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+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
+chunk: 1/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Oktōēchos or Octoechos (Greek: ὁ Ὀκτώηχος pronounced in koine: okˈtóixos; from ὀκτώ 'eight' and ἦχος 'sound, mode' called echos; Slavonic: Осмогласие, Osmoglasie from о́смь 'eight' and гласъ 'voice, sound') is the name of the eight mode system used for the composition of religious chant in most Christian churches during the Middle Ages. In a modified form, the octoechos is still regarded as the foundation of the tradition of monodic Orthodox chant today (Neobyzantine Octoechos).
+The octoechos as a liturgical concept which established an organization of the calendar into eight-week cycles, was the invention of monastic hymnographers at Mar Saba in Palestine, at the Patriarchates of Antiochia and of Constantinople. It was officially announced as the modal system of hymnography at the Quinisext Council in 692.
+A similar eight-mode system was established in Western Europe during the Carolingian reform, and particularly at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 AD which decanonised the former iconoclastic council in 754 and confirmed earlier ones. Quite possibly this was an attempt to follow the example of the Eastern Church by an octoechos reform, even if it was rather a transfer of knowledge with an introduction of a new book called "tonary" which introduced into a Western octoechos of its own design.
+It had a list of incipits of chants ordered according to the intonation formula of each tone in its psalmody. Later on, fully notated and theoretical tonaries were also written. The Byzantine book octoechos (9th century) was one of the first hymn books with musical notation and its earliest surviving copies date from the 10th century.
+
+== Origins ==
+Students of Orthodox chant today often study the history of Byzantine chant in three periods, identified by the names John of Damascus (675/676-749) as the "beginning", John Koukouzeles (c. 1280–1360) as the "flower" (Papadic Octoechos), and Chrysanthos of Madytos (c. 1770-c. 1840) as the master of the living tradition today (Neobyzantine Octoechos). The latter has the reputation that he once connected in his time the current tradition with the past of Byzantine chant, which was in fact the work of at least four generations of teachers at the New Music School of the Patriarchate.
+This division of the history into three periods begins quite late with the 8th century, despite the fact that the octoechos reform was already accepted some decades earlier, before John and Cosmas entered the monastery Mar Saba in Palestine. The earliest sources which gave evidence of the octoechos' use in Byzantine chant, can be dated back to the 6th century.
+
+=== Jerusalem, Alexandria, or Constantinople ===
+The common schedule and the focus on the circle around John of Damascus is confirmed by a ninth-century treatise called Hagiopolites (from hagia polis [ἡ ἁγία πόλις], "Holy City", referring to Jerusalem) which only survived in a complete form as a late copy. The Hagiopolites treatise served presumably as an introduction of a book called tropologion—a 9th-century chant book which had been replaced soon by the book octoechos, as part of the sticherarion one of the first chant books fully provided with musical notation. The Hagiopolitan emphasis on John of Damascus was obviously the late result of a 9th-century redaction around the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, so it was part of the later Stoudites' reform between Jerusalem and Constantinople and it was motivated theologically, not only because of his contributions to the tropologion, but also because of the keyrole which John of Damascus' polemic against the iconoclasts had during this council.
+Nevertheless, the theological and liturgical concept of an eight-week cycle can be traced back to the cathedral rite of Jerusalem during the 5th century, and originally it was the Christian justification of Sunday as the eighth day after Sabbat. Peter Jeffery assumed a first phase during which the concept existed independently in various places, and a second phase during which Palestine became the leading centre of a monastic hymn reform. It established reform models which were also used later by the generation of John of Damascus. Despite that the first paragraph of the Hagiopolites ascribes the treatise to John of Damascus, it was probably written about 100 years after his death and went through several redactions during the following centuries.
+There is no doubt that the octoechos reform itself had already taken place by 692, because certain passages of the Hagiopolites paraphrase certain law texts (the canons of the synodal decree). Eric Werner assumed that the eight-mode system developed in Jerusalem since the late fifth century and that the reform by the hymnographers of Mar Saba were already a synthesis with the Ancient Greek names used for the tropes, applied to a model of Syrian origin already used in the Byzantine tradition of Jerusalem. During the eighth century, long before Ancient Greek treatises were translated into Arabic and Persian dialects between the ninth and the tenth centuries, there was already a great interest among theorists like Abū Yūsuf al-Kindī, whose Arabic terms were obviously translated from the Greek. He adored the universality of the Greek octoechos:
+
+Al-Kindi demonstrated the intervals on the keyboard of a simple four-stringed oud, starting from the third string as well seven steps in ascending as in descending direction.
