estimation of the degree of confidence in the model
+Simplicity, or even aesthetic appeal
+People may attempt to quantify the evaluation of a model using a utility function.
+
+=== Visualization ===
+Visualization is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of man. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vinci's revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.
+
+=== Space mapping ===
+Space mapping refers to a methodology that employs a "quasi-global" modelling formulation to link companion "coarse" (ideal or low-fidelity) with "fine" (practical or high-fidelity) models of different complexities. In engineering optimization, space mapping aligns (maps) a very fast coarse model with its related expensive-to-compute fine model so as to avoid direct expensive optimization of the fine model. The alignment process iteratively refines a "mapped" coarse model (surrogate model).
+
+== Types ==
+
+== Applications ==
+
+=== Modelling and simulation ===
+One application of scientific modelling is the field of modelling and simulation, generally referred to as "M&S".  M&S has a spectrum of applications which range from concept development and analysis, through experimentation, measurement, and verification, to disposal analysis.  Projects and programs may use hundreds of different simulations, simulators and model analysis tools.
+
+The figure shows how modelling and simulation is used as a central part of an integrated program in a defence capability development process.
+
+== See also ==
+Abductive reasoning – Inference seeking the simplest and most likely explanation
+All models are wrong – Aphorism in statistics
+Data and information visualization – Visual representation of data
+Heuristic – Problem-solving method
+Inverse problem – Process of calculating the causal factors that produced a set of observations
+Scientific visualization – Interdisciplinary branch of science concerned with presenting scientific data visually
+Statistical model – Type of mathematical model
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Nowadays there are some 40 magazines about scientific modelling which offer all kinds of international forums. Since the 1960s there is a strongly growing number of books and magazines about specific forms of scientific modelling. There is also a lot of discussion about scientific modelling in the philosophy-of-science literature. A selection:
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+---
+title: "Scientific modelling"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:52.576146+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Rainer Hegselmann, Ulrich Müller and Klaus Troitzsch (eds.) (1996). Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View. Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
+Paul Humphreys (2004). Extending Ourselves: Computational Science, Empiricism, and Scientific Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
+Johannes Lenhard, Günter Küppers and Terry Shinn (Eds.) (2006) "Simulation: Pragmatic Constructions of Reality", Springer Berlin.
+Tom Ritchey (2012). "Outline for a Morphology of Modelling Methods:  Contribution to a General Theory of Modelling". In: Acta Morphologica Generalis, Vol 1. No 1. pp. 1–20.
+William Silvert (2001). "Modelling as a Discipline". In: Int. J. General Systems. Vol. 30(3), pp. 261.
+Sergio Sismondo and Snait Gissis (eds.) (1999). Modeling and Simulation. Special Issue of Science in Context 12.
+Eric Winsberg (2018) "Philosophy and Climate Science" Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
+Eric Winsberg (2010) "Science in the Age of Computer Simulation" Chicago: University of Chicago Press
+Eric Winsberg (2003). "Simulated Experiments: Methodology for a Virtual World". In: Philosophy of Science 70: 105–125.
+Tomáš Helikar, Jim A Rogers (2009). "ChemChains Archived 2021-03-03 at the Wayback Machine: a platform for simulation and analysis of biochemical networks aimed to laboratory scientists". BioMed Central.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Models. Entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+Models in Science. Entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+The World as a Process: Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences, in: R. Hegselmann et al. (eds.), Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View, Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer 1996, 77-100.
+Research in simulation and modelling of various physical systems
+Modelling Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture
+Ecotoxicology & Models
+A Morphology of Modelling Methods. Acta Morphologica Generalis, Vol 1. No 1. pp. 1–20.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wild-ass_guess-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wild-ass_guess-0.md
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+---
+title: "Scientific wild-ass guess"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wild-ass_guess"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:25.888993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientific wild-ass guess (SWAG) is an American English slang term meaning a rough estimate made by an expert in the field, based on experience and intuition. It is similar to the slang word guesstimate, a portmanteau of guess and estimate.
+
+
+== History ==
+The slang term "SWAG" is generally thought to have originated in the US military, either the Army or the Air Force. Journalist Melvin J. Lasky wrote that it was first used casually by US Army General William Westmoreland during the Vietnam War. Westmoreland would sometimes reply "SWAG" to reporters' questions about American failure to neutralize the enemy. Westmoreland's use of the term was affirmed in court by Colonel John Frank Stewart in November 1984 during witness testimony for the lawsuit initiated by Westmoreland against CBS for their TV documentary The Uncounted Enemy: A Vietnam Deception. On the witness stand, Stewart explained that in Vietnam, the military intelligence branch that he commanded would deliver numbers of enemy strength to Westmoreland, the numbers derived from "the SWAG principle". There was laughter in the court when Stewart explained what was meant by the acronym SWAG.
+An earlier use of term is mentioned by linguist J. Robert Dumouchel who wrote the 1975 book, Dictionary of Development Terminology. Dumouchel says he first encountered SWAG "in the vernacular of community development" in the US in the 1960s.
+Regardless of its origin, the term gained greater prominence in the first half of 1999 in connection with the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Reporter John F. Harris of The Washington Post was the first person to put the term into a newspaper article. Describing the factors that led to President Bill Clinton relying on the US Air Force in Kosovo instead of employing "200,000 NATO troops", Harris wrote that NATO's estimate requiring 200,000 ground troops was regarded by American war planners as politically impossible to achieve; it was quickly removed from consideration. "NATO's analysis, officials said, was not a comprehensive study. Instead, it was an initial review that some officials called a 'SWAG'—military parlance for a 'scientific wild-ass guess.'"
+
+
+== Use ==
+SWAG is used to describe an estimate derived from a combination of factors including past experience, general impressions, and heuristic or approximate calculations rather than an exhaustive search, proof, or rigorous calculation. The SWAG is an educated guess but is not regarded as the best or most accurate estimate. The SWAG is not computed or proven rigorously, but the proponent asserts his or her own judgement suffices to rationalize the estimate; and it may, in time, be viable to produce a rigorous forecast of increased precision.
+Various other backronyms of SWAG have been published, including "sophisticated wild-ass guess", "Silly Wild-Ass Guess", "Semi-Wild-Ass Guess", "Stupid Wild-Ass Guess", and "Scientific Wildly Aimed Guess". "Scientific" implies that the "guess" can be justified if necessary or cost-effective. A guess of lesser worth may be called the "Wild-Ass Guess" or "WAG". A slightly better estimate may be called "Back of the Envelope" (BOTE).
+
+
+== See also ==
+Rule of thumb
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ The dictionary definition of SWAG at Wiktionary
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_continuum_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_continuum_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Second continuum hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_continuum_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:27.020733+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The second continuum hypothesis, also called Luzin's hypothesis or Luzin's second continuum hypothesis, is the hypothesis that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=2^{\aleph _{1}}}
+  
+.  It is the negation of a weakened form, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        <
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}<2^{\aleph _{1}}}
+  
+, of the Continuum Hypothesis (CH).    It was discussed by Nikolai Luzin in 1935, although he did not claim to be the first to postulate it.  The statement 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        <
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}<2^{\aleph _{1}}}
+  
+ may also be called Luzin's hypothesis.
+The second continuum hypothesis is independent of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the Axiom of Choice (ZFC): its truth is consistent with ZFC since it is true in Cohen's model of ZFC with the negation of the Continuum Hypothesis; its falsity is also consistent since it is contradicted by the Continuum Hypothesis, which follows from V=L.  It is implied by Martin's Axiom together with the negation of the CH.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurian_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurian_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Silurian hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurian_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:28.226332+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Silurian hypothesis is a thought experiment which assesses modern science's ability to detect evidence of a prior advanced civilization, perhaps several million years ago. The most probable clues for such a civilization could be carbon, radioactive elements or temperature variation. The name "Silurian" derives from the eponymous sapient species from the BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, who in the series established an advanced civilization prior to humanity.
+Astrophysicist Adam Frank and climate scientist Gavin Schmidt proposed the "Silurian Hypothesis" in a 2018 paper exploring the possibility of detecting an advanced civilization before humans in the geological record. They argued that there has been sufficient fossil carbon to fuel an industrial civilization since the Carboniferous Period (~350 million years ago); however, finding direct evidence, such as technological artifacts, is unlikely due to the rarity of fossilization and Earth's exposed surface. Instead, researchers might find indirect evidence, such as climate changes, anomalies in sediment, or traces of nuclear waste. The hypothesis also speculates that artifacts from past civilizations could be found on the Moon and Mars, where erosion and tectonic activity are less likely to erase evidence. The concept of pre-human civilizations has been explored in popular culture, including novels, television shows, short stories, and video games.
+
+
+== Explanation ==
+The idea was presented in a 2018 paper by Adam Frank, an astrophysicist at the University of Rochester, and Gavin Schmidt, director of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Frank and Schmidt imagined an advanced civilization before humans and pondered whether it would "be possible to detect an industrial civilization in the geological record". They argue as early as the Carboniferous period (~350 million years ago) "there has been sufficient fossil carbon to fuel an industrial civilization comparable with our own". However, they also wrote: "While we strongly doubt that any previous industrial civilization existed before our own, asking the question in a formal way that articulates explicitly what evidence for such a civilization might look like raises its own useful questions related both to astrobiology and to Anthropocene studies." The term "Silurian hypothesis" was inspired by the fictional species called the Silurians from the British television series Doctor Who.
+According to Frank and Schmidt, since fossilization is relatively rare and little of Earth's exposed surface is from before the Quaternary time period (~2.5 million years ago), there is low probability of finding direct evidence of such a civilization, such as technological artifacts. After a great time span, the researchers concluded, contemporary humans would be more likely to find indirect evidence such as rapid changes in temperature or climate (as occurred during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum ~55 million years ago); evidence of tapping geothermal power sources; or anomalies in sediment such as their chemical composition (e.g., evidence of artificial fertilizers) or isotope ratios (e.g., there is no naturally occurring plutonium-244 outside a supernova, so evidence of this isotope could indicate a technologically advanced civilization). Objects that could indicate possible evidence of past civilizations include plastics and nuclear waste residues buried deep underground or on the ocean floor. The paper also mentions the natural fission reactors at Oklo, Gabon, which were active some two billion years BP—while none of the transuranic elements it produced are still present (they have since decayed to longer-lived or stable daughter nuclides), the depletion of 235U and the characteristic isotope ratios of fission products were used to confirm that fission had indeed occurred. 
+Frank and Schmidt speculate such a civilization could have gone to space and left artifacts on other celestial bodies, such as the Moon and Mars. Evidence for artifacts on these two worlds would be easier to find than on Earth, where erosion and tectonic activity would erase much of it. Frank first approached Schmidt to discuss how to detect alien civilizations via their potential impact upon climate through the study of ice cores and tree rings. They both realized that the hypothesis could be expanded and applied to Earth and humanity due to the fact that humans have been in their current form for the past 300,000 years and have had sophisticated technology for only the last few centuries.
+The idea has been connected to the cryptoterrestrial hypothesis explaining the existence of UFOs.
+
+
+== History in science fiction ==
+The eponymous Silurians from Doctor Who are a race of reptilian humanoids from Earth's distant past, making their first appearance in the show in 1970.  The fictional Silurians actually flourished in the Eocene, not the Silurian. Frank and Schmidt cited Inherit the Stars, a 1977 novel by J. P. Hogan as containing a similar  idea, but also say they were surprised by how rarely the concept was explored in science fiction.
+An early borderline example occurs in H.P. Lovecraft's "The Shadow out of Time", published in 1926. This establishes the Great Race of Yith as having existed in Earth's distant past. In this case, the minds of the Great Race originated with an extraterrestrial intelligence which takes over the body of Earth-based life-forms. 
+A common idea is that dinosaurs evolved into sentience and tool use, as in the novels The Dreaming Dragons (1980, revised as The Dreaming) by Damien Broderick and Toolmaker Koan (1987) by John McLoughlin. The former novel received the Ditmar Award. The latter novel also deals with the Fermi paradox. The trope of sentient dinosaur species also appears in "Distant Origin", a 1997 episode of Star Trek Voyager. The latter has the Voyager encounter the Voth, a starfaring species that appear to have evolved on Earth from dinosaurs. Discussing this theory with a Voth scientist, series regular Chakotay speculates that their ancestors evolved on an isolated continent that was destroyed by cataclysm, with all traces now on the ocean floor or under kilometers of rock.
+Another fictional example is Larry Niven's 1980 short story "The Green Marauder", an alien over 700 million years old (due to relativistic travel) relates to a human about the last time it visited Earth, and the hopeless plea from Earth's anaerobic civilization for help against the growing environmental threat of chlorophyll.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Similarity heuristic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:35.270580+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The similarity heuristic is a psychological heuristic pertaining to how people make judgments based on similarity. More specifically, the similarity heuristic is used to account for how people make judgments based on the similarity between current situations and other situations or prototypes of those situations.
+At its most basic level, the similarity heuristic is an adaptive strategy. The goal of the similarity heuristic is maximizing productivity through favorable experience while not repeating unfavorable experiences. Decisions based on how favorable or unfavorable the present seems are based on how similar the past was to the current situation.
+For example, a person may use the similarity heuristic when deciding on a book purchase. If a novel has a plot similar to that of novels read and enjoyed or the author has a writing style similar to that of favored authors, the purchasing decision will be positively influenced. A book with similar characteristics to previously pleasurable books is likely to also be enjoyed, causing the person to decide to obtain it.
+
+
+== Background ==
+The similarity heuristic directly emphasizes learning from past experience. For example, the similarity heuristic has been observed indirectly in experiments such as phonological similarity tests. These tests observe how well a person can distinguish similar sounds from dissimilar ones based on a comparison to previously heard sounds. While not involving a decision making process characteristic to heuristics in general, these studies show a reliance on past experience and comparison to the current experience. In addition, the similarity heuristic has become a valuable tool in the field of economics and consumerism.
+
+
+== Real-world examples ==
+The similarity heuristic is very easy to observe in the world of business, both from a marketing standpoint and from the position of the consumer. People tend to let past experience shape their world view; thus, if something presents itself as similar to a good experience had in the past, it is likely that the individual will partake in the current experience. The reverse holds true for situations that have proven unfavorable. A very basic example of this concept is a person deciding to get a meal at a particular restaurant because it reminds them of a similar establishment.
+
+
+=== Marketing ===
+Companies often use the similarity heuristic as a marketing strategy. For example, companies will often advertise their services as something similar to a successful competitor, but better — such a concept is evident in the motion picture industry. Trailers for upcoming films will promote the latest movie as being made by a particular director, citing said director's past film credentials. In effect, a similarity heuristic is created in an audience's mind; creating a similarity between the coming attraction and past successes will likely make people decide to see the upcoming film.
+Automotive parts companies and their distributors and dealers leverage similarity heuristics when they interchange the term, "OEM" (original equipment manufacturer), and "OE" (original equipment). For example, the OE design specifications may ask for a certain durability factor, corrosion resistance, and material composition. The OEM realizes they can produce the same part less expensively and with possibly greater profit, if they do not adhere to all or most of the OE design specifications. By marketing their product as "OEM" against a well-known brand or product (e.g., Mercedes-Benz), they predict that enough customers will purchase their OEM product vs. the OE product. The converse happens when the OE factory (e.g., Mercedes-Benz) promotes their brand of a commodity product (e.g., anti-freeze/coolant, spark plugs, etc.) as superior or better quality than the commodity product.
+In addition, the use of a reverse similarity heuristic can be a highly valuable marketing tool. For example, when Nintendo wished to launch its Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in the United States, it did so in the middle of a video game depression; Atari had managed to make video games one of the least popular American pastimes. Initial showing of the NES were met poorly — clearly, a similarity heuristic was in place, and people had created biases against anything relating to interactive television gaming. Nintendo's goal, then, became the differentiation of their system from the past examples. Employing a dissimilarity heuristic, Nintendo managed to create enough of a gap from the former video game industry and market a successful product.
+
+
+=== Hiring ===
+Job interviews often use similarity heuristic in identifying candidates suitable for the culture within the company. The Human Resource rounds of job interviews often focus on educational background and experiences of candidates that can qualify them for similarity or dissimilarity with the employees promoted within the company.
+
+
+=== Legacy admissions ===
+Similarity heuristic is sometimes used in legacy preferences to strengthen the candidacy of applicants in admissions of educational institutions. It's argued, implicitly, that kids of alumni will often find themselves in the company of other similarly situated family friends, and hence be more likely to be successful themselves.
+
+
+=== Problem Solving ===
+Some professions, such as software developers, regularly utilize the similarity heuristic. For software developers, the similarity heuristic is utilized when performing debugging tasks. A software bug exhibits a set of symptoms indicating the existence of a problem. In general, similar symptoms are caused by similar types of programming errors. By comparing these symptoms with those of previously corrected software flaws, a developer is able to determine the most probable cause and take an effective course of action. Over time, a developer’s past experiences will allow their use of the similarity heuristic to be highly effective, quickly choosing the debugging approach that will likely reveal the problem’s source.
+Problem solving in general is benefited by the similarity heuristic. When new problems arise similar to previous problems, the similarity heuristic selects an approach that previously yielded favorable results. Even if the current problem is novel, any similarity to previous issues will help choose a proper course of action.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Case-based reasoning
+Inductive reasoning
+Similarity (philosophy)
+
+
+== References ==
+Sheff, David; Eddy, Andrew (1999). Game Over: Press Start to Continue. Cyberactive Media Group. ISBN 978-0-9669617-0-6.
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Rozin, Paul; Nemeroff, Carol (2007). "Sympathetic Magical Thinking: The Contagion and Similarity "Heuristics"". In Thomas Gilovich; Dale Griffin; Daniel Kahneman (eds.). Heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment (Reprinted with corrections, 2007 ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521796798.
+Colet, Ed (1999). Interpreting Data Mining Results: The Influence of Heuristics. Retrieved February 21, 2006.
+Russell, Stuart (1988). "Analogy by Similarity" (PDF). In Helman, David H. (ed.). Analogical Reasoning: Perspectives of Artificial Intelligence, Cognitive Science, and Philosophy. Synthese Library. Vol. 197. pp. 251–269. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-7811-0_12. ISBN 978-90-481-8450-7.
+Read, Daniel; Grushka-Cockayne, Yael (24 December 2010). "The similarity heuristic". Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 24 (1). Wiley: 23–46. doi:10.1002/bdm.679. ISSN 0894-3257. SSRN 1030517.
+Walker, Donald (2007). Similarity Determination and Case Retrieval in an Intelligent Decision Support System for Diabetes Management (M.Sc. thesis). Ohio University.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Simulation heuristic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:36.449215+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The simulation heuristic is a psychological heuristic, or simplified mental strategy, according to which  people determine the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to picture the event mentally. Partially as a result, people experience more regret over outcomes that are easier to imagine, such as "near misses". The simulation heuristic was first theorized by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky as a specialized adaptation of the availability heuristic to explain counterfactual thinking and regret. However, it is not the same as the availability heuristic. Specifically the simulation heuristic is defined as "how perceivers tend to substitute normal antecedent events for exceptional ones in psychologically 'undoing' this specific outcome."
+Kahneman and Tversky also believed that people used this heuristic to understand and predict other's behavior in certain circumstances and to answer questions involving counterfactual propositions. People, they believe, do this by mentally undoing events that have occurred and then running mental simulations of the events with the corresponding input values of the altered model. For example, a study was proposed that provided a group of participants with a situation describing two men who were delayed by half an hour in a traffic jam on the way to the airport. Both men were delayed enough that they both missed flights on which they were booked, one of them by half an hour and the second by only five minutes (because his flight had been delayed for 25 minutes). The results showed that a greater number of participants thought that the second man would be more upset than the first man.
+Kahneman and Tversky argued that this difference could not be attributed to disappointment, because both had expected to miss their flights. They believed instead that the true explanation was that the students utilized the simulation heuristic and so it was easier for them to imagine minor alterations that would have enabled the second man to arrive in time for his flight than it was for them to devise the same alterations for the first man.
+
+== History ==
+This heuristic was introduced by the Israeli psychologists Daniel Kahneman (born 1934) and Amos Tversky (1937–96) in a lecture in 1979. It was published as a book chapter in 1982.
+
+== Difference from the availability heuristic ==
+The subjective probability judgments of an event used in the simulation heuristic do not follow the availability heuristic, in that these judgments are not the cause of relevant examples in memory but are instead based on the ease with which situations that did not happen can be mentally simulated or imagined.
+
+== Application ==
+The theory that underlies the simulation heuristic assumes that one's judgments are biased towards information that is easily imagined or simulated mentally. It is because of this that we see biases having to do with the overestimation of how causally plausible an event could be or the enhanced regret experienced when it is easy to mentally undo an unfortunate event, such as an accident. Significant research on simulation heuristic's application in counterfactual reasoning has been performed by Dale T Miller and Bryan Taylor.
+For example, they found that if an affectively negative experience, such as a fatal car accident was brought about by an extraordinary event, such as someone who usually goes by train to work but instead drove, the simulation heuristic will cause an emotional reaction of regret. This emotional reaction is because the exceptional event is easy to mentally undo and replace with a more common one that would not have caused the accident.
+Kahneman and Tversky did a study in which two individuals were given lottery tickets and then were given the opportunity to sell those same tickets back either two weeks before the drawing or an hour before the drawing. They proposed this question to some participants whose responses showed that they believed that the man who had sold his ticket an hour before the drawing would experience the greatest anticipatory regret when that ticket won.
+Kahneman and Tversky explained these findings through the understanding of the norm theory, by stating that "people's anticipatory regret, along with reluctance to sell the ticket, should increase with their ease of imagining themselves still owning the winning ticket". Therefore, the man who recently sold his ticket will experience more regret because the "counterfactual world", in which he is the winner, is perceived as closer for him than the man who sold his ticket two weeks ago.  This example shows the bias in this type of thinking because both men had the same probability of winning if they had not sold their tickets and the time differences in which they did will not increase or decrease these chances.
+Similar results were found with plane crash survivors. These individuals experienced a greater amount of anticipatory regret when they engaged in the highly mutable action of switching flights last minute. It was reasoned that this was due to a person "anticipating counterfactual thoughts that a negative event was evoked, because it tends to make the event more vivid, and so tends to make it more subjectively likely".
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+---
+title: "Simulation heuristic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:36.449215+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Applications ==
+This heuristic has shown to be a salient feature of clinical anxiety and its disorders, which are marked by heighted expectations of future negative events. A study done by David Raune and Andrew Macleod tried to tie the cognitive mechanisms that underlie this type of judgment to the simulation heuristic.
+Their findings showed that anxious patient's simulation heuristic scores were correlated with the subjective probability. Such that, the more reasons anxious patients could think of why negative events would happen, relative to the number why they would not happen, the higher their subjective probability judgment that the events would happen to them. Further it was found that anxious patients displayed increase access to the simulation compared to control patients.
+They also found support for the hypothesis that the easier it was for anxious patients to form the visual image, the greater the subjective probability that the event would happen to them. Through this work they purposed that the main clinical implication of the simulation heuristic results is that, in order to lower elevated subjective probability in clinical anxiety, patients should be encouraged to think of more reasons why the negative events will not occur then why they will occur .
+
+== How it is affected by other heuristics ==
+A study done by Philip Broemer was done to test the hypothesis that the subjective ease with which one can imagine a symptom will be affected by the impact of differently framed messages on attitudes toward performing health behaviors. 
+By drawing on the simulation heuristic, he argued that the vividness of information is reflected in the subjective ease with which people can imagine having symptoms of an illness.
+His results showed that the impact of message framing upon attitudes was moderated by the ease of imagination and clearly supported the congruency hypothesis for different kinds of health behavior. Finding that, negatively framed messages led to more positive attitudes when the recipients of these messages could easily imagine the relevant symptoms. Ease of imagination thus facilitates persuasion when messages emphasize potential health risks. A positive framing however, leads to more positive attitudes when symptom imagination was rather difficult.
+Therefore, a message with a reassuring theme is more congruent with a recipient's state of mind when he or she cannot easily imagine the symptoms whereas a message with an aversive theme is more congruent with a recipient's state of mind when he or she can easily imagine having the symptoms .
+
+== See also ==
+Algorithm
+Behavioral economics – an economic subfield which looks at heuristics in decision making
+List of biases in judgment and decision making
+Problem solving
+Representativeness heuristic
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+== References ==
+Bouts, Patrick; Spears, Russell; Van Der Pligt, Joop (1992). "Counterfactual processing and the correspondence between events and outcomes: Normality versus value" (PDF). European Journal of Social Psychology. 22 (4): 387–96. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420220407.
+Colman, Andrew M. (2001). A dictionary of psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866211-2.
+Fiedler, Klaus (1996). "Simulation Heuristic". The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20289-9.
+Gilovich, Thomas; Griffin, Dale W.; Kahneman, Daniel (2002). Heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgement. Cambridge University Press. pp. 374–75. ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Goldman, Alvin I (2006). Simulating Minds : The Philosophy, Psychology, and Neuroscience of Mindreading. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-513892-4.
+Hewstone, M; Manstead, A. S. R (1996). The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20289-9.
+Sanna, Lawrence J. (2006). Judgments over time: the interplay of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-517766-4.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_hypertension_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_hypertension_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Slavery hypertension hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_hypertension_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:30.683380+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The slavery hypertension hypothesis proposes that disproportionately high rates of hypertension among black people in the New World are due to selective pressure preferring individuals who retain more sodium among black slaves during the Middle Passage.
+
+
+== History ==
+It was originally proposed in 1983 by Clarence Grim and Thomas W. Wilson, who subsequently promoted it heavily during the remainder of the 1980s. It gained considerable media attention when Grim presented it at a conference in 1988. In 1990, the first medical textbook mentioning the hypothesis was published. The first peer-reviewed paper advancing the hypothesis was published by Wilson and Grim in 1991. This study also received considerable media attention.
+In December 2004, a paper titled CYP3A Variation and the Evolution of Salt-Sensitivity Variants was published which drew attention to the importance of the CPY3A5*1 and CPY3A5*3 alleles of cytochrome P450 CYP3A5 in hypertensive disease. The paper showed a substantial correlation between geographical latitude and the CPY3A5 allele distribution, with African Americans descended from the slave trade having retained the equatorial haplotype.
+In 2005 the thesis that black Americans who trace their immigration to the slave era experience lower life expectancy due to hypertensive disease associated with the slave trade was revisited by the academic team of David Cutler, Roland G. Fryer Jr. and Nathan Glazer. This paper was circulated in mimeo, was presented at a conference, and received 12 citations in the literature despite never being published in a formal journal. The paper shows that Black Americans having descended from the slave trade have largely retained the allele associated with equatorial populations, have higher sodium retention than other populations in America (including black people who later emigrated to America after the slave trade had ended), and have correspondingly higher hypertensive disease.
+The thesis gained renewed media attention when Oprah Winfrey mentioned the hypothesis in an interview with Dr. Oz in 2007.
+Since it was originally proposed, the hypothesis has been challenged, and it has been described as a "myth". Detractors argue that the hypothesis is inconsistent with historical evidence regarding salt deficiency in Africa or the causes of death aboard slave ships.  Grim and Robinson responded to Kaufman and Hall, maintaining the validity of the hypothesis and its consistency with historical descriptions of slavery.
+
+
+== See also ==
+African American health
+Intergroup anxiety
+John Henryism
+Minority stress
+Seasoning (slavery)
+Slave health on plantations in the United States
+Weathering hypothesis
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith's_laws-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith's_laws-0.md
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+---
+title: "Smith's laws"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith's_laws"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:37.582177+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In geology, Smith's laws are two rules, formulated by William Smith (1769–1839), which aid in the determination of geological succession.  They are fundamental to the production of geological maps.
+
+
+== The laws ==
+Both laws were first published by Smith in Strata Identified by Fossils, 1816–1819.
+
+
+=== Smith's first law ===
+
+Smith's first law is the Principle of Superposition.  This states that newer rock beds will lie on top of older rock beds unless the succession has been overturned.  Overturning of the beds causes the succession order to be reversed.  This can be caused by folding that is so severe that the beds are moved past the perpendicular.  Beds can also be put out of order by an overthrust thrust fault (Jackson, p. 128).
+
+
+=== Smith's second law ===
+
+Smith's second law is the Law of Strata identified by fossils.  This states that each stratum in the succession contains a distinctive set of fossils.  This law allows beds to be identified as belonging to the same stratum even when the horizon between them is not continuous (Jackson, p. 128).
+
+
+== Geological mapping ==
+Smith used these new techniques, together with knowledge he had accumulated as a canal engineer and mineral surveyor, to produce geological maps.  He started with a hand-produced map of the area around Bath in 1799.  In 1815 he published a large-scale map of England, Wales and parts of Scotland.  This was the first geological map of Britain (indeed, of any country) and a major milestone in geology (Winchester, p. 195; Jackson, p. 127).  In 1819, Smith produced cross-sectional maps showing the underlying geology (Jackson, p. 128).
+Smith's map of England and Wales was extensively plagiarised by others, starting with George Bellas Greenough in 1819 (Winchester, pp. 230-234).  Smith's laws are still basic to the production of modern geological maps (Jackson, p. 128).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Patrick Wyse Jackson, The Chronologers' Quest: The Search for the Age of the Earth, Cambridge University Press, 2006 ISBN 1139457578.
+Simon Winchester, The Map That Changed the World: William Smith and the Birth of Modern Geology, HarperCollins, 2009 ISBN 0061978272.
+William Smith, Strata Identified by Organized Fossils, London: W. Arding, 1816.
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+---
+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 1/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Snowball Earth is a geohistorical hypothesis proposing that during one or more of Earth's icehouse climates, the planet's surface was nearly entirely frozen, with little or no liquid water exposed. This global glaciation hypothesis is most commonly associated with the Cryogenian Period, which included two major glacial episodes: the Sturtian (c. 717–660 Ma) and Marinoan (c. 650–635 Ma).
+Proponents of the hypothesis argue that it best explains sedimentary deposits that are generally believed to be of glacial origin at tropical palaeolatitudes and other enigmatic features in the geological record. Opponents of the hypothesis contest the geological evidence for global glaciation and the geophysical feasibility of an ice- or slush-covered ocean, 
+and they emphasize the difficulty of escaping an all-frozen condition. Several unanswered questions remain, including whether Earth was a full "snowball" or a "slushball" with a thin equatorial band of open (or seasonally open) water. The Snowball Earth episodes are proposed to have occurred before the sudden radiations of multicellular bioforms known as the Avalon and Cambrian explosions; the most recent Snowball episode may have triggered the evolution of multicellularity.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== First evidence for ancient glaciation ===
+Long before the idea of a global glaciation was first proposed, a series of discoveries occurred that accumulated evidence for ancient Precambrian glaciations. The first of these discoveries was published in 1871 by J. Thomson, who found ancient glacier-reworked material (tillite) in Islay, Scotland. Similar findings followed in Australia (1884) and India (1887). A fourth and very illustrative finding, which came to be known as "Reusch's Moraine", was reported by Hans Reusch in northern Norway in 1891. Many other findings followed, but their understanding was hampered by the rejection (at the time) of continental drift.
+
+=== Global glaciation proposed ===
+Douglas Mawson, an Australian geologist and Antarctic explorer, spent much of his career studying the stratigraphy of the Neoproterozoic in South Australia, where he identified thick and extensive glacial sediments. As a result, late in his career, he speculated about the possibility of global glaciation.
+Mawson's ideas of global glaciation, however, were based on the mistaken assumption that the geographic position of Australia, and those of other continents where low-latitude glacial deposits are found, have remained constant through time. With the advancement of the continental drift hypothesis, and eventually plate tectonic theory, came an easier explanation for the glaciogenic sediments—they were deposited at a time when the continents were at higher latitudes.
+In 1964, the idea of global-scale glaciation reemerged when W. Brian Harland published a paper in which he presented palaeomagnetic data showing that glacial tillites in Svalbard and Greenland were deposited at tropical latitudes. From this data and the sedimentological evidence that the glacial sediments interrupt successions of rocks commonly associated with tropical to temperate latitudes, he argued that an ice age occurred that was so extreme that it resulted in marine glacial rocks being deposited in the tropics.
+In the 1960s, Mikhail Budyko, a Soviet climatologist, developed a simple energy-balance climate model to investigate the effect of ice cover on global climate. Using this model, Budyko found that if ice sheets advanced far enough out of the polar regions, a feedback loop ensued where the increased reflectiveness (albedo) of the ice led to further cooling and the formation of more ice, until the entire Earth was covered in ice and stabilized in a new ice-covered equilibrium. While Budyko's model showed that this ice-albedo stability could happen, he concluded that it had, in fact, never happened, as his model offered no way to escape from such a feedback loop.
+In 1971, Aron Faegre, an American physicist, showed that a similar energy-balance model predicted three stable global climates, one of which was snowball Earth. This model introduced Edward Norton Lorenz's concept of intransitivity, indicating that there could be a major jump from one climate to another, including to snowball Earth.
+The term "snowball Earth" was coined by Joseph Kirschvink in a short paper published in 1992 within a lengthy volume concerning the biology of the Proterozoic eon. The major contributions from this work were: (1) the recognition that the presence of banded iron formations is consistent with such a global glacial episode, and (2) the introduction of a mechanism by which to escape from a completely ice-covered Earth—specifically, the accumulation of CO2 from volcanic outgassing leading to an ultra-greenhouse effect.
+Franklyn Van Houten's discovery of a consistent geological pattern in which lake levels rose and fell is now known as the "Van Houten cycle". His studies of phosphorus deposits and banded iron formations in sedimentary rocks made him an early adherent of the snowball Earth hypothesis postulating that the planet's surface froze more than 650 Ma.
+Interest in the notion of a snowball Earth increased dramatically after Paul F. Hoffman and his co-workers applied Kirschvink's ideas to a succession of Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks in Namibia and elaborated upon the hypothesis in the journal Science in 1998 by incorporating such observations as the occurrence of cap carbonates.
+In 2010, Francis A. Macdonald, assistant professor at Harvard in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, and others, reported evidence that Rodinia was at equatorial latitude during the Cryogenian period with glacial ice at or below sea level, and that the associated Sturtian glaciation was global.
+
+== Evidence ==
+The snowball Earth hypothesis was originally devised to explain geological evidence for the apparent presence of glaciers at tropical latitudes. According to modelling, an ice–albedo feedback would result in glacial ice rapidly advancing to the equator once the glaciers spread to within 25° to 30° of the equator. Therefore, the presence of glacial deposits within the tropics suggests global ice cover.
+Critical to an assessment of the validity of the theory, therefore, is an understanding of the reliability and significance of the evidence that led to the belief that ice ever reached the tropics. This evidence must prove three things:
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+---
+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 2/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+That a bed contains sedimentary structures that could have been formed only by glacial activity;
+That the bed lay within the tropics when it was deposited.
+That glaciers were active at different global locations at the same time, and that no other deposits of the same age are in existence.
+This last point is very difficult to prove. Before the Ediacaran, the biostratigraphic markers usually used to correlate rocks are absent; therefore there is no way to prove that rocks in different places across the globe were deposited at the same time. The best that can be done is to estimate the age of the rocks using radiometric dating, which are rarely accurate to better than a million years or so.
+The first two points are often the source of contention on a case-to-case basis. Many glacial features can also be formed by non-glacial means, and estimating the approximate latitudes of landmasses even as recently as 200 Ma can be riddled with difficulties.