+According to Eckhard Neubauer, there is another Persian system of seven advār ("cycles"), outside the Arabic reception of the Byzantine octoechos, which was possibly a cultural transfer from Sanskrit treatises. Persian and Ancient Greek sources had been the main reference for the transfer of knowledge in Arabian-Islamic science.
+
+=== Monastic reform of Mar Saba ===
+According to the Hagiopolites the eight echoi ("modes") were divided in four kyrioi (authentic) echoi and their four respective plagioi (enriched, developed) echoi, which were all in the diatonic genus.

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+---
+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
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+---
+
+==== 8 diatonic echoi of the Hagiopolitan Octoechos ====
+Despite the late copies of the Greek Hagiopolites treatise, the earliest Latin description of the Greek system of eight echoi is an eleventh-century treatise compilation called Alia musica. Echos was translated as sonus by the anonymous compilator who commented with a comparison of the Byzantine octoechos:
+
+This Latin description about the octoechos used by Greek singers (psaltes) is very precise, when it says that each kyrios and plagios pair used the same octave, divided into a fifth (pentachord) and a fourth (tetrachord): D—a—d in protos, E—b—e in devteros, F—c—f in tritos, and C—G—c in tetartos. While the kyrioi had the finalis (final, and usually also base note) on the top, the plagioi had the finalis on the bottom of the pentachord.
+The intonation formulas, called enechema (gr. ἐνήχημα), for the authentic modes or kyrioi echoi, usually descend within the pentachord and turn back to the finalis at the end, while the plagal modes or plagioi echoi just move to the upper third. The later dialogue treatises (Gr. ἐρωταποκρίσεις, erotapokriseis) refer to the Hagiopolitan diatonic eight modes, when they use the kyrioi intonations to find those of the plagioi:
+
+Περὶ πλαγίων
+Ἀπο τοῦ πλαγίου πρώτου ἤχου πάλιν καταβαίνεις τέσσαρας φωνάς, καὶ εὑρίσκεται πάλιν πλάγιος πρώτου· ὅυτως δὲ /
+ἄνανε ἄνες ἀνὲ ἄνες·
+
+Ὁμοίως καὶ ὁ β' ἤχος καταβαίνων φωνάς δ', εὑρίσκεις τὸν πλάγιον αὐτοῦ, ἤγουν τὸν πλάγιον τοῦ δευτέρου.
+πλ Β οὕτως δέ.
+
+Ὁμοίως πάλιν ὁ τρίτος καταβαίνεις φωνὰς τέσσαρας, καὶ εὑρίσκεται ὁ πλάγιος αὐτοῦ, ἤγουν ὁ βαρύς, οὕτως·
+
+Ὁμοίως καὶ ἀπὸ τὸν τέταρτον καταβαίνων φωνὰς τέσσαρας, εὑρίσκεις τὸν πλάγιον αὐτοῦ, ὡς ἐστὶ ὁ πλ δ'οὕτως·
+
+==== Phthorai of Hagios Sabbas and Hagia Sophia ====
+The Hagiopolites as "earliest" theoretical treatise said, that two additional phthorai ("destroyers") were like proper modes which did not fit into the diatonic octoechos system, so the Hagiopolitan octoechos was in fact a system of 10 modes. But the chronology of definitions concerned about two phthorai regarded them first as modes of their own because of their proper melos and that their models had to be sung during the eight-week cycle. These mesoi ("medial echoi") of tetartos and protos, with a finalis and base between kyrios and plagios, were obviously favoured by hymnographers like John of Damascus and his step-brother Kosmas, while the concept of a transition between echoi was established later: 
+
+It seems that the concept of the eight diatonic echoi was established by the generation of Theodore the Studite and his brother Joseph, but they had two integrate other melē passing through other genera than the diatonic one as they had been favoured by protagonists of the Sabbaite school:
+
+The later Papadikai mention that changes between the echos tritos and the echos plagios tetartos were bridged by the enharmonic phthora nana, and changes between the echos protos and the echos plagios devteros by the chromatic phthora nenano.
+Nevertheless, the terminology of the Hagiopolites somehow suggested that nenano and nana as phthorai "destroy" one or two diatonic degrees used within one tetrachord of a certain echos, so that the chromatic and enharmonic genera were somehow subordinated and excluded from the diatonic octoechos. This raises the question, when the music in the near eastern Middle Ages became entirely diatonic, since certain melodies were coloured by the other enharmonic and chromatic gene according to the school of Damascus. This is the question about the difference between the Hagiopolitan reform of 692 and in as much it was opposed to the Constantinopolitan tradition and its own modal system.
+The author of the Hagiopolites mentioned an alternative system of 16 echoi "sung in the Asma," with 4 phthorai and 4 mesoi beyond the kyrioi and plagioi of the diatonic octoechos:
+
+These "echoi of the Asma" did probably point at the rite at the Patriarchal church or even at the cathedral rite of Constantinople which was also known as "choral" or "sung rite" (ἀκολουθία ᾀσματική). The Constantinopolitan chant books were called asmatikon ("book of the choir"), psaltikon ("book of the soloist called 'monophonares'"), and kontakarion (another name of the psaltikon, since the huge collection of kontakia, sung during the morning service, was its largest part).
+Unfortunately, no early Constantinopolitan chant manual survived, there is only this short paragraph of the Hagiopolites which says, that the singers of the choir followed in their chant books an own modal system, which was distinct from the Hagiopolitan octoechos. A distinction from Constantinople is not the only possible explanation, because Jerusalem had also its own local cathedral rite. Since the 14th century at latest, the monastic rite was not opposed to the cathedral rite, even monks celebrated it on festival occasions, whenever they expected guests.
+The earliest sources are those of the Slavic reception of Constantinople which can be dated back not earlier than to the 12th century, and they used a system of 12 church tones called glas'. The earliest treatises which mention a modal system, is not a chant manual, but a corpus of alchemic treatises, which testifies a modal system of 24 "elements" (στοιχεῖα) or "aims" (στοχοὶ):

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+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
+chunk: 11/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== External links ==
+Jeffery, Peter (4 December 2010). "At the Origins of the Byzantine Musical Tradition: The Eight Modes". White Plains: Axion Estin Foundation. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
+"Hesperinos psalm with the sticheron anastasimon «Νίκην ἔχον Χριστὲ» in echos plagios devteros". Music School «Ὁ ἅγιος Ἀχίλλιος» of Larissa. 2 October 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
+Father Nektarios of the Skete Hagia Anna on Mount Athos. "Sticheron idiomelon «Σὲ τὸν ἐπὶ ὑδάτων» (Holy Saturday) in echos plagios devteros". YouTube. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
+Petros Peloponnesios (February 2018). "Katavasies (heirmologion argon) «Σταυρὸν χαράξας Μωσῆς» (odes 1, 7 and 9 of the canon) for the feast of the elevation of the cross (14 September) in echos plagios tetartos". Archon Protopsaltes Demosthenis Païkopoulos. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
+Meyer, Christian; et al. "Sources of Medieval Music Theory". Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften online. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
+"Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum". Index for the 9th-11th century. Jacobs School of Music, Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405. Retrieved 19 December 2025.
+Ibn al-Munadjdjim (French)

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+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
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+---
+
+In the edition of the treatise by Otto Gombosi, the four "elements" (α', β', γ', δ') were associated with certain colours—πρῶτος with black (all colours together), δεύτερος with white (no colour at all), τρίτος with yellow (an elementary colour), and τέταρτος with purple (a combination of elementary colours). These passages could be easily compiled with Zosimos of Panopolis' treatise about the process of bleaching.
+The system favoured 3 four tetrachord sets (either modes by themselves or simply degree of the modes with different functions), called κέντροι, ἷσοι, and πλάγιοι. Kέντρος would be probably an early name for μέσος, if it lay between the ἶσος and πλάγιος, it could be as well used as an early name for κύριος ἦχος, because it is mentioned here first, while ἶσος could mean "equivalent", or just basis notes.
+The exact point of reference concerning this 24 mode system was not clarified in the treatise, but it is evident, that there was a canonised wisdom which was connected with an ethical doctrine excluding certain passions (πάθη, pathe) as corruptions. Inside this wisdom, there was a Neoplatonic concept of an ideal and divine existence, which can be found and classified according to a modal scheme based on four elements. The term "element" (στοχείον) was less meant as a technical term or modal category, it was rather an alchemistic interpretation of the 24 musical modes.
+In comparison, the Hagiopolitan terminology already included the "corruption" (φθορά) as an acceptable modal category in itself, which was neither excluded in the Hagiopolitan Octoechos nor in the modal system of a certain cathedral rite, which was made of 16 echoi. On the other hand, the described system, whether it meant 24 echoi including 12 pathologic echoi, called "aechoi" and "paraechoi", and associated with 4 "katharoi" or just cadential degrees or other modal functions. It is not clear, whether the latter name was simply meant in a geographical or ethnical way or whether it was here connected with a kind of music therapy which included certain pathe as a kind of antidote. Medical treatises of the Mediterranean had been developed later on by the association of melodic modes with 4 elements and 4 humours.