+
+=== Palaeomagnetism ===
+The snowball Earth hypothesis was first posited to explain what were then considered to be glacial deposits near the equator. Since tectonic plates move slowly over time, ascertaining their position at a given point in Earth's long history is not easy. In addition to considerations of how the recognizable landmasses could have fit together, the latitude at which a rock was deposited can be constrained by palaeomagnetism.
+When sedimentary rocks form, magnetic minerals within them tend to align with Earth's magnetic field. Through the precise measurement of this palaeomagnetism, it is possible to estimate the latitude (but not the longitude) where the rock matrix was formed. Palaeomagnetic measurements have indicated that some sediments of glacial origin in the Neoproterozoic rock record were deposited within 10 degrees of the equator, although the accuracy of this reconstruction is in question. This palaeomagnetic location of apparently glacial sediments (such as dropstones) has been taken to suggest that glaciers extended from land to sea level in tropical latitudes at the time the sediments were deposited. It is not clear whether this implies a global glaciation or the existence of localized, possibly land-locked, glacial regimes. Others have even suggested that most data do not constrain any glacial deposits to within 25° of the equator.
+Skeptics suggest that the palaeomagnetic data could be corrupted if Earth's ancient magnetic field was substantially different from today's. Depending on the rate of cooling of Earth's core, it is possible that during the Proterozoic, the magnetic field did not approximate a simple dipolar distribution, with north and south magnetic poles roughly aligning with the planet's axis as they do today. Instead, a hotter core may have circulated more vigorously and given rise to 4, 8 or more poles. Palaeomagnetic data would then have to be re-interpreted, as the sedimentary minerals could have aligned pointing to a "west pole" rather than the north magnetic pole. Alternatively, Earth's dipolar field could have been oriented such that the poles were close to the equator. This hypothesis has been posited to explain the extraordinarily rapid motion of the magnetic poles implied by the Ediacaran palaeomagnetic record; the alleged motion of the north magnetic pole would occur around the same time as the Gaskiers glaciation.
+Another weakness of reliance on palaeomagnetic data is the difficulty in determining whether the magnetic signal recorded is original, or whether it has been reset by later activity. For example, a mountain-building orogeny releases hot water as a by-product of metamorphic reactions; this water can circulate to rocks thousands of kilometers away and reset their magnetic signature. This makes the authenticity of rocks older than a few million years difficult to determine without painstaking mineralogical observations. Moreover, further evidence is accumulating that large-scale remagnetization events have taken place which may necessitate revision of the estimated positions of the palaeomagnetic poles.
+There is currently only one deposit, the Elatina deposit of Australia, that was indubitably deposited at low latitudes; its depositional date is well-constrained, and the signal is demonstrably original.
+
+=== Low-latitude glacial deposits ===
+
+Sedimentary rocks that are deposited by glaciers have distinctive features that enable their identification. Long before the advent of the snowball Earth hypothesis, many Neoproterozoic sediments had been interpreted as having a glacial origin, including some apparently at tropical latitudes at the time of their deposition. However, many sedimentary features traditionally associated with glaciers can also be formed by other means. Thus the glacial origin of many of the key occurrences for snowball Earth has been contested.
+As of 2007, there was only one "very reliable"—still challenged—datum point identifying tropical tillites, which makes statements of equatorial ice cover somewhat presumptuous. However, evidence of sea-level glaciation in the tropics during the Sturtian glaciation is accumulating.
+Evidence of possible glacial origin of sediment includes:
+
+Dropstones (stones dropped into marine sediments), which can be deposited by glaciers or other phenomena.
+Varves (annual sediment layers in periglacial lakes), which can form at higher temperatures.
+Glacial striations (formed by embedded rocks scraped against bedrock): similar striations are from time to time formed by mudflows or tectonic movements.
+Diamictites (poorly sorted conglomerates). Originally described as glacial till, most were in fact formed by debris flows.
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+---
+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 3/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Open-water deposits ===
+It appears that some deposits formed during the snowball period could only have formed in the presence of an active hydrological cycle. Bands of glacial deposits up to 5,500 meters thick, separated by small (meters) bands of non-glacial sediments, demonstrate that glaciers melted and re-formed repeatedly for tens of millions of years; solid oceans would not permit this scale of deposition. It is considered possible that ice streams such as seen in Antarctica today could have caused these sequences.
+Further, sedimentary features that could only form in open water (for example: wave-formed ripples, far-traveled ice-rafted debris and indicators of photosynthetic activity) can be found throughout sediments dating from the snowball-Earth periods. While these may represent "oases" of meltwater on a completely frozen Earth, computer modelling suggests that large areas of the ocean must have remained ice-free, arguing that a "hard" snowball is not plausible in terms of energy balance and general circulation models.
+
+=== Carbon isotope ratios ===
+There are two stable isotopes of carbon in sea water: carbon-12 (12C) and the rare carbon-13 (13C), which makes up about 1.109 percent of carbon atoms. Biochemical processes, of which photosynthesis is one, tend to preferentially incorporate the lighter 12C isotope. Thus ocean-dwelling photosynthesizers, both protists and algae, tend to be very slightly depleted in 13C, relative to the abundance found in the primary volcanic sources of Earth's carbon. Therefore, an ocean with photosynthetic life will have a lower 13C/12C ratio within organic remains and a higher ratio in corresponding ocean water. The organic component of the lithified sediments will remain very slightly, but measurably, depleted in 13C.
+Silicate weathering, an inorganic process by which carbon dioxide is drawn out of the atmosphere and deposited in rock, also fractionates carbon. The emplacement of several large igneous provinces shortly before the Cryogenian and the subsequent chemical weathering of the enormous continental flood basalts produced by them, aided by the breakup of Rodinia that exposed many of these flood basalts to warmer, moister conditions closer to the coast and accelerated chemical weathering, is also believed to have caused a major positive shift in carbon isotopic ratios and contributed to the beginning of the Sturtian glaciation.
+During the proposed episode of snowball Earth, there are rapid and extreme negative excursions in the ratio of 13C to 12C. Close analysis of the timing of 13C 'spikes' in deposits across the globe allows the recognition of four, possibly five, glacial events in the late Neoproterozoic.
+
+=== Banded iron formations ===
+
+Banded iron formations (BIF) are sedimentary rocks of layered iron oxide and iron-poor chert. In the presence of oxygen, iron naturally rusts and becomes insoluble in water. The banded iron formations are commonly very old and their deposition is often related to the oxidation of Earth's atmosphere during the Palaeoproterozoic era, when dissolved iron in the ocean came in contact with photosynthetically produced oxygen and precipitated out as iron oxide.
+The bands were produced at the tipping point between an anoxic and an oxygenated ocean. Since today's atmosphere is oxygen-rich (nearly 21% by volume) and in contact with the oceans, it is not possible to accumulate enough iron oxide to deposit a banded formation. The only extensive iron formations that were deposited after the Palaeoproterozoic (after 1.8 billion years ago) are associated with Cryogenian glacial deposits.
+For such iron-rich rocks to be deposited there would have to be anoxia in the ocean, so that much dissolved iron (as ferrous oxide) could accumulate before it met an oxidant that would precipitate it as ferric oxide. For the ocean to become anoxic it must have limited gas exchange with the oxygenated atmosphere. Proponents of the hypothesis argue that the reappearance of BIF in the sedimentary record is a result of limited oxygen levels in an ocean sealed by sea-ice. Near the end of a glaciation period, a reestablishment of gas exchange between the ocean and atmosphere oxidised seawater rich in ferrous iron would occur. A positive shift in δ56FeIRMM-014 from the lower to upper layers of Cryogenian BIFs may reflect an increase in ocean acidification, as the upper layers were deposited as more and more oceanic ice cover melted away and more carbon dioxide was dissolved by the ocean. 
+Opponents of the hypothesis suggest that the rarity of the BIF deposits may indicate that they formed in inland seas. Being isolated from the oceans, such lakes could have been stagnant and anoxic at depth, much like today's Black Sea; a sufficient input of iron could provide the necessary conditions for BIF formation. A further difficulty in suggesting that BIFs marked the end of the glaciation is that they are found interbedded with glacial sediments; such interbedding has been suggested to be an artefact of Milankovitch cycles, which would have periodically warmed the seas enough to allow gas exchange between the atmosphere and ocean and precipitate BIFs.
+
+=== Cap carbonate rocks ===
+
+Around the top of Neoproterozoic glacial deposits there is commonly a sharp transition into a chemically precipitated sedimentary limestone or dolomite metres to tens of metres thick. These cap carbonates sometimes occur in sedimentary successions that have no other carbonate rocks, suggesting that their deposition is result of a profound aberration in ocean chemistry.
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+---
+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 4/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+These cap carbonates have unusual chemical composition as well as strange sedimentary structures that are often interpreted as large ripples.
+The formation of such sedimentary rocks could be caused by a large influx of positively charged ions, as would be produced by rapid weathering during the extreme greenhouse following a snowball Earth event. The δ13C isotopic signature of the cap carbonates is near −5‰, consistent with the value of the mantle—such a low value could be taken to signify an absence of life, since photosynthesis usually acts to raise the value; alternatively the release of methane deposits could have lowered it from a higher value and counterbalance the effects of photosynthesis.
+The mechanism involved in the formation of cap carbonates is not clear, but the most cited explanation suggests that at the melting of a snowball Earth, water would dissolve the abundant CO2 from the atmosphere to form carbonic acid, which would fall as acid rain. This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock (including readily attacked glacial debris), releasing large amounts of calcium, which when washed into the ocean would form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock. Such an abiotic "cap carbonate" sediment can be found on top of the glacial till that gave rise to the snowball Earth hypothesis.
+However, there are some problems with the designation of a glacial origin to cap carbonates. The high carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere would cause the oceans to become acidic and dissolve any carbonates contained within—starkly at odds with the deposition of cap carbonates. The thickness of some cap carbonates is far above what could reasonably be produced in the relatively quick deglaciations. The cause is further weakened by the lack of cap carbonates above many sequences of clear glacial origin at a similar time and the occurrence of similar carbonates within the sequences of proposed glacial origin. An alternative mechanism, which may have produced the Doushantuo cap carbonate at least, is the rapid, widespread release of methane. This accounts for incredibly low—as low as −48‰—δ13C values—as well as unusual sedimentary features which appear to have been formed by the flow of gas through the sediments.
+
+=== Changing acidity ===
+Isotopes of boron suggest that the pH of the oceans dropped dramatically before and after the Marinoan glaciation.
+This may indicate a buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, some of which would dissolve into the oceans to form carbonic acid. Although the boron variations may be evidence of extreme climate change, they need not imply a global glaciation.
+
+=== Space dust ===
+Earth's surface is very depleted in iridium, which primarily resides in Earth's core. The only significant source of the element at the surface is cosmic particles that reach Earth. During a snowball Earth, iridium would accumulate on the ice sheets, and when the ice melted the resulting layer of sediment would be rich in iridium. An iridium anomaly has been discovered at the base of the cap carbonate formations and has been used to suggest that the glacial episode lasted for at least 3 million years, but this does not necessarily imply a global extent to the glaciation; indeed, a similar anomaly could be explained by the impact of a large meteorite.
+
+=== Cyclic climate fluctuations ===
+Using the ratio of mobile cations to those that remain in soils during chemical weathering (the chemical index of alteration), it has been shown that chemical weathering varied in a cyclic fashion within a glacial succession, increasing during interglacial periods and decreasing during cold and arid glacial periods. This pattern, if a true reflection of events, suggests that the "snowball Earths" bore a stronger resemblance to Pleistocene ice age cycles than to a completely frozen Earth.
+In addition, glacial sediments of the Port Askaig Tillite Formation in Scotland clearly show interbedded cycles of glacial and shallow marine sediments. The significance of these deposits is highly reliant upon their dating. Glacial sediments are difficult to date, and the closest dated bed to the Port Askaig group is 8 km stratigraphically above the beds of interest. Its dating to 600 Ma means the beds can be tentatively correlated to the Sturtian glaciation, but they may represent the advance or retreat of a snowball Earth.
+
+== Mechanisms ==
+
+The initiation of a snowball Earth event would involve some initial cooling mechanism, which would result in an increase in Earth's coverage of snow and ice. The increase in Earth's coverage of snow and ice would in turn increase Earth's albedo, which would result in positive feedback for cooling. If enough snow and ice accumulates, run-away cooling would result. This positive feedback is facilitated by an equatorial continental distribution, which would allow ice to accumulate in the regions closer to the equator, where solar radiation is most direct.
+Many possible triggering mechanisms could account for the beginning of a snowball Earth, such as a reduction in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases including methane and/or carbon dioxide, the eruption of a supervolcano, changes in Solar energy output, or perturbations of Earth's orbit. The start of the Cryogenian period is known to correspond with a rapid rise in atmospheric oxygen known as the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event (NOE).  This rise in atmospheric oxygen resulted in a reduction in atmospheric methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Regardless of the trigger, initial cooling results in an increase in the area of Earth's surface covered by ice and snow, and the additional ice and snow reflects more solar energy back to space, further cooling Earth and further increasing the area of Earth's surface covered by ice and snow. This positive feedback loop could eventually produce a frozen equator as cold as modern Antarctica.
+Global warming associated with large accumulations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over millions of years, emitted primarily by volcanic activity, is the proposed trigger for melting a snowball Earth. Due to positive feedback for melting, the eventual melting of the snow and ice covering most of Earth's surface would require as little as a millennium.
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+---
+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 5/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Initiation of glaciation ===
+A tropical distribution of the continents is, perhaps counter-intuitively, necessary to allow the initiation of a snowball Earth. Tropical continents are more reflective than open ocean and so absorb less of the Sun's heat: most absorption of solar energy on Earth today occurs in tropical oceans. Further, tropical continents are subject to more rainfall, which leads to increased river discharge and erosion. When exposed to air, silicate rocks undergo weathering reactions which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. These reactions proceed in the general form
+
+An example of such a reaction is the weathering of wollastonite:
+
+The released calcium cations react with the dissolved bicarbonate in the ocean to form calcium carbonate as a chemically precipitated sedimentary rock. This transfers carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, from the air into the geosphere, and, in steady-state on geologic time scales, offsets the carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes into the atmosphere.
+As of 2003, a precise continental distribution during the Neoproterozoic was difficult to establish because there were too few suitable sediments for analysis. Some reconstructions point towards polar continents—which have been a feature of all other major glaciations, providing a point upon which ice can nucleate. Changes in ocean circulation patterns may then have provided the trigger of snowball Earth.
+Additional factors that may have contributed to the onset of the Neoproterozoic snowball include the introduction of atmospheric free oxygen, which may have reached sufficient quantities to react with methane in the atmosphere, oxidizing it to carbon dioxide, a much weaker greenhouse gas, and a younger—thus fainter—Sun, which would have emitted 6 percent less radiation in the Neoproterozoic.
+Normally, as Earth gets colder due to natural climatic fluctuations and changes in incoming solar radiation, the cooling slows these weathering reactions. As a result, less carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and Earth warms as this greenhouse gas accumulates—this 'negative feedback' process limits the magnitude of cooling. During the Cryogenian, however, Earth's continents were all at tropical latitudes, which made this moderating process less effective, as high weathering rates continued on land even as Earth cooled. This caused ice to advance beyond the polar regions. Once ice advanced to within 30° of the equator, a positive feedback could ensue such that the increased reflectiveness (albedo) of the ice led to further cooling and the formation of more ice, until the whole Earth is ice-covered.
+Polar continents, because of low rates of evaporation, are too dry to allow substantial carbon deposition—restricting the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide that can be removed from the carbon cycle. A gradual rise of the proportion of the isotope 13C relative to 12C in sediments pre-dating "global" glaciation indicates that CO2 draw-down before snowball Earths was a slow and continuous process. The start of snowball Earths are marked by a sharp downturn in the δ13C value of sediments, a hallmark that may be attributed to a crash in biological productivity as a result of the cold temperatures and ice-covered oceans.
+In January 2016, Gernon et al. proposed a "shallow-ridge hypothesis" involving the breakup of Rodinia, linking the eruption and rapid alteration of hyaloclastites along shallow ridges to massive increases in alkalinity in an ocean with thick ice cover. Gernon et al. demonstrated that the increase in alkalinity over the course of glaciation is sufficient to explain the thickness of cap carbonates formed in the aftermath of Snowball Earth events.
+Dating of the Sturtian glaciation's onset has found it to be coeval with the emplacement of a large igneous province in the tropics. Weathering of this equatorial large igneous province is believed to have sucked enough carbon dioxide out of the air to enable the development of major glaciation.
+
+=== During the frozen period ===
+
+Global temperature fell so low that the equator was as cold as modern-day Antarctica. This low temperature was maintained by the high albedo of the ice sheets, which reflected most incoming solar energy into space. A lack of heat-retaining clouds, caused by water vapor freezing out of the atmosphere, amplified this effect. Degassing of carbon dioxide has been speculated to have been unusually low during the Cryogenian, enabling the persistence of global glaciation.
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+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 6/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Breaking out of global glaciation ===
+The carbon dioxide levels necessary to thaw Earth have been estimated as being 350 times what they are today, about 13% of the atmosphere. Since Earth was almost completely covered with ice, carbon dioxide could not be withdrawn from the atmosphere by release of alkaline metal ions weathering out of siliceous rocks. Over 4 to 30 million years, enough CO2 and methane, mainly emitted by volcanoes but also produced by microbes converting organic carbon trapped under the ice into the gas, would accumulate to finally cause enough greenhouse effect to make surface ice melt in the tropics until a band of permanently ice-free land and water developed; this would be darker than the ice and thus absorb more energy from the Sun—initiating a "positive feedback".
+The first areas to become free of permanent ice cover may have been in the mid-latitudes rather than in the tropics, because a rapid hydrological cycle would have inhibited the melting of ice at low latitudes. As these mid-latitude regions became ice free, dust from them blew over onto ice sheets elsewhere, decreasing their albedo and accelerating the process of deglaciation. Destabilization of substantial deposits of methane hydrates locked up in low-latitude permafrost may also have acted as a trigger and/or strong positive feedback for deglaciation and warming.
+Methanogens were an important contributor to the deglaciation of the Marinoan Snowball Earth. The return of high primary productivity in surficial waters fueled extensive microbial sulphur reduction, causing deeper waters to become highly euxinic. Euxinia caused the formation of large amounts of methyl sulphides, which in turn was converted into methane by methanogens. A major negative nickel isotope excursion confirms high methanogenic activity during this period of deglaciation and global warming.
+On the continents, the melting of glaciers would release massive amounts of glacial deposit, which would erode and weather. The resulting sediments supplied to the ocean would be high in nutrients such as phosphorus, which combined with the abundance of CO2 would trigger a cyanobacteria population explosion, which would cause a relatively rapid reoxygenation of the atmosphere and may have contributed to the rise of the Ediacaran biota and the subsequent Cambrian explosion—a higher oxygen concentration allowing large multicellular lifeforms to develop. Although the positive feedback loop would melt the ice in geological short order, perhaps less than 1,000 years, replenishment of atmospheric oxygen and depletion of the CO2 levels would take further millennia. 
+It is possible that carbon dioxide levels fell enough for Earth to freeze again; this cycle may have repeated until the continents had drifted to more polar latitudes. More recent evidence suggests that with colder oceanic temperatures, the resulting higher ability of the oceans to dissolve gases led to the carbon content of sea water being more quickly oxidized to carbon dioxide. This leads directly to an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide, enhanced greenhouse warming of Earth's surface, and the prevention of a total snowball state.
+During millions of years, cryoconite would have accumulated on and inside the ice. Psychrophilic microorganisms, volcanic ash and dust from ice-free locations would settle on ice covering several million square kilometers. Once the ice started to melt, these layers would become visible and darken the icy surfaces, helping to accelerate the process. Also, ultraviolet light from the Sun produced hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) when it hit water molecules. Normally H2O2 breaks down in sunlight, but some would have been trapped inside the ice. When the glaciers started to melt, it would have been released in both the ocean and the atmosphere, where it was split into water and oxygen molecules, increasing atmospheric oxygen.
+
+=== Slushball Earth hypothesis ===
+
+While the presence of glaciers is not disputed, the idea that the entire planet was covered in ice is more contentious, leading some scientists to posit a "slushball Earth", in which a band of ice-free, or ice-thin, waters remains around the equator, allowing for a continued hydrologic cycle. This hypothesis appeals to scientists who observe certain features of the sedimentary record that can only be formed under open water or rapidly moving ice (which would require somewhere ice-free to move to). Recent research observed geochemical cyclicity in clastic rocks, showing that the snowball periods were punctuated by warm spells, similar to ice age cycles in recent Earth history. Attempts to construct computer models of a snowball Earth have struggled to accommodate global ice cover without fundamental changes in the laws and constants which govern the planet.
+A less extreme snowball Earth hypothesis involves continually evolving continental configurations and changes in ocean circulation. Synthesised evidence has produced slushball Earth models where the stratigraphic record does not permit postulating complete global glaciations. Kirschvink's original hypothesis had recognised that warm tropical puddles would be expected to exist in a snowball Earth.
+A more extreme hypothesis, the Waterbelt Earth hypothesis, suggests that ice-free areas of ocean continued to exist even as tropical continents were glaciated.
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+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 7/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Scientific dispute ==
+The argument against the hypothesis is evidence of fluctuation in ice cover and melting during "snowball Earth" deposits. Evidence for such melting comes from evidence of glacial dropstones, geochemical evidence of climate cyclicity, and interbedded glacial and shallow marine sediments. A longer record from Oman, constrained to 13°N, covers the period from 712 to 545 million years ago—a time span containing the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations—and shows both glacial and ice-free deposition. The snowball Earth hypothesis does not explain the alternation of glacial and interglacial events, nor the oscillation of glacial sheet margins.
+There have been difficulties in recreating a snowball Earth with global climate models. Simple GCMs with mixed-layer oceans can be made to freeze to the equator; a more sophisticated model with a full dynamic ocean (though only a primitive sea ice model) failed to form sea ice to the equator. In addition, the levels of CO2 necessary to melt a global ice cover have been calculated to be 130,000 ppm, which is considered by some to be unreasonably large.
+Strontium isotopic data have been found to be at odds with proposed snowball Earth models of silicate weathering shutdown during glaciation and rapid rates immediately post-glaciation. Therefore, methane release from permafrost during marine transgression was proposed to be the source of the large measured carbon excursion in the time immediately after glaciation.
+
+=== "Zipper rift" hypothesis ===
+Nick Eyles suggests that the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth was in fact no different from any other glaciation in Earth's history, and that efforts to find a single cause are likely to end in failure. The "zipper rift" hypothesis proposes two pulses of continental "unzipping"—first, the breakup of Rodinia, forming the proto-Pacific Ocean; then the splitting of the continent Baltica from Laurentia, forming the proto-Atlantic—coincided with the glaciated periods.
+The associated tectonic uplift would form high plateaus, just as the East African Rift is responsible for high topography; this high ground could then host glaciers.
+Banded iron formations have been taken as unavoidable evidence for global ice cover, since they require dissolved iron ions and anoxic waters to form; however, the limited extent of the Neoproterozoic banded iron deposits means that they may have formed in inland seas rather than in frozen oceans. Such seas can experience a wide range of chemistries; high rates of evaporation could concentrate iron ions, and a periodic lack of circulation could allow anoxic bottom water to form. Continental rifting, with associated subsidence, tends to produce such landlocked water bodies. This rifting, and associated subsidence, would produce the space for the fast deposition of sediments, negating the need for an immense and rapid melting to raise the global sea levels.
+
+=== High-obliquity hypothesis ===
+A competing hypothesis to explain the presence of ice on the equatorial continents was that Earth's axial tilt was quite high, in the vicinity of 60°, which would place Earth's land in high "latitudes", although supporting evidence is scarce. A less extreme possibility would be that it was merely Earth's magnetic pole that wandered to this inclination, as the magnetic readings which suggested ice-filled continents depend on the magnetic and rotational poles being relatively similar. In either of these two situations, the freeze would be limited to relatively small areas, as is the case today; severe changes to Earth's climate are not necessary.
+
+=== Inertial interchange true polar wander ===
+The evidence for low-latitude glacial deposits during the supposed snowball Earth episodes has been reinterpreted via the concept of inertial interchange true polar wander.
+This hypothesis, created to explain palaeomagnetic data, suggests that Earth's orientation relative to its axis of rotation shifted one or more times during the general time-frame attributed to snowball Earth. This could feasibly produce the same distribution of glacial deposits without requiring any of them to have been deposited at equatorial latitude. While the physics behind the proposition is sound, the removal of one flawed data point from the original study rendered the application of the concept in these circumstances unwarranted.
+
+== Survival of life through frozen periods ==
+
+A tremendous glaciation would curtail photosynthetic life on Earth, thus depleting atmospheric oxygen, and thereby allowing non-oxidized iron-rich rocks to form. Detractors argue that this kind of glaciation would have made life extinct entirely. However, microfossils such as stromatolites and oncolites prove that, in shallow marine environments at least, life did not suffer any perturbation. Instead life developed a trophic complexity and survived the cold period unscathed. Proponents counter that it may have been possible for life to survive in these ways:
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+---
+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 8/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In reservoirs of anaerobic and low-oxygen life powered by chemicals in deep oceanic hydrothermal vents surviving in Earth's deep oceans and crust; but photosynthesis would not have been possible there.
+Under the ice layer, in chemolithotrophic (mineral-metabolizing) ecosystems theoretically resembling those in existence in modern glacier beds, high-alpine and Arctic talus permafrost, and basal glacial ice. This is especially plausible in areas of volcanism or geothermal activity.
+In pockets of liquid water within and under the ice caps, similar to Lake Vostok in Antarctica. In theory, this system may resemble microbial communities living in the perennially frozen lakes of the Antarctic dry valleys. Photosynthesis can occur under ice up to 20 m thick, and at the temperatures predicted by models, equatorial sublimation would prevent equatorial ice thickness from exceeding 10 m.
+As eggs and dormant cells and spores deep-frozen into ice during the most severe phases of the frozen period.
+In small regions of open sea water: polynya. These natural ice holes can occur from the action of winds, currents or a local heat source (e.g. geothermal), even if the surrounding sea is completely frozen over. They could preserve enclaves of photosynthesizers with access to light and CO2 to generate trace amounts of oxygen, enough to sustain some oxygen-dependent organisms. It is not necessary that  a hole form in the ice, merely that some parts of the ice become thin enough to admit light. These small regions may have occurred in deep ocean, far from Rodinia or its remnants as it broke apart and drifted on the tectonic plates.
+In layers of "dirty ice" on top of the ice sheet covering shallow seas below. Animals and mud from the sea would be frozen into the base of the ice and gradually concentrate on the top as the ice above evaporates. Small ponds of water would teem with life thanks to the flow of nutrients through the ice. Such environments may have covered approximately 12 per cent of the global surface area.
+In small oases of liquid water, as would be found near geothermal hotspots resembling Iceland today.
+In nunatak areas in the tropics, where daytime tropical sun or volcanic heat heated bare rock sheltered from cold wind and made small temporary melt pools, which would freeze at sunset.
+Oxygenated subglacial meltwater, along with iron-rich sediments dissolved in the glacial water, generated a meltwater oxygen pump when it entered the ocean, where it provided eukaryotes with some oxygen, and both photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms with sufficient nutrients to support an ecosystem. The freshwater would also mix with the hypersaline seawater, which formed areas less hostile to eukaryotic life than elsewhere in the ocean.
+However, organisms and ecosystems, as far as it can be determined by the fossil record, do not appear to have undergone the significant change that would be expected by a mass extinction. With the advent of more precise dating, a phytoplankton extinction event which had been associated with snowball Earth was shown to precede glaciations by 16 million years. Even if life were to cling on in all the ecological refuges listed above, a whole-Earth glaciation would result in a biota with a noticeably different diversity and composition. This change in diversity and composition has not yet been observed—in fact, the organisms which should be most susceptible to climatic variation emerge unscathed from the snowball Earth. One rebuttal to this is the fact that in many of these places where an argument is made against a mass extinction caused by snowball Earth, the Cryogenian fossil record is impoverished. Sponges, a basal group of animals managed to survive the glaciations after having emerged in the Tonian period. The diversity of animals would later grow dramatically during the Ediacaran.
+
+== Implications ==
+A snowball Earth has profound implications in the history of life on Earth. While many refugia have been postulated, global ice cover would certainly have ravaged ecosystems dependent on sunlight. Geochemical evidence from rocks associated with low-latitude glacial deposits have been interpreted to show a crash in oceanic life during the glacials. High magnitude glacial retreats favoured the survival of macroalgae. 
+Because about half of the oceans' water was frozen solid as ice, the remaining water would be twice as salty as it is today, lowering its freezing point. When the ice sheet melted under a hot atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide, it would cover the oceans with a layer of warm (50°C) freshwater up to 2 kilometres thick. Only after the warm surface water mixed with the colder and deeper saltwater did the sea return to a warmer and less salty state. The melting of the ice may have presented many new opportunities for diversification, and may indeed have driven the rapid evolution which took place at the end of the Cryogenian period. Global ice cover, if it existed, may—in concert with geothermal heating—have led to a lively, well mixed ocean with great vertical convective circulation.
+
+=== Effect on early evolution ===
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+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 9/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Neoproterozoic was a time of remarkable diversification of multicellular organisms, including animals. Organism size and complexity increased considerably after the end of the snowball glaciations. This rapid development of multicellular organisms may have been the result of increased evolutionary pressures resulting from multiple icehouse-hothouse cycles; in this sense, snowball Earth episodes may have "pumped" evolution, much as glaciations during the Pleistocene are known to have acted as a diversity pump in Antarctica. Alternatively, fluctuating copper levels and rising oxygen may have played a part. Many Sturtian diamictites unconformably overlie copper-mineralised strata in Greenland, North America, Australia, and Africa; the glacial breakup and erosion of rocks heavily enriched in copper during the Sturtian glaciation, combined with the chemical weathering of the Franklin Large Igneous Province, greatly elevated copper concentrations in the ocean. Because copper is an essential component of many proteins involved in mitigating oxygen toxicity, synthesising adenosine triphosphate, and producing elastin and collagen, among other biological functions, this spike in copper concentrations was essential to the explosive evolution of multicellular life throughout the latter portion of the Neoproterozoic. Elevated copper concentrations persisted into the Cambrian explosion at the beginning of the Phanerozoic and likely influenced its course too.
+One hypothesis which has been gaining currency in recent years: that early snowball Earths did not so much affect the evolution of life on Earth as result from it. In fact the two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive. The idea is that Earth's life forms affect the global carbon cycle and so major evolutionary events alter the carbon cycle, redistributing carbon within various reservoirs within the biosphere system and in the process temporarily lowering the atmospheric (greenhouse) carbon reservoir until the revised biosphere system settled into a new state. The cool period of the Huronian glaciation is speculated to be linked to the decline in the atmospheric content of greenhouse gases during the Great Oxygenation Event. Similarly, the possible snowball Earth of the Precambrian's Cryogenian between 580 and 850 million years ago (and which itself had a number of distinct episodes) could be related to the rise of more advanced multicellular animal life and life's colonisation of the land. However, a 2022 study, based on findings of previous studies, suggested land plant evolution was driven by the Cryogenian glaciations, which they also theorized to be the reason why the Zygnematophyceae (sister group of land plants) became unicellular and cryophilic, lost their flagella and evolved sexual conjugation.
+
+== Occurrence and timing ==
+
+=== Palaeoproterozoic ===
+
+The Snowball Earth hypothesis has been invoked to explain glacial deposits in the Huronian Supergroup of Canada, though the palaeomagnetic evidence that suggests ice sheets at low latitudes is contested, and stratigraphic evidence clearly shows only three distinct depositions of glacial material (the Ramsay, Bruce and Gowganda Formations) separated by significant periods without. The glacial sediments of the Makganyene formation of South Africa are slightly younger than the Huronian glacial deposits (~2.25 billion years old) and were possibly deposited at tropical latitudes. It has been proposed that rise of free oxygen that occurred during the Great Oxygenation Event removed atmospheric methane through oxidation. As the solar irradiance was notably weaker at the time, Earth's climate may have relied on methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, to maintain surface temperatures above freezing. In the absence of this methane greenhousing, temperatures plunged and a global glaciation could have occurred between 2.5 and 2.2 Gya, during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era.
+
+=== Neoproterozoic ===
+
+There were three or four significant ice ages during the late Neoproterozoic. Of these, the Marinoan was the most significant, and the Sturtian glaciations were also widespread. Even the leading snowball proponent Hoffman agrees that the 350 thousand-year-long Gaskiers glaciation did not lead to global glaciation, although it was probably as intense as the late Ordovician glaciation. The status of the Kaigas "glaciation" or "cooling event" is currently unclear; some scientists do not recognise it as a glacial, others suspect that it may reflect poorly dated strata of Sturtian association, and others believe it may indeed be a third ice age. It was certainly less significant than the Sturtian or Marinoan glaciations, and probably not global in extent. Emerging evidence suggests that Earth underwent a number of glaciations during the Neoproterozoic, which would stand strongly at odds with the snowball hypothesis.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Tziperman, E.; Halevy, I.; Johnston, D. T.; Knoll, A. H.; Schrag, D. P. (2011). "Biologically induced initiation of Neoproterozoic snowball-Earth events". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (37): 15091–15096. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10815091T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1016361108. PMC 3174660. PMID 21825156.
+Etienne, J.L.; Allen, P.A.; Rieu, R. & Le Guerroué, E. (2007). "Neoproterozoic glaciated basins: A critical review of the Snowball Earth hypothesis by comparison with Phanerozoic glaciations". In Michael Hambrey; Poul Christoffersen; Neil Glasser & Bryn Hubbard (eds.). Glacial Sedimentary Processes and Products. IAS Special Publication. Vol. 39. Malden, MA: IAS/Blackwell. pp. 343–399. doi:10.1002/9781444304435.ch19. ISBN 978-1-4051-8300-0.
+Walker, Gabrielle (2003). Snowball Earth. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7475-6433-1.
+Micheels, A.; Montenari, M. (2008). "A snowball Earth versus a slushball Earth: Results from Neoproterozoic climate modeling sensitivity experiments". Geosphere. 4 (2): 401–10. Bibcode:2008Geosp...4..401M. doi:10.1130/GES00098.1. (Geol. Soc. America).
+Roberts, J.D. (1971). "Late Precambrian glaciation: an anti-greenhouse effect?". Nature. 234 (5326): 216–7. Bibcode:1971Natur.234..216R. doi:10.1038/234216a0. S2CID 34163139.
+Roberts, J.D. (1976). "Late Precambrian dolomites, Vendian glaciation, and the synchroneity of Vendian glaciation". Journal of Geology. 84 (1): 47–63. Bibcode:1976JG.....84...47R. doi:10.1086/628173. S2CID 140664783.
+Sankaran, A. V. (2003). "Neoproterozoic 'snowball earth' and the 'cap' carbonate controversy". Current Science. 84 (7): 871–873. JSTOR 24108043.
+Torsvik, T.H.; Rehnström, E.F. (2001). "Cambrian palaeomagnetic data from Baltica: Implications for true polar wander and Cambrian palaeogeography". Journal of the Geological Society. 158 (2): 321–9. Bibcode:2001JGSoc.158..321T. doi:10.1144/jgs.158.2.321. S2CID 54656066.
+Review of late Ediacaran glacial deposits: Wang, Ruimin; Yin, Zongjun; Shen, Bing (2023). "A late Ediacaran ice age: The key node in the Earth system evolution". Earth-Science Reviews. 247 104610. Bibcode:2023ESRv..24704610W. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104610. S2CID 265071916.