+
+== Latin reception ==
+
+The introduction of the eight mode system in Western chant traditions was part of the Carolingian reform. Officially, it was motivated by Pope Adrian I's confirmation of an earlier Eastern chant reform during the synode in 787, during which he accepted the reform for the Western traditions as well. Nevertheless, a Carolingian interest for the Byzantine octoechos can already be dated back to a visit some years earlier, when a Byzantine legacy introduced a series of antiphons sung during a procession for Epiphany. These antiphons served as a model for the eight modes according to the Hagiopolitan system.
+The contemporary invention of a proper Latin version of the eight mode system was mainly studied from two perspectives:
+
+the reception of Ancient Greek music theory since Boethius and the synthesis between music theory as a science and a liberal art of the mathematic Quadrivium on the one hand, and as a medium of chant transmission on the other hand. The eight church tones were called after the names of octave species, which were not connected with modal patterns and plainchant theory in Ancient Greek music theory.
+the simplification of chant transmission by a Western manuscript type called tonary which allowed the transfer of a huge chant repertoire like the Roman one, but also its deductive modal classification which changed the oral transmission of chant entirely.
+
+=== Synthesis in Latin music theory ===
+Latin theorists who knew the Hellenic tropes only through Boethius' 6th-century creative translation of Claudius Ptolemy's Books of Harmonics (Ἁρμονικῶν βιβλία, Harmonikōn biblia) tried to apply Ancient Greek music theory to the octoechos as a system of eight church tones, identified with the tropes of Antique music theory. The synthesis had not been done earlier than during the Carolingian reform (usually dated according to Charlemagne's admonitio generalis which was decreed in 789), before music theory as science was strictly separated from chant transmission and the cantor as a profession dedicated to church music.
+The terms tropus (transposition octave) and modus (the octave species defined by the position of the tonus, the whole tone with the proportion of 9:8, and the semitonium, the half tone with the proportion of 256:243), were taken from Boethius' translation. But the Antique names of the seven modi were applied to the eight church tones called toni. The first attempt to connect Ancient Greek music theory (as expressed in  Boethius) and the theory of plainchant can be found in the treatise De harmonica institutione ("On the foundation of harmonics") by Hucbald of Saint-Amand Abbey, written by the end of the 9th century, when the author addressed his treatise explicitly to cantors and not to mathematicians, whereas the reduction of 4 finales which made up the tetrachord D—E—F—G, was already done in Carolingian times in the treatises Musica and Scolica enchiriadis. Musica enchiriadis is also the only Latin treatise which testifies to the presence of a tetraphonic tone system, represented by 4 Dasia-signs and therefore called "Dasia system", and even the practical use of transposition (metabolē kata tonon) in plainchant, called absonia. Its name probably derived from sonus, the Latin term for ἦχος, but in the context of this treatise the use of absonia is reserved to define transposition as something out of the expected context of a tone system. Thus, the Dasia-system was only used to explain a primitive form of polyphony or heterophony, rather than serving as a precise description of transposition in monodic chant, as it was used in certain genres of Byzantine chant.
+Hucbald used an idiosyncratic Greek letter system which referred to the double octave system (bisdiapason) of the systēma teleion known by Boethius' Ptolemy translation. Thus, he called the four elements known as "finales" according to the names of the Greek system:

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+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
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+---
+
+According to the Latin synthesis the plagal and authentic tones of protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrardus did not use the same ambitus as in the Hagiopolitan octoechos, but authentic and plagal tones used both the finalis of the plagios, so that the finalis of the kyrios, the fifth degree of the mode, was no longer used as finalis, but as repercussa: the recitation tone of the authentic tone used in a simple form of psalmody which was another genuine invention by the Carolingian reformers. The ambitus of the authentic tones was made up the same way as used in the Greek octoechos, while the plagal tones used a lower ambitus: not the tetrachord above the pentachord, but below it. Hence, the hypodorian octave referred the tonus secundus and was constructed A—D—a, and the dorian as "tonus primus" D—a—d, both tones of the protus used D as finalis, the hypophrygian octave species was B—E—b and was the ambitus of the tonus quartus, and the phrygian octave species E—b—e was related to the tonus tertius and its finalis E belonged to the deuterus, the hypolydian octave species C—F—c was connected with the tonus sixtus, the lydian octave F—c—f with the tonus quintus and both shared the finalis F called tritus, the last was the seventh octave species G—d—g called "mixolydian" which referred to the tonus septimus and its finalis G.
+
+=== Tonary ===

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+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
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+---
+
+The earliest chant theory connected with the Carolingian octoechos was related to the book tonary. It played a key role in memorising chant and the earliest tonaries referred to the Greek names as elements of a tetrachord: πρῶτος, δεύτερος, τρίτος, and τέταρτος. They were translated into Latin as "protus", "deuterus", "tritus", and "tetrardus", but only the tetrachord D—E—F—G was supposed to contain the finales ("final notes") for the eight tones used in the Latin octoechos. Since the 10th century the eight tones were applied to eight simplified models of psalmody, which soon adopted in their terminations the melodic beginnings of the antiphons, which were sung as refrains during psalm recitation. This practice made the transitions smoother, and in the list of the antiphons which can be found since the earliest tonaries, it was enough to refer to the melodic beginnings or incipits of the text. In the earliest tonaries no models of psalmody had been given and incipits from all chant genres were listed, probably just for a modal classification (see the section for the Autentus protus of the Saint Riquier tonary).
+According to Michel Huglo, there was a prototype tonary which initiated the Carolingian reform. But in a later study he mentioned an even earlier tonary which was brought as a present by a Byzantine legacy which celebrated procession antiphons for Epiphany in a Latin translation.
+Already during the 10th century tonaries became so widespread in different regions, that they do not only allow to study the difference between local schools according to its modal classification, its redaction of modal patterns, and its own way of using Carolingian psalmody. They also showed a fundamental difference between the written transmission of Latin and Greek chant traditions, as it had developed between the 10th and 12th centuries. The main concern of Latin cantors and their tonaries was a precise and unambiguous classification of whatever melody type according to the local perception of the octoechos system.
+Greek psaltes were not interested at all in this question. They knew the models of each modes by certain simple chant genres as the troparion and the heirmoi (the melodic models used to create poetry in the meter of the heirmologic odes), but other genres like sticheron and kontakion could change the echos within their melos, so their main interest was the relationship between the echoi to compose elegant and discrete changes between them.
+In contrary, the very particular form and function of the tonary within chant transmission made it evident, that the modal classification of Latin cantors according to the eight tones of the Octoechos had to be done a posteriori, deduced by the modal analysis of the chant and its melodic patterns, while the transmission of the traditional chant itself did not provide any model except of the psalm tones used for the recitation of the psalms and the canticles.
+The tonary was the very heart of the mainly oral chant transmission used during the Carolingian reform and as its medium it must have had a strong impact on the melodic memory of the cantors who used it in order to memorize the Roman chant, after a synode confirmed Charlemagne's admonitio generalis. The written transmission by fully notated chant manuscripts, the object of chant studies today, cannot be dated back to an earlier time than nearly 200 years after the admonitio—the last third of the 10th century. And it seems that Roman cantors whose tradition had to be learnt, followed at least 100 years later by the transcription of their chant repertory and no document has survived which can testify the use of tonaries among Roman cantors. Pope Adrian I's confirmation of the Eastern octoechos reform had probably no consequences on the tradition of Roman chant, which might be an explanation for the distinct written transmission, as it can be studied between Roman Frankish and Old Roman chant manuscripts.
+The eight sections of the Latin tonary are usually ordered Tonus primus Autentus Protus, Tonus secundus Plagi Proti, Tonus tertius Autentus deuterus etc. Each section is opened by an intonation formula using the names like Noannoeane for the authentic and Noeagis for the plagal tones. In his theoretical tonary Musica disciplina Aurelian of Réôme asked a Greek about the meaning of the syllables, and reported that they had no meaning, they were rather an expression of joy as used by peasants to communicate with their working animals like horses. There was usually no exact resemblance of the Latin syllables to the names of the Greek intonations or enechemata which were identified with the diatonic kyrioi and plagioi echoi, but Aurelian's question made it obvious that the practice was taken from Greek singers. Unlike the Hagiopolitan octoechos, which used two additional phthorai with the syllables Nana and Nenano for changes into the enharmonic and chromatic genus, the enharmonic and chromatic genus was excluded from the Latin octoechos, at least according to Carolingian theorists.
+Since the 10th century tonaries also include the mnemic verses of certain model antiphons which memorise each tone by one verse. The most common among all tonaries was also used by Guido of Arezzo in his treatise Micrologus: Primum querite regnum dei, Secundum autem simile est huic etc. Another characteristic was that melodic melisms called neumae followed the intonation formulas or mnemic verses. Usually they differed more among different tonaries than the preceding intonations or verses, but they all demonstrated the generative and creative aspect within chant transmission.