+
+== External links ==
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+---
+title: "Snowball Earth"
+chunk: 10/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:31.903477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Snowball Earth 1999 overview by Paul F. Hoffman and Daniel P. Schrag, 8 August 1999
+Snowball Earth web site Exhaustive on-line resource for snowball Earth by pro-snowball scientists Hoffman and Schrag.
+New Evidence Puts 'Snowball Earth' Theory Out In The Cold sciencedaily.com. 2007. Analyses in Oman produce evidence of hot-cold cycles in the Cryogenian period, roughly 850–544 million years ago. The UK-Swiss team claims that this evidence undermines hypotheses of an ice age so severe that Earth's oceans completely froze over.
+Channel 4 (UK) documentary, Catastrophe: Snowball Earth Archived 29 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine episode 2 of 5, first screened Dec 2008, documentary narrated by Tony Robinson, advocates snowball Earth and contains interviews with proponents.
+First breath: Earth's billion-year struggle for oxygen New Scientist, #2746, 5 February 2010 by Nick Lane. Posits an earlier much longer snowball period, c. 2.4 – c. 2.0 Gya, triggered by the Great Oxygenation Event.
+'Snowball Earth' theory melted BBC News online (2002-03-06) report on findings by geoscientists at the University of St Andrews, Scotland that casts doubt on the snowball Earth hypothesis due to evidence of sedimentary material, which could only have been derived from floating ice on open oceanic waters.
+Life may have survived 'snowball Earth' in ocean pockets BBC News online (2010-12-14) report on research presented in the journal Geology by Dr Dan Le Heron (et al.) of Royal Holloway, University of London who studied rock formations in Flinders Ranges in South Australia, formed from sediments dating to the Sturtian glaciation, which bear the unmistakable mark of turbulent oceans.
+Snowball Earth animated simulation by NASA and LDEO
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+title: "Social heuristics"
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+---
+
+Social heuristics are simple decision making strategies that guide people's behavior and decisions in the social environment when time, information, or cognitive resources are scarce. Social environments tend to be characterised by complexity and uncertainty, and in order to simplify the decision-making process, people may use heuristics, which are decision making strategies that involve ignoring some information or relying on simple rules of thumb.
+The class of phenomena described by social heuristics overlap with those typically investigated by social psychology and game theory. At the intersection of these fields, social heuristics have been applied to explain cooperation in economic games used in experimental research. In the view of the field's academics, cooperation is typically advantageous in daily life, and therefore people develop a cooperation heuristic that gets applied even to one-shot anonymous interactions (the "social heuristics hypothesis" of human cooperation).
+
+== Overview ==
+
+=== Bounded rationality ===
+
+In the decision-making process, optimisation is almost always intractable in any implementation, whether machine or neural. Because of this, defined parameters or boundaries must be implemented in the process in order to achieve an acceptable outcome. This method is known as applying bounded rationality, where an individual makes a collective and rational choice that considers "the limits of human capability to calculate, the severe deficiencies of human knowledge about the consequences of choice, and the limits of human ability to adjudicate among multiple goals". They are essentially incorporating a series of criteria, referred to as alternatives for choice. These alternatives are often not initially given to the decision maker, so a theory of search is also incorporated.
+
+=== Heuristics ===
+
+Heuristics are a common alternative, which can be defined as simple strategies for decision making where the actor only pays attention to key pieces of information, allowing the decision to be made quickly and with less cognitive effort.
+
+Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick have advanced the view that heuristics are decision-making processes that employ attribute substitution, where the decision maker substitutes the "target attribute" of the thing he is trying to judge with a "heuristic attribute" that more easily comes to mind. Shah and Daniel M. Oppenheimer have framed heuristics in terms of effort reduction, where the decision maker makes use of techniques that make decisions less effortful, such as only paying attention to some cues or only considering a subset of the available alternatives. Another view of heuristics comes from Gerd Gigerenzer and colleagues, who conceptualize heuristics as "fast and frugal" techniques for decision making that simplify complex calculations and make up part of the "adaptive toolbox" of human capacities for reasoning and inference. Under this framework, heuristics are ecologically rational, meaning a heuristic may be successful if the way it works matches the demands of the environment it is being used in. Researchers in this vein also argue that heuristics may be just as or even more accurate when compared to more complex strategies, such as multiple regression.
+
+=== Social heuristics ===
+Social heuristics can include heuristics that use social information, operate in social contexts, or both. Examples of social information include information about the behavior of a social entity or the properties of a social system, while nonsocial information is information about something physical. Contexts in which an organism may use social heuristics can include "games against nature" and "social games". In games against nature, the organism strives to predict natural occurrences (such as the weather) or competes against other natural forces to accomplish something. In social games, the organism is making decisions in a situation that involves other social beings. Importantly, in social games, the most adaptive course of action also depends on the decisions and behavior of the other actors. For instance, the follow-the-majority heuristic uses social information as inputs but is not necessarily applied in a social context, while the equity-heuristic uses non-social information but can be applied in a social context such as the allocation of parental resources amongst offspring.
+Within social psychology, some researchers have viewed heuristics as closely linked to cognitive biases. Others have argued that these biases result from the application of social heuristics depending on the structure of the environment that they operate in. Researchers in the latter approach treat the study of social heuristics as closely linked to social rationality, a field of research that applies the ideas of bounded rationality and heuristics to the realm of social environments. Under this view, social heuristics are seen as ecologically rational. In the context of evolution, research utilizing evolutionary simulation models has found support for the evolution of social heuristics and cooperation when the outcomes of social interactions are uncertain.
+
+== Examples ==
+Examples of social heuristics include:
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Imitate-the-majority heuristic, also referred to follow-the-majority heuristic. An agent (or decision maker) using the heuristic would imitate the behavior of the majority of others in his reference group. For instance, in deciding which restaurant to choose, people tend to choose the one with the longer waiting queue.
+Imitate-the-successful heuristic, also referred to follow-the-best heuristic. An agent using the heuristic would imitate the behavior of the most successful person in her reference group.
+Equity heuristic, also referred to 1/N heuristic. Using the heuristic means equally distributing resources among the available options. The heuristic was found to be successful in the stock market and also been found to describe parental resource allocation decisions: parents typically allocate their time and effort equally amongst their children.
+Social-circle heuristic. The heuristic is used to infer which of two alternatives has the higher value. An agent using the heuristic would search through her social circles in order of their proximity to the self (self, family, friends, and acquaintances), stopping the search as soon as the number of instances of one alternative within a circle exceeds that of the other, choosing the alternative with the higher tally. For example, a person might decide which of two sports is more popular by thinking through how many members of each circle play each sport.
+Tit-for-Tat heuristic. In deciding whether to cooperate or defect, an agent using the heuristic would cooperate in the first round and in subsequent rounds, reciprocate his partner's action of cooperation or defection in the previous round. The heuristic is typically investigated using a prisoner's dilemma in game theory, where there is substantial evidence that people use such a heuristic, leading to intuitive reciprocation.
+Regret matching heuristic. An agent using this heuristic will persist with a course of action in a cooperative game as long as she is not experiencing regret. Once she experiences regret, this heuristic predicts a probability that the actor will switch her behavior that is proportional to the amount of regret she feels about missing out on a past payout.
+Group recognition heuristic, which extends principles related to the recognition heuristic into a group decision making setting. In individual decision making, the recognition heuristic is used when an individual asked which of two options has a higher value on a given criterion judges that the option he recognizes has a higher value than the option he does not recognize. This is applied in group decision making settings when a group's choice of which of two options has a higher value is influenced by use of the recognition heuristic by some members of the group.
+Majority heuristic (rule). This is a decision rule used in group decision making by both humans and animals, where each member of the group votes for an alternative and a decision is reached based on the option with the most votes. Researchers investigating majority rule (where the option with more than half of the votes is chosen) and plurality rule (where the option with the most votes in chosen) strategies for group decisions found such strategies to be both high-performing and computationally efficient for situations where there is a correct answer.
+Base-Rate heuristic. The process that involves using common mental shortcuts that help a decision to be made based on known probabilities. For example, if an animal is heard howling in a large city, it is usually assumed to be a dog because the probability that a wolf is in a large city is very low.
+Peak-and-end heuristic. When past experiences are practically exclusively judged on how the agent was affected at the peak (both unpleasant and pleasant) and the end of event, creating a natural bias in the decision-making process as the whole experience is not analysed.
+Familiarity heuristic. The agent's approach to solve a social decision in which they have experienced a similar event before involves them reflecting on comparable past situations, and often acting the same way they acted in the past.
+
+== Relation to other concepts ==
+
+=== Dual-process approach ===
+A dual-process approach to human cognition specifies two types of thought processes: one that is fast and happens unconsciously or automatically, and another that is slower and involves more conscious deliberation. In the dominant dual-systems approach in social psychology, heuristics are believed to be automatically and unconsciously applied. The study of social heuristics as a tool of bounded rationality asserts that heuristics may be used consciously or unconsciously.
+
+=== Social heuristics hypothesis ===
+The social heuristics hypothesis is a theory put forth by Rand and colleagues that explains the link between intuition and cooperation. Under this theory, cooperating in everyday social situations tends to be successful, and as a result, cooperation is an internalized heuristic that is applied in unfamiliar social contexts, even those in which such behavior may not lead to the most personally advantageous result for the actor (such as a lab experiment).
+Methods used by researchers to study cooperative behavior in the laboratory include economic games such as:
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Prisoner's dilemma game: two players each decide whether to cooperate or defect; a player who defects when the other cooperates maximizes his payout, if both cooperate the payout is higher than if both defect.
+Public goods game : multiple players each choose how much money to put towards a public project; the amount in the public pot is increased by a given factor and distributed equally to the players.
+Trust game: one player transfers money to another player and the money is increased by a given factor; the other then decides whether and how much to transfer back.
+Ultimatum game: one player makes an offer for how to split a resource with the other player; the other player can accept the offer (so that both players get the amount proposed by the split) or reject the offer (so that neither player gets anything).
+These economic games all share the condition that, when played in a single round, an individual's payout is maximized if he acts selfishly and chooses not to cooperate. However, over the course of repeated rounds, cooperation can be payout maximizing and thus be a self-interested strategy.
+Following a dual-process framework, the social heuristics hypothesis contends that cooperation, which is automatic and intuitive, may be overridden by reflection. The theory is supported by evidence from laboratory and online experiments suggesting that time pressure increases cooperation, though some evidence suggests this may be only among individuals who are not as familiar with the types of economic games typically used in this field of research.
+Meta-analytic evidence based on 67 studies that looked at cooperation in the types of economic games described above suggests that cognitive-processing manipulations that encourage intuitive decision-making (such as time pressure or increased cognitive load) increase pure cooperation, where a one-shot action has no future consequences for the actor to consider and not cooperating is the most advantageous option. However, such manipulations do not have an effect on strategic cooperation in situations in which cooperation may be the pay-off maximizing option because of a possibility of future interactions where the actor may be rewarded for cooperation.
+Importantly, research suggests that this intuitive cooperation may vary by culture and/or social roles. For instance, one study comparing participants from the US to participants from India found some differences in the patterns and speed of cooperation in online tasks across these groups, suggesting that cultural background may play a role in cooperative behavior. Another study comparing men to women found that promoting intuitive decision making increased cooperative behavior among women but not among men, and the authors link this result to social roles and norms that stereotype women as altruistic.
+
+== See also ==
+Heuristics in judgment and decision-making
+Bounded rationality
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Somatic marker hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:33.152759+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The somatic marker hypothesis, formulated by Antonio Damasio and associated researchers, proposes that emotional processes guide (or bias) behavior, particularly decision-making.
+"Somatic markers" are feelings in the body that are associated with emotions, such as the association of rapid heartbeat with anxiety or of nausea with disgust. According to the hypothesis, somatic markers strongly influence subsequent decision-making. Within the brain, somatic markers are thought to be processed in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and the amygdala. The hypothesis has been tested in experiments using the Iowa gambling task.
+
+== Background ==
+
+In economic theory, human decision-making is often modeled as being devoid of emotions, involving only logical reasoning based on cost-benefit calculations. In contrast, the somatic marker hypothesis proposes that emotions play a critical role in the ability to make fast, rational decisions in complex and uncertain situations.
+Patients with frontal lobe damage, such as Phineas Gage, provided the first evidence that the frontal lobes were associated with decision-making. Frontal lobe damage, particularly to the vmPFC, results in impaired abilities to organize and plan behavior and learn from previous mistakes, without affecting intellect in terms of working memory, attention, and language comprehension and expression.
+vmPFC patients also have difficulty expressing and experiencing appropriate emotions. This led Antonio Damasio to hypothesize that decision-making deficits following vmPFC damage result from the inability to use emotions to help guide future behavior based on past experiences. Consequently, vmPFC damage forces those affected to rely on slow and laborious cost-benefit analyses for every given choice situation.
+
+== Hypothesis ==
+When individuals make decisions, they must assess the incentive value of the choices available to them, using cognitive and emotional processes. When the individuals face complex and conflicting choices, they may be unable to decide using only cognitive processes, which may become overloaded. Emotions, consequently, are hypothesized to guide decision-making.
+Emotions, as defined by Damasio, are changes in both body and brain states in response to stimuli. Physiological changes (such as muscle tone, heart rate, endocrine activity, posture, facial expression, and so forth) occur in the body and are relayed to the brain where they are transformed into an emotion that tells the individual something about the stimulus that they have encountered. Over time, emotions and their corresponding bodily changes, which are called "somatic markers", become associated with particular situations and their past outcomes.
+When making subsequent decisions, these somatic markers and their evoked emotions are consciously or unconsciously associated with their past outcomes, and influence decision-making in favor of some behaviors instead of others. For instance, when a somatic marker associated with a positive outcome is perceived, the person may feel happy and thereby motivated to pursue that behavior. When a somatic marker associated with the negative outcome is perceived, the person may feel sad, which acts as an internal alarm to warn the individual to avoid that course of action. These situation-specific somatic states are based on, and reinforced by, past experiences help to guide behavior in favor of more advantageous choices, and therefore are adaptive.
+According to the hypothesis, two distinct pathways reactivate somatic marker responses. In the first pathway, emotion can be evoked by changes in the body that are projected to the brain – called the "body loop". For instance, encountering a feared object like a snake may initiate the fight-or-flight response and cause fear. In the second pathway, cognitive representations of the emotions (imagining an unpleasant situation "as if" you were in that particular situation) can be activated in the brain without being directly elicited by a sensory stimulus – called the "as-if body loop". Thus, the brain can anticipate expected bodily changes, which allows the individual to respond faster to external stimuli without waiting for an event to actually occur. The amygdala and vmPFC (a subsection of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex or OMPFC) are essential components of this hypothesized mechanism, and therefore damage to either structure will disrupt decision-making.
+
+== Experimental evidence ==
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+title: "Somatic marker hypothesis"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:33.152759+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In an effort to produce a simple neuropsychological tool that would assess deficits in emotional processing, decision-making, and social skills of OMPFC-lesioned individuals, Bechara and collaborators created the Iowa gambling task. The task measures a form of emotion-based learning. Studies using the gambling task have found deficits in various neurological (such as amygdala and OMPFC lesions) and psychiatric populations (such as schizophrenia, mania, and drug abusers).
+The Iowa gambling task is a computerized test in which participants are presented with four decks of cards from which they repeatedly choose. Each deck contains various amounts of rewards of either $50 or $100, and occasional losses that are greater in the decks with higher rewards. The participants do not know where the penalty cards are located, and are told to pick cards that will maximize their winnings. The most profitable strategy turns out to be to choose cards only from the small reward/small penalty decks, because although the reward is smaller, the penalty is proportionally much smaller than in the high reward/high penalty decks. Over the course of a session, most healthy participants come to adopt the profitable low-penalty deck strategy. Participants with brain damage, however, are unable to determine the better deck to choose from, and continue to choose from the high reward/high penalty decks.
+Since the Iowa gambling task measures participants' quickness in "developing anticipatory emotional responses to guide advantageous choices", it is helpful in testing the somatic marker hypothesis. According to the hypothesis, somatic markers give rise to anticipation of the emotional consequences of a decision being made. Consequently, persons who perform well on the task are thought to be aware of the penalty cards and of the negative emotions associated with drawing such cards, and to realize which deck is less likely to yield a penalty.
+This experiment has been used to analyze the impairments of people with damage to the vmPFC, which has been known to affect neural signaling of prospective rewards or punishments. Such persons perform less well on the task. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been used to analyze the brain during the Iowa gambling task. The brain regions that were activated during the Iowa gambling task were also the ones hypothesized to be triggered by somatic markers during decision-making.
+
+== Evolutionary significance ==
+Damasio has posited that the ability of humans to perform abstract thinking quickly and efficiently coincides with both the development of the vmPFC and with the use of somatic markers to guide human behavior during evolution. Patients with damage to the vmPFC are more likely to engage in behaviors that negatively impact personal relationships in the distant future, but they never engage in actions that would lead to immediate harm to themselves or others. The evolution of the prefrontal cortex was associated with the ability to represent events that may occur in the future.
+
+== Application to risky behavior ==
+The somatic marker hypothesis has been applied to trying to understand risky behaviors, such as risky sexual behavior and drug addiction.
+According to the hypothesis, riskier sexual behaviors are more exhilarating and pleasurable, and therefore they are more likely to stimulate repetitive engagement in such behaviors. When this idea was tested in individuals who were infected with HIV and were substance dependent, differences were found between persons who scored well in the Iowa gambling test, and those who scored poorly. The high scorers showed a correlation between the amount of distress they reported having over their HIV status, and their acceptance of risk during sexual behavior – the greater the distress, the greater the risk that these people would take. The low scorers, on the other hand, showed no such correlation. These results were interpreted as indicating that persons with intact decision-making abilities are better able to rely on past emotional experiences when weighing risks, than are persons who are deficient in such abilities, and that acceptance of risk serves to ameliorate emotional distress.
+Drug abusers are thought to ignore the negative consequences of addiction while seeking drugs. According to the somatic marker hypothesis, such abusers are impaired in their ability to recall and consider past unpleasant experiences when weighing whether to consider drug seeking behaviors. Researchers analyzed the neuroendocrine responses of substance-dependent individuals and healthy individuals after being shown pleasant or unpleasant images. In response to unpleasant images, drug users showed decreased levels of several neuroendocrine markers, including norepinephrine, cortisol, and adrenocorticotropic hormone. Addicts showed lesser responses to both pleasant and unpleasant images, suggesting that they may have a diminished emotional response. Neuroimaging studies utilizing fMRI indicate that drug-related stimuli have the ability to activate brain regions involved in emotional evaluation and reward processing. When shown a film of people smoking cocaine, cocaine users showed greater activation of the anterior cingulate cortex, the right inferior parietal lobe, and the caudate nucleus than did non-users. Conversely, the cocaine users showed lesser activation when viewing a sex film than did non-users.
+
+== Criticism ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis-2.md
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+---
+title: "Somatic marker hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:33.152759+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Some researchers believe that the use of somatic markers (i.e., afferent feedback) would be a very inefficient method of influencing behavior. Damasio's notion of the as-if experience dependent feedback route, whereby bodily responses are re-represented utilizing the somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus), also proposes an inefficient method of affecting explicit behavior. Edmund Rolls (1999) stated that; "it would be very inefficient and noisy to place in the execution route a peripheral response, and transducers to attempt to measure that peripheral response, itself a notoriously difficult procedure" (p. 73). Reinforcement association located in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala, where the incentive value of stimuli is decoded, is sufficient to elicit emotion-based learning and to affect behavior via, for example, the orbitofrontal-striatal pathway. This process can occur via implicit or explicit processes.
+The somatic marker hypothesis represents a model of how feedback from the body may contribute to both advantageous and disadvantageous decision-making in situations of complexity and uncertainty. Much of its supporting data comes from data taken from the Iowa gambling task. While the Iowa gambling task has proven to be an ecologically valid measure of decision-making impairment, there exist three assumptions that need to hold true.
+First, the claim that it assesses implicit learning as the reward/punishment design is inconsistent with data showing accurate knowledge of the task possibilities and that mechanisms such as working-memory appear to have a strong influence. Second, the claim that this knowledge occurs through preventive marker signals is not supported by competing explanations of the psychophysiology generated profile. Lastly, the claim that the impairment is due to a 'myopia for the future' is undermined by more plausible psychological mechanisms explaining deficits on the tasks such as reversal learning, risk-taking, and working-memory deficits. There may also be more variability in control performance than previously thought, thus complicating the interpretation of the findings.
+Furthermore, although the somatic marker hypothesis has accurately identified many of the brain regions involved in decision-making, emotion, and body-state representation, it has failed to clearly demonstrate how these processes interact at a psychological and evolutionary level. There are many experiments that could be implemented to further test the somatic marker hypothesis. One way would be to develop variants of the Iowa gambling task that control some of the methodological issues and interpretation ambiguities generated. It may be a good idea to include removing the reversal learning confound, which would make the task more difficult to consciously comprehend. Additionally, causal tests of the somatic marker hypothesis could be practiced more insistently in a greater range of populations with altered peripheral feedback, like on patients with facial paralysis.
+In conclusion, the somatic marker hypothesis needs to be tested in more experiments. Until a wider range of empirical approaches are employed in order to test the somatic marker hypothesis, it appears that the framework is simply an intriguing idea that is in need of some better supporting evidence. Despite these issues, the somatic marker hypothesis and the Iowa gambling task reestablish the notion that emotion has the potential to be a benefit as well as a problem during the decision-making process in humans.
+
+== See also ==
+James–Lange theory
+Somatization
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Bechara, A.; Damasio, H.; Damasio, A. R. (March 2000). "Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex". Cereb. Cortex. 10 (3): 295–307. doi:10.1093/cercor/10.3.295. PMID 10731224.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_animal_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_animal_hypothesis-0.md
index 307b688ae..011fc8c8f 100644
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-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:25:36.123565+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:34.416085+00:00"
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specification_language-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specification_language-0.md
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+---
+title: "Specification language"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specification_language"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:10.410130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A specification language is a formal language in computer science used during systems analysis, requirements analysis, and systems design to describe a system at a much higher level than a programming language, which is used to produce the executable code for a system.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Specification languages are generally not directly executed. They are meant to describe the what, not the how. It is considered an error if a requirement specification is cluttered with unnecessary implementation detail.
+A common fundamental assumption of many specification approaches is that programs are modelled as algebraic or model-theoretic structures that include a collection of sets of data values together with functions over those sets.  This level of abstraction coincides with the view that the correctness of the input/output behaviour of a program takes precedence over all its other properties.
+In the property-oriented approach to specification (taken e.g. by CASL), specifications of programs consist mainly of logical axioms, usually in a logical system in which equality has a prominent role, describing the properties that the functions are required to satisfy—often just by their interrelationship.
+This is in contrast to so-called model-oriented specification in frameworks like VDM and Z, which consist of a simple realization of the required behaviour.
+Specifications must be subject to a process of refinement (the filling-in of implementation detail) before they can actually be implemented. The result of such a refinement process is an executable algorithm, which is either formulated in a programming language, or in an executable subset of the specification language at hand. For example, Hartmann pipelines, when properly applied, may be considered a dataflow specification which is directly executable.  Another example is the actor model which has no specific application content and must be specialized to be executable.
+An important use of specification languages is enabling the creation of proofs of program correctness (see theorem prover).
+
+
+== Languages ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Formal specification
+Language-independent specification
+Pseudocode
+Specification and Description Language
+Unified Modeling Language
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Specification languages at Wikimedia Commons
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow-0.md
index a1375c76e..efcd27b89 100644
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:11.671992+00:00"
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 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streetlight_effect-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streetlight_effect-0.md
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+---
+title: "Streetlight effect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streetlight_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:29.854458+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The streetlight effect, or the drunkard's search principle, is a type of observational bias that occurs when people only search for something where it is easiest to look. Both names refer to a well-known joke:
+
+A policeman sees a drunk man searching for something under a streetlight and asks what the drunk has lost. He says he lost his keys and they both look under the streetlight together. After a few minutes the policeman asks if he is sure he lost them here, and the drunk replies, no, and that he lost them in the park. The policeman asks why he is searching here, and the drunk replies, "this is where the light is".
+
+The anecdote appears in a story of the Islamic folklore character Nasreddin. In an undated Persian version of the story, Nasreddin loses a ring in a dark room of his house but instead looks for it in the yard because there is "much more light" out there. According to Idries Shah, this tale is used by many Sufis, commenting upon people who seek exotic sources for enlightenment.
+The version with a drunk under a streetlight goes back at least to the 1920s, and has been used metaphorically in the social sciences since at least 1964, when Abraham Kaplan referred to it as "the principle of the drunkard's search". Noam Chomsky has used the tale as a picture of how science operates: "Science is a bit like the joke about the drunk who is looking under a lamppost for a key that he has lost on the other side of the street, because that's where the light is. It has no other choice."
+
+
+== See also ==
+McNamara fallacy – Erroneous reasoning based solely on numeric metrics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Iyengar, Shanto (1993). "The Drunkard's Search". Explorations in Political Psychology. Duke Studies in Political Psychology. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1324-3.
+Popkin, Samuel L. (1991). "Going beyond the data". The reasoning voter: communication and persuasión in presidential campaigns (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 92–95. ISBN 978-0-226-67545-9.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton's_law-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton's_law-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton's_law-0.md
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+---
+title: "Sutton's law"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton's_law"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:39.965896+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sutton's law states that when diagnosing, one should first consider the obvious. It suggests that one should first conduct those tests which could confirm (or rule out) the most likely diagnosis. It is taught in medical schools to suggest to medical students that they might best order tests in that sequence which is most likely to result in a quick diagnosis, hence treatment, while minimizing unnecessary costs. It is also applied in pharmacology, when choosing a drug to treat a specific disease you want the drug to reach the disease. It is applicable to any process of diagnosis, e.g., debugging computer programs. Computer-aided diagnosis provides a statistical and quantitative approach. 
+A more thorough analysis will consider the false positive rate of the test and the possibility that a less likely diagnosis might have more serious consequences. A competing principle is the idea of performing simple tests before more complex and expensive tests, moving from bedside tests to blood results and simple imaging such as ultrasound and then more complex such as MRI then specialty imaging. The law can also be applied in prioritizing tests when resources are limited, so a test for a treatable condition should be performed before an equally probable but less treatable condition.
+The law is named after the bank robber Willie Sutton, who reputedly replied to a reporter's inquiry as to why he robbed banks by saying "because that's where the money is." In Sutton's 1976 book Where the Money Was, Sutton denies having said this, but added that "If anybody had asked me, I'd have probably said it. That's what almost anybody would say.... it couldn't be more obvious." 
+A similar idea is contained in the physician's adage, "When you hear hoofbeats, think horses, not zebras."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Occam's razor
+
+
+== References ==
+Altman, Lawrence (January 3, 1970). "A Law Named for Willie Sutton Assists Physicians". The New York Times.
+Rytand, David (1980). "Sutton's or Dock's Law?". New England Journal of Medicine. 302 (17): 972. doi:10.1056/NEJM198004243021726. PMID 6987522.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_problem_solving-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_problem_solving-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+---
+title: "Symmetry in problem solving"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_problem_solving"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:41.134584+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Symmetry in problem solving is one of the general methods used in mathematics and science to solve problems. Problem solving plays a large part in the teaching of mathematics, science and engineering. The use of symmetry as one of a number of problem solving strategies (heuristics) was first stated in 1945 by George Pólya in his book How to solve it.
+
+
+== Usage ==
+
+Symmetry can be used in a variety of ways to assist in problem solving.
+
+Visualisation: by visualising the problem sometimes symmetry is revealed which simplifies finding a solution. Visualisation can be done by rearranging the problem expression into a more symmetric form, or by drawing a picture of the problem which reveals hidden symmetrical structure. Diagramming can be used to provide insight into the structure of a problem which may be obscured by its written formulation.
+Arguing "by symmetry": using a symmetry argument often clarifies a problem, leading to a quicker solution. For example, algebraic symmetry allows the permutation of the variables in an equation without changing it.
+Simplification: algebraic expressions and equations often benefit from simplification using symmetry. An example is the use of substitutions in expressions. Another example is switching from Cartesian coordinates to polar, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates to better suit the problem.
+Inheritance: if the problem has symmetry, the solution will often inherit that symmetry.
+Eliminating impossible solutions: symmetry can be used to rule out potential solutions that would contradict the structure of the problem.
+Breaking down the problem: if the problem has a symmetrical structure it may be sufficient to solve only part of it, and then the full solution can follow by extension. For example, to calculate the area of a regular hexagon, divide it into equilateral triangles, calculate the area of a triangle using the formula half base times height by applying the Pythagorean theorem, and then multiply by 6. Pólya believed that symmetry assisted in problem solving by reducing and ordering the observable facts.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+
+
+=== Mathematics ===
+
+The sum of the integers from 1 to 100 can be calculated by pairing the outer two integers (1+100=101), the next two integers (2+99=101) and continuing the process to the two inmost integers (50+51=101). The process yields 50 pairs each with a sum of 101, totalling 5,050. The solution of the problem is traditionally attributed to Carl Friedrich Gauss. The line of integers has reflection symmetry at its midpoint; the solver can think of folding at the line of reflection to bring each of the pairs together.
+
+It is not immediately obvious what is the area of a small square inscribed in a circle, which itself is inscribed in a large square. However, by rotating the small square by 90° and then drawing the two diagonals of the small square, it becomes clear that the small square is composed of 4 identical triangles (red) and the large square of 8 identical triangles (blue and red), and therefore the small square has half the area of the large square. The use of the rotation symmetry operation simplifies finding the solution.
+The mathematical theory of symmetry, that is group theory, is now widely recognised for its problem-solving utility. The field of solutions of differential equations is largely driven by symmetry considerations.
+
+
+=== Physics ===
+Symmetry is ubiquitous in solving problems in modern physics; for example, Albert Einstein used symmetry arguments in his 1905 paper On the electrodynamics of moving bodies in developing his special theory of relativity. Conservation theorems are closely connected with the symmetry properties of physical systems (Noether's theorem). Group theory and Lie algebras are extensively used in solving problems in quantum mechanics and in many other areas of physics.
+
+
+=== Chemistry ===
+Symmetry considerations are frequently used in chemistry to solve problems. Symmetry is used in structural determinations, for the prediction of molecular electronic transitions, and in the interpretation of chemical reactivity, and crystallographic and spectroscopic data. Symmetry can also be used in organic synthesis and catalysis as a means to increase the stereoselectivity of chemical reactions. The mechanism of pericyclic reactions can be predicted by the application of the Woodward–Hoffmann rules (the conservation of orbital symmetry) which are based on the symmetries of molecular orbitals.
+
+
+== Education ==
+Secondary school classroom and professional development studies have shown that symmetry is one of the effective strategies for mathematical problem solving, and aids students in pattern recognition, algebraic manipulation, and geometric reasoning. Symmetry is also useful to students in solving physics problems. National mathematics standards and curricula normally incorporate goals for problem solving and for understanding and using symmetry, for example the standards in the USA.
+
+
+== History ==
+In modern times, the use of symmetry to solve geometrical problems is common, as expressed by the phrase "... (and so) by symmetry ...", however in Greek antiquity geometers, while perhaps unconsciously using the principle of symmetry, would not have used such a phrase as the word symmetry (Ancient Greek: summetria) had the meaning of commensurability.
+In 1945 George Pólya published How to solve it in which symmetry was one of the general strategies that could be used to solve problems. In his later book Mathematical Discovery: On Understanding, Learning, and Teaching Problem Solving Pólya stated: "We expect that any symmetry found in the data and condition of the problem will be mirrored by the solution."
+TRIZ is a problem-solving methodology in the engineering field invented by Genrich Altshuller in 1946. TRIZ is based on 40 problem-solving principles, one of which is asymmetry. For example, changing the shape of an object from symmetrical to asymmetrical may solve the problem of users attempting to connect two components in the wrong way: the asymmetry forces the correct connection.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Penn, Michael. "Problem Solving | Using symmetry". YouTube. Retrieved 15 April 2026.
+Tanton, James. "Using Symmetry to Your Advantage: Some Classic Problems in New Light". YouTube. Retrieved 15 April 2026.
+Kasiri, Hossein; Talebzadeh, Mohammad Davoud (2018). "Much of a muchness: classification of symmetry as a problem solving heuristic". Advances and Applications in Mathematical Sciences. 17 (9): 591–605. Retrieved 1 May 2026.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Take-the-best heuristic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:42.306420+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In psychology, the take-the-best heuristic is a heuristic (a simple strategy for decision-making) which decides between two alternatives by choosing based on the first cue that discriminates them, where cues are ordered by cue validity (highest to lowest). In the original formulation, the cues were assumed to have binary values (that is, either yes or no) or have an unknown value. The logic of the heuristic is that it bases its choice on the best cue (reason) only and ignores the rest.
+Psychologists Gerd Gigerenzer and Daniel Goldstein discovered that the heuristic did surprisingly well at making accurate inferences in real-world environments, such as inferring which of two cities is larger. The heuristic has since been modified and applied to domains from medicine, artificial intelligence, and political forecasting. The heuristic has been used to accurately model how experts, such as airport customs officers and professional burglars, make decisions; the model often makes better predictions of human behavior than more complex models that assume experts integrate all available cues.
+
+== One-reason decision-making ==
+Theories of decision making typically assume that all relevant reasons (features or cues) are searched and integrated into a final decision. Yet under uncertainty (as opposed to risk), the relevant cues are typically not all known, nor are their precise weights and the correlations between cues. In these situations, relying only on the best cue available may be a reasonable alternative that allows for fast, frugal, and accurate decisions. This is the logic of a class of heuristics known as "one-reason decision making," which includes take-the-best. Consider cues with binary values (0, 1), where 1 indicates the cue value that is associated with a higher criterion value. The task is to infer which of two alternatives has the higher criterion value. An example is which of two NBA teams will win the game, based on cues such as home match and who won the last match. The take-the-best heuristic entails three steps to make such an inference:
+Search rule: Look through cues in the order of their validity.
+Stopping rule: Stop search when the first cue is found where the values of the two alternatives differ.
+Decision rule: Predict that the alternative with the higher cue value has the higher value on the outcome variable.
+The validity 
+  
+    
+      
+        v
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle v}
+  
+ of a cue is given by 
+  
+    
+      
+        v
+        =
+        C
+        
+          /
+        
+        (
+        C
+        +
+        W
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle v=C/(C+W)}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle C}
+  
+ is the number of correct inferences when a cue discriminates, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        W
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle W}
+  
+ is the number of wrong inferences, all estimated from samples.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic-1.md
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index 000000000..38cc0f08e
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,344 @@
+---
+title: "Take-the-best heuristic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:42.306420+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Take-the-best for the comparison task ==
+Consider the task to infer which object, 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ or 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle B}
+  
+, has a higher value on a numerical criterion. As an example imagine someone having to judge whether the German city of Cologne has a larger population than the other German city of Stuttgart. This judgment or inference has to be based on information provided by binary cues, like "Is the city a state capital?". From a formal point of view, the task is a categorization: A pair 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            A
+            ,
+            B
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle \left(A,B\right)}
+  
+ is to be categorized as 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          X
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+        >
+        
+          X
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle X_{A}>X_{B}}
+  
+ or 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          X
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+        >
+        
+          X
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle X_{B}>X_{A}}
+  
+ (where 
+  
+    
+      
+        X
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle X}
+  
+ denotes the criterion), based on cue information.
+Cues are binary; this means they assume two values and can be modeled, for instance, as having the values 0 and 1 (for 'yes' and 'no'). They are ranked according to their cue validity, defined as the proportion of correct comparisons among the pairs 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle B}
+  
+, for which it has different values, i.e., for which it discriminates between 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle B}
+  
+. Take-the-best analyses each cue, one after the other, according to the ranking by validity and stopping the first time a cue discriminates between the items and concluding that the item with the larger value has also a larger value on the criterion. 
+The matrix of all objects of the reference class, from which 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle B}
+  
+ have been taken, and of the cue values which describe these objects constitutes a so-called environment. Gigerenzer and Goldstein, who introduced take-the-best considered, as a walk-through example, precisely pairs of German cities, yet only those with more than 100,000 inhabitants. The comparison task for a given pair 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          
+            A
+            ,
+            B
+          
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle \left(A,B\right)}
+  
+ of German cities in the reference class, consisted in establishing which one has a larger population, based on nine cues. Cues were binary-valued, such as whether the city is a state capital or whether it has a soccer team in the national league. 
+The cue values could be modeled by 1s (for 'yes') and 0s (for 'no') so that each city could be identified with its "cue profile", i.e., a vector of 1s and 0s, ordered according to the ranking of cues. 
+The question was: how can one infer which of two objects, for example, city 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ with cue profile 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          100101010
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle \left(100101010\right)}
+  
+ and 
+city 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle B}
+  
+ with cue profile 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          100010101
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle \left(100010101\right)}
+  
+, 
+scores higher on the established criterion, i.e., population size? The take-the-best heuristic simply compares the profiles lexicographically, just as numbers written in base two are compared: the first cue value is 1 for both, which means that the first cue does not discriminate between 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle B}
+  
+. The second cue value is 0 for both, again with no discrimination. The same happens for the third cue value, while the fourth cue value is 1 for 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ and 0 for 
+  
+    
+      
+        B
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle B}
+  
+, implying that 
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle A}
+  
+ is judged as having a higher value on the criterion. 
+In other words, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          X
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+        >
+        
+          X
+          
+            B
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle X_{A}>X_{B}}
+  
+ if and only if 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          (
+          100101010
+          )
+        
+        >
+        
+          (
+          100010101
+          )
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle \left(100101010\right)>\left(100010101\right)}
+  
+ .
+Mathematically this means that the cues found for the comparison allow a quasi-order isomorphism between the objects compared on the criterion, in this case cities with their populations, and their corresponding binary vectors. Here quasi means that the isomorphism is, in general, not perfect, because the set of cues is not perfect.
+What is surprising is that this simple heuristic has a great performance compared with other strategies. One obvious measure for establishing the performance of an inference mechanism is determined by the percentage of correct judgements. Furthermore, what matters most is not just the performance of the heuristic when fitting known data, but when generalizing from a known training set to new items.
+Czerlinski, Goldstein and Gigerenzer compared several strategies with take-the-best: a simple tallying, or unit weight model (also called Dawes' rule in that literature), a weighted linear model on the cues weighted by their validities (also called Franklin's rule in that literature), linear regression, and minimalist. Their results show the robustness of take-the-best in generalization.
+
+For example, consider the task of selecting the bigger city of two cities when, 
+
+models are fit to a data set of 83 German cities, and
+models select the bigger of a pair of cities for all 
+  
+    
+      
+        83
+        ×
+        82
+        
+          /
+        
+        2
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle 83\times 82/2}
+  
+ pairs of cities.
+The percent correct was roughly 74% for regression, take-the-best, unit weight linear. More specifically, the scores were 74.3%, 74.2%, and 74.1%, so regression won by a small margin.
+However, the paper also considered generalization (also known as out-of-sample prediction):
+
+models are fit to a data set of a randomly-selected half of 83 German cities, and
+models select the bigger of a pair of cities drawn from the other half of cities.
+In this case, when 10,000 different random splits were used, regression had on average 71.9% correct, Take-the-best had 72.2% correct, and unit with linear had 71.4% correct. The take-the-best heuristic was more accurate than regression in this case.
+
+== See also ==
+Greedy algorithm
+Recognition heuristic
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_past_each_other-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_past_each_other-0.md
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+---
+title: "Talking past each other"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_past_each_other"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:43.488635+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Talking past each other" is an English phrase sometimes used to describe the situation where two or more people talk about different subjects, while believing that they are talking about the same thing.
+David Horton wrote that when characters in fiction 'talk past each other,' the effect is to expose "an unbridgeable gulf between their respective perceptions and intentions. The result is an exchange, but never an interchange, of words in fragmented and cramped utterances whose subtext often reveals more than their surface meaning." His usage of single quotes around the phrase indicates the colloquial nature of it.
+The phrase might be used in widely varying contexts. For example, a book written in 1973, referred to certain dawn-to-dusk discussions of physics between Albert Einstein and David Hilbert in 1917, which they continued in writing, and Felix Klein notes that they "talked past each other, as happens not infrequently between simultaneously producing mathematicians."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Essentially contested concept – Problem in philosophy
+Semantic change – Evolution of a word's meaning
+Contronym – Word that has two opposing meanings
+Irrelevant conclusion – Type of informal fallacy
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Anderson, Philip Warren. "Twenty years of talking past each other: The theory of high Tc," Physica C: Superconductivity and its Applications, v. 460–462, iss. 0, p. 3-6.
+Gutting, Gary. (1980). Paradigms and Revolutions: Appraisals and Applications of Thomas Kuhn's Philosophy of Science. South Bend, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. OCLC 163461098
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachable_moment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachable_moment-0.md
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+---
+title: "Teachable moment"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachable_moment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:44.652442+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A teachable moment, in education, is the time at which learning a particular topic or idea becomes possible or easiest.
+
+
+== In education ==
+The concept was popularized by Robert Havighurst in his 1952 book, Human Development and Education. In the context of education theory, Havighurst explained,  
+
+"A developmental task is a task which is learned at a specific point and which makes achievement of succeeding tasks possible. When the timing is right, the ability to learn a particular task will be possible. This is referred to as a 'teachable moment.' It is important to keep in mind that unless the time is right, learning will not occur. Hence, it is important to repeat important points whenever possible so that when a student's teachable moment occurs, s/he can benefit from the knowledge."
+The concept pre-dates Havighurst's book, as does the use of the phrase, but he is credited with popularizing it.
+The phrase sometimes denotes not a developmental stage, but rather "that moment when a unique, high interest situation arises that lends itself to discussion of a particular topic." It implies "personal engagement" with issues and problems.
+These moments can (and often do) come when least expected. Teachers and parents alike can benefit from the use of teachable moments.
+
+
+== Political use ==
+
+
+=== Arrest of Henry Louis Gates ===
+
+In July 2009, Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates was arrested at his home; the incident garnered media attention throughout the United States.  The mayor of Cambridge, E. Denise Simmons, said that she hoped that the result would be a "teachable moment". U.S. President Barack Obama expressed the same:
+
+My hope is, is that as a consequence of this event this ends up being what's called a 'teachable moment', where all of us instead of pumping up the volume spend a little more time listening to each other and try to focus on how we can generally improve relations between police officers and minority communities, and that instead of flinging accusations we can all be a little more reflective in terms of what we can do to contribute to more unity."
+Obama's use of the phrase attracted considerable comment in the American media and blogosphere. Gates himself echoed the same theme, stating, "I told the President that my entire career as an educator has been devoted to racial healing and improved race relations in this country. I am determined that this be a teaching moment."
+
+
+=== Others ===
+On July 4, 2011, Glyn Davis, vice-chancellor of the University of Melbourne, used the term in an article in Campus Review, describing the Australian Higher Education Base Funding Review as a rare opportunity to educate a wider public about how public tertiary education is supported. Davis argued that "We (Australian Universities) must show why Australia's public universities returned to the community, many times over, the money spent providing higher education," and that this constituted a teachable moment.
+During the 2025 Canadian federal election, it was revealed that Paul Chiang, a Liberal MP, remarked that Conservative candidate Joe Tay should be reported to the Toronto Chinese Consulate in exchange for a monetary bounty placed by the Hong Kong police. He later apologized. Liberal Party leader and Prime Minister Mark Carney viewed Chiang's apology as a "teachable moment" by saying it "underscores the respect with which we treat human rights in this country – the differences between Canadian society and other countries." On March 31, 2025, Chiang announced that he would withdraw from the 2025 election after the Royal Canadian Mounted Police opened an investigation into his comment.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Heuristic – Problem-solving method
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Festinger, Leon (1962). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
+Gladwell, Malcolm (2002). The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. Boston: Back Bay. ISBN 978-0-316-34662-7.
+Havighurst, Robert James (1952). Human Development and Education. New York: Longmans, Green. OCLC 223047.
+Woods, Peter; Jeffrey, Bob (1996). Teachable Moments. Open University Press. ISBN 9780335193745. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
+
+
+== External links ==
+TeachableMoment.org (Morningside Center for Teaching Social Responsibility)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_purpose_of_a_system_is_what_it_does-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_purpose_of_a_system_is_what_it_does-0.md
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+---
+title: "The purpose of a system is what it does"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_purpose_of_a_system_is_what_it_does"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:23.292222+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a heuristic in systems thinking coined by the British management consultant Stafford Beer, who stated that there is "no point in claiming that the purpose of a system is to do what it constantly fails to do". It is widely used by systems theorists, and is generally invoked to counter the notion that the purpose of a system can be read from the intentions of those who design, operate or promote it. When a system's side effects or unintended consequences reveal that its behaviour is poorly understood, then the POSIWID perspective can balance political understandings of system behaviour with a more straightforwardly descriptive view.
+
+
+== Origins ==
+Beer used the phrase in his 1979 book The Heart of Enterprise, and subsequently many times in public addresses. Speaking to the University of Valladolid in October 2001, he said:
+
+According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes a better starting point in seeking understanding than the familiar attributions of good intention, prejudices about expectations, moral judgement, or sheer ignorance of circumstances.
+
+
+== Uses ==
+Organizations establish principles that define their ideal purpose; POSIWID proposes that the organization's actual principles are demonstrated by practice. For example, an organization that has a high rate of accidents and illness may claim that its values are health and safety, but applying POSIWID shows that the organization's practices contradict those values.
+From a cybernetic perspective, complex systems are not controllable by simple notions of management, and interventions in a system can best be understood by looking at how they affect observed system behaviour. The term is used in many other fields as well, including biology and management. Whereas a cybernetician may apply the principle to the results inexorably produced by the mechanical dynamics of an activity system, a management scientist may apply it to the results produced by the self-interest of actors who play roles in a business or other institution.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+In Heart of Enterprise, Beer gives examples from his own life as applications of the heuristic:
+
+Beer deals with a car company that has a system for provisioning spare parts by moving them between repair shops. Beer finds the process to be a slow one, with his car breaking down in other ways, requiring other parts, before his local garage can affect repairs. He speculates that from the company's perspective this may be a system intended to minimise the capital tied up in spare parts, but from Beer's perspective as a customer it is a system for not supplying spare parts.
+Beer observes that his home in west Wales is forty miles from a mainline railway station, and that the small diesel train he must catch is noisy with tourists and has no smoking carriage. He concludes that the purpose of the railway network is to discourage him from travelling by rail, and the purpose of the diesel train is to prevent him from working or smoking on his journey.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Duck test ("if it looks like a duck...")
+Emergence
+Form follows function
+Functionalism–intentionalism debate
+Hostile architecture
+Machine learning
+Noble lie
+Prefigurative politics
+Teleology
+The proof of the pudding is in the eating (at Wiktionary)
+Systemantics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+What is Cybernetics? Conference by Stafford Beer (video recording)
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow-0.md
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+---
+title: "Thinking, Fast and Slow"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:45.841527+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Thinking, Fast and Slow is a 2011 popular science book by the Israeli-American psychologist Daniel Kahneman. Its main thesis is a differentiation between two modes of thought: "System 1" is fast, instinctive and emotional; "System 2" is slower, more deliberative, and more logical. 
+The book delineates rational and non-rational motivations or triggers associated with each type of thinking process, and how they complement each other, starting with Kahneman's own research on loss aversion. From framing choices to people's tendency to replace a difficult question with one that is easy to answer, the book summarizes several decades of research to suggest that people have too much confidence in human judgement. Kahneman performed his own research, often in collaboration with the psychologist Amos Tversky, which enriched his experience to write the book. It covers different phases of his career: his early work concerning cognitive biases, his work on prospect theory and happiness, and with the Israel Defense Forces.
+Jason Zweig, a columnist at The Wall Street Journal, helped write and research the book over two years. The book was a New York Times bestseller and was the 2012 winner of the American National Academies Communication Award for best creative work that helps the public understanding of topics in behavioral science, engineering and medicine. The integrity of some priming studies cited in the book has been called into question in the midst of the psychological replication crisis.
+
+== Two systems ==
+
+In the book's first section, Kahneman describes two different ways the brain forms thoughts:
+
+System 1: Fast, automatic, frequent, emotional, stereotypic, unconscious.  Examples (in order of complexity) of things system 1 can do:
+determine that an object is at a greater distance than another
+localize the source of a specific sound
+complete a common phrase (e.g. "war and ...")
+display disgust when seeing a gruesome image
+solve basic arithmetic (e.g. 2 + 2 = ?)
+read text on a billboard
+drive a car on an empty road
+think of a good chess move (if one is a chess master)
+understand simple sentences
+System 2: Slow, effortful, infrequent, logical, calculating, conscious.  Examples of things system 2 can do:
+prepare for the start of a sprint
+direct attention towards certain people in a crowded environment
+look for a person with a particular feature
+try to recognize a sound
+sustain a faster-than-normal walking rate
+determine the appropriateness of a particular action in a social setting
+count the number of A's or other letters in a given text
+give one's own telephone number to someone else
+park into a tight parking space
+determine the price/quality ratio of two products
+determine the validity of a complex logical reasoning
+multiply two-digit numbers (e.g. 17 × 24)
+Kahneman describes a number of experiments which purport to examine the differences between these two thought systems and how they arrive at different results even given the same inputs. Terms and concepts include coherence, attention, laziness, association, jumping to conclusions, WYSIATI (What you see is all there is), and how one forms judgments. The System 1 vs. System 2 debate includes the reasoning or lack thereof for human decision making, with big implications for many areas including law and market research.
+
+== Heuristics and biases ==
+
+The second section offers explanations for why humans struggle to think statistically. It begins by documenting a variety of situations in which we either arrive at binary decisions or fail to associate precisely reasonable probabilities with outcomes. Kahneman explains this phenomenon using the theory of heuristics. Kahneman and Tversky originally discussed this topic in their 1974 article titled Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.
+Kahneman uses heuristics to assert that System 1 thinking involves associating new information with existing patterns, or thoughts, rather than creating new patterns for each new experience. For example, a child who has only seen shapes with straight edges might perceive an octagon when first viewing a circle. As a legal metaphor, a judge limited to heuristic thinking would only be able to think of similar historical cases when presented with a new dispute, rather than considering the unique aspects of that case. In addition to offering an explanation for the statistical problem, the theory also offers an explanation for human biases.
+
+=== Anchoring ===
+
+The "anchoring effect" names a tendency to be influenced by irrelevant numbers. Shown greater/lesser numbers, experimental subjects gave greater/lesser responses. As an example, most people, when asked whether Mahatma Gandhi was more than 114 years old when he died, will provide a much greater estimate of his age at death than others who were asked whether Gandhi was more or less than 35 years old. Experiments show that people's behavior is influenced, much more than they are aware, by irrelevant information.
+
+=== Availability ===
+
+The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of events on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples. The availability heuristic operates on the notion that, "if you can think of it, it must be important". The availability of consequences associated with an action is related positively to perceptions of the magnitude of the consequences of that action. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater we perceive these consequences to be. Sometimes, this heuristic is beneficial, but the frequencies at which events come to mind are usually not accurate representations of the probabilities of such events in real life.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Thinking, Fast and Slow"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:45.841527+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Conjunction fallacy ===
+System 1 is prone to substituting a simpler question for a difficult one. In what Kahneman terms their "best-known and most controversial" experiment, "the Linda problem", subjects were told about an imaginary Linda, young, single, outspoken, and intelligent, who, as a student, was very concerned with discrimination and social justice. They asked whether it was more probable that Linda is a bank teller or that she is a bank teller and an active feminist. The overwhelming response was that "feminist bank teller" was more likely than "bank teller", violating the laws of probability. (All feminist bank tellers are bank tellers, so the former can't be more likely). In this case System 1 substituted the easier question, "Is Linda a feminist?", neglecting the occupation qualifier. An alternative interpretation is that the subjects added an unstated cultural implicature to the effect that the other answer implied an exclusive or, that Linda was not a feminist.
+
+=== Optimism and loss aversion ===
+Kahneman writes of a "pervasive optimistic bias", which "may well be the most significant of the cognitive biases." This bias generates the illusion of control: the illusion that we have substantial control of our lives.
+A natural experiment reveals the prevalence of one kind of unwarranted optimism. The planning fallacy is the tendency to overestimate benefits and underestimate costs, impelling people to begin risky projects. In 2002, American kitchen remodeling was expected on average to cost $18,658, but actually cost $38,769.
+To explain overconfidence, Kahneman introduces the concept he terms What You See Is All There Is (WYSIATI). This theory states that when the mind makes decisions, it deals primarily with Known Knowns, phenomena it has  observed already. It rarely considers Known Unknowns, phenomena that it knows to be relevant but about which it does not have information. Finally it appears oblivious to the possibility of Unknown Unknowns, unknown phenomena of unknown relevance.
+He explains that humans fail to take into account complexity and that their understanding of the world consists of a small and necessarily un-representative set of observations. Furthermore, the mind generally does not account for the role of chance and therefore falsely assumes that a future event will be similar to a past event.
+
+=== Framing ===
+
+Framing is the context in which choices are presented. Experiment: subjects were asked whether they would opt for surgery if the "survival" rate is 90 percent, while others were told that the mortality rate is 10 percent. The first framing increased acceptance, even though the situation was no different.
+
+=== Sunk cost ===
+
+Rather than consider the odds that an incremental investment would produce a positive return, people tend to "throw good money after bad" and continue investing in projects with poor prospects that have already consumed significant resources. In part this is to avoid feelings of regret.
+
+== Overconfidence ==
+
+This part (part III, sections 19–24) of the book is dedicated to the undue confidence in what the mind believes it knows. It suggests that people often overestimate how much they understand about the world and underestimate the role of chance in particular. This is related to the excessive certainty of hindsight, when an event seems to be understood after it has occurred or developed. Kahneman's opinions concerning overconfidence are influenced by the author Nassim Nicholas Taleb.
+
+== Choices ==
+In this section Kahneman returns to economics and expands his seminal work on Prospect Theory. He discusses the tendency for problems to be addressed in isolation and how, when other reference points are considered, the choice of that reference point (called a frame) has a disproportionate effect on the outcome. This section also offers advice on how some of the shortcomings of System 1 thinking can be avoided.
+
+=== Prospect theory ===
+Kahneman developed prospect theory, the basis for his Nobel prize, to account for experimental errors he noticed in Daniel Bernoulli's traditional utility theory. According to Kahneman, Utility Theory makes logical assumptions of economic rationality that do not represent people's actual choices, and does not take into account cognitive biases.
+One example is that people are loss-averse: they are more likely to act to avert a loss than to achieve a gain. Another example is that the value people place on a change in probability (e.g., of winning something) depends on the reference point: people seem to place greater value on a change from 0% to 10% (going from impossibility to possibility) than from, say, 45% to 55%, and they place the greatest value of all on a change from 90% to 100% (going from possibility to certainty). This occurs despite the fact that by traditional utility theory all three changes give the same increase in utility. Consistent with loss-aversion, the order of the first and third of those is reversed when the event is presented as losing rather than winning something: there, the greatest value is placed on eliminating the probability of a loss to 0.
+After the book's publication, the Journal of Economic Literature published a discussion of its parts concerning prospect theory, as well as an analysis of the four fundamental factors on which it is based.
+
+== Two selves ==
+The fifth part of the book describes recent evidence which introduces a distinction between two selves, the 'experiencing self' and 'remembering self'. Kahneman proposed an alternative measure that assessed pleasure or pain sampled from moment to moment, and then summed over time. Kahneman termed this "experienced" well-being and attached it to a separate "self". He distinguished this from the "remembered" well-being that the polls had attempted to measure. He found that these two measures of happiness diverged.
+
+=== Life as a story ===
+The author's significant discovery was that the remembering self does not care about the duration of a pleasant or unpleasant experience. Instead, it retrospectively rates an experience by the maximum or minimum of the experience, and by the way it ends. The remembering self dominated the patient's ultimate conclusion.
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+---
+title: "Thinking, Fast and Slow"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:45.841527+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Odd as it may seem," Kahneman writes, "I am my remembering self, and the experiencing self, who does my living, is like a stranger to me."
+
+=== Experienced well-being ===
+Kahneman first began the study of well-being in the 1990s. At the time most happiness research relied on polls about life satisfaction. Having previously studied unreliable memories, the author was doubtful that life satisfaction was a good indicator of happiness. He designed a question that emphasized instead the well-being of the experiencing self. The author proposed that "Helen was happy in the month of March" if she spent most of her time engaged in activities that she would rather continue than stop, little time in situations that she wished to escape, and not too much time in a neutral state that wouldn't prefer continuing or stopping the activity either way.
+
+=== Thinking about life ===
+
+Kahneman suggests that emphasizing a life event such as a marriage or a new car can provide a distorted illusion of its true value. This "focusing illusion" revisits earlier ideas of substituting difficult questions and WYSIATI.
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+2011 Los Angeles Times Book Prize (Current Interest)
+National Academy of Sciences Best Book Award in 2012
+The New York Times Book Review, one of the best books of 2011
+Globe and Mail Best Books of the Year 2011
+One of The Economist's 2011 Books of the Year
+One of The Wall Street Journal's Best Nonfiction Books of the Year 2011
+
+== Reception ==
+As of 2012 the book had sold over one million copies. On the year of its publication, it was on the New York Times Bestseller List. The book was reviewed in media  including the Huffington Post, The Guardian, The New York Times,  The Financial Times, The Independent, Bloomberg and The New York Review of Books.
+The book was also widely reviewed in academic journals, including the Journal of Economic Literature, American Journal of Education, The American Journal of Psychology, Planning Theory, The American Economist, The Journal of Risk and Insurance, The Michigan Law Review, American Scientist, Contemporary Sociology, Science, Contexts, The Wilson Quarterly, Technical Communication, The University of Toronto Law Journal, A Review of General Semantics and Scientific American Mind. The book was also reviewed in the monthly magazine Observer, published by the Association for Psychological Science.
+The book has achieved a large following among baseball scouts and baseball executives. The ways of thinking described in the book are believed to help scouts, who have to make major judgements off little information and can easily fall into prescriptive yet inaccurate patterns of analysis.
+The last chapter of Paul Bloom's Against Empathy discusses concepts also touched in Daniel Kahneman's book, Thinking, Fast and Slow, that suggest people make a series of rational and irrational decisions. He criticizes the argument that "regardless of reason's virtues, we just aren't any good at it." His point is that people are not as "stupid as scholars think they are." He explains that people are rational because they make thoughtful decisions in their everyday lives. For example, when someone has to make a big life decision they critically assess the outcomes, consequences, and alternative options.
+The author Nicholas Taleb has equated the book's importance to that of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations and Sigmund Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams.
+
+== Replication crisis ==
+The book has been heavily criticized for relying on shoddy and non-reproducible studies. It was discovered many prominent research findings were difficult or impossible for others to replicate, and thus the original findings were called into question. An analysis of the studies cited in chapter 4, "The Associative Machine", found that their replicability index (R-index) is 14, indicating essentially low to no reliability. Kahneman himself responded to the study in blog comments and acknowledged the chapter's shortcomings: "I placed too much faith in underpowered studies." Others have noted the irony in the fact that Kahneman made a mistake in judgment similar to the ones he studied.
+A later analysis made a bolder claim that, despite Kahneman's previous contributions to the field of decision making, most of the book's ideas are based on "scientific literature with shaky foundations". A general lack of replication in the empirical studies cited in the book was given as a justification.
+
+== See also ==
+Behavioral economics
+Cognitive reflection test
+Decision theory
+Dual process theory
+List of cognitive biases
+Outline of thought
+Peak–end rule
+Joseph E. LeDoux
+Noise: A Flaw in Human Judgment
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+How To Think Fast & Slow, excerpt at Penguin Books Australia
+Daniel Kahneman changed the way we think about thinking. But what do other thinkers think of him? – Various interviews about Kahneman and Thinking, Fast and Slow in an article in The Guardian.
+Unsans – Thinking, Fast and Slow A thematic overview and interpretive summary of Daniel Kahneman’s book, focusing on its core ideas about dual-process thinking and cognitive biases.
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+---
+title: "Transect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:31.001886+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A transect is a path along which one counts and records occurrences of the objects of study (e.g. plants).
+
+It requires an observer to move along a fixed path and to count occurrences along the path and, at the same time (in some procedures), obtain the distance of the object from the path. This results in an estimate of the area covered and an estimate of the way in which detectability increases from probability 0 (far from the path) towards 1 (near the path). Using the raw count and this probability function, one can arrive at an estimate of the actual density of objects.
+The estimation of the abundance of populations (such as terrestrial mammal species) can be achieved using a number of different types of transect methods, such as strip transects, line transects, belt transects, point transects, gradsects and curved line transects.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Census – Compilation of information about a given population
+Mark and recapture – Animal population estimation method – Method for estimating a species population size
+Distance sampling – Methods for estimating the density and/or abundance of populations
+MegaTransect – 1999 ecological survey of Africa
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ The dictionary definition of transect at Wiktionary
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+---
+title: "Trial and error"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:47.060591+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem-solving characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the practitioner stops trying.
+According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C. Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". However, the phrase 'trial and error' was already in use in 1833, where it can be found in the book title "Practical Methods by Trial and Error for Finding the Latitude and Time at Sea". Under Morgan's Canon, animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behavior seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial-and-error learning. An example is the skillful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behavior. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.
+Edward Lee Thorndike was the initiator of the theory of trial and error learning based on the findings he showed how to manage a trial-and-error experiment in the laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in a series of puzzle boxes to study the law of effect in learning. He plotted to learn curves which recorded the timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that learning was promoted by positive results, which was later refined and extended by B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning.
+Trial and error is also a method of problem solving, repair, tuning, or obtaining knowledge. In the field of computer science, the method is called generate and test (brute force). In elementary algebra, when solving equations, it is called guess and check.
+This approach can be seen as one of the two basic approaches to problem-solving, contrasted with an approach using insight and theory. However, there are intermediate methods that, for example, use theory to guide the method, an approach known as guided empiricism.
+This way of thinking has become a mainstay of Karl Popper's critical rationalism.
+
+== Methodology ==
+The trial-and-error approach is used most successfully with simple problems and in games, and it is often the last resort when no apparent rule applies. This does not mean that the approach is inherently careless, for an individual can be methodical in manipulating the variables in an attempt to sort through possibilities that could result in success. Nevertheless, this method is often used by people who have little knowledge in the problem area. The trial-and-error approach has been studied from its natural computational point of view
+
+=== Simplest applications ===
+Ashby (1960, section 11/5) offers three simple strategies for dealing with the same basic exercise-problem, which have very different efficiencies. Suppose a collection of 1000 on/off switches has to be set to a particular combination by random-based testing, where each test is expected to take one second. [This is also discussed in Traill (1978–2006, section C1.2]. The strategies are:
+
+the perfectionist all-or-nothing method, with no attempt at holding partial successes. This would be expected to take more than 10^301 seconds, [i.e., 2^1000 seconds, or 3·5×(10^291) centuries]
+a serial test of switches, holding on to the partial successes (assuming that these are manifest), which would take 500 seconds on average
+parallel-but-individual testing of all switches simultaneously, which would take only one second
+Note the tacit assumption here that no intelligence or insight is brought to bear on the problem. However, the existence of different available strategies allows us to consider a separate ("superior") domain of processing — a "meta-level" above the mechanics of switch handling — where the various available strategies can be randomly chosen. Once again this is "trial and error", but of a different type.
+
+=== Hierarchies ===
+Ashby's book develops this "meta-level" idea and extends it into a whole recursive sequence of levels, successively above each other in a systematic hierarchy. On this basis, he argues that human intelligence emerges from such organization: relying heavily on trial-and-error (at least initially at each new stage), but emerging with what we would call "intelligence" at the end of it all. Thus presumably the topmost level of the hierarchy (at any stage) will still depend on simple trial-and-error.
+Traill (1978–2006) suggests that this Ashby hierarchy probably coincides with Piaget's well-known theory of developmental stages. [This work also discusses Ashby's 1000-switch example; see §C1.2]. After all, it is part of Piagetian doctrine that children learn first by actively doing in a more-or-less random way, and then hopefully learn from the consequences, which all has a certain resemblance to Ashby's random "trial-and-error".
+
+=== Application ===
+Traill (2008, espec. Table "S" on p.31) follows Jerne and Popper in seeing this strategy as probably underlying all knowledge-gathering systems — at least in their initial phase.
+Four such systems are identified:
+
+Natural selection which "educates" the DNA of the species,
+The brain of the individual (just discussed);
+The "brain" of society-as-such (including the publicly held body of science); and
+The adaptive immune system.
+
+== Features ==
+Trial and error has a number of features:
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+---
+title: "Trial and error"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:47.060591+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+solution-oriented: trial and error does not attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution.
+problem-specific: trial and error does not attempt to generalize a solution to other problems.
+non-optimal: trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution.
+needs little knowledge: trial and error can proceed where there is little or no knowledge of the subject.
+It is possible to use trial and error to find all solutions or the best solution when a testably finite number of possible solutions exists. To find all solutions, one simply makes a note and continues, rather than ending the process when a solution is found, until all solutions have been tried. To find the best solution, one finds all solutions by the method just described and then comparatively evaluates them based upon some predefined set of criteria, the existence of which is a condition for the possibility of finding a best solution. (Also, when only one solution can exist, as in assembling a jigsaw puzzle, then any solution found is the only solution and so is necessarily the best.)
+
+== Examples ==
+Trial and error has traditionally been the main method of finding new drugs, such as antibiotics. Chemists simply try chemicals at random until they find one with the desired effect. In a more sophisticated version, chemists select a narrow range of chemicals it is thought to have some effect using a technique called structure–activity relationship. (The latter case can be alternatively considered as a changing of the problem rather than of the solution strategy: instead of "What chemical will work well as an antibiotic?" the problem in the sophisticated approach is "Which, if any, of the chemicals in this narrow range will work well as an antibiotic?") The method is used widely in many disciplines, such as polymer technology to find new polymer types or families.
+Trial and error is also commonly seen in player responses to video games - when faced with an obstacle or boss, players often form a number of strategies to surpass the obstacle or defeat the boss, with each strategy being carried out before the player either succeeds or quits the game.
+Sports teams also makes use of trial and error to qualify for and/or progress through the playoffs and win the championship, attempting different strategies, plays, lineups and formations in hopes of defeating each opponent along the way to victory. This is especially crucial in playoff series in which multiple wins are required to advance, where a team that loses a game will have the opportunity to try new tactics to find a way to win, if they are not eliminated yet.
+The scientific method can be regarded as containing an element of trial and error in its formulation and testing of hypotheses. Also compare genetic algorithms, simulated annealing and reinforcement learning – all varieties for search which apply the basic idea of trial and error.
+Biological evolution can be considered as a form of trial and error. Random mutations and sexual genetic variations can be viewed as trials and poor reproductive fitness, or lack of improved fitness, as the error. Thus after a long time 'knowledge' of well-adapted genomes accumulates simply by virtue of them being able to reproduce.
+Bogosort, a conceptual sorting algorithm (that is extremely inefficient and impractical), can be viewed as a trial-and-error approach to sorting a list. However, typical simple examples of bogosort do not track which orders of the list have been tried and may try the same order any number of times, which violates one of the basic principles of trial and error. Trial and error is actually more efficient and practical than bogosort; unlike bogosort, it is guaranteed to halt in finite time on a finite list, and might even be a reasonable way to sort extremely short lists under some conditions.
+Jumping spiders of the genus Portia use trial and error to find new tactics against unfamiliar prey or in unusual situations, and remember the new tactics. Tests show that Portia fimbriata and Portia labiata can use trial and error in an artificial environment, where the spider's objective is to cross a miniature lagoon that is too wide for a simple jump, and must either jump then swim or only swim.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Ashby, W. R. (1960: Second Edition). Design for a Brain. Chapman & Hall: London.
+Traill, R.R. (1978–2006). Molecular explanation for intelligence..., Brunel University Thesis, HDL.handle.net
+Traill, R.R. (2008). Thinking by Molecule, Synapse, or both? — From Piaget's Schema, to the Selecting/Editing of ncRNA. Ondwelle: Melbourne. Ondwelle.com — or French version Ondwelle.com.
+Zippelius, R. (1991). Die experimentierende Methode im Recht (Trial and error in Jurisprudence), Academy of Science, Mainz, ISBN 3-515-05901-6
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+---
+title: "Trivers–Willard hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivers–Willard_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:35.561406+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In evolutionary biology and evolutionary psychology, the Trivers–Willard hypothesis, formally proposed by Robert Trivers and Dan Willard in 1973, suggests that female mammals adjust the sex ratio of offspring in response to maternal condition, so as to maximize their reproductive success (fitness). For example, it may predict greater parental investment in males by parents in "good conditions" and greater investment in females by parents in "poor conditions" (relative to parents in good conditions). The reasoning for this prediction is as follows: Assume that parents have information on the sex of their offspring and can influence their survival differentially. While selection pressures exist to maintain a 1:1 sex ratio, evolution will favor local deviations from this if one sex has a likely greater reproductive payoff than is usual.
+Trivers and Willard also identified a circumstance in which reproducing individuals might experience deviations from expected offspring reproductive value—namely, varying maternal condition. In polygynous species, males may mate with multiple females, and low-condition males will achieve fewer or no matings. Parents in relatively good condition would then be under selection for mutations causing production and investment in sons (rather than daughters), because of the increased chance of mating experienced by these good-condition sons. Mating with multiple females conveys a large reproductive benefit, whereas daughters could translate their condition into only smaller benefits. An opposite prediction holds for poor-condition parents—selection will favor production and investment in daughters, so long as daughters are likely to be mated, while sons in poor condition are likely to be out-competed by other males and end up with zero mates (i.e. those sons will be a reproductive dead end).
+The hypothesis was used to explain why, for example, red deer mothers would produce more sons when they are in good condition, and more daughters when in poor condition. In polyandrous species where some females mate with multiple males (and others get no matings) and males mate with one/few females (i.e. "sex-role reversed" species), these predictions from the Trivers–Willard hypothesis are reversed: parents in good condition will invest in daughters in order to have a daughter that can out-compete other females to attract multiple males, whereas parents in poor condition will avoid investing in daughters who are likely to get out-competed, and will instead invest in sons in order to gain at least some grandchildren.
+"Condition" can be assessed in multiple ways, including body size, parasite loads, or dominance, which has also been shown in macaques (Macaca sylvanus) to affect the sex of offspring, with dominant females giving birth to more sons and non-dominant females giving birth to more daughters. Consequently, high-ranking females give birth to a higher proportion of males than those who are low-ranking.