+In comparison with Byzantine psaltes who always used notation in a more or less stenographic way, the exact patterns used during the so-called "thesis of the melos" (τὸ θέσις τοῦ μελοῦ) belonged to the oral tradition of a local school, its own modal system and its genre. But already the question of chant genre was connected with local traditions in medieval times and the point of reference for the psaltes who performed a certain genre: the Hagiopolitan octoechos and its genres (the odes according to the models of the heirmologion, the troparia of the book oktoechos (ἡ [βίβλος] ὀκτώηχος) or tropologion), or the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite (akolouthia asmatike) and its books asmatikon, psaltikon, and kontakarion might serve here as examples.

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+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
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+---
+
+== Question of intervals and their transposition ==
+The exact proportions which divided a tetrachord, had never been a subject of Greek medieval treatises concerned about Byzantine chant. The separation between the mathematical science harmonikai ("harmonics") and chant theory gave space to various speculations, even to the assumption that the same division was used as described in Latin music theory, operating with two diatonic intervals like tonus (9:8) and semitonium (256:243).  Nevertheless, some treatises referred the tetrachord division into three intervals called the "major tone" (ὁ μείζων τόνος) which often corresponded to the prominent position of the whole tone (9:8), the "middle tone" (ὁ ἐλάσσων τόνος) between α and β, and the "small tone" (ὁ ἐλάχιστος τόνος) between β and γ which was usually a much larger interval than the half tone, and this division was common among most divisions by different ancient Greek theorists that were mentioned by Ptolemy in his Harmonics. Before Chrysanthos' Theoretika (the Eisagoge was simply an extract, while the Theoretikon mega was published by his student Panagiotes Pelopides), exact proportions were never mentioned in Greek chant theory. His system of 68 commata which is based on a corrupt use of arithmetics, can be traced back to the division of 12:11 x 88:81 x 9:8 = 4:3 between α and δ.

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+---
+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
+chunk: 7/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Pitches and their tonal system ===
+Although Chrysanthos did not mention his name, the first who mentioned precisely these proportions starting from the open string of the third or middle chord of the oud, was the Arab theorist Al-Farabi in his Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir which was written during the first half of the 10th century. His explicit references to Persian and Ancient Greek music theory were possible, because they had been recently translated into Arabic and Persian dialects in the library of Baghdad. Thanks to them Al-Farabi had also an excellent knowledge of Ancient Greek music theory. The method of demonstrating the intervals by the frets of the oud keyboard was probably taken from Al-Kindi. Here the intervals are not referred to the Byzantine phthongoi, but to the name of the frets. And the fret corresponding to β was called "ring finger fret of Zalzal" (wuṣtā Zalzal), named after the famous Baghdadi oud player Zalzal. It seems that the proportion of the Zalzal fret was a refined one in Bagdad using a large middle tone that came very close to the interval of the small tone, while the Mawsili school used 13:12 instead of 12:11. There is no indication that this division had been of Byzantine origin, so Western scholars felt seduced to ascribe the use of the division called "soft diatonic" (to genos diatonikon malakon) and the chromaticism derived from it as an influence of the Ottoman Empire and to regard their view of the systēma teleion also as a norm for the Byzantine tonal system. As Phanariotes (Phanar or Fener was the Greek district of Istanbul with the residence of the Patriarchate) who composed as well in the makamlar, the teachers of the New Music School of the Patriarchate around Chrysanthos had certainly exchanges with Sephardic, Armenian, and Sufi musicians, but an intensive exchange between Byzantine, Arab and Persian musicians had already a history of more than 1000 years.
+Unlike Latin treatises only a few Greek treatises of chant have survived and their authors wrote nothing about the intervals, about microtonal shifts as part of a certain melos and its echos, or about the practice of ison singing (isokratẽma). Nevertheless, these practices remained undisputed, because they are still part of the living tradition today, while Western plainchant became rediscovered during the 19th century. Neither musicians nor musicologists were longer familiar with them which explains why various descriptions, as they can be found in certain Latin treatises, were ignored for quite a long time.
+Ancient Greek music theory had always been a point of reference in Latin chant treatises, something similar cannot be found in Greek chant treatises before the 14th century, but there were a few Latin treatises of the 11th century which did not only refer to Ancient music theory and the systēma teleion together with the Greek names of its elements, they even had parts dedicated to Byzantine chant. The appreciation for Byzantine chant is surprising, because there were very few authors except Boethius who had really studied Greek treatises and who were also capable to translate them.