+In their original paper, Trivers and Willard were unaware of a biochemical mechanism which could result in biased sex ratios. One possible explanation is that a high level of circulating glucose in the mother's bloodstream favors the survival of male blastocysts. This conclusion is based on the observed male-skewed survival rates (to expanded blastocyst stages) when bovine blastocysts were exposed to heightened levels of glucose. As blood glucose levels are highly correlated with access to high-quality food, they may serve as a proxy for maternal condition.
+
+
+== Humans ==
+The Trivers–Willard hypothesis has been applied to resource differences among individuals in a society as well as to resource differences among societies. Investigations in humans pose a number of practical and methodological difficulties, but while a 2007 review of previous research found that empirical evidence for the hypothesis was mixed, the author noted that it received greater support from better-designed studies. One such example cited was a 1997 analysis of Hungarian Romani – a low-status group with a preference for females, who "had a female-biased sex ratio at birth, were more likely to abort a child after having had one or more daughters, nursed their daughters longer, and sent their daughters to school for longer".
+
+
+== See also ==
+r/K selection theory
+Returning soldier effect
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-gospel_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-gospel_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Two-gospel hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-gospel_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:36.789683+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The two-gospel hypothesis or Griesbach hypothesis is that the Gospel of Matthew was written before the Gospel of Luke, and that both were written earlier than the Gospel of Mark. It is a proposed solution to the synoptic problem, which concerns the pattern of similarities and differences between the three Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. The hypothesis is generally first credited to Johann Jakob Griesbach writing in the 1780s; it was introduced in its current form by William R. Farmer in 1964 and given its current designation of two-gospel hypothesis in 1979.
+The two-gospel hypothesis contrasts with the two-source hypothesis, the most popular and accepted scholarly hypothesis. Supporters say that it does not require lost sources like the Q source and was supported by the early Church. Proponents of the two-gospel hypothesis generally also support the traditional claims of authorship as accurate to disciples and their direct associates, which implies the gospels were written comparatively soon after Jesus's death, rather than the later dates of authorship supported by other schools of thought.
+
+== Overview ==
+
+Those who support the hypothesis often accept all the church tradition as reliable. Therefore, a common formulation of the hypothesis is the following: Matthew was written first, while Christianity was still centered in Jerusalem, to calm the hostility between Jews and Christians. After Matthew, as the church expanded beyond the Holy Land, Luke wrote a gospel with an intended audience of Gentiles. Since neither Luke (nor his associate Paul) were eyewitnesses of Jesus, Peter gave public testimonies that validated Luke's gospel. These public speeches were transcribed into Mark's gospel, as recorded by the early Church Father Irenaeus. Paul then allowed Luke's gospel to be published.
+The proposal normally suggests that Matthew was written by the apostle Matthew, probably in the 40s AD. At the time, the church had yet to extend outside of Jerusalem. The primary political problem within the church community was caused by the fact that Jewish authorities were outright hostile to Jesus and his followers. Matthew wrote his account in order to show that Jesus was actually the fulfillment of what Jewish scripture had prophesied.
+When Stephen was martyred, as recorded in the Book of Acts, the disciples scattered beyond Jerusalem into Gentile (mostly Greek but also Syriac) towns. There they began preaching, and a large number of pagans in Antioch became Christians. By the mid 50s, Paul, who converted and claimed the title of "Apostle to the Gentiles" realized the need for a gospel specifically to the Gentiles. This gospel would deemphasize Mosaic Law and recent Jewish history in order to appeal to Greeks and Romans. Paul commissioned his associate, Luke, who consulted the Gospel of Matthew as well as other sources.  Once the gospel had been written, its publication was delayed, however. Paul decided that he needed Peter's public testimony as to its accuracy, since neither Paul nor Luke had known Jesus before Jesus's crucifixion.
+Paul asked Peter, who was the leader of the Apostles, to testify that Luke's account was accurate. According to early church sources, Peter gave a series of speeches to senior Roman army officers. Due to the commonality between Mark and Luke, these speeches would have constituted Peter's public "seal of approval" upon Luke's gospel. These church sources suggest that Peter was ambivalent when Mark asked him if he could write down the words of the speeches. However, since the Roman officers who heard the speeches liked them, they asked for copies, and so Mark made fifty copies of Peter's speeches. These copies began circulating, and became Mark's gospel. Only after the speeches by Peter were made (and Mark's transcriptions began circulating) did Paul feel confident enough to publish Luke's gospel. Alternatively, the hypothesis may state that the ordering was changed for a combination of theological or instructional purposes (reading the books in the order Matthew - Luke - Mark leaves the reader with very little gain reading Mark), or that the order was changed in response to Marcionism, placing the gospel associated with Paul (the base for the Gospel of Marcion) after the gospel associated with Peter.
+The two-gospel hypothesis sometimes states that Peter made sure that his speeches agreed with both Matthew and the still unpublished Luke. Since Matthew was the primary source for Luke, and Matthew's gospel (the only published gospel at the time) would have been well known to Peter, he mostly would have preached on the contents of Matthew. Knowing Matthew better than Luke, Peter was more likely to mention details found in Matthew and not Luke than vice versa. Alternatively, it is simply because Luke had been published relatively recently compared to Matthew. This would explain why there are more details found in Mark and Matthew but not Luke than there are details found in Mark and Luke but not Matthew. It also explains why Mark is so much shorter than Matthew and Luke, is more anecdotal and emotional, is less polished, and why only it begins immediately with Jesus' public ministry. Peter was giving public speeches as to what he saw, and never intended his speeches to become a full gospel. This was asserted by early church historians, and explains why there are so few commentaries on Mark (as opposed to Matthew, Luke and John) until a relatively late date. It was considered the least important gospel in the early church.
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+---
+title: "Two-gospel hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-gospel_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:36.789683+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Contrasted with the two-source hypothesis ==
+Proponents generally separate arguments made from the text of the gospels themselves ("internal evidence") and evidence from preserved writings of the early church ("external evidence").  For example, early church documents claim that Mark's Gospel was created after Mark made fifty copies of a series of speeches that Peter had given in Rome.  The two-gospel hypothesis leans heavily on this external evidence: it embraces the views of the early church, and claims that a strong reason needs to be provided to justify dismissing the traditions of the early Church maintained over the authorship of the gospels. It also claims that the internal evidence supports Mark being a redactor of Matthew and Luke, as Griesbach argued. The two-source hypothesis, in contrast, is based only on the perceived internal evidence for Marcan priority, such as the brevity and primitivity of Mark, and does not accept the tradition of the early church.
+Approximately 25% of Matthew and 25% of Luke are identical, but are not found in Mark. This has been explained in the two-source hypothesis as coming from the hypothetical Q document.  By the two-gospel hypothesis, this material was copied by Luke from Matthew, but not testified to by Mark, possibly because Peter had not seen it. Proponents of later dates of authorship (due to seeming familiarity with the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in the First Jewish-Roman War in 70 AD in passages such as Mark 13) state that information unique to Matthew ("M") and Luke ("L") came from unknown sources. The two-gospel hypothesis, by placing the authorship of the gospels earlier, normally assumes "M" to be mostly Saint Matthew's eyewitness testimony and "L" to be eyewitness account gathered by Luke mentioned in the prologue to Luke's gospel. The two-gospel theory uses the accounts of the early church of Matthean priority as major evidence to support its claims, though opponents argue there are good scholarly reasons for skepticism, most notably the long time gaps between the creation of the gospels and the earliest surviving accounts of their authors.
+
+== Scholarly history ==
+
+The Church Fathers settled on Matthean priority themselves, but kept to the order seen in the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke, then John.  This would later be referred to as the Augustinian hypothesis. The Monarchian Prologues, from around 380, state that Mark used both Matthew and Luke.
+The first major proponent of something like a Matthew-Luke-Mark ordering was Johann Jakob Griesbach. The Griesbach hypothesis is similar to the modern two-gospel hypothesis. However, unlike the two-gospel hypothesis, the Griesbach hypothesis is principally a literary hypothesis. What came to be labeled the Griesbach Hypothesis was anticipated by the Welsh scholar Henry Owen (1716–1795) in a piece he published in 1764, and by Friedrich Andreas Stroth (1750–1785) in an article he published anonymously in 1781. Griesbach (1745–1812), to whom this source hypothesis was first accredited, alluded to his conclusion that Matthew wrote the first of the canonical gospels and that Luke, not Mark, made first use of Matthew in composing the second of the canonical gospels in an address celebrating the Easter season at the University of Jena in 1783. Later, for similar Whitsun programs at Jena (1789–1790), Griesbach published a more detailed "Demonstration that the Whole Gospel of Mark is Excerpted from the Narratives of Matthew & Luke."
+Griesbach's theory was what German scholars came to call a "utilization hypothesis." Griesbach's main support for his thesis lies in passages where Matthew and Luke agree over and against Mark (e.g. Matthew 26:68; Luke 22:64; Mark 14:65), the so-called Minor Agreements.
+A related theory has Luke drawing not directly from Matthew, but from a common source, seen as a proto-Matthew. This was advanced in the nineteenth century by Wilhelm de Wette and Friedrich Bleek.
+Markan priority began to be seriously proposed in the 18th century, was fleshed out during the 19th century, and became established consensus by the 20th century, with the two-source hypothesis the most popular variant.  By the 1960s, scholars considered the two-source hypothesis to be the unquestioned solution to the synoptic problem.  William R. Farmer raised objections to it in his 1964 book The Synoptic Problem, but this view did not receive much uptake among scholars; exceptions included Bernard Orchard and David Laird Dungan.  At a conference in 1979, proponents agreed to change the name from "Griesbach hypothesis" to "two-gospel hypothesis".  Others such as David Alan Black have kept up support for the two-gospel hypothesis since.
+
+== Evidence ==
+It has been long recognized that Matthew is the most "Jewish" of the gospels. It heavily references Jewish scripture and Jewish history.
+Matthew is the most widely cited gospel among the early church fathers, whereas Mark is cited by far the least.
+An alternating agreement of order exists in Mark only. Mark and Matthew agree in order in certain clusters of events, and when Matthew stops agreeing with Mark, Luke starts agreeing - Matthew and Luke almost never agree in order against Mark. This suggests that Matthew and Luke were cooperating when using Mark, so that when one stopped following Mark's order, the other could start, which is absurd. However, this is expected if Mark is redacting Matthew and Luke, and is simply alternating between one and the other's orders.
+
+== Criticism ==
+Many generic arguments in favor of Markan Priority and/or Two-source hypothesis also work as arguments against the two-gospel hypothesis. While it is impossible to list all arguments in favor and against the theory, some notable arguments are as follows.
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+---
+title: "Two-gospel hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-gospel_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:36.789683+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+If Luke had access to the final version of Matthew (as opposed to both drawing independently on other sources), why are there so many significant differences between Luke and Matthew on issues such as Jesus' genealogy, circumstances of birth, and events following resurrection? While Luke and Matthew do share a lot of text which is not present in Mark, almost all of it is confined to teachings and parables. Construction of the gospels in accordance with the two-gospel hypothesis would require Luke to rewrite major parts of Matthew's narrative – even though Matthew was presumably an eyewitness who lived in Jerusalem and was surrounded by other eyewitnesses, and Luke was neither. This hypothesis does not actually necessitate Luke relying on Matthew, only Mark relying on Luke and Matthew. Many proponents argue instead that both Luke and Matthew drew from a "proto-Matthew."
+"The argument from omission": why would Mark and Peter omit such remarkable and miraculous events as virgin birth of Jesus and particularly his appearance to apostles following resurrection? Both Matthew and Luke explicitly attest that Jesus appeared to the eleven disciples, including Peter, after his resurrection, and it seems incredible that Peter would not testify to that fact in his public speeches. And why is the Sermon on the Mount completely omitted from both Mark and Luke?
+Proponents cite the simplicity of not having to include an unknown lost tradition in Q. However, lost sources are not unusual in antiquity, with thousands of references by surviving works to books that were not preserved. Even strictly theologically, lost works are attested to directly in scripture: an Epistle to the Laodiceans is referenced in Colossians, but is generally considered lost. The book of 2 Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book considered scripture in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions, directly states it is an abridgement of a five-volume work by Jason of Cyrene, but this original work has been lost. Even if taken on its own terms, the two-gospel hypothesis cites patristic evidence such as Papias who believed there to be a "Gospel of the Hebrews", which has now been lost.
+Proponents also cite the early Church Fathers as unanimously holding a position of Matthaean priority. However, the early Church Fathers disagreed with each other on many issues, and held various positions given credence by few today. The earliest reference to all four canonical gospels that calls them by the names ascribed to them now is from Irenaeus's Against Heresies (written around 185 AD) and the Muratorian fragment (written around 170–200 AD) - over a century after Jesus's death. Justin Martyr, writing 30 years earlier than Irenaeus from the same location (Rome), loosely quotes gospels but does not give them their modern attributions, suggesting that these attributions were made at some point between 150–180. If the stories of Mark recording Peter's speeches truly originated from Rome circa 60 AD, why did Justin not refer to Mark or Peter? Even if Justin simply omitted the mention coincidentally, it still seems like a long time for a chain of oral transmission traditions on authorship before it is recorded. As such, opponents argue that the Church Fathers should not be assumed to have special insight into the truth on this matter.
+Conversely, if the early Church Fathers are reliable, then why not trust them on their ordering of Matthew - Mark - Luke? The two-gospel hypothesis sometimes introduces a delay in the dissemination of Luke to explain the traditional order, but such a delay is never described explicitly in ancient church writings. Supporters would reply that Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius (and other after them) did have the order Matthew - Luke - Mark, and claimed to receive their teaching from "the elders who lived in the first days." Some supporters would also appeal to theological or didactic reasons for the change in order, instead of a delay.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Farrer hypothesis
+Four-document hypothesis
+Gospel harmony
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Sources ===
+For Griesbach's life and work, including the full text of the cited work in Latin and in English translation, cf. Bernard Orchard and Thomas R. W. Longstaff (ed.), J. J. Griesbach: Synoptic and Text-Critical Studies 1776–1976, Volume 34 in SNTS Monograph Series (Cambridge University Press, hardback 1978, paperback 2005 ISBN 0-521-02055-7).
+
+Beck, David (2001). Rethinking the Synoptic Problem. Baker Academic. ISBN 0-8010-2281-9.
+Black, David (2001). Why Four Gospels?. Kregel Publications. ISBN 0-8254-2070-9.
+Orchard, Bernard; Riley, Harold (1987). The Order of the Synoptics: Why Three Synoptic Gospels?. Mercer University Press.
+
+== External links ==
+A Web Site for the Two Gospel Hypothesis
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_speed_of_light-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_speed_of_light-0.md
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+---
+title: "Variable speed of light"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_speed_of_light"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:38.002917+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A variable speed of light (VSL) is a feature of a family of hypotheses stating that the speed of light may in some way not be constant, for example, that it varies with frequency, in space, or over time. Accepted classical theories of physics, and in particular general relativity, predict a constant speed of light in any local frame of reference and in some situations these predict apparent variations of the speed of light depending on frame of reference, but this article does not refer to this as a variable speed of light. Various alternative theories of gravitation and cosmology, many of them non-mainstream, incorporate variations in the local speed of light.
+Attempts to incorporate a variable speed of light into physics were made by Robert Dicke in 1957, and by several researchers starting from the late 1980s.
+VSL should not be confused with faster than light theories, which depends on a medium's refractive index or its measurement in a remote observer's frame of reference in a gravitational potential. In this context, the "speed of light" refers to the limiting speed c of the theory rather than to the velocity of propagation of photons.
+
+== Historical proposals ==
+
+=== Background ===
+While the speed of light is generally considered to be a constant, the idea that physical "constants" might be variable has a long history. One of early proposals was Dirac large numbers hypothesis. Looking for variation in these constants is an important way of testing the physical laws. 
+Einstein's equivalence principle, on which general relativity is founded, requires that in any local, freely falling reference frame, the speed of light is always the same. This leaves open the possibility, however, that an inertial observer inferring the apparent speed of light in a distant region might calculate a different value. Spatial variation of the speed of light in a gravitational potential as measured against a distant observer's time reference is implicitly present in general relativity. The apparent speed of light will change in a gravity field and, in particular, go to zero at an event horizon as viewed by a distant observer. In deriving the gravitational redshift due to a spherically symmetric massive body, a radial speed of light dr/dt can be defined in Schwarzschild coordinates, with t being the time recorded on a stationary clock at infinity. The result is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              r
+            
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              2
+              m
+            
+            r
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {dr}{dt}}=1-{\frac {2m}{r}},}
+  
+
+where m is MG/c2 and where natural units are used such that c0 is equal to one.
+
+=== Dicke's proposal (1957) ===
+Robert Dicke, in 1957, developed a VSL theory of gravity, a theory in which (unlike general relativity) the speed of light measured locally by a free-falling observer could vary. Dicke assumed that both frequencies and wavelengths could vary, which since 
+  
+    
+      
+        c
+        =
+        ν
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle c=\nu \lambda }
+  
+ resulted in a relative change of c. Dicke assumed a refractive index 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        =
+        
+          
+            c
+            
+              c
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        1
+        +
+        
+          
+            
+              2
+              G
+              M
+            
+            
+              r
+              
+                c
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n={\frac {c}{c_{0}}}=1+{\frac {2GM}{rc^{2}}}}
+  
+ (eqn. 5) and proved it to be consistent with the observed value for light deflection. In a comment related to Mach's principle, Dicke suggested that, while the right part of the term in eq. 5 is small, the left part, 1, could have "its origin in the remainder of the matter in the universe".
+Given that in a universe with an increasing horizon more and more masses contribute to the above refractive index, Dicke considered a cosmology where c decreased in time, providing an alternative explanation to the cosmological redshift.
+
+=== Subsequent proposals ===
+Several hypotheses for varying speed of light, seemingly in contradiction to general relativity theory, have been published, including those of Giere and Tan (1986) and Sanejouand (2009). In 2003, Magueijo gave a review of such hypotheses.
+Cosmological models with varying speeds of light have been proposed independently by Jean-Pierre Petit in 1988, John Moffat in 1992, and the team of Andreas Albrecht and João Magueijo in 1998 to explain the horizon problem of cosmology and propose an alternative to cosmic inflation.
+
+== Relation to other constants and their variation ==
+
+=== Dimensionless and dimensionful quantities ===
+Units are vital for experimental measurements and comparing the results of experiments to theory necessarily entangles units and the physical constants. Physical constants with units are not fundamental. Any equation of physical law can be expressed in a form in which all dimensional quantities are normalized against like-dimensioned quantities (called nondimensionalization), resulting in only dimensionless quantities remaining. Only variation of these dimensionless quantities change the nature of physics. A physical theory that postulates a varying fine-structure constant can be expressed as either a variable speed of light or a variable electric charge.
+Physicists often adopt natural units in which the physical constants c, G, ħ = h/(2π), 4πε0, and kB take the value one, resulting in every physical quantity being normalized against its corresponding Planck unit.  When Planck units are used and such equations of physical law are expressed in this nondimensionalized form, no dimensional physical constants such as c, G, ħ, ε0, nor kB remain, only dimensionless quantities, as predicted by the Buckingham π theorem.
+
+=== Gravitational constant G ===
+
+In 1937, Paul Dirac and others began investigating the consequences of natural constants changing with time. For example, Dirac proposed a change of only 5 parts in 1011 per year of the Newtonian constant of gravitation G to explain the relative weakness of the gravitational force compared to other fundamental forces. This has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis.
+However, Richard Feynman showed that the gravitational constant most likely could not have changed this much in the past 4 billion years based on geological and solar system observations, although this may depend on assumptions about G varying in isolation. (See also strong equivalence principle.)
+
+=== Fine-structure constant α ===
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_speed_of_light-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_speed_of_light-1.md
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+---
+title: "Variable speed of light"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_speed_of_light"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:38.002917+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+One group, studying distant quasars, has claimed to detect a variation of the fine-structure constant at the level in one part in 105. Other authors dispute these results. Other groups studying quasars claim no detectable variation at much higher sensitivities.
+The natural nuclear reactor of Oklo has been used to check whether the atomic fine-structure constant α might have changed over the past 2 billion years. That is because α influences the rate of various nuclear reactions. For example, 149Sm captures a neutron to become 150Sm, and since the rate of neutron capture depends on the value of α, the ratio of the two samarium isotopes in samples from Oklo can be used to calculate the value of α from 2 billion years ago. Several studies have analysed the relative concentrations of radioactive isotopes left behind at Oklo, and most have concluded that nuclear reactions then were much the same as they are today, which implies α was the same too.
+Paul Davies and collaborators have suggested that it is in principle possible to disentangle which of the dimensionful constants (the elementary charge, the Planck constant, and the speed of light) of which the fine-structure constant is composed is responsible for the variation. However, this has been disputed by others and is not generally accepted.
+
+== Criticisms of various VSL concepts ==
+
+=== General critique of varying c cosmologies ===
+From a very general point of view, G. F. R. Ellis and Jean-Philippe Uzan expressed concerns that a varying c would require a rewrite of much of modern physics to replace the current system which depends on a constant c. Ellis claimed that any varying c theory (1) must redefine distance measurements; (2) must provide an alternative expression for the metric tensor in general relativity; (3) might contradict Lorentz invariance; (4) must modify Maxwell's equations; and (5) must be done consistently with respect to all other physical theories. VSL cosmologies remain out of mainstream physics.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Is the speed of light constant? "Varying constants"
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_world_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_world_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Virus world hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_world_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:39.173467+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The virus world hypothesis (also called the co-evolution hypothesis or the virus-first hypothesis) proposes that self-replicating virus-like genetic elements existed before cellular life and contributed to its emergence. It is one of the main frameworks used to explain the origin of viruses.  Modern viruses are obligate parasites that depend on their cellular hosts, thus it may seem more intuitive for viruses to have originated from cells, such as in the "escape hypothesis". Nevertheless, under a hypothesized virus world, viruses are theorized to be direct descendants of the very first replicons to arise. These primordial soup dwelling replicons could have evolved into archaic virus-like structures, which in turn became the precursors of cellular life forms, with the latter possibly emerging as factories and reservoirs for virus production and dissemination. The hypothesis is considered one of the three classical hypotheses of viral origin, although it is now thought these hypotheses may not be mutually exclusive, as different groups of viruses may have evolved through different routes, or a "chimeric scenario".
+
+== History ==
+The idea that viruses represent primordial, pre-cellular forms of life has roots in the earliest decades of virology. Félix d'Hérelle, discoverer of bacteriophages, proposed that virus-like agents might be ancient replicators. J. B. S. Haldane developed the conjecture further in his 1929 essay "The Origin of Life," in which the bacteriophage served as his model for the first self-duplicating molecule, and led him to see viruses as a phylogenetic "missing link"
+between life and nonlife.
+The virus world view was largely displaced through the middle of the twentieth century and remained marginal for several decades. Advances in comparative genomics and structural biology have since then revived interest in the origins of viruses, Eugene Koonin has described his "primordial virus world" scenario as recapitulating Haldane's ideas "at a new level".
+
+== Overview ==
+
+=== Model ===
+The virus-first model envisions the pre-cellular stage of life as a diverse pool of competing, virus-like replicators dwelling within networks of inorganic molecules (primordial soup), exchanging genetic material freely and lacking both full-fledged ribosomes and independent metabolism. RNA would have arisen first, followed by retroid elements and then DNA viruses, an order that links the hypothesis to the RNA world, as contemporary viruses are argued to reflect evolution spanning from an early RNA world to the modern DNA/protein world. Viroids and ribozymes, as the simplest known self-replicating RNA elements, could be considered the closest extant analogues of these early replicators.
+Within this framework, Patrick Forterre proposed that the transition from an RNA world to the modern DNA-based cellular world was itself driven by viruses: three independent DNA viruses each displaced the ancestral RNA genome in three separate primordial cell lineages, giving rise to Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. This accounts for the observed lack of homology between the core DNA-replication polymerases of the three domains.  Forterre introduced the virocell concept to formalise the distinction between the metabolically inert extracellular virion and the metabolically active infected cell, arguing that the latter constitutes the true living form of the virus. Gill and Forterre extended the model by proposing that ancestral extracellular vesicles may have been evolutionary intermediates between simple lipid compartments and the first virions, with early ribovirocells (cells simultaneously capable of dividing and producing virions) representing a transitional stage before LUCA. Koonin further proposed that viral capsids may have functioned as a primitive compartment type that helped pioneer the membrane architectures eventually adopted by cells.
+
+=== Phylogenetics ===
+The "virus hallmark genes" are a distinct set of conserved genes shared across a wide range of virus groups and are absent in cellular life. Some of the smallest virus genomes (such as parvoviruses or the single-strand RNA tombusviruses) consist mostly of the hallmark genes, whereas in the largest viruses these genes comprise a minority. Since hallmark genes possess only distant homologs in cellular life (which appears to also be of viral origin) while also forming a network that connects almost all viruses, their existence therefore seems to suggest descent from a primordial genetic pool predating LUCA, thus constituting an uninterrupted gene flow from the pre-cellular stage. Although Koonin specifies that double-stranded RNA and negative-strand RNA viruses are still likely to have independently evolved later.
+The conventional assumption that when viral and host genes cluster phylogenetically, the parasitic virus must therefore have derived its genes from the host, has been particularly challenged by Villareal. Metagenomic surveys of marine environments show that the majority of photosynthesis genes detected are of viral origin, display a virus-like codon usage bias, and undergo selection independently of their hosts, suggesting they evolved within the virosphere rather than being captured from cells. Furthermore, viruses collectively constitute the largest reservoir of genetic diversity in the known biosphere, a fact which, with the addition of the hallmark genes having no clear cellular homologs, is argued by Villarreal to be difficult to reconcile with a model in which the virosphere is derived from cellular life.
+
+=== Viroid-first ===
+Unlike the virus-first scenario, which postulates that viruses evolved from pre-cellular replicators, the viroid-first or "viroid early" version holds that viroids are not only direct descendants of pre-cellular replicators but also holdovers from the pre-protein RNA world as evidenced by their use of ribozymes for a stage of replication. Theodor Otto Diener, the
+discoverer of viroids, proposed in 1989 that their small size, circular structure, ribozyme activity, and
+complete lack of protein-coding capacity make them more plausible relics of the RNA world than any other
+known entity, describing them as "living fossils" of precellular evolution. However a 2022 paper argued that since viroid-like agents have been found only in multicellular eukaryotes, with no representatives in bacteria or archaea, their origin likely postdates rather than predates cellular life, and their secondary structures are attuned to protein-based polymerases rather than the ribozyme polymerases of a pre-cellular setting. They proposed instead that viroids most plausibly arose by "escape" from retrozymes. The discovery of new viroid-like cccRNAs through metatranscriptome mining later caused the authors to reconsider Diener's theory.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Virus world hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_world_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:39.173467+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chimeric scenario ===
+More recent work has treated the classical hypotheses as complementary. Krupovic, Dolja, and Koonin have proposed a chimeric scenario in which viral replication modules descended from primordial pre-cellular replicators, consistent with the virus-first view, while genes encoding major capsid proteins were independently recruited from cellular hosts at multiple points during the diversification of the virosphere, consistent with the escape hypothesis. New viral lineages could then continue to emerge from cellular sources throughout evolutionary history, explaining the polyphyletic character of the modern viruses.
+
+== Criticism ==
+
+The main issue with the virus world is that all known viruses require a host cell for replication, making a pre-cellular virus inconsistent with the standard definition of a virus as an obligate intracellular parasite. Therefore, the hypothesis has been challenged and the existence of an ancient and independent viral world critiqued. Moreira and López-García of Paris-Saclay University have said that they do not think viruses are older than LUCA and claimed that scientific evidence downright the dismisses the idea. The pair has contended that virus hallmark genes could derive from ancient cellular lineages now extinct, and that viruses lack the structural historical continuity required for inclusion on a tree of life alongside cells. They have also pointed out that not a single hallmark gene is shared across all extant viruses, although this argument does not take the "chimeric scenario"(see above) into account. Koonin, Senkevich, and Dolja responded that large viral gene sets evolve congruently over hundreds of millions of years, and that the abundance of viral genes lacking any cellular homolog argues against a purely cellular derivation.
+Study of giant viruses has provided mixed evidence for the positioning of viruses in the tree of life. A study analyzing mimiviruses found that the majority of its core replication proteins group phylogenetically with eukaryotic cellular homologs, and that the replication genes show no evidence of recent horizontal gene transfer and are under purifying selection. The authors argued that because the eukaryotic resemblance cannot be explained by recent gene acquisition from a host, it reflects genuine shared ancestry, and concluded that mimiviruses most plausibly descended from a complex cellular ancestor by reductive evolution, contradicting the idea that it represents a relic of a pre-cellular viral lineage. Because viruses leave no fossil record, their evolutionary trajectories must be inferred entirely from extant molecular data, and no analysis to date has definitively resolved the question of viral origins.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_continuum_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_continuum_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Weak continuum hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_continuum_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:40.333929+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The term weak continuum hypothesis can be used to refer to the hypothesis that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        <
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}<2^{\aleph _{1}}}
+  
+, which is the negation of the second continuum hypothesis.  It is equivalent to a weak form of ◊ on 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \aleph _{1}}
+  
+.  F. Burton Jones proved that if it is true, then every separable normal Moore space is metrizable.
+Weak continuum hypothesis may also refer to the assertion that every uncountable set of real numbers can be placed in bijective correspondence with the set of all reals.  This second assertion was Cantor's original form of the Continuum Hypothesis (CH).  Given the Axiom of Choice, it is equivalent to the usual form of CH, that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          2
+          
+            
+              ℵ
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ℵ
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=\aleph _{1}}
+  
+.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_balloon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_balloon-0.md
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+---
+title: "Weather balloon"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_balloon"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:32.254307+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A weather balloon, also known as a sounding balloon, is a high-altitude balloon (HAB) that carries instruments into the stratosphere for measuring atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity and wind speed by means of a small, expendable measuring device called a radiosonde. First invented in the late 19th century, weather balloons have overgone several remodels and are still used by researchers across Europe, North America, and Asia to this day. The balloon itself is made of latex and filled with either helium or hydrogen to produce lift. Balloons can be tracked by radar, RDF, or GPS. Balloons meant to stay at a constant altitude for long periods are known as transosondes. Weather balloons that do not carry an instrument pack are used to determine upper-level winds and the height of cloud layers. For such balloons, a theodolite or total station is used to track the balloon's azimuth and elevation, which are then converted to estimated wind speed and direction and/or cloud height, as applicable.
+Weather balloons are launched around the world for observations used to diagnose current conditions as well as by human forecasters and computer models for weather forecasting. Between 900 and 1,300 locations around the globe do routine releases, typically two or four times daily. Other uses for weather balloons consist of supplements for satellite readings, support for rocket launches, and other miscellaneous recordings.
+The effectiveness of weather balloons is limited by their lack of coverage in some countries, as well as other atmospheric and instrumental factors. Environmental concerns have been raised over the frequent use of weather balloons, as the United States releases around 76,600 balloons annually. Many of these balloons end up in the ocean, up to 300 balloons per week, polluting the water and endangering the surrounding marine life.
+
+== History ==
+One of the first people to use weather balloons was the French meteorologist Léon Teisserenc de Bort. Starting in 1896 he launched hundreds of weather balloons from his observatory in Trappes, France. These experiments led to his discovery of the tropopause and stratosphere.
+These early weather balloons carried self-recording instruments that would be recovered upon landing, allowing researchers to atmospheric profiles from higher than ever before.
+During the early 20th century, weather balloons expanded to broader upper-atmosphere research, investigating ozone, cosmic rays, and stratospheric circulation. Weather balloon observatories were established worldwide across Europe, North America, and Asia. The technology advanced even further in the 1920s through the invention of radiosondes, instruments which could relay real-time measurements of temperature, pressure, and humidity through radio signals. This innovation allowed the establishment of coordinated global sounding networks that are essential to weather forecasting and climate research today.
+Transosondes, weather balloons with instrumentation meant to stay at a constant altitude for long periods of time to help diagnose radioactive debris from atomic fallout, were experimented with in 1958.
+The drone technology boom has led to the development of weather drones since the late 1990s.
+These drones offered the potential for precise, targeted measurements in areas and weather that would be impossible for balloons. These may begin to replace balloons as a more specific means for carrying radiosondes.
+
+== Materials and equipment ==
+The balloon itself produces the lift, and is usually made of a highly flexible latex material, though chloroprene may also be used. The unit that performs the actual measurements and radio transmissions hangs at the lower end of the string, and is called a radiosonde. Specialized radiosondes are used for measuring particular parameters, such as determining the ozone concentration.
+To improve data quality, sensor exposure and airflow must be given special attention. Radiation shields are used to minimize overheating sensors. Recent research concludes that controlling the ascent and descent rates of the balloon can reduce wind related disturbances to sensors, providing more accurate measurements. To allow smoother descent, some balloons use dual-balloon configurations or valve-controlled balloons for better data collection on the way down.
+The balloon is usually filled with hydrogen, though helium – a more expensive, but viable option nonetheless – is also frequently used. The ascent rate can be controlled by the amount of gas with which the balloon is filled, usually at around 300 metres per minute (980 ft/min).  Weather balloons may reach altitudes of 40 km (25 mi) or more, limited by diminishing pressures causing the balloon to expand to such a degree (typically by a 100:1 factor) that it disintegrates. In this instance the instrument package is usually lost, although a parachute may be employed to help in allowing retrieval of the instrument. Above that altitude sounding rockets are used to carry instruments aloft, and for even higher altitudes satellites are used.
+
+== Launch time, location, and uses ==
+
+Weather balloons are launched around the world for observations used to diagnose current conditions as well as by human forecasters and computer models for weather forecasting. Between 900 and 1,300 locations around the globe do routine releases, two or four times daily, usually at 0000 UTC and 1200 UTC. Some facilities will also do occasional supplementary special releases when meteorologists determine there is a need for additional data between the 12-hour routine launches in which time much can change in the atmosphere.  Military and civilian government meteorological agencies such as the National Weather Service in the US typically launch balloons, and by international agreements, almost all the data are shared with all nations.
+
+=== Weather balloons and satellites as complementary systems ===
+Although satellites allow for global atmospheric coverage, their measurements have coarser resolution and can be affected by things like cloud cover, surface emissivity, and calibration drift. Weather balloons offer direct, in situ measurements of the temperature, pressure, and humidity in a region which helps identify errors in satellite retrievals and improve accuracy of data. For this reason, satellite measurements and weather balloon observations are often used side by side in modern climate monitoring systems.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_balloon-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_balloon-1.md
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+---
+title: "Weather balloon"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_balloon"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:32.254307+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Aerospace and rocket launch support ===
+Weather balloons are also used as atmospheric sounding systems to assist with rocket launches. In a test performed by the Lukasiewicz Research Network - Institute of Aviation a balloon sounding system was used to assist the ILR-33 Amber sub-orbital rocket. In a series of test launches in 2019, the system acquired atmospheric data such as information on vertical wind profile in real time that was used in pre-launch procedures for the rocket.
+
+=== Special uses ===
+Specialized uses also exist, such as for aviation interests, pollution monitoring, photography or videography, and research. Examples include pilot balloons (Pibal). Field research programs often use mobile launchers from land vehicles as well as ships and aircraft (usually dropsondes in this case). In recent years, weather balloons have also been used for scattering human ashes at high altitudes.