+The systēma teleion was present by the Boethian diagram which represented it for the diatonic, the chromatic, and the enharmonic genus. Several tonaries used letters which referred to the positions of this diagram. The most famous example is the letter notation of William of Volpiano which he developed for the Cluniac reforms by the end of the 10th century. In his school a unique tonary was already written, when he was reforming abbot of St. Benignus of Dijon. The tonary shows the Roman-Frankish mass chant written out in neume and letter notation. The repertory is classified according to the Carolingian tonary and its entirely diatonic octoechos. The use of tyronic letters for dieses clearly shows, that it was used as a kind of melodic attraction within the diatonic genus which sharpened the ditonus under the semitonium. Even in Guido of Arezzo's treatise Micrologus, at least in earlier copies, there is still a passage which explains, how the diesis can be found on the monochord. It shrinks the semitonium by replacing the usual whole tone (9:8) between re—mi (D—E, G—a, or a—b) by an even larger one in the proportion of 7:6 which was usually perceived as an attraction towards fa.
+But there were as well other practices which could not be explained by the Boethian diagram and its use of tonus and semitonium. The authors of one theoretical tonary of the compilation called Alia musica used an alternative intonation with the name AIANEOEANE, the name was obviously taken from a Byzantine enechema ἅγια νεανὲς, a kind of Mesos tetartos with the finalis and basis on a low E, and applied the Byzantine practice to certain pieces of Roman-Frankish chant which were classified as tonus tertius or Autentus deuterus. In the following section De quarto tono the author quotes Aristoxenos' description of the enharmonic and chromatic division of the tetrachord, the remark on it in precisely this section had been probably motivated by the Hagiopolitan concept of the phthora nenano which connected the echos protos on a with the plagios devteros on E.

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+---
+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
+chunk: 8/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Medieval use of transposition (μεταβολὴ κατὰ τόνον) ===
+Latin cantors knew about the theoretical concept of the practice of transposition since Boethius' translation of Ptolemy. Very few can be said, if they ever understood the practical use of it. Nevertheless, there was a rudimentary knowledge which can be found in the Carolingian treatises Musica and Scolica enchiriadis. The Musica enchiriadis was also the only Latin treatise which documented a second tone system beside the systẽma teleion, but it does not explain at all, how these both systems worked together in practice.
+The Hagiopolites did neither explain it nor did it mention any tone system nor the metabolē kata tonon, but this was probably because the hymn reform of Jerusalem was mainly concerned with simple models exemplified by heirmoi or troparia. Greek protopsaltai used the transposition only in very few compositions of the stichẽrarion, for instance the compositions passing through all the modes of the octoechos, or certain melismatic elaborations of troparia in the psaltic style, the soloistic style of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite. This might explain that Charles Atkinson discussed Carolingian theory in comparison with the later Papadikai, in which all possible transpositions were represented by the Koukouzelian wheel or by the kanõnion.
+Wheels are also used in Arabic music theory since the 13th century, and Al-Farabi was the first who started a long tradition of science, which did not only find the proportions of the untransposed diatonic system on the oud keyboard, but also those of all possible transpositions. The use of instruments had to adapt to a very complex tradition which had probably been a rather vocal tradition in its origins.
+
+== See also ==
+Papadic and Neobyzantine Octoechos
+Musical system of ancient Greece
+Byzantine Music—traditional music of the Byzantine Empire
+Protopsaltes (Domestikos, Lampadarios)—ranks of psaltes in charge of the Patriarchate
+
+=== People ===
+Andrew of Crete—teacher of John of Damascus, and Cosmas of Maiuma and hymn reformer at Mar Saba (8th century)
+Joseph the Hymnographer—Sicilian Greek and hymn reformer at the Monastery of Stoudios (9th century)
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== Sources ==
+
+=== Greek chant treatises ===
+Pseudo-Zosimos (1887–88). Berthelot, Marcellin; Ruelle, Charles-Émile (eds.). Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs. Vol. 3. Paris: Georges Steinheil. p. 434.; quoted and translated into German: Gombosi, Otto (1940). "Studien zur Tonartenlehre des frühen Mittelalters. III". Acta Musicologica. 12 (1/4): 39–44. doi:10.2307/931952. JSTOR 931952.
+"Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, fonds grec, Ms. 360, ff.216r-237v", Βιβλίον ἁγιοπολίτης συγκροτημένον ἔκ τινων μουσικῶν μεθόδων [The book of the Holy Polis "Jerusalem" unifying different musical methods] in a compiled collection of basic grammar treatises and fragments with mathemataria and of a menologion (12th century), see the edition: Raasted, Jørgen, ed. (1983), The Hagiopolites: A Byzantine Treatise on Musical Theory (PDF), Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge Grec et Latin, vol. 45, Copenhagen: Paludan.
+Bellermann, Johann Friedrich; Najock, Dietmar, eds. (1972), Drei anonyme griechische Traktate über die Musik, Göttingen: Hubert.