+The weather balloon was also used to create the fictional entity 'Rover' during the production of the 1960s TV series The Prisoner in Portmeirion, Gwynedd, North Wales, UK in September 1966. This was retained in further scenes shot at MGM Borehamwood UK during 1966–67. Weather balloons have also been adapted as drifting platforms in chemistry and air quality research. Instead of ascending rapidly through the air, these systems are designed to drift with air masses, measuring trace gases, aerosols, and other chemical constituents in the lower troposphere. These balloons are useful in pollution research to examine transport, mixing, and chemical transformation of pollutants along moving air parcels. High altitude weather balloons can be used as research platforms for near-space studies, reaching a height of approximately 25-30 km where environmental conditions including intense ultraviolet levels, low temperature and atmospheric pressure. In a recent study, researchers launched a weather balloon carrying live microorganisms to investigate how exposure to these conditions affected cell survivability. These missions provide a cheaper alternative to orbital spaceflight experiments.
+
+== Potential issues ==
+
+=== Aviation ===
+In 1970, an Antonov 24 operating Aeroflot Flight 1661 suffered a loss of control after striking a radiosonde in flight, resulting in the death of all 45 people on board.
+On 16 October 2025, a United Airlines flight collided with a weather balloon at cruising altitude over Utah, fracturing its windshield, releasing shards of glass into the cockpit that injured the captain's right arm, and causing an emergency descent and diversion. The NTSB has begun an investigation, and the company behind the weather balloon has taken measures to reduce future risk.
+There are also other ways in which weather balloons can pose a danger to aircraft, such as interfering with the pitot-static systems.
+
+=== Coverage and observational gaps ===
+Regions such as Africa, South America, the Southern Ocean, and the Antarctic are particularly underrepresented for weather balloon observations. This can lead to significant data gaps and skews in climate information, limiting understanding of the Southern Hemisphere's climate and atmospheric profile. This imbalance in coverage can be attributed to the steep price of weather balloon launches, (costing around 500 USD per launch), limiting access to third-world countries and limiting numbers worldwide.
+
+=== Operational and instrumental constraints ===
+Weather balloon performance is greatly influenced by lifting gas volume, payload mass, as well as weather conditions. Where the balloon is launched and user experience can affect mission success as well, making it hard to get consistent results. The completeness of upper-air observations is reliant on the maximum altitude the balloon reaches. This means if a balloon bursts prematurely or insufficient ascent height is reached the upwards extent of temperature and humidity measurements will be limited, which is a big issue for climate networks like GRUAN that rely on this information.
+
+=== Environmental issues ===
+While weather forecasting relies increasingly on satellites and radar technology, it still uses weather balloons. These devices, launched from thousands of stations worldwide, ascend into the atmosphere to collect meteorological data. The United States, for example, releases approximately 76,600 balloons annually (an average of around 210 per day), while Canada launches 22,000.
+
+Weather balloons, after reaching an altitude of approximately 35 kilometers, burst, releasing their instruments and the latex material they are made of. While the instruments are often recovered, the latex remains in the environment, posing a significant threat to marine ecosystems. Studies have shown that a substantial portion of weather balloons eventually end up in the ocean. For instance, one Australian researcher collected over 2,460 pieces of weather balloon debris from the Great Barrier Reef, estimating that up to 300 balloons per week may be released into the marine environment. This environmental impact underscores the need for sustainable alternatives in weather data collection.
+Scientists and environmentalists have raised concerns about weather balloons' environmental impact. The latex material, which can persist in the ocean for extended periods, can harm marine life, including sea turtles, birds, and fish. Efforts to minimize the environmental impact of weather balloons include developing biodegradable materials and improved recovery methods. However, the continued reliance on weather balloons for meteorological data challenges balancing the need for accurate weather forecasts with environmental sustainability.
+
+== See also ==
+Atmospheric sounding
+Ceiling balloon
+High-altitude balloon
+SCR-658 radar
+Skyhook balloon
+Timeline of hydrogen technologies
+High-altitude platform
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Atmospheric Soundings for Canada and the United States – University of Wyoming
+Balloon Lift With Lighter Than Air Gases Archived 24 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine – University of Hawaii
+Examples of Launches of Instrumented Balloons in Storms Archived 21 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine – NSSL
+Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 3 – Rawinsonde and Pibal Observations
+Kites and Balloons – NOAA Photo Library
+NASA Balloon Program Office – Wallops Flight Facility, Virginia
+National Science Digital Library: Weather Balloons – Lesson plan for middle school
+Pilot Balloon Observation Theodolites – Martin Brenner, CSULB
+StratoCat – Historical recompilation project on the use of stratospheric balloons in scientific research, the military field, and aerospace activity
+WMO spreadsheet of all Upper Air stations around the world (revised location September 2008)
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Weathering hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:41.568680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Arline Geronimus wrote about the weathering hypothesis the early 1990s to account for health disparities of newborn babies and birth mothers due to decades and generations of racism and social, economic, and political oppression. It is well documented that people of color and other marginalized communities have worse health outcomes than white people. This is due to multiple stressors including prejudice, social alienation, institutional bias, political oppression, economic exclusion, and racial discrimination. The weathering hypothesis proposes that the cumulative burden of these stressors as individuals age is "weathering", and the increased weathering experienced by minority groups compared to others can account for differences in health outcomes. In recent years, social scientists investigated the biological plausibility of the weathering hypothesis in studies evaluating the physiological effects of social, environmental and political stressors among marginalized communities. The weathering hypothesis is more widely accepted as a framework for explaining health disparities on the basis of differential exposure to racially based stressors. Researchers have also identified patterns connecting weathering to biological phenomena associated with stress and aging, such as allostatic load, epigenetics, telomere shortening, and accelerated brain aging.
+
+== Origins ==
+The weathering hypothesis was initially formulated by Arline Geronimus to explain the dire maternal health and birth outcomes of African American women that she observed in correspondence with increased age. While working part-time at a school for pregnant teenagers in Trenton, New Jersey, Geronimus first noticed that the teens who came to the school tended to have far more health problems than her classmates at Princeton University. She thus began to wonder whether the health conditions of the teens at that clinic may have been caused by their environment. Subsequent research on the disparity in maternal health between African American and white women led Geronimus to propose the weathering hypothesis. She proposed that the accumulation of cultural, social and economic disadvantages may lead to earlier deterioration of health among African American women compared to their non-Hispanic, white counterparts. Geronimus specifically chose the term weathering as a metaphor for the effects she perceived that exposure to stress was having on the health of marginalized people. While the weathering hypothesis was initially proposed based on observations of patterns in maternal health, academics have expanded its application as a framework to examine other health disparities as well.
+
+=== Geronimus' research ===
+While conducting research in the Department of Public Health Policy and Administration as a graduate student at the University of Michigan in 1992, Geronimus noticed a trend in disparities between the fertility of African American women versus White women. She noted that, on average, White girls and women experience their highest fertility rates and lowest risk of pregnancy complications or neonatal mortality in their 20's and 30's, but African American women do not. Instead, African American girls and women, teenagers have higher fertility rates and healthy pregnancies. The data indicated a widening disparity in black-white infant mortality as maternal ages increase. Subsequently, Geronimus proposed the "weathering hypothesis", which she initially conceived as a potential explanation for the patterns of racial variation in infant mortality with increasing maternal age.
+
+== Health disparities ==
+In the context of the weathering hypothesis, individual health is dynamic and shaped over time by social, economic, and environmental influences. These social determinants dictate what different demographics are exposed to as they develop and age. Racism and discrimination are two specific social determinants that lay the foundation for systemic inequality in access and upward mobility. This entrenchment of social inequities disproportionately impacts minorities and communities of color, who remain in environments of poverty that have significantly more stressors than those of wealthier, predominantly white communities. These stressors—and the associated burden of coping with them—manifest as physiological responses that have detrimental effects on individual health, often leading to a disproportionately high occurrence of chronic illness and shorter life expectancy in minority communities. Multiethnic studies have yielded significant data demonstrating that weathering—accumulated health risk due to social, economic and environmental stressors—is a manifestation of social stratification that systemically influences disparities in health and mortality between dominant and minority communities.
+
+=== Maternal health ===
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+---
+title: "Weathering hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:41.568680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Maternal mortality is three to four times higher for Black mothers than white mothers in the United States. Infant mortality is also twice as high for infants born to non-Hispanic Black mothers compared to infants born to non-Hispanic white mothers. Additionally, there are racial disparities for negative birth outcomes like low birth weight, which has been found to influence risk of infant mortality and developmental outcomes after birth, and preterm birth. Across all women, older maternal age is associated with higher rates of these negative outcomes during pregnancy, but studies have consistently found that rates rise more rapidly for Black women than white women. The weathering hypothesis proposes that the accumulation of racial stress over Black women's lives contributes to this observed pattern of racial disparities in maternal health and birth outcomes that increase with maternal age. Research has consistently identified an association between preterm birth and low birth weight in Black women and maternal stress caused by experiences of racism, systemic bias, socioeconomic disadvantage, segregated neighborhoods, and high rates of violent crime. There is biological evidence of weathering, including the finding that Black women have shorter telomeres, a biological indicator of age, when compared with white women of the same chronological age. Though increased socioeconomic status serves as a protective factor against negative birth outcomes for non-Hispanic white mothers, disproportionate rates of preterm birth and low birth weight for non-Hispanic Black mothers have been found at every education and income level. The weathering hypothesis has also been used to explain this trend because upward socioeconomic mobility is associated with increased exposure to discrimination for women of color.
+There is modest evidence supporting the effects of weathering on mothers from other minority groups, including for high birth weight outcomes among American Indian/Alaska Native women. Research has started to explore whether the weathering hypothesis could also explain racial disparities in the outcomes of assisted reproductive technologies, but so far the findings are inconsistent.
+
+=== Mental health ===
+Research shows that mental health disparities among marginalized communities exist. Daily discrimination faced by marginalized groups have been found to be associated with increased depressive symptoms and feelings of loneliness. Low-income communities are more likely to have severe mental illnesses, which is frequently heightened by the inaccessibility to quality healthcare. Researchers found that persisting epigenetic changes lead to increased risk of postpartum depression as a result of adverse life events and cumulative life stress among Black, Latinx, and low-income women. In a study assessing African American men, experiences of racism were linked to a poorer mental health state.
+
+=== Cognition ===
+Black Americans often show mean level differences in cognition across multiple cognitive domains compared to non-Hispanic Whites. These cognitive disparities often are reduced or eliminated when factoring various social determinants of health such as stress, education quality, economic stability, or quality of healthcare. Black Americans also have higher rates of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias than non-Hispanic Whites. These higher rates of Alzheimer's disease might be due to the impact of more negative and pronounced social determinants of health, including racial discrimination, that might accelerate brain aging disproportionately in Black Americans.
+
+=== Intersectionality of systems of oppression ===
+Intersectionality is a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw to describe the interconnected nature of different systems of oppression, the layered effects of which can be seen in the healthcare system. Research indicates that lower class status and increased depressive symptoms are associated with higher levels of biological weathering among Black individuals in comparison to white individuals. In a study exploring disparities in mental health, researchers found that Black sexual minority women reported higher frequencies of discrimination and decreased levels of social and psychological well-being than their white sexual minority women counterparts. Black sexual minority women had decreased levels of social well-being and increased levels of depressive symptoms in comparison to Black sexual minority men. African American women are also more likely to contract COVID-19 than African American men and white women. The prevalence of medical racism and sexism (lack of quality healthcare, harmful experimentation, etc.) has led to negative relationships with healthcare systems and increased risk of negative sexual and reproductive health outcomes among African American women.  Existing research show how systems of oppression work together to oppress marginalized groups within the healthcare system and, as a result, these groups disproportionately experience negative health effects. Aging adults experience further intersections with health, health care, and structural inequalities that exacerbates health in marginalized groups.
+
+== Criticism and related theories ==
+Arline Geronimus faced significant pushback for the weathering hypothesis from the medical community, economists, and sociologists, whose research had attributed racial differences in health outcomes to differing genetics, cultures, and life choices. Additionally, there was criticism regarding the quality of her data. Others pushed back against the weathering hypothesis because its application to racial disparities in maternal health seemed to contradict what advocacy groups had been saying about the negative consequences of teen pregnancy on young mothers. A further criticism of this theory believes that Geronimus and others have not sufficiently demonstrated a link between weathering and racial and gender disparities in life expectancy.
+The weathering hypothesis was initially proposed as a sociological explanation for health disparities, but it is closely related to biological theories like the allostatic load model, which proposes that an individual's exposure to repeated or chronic stress over their lifetime has physiological consequences which can be measured through various biomarkers. Research has tended to discuss allostasis and allostatic load as the molecular mechanism behind the weathering hypothesis, and Geronimus herself went on to study racial differences in allostatic load. Another related theory is the life course approach, which emphasizes focus on cumulative life experiences rather than maternal risk factors as an explanation for birth outcome disparities. Researchers have also been interested in studying the possibility of children inheriting the epigenetic changes which result from their mother's cumulative life stress, which could relate the weathering hypothesis with transgenerational trauma.
+
+== See also ==
+Allostatic load
+Adverse childhood experiences
+African Americans § Health
+Gender disparities in health
+Health equity
+Healthcare and the LGBT community
+Inequality in disease
+John Henryism
+Minority stress
+Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome
+Race and health
+Race and health in the United States
+Robert Sapolsky Research on Stress
+Seasoning (slavery)
+Slave health on plantations in the United States
+Slavery hypertension hypothesis
+Whitehall Study
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_lab-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_lab-0.md
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+---
+title: "Wet lab"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_lab"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:11.971557+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A wet lab, or experimental lab, is a type of laboratory where it is necessary to handle various types of chemicals and potential "wet" hazards, so the room has to be carefully designed, constructed, and controlled to avoid spillage and contamination. 
+A dry lab might have large experimental equipment but minimal chemicals, or instruments for analyzing data produced elsewhere.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+
+A wet lab is a type of laboratory in which a wide range of experiments are performed, for example, characterizing of enzymes in biology, titration in chemistry, diffraction of light in physics, etc. - all of which may sometimes involve dealing with hazardous substances. Due to the nature of these experiments, the proper appropriate arrangement of safety equipment are of great importance. 
+The researchers (the occupants) are required to know basic laboratory techniques including safety procedures and techniques related to the experiments that they perform.
+
+
+== Laboratory design ==
+At the present, lab design tends to focus on increasing the interactions between researchers through the use of open plans, allowing the space and opportunity for researchers to exchange ideas, share equipment, and share storage space; increasing productivity and efficiency of experiments. This style of design has been proposed to support team-based work, though more compartmentalised or individual spaces are still important for some types of processes which require separate/isolated space such as electron microscopes, tissue cultures, work/workers that may be disturbed by noise levels, etc. 
+Flexibility of laboratory design should also be promoted, for example, the wall and ceiling should be removable in case of expansion or contraction, the pipes, tubes and fume hoods should also be removable for future expansion, reallocation and change of use. A well thought-through design will ensure that a lab can be adjusted for any future use. The sustainability of resources is also a concern, so the amount of resources and energy used in the lab should be reduced where possible to save the environment, but still yield the same products.
+As a laboratory consists of many areas such as wet lab, dry lab and office areas, wet labs should be separated from other spaces using controlling devices or dividers to prevent cross-contamination or spillage.
+Due to the nature of processes used in wet labs, the environmental conditions may need to be carefully considered and controlled using a cleanroom system.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Wet chemistry
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widefield_ASKAP_L-Band_Legacy_All-Sky_Blind_Survey-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widefield_ASKAP_L-Band_Legacy_All-Sky_Blind_Survey-0.md
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+---
+title: "Widefield ASKAP L-Band Legacy All-Sky Blind Survey"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widefield_ASKAP_L-Band_Legacy_All-Sky_Blind_Survey"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:13.153533+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Widefield ASKAP L-band Legacy All-sky Blind surveY (WALLABY) is a next-generation survey of the 21 cm radio emission from neutral hydrogen (HI) in the Local Universe. It is hosted by the Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) telescope, WALLABY will survey three-quarters of the sky over a Declination range −90° to +30°  to a redshift of 0.26. It will have an angular resolution of 30 arcsec and a sensitivity of 1.6 mJy/beam in each 4 km/s channel. WALLABY is expected to detect about 500,000 galaxies with a mean redshift of 0.05, at a mean distance of about  200 Mpc. The scientific goals of WALLABY include:
+
+a census of gas-rich galaxies in the vicinity of the Local Group;
+a study of the HI properties of galaxies, groups and clusters, including the influence of the environment on galaxy evolution;
+
+
+== History ==
+The WALLABY project was proposed in 2009 by a team led by B. S. Koribalski and L. Staveley-Smith. It was  ranked by ASKAP in the top two of ten Survey Science projects, with Koribalski and Staveley-Smith the principal investigators. Koribalski stepped down in 2019. Currently, Lister Staveley-Smith is the  Principal Investigator,  Karen Lee-Waddell is the project scientist, and Tobias Westmeier is the project manager.. The WALLABY team now has over 150 members.
+
+
+=== Early science results ===
+Several science results have been published from WALLABY Early Science observations. Highlights include three observations of groups of galaxies, and two detailed studies of nearby galaxies.
+
+
+== WALLABY pilot survey ==
+In preparation for the full WALLABY survey, expected to start in 2021, WALLABY conducted a pilot survey in 2020, consisting of three survey fields in the direction of Hydra, NGC 4636 and Norma.  All data have been fully observed, and the Hydra field has  been calibrated and imaged, leading to the first internal release of data for almost 150 HI detections in the direction of the Hydra cluster. WALLABY science teams are currently  analysing the Hydra data, and first science papers are expected in late 2020.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widom–Larsen_theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widom–Larsen_theory-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widom–Larsen_theory-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Widom–Larsen theory"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widom–Larsen_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:42.763603+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Widom–Larsen theory is a proposed explanation for supposed Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) developed in 2005 by Allan Widom and Lewis Larsen. In the paper describing the idea, they claim that ultra low momentum neutrons are produced in the cold fusion apparatuses during weak interactions when protons capture "heavy" electrons from metallic hydride surfaces. One source has held that it is "unlikely the electron energy threshold for neutron production can be reached in a metal lattice
+system without a substantial energy input".
+The idea was expanded by Yogendra Srivastava together with Widom and Larsen in 2014, who went on to propose that it could be an explanation for neutrons observed in exploding wire experiments, solar corona and flares, and neutron production in thunderstorms. However, unrealistic concentrations of free electrons are needed for the neutron yield to be a significant component of thunderstorm neutrons, discounting the explanation.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win–stay,_lose–switch-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win–stay,_lose–switch-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win–stay,_lose–switch-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Win–stay, lose–switch"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win–stay,_lose–switch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:48.259441+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In psychology, game theory, statistics, and machine learning, win–stay, lose–switch (also win–stay, lose–shift), or Pavlov, (named after Ivan Pavlov) is a heuristic learning strategy used to model learning in decision situations.  It was first invented as an improvement over randomization in bandit problems.  It was later applied to the prisoner's dilemma in order to model the evolution of altruism.
+In most versions, it starts either with a cooperate, then proceeds as always, or starts with a "probe" of cooperate-defect-cooperate to determine the other player's strategy. A mutual cooperation is regarded as a win.
+The learning rule bases its decision only on the outcome of the previous play.  Outcomes are divided into successes (wins) and failures (losses).  If the play on the previous round resulted in a success, then the agent plays the same strategy on the next round.  Alternatively, if the play resulted in a failure the agent switches to another action.
+A large-scale empirical study of players of the game rock, paper, scissors shows that a variation of this strategy is adopted by real-world players of the game, instead of the Nash equilibrium strategy of choosing entirely at random between the three options.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Bounded rationality
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiseman_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiseman_hypothesis-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiseman_hypothesis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+---
+title: "Wiseman hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiseman_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:43.966901+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Wiseman hypothesis, sometimes called the tablet theory, is a  theory of the authorship and composition of the Book of Genesis which suggests that Moses compiled Genesis from tablets handed down through Abraham and the other patriarchs. Originally advocated by P. J. Wiseman (1888–1948) in his New discoveries in Babylonia about Genesis (1936). The book was republished by Wiseman's son, Donald Wiseman, as Ancient records and the structure of Genesis: A case for literary unity in 1985. The hypothesis received some support from R. K. Harrison (1969) but otherwise remained without acceptance in scholarly circles.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== P. J. Wiseman ===
+Air Commodore P. J. Wiseman, a British officer who visited many active archaeological sites during his career in the Middle East, found that ancient narrative tablets usually ended in colophons which had a very specific format consisting of three parts: 1) "this has been the history/book/genealogy of..."; 2) the name of the person who wrote or owned the tablet; and 3) a date (such as "in the year of the great earthquake" or "the 3rd year of king so-and-so", etc.).  Wiseman noted that there are 11 phrases in Genesis which have the same colophon format, which have long been identified as the toledoth (Hebrew for "generations") passages; the Book is generally divided thematically along the lines of the toledoth. What Wiseman brought new to the table was the idea that these apparent colophons indicated that Genesis had originally been a collection of narrative clay tablets written in cuneiform, like the ancient tablets he had seen, which Moses had edited into a single document on parchment or papyrus.  This is in contrast with traditional views that Moses wrote Genesis entirely on his own without any outside sources and with the Documentary hypothesis that Genesis was compiled by much later and unknown redactors.
+Once a link had been made between the tolodoth in Genesis and the ancient colophons, another point became apparent.  Just as the colophons came at the end of the narratives, so too, the tolodoths may come at the end of narratives.  Thus the first of these toledoth passages, Genesis 2:4, refers to the preceding Creation account beginning in Genesis 1, rather than being the introduction to the succeeding account.  The traditional understanding has been that since nearly all the tolodoths are immediately followed by a list of descendants of the person named in the tolodoth, then the tolodoths were thought to be the beginning of sections in Genesis.
+In his Creation Revealed in Six Days, P. J. Wiseman argued that the days of creation represented the time period in which God took to reveal his work of creation, and that Genesis 1 "is an account of what 'God said' about the things 'God made'... it is His revelation to men about His creative acts in time past."
+
+=== R. K. Harrison ===
+R. K. Harrison in his Introduction to the Old Testament wrote approvingly of [Wiseman's] approach which "had the distinct advantage of relating the ancient Mesopotamian sources underlying Genesis to an authentic Mesopotamian life-situation, unlike the attempts of the Graf–Wellhausen school, and showed that the methods of writing and compilation employed in Genesis were in essential harmony with the processes current among the scribes of ancient Babylonia."
+Harrison noted that these examples had been discounted by scholars who follow Wellhausen and the Documentary hypothesis, since the central basis of the Documentary hypothesis is that the Pentateuch is mostly a work composed by unknown editors and authors who lived much later than the time of Moses. 
+
+=== Donald Wiseman ===
+Donald Wiseman noted in the foreword to the revised edition of his father's book that since it had first been written (1936) many more colophons have been discovered among Babylonian cuneiform texts which substantiated the use of this scribal device. Texts from Syria and Mesopotamia show continuity in tradition of scribal education and literary practices for more than two millennia, giving fixed and dated points.  He particularly valued the implication of this theory for the early use of writing.  Genesis 1-37 could be a transcript of the oldest written records.
+
+== Tablets in Genesis ==
+This is a breakdown of Genesis into 'tablets' delineated by colophons according to Wiseman's theory.
+
+== Reception ==
+Biblical scholar Victor Hamilton states that Wiseman's hypothesis was "the first concerted attempt to challenge the hypothesis" of introductory colophons. Hamilton does however identify several problems with what he terms the "Wiseman-Harrison approach". Firstly, "in five instances where the formula precedes a genealogy ..., it is difficult not to include the colophon with what follows." Secondly, the approach requires the "unlikely" explanation that "Ishmael was responsible for preserving the history of Abraham", Isaac for Ishmael's history, Esau for Jacob's and Jacob for Esau's. The third problem he identifies is that Genesis is narrative, not biographical, as that approach would suggest.
+Herbert M. Wolf describes the theory as "an attractive one", but suggests that it has "serious shortcomings". Firstly, he suggests that toledoth almost always fit more naturally with the verses that they precede than with the verses that precede them. Secondly he doubts if Moses would be able to read writing made before the Tower of Babel. Thirdly he also suggests that the pairings of preservers and preserved histories are "unlikely", given the "rivalry and jealousy" involved and the lack of contact between Esau and Jacob.
+The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament says that Wiseman's view is "unconvincing" and distinguishes between the Babylonian colophons and the toledoth of Genesis, in that the colophon is a repetition, not a description of contents, the owner named is the current owner, not the original, and the colophons do not use the Akkadian equivalent of the toledoth as part of their formula.
+
+== Books ==
+Wiseman, P. J. (1936). New Discoveries in Babylonia about Genesis. London: Marsh, Morgan and Scott.
+Wiseman, P.J. (1985). Wiseman, D.J. (ed.). Ancient Records and the Structure of Genesis: A Case for Literary Unity. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8407-7502-3.
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+---
+title: "Wiseman hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiseman_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:43.966901+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== See also ==
+Mosaic authorship
+Documentary hypothesis
+Lower criticism
+Biblical criticism
+Dating the Bible
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+== References ==
+Hamilton, Victor (1990). The Book of Genesis (New International Commentary on the Old Testament Series) 1-17. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-2521-4.
+Harrison, R.K. (1969). Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3107-1.
+Hunger, H. (1968). Babylonische und Assyrische Kolophone (Volume 2 of Alter Orient und Altes Testament). Verlag Butzon & Bercker.
+Leichty, E. (June 7, 1964). "The Colophon". In Biggs, Robert D.; Brinkman, J A (eds.). Studies Presented to A. Leo Oppenheim: 1964. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 147–54.
+Walvoord, John; Zuck, R.B; Baker, Walter L.; Blaising, C. A. (1985). Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament. Colorado Springs: Victor. ISBN 0-88207-813-5.
+Wiseman, P. J (1958). Creation Revealed in Six Days: The evidence of Scripture confirmed by Archaeology. London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott.
+Wolf, Herbert (2007). An Introduction to the Old Testament Pentateuch. Chicago: Moody Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8024-4156-0.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Harrison, R.K. (June 1994). "From Adam To Noah: A Reconsideration Of The Antediluvian Patriarchs' Ages" (PDF). Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society. 37 (2): 161–168.
+Hamilton, Donald L., Homiletical Handbook, p. 141, Broadman and Holmann Publishers, 1992.
+Taylor, Charles, Who Wrote Genesis? Are the Toledoth Colophons?, Journal of Creation, Aug 1994.
+Woudstra, Marten, The Toledot of the Book of Genesis and Their Redemptive-Historical Significance Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, Calvin Theological Seminary, 1980.
+Cohen, Irving H. (1966). The Authors of Genesis as Explained by the Colophon System. Scotia, NY: The Cumorah Book Co.
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The wood-pasture hypothesis (also known as the Vera hypothesis and the megaherbivore theory) is a scientific hypothesis positing that open and semi-open pastures and wood-pastures formed the predominant type of landscape in post-glacial temperate Europe, rather than the common belief of primeval forests. The hypothesis proposes that such a landscape would be formed and maintained by large wild herbivores. Although others, including landscape ecologist Oliver Rackham, had previously expressed similar ideas, it was the Dutch researcher Frans Vera, who, in his 2000 book Grazing Ecology and Forest History, first developed a comprehensive framework for such ideas and formulated them into a theory.
+Vera's proposals, although controversial, came at a time when the role grazers played in woodlands was increasingly being reconsidered, and are credited for ushering in a period of increased reassessment and interdisciplinary research in European conservation theory and practice. Although Vera largely focused his research on the European situation, his findings could also be applied to other temperate ecological regions worldwide, especially the broadleaved ones.
+Vera's ideas have met with both rejection and approval in the scientific community, and continue to lay an important foundation for the rewilding-movement. While his proposals for widespread semi-open savanna as the predominant landscape of temperate Europe in the early to mid-Holocene have at large been rejected, they do partially agree with the established wisdom about vegetation structure during previous interglacials. Moreover, modern research has shown that, under the current climate, free-roaming large grazers can indeed influence and even temporarily halt vegetation succession. Whether the Holocene prior to the rise of agriculture provides an adequate approximation to a state of "pristine nature" at all has also been questioned, since by that time anatomically modern humans had already been omnipresent in Europe for millennia, with in all likelihood profound effects on the environment.
+The severe loss of megafauna at the end of the Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene known as the Quaternary extinction event, which is frequently linked to human activities, did not leave Europe unscathed and brought about a profound change in the European large mammal assemblage and thus ecosystems as a whole, which probably also affected vegetation patterns. The assumption, however, that the pre-Neolithic represents pristine conditions is a prerequisite for both the "high forest theory" and the Vera hypothesis in their respective original forms. Whether or not the hypothesis is supported may thus further depend on whether or not the pre-Neolithic Holocene is accepted as a baseline for pristine nature, and thus also on whether the Quaternary extinction of megafauna is considered (primarily) natural or man-made.
+Vera's hypothesis has important repercussions for nature conservation especially, because it advocates for a reorientation of emphasis away from the protection of old-growth forest (as per the competing high forest theory) and towards the conservation of open and semi-open grasslands and wood pastures, through extensive grazing. This aspect in particular has attracted considerable attention, and has made Vera's hypothesis an important point of reference for conservation grazing and rewilding initiatives. The wood-pasture hypothesis also has points of contact with traditional agricultural practices in Europe, which may conserve biodiversity in a similar way to wild herbivore herds.
+
+== Names and definitions ==
+Frans Vera's hypothesis has many names, since Vera himself did not provide a distinguished name for it. Instead, he simply referred to it as the alternative hypothesis, alternative to the high-forest theory, which he called the null hypothesis. As a result, it has been called by many names over the years, including the wood-pasture hypothesis, the wooded pasture hypothesis, the Vera hypothesis, the temperate savanna hypothesis and the open woodland hypothesis. Especially in Continental Europe, it is commonly known as the megaherbivore hypothesis and literal translations of it.
+Vera limited the geographic area of his ideas to Western and Central Europe between 45°N and 58°N latitude and 5°W and 25°E longitude. This includes most of the British Isles and everything between France (except the Southern third) and Poland and Southern Scandinavia to the Alps. Furthermore, he confined it to altitudes below 700 m (2,300 ft). By extension, the North American East Coast is also addressed as an analogy with a comparable climate.
+
+== High-forest theory ==
+
+=== Heinrich Cotta: high-forest theory ===
+In his 1817 work Anweisungen zum Waldbau (Directions for Silviculture), Heinrich Cotta posited that if humans abandoned his native Germany, in the space of 100 years it would be "covered with wood". This assumption laid the foundation for what is now called the high-forest theory, which assumes that deciduous forests are the naturally predominant ecosystem type in the temperate, broad-leaved regions.
+
+=== Frederic Clements: linear succession ===
+
+Later, this position was accompanied by Clements' formulation of the theory of linear succession, meaning that under the right conditions bare ground would, over time, invariably become colonised by a succession of plant communities eventually leading to closed stands dominated by the tallest plant species. Because in most of the temperate hemisphere the potentially tallest plants are trees, the final product would therefore chiefly be forest. Albeit with changes in conceptualisation and some modifications, this concept remains the one favoured by most, and provides the conceptual framework for many forest-related methods and customs in forestry and conservation. This includes the Prozessschutz doctrine advocated by German forest-ecologist Knut Sturm, which highlights the importance of non-intervention and space of time for forest protection, as it is implemented in forest reserves such as Białowieża.
+
+=== Further refinements ===
+
+Clements' notion of stable climax communities was later challenged and refined by authorities such as Arthur Tansley, Alexander Watt and Robert Whittaker, who championed the inclusion of dynamic processes, like temporary collapse of canopy cover because of windthrow, fire or calamities, into Clements' framework. This, however, did not change anything about the status of the "high-forest theory" as the commonly accepted view; that without human intervention closed-canopy forest would dominate the global temperate regions as the potential natural vegetation. This is also the concept that was advocated by European plant experts like Heinz Ellenberg, Johannes Iversen and Franz Firbas.
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== The reconstruction of vegetation history ===
+
+Apart from theoretical considerations, this concept has relied and continues to rely heavily on both field observations and, more recently, on findings from pollen analysis, which allow inferences about the vegetation structure of past epochs. For example, vegetation trends can be reconstructed from the ratio of tree pollen to pollen associated with grassland. Pollen analysis is the most widely used means of generating historic vegetation data and the analysis of pollen data has provided a solid database from which a predominance of forest throughout the early stages of the Holocene of temperate Europe, especially the Atlantic, is generally inferred, although the possibility of regional differences remains open. On that basis, the history of vegetation in Europe is generally reconstructed as a history of forest.
+Pollen analysis, however, has been criticized for its inherent bias towards wind-pollinated plant species and, importantly, wind-pollinated trees, and has been shown to overestimate forest cover. To account for this bias, a corrective model (REVEALS) is used, whose application leads to results that differ substantially from those drawn from the traditional comparison of pollen percentages alone. Alternatively to or in combination with pollen, fossil indicator organisms – such as beetles and molluscs – can be used to reconstruct vegetation structure.
+
+=== Large herbivores and high-forest theory ===
+
+There is no general agreement on herbivores and their influence on succession in natural ecosystems in the temperate hemisphere. In the high-forest theory framework, wild herbivores are mostly considered as minor factors, derived from the assumption that the natural vegetation was forest. Therefore, wild herbivores were characterised by Tansley as followers of succession, not as actively influencing it, because otherwise Europe would not have been forested. From this assumption the principle was developed that the natural abundance of herbivores does not hinder forest succession, which means that herbivore numbers are necessarily considered too high once as they impede natural forest regeneration. For example, WWF Russia considers five to seven animals the optimal density of bison per 1000 ha (10 km2), because if the population exceeds 13 animals per 1000 ha, first signs of vegetation suppression are observed. Consequently, the bison population in Białowieża is controlled by culling. Similarly, it is widely believed that two to seven deer per 1 square kilometre (1,000,000 m2) is a sustainable number based on the assumption that if deer numbers exceed this bar, they start having a negative impact on woodland regeneration. Consequently, culling is commonly seen as necessary to reduce a perceived overabundance of deer to sustainable levels and mimic natural predation.
+Others, however, have criticised this view. In a 2023 publication, Brice B. Hanberry and Edward K. Faison argued that in the eastern United States, where white-tailed deer are commonly considered overabundant due to the extirpation of wolves and cougars, there are currently no more deer than there were historically when these predators were present. Furthermore, they found that even at densities that are perceived as too high, the influence of deer may be ecologically beneficial. The assumption that population control through hunting is necessary in order to mimic the effect of natural predators is also not entirely supported by scientific analyses of natural predator-prey dynamics. Instead, the control of herbivore numbers in nature probably depends on other factors. A perhaps more important influence predators may have on prey animals is the landscape of fear their presence can create, promoting landscape heterogeneity. However, in the presence of megafauna over 1,000 kilograms (0.98 long tons; 1.1 short tons), which are largely immune to predation, even this ability is limited. Overall, how ungulate populations are controlled in nature is controversial, and food availability is an important constraint, even in the presence of apex predators.
+In regions with relatively intact large-mammal assemblages in Africa and Asia, as well as in European rewilding areas where "naturalistic grazing" is practised, herbivore biomass exceeds the values commonly deemed appropriate for temperate forests many times over. Here, herbivore biomass reaches a maximum of 16,000 kilograms (16 long tons; 18 short tons) per 1 square kilometre (0.39 mi2), while the mammoth steppe with an estimated 10,500 kilograms (10.3 long tons; 11.6 short tons) per km2 falls within a similar range. The herbivore biomass of Britain during the Eemian interglacial has been estimated as more than 15,000 kilograms (15 long tons; 17 short tons) per km2, which is equivalent to more than 2.5 fallow deer per ha. Hence, the ecologist Christopher Sandom and others have suggested that the comparatively high forest cover of the pre-Neolithic European Holocene may be a consequence of megaherbivore extinctions during the Quaternary extinction event, as compared to the last interglacial in Europe with a pristine megafauna, the Eemian, the early stages of the Holocene appear to have been much more forested. According to the authors, this is unlikely to be the result of the latter's only slightly cooler climate as compared to the Eemian. However, this is also subject to debate.
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 11/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Grazed woodlands, wood-pastures and pastures in Europe harbour high biodiversity. Rare perennial plant species commonly or exclusively associated with these ecosystems in Europe include hellebores, peonies, asphodels, dittany, black false hellebore and bastard balm. The tree layer is often dominated by a number of oak species and many rare, local and threatened species such as Florentine wild apple, Lebanese wild apple, medlar, sorb tree, pears and wild plums are more often found in European silvopastoral systems than in commercial forest. Rare or declining bird species such as the European roller, hoopoe, several species of shrike, owls (scops owl, little owl) as well as wrynecks and middle spotted woodpeckers are attracted by wood-pastures in particular. In Iberia, the semi-natural oak-woodlands known as dehesa/montado are home to endemic species such as the Spanish imperial eagle and the Iberian lynx. Wood-pastures also provide important habitat for many species of invertebrates. Due to the abundance of large, old trees, wood-pastures are especially important for saproxylic beetles. This includes spectacular and rare species such as capricorn beetle, stag beetles (such as Lucanus cervus), variable chafer and click beetles. In the British Isles alone nearly 1800 species of invertebrates depend on decaying wood, including 700 species of beetles and about 730 species of flies.
+
+=== Traditional land use ===
+
+Many aspects of Vera's theory resonate well with traditional pastoral systems and agricultural practices across Europe and other parts of the world. This is especially true for regions where the pasturing of grazing animals has been carried out for hundreds and thousands of years. The old English saying "The thorn is the mother of the oak", referring to the recruitment of oaks inside thorny shrubs, attests to the knowledge about processes such as associational resistance as part of old traditional farming knowledge that was present in rural communities well before the theory itself was proposed in its current form. The phrase is commonly attributed to Humphry Repton, but was used by the writer Arthur Standish as early as 1613 and probably has origins even earlier. Following Vera's argumentation, wood-pastures and related farming systems as ancient land-use systems can also be viewed as essentially mimicking the primaeval European wilderness. This goes hand-in-hand with the fact that, for instance, 63 of the ecosystems listed in Annex I of the Habitats Directive of the European Union strictly depend on low-intensity use and maintenance work, mostly in the form of grazing and mowing. These habitats are labelled as high nature value farmland (HNV farmland), and the fact that traditional farming, in particular, can potentially harbour exceptional biodiversity values may in part be due to such mimicking effects that some forms of human use (such as grazing, pollarding, coppicing and hedgelaying) have in analogy to ecosystem services formerly exercised by the megafauna.
+
+=== Sergey Zimov's megaherbivore decline model ===
+
+While Vera's hypothesis focuses on temperate regions and especially temperate Europe, an argumentatively related model has more recently been proposed for high latitude regions of modern taiga and tundra biomes, where formerly mammoth steppe predominated. It essentially challenges the widespread view that the Pleistocene megafauna of the northern steppe vanished as a consequence of the warming climate at the advent of the Holocene and the consequent turnover of cold-adapted grassland and herb ecosystems into expanding forests and tundra dominated by mosses, lichens and dwarf trees. Instead, it argues that vice versa the declining megafauna was the precondition for the vegetational turnover, and that healthy megafauna populations could have maintained their preferred environment, the mammoth steppe, even under the stresses of the warming climate if human-induced extinctions had not occurred. Consequently, Sergey Zimov, one of the main supporters of this model, proposes that ecosystems functionally similar to the mammoth steppe of the Pleistocene could also function under modern circumstances, and seeks to prove this in the form of Pleistocene park. He and his son have since begun to reintroduce species that are now extinct in Yakutia, and to introduce species that are ecologically similar to those present in the region during the Pleistocene that have since become globally extinct. These include wild species like reindeer, muskox, bison and wisent, as well as hardy domestic breeds like Bactrian camels, Kalmyk cattle, domestic yaks and Orenburg goats. With these, the project hopes to revive the mammoth steppe, at least in fractions of its former expanse.
+
+== See also ==
+New Forest – An ancient common with a significant proportion of wood pasture
+Moccas Park
+Hatfield Forest
+Windsor Great Park
+Epping Forest
+Zuid-Kennemerland National Park
+Marcescence – possibly an adaptation to prevent browsing of twigs and buds in winter
+Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+Vera, F. W. M., ed. (2000). Grazing ecology and forest history. doi:10.1079/9780851994420.0000. ISBN 978-0-85199-442-0.
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+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 12/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bunzel-Drüke, Margret; Luick, Rainer (2024): "Master builders of biodiversity". Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung.
+Jepson, Paul and Blythe, Cain (2020). Rewilding: The Radical New Science of Ecological Recovery, Icon Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78578-627-3
+Hodder, K.H.; Bullock, J.M.; Buckland, P.C.; Kirby, K.J. (2005). Large Herbivores in the Wildwood and in modern naturalistic grazing systems (Report). English Nature.
+Kirby, K.J. (May 2004). "A model of a natural wooded landscape in Britain as influenced by large herbivore activity". Forestry. 77 (5): 405–420. doi:10.1093/forestry/77.5.405.
+Marris, Emma (2011). Rambunctious garden: saving nature in a post-wild world (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-60819-032-4. OCLC 639161286.
+Reif, Albert; Gärtner, Stefanie (December 2007). "Die natürliche Verjüngung der laubabwerfenden Eichen-arten Stieleiche (Quercus robur L.) und Traubeneiche (Quercus petraea Liebl.) – eine Literaturstudie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Waldweide" (PDF). Waldoekologie Online (in German).
+Rotherham, Ian D., ed. (2013). Trees, forested landscapes, and grazing animals: a European perspective on woodlands and grazed treescapes. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-62611-8. OCLC 829911159.
+Smith, David; Whitehouse, Nicki; Bunting, M. Jane; Chapman, Henry (March 2010). "Can we characterise 'openness' in the Holocene palaeoenvironmental record? Modern analogue studies of insect faunas and pollen spectra from Dunham Massey deer park and Epping Forest, England" (PDF). The Holocene. 20 (2): 215–229. Bibcode:2010Holoc..20..215S. doi:10.1177/0959683609350392.
+Tree, Isabella (2018). Wilding: returning nature to our farm. New York: MacMillan UK. ISBN 978-1-68137-371-3. OCLC 1080275081.
+Vera, Frans W.M. (2002-09-01). "The Dynamic European Forest". Arboricultural Journal. 26 (3): 179–211. Bibcode:2002ArbJ...26..179V. doi:10.1080/03071375.2002.9747335.
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 3/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Background: grazers and browsers ====
+The impact herbivores have on the landscape level depends on their way of feeding. Namely, browsers like roe deer, elk and the black rhino focus on woody vegetation, while the diet of grazers like horse, cattle and the white rhino is dominated by grasses and forbs. Intermediate feeders, like the wisent and the red deer, fall in between. Generally, grazers tend to be more social, less selective in their food choices and forage more intensively. Therefore, their impact on vegetation composition tends to be higher, as well as their ability to maintain open spaces.
+Since the extinction of the aurochs in 1627 and the wild horse around 1900, none of the remaining large wild herbivores in Europe is an obligate grazer. Similarly, domesticated descendants of aurochs and wild horse, cattle and horse, are now largely kept in stables, factory farms and close to settlements, making them effectively extinct in the landscape. What remains are browsers and mixed feeders – roe deer, red deer, elk, wild boar, wisent and beaver, often in low densities. Backbreeding-projects, such as the German Taurus project and the Dutch Tauros programme are addressing this issue by breeding domestic cattle that can be released into the landscape as hardy and sufficiently similar proxies to act as ecological replacements for the aurochs. Similarly, primitive horse breeds such as the Konik, Exmoor pony and the Sorraia are being used as proxies for the tarpan.
+
+== Frans Vera ==
+
+Vera argued that the dominating landscape-type of the early to mid-Holocene was not closed forest, but a semi-open, park-like one. This semi-open landscape, he proposed, was created and maintained by large herbivores. During the Holocene, these herbivores included aurochs, European bison, red deer and tarpan. Up to the Quaternary extinctions, many other megafaunal mammals like the straight-tusked elephant or Merck's rhinoceros existed in Europe as well, that probably kept the forests open during warm interglacial periods like the Eemian interglacial. Vera also postulated that lowland forest did not emerge on a large scale before the onset of the Neolithic period and subsequent local extinctions of herbivores, which in turn allowed forests to thrive more unhindered. Indeed, investigations point to at least locally open circumstances, for example in floodplains, on infertile soils, chalklands and in submediterranean and continental areas, but maintain that forest largely dominated.
+In his book Vera also discussed the decline of ancient oak-hickory-forest communities in Eastern North America. Many forests that stem from Pre-Columbian times (old-growth forests) feature light-demanding oaks and hickories prominently. However, these do not readily regenerate in modern forests; a phenomenon commonly referred to as oak regeneration failure. Instead, shade-tolerant species such as red maple and American beech dominate increasingly. While the cause is still poorly understood, a lack of natural fire is commonly presumed to play a role. Vera instead suggested that the grazing and browsing of wild herbivores, most importantly American bison, created the conditions oaks and hickories need for successful regeneration to happen, and explained the modern lack of regeneration of these species in forests with the mass-slaughter of bisons committed by European settlers.
+Paleoecological evidence drawn from fossil Coleoptera deposits has also shown that, albeit rare, beetle species associated with grasslands and other open landscapes were present throughout the Holocene of Western Europe, which points to open habitats being present, but restricted. However, paleoecological data from previous interglacials when the larger megafauna was still present indicate widespread warm temperate savannah. This could mean that elephants and rhinos were more effective creators of open landscapes than the herbivores left after the Quaternary extinction event. On the other hand, traditional animal husbandry may have mitigated the effects of possibly human-induced megafaunal die-off, allowing the survival of species of the open landscape previously created and maintained by megafauna.
+Frans Vera was not the first to question the high-forest paradigm. Botanist Francis Rose had expressed doubts already in the 1960s, knowing about British plant and lichen species and their light requirements. The relationship between large grazers and landscape openness, and the significance of the Quaternary extinctions of megafauna in this regard, had also been recognized prior to Vera. In 1992, for example, the archaeologist Wilhelm Schüle theorized that the genesis of closed forest in temperate Europe was the result of prehistoric man-made megafauna extinctions. Landscape ecologist Oliver Rackham, in a 1998 article entitled "Savanna in Europe", envisaged a kind of savanna as the original predominant landscape type of northwestern Europe. Vera, however, was the first to develop a comprehensive theorem to explain why forest did not dominate even in the Holocene, and to thus propose a real alternative to the high-forest theory.
+In some of its aspects, the wood-pasture hypothesis bears similarity to Gradmann's steppe theory which was proposed by Robert Gradmann but challenged and refuted by scholars such as Reinhold Tüxen and Karl Bertsch.
+
+=== Main arguments ===
+
+==== Oak and hazel ====
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+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 4/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Vera relies on several lines of argument based on experiments, ecology, evolutionary ecology, palynology, history and etymology. One of his main arguments is of an ecological nature; the widespread lack of successful regeneration of light-demanding tree species in modern forests. Especially the lack of regeneration of pedunculate oak, sessile oak (together hereafter addressed as "oak") and common hazel in Europe. He contrasts this reality with European pollen deposits from previous ages, where oak and hazel often form a dominant amount of pollen, making a dominance of these species in previous ages conceivable. Especially in regard to hazel, sufficient flowering is only achieved when enough sunlight is available, i.e. the plant grows outside of a closed canopy. He argues that the only explanation for the great abundance of oak and hazel pollen in previous ages is that the primeval landscape was open, and this contrast forms the principal theorem of his hypothesis. It has also been suggested that oak requires disturbances for successful establishment, disturbance large herbivores may provide.
+However, pollen records from islands that lacked many of the large grazers and browsers that, according to Vera, were essential for the maintenance of landscapes with an open character in temperate Europe show almost no differences in comparison to mainland Europe. More specifically, pollen records from Holocene Ireland, which during the early Holocene was apparently, owing to a lack of fossils, devoid of any big herbivores except for abundant wild boar and rare red deer, show almost equally high percentages of oak and hazel pollen. Thus it could be concluded that large herbivores were not a required factor for the degree of openness in a landscape, and that the abundance of pollen from species that are unable to reproduce and regenerate sufficiently under a closed canopy, such as hazel and oak, can only be explained by other factors like windthrow and natural fires.
+Vera's notion may be supported by observations over the course of 20 years forest regeneration in forest gaps created by windthrow, which showed that hornbeam and beech dominate the emerging stands and largely displace oaks on fertile, nutrient-rich soil. However, after the last Ice Age oak returned earlier to Central and Western Europe than beech or hornbeam, which may have contributed to its commonness, at least during the early Holocene. Still, other shade-tolerant tree species like lime and elm were equally fast returnees, and do not seem to have limited oak abundance.
+On the other hand, substantial natural oak-regeneration commonly takes place outside of forests in fringe and transitional habitats, suggesting that a focus on regeneration in forests in an attempt to explain oak regeneration failure may be insufficient in regard to the ecology of Central European oak species. Rather, an underestimated reason for widespread failure of oak regeneration may be found in the direct effects of land-use changes since the early modern period, which has led to a more simplistic, homogeneous landscape, as spontaneous regeneration of both oak and hazel does frequently occur in margins, thickets, and low-grazing-intensity or abandoned pasture/arable land. Overall, oak is an adept coloniser of open areas and especially of transitional zones between vegetation zones such as forest and open grassland. Looking for regeneration within forests may therefore be futile from the outset. There is, therefore, no general "failure" in oak regeneration, but only a failure of oak regeneration within closed forests. This, however, may be expectable and natural given oak's colonising nature.
+
+Furthermore, new species of oak mildew (Erysiphe alphitoides) observed on European oaks for the first time at the beginning of the 20th century have been cited as a possible reason for the modern lack of oak regeneration in forests, since they affect the shade tolerance, particularly of young pedunculate and sessile oaks. Although the origin of these new oak pathogens remains obscure, it seems to be an invasive species from the tropics, possibly conspecific with a pathogen found on mangos.
+
+==== Ecological anachronisms ====
+Vera prominently argued that since other light-demanding and often thorny woody species exist in Europe—species such as common hawthorn, midland hawthorn, blackthorn, Crataegus rhipidophylla, wild pear and crab apple—their ecology can only be explained under the influence of large herbivores, and that in the absence of these they represent an anachronism.
+
+==== Shortcomings of pollen analysis ====
+
+Vera further contested that pollen diagrams can adequately display past species occurrences since, inherently, pollen deposits tend to overrepresent species that are wind-pollinated and notoriously underrepresent species that are pollinated by insects. Furthermore, he proposed that an absence of grass pollen in pollen diagrams can be explained by high grazing pressure, which would prevent the grasses from flowering. Under such conditions, he claimed, open environments with only scattered mature trees may appear as closed forests in pollen deposits. He consequently proposed that the conspicuous scarcity of grass pollen in pollen deposits dating from the pre-Neolithic Holocene might not necessarily speak against the existence of open environments dominated by grasses. However, it is generally considered that over 60% tree pollen in pollen deposits indicates a closed forest canopy, which is true for the vast majority of European early to mid-Holocene deposits. Sites with less than 50% arboreal pollen, on the other hand, are consistently associated with human activities.
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+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 5/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Circular reasoning ====
+Vera stressed that the prevailing high-forest theory was born out of observations of spontaneous regeneration in the absence of grazing animals. He argued that the presupposition that these animals do not exert a significant influence on natural regeneration, and thus on the vegetation structure as a whole, has been made without comparative confirmation, and is therefore a circular argument. Indeed, modern forestry and forest theory arose largely in the modern era and went hand in hand with the ongoing inclosure of common land throughout Europe. A consequence thereof was in many cases a ban of livestock from the forests, which had previously largely been open woodland pastures, often dominated by oaks. These were multifunctional and used for a range of purposes, from pannage and livestock grazing to the harvest of tree hay, coppice, timber and oak galls for the manufacture of ink, as well as for the production of charcoal, crops and fruit. This former usage of forests is often still revealed by a big age gap between tree generations, particularly if the oldest trees are mainly oaks, and many Central European forest reserves originated as common wood-pastures.
+
+==== Shifted baselines ====
+
+In nature conservation, a shifted baseline is a baseline for conservation targets and desired population sizes that is based on non-pristine conditions. In this sense, the term was coined by marine biologist Daniel Pauly when he observed that some fisheries scientists used the population sizes of fish at the beginning of their own careers to assess a desired baseline, notwithstanding whether the fishing stocks they used as baselines had already been diminished by human exploitation. He noticed, that the estimations these scientists took for reference markedly differed from historical accounts. Consequently, he concluded that over generations the perception of what is considered to be normal would change, and so may what is considered a depleted population. Pauly called this the shifting baseline syndrome.In line with this, it may be argued that the prevalence of closed-canopy forest as the prevailing conservation narrative in Europe similarly arises from multiple shifted baselines:
+While it is plausible that lions (Panthera speleae, P. leo leo), leopards (Panthera pardus spelaea, P. pardus tulliana), hyenas (Hyaena hyaena prisca, Crocuta crocuta spelaea), dholes (Cuon alpinus europeus), wild ass (Equus hydruntinus, E. hemionus kulan) and moon bears (Ursus thibetanus mediterraneus, U. t. permjak), among other victims of European Quaternary and Holocene extinctions, would still be native to Europe, had they not been evicted by humans, none of these species are listed as such in the EU's Habitats Directive's annexes. Likewise, globally extinct megafauna such as straight-tusked elephants and rhinos would likely be native to Europe without human interference, and they would in all probability have a strong positive impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functions. It is therefore very likely that the megafauna extinctions of the late Pleistocene and early Holocene had profound implications for European and worldwide ecosystems, especially given the paramount importance comparable animals have for modern ecosystems.
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 6/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Vera pointed out that words like wold and forest used to have different connotations than they do today. While today, a forest is a dense and reasonably large tract of trees, the medieval Latin forestis, from which it derives, assigned open stands of trees, and was a wild and uncultivated land home also to aurochs and wild horses. According to historical sources, these forestis included hawthorn, blackthorn, wild cherry, wild apple and wild pear, as well as oaks, all of which are light-demanding species that cannot regenerate successfully in closed-canopy forest. From this Vera concluded that original wildwoods still existed in Europe during the Medieval period. Thus, when scholars of the 19th and 20th century assumed that grazing animals had destroyed the original European closed-canopy wildwoods, they were misinterpreting these terms. Instead, these forests, he found, had been destroyed following the industrial revolution and the population growth it caused, which in turn caused overexploitation. 
+He further argued that from this initial misinterpretation gave rise to another misinterpretation: that forest regeneration would naturally take place inside the forest. Thus, scholars of the 19th and 20th century such as Elias Landolt (forester) interpreted medieval grazing regulations to allow tree regeneration in coppiced mantle and fringe vegetation as intended to allow regeneration in a forest. In their time, solid firewood was preferred to the medieval coppice bundles, e.g. faggots. However, the production of solid firewood required the felling of trees at an age when they could no longer produce suckers, an ability that trees commonly lose with progressing age. This then led to a different management system: the replacement by saplings planted or naturally regenerated via, for example, shelterwood cuttings. Initially, these trees regenerated inside the forests were differentiated from wild growth outside the forests. In German, the former were referred to as natural regeneration (Naturverjüngung) while the latter had a different name: Holzwildwuchse. Thus, natural regeneration was not synonymous with the natural regeneration of trees in a natural situation. It was not until the 19th and 20th centuries that this distinction was abandoned in German. However, in the absence of thorny nurse bushes, which disappeared due to the shadow under the trees, the planted trees then had to be protected manually. The "natural regeneration" was therefore still depended on work like ploughing, removal of browsing pressure and the suppression of weeds, making it not "natural" in the conventional sense. Instead, according to Vera, the original meaning of the word "natural" in this context was that a seed fell from a tree and then grew by itself, as opposed to being planted. This shift in expectation of where regeneration of trees was to be expected, from thorny fringes of groves in wood-pastures to the interior of closed tree stands, then led to the notion that herbivores were detrimental to forest regeneration, and necessitated fenced-out areas, tree shelters and population control via hunting.
+Considered "alien" to the landscape, akin to invasive species, cattle and horses were now also removed from the forests, as it happened in former wood-pastures like Białowieża, because they were seen as harmful to the creation of a new old-growth forest. At the same time, the introduction of the potato made pannage, the fattening of pigs on acorns, obsolete, and grass species specifically bred for a high yield superseded the traditional pasturing, mostly of cattle, in wood-pastures. Together, these mechanisms created the spatial separation between livestock rearing and forestry, grassland and forest enshrined into modern law and practice.
+Finally, the biodiversity losses associated with the conversion of open grassland, mantle and fringe vegetation and open-grown trees into closed-canopy forests were legitimised by the assumption that the forest was the only natural ecosystem, and hence species losses were casualties of a natural cause.
+However, a strong argument that may put Vera's etymological evidence into perspective altogether is that the composition of medieval woodlands may not be relevant to their naturalness. Since by the medieval period agricultural traditions had already been ubiquitous in most of Europe for millennia, it may be unrealistic to assume that what people of the time perceived and labelled as wilderness may indeed have been one. Instead, it is doubtful that pristine conditions had survived in the Central- and Western European lowlands, Vera's area of study, at any rate up to this point.
+
+=== Succession in grazed ecosystems ===
+There are several ecological processes at work in herbivore grazing systems, namely associational resistance, shifting mosaics, cyclic succession, and gap dynamics. These processes would collectively transform the surrounding landscape, as per Vera's model.
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+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 7/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Associational resistance ====
+The term associational resistance describes facilitating relationships between plants that grow close to each other, against both biotic and abiotic stresses like browsing, drought, or salinity. In relation to grazed ecosystems, it can allow for the recruitment of trees and other palatable woody species, via thorny nurse bushes, in these environments. It has been proposed and demonstrated that associational resistance can be a key process in grazed environments, ensuring natural succession.In temperate Europe, succession on pastures commonly starts with so called "islets" ("Geilstellen"), patches of dung which are avoided by the herbivores for an amount of time after deposition, sufficient to allow the establishment of relatively unpalatable species such as rushes, nettles and hummocks of tall grasses like tussock grass. These swards, in turn, provide protection for thorny shrubs such as blackthorn, roses, hawthorn, juniper, bramble, holly and barberry during their early years, when they do not yet have protective thorns and are therefore vulnerable. Once the thorny saplings are fully established, they grow bigger over time and subsequently allow other, less resilient species to establish in their thorn protection, forming mantle and fringe vegetation together with species such as guelder rose, wild privet and dogwood. Other species such as mazzard, checker tree, rowan and whitebeam, which are distributed by fruit-eating birds through their faeces, would also frequently be placed within these shrubs, through resting birds leaving their droppings.
+On the other hand, nut-bearing species such as hazel, beech, chestnut, pedunculate and sessile oak would become "planted" somewhat deliberately in the vicinity of those shrubs by rodents such as red squirrel and wood mouse, the nuthatch and corvids such as crows, magpies, ravens and especially jays, which store them for winter supply. In Europe, the Eurasian jay represents the most important seed disperser of oak, burying acorns individually or in small groups. Eurasian jays not only bury acorns in depths favoured by oak saplings, but seemingly also prefer spots with sufficient light availability, i.e. open grassland and transitions between grassland and shrubland, seeking for vertical structures such as shrubs in the near surroundings. Since oak is relatively light-demanding while not having the ability to regenerate on its own under high browsing pressure, these habits of the jay presumably benefit oak, since they provide the conditions oak requires for optimal growth and health. On a similar note, the nuthatch seems to assume a prominent role for hazel dispersal.
+In addition, species such as wild pear, crab apple and whitty pear, which bear relatively large fruit, would find propagators in herbivores such as roe deer, red deer and cattle, or in omnivores such as the wild boar, red fox, the European badger and the raccoon, while wind-dispersed species such as maple, elm, lime or ash would land within these shrubs by chance.
+Thorny bushes play an important role in tree regeneration in the European lowlands, and evidence is emerging that similar processes can also ensure the survival of browsing-sensitive species like rowan in browsed boreal forests.
+
+==== Shifting mosaics and cyclic succession ====
+
+A natural pasture ecosystem would therefore undergo various stages of succession, starting with unpalatable perennial plants, which provide shelter for thorny woody plants. Second, these would start to form thickets and enable the establishment of larger, palatable shrubs and trees respectively. Over time these would then outshadow the unpalatable but light-demanding thickets and emerge as big solitary trees, in the case of single-standing shrubs like hawthorn, or groups of trees in the case of expanding blackthorn shrubs. Because of the herbivore disturbance (browsing, trampling, wallowing, dust bathing), not even shade-tolerant tree saplings would be able to grow under the established trees. Therefore, once the established trees would start to decay, either due to old age or other factors like pathogens, illness, lightning strike or windbreak, this would leave open, bare land behind, for grasses and unpalatable species to colonise, closing the cycle.
+On a large scale, different successional stages would thus contribute an ecosystem where open grassland, scrubland, emerging tree growth, groves of trees and solitary trees exist next to each other, and the alternation between these various successional stages would create dynamic shifting mosaics of vegetation. This in turn stimulates high biodiversity. Consequently, Vera's counter-proposal to the linear succession and Watt's gap-phase model of closed-canopy forest, to which it has been compared is a model of successional cycles known as the shifting mosaics model.
+In effect however, not all areas would have necessarily been subject to this permanent change. Since grazing animals generally prefer to spend time in grasslands rather than in closed stands of trees, it would practically be possible for three different landscape types to coexist over longer periods in the same spots: permanently open areas, permanently closed groves and areas subject to constant shifting mosaics.
+
+== The prehistoric baseline ==
+
+=== The Eemian landscape ===
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 8/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Although Vera himself limited his argument to the Holocene and the fauna present into historical times, research better supports his claims in regard to earlier interglacials. Modern humans have likely exerted a strong influence in Europe since their first appearance here during the Weichselian glaciation, which has led some researchers to criticize Vera's choice of the early to mid Holocene as his benchmark for pristine nature. Instead, they argue that pristine nature only existed in Europe before the entering of Homo sapiens. They argue that the best model for what a truly natural landscape during a warm period in Europe would look like is the Eemian interglacial, which was the last warm period before the current Holocene, approximately 130,000 to 115,000 years ago, and the last warm period before Homo sapiens. While archaic humans existed in the form of neanderthals, their influence was probably only localised, due to their low population density. During this warm period, paleoecological data indeed suggest that semi-open landscapes, as postulated by Vera, were widespread and common, most likely maintained by large herbivores. Next to these semi-open landscapes, however, the researchers also found evidence for closed-canopy forest. Overall, the Eemian landscape appears to have been very dynamic and probably consisted of varying degrees of openness, including open grasslands, wood pastures, light-open woodland and closed-canopy forest, with high local heterogeneity.
+
+=== The European megafauna ===
+
+The Eemian interglacial was one of many warm interglacials during the Quaternary, of which the Holocene (or Flandrian interglacial) is the most recent. These alternating glacial and interglacial periods, triggered by the Milankovitch cycles, in turn had a profound influence on life. In Middle to Late Pleistocene Europe, the result of this cycling was that two very different faunal and floral assemblages took turns in Central Europe. The warm-temperate Palaeoloxodon-faunal assemblage, consisting of the straight-tusked elephant, Merck's rhinoceros, the narrow-nosed rhinoceros, Hippopotamuses, European water buffalo, aurochs, and several species of deer, among others (including most of today's European fauna), had its core area in the Mediterranean. The warm-temperate assemblage periodically expanded from there into the rest of Europe during warm interglacials, and receded during glacial periods into refugia in the Mediterranean. Meanwhile, the cold-temperate faunal assemblage of the mammoth steppe, consisting of the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, saiga, muskox, steppe bison, arctic fox and lemming among others, was spread across vast areas of Northern Eurasia as well as North America, and during periodic cold glacials advanced deep into Europe. Other animals, such as horses, steppe lions, the scimitar cat, the Ice Age spotted hyena and wolves were part of both faunal assemblages. Both groups of animals spread and retreated cyclically, depending on whether the climate favoured one or the other, but essentially remained intact in refugia that continued to provide the conditions they preferred.
+
+=== The Quaternary extinction event ===
+
+Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum however, elements of the warm-temperate Palaeoloxodon-fauna (hippopotamus, straight-tusked elephant, the two Stephanorhinus species and neanderthals, for example) as well as the steppe species Elasmotherium sibricum started to disappear and eventually went extinct. At the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum, populations of Ice Age spotted hyena and the cave bear complex (Ursus spelaea, Ursus ingressus) seem to have collapsed large-scale, and became extinct next. After the Last Glacial Maximum and towards the Holocene, extinctions continued, with many emblematic "Ice Age species" of the mammoth steppe and adjacent habitats, such as the woolly rhinoceros, the steppe lion, the giant deer and the woolly mammoth falling victim, although small regional populations of woolly mammoth and steppe bison held out well into the Holocene, and the giant deer was present in the southern Ural region into historical times. These extinctions have been variously credited to human impact, climate change, or a combination of the two.
+
+These extinctions were not limited to Europe or the Palearctic, but rather occurred on all continents except for Antarctica, in temporal connection to the migration of Homo sapiens. Together, these extinctions are commonly known as the Quaternary extinction event. Whereas today megafaunal Proboscideans, Rhinocerotidae and Hippopotamidae that commonly attain weights of 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) exclusively exist in the global south, notably Sub-Saharan Africa and South and Southeast Asia, land mammals of comparable or greater size used to roam the northern hemisphere and South America until relatively recently. By 10,000 BC, the megafauna of the global north had alternately died out or been severely geographically restricted. Notable examples include various Proboscideans, Rhinocerotidae, ground sloths as well as all South American ungulates, glyptodontines and diprotodontids.
+In addition, many mammals above 45 kilograms (99 lb) that were spread across all continents except for Antarctica prior to the Quaternary extinction event have since declined across their range, or become locally or globally extinct, respectively. Modern taxa with a once wider distribution include the Eurasian saiga, wapiti-deer, the Asian black bear, bisons, the dhole, lions, the leopard, the jaguar, and the giant anteater. Research has also shown that the extant megafaunal species that survived the extinction event experienced a sharp population decline starting at the same time and continuing to the present day. While the exact cause of these events remains debated, it seems clear that ecological niches in Europe, the Middle East, big parts of Asia, and the Americas were left unoccupied.
+
+=== The impact of megafauna extinctions ===
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 9/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The effects of the global extinction of megafauna are likely to have been far-reaching and damaging to ecosystems, and continue to be. The late Quaternary extinction event is unprecedented in the Cenozoic (i.e. since the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs) in its selectivity for large animals. Accordingly, the modern European megafauna-extirpated ecosystems deviate strongly from the megafauna-rich evolutionary norm. Similar to how herds of herbivores like wildebeest, zebra, impala, buffalo, and elephants drive African savanna vegetation patterns, and not vice versa (i.e. the vegetation dictates the activities of these herbivores), it now seems likely that herbivore herds could have provided similar ecosystem functions in the temperate regions before the Quaternary extinctions.
+In Europe, where many species such as the straight-tusked elephant, two species of Stephanorhinus and the hippopotamus among many others were lost, this meant that their ecosystem functions – such as plant matter consumption and seed dispersal – were lost as well. Without the disturbance these animals provide, it is argued, forests could develop unhindered and landscapes became more uniform. As this is detrimental to species adapted to the presence of megafauna, some scholars advocate for the reintroduction of these animals where possible, or the introduction of modern proxy species to replace extinct species and their ecological impact, an advocacy known as Pleistocene rewilding.
+
+== Towards a resolution ==
+Vera's ideas have been called a "challenge to orthodox thinking" and his book has been widely acclaimed by colleagues. It is credited as the spark of much debate about the character of historic and prehistoric landscapes in Europe. However, testing using pollen data generally does not support Vera's claims for widespread semi-open savanna during early stages of the Holocene, but rather lends support to the competing and more widely accepted high-forest theory. Similarly, modelling approaches and the use of beetle diversity as an indicator for landscape openness also support the view of a predominance of forest throughout the early and middle Holocene in most of Europe. Consequently, the botanist John Birks has argued for the rejection of the wood-pasture hypothesis. He did, however, acknowledge that the role grazing animals played in forest composition is being reevaluated, and was formerly largely ignored by Quaternary paleoecologists.
+On the other hand, consensus is building that while forest did most likely dominate throughout the early stages of the Holocene, it was never as dense and overarching as previously assumed. Studies also indicate that forest cover varied considerably between regions, and was comparably high in Central Europe and lower in the Atlantic regions. Besides climate, topography must have also played a significant role. The aurochs at least seems to have favoured fertile, low-lying riverine areas and plains, which may have led to locally open conditions, while the hill and mountain ranges were more heavily forested. Overall, dense closed-canopy forest probably covered no more than 60% of most areas, with the remainder divided between open woodlands, savannas and open areas. This made the early to mid-Holocene Europe more forested than either today or during earlier interglacials, but not a continuous woodland.
+
+In a 2005 response to Vera, Kathy Hodder et al. highlighted the importance of disturbance factors other than herbivory, particularly fire, to prehistoric landscapes, pointing out that both the high-forest theory and Vera's model have largely ignored this possibility. This stands in connection to the discovery of fire-loving beetle species and charcoal deposits in the European pre-Neolithic Holocene. In the same paper, they also argued that the influence of large herbivores can be acknowledged without this necessarily implying that they created the open, park-like landscapes described by Vera.
+At the same time, research has shown that under the current climate free-roaming large grazers can indeed influence and even temporarily halt vegetation succession, as proposed by Vera. Vera's choice of the Mesolithic as his benchmark for pristine nature has also been criticized, because the role people played during this period is unclear. Anatomically modern humans have been present in Europe since 50-40 kya, and studies indicate that already in the early Holocene, human impact on the environment was second in importance only to climate, surpassing herbivore disturbance. However, the late-Pleistocene expansion of modern humans out of Africa is frequently cited as cause for the simultaneous global extinction of primarily large mammals. In a 2014 paper, rewilding ecologist Christopher Sandom et al. found that the depauperate megafauna that remained in Europe after these extinctions may be the reason for the reduced landscape openness. They reached this conclusion by comparing beetle deposits from the Holocene and Eemian of Britain as indicators for the degree of openness. These beetles, they found, indicated that during the Eemian interglacial, the last interglacial with a pristine megafauna, landscape openness was associated with high megafauna densities. In contrast, closed forest predominated in the early Holocene in the absence of megafauna. The importance of the impact of large herbivores on vegetation and the significance of megafauna extinctions in this regard has also been highlighted in other studies.
+
+== Implications and tangents ==
+
+=== Implications for conservation practice ===
+
+Vera's hypothesis has important implications for conservation theory and practice, because it puts emphasis on the importance of grasslands in temperate Europe and their legitimacy as natural landscapes with intrinsic conservation value. Under the high forest framework, these and related landscape types such as heathland were viewed as purely or mostly anthropogenic landscapes, naturally confined to areas marginal enough to prevent woodland formation. Instead it was believed that the broadleaved regions were dominated by climax communities of shade-tolerant species, interrupted only occasionally by collapses of forest cover and disturbances through fire, storm or browsing. Examples of this school of thought include Białowieża on the Polish-Belarusian border as well as the Hainich in Central Germany.
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+---
+title: "Wood-pasture hypothesis"
+chunk: 10/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pasture_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:45.187316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The logical consequence of this was that species associated with grasslands, forest fringes and old, open-grown trees disappeared on large scale, since many ecosystems in Europe, including highly species-rich grasslands in Romania, strictly depend on some management and are negatively impacted if the areas are left fallow and overgrown by forest vegetation. Similarly, the displacement of aspen in boreal forests seems to be accelerated more because of increasing competition in the increasingly closed stands than via browsing.
+
+In Europe, grasslands were maintained by large herbivores over the last 1,8 million years, resulting in an exceptional diversity of species in many European grasslands. For example, on a wooded meadow in Estonia, 76 species of plant per 1 square metre (11 sq ft) were counted in 2000, making it one of the world's record sites. Similarly high numbers were counted at other locations in Eastern Europe, making the region one of the hotspots for plant species richness on small scale worldwide. However, grasslands in Europe and elsewhere are increasingly under threat, including from forest encroachment following abandonment, ill-conceived forest restoration schemes, overgrazing and agricultural intensification. Especially the notion that most grasslands derive from human management and as such are essentially degraded former woodlands suitable for reforestation has been called into question more recently and is threatening native grassland ecosystems worldwide. For Europe, studies have demonstrated the local persistence of grasslands throughout the Holocene as natural ecosystems, the important role they play for insects, for example, and the potential for biodiversity enhancement that lies in their maintenance by reintroduced large herbivores. At the same time, up to 90% of European semi-natural grasslands, meaning grasslands that were formerly maintained by humans and their livestock, have disappeared during the 20th century, with losses especially high in Western, Northern and Central Europe.Given the significant importance oaks have as habitat for wood-eating insect communities in Europe, it has been pointed out that traditional forest management may not deliver all the benefits dead oak wood has for these species, since these often depend on surrounding circumstances such as sun-exposure. Instead, conservation of highly species-rich plant communities of open oak woodlands may best be achieved through traditional grazing management.
+In the traditional framework of closed-canopy forest as the aspired ideal, the losses of species dependent on open areas were seen as collateral damage necessary for the creation of this ideal and had to be accepted because species associated with open areas were seen as hemerophiles anyway, which would have followed human clearings into Central and Western Europe only in the Holocene and would have originally been restricted to Southern and Eastern Europe. Taking into account that this results in overall biodiversity loss, traditional agricultural landscapes were then in turn recognised as important refuges for species-groups associated with open landscapes, seen as either a by-product of post-Neolithic agricultural traditions or relics of Pleistocene assemblages that formed alongside the now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna for which introduced domestic animals were partial substitutes. In both cases, their continued survival would largely depend on the continued execution of traditional agricultural practices.
+Vera's hypothesis implies both that the model of primeval forest and the resulting rhetoric are the result of a major fallacy in nature conservation, paleoecology and forestry, and that the preservation of open and half-open landscapes and their germane biodiversity does not depend on agricultural practices, but rather on the maintenance by large herbivores, whether wild or domesticated.
+
+==== Rewilding and practical implementation ====
+
+The validity of Vera's hypothesis remains debated among ecologists and conservationists, but it is often considered a fruitful approach for conservation, and thus has been widely implemented in daily practice. The resulting rewilding-advocacy differs from more traditional conservation primarily in that it emphasises a hands-off approach. Instead of intervening to preserve or revive specific species or ecosystem types, the principle is to reduce human intervention to a minimum and instead reintroduce natural ecosystem dynamics, with emphasis being put on returning large mammals to the landscape.
+Examples of such projects include the Dutch conservation area Oostvaardersplassen, which was initiated by Vera, as well as the Knepp estate in Sussex. Isabella Tree, co-owner of the latter, has named Vera and his ideas as important reasons for her and her husband to consider rewilding their private estate with fallow deer, red deer, English Longhorn cattle (as ecological proxies for the extinct aurochs) and Tamworth pigs (as proxies for the wild boar).
+Furthermore, in the shape of Rewilding Europe, a pan-European organization that aims for creating wild spaces in Europe by re-establishing food chains and reintroducing missing species has identified Vera's proposals as key to complex, biodiverse ecosystems. Taking them into account, it works to establish free-moving herds of European bison, aurochs-proxies (e.g. Tauros-cattle), proxies for the wild tarpan (e.g. Konik, Exmoor pony) as well as water buffalo and kulan (which were present in Europe until the early Holocene) to create dynamic ecosystems maintained by the grazing and browsing activity of these herbivores.
+
+==== Ecology of wood-pastures ====
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_hypothesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_hypothesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "Working hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:46.409821+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further ongoing research in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately fails. Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to deductive, exploratory research in empirical investigation and is often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research. The term "working" indicates that the hypothesis is subject to change.
+
+== History ==
+Use of the phrase "working hypothesis" goes back to at least the 1850s.
+Charles Sanders Peirce came to hold that an explanatory hypothesis is not only justifiable as a tentative conclusion by its plausibility (by which he meant its naturalness and economy of explanation), but also justifiable as a starting point by the broader promise that the hypothesis holds for research. This idea of justifying a hypothesis as potentially fruitful (at the level of research method), not merely as plausible (at the level of logical conclusions), is essential for the idea of a working hypothesis, as later elaborated by Peirce's fellow pragmatist John Dewey.
+In 1890, and again in 1897, Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin wrote "The method of multiple working hypotheses", in which he advocated the importance of simultaneously evaluating several hypotheses, rejecting those that conflict with available data, and ending with the one hypothesis supported by the data. This stood in contrast to what he called the single ruling theory, which encouraged scientists to find supporting data and not challenge it with difficult tests. The paper is considered a landmark  on the scientific method, was an inspiration for the approach called strong inference, and was reprinted in 1965.
+Peirce held that, as a matter of research method, an explanatory hypothesis is judged and selected for research because it offers to economize and expedite the process of inquiry, by being testable and by further factors in the economy of hypotheses: low cost, intrinsic value (instinctive naturalness and reasoned likelihood), and relations (caution, breadth, and incomplexity) among hypotheses, inquiries, etc. (as in the game of Twenty Questions). The Century Dictionary Supplement definition of "working hypothesis" reflects that perspective; Peirce may or may not have written it. Peirce seldom used the phrase "working hypothesis," but he once commented about a related kind of a hypothesis that it was "a hypothesis, which like the working hypothesis of a scientific inquiry, we may not believe to be altogether true, but which is useful in enabling us to conceive of what takes place." For Peirce the pragmatist, conceiving pragmatically of something meant conceiving of its effects in their conceivable implications as to informed practice in general including research.
+John Dewey used the concept of the working hypothesis as a pivotal feature in his theory of inquiry. Contrary to the principles of verification and falsifiability, used in formal hypothesis testing found within dominant paradigms of 'normal' science, working hypotheses were conceived by Dewey as neither true nor false but "provisional, working means of advancing investigation," which lead to the discovery of other unforeseen but "relevant" facts. Dewey's development of the concept of the working hypothesis emerged from his contextualist epistemology in which absolute truth is unobtainable and replaced by "warranted assertability". Thus, Dewey noted:
+
+The history of science also shows that when hypotheses have been taken to be finally true and hence unquestionable, they have obstructed inquiry and kept science committed to doctrines that later turned out to be invalid.
+In Dewey's view, the working hypothesis is generated, not directly as a testable statement of, but instead in order to "direct inquiry into channels in which new material, factual and conceptual, is disclosed, material which is more relevant, more weighted and confirmed, more fruitful, than were the initial facts and conceptions which served as the point of departure".
+Abraham Kaplan later described the working hypothesis as "provisional or loosely formatted" theory or constructs.
+
+== Design ==
+
+Working hypotheses are constructed to facilitate inquiry; however, formal hypotheses can often be constructed based on the results of the inquiry, which in turn allows for the design of specific experiments whose data will either support or fail to support the formal hypotheses. In "Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis" Oppenheim and Putnam (1958) argued that unitary science, in which laws from one branch could be equally useful by others, could only be accepted tentatively without further empirical testing. Thus they argued:
+
+We therefore think the assumption that unitary science can be attained through cumulative micro-reduction recommends itself as a working hypothesis. That is, we believe that it is in accord with the standards of reasonable scientific judgment to tentatively accept this hypothesis and to work on the assumption that further progress can be made in this direction.
+In "The Working Hypothesis in Social Reform" George Herbert Mead (1899) takes a macro position and applies the notion of a working hypothesis to social reform.
+
+In the social world we must recognize the working hypothesis as the form into which all theories must be cast as completely as in the natural sciences. The highest criterion that we can present is that the hypothesis shall work in the complex of forces into which we introduce it" (p. 369).
+Mead (1899) also expresses the tentative or provisional nature of working hypotheses. 
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+---
+title: "Working hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:46.409821+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Given its success (the working hypothesis), he (the social scientist) may restate his world from this standpoint and get the basis for further investigation that again always takes the form of a problem. The solution of this problem is found over again in the possibility of fitting his hypothetical proposition into the whole within which it arises. And he must recognize that this statement is only a working hypothesis at the best, i.e., he knows that further investigation will show that the former statement of his world is only provisionally true, and must be false from the standpoint of a larger knowledge, as every partial truth is necessarily false over against the fuller knowledge which he will gain later (p. 370).
+For Putnam, the working hypothesis represents a practical starting point in the design of an empirical research exploration. A contrasting example of this conception of the working hypothesis is illustrated by the brain-in-a-vat thought experiment. This experiment involves confronting the global skeptic position that we, in fact, are all just brains in vats being stimulated by a mad scientist to believe that our reality is real. Putnam argued that this proposition, however, rests on a "magical theory of reference" in which the existential evidence necessary to validate it is assumed. Thus, the brain-in-a-vat proposition does not make for much of a hypothesis at all since there is no means to verify its truth. It does, however, provide a contrast for what a good working hypothesis would look like: one suited to culling potential existential evidence of the subject at hand.
+A more concrete example would be that of conjectures in mathematics – propositions which appear to be true but which are formally unproven. Very often, conjectures will be provisionally accepted as working hypotheses in order to investigate its consequences and formulate conditional proofs.
+Materials scientists Hosono et al. (1996) developed a working hypothesis about the nature of optically transparent and electrically conducting amorphous oxides. This exploratory study evaluated the hypothesis's effectiveness using confirming examples (p. 169).
+
+== Application ==
+In the field of public administration working hypotheses are used as a conceptual framework for exploratory, applied, empirical research. Research projects that use working hypotheses use a deductive reasoning or logic of inquiry. In other words, the problem and preliminary theory are developed ahead of time and tested using evidence. Working hypotheses (statements of expectation) are flexible and incorporate relational or non-relational statements. They are often used as ways to investigate a problem in a particular city or public agency. 
+These projects are a type of case study and use multiple methods of evidence collection. The working hypotheses are used as a device to direct evidence collection. As a result, working hypotheses are generally organized using sub-hypotheses, which specify in more detail the kinds of data or evidence needed to support the hypothesis.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Working, Null, and Alternative hypotheses
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_Once_Read_Forever-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_Once_Read_Forever-0.md
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+---
+title: "Write Once Read Forever"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_Once_Read_Forever"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:57:14.332179+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Write Once Read Forever (WORF) is a data storage method which allows users to write data once and allows storage of the users data without ever being refreshed. This differs from common digital storage techniques such as drives that need to be re-written often to prevent loss or corruption of data. WORF was tested on the International Space Station in 2019.
+
+
+== Method ==
+WORF uses a data storage mechanism based on silver halide, which after substantial testing has been determined to last for more than a century under conventional ambient environmental conditions. WORF digital data is stored as microscopic, metallic, interference-created standing waves (representing narrowband ‟colors” ) embedded in a modern, super-resolution, dye-free, photosensitive emulsion. Wavelengths encode multiple superimposed states allowing complex data permutations to be stored per data region. Permutations enable extremely high data density to be stored on WORF media. Multi-state data architecture within each domain also enhances data integrity, error-checking, and accelerates parallel writing and reading for the entire media module. Once data is written to WORF, energy is needed only for reading—no periodic refresh is necessary, and data is both immutable and truly permanent. Human readable text and images are embedded in the WORF module adjacent to the digital data. This text and imagery contain meta- information about the media's content, and instructions for decoding for future generations.
+
+
+== NASA experiment ==
+WORF payload was delivered and docked to the International Space Station (ISS) via SpaceX CRS-17 on May 9, 2019. NASA's ISS test will determine if WORF media can survive a hostile space environment during long-term space missions, such as Lunar, Mars missions, and beyond. The WORF media payload will stay on the ISS for up to one year. 
+Due to a previous NASA mission already named WORF, NASA renamed the experiment HELIOS (Hardened Extremely Long Life Information Optical Storage). The HELIOS mission returned to Earth and was deemed a success with the stored data showing no significant decay after six months of space conditions and solar radiation. WORF technology for the HELIOS experiment uses a proven archival media, redesigned, re-purposed and patented by CTech to store digital data for long periods, measured in decades and possibly centuries.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+WORF @ Creative Technology
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamatai_Honshu_Theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamatai_Honshu_Theory-0.md
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+---
+title: "Yamatai Honshu Theory"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamatai_Honshu_Theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:47.586257+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Yamatai Honshu Theory is the theory that the Yamatai-koku was located in Honshu, specifically Kinai (now Kinki region), where the capital was located in the Kofun period rather than in Kyushu as the Yamatai Kyushu Theory proposes.
+According to this theory, the Yamatai-koku was essentially continuous with the Yamato Kingship, with its capital in roughly the same region, and the Yamatai-koku transformed into the Yamato Kingship when the Kofun period began.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+
+In the Edo period, Arai Hakuseki advocated the theory in which he insisted Yamatai-koku was located in the Yamato Province (大和国, Nara prefecture, Honshu). Later, he advocated the different theory, in which he insisted Yamatai-koku was located in the Yamato county (山門郡, Yamato-gun) in the Chikugo Province (Fukuoka prefecture, Kyushu) in his book Foreign Affairs Chronicle.
+Since then, from the Edo period to the present, the mainstream of the academic world has been largely divided between the "Yamatai Honshu (Kinai) Theory (邪馬台国畿内説)", which has been insisted and supported by Naito Konan et al. and the "Yamatai Kyushu Theory (邪馬台国九州説)", which has been insisted and supported by Shiratori Kurakichi et al.
+The Kyushu theory, however, is divided into two distinct theories: one that says the Yamataikoku "moved" (the "eastward shift" theory) and one that says it "did not move at all. The "eastward shift" theory holds that the Yamataikoku moved to the Kinai region and became the Yamato Kingdom.
+Masao Kume proposes the Two dynasties parallel theory (二王朝並立論) and states that the Queen Country (女王国) of  More than 2,000 miles from the county to the Kingdom of Women (自郡至女王国萬二千餘里) is different from the Yamatai Kingdom (邪馬台国)  of  Thirty days by sea (海路三十日) （ 20 days of water travel from South to Touma (南至投馬国水行二十日) and Ten days of water travel from the south to the land of Yamatai (南至邪馬台国水行十日) and the female kingdom in Tsukushi is in Kinai through the "Civil War of Wa (倭国大乱)". It is assumed that the new royal capital, which was the capital of Japan, is Yamatai.
+In the 1960s, it was thought that artifacts from the period of the Yamataikoku were abundant in Kyushu while those from the Kinai region were scarce in the Kinai region. The National Institute for Radiocarbon Dating and Dendrochronology has presented a chronology based on radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology that compares the tombs of Himiko and the Yamato imperial court to those of Yamatai and Himiko, and that the establishment of the Yamato Imperial Court dates back to that time. Some have suggested that radiocarbon dating of pottery from the Kinai region by the National Institute of Japanese Archaeology and Dating suggests that the establishment of the early state in the Yamato region of the Kinai region dates back to the same period as the Yamataikoku.。. According to this Kinai theory, there was at least one power in 3rd century Japan that was able to secure transportation routes from Yamato to the continent, and it can be said that a power with great influence over the entire western Japan centering on Yamato, namely the "Yamato Kingdom," was already established at this time.
+
+
+== Makimuku ruins ==
+The Makimuku ruins site is considered by some researchers to be the best candidate for the center of the Yamatai, and may be the site that proves the Yamatai Honshu Theory. In 2011, a part of another large building was found about 5 meters to the east of the large building ruins, and the building ruins may have been built in the late 3rd century or later.。
+
+
+== Hashihaka Kofun ==
+
+The Hashihaka kofun ( 箸墓古墳 （ はしはかこふん）) is a megalithic tomb (kofun) located in Sakurai City, Nara Prefecture, Japan. The Hashihaka kofun is considered to be the first large keyhole-shaped kofun constructed in Japan and is associated with the emergence of the Yamato Kingship. It is sometimes considered the birthplace of the Kofun system of tombs which is highly linked to the emergence of a state level society.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Yamatai
+Wajinden
+Makimuku ruins
+Hashihaka Kofun
+Yamatai Kyushu Theory
+
+
+== Annotations ==
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Yamatai Kyushu Theory"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamatai_Kyushu_Theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:48.743589+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Yamatai Kyushu Theory is the theory that the Yamatai kingdom was located in Kyushu rather than in Honshu as the Yamatai Honshu Theory proposes.
+The theory proposes that the original capital of Japan was located in Kyushu, and when the Kofun period began, the Yamato Kingship moved the capital east to the Kinai region, first in the Yamato Province (Nara prefecture), then Kyoto in the Yamashiro Province (Kyoto Prefecture).
+
+
+== Overview ==
+
+In the Edo period, Arai Hakuseki adovocated the "Kinai Yamataikoku theory" which says Yamatai-koku was located in 大和 (Yamato Province, ie. Nara prefecture) in the Kinai, Honshu. Later, Arai advocated a different theory, the "Kyūshū Yamataikoku theory" which says Yamatai-koku was located in "Yamato county (山門-郡, Yamato-gun)" in Chikugo Province (Fukuoka prefecture, Northern Kyushu) in his "Foreign Affairs Record".
+Since then, the mainstream of academic circles has been divided into two major theories:
+
+the "Honshu theory" (by Naitō Torajirō et al.) holds that Yamatai-koku was located in Honshu.
+the "Kyushu theory" (by Shiratori Kurakichi et al.) holds that Yamatai-koku was located in Kyushu.
+The Kyūshū theory has itself been divided into two schools. One school insists the "Kyushu Yamatai-koku" moved to the East and became the Imperial House of Japan. The other school insists the "Kyushu Yamatai-koku" did not move, and was conquered by the influences of the Yamato (located in Kinai).  
+
+
+== Basic rationale ==
+The basic arguments for the Kyushu theory of the Yamatai Kingdom include the following.
+
+
+=== Basis ===
+The Wajinden in the Book of Wei describes the route and distance from the Wei to Yamatai-koku. The route started from the Taihō-gun (Daifang). It went along the Southern coast of the Korean peninsula, through the Kan-koku (Mohan), then reached to the Kuya-kan-koku (Kuya-han). The route crossed the sea, and reached to the land of Kyushu (Wa), where there were 30 countries and the Queen's country (Yamataikoku).
+Considering the distance from Taihō-gun (Daifang) to the Queen's country (Yamatai-koku) as an itinerary rather than a straight line, out of the 12,000 li, it took 10,500 li to get to Ito-koku, which is located in Fukuoka Prefecture, and the remaining 1,500 li (three times the distance of 500 li from Matsuro-koku to Ito-koku, which is located in Karatsu City, Saga Prefecture), is not enough to locate the Yamatai Kingdom beyond Kyushu.
+Identifying Kuna-koku (Kununokuni), which was in conflict with the Yamatai-koku, to the power of Kumamoto (Kuma), the official of Kuna-koku, "Kukochi-hiko" is a transliteration of "Kikuchi-hiko.
+There is a theory that the Hashihaka grave mound, which is said to be the oldest stylized forward and backward circular mound in Nara Prefecture Sakurai City, was built in the latter half of the 3rd century and is considered to be Himiko's burial mound. However, after the death of Himiko, a male king ascended to the throne, but it is recorded that the country was in turmoil again, and it is almost impossible to build a burial mound with the largest mound at that time when the country was in turmoil. In addition, there are no traces of martyrdom in the area surrounding the tomb. Also, the tombs of neighboring places such as the Korean Peninsula at that time were all around 30 meters on each side, and it is unreasonable to assume that Japan was the only country to build a huge tomb (Chopsticks Tomb). In addition, the Museum, Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture, which conducted the Archaeological excavation of the Hokenoyama burial mound, which is said to predate the Chopsticks Tomb in terms of age. Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture, who conducted Excavation of the Hokenoyama burial mound in 2008, concluded that the burial mound was built in the middle of the 3rd century based on the excavated artifacts. Because the range of Radiocarbon dating results of burial chamber wood is reported to include the first half of the 4th century, some have questioned the dating of the middle of the 3rd century.
+
+
+== Advocates ==
+Advocates of the Kyushu theory of the Yamataikoku include Arai Hakuseki, Shiratori Kurakichi, Dairoku Harada, Taku Tanaka, Takehiko Furuta, Kenzaburo Torigoe, Toshiaki Wakai, Biten Yasumoto, Toshio Hoga and others. In addition, it is said that research based on domestic materials such as "Kiki" tends not to be taken into consideration, despite the indications of Taro Sakamoto's "The Birth of the Nation" and Hidesaburo Hara, and Toshiaki Wakai said about this tendency before the war. He criticizes the repressed theory of Sokichi Tsuda as being caused by being touted even after the war.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Wajinden
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Zero-sum thinking"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_thinking"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:49.475318+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Zero-sum thinking perceives situations as zero-sum games, where one person's gain would be another's loss. The term is derived from game theory. However, unlike the game theory concept, zero-sum thinking refers to a psychological construct—a person's subjective interpretation of a situation. Zero-sum thinking is captured by the saying "your gain is my loss" (or conversely, "your loss is my gain"). Rozycka-Tran et al. (2015) defined zero-sum thinking as:
+
+A general belief system about the antagonistic nature of social relations, shared by people in a society or culture and based on the implicit assumption that a finite amount of goods exists in the world, in which one person's winning makes others the losers, and vice versa ... a relatively permanent and general conviction that social relations are like a zero-sum game. People who share this conviction believe that success, especially economic success, is possible only at the expense of other people's failures.
+Zero-sum bias is a cognitive bias towards zero-sum thinking; it is people's tendency to intuitively judge that a situation is zero-sum, even when this is not the case. This bias promotes zero-sum fallacies — false beliefs that situations are zero-sum. Such fallacies can cause other false judgements and poor decisions. In economics, "zero-sum fallacy" generally refers to the fixed-pie fallacy.
+
+== Examples ==
+There are many examples of zero-sum thinking, some of them fallacious.
+
+When jurors assume that any evidence compatible with more than one theory offers no support for any theory, even if the evidence is incompatible with some possibilities or the theories are not mutually exclusive.
+When students in a classroom think they are being graded on a curve when in fact they are being graded based on predetermined standards.
+In a negotiation when one negotiator thinks that they can only gain at the expense of the other party (i.e., that mutual gain is not possible).
+In the context of social group competition, the belief that more resources for one group (e.g., immigrants) means less for others (e.g., non-immigrants).
+Jack of all trades, master of none: the idea that having more skills means having less aptitude (also known as compensatory reasoning).
+In copyright infringement debate, the idea that every unauthorized duplication is a lost sale.
+When politicians argue that international trade must mean that one party is "winning" and another is "losing" when transfer of goods and services at mutually-agreeable prices is in general mutually beneficial, or that a trade deficit represents "losing" money to another country.
+Group membership is sometimes treated as zero-sum, such that stronger membership in one group is seen as weaker membership in another.
+
+== Causes ==
+There is no evidence which suggests that zero-sum thinking is an enduring feature of human psychology. Game-theoretic situations rarely apply to instances of individual behaviour. This is demonstrated by the ordinary response to the prisoner's dilemma. 
+Zero-sum thinking is the result of both proximate and ultimate causes.
+
+=== Ultimate causes ===
+In terms of ultimate causation, zero-sum thinking might be a legacy of human evolution. Specifically, it might be understood to be a psychological adaptation that facilitated successful resource competition in the environment of ancestral humans where resources like mates, status, and food were perpetually scarce. For example, Rubin suggests that the pace of technological growth was so slow during the period in which modern humans evolved that no individual would have observed any growth during their lifetime: "Each person would live and die in a world of constant technology and income. Thus, there was no incentive to evolve a mechanism for understanding or planning for growth" (p. 162). Rubin also points to instances where the understanding of laypeople and economists about economic situations diverge, such as the lump-of-labor fallacy. From this perspective, zero-sum thinking might be understood as the default way that humans think about resource allocations, which must be unlearned by, for example, an education in basic economics.
+
+=== Proximate causes ===
+Zero-sum thinking can also be understood in terms of proximate causation, which refers to the developmental history of individuals within their own lifetime. The proximate causes of zero-sum thinking include the experiences that individuals have with resource allocations, as well as their beliefs about specific situations, or their beliefs about the world in general.
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+---
+title: "Zero-sum thinking"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_thinking"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:58:49.475318+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Resource-scarce environments ====
+One of the proximate causes of zero-sum thinking is the experiences that individuals have with scarce resources or zero-sum interactions in their developmental environment. In 1965, George M. Foster argued that members of "peasant" societies have an "Image of Limited Good," which he argued was learned through by experiences in a society that was essentially zero-sum."The model of cognitive orientation that seems to me best to account for peasant behavior is the "Image of Limited Good." By "Image of Limited Good" I mean that broad areas of peasant behavior are patterned in such fashion as to suggest that peasants view their social, economic, and natural universes—their total environment—as one in which all of the desired things in life such as land, wealth, health, friendship and love, manliness and honor, respect and status, power and influence, security and safety, exist in finite quantity and are always in short supply, as far as the peasant is concerned. Not only do these and all other "good things" exist in finite and limited quantities, but in addition there is no way directly within peasant power to increase the available quantities ... When the peasant views his economic world as one in which Limited Good prevails, and he can progress only at the expense of another, he is usually very near the truth." (pps. 67-68)More recently, Rozycka-Tran et al. (2015) conducted a cross-cultural study that compared the responses of individuals in 37 nations to a scale of zero-sum beliefs. This scale asked individuals to report their agreement with statements that measured zero-sum thinking. For example, one item on the scale stated that "Successes of some people are usually failures of others". Rozycka-Tran et al. found that individuals in countries with lower Gross Domestic Product showed stronger zero-sum beliefs on average, suggesting that "the belief in zero-sum game seems to arise in countries with lower income, where resources are scarce" (p. 539). Similarly, Rozycka-Tran et al. found that individuals with lower socioeconomic status displayed stronger zero-sum beliefs.
+
+==== Resource scarcity beliefs ====
+Related to experiences with resource-scarce environments is the belief that a resource is scarce or finite. For example, the lump of labour fallacy refers to the belief that in the economy there is a fixed amount of work to be done, and thus the allocation of jobs is zero-sum. Although the belief that a resource is scarce might develop through experiences with resource scarcity, this is not necessarily the case. For example, individuals might come to believe that wealth is finite because it is a claim that has been repeated by politicians or journalists.
+
+==== Resource entitlement beliefs ====
+Another proximate cause of zero-sum thinking is the belief that one (or one's group) is entitled to a certain share of a resource. An extreme case is the belief that one is entitled to all of a resource that exists, implying that any gains by another is one's own loss. Less extreme is the belief that one (or one's group) is superior and therefore entitled to more than others. For example, perceptions of zero-sum group competition have been associated with the Dominance sub-scale of the social dominance orientation personality trait, which itself has been characterized as a zero-sum worldview ("a view of human existence as zero-sum," p. 999). Individuals who practice monogamy have also been found to think about love in consensually nonmonogamous relationships as zero-sum, and it was suggested that this might be because they believe that individuals in romantic relationships have an entitlement to their partner's love.
+
+== Effects ==
+When individuals think that a situation is zero-sum, they will be more likely to act competitively (or less cooperatively) towards others, because they will see others as a competitive threat. For example, when students think that they are being graded on a curve—a grading scheme that makes the allocation of grades zero-sum—they will be less likely to provide assistance to a peer who is proximate in status to themselves, because that peer's gain could be their own loss. 
+When individuals perceive that there is a zero-sum competition in society for resources like jobs, they will be less likely to hold pro-immigration attitudes (because immigrants would deplete the resource). Zero-sum thinking may also lead to certain social prejudices. When individuals hold zero-sum beliefs about love in romantic relationships, they are more prejudiced against consensual nonmonogamists (presumably because the perception of zero-sumness makes consensual nonmonogamy seem inadequate or unfair).
+
+== See also ==
+The Limits to Growth
+Game theory
+List of cognitive biases
+Lump of labour fallacy
+Negotiation
+Scarcity
+Zero-sum game
+Limited good
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Zoo hypothesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:49.963140+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The zoo hypothesis speculates on the assumed behavior and existence of technologically advanced extraterrestrial life and the reasons they refrain from contacting Earth. It is one of many theoretical explanations for the Fermi paradox. The hypothesis states that extraterrestrial life intentionally avoids communication with Earth to allow for natural evolution and sociocultural development, and avoiding interplanetary contamination, similar to people observing animals at a zoo. The hypothesis seeks to explain the apparent absence of extraterrestrial life despite its generally accepted plausibility and hence the reasonable expectation of its existence.
+Extraterrestrial life forms might, for example, choose to allow contact once the human species has passed certain technological, political, and/or ethical standards. Alternatively, they may withhold contact until humans force contact upon them, possibly by sending a spacecraft to an extraterrestrial-inhabited planet. In this regard, reluctance to initiate contact could reflect a sensible desire to minimize risk. An extraterrestrial society with advanced remote-sensing technologies may conclude that direct contact with neighbors confers added risks to itself without an added benefit. A variant on the zoo hypothesis suggested by former MIT Haystack Observatory scientist John Allen Ball is the "laboratory" hypothesis, in which humanity is being subjected to experiments, with Earth serving as a giant laboratory. Ball describes this hypothesis as "morbid" and "grotesque", simultaneously overlooking the possibility that such experiments may be altruistic, i.e., designed to accelerate the pace of civilization to overcome a tendency for intelligent life to destroy itself, until a species is sufficiently developed to establish contact.
+
+== Assumptions ==
+The zoo hypothesis assumes, first, that whenever the conditions are such that life can exist and evolve, it will, and secondly, there are many places where life can exist and a large number of extraterrestrial cultures in existence. It also assumes that these extraterrestrials have great reverence for independent, natural evolution and development. In particular, assuming that intelligence is a physical process that acts to maximize the diversity of a system's accessible futures, a fundamental motivation for the zoo hypothesis would be that premature contact would "unintelligently" reduce the overall diversity of paths the universe itself could take.
+These ideas are perhaps most plausible if there is a relatively universal cultural or legal policy among a plurality of extraterrestrial civilizations necessitating isolation with respect to civilizations at Earth-like stages of development. In a universe without a hegemonic power, random single civilizations with independent principles would make contact. This makes a crowded universe with clearly defined rules seem more plausible.
+If there is a plurality of extraterrestrial cultures, however, this theory may break down under the uniformity of motive concept because it would take just a single extraterrestrial civilization, or simply a small group within any given civilisation, to decide to act contrary to the imperative within human range of detection for it to be undone, and the probability of such a violation of hegemony increases with the number of civilizations. This idea, however, becomes more plausible if all civilizations tend to evolve similar cultural standards and values with regard to contact much like convergent evolution on Earth has independently evolved eyes on numerous occasions, or all civilizations follow the lead of some particularly distinguished civilization, such as the first civilization among them.
+In this hypothesis, the problem of universal ethical homogeneity is solved because the acquisition of a persistent advanced level of civilization requires overcoming many problems, such as self-destruction, war, overpopulation, pollution, and scarcity. Managing to solve these problems could guide a civilization to adopt a responsible and wise behavior, otherwise they would disappear (involving other solutions to the Fermi paradox). In the zoo hypothesis, no contact would be possible until humanity had acquired a certain level of civilization and maturity (responsibility and wisdom), otherwise it would become a potential threat.
+One estimate for when humanity might be able to test the zoo hypothesis, essentially by eliminating ways technological extraterrestrials within the galaxy may be able to hide, is some time within the next half century.
+
+== Fermi paradox ==
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+---
+title: "Zoo hypothesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo_hypothesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:00:49.963140+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A modified zoo hypothesis is a possible solution to the Fermi paradox. The time between the emergence of the first civilization within the Milky Way and all subsequent civilizations could be enormous. Monte Carlo simulation shows the first few inter-arrival times between emergent civilizations would be similar in length to geologic epochs on Earth. The zoo hypothesis assumes a civilization may have a ten-million, one-hundred-million, or half-billion-year head start on humanity, i.e., it may have the capability to completely negate our best attempts to detect it.
+The zoo hypothesis relies in part on applying the concept of hegemonic power to the Fermi paradox. Even if a first hegemonic non-interventionist grand civilization (first civilization) is long gone, their initial legacy could persist in the form of a passed-down tradition, or perhaps in an artificial lifeform (artificial superintelligence) dedicated to a non-interventionist hegemonic goal without the risk of death. Thus, the hegemonic power does not even have to be the first civilization, but simply the first to spread its non-interventionist doctrine and control over a large volume of the galaxy. If just one civilization acquired hegemony in the distant past, it could form an unbroken chain of taboo against rapacious colonization in favour of non-interference in any civilizations that follow. The uniformity of motive concept previously mentioned would become moot in such a situation. The main problem would be how a galaxy-wide civilization would block Earth from receiving all intentional or unintentional communications.
+Nonetheless, if the oldest civilization still present in the Milky Way has, for example, a 100-million-year time advantage over the next oldest civilization, then it is conceivable that they could be in the singular position of being able to control, monitor, influence or isolate the emergence of every civilization that follows within their sphere of influence. This is analogous to what happens on Earth within our own civilization on a daily basis, in that everyone born on this planet is born into a pre-existing system of familial associations, customs, traditions and laws that were already long established before our birth and which we have little or no control over.
+
+== METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence) ==
+
+Overcoming the zoo hypothesis is one of the goals of METI, an organization created in 2015 to communicate with extraterrestrials, an active form of the search for extraterrestrials (SETI). METI, however, has been criticized for not representing humanity's collective will and for potentially endangering humanity.
+
+== Criticism ==
+Some critics of the hypothesis say that only a single dissident group in an extraterrestrial civilization, or alternatively the existence of galactic cliques instead of a unified galactic club, would be enough to break the pact of no contact. To Stephen Webb and others, it seems unlikely, taking humans and human intercivilizational politics as reference, that such prohibition would be in effect for millions of years or at least human existence without a single breach thereof. Others say that the zoo hypothesis, along with its planetarium variation, is highly speculative and more aligned with theological theories. One possible counterargument to the dissident (rogue) group argument is that extraterrestrial artificial superintelligences dominate space, including space occupied by biological intelligences; moreover, separate artificial superintelligences are assumed to tend towards a network of merged superintelligences, thereby dissuading rogue behaviour.
+
+== Appearance in fiction ==
+The zoo hypothesis is a common theme in science fiction.
+
+== See also ==
+Uncontacted peoples
+
+== References ==
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