+Hannick, Christian; Wolfram, Gerda, eds. (1997), Die Erotapokriseis des Pseudo-Johannes Damaskenos zum Kirchengesang, Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae - Corpus Scriptorum de Re Musica, vol. 5, Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, ISBN 978-3-7001-2520-4.

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+---
+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
+chunk: 9/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Latin treatises and tonaries (6th–12th century) ===
+Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. "Einsiedeln, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. 358, pp. 144-270". «Institutionis musicae id est armonicae» with glossae maior copied at the scriptorium of Einsiedeln (10th century). Edition: Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1844–1904). "De institutione musica, liber IV". In Migne, Jacques-Paul (ed.). Patrologia cursus completus, series latina. Vol. 63. Paris: Garnier. pp. [col.1245–1286].
+"Valenciennes, Bibliothèque municipale (F-VAL) Ms. 337 (olim 325, 359), fol. 42v-79v". Musica and Scolica enchiriadis in the treatise collection of the Abbey Saint-Amand (10th century). Retrieved 14 April 2012. Edition: Gerbert, Martin, ed. (1784). "Musica enchiriadis & Scholia enchiriadis de arte musica". Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra Potissimum. Vol. 1 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.). St Blaise. pp. 152–212.
+Hucbald. "Prague, Národní knihovna (dríve Universitní knihovna), Ms. 273 olim XIX.C.26, fol. 19-28". Tonary "De harmonica institutione" with Lorrain neumes and Greek terminology in a treatise collection (ca. 1100). Retrieved 3 June 2019. Edition: Gerbert, Martin, ed. (1784). "Ubaldi seu Hucbaldi Monachi Elnonensis opuscula de musica". Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra Potissimum. Vol. 1 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.). St Blaise. pp. 103–125.
+Aurelian of Réôme. "Valenciennes, Bibliothèque municipale, Ms. 148, fol. 57-89". "Musica disciplina" with intonations in later added Paleofrankish neumes, Abbey Saint-Amand (ca. 880-885). Gallica. Retrieved 8 October 2012. Edition: Gushee, Lawrence, ed. (1975). "Aureliani Reomensis Musica disciplina". Corpus scriptorum de musica. Vol. 21. Rome: American Institute of Musicology. pp. 35–135.
+"Prague, Národní knihovna (dríve Universitní knihovna), Ms. XIX.C.26, fol. 1-11". Tonary in red ink ("Primus igitur lydius...") of the "Ratio breviter super musicum cum tonario [fol. 4r]" with Lorrain neumes and Greek terminology (close to the "alia musica" compilation) in a treatise collection (ca. 1100). Retrieved 22 March 2012.
+Berno of Reichenau. "St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 898, p. 2–25". "De consona tonorum diversitate" with tonary, in "Bernonis Epistolae cum sermonibus et hymnis", St. Gall Abbey, copy of a dedicated collection for King Henry III (11th century). Retrieved 30 December 2011.
+Guido of Arezzo. "Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, fonds lat., Ms. 7211, fol. 73'-89". Micrologus in a treatise collection from St-Pierre de Luxeuil (12th century). Retrieved 15 January 2012. Edition: Guido of Arezzo (1784), "Micrologus", in Gerbert, Martin (ed.), Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum, vol. 2 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.), St Blaise: Typis San-Blasianis, pp. 2–24.
+Hartvic (copyist). "Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Ms. Clm 14272, fol. 175-181". Theoretical tonary compilation alia musica (manuscript M) with neumed intonations, psalmody, and additional tonary rubrics from the Abbey St. Emmeram, Regensburg (1006-1028). Retrieved 2 January 2012. Edition: Chailley, Jacques, ed. (1965), Alia musica (Traité de musique du IXe siècle): Édition critique commentée avec une introduction sur l'origine de la nomenclature modale pseudo-grecque au Moyen-Âge, Paris: Centre de documentation universitaire et Société d'édition d'enseignement supérieur réunis.
+"Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, fonds lat., Ms. 7211, fol. 54-71". Tonary compilation "Alia musica" in a treatise collection from St-Pierre de Luxeuil (12th century). Retrieved 15 January 2012. Edition: Gerbert, Martin, ed. (1784). "Alia musica". Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum. Vol. 1 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.). St Blaise: Typis San-Blasianis. pp. 125–152.
+
+== Chant books with octoechos notation ==
+
+=== Palaeo-Byzantine notation (10th–13th century) ===
+"Holy Mount Athos, Monastery of the Great Lavra, Ms. γ 12". Greek incomplete Triodion and Pentekostarion with Old Byzantine Chartres and Theta notation (10th century).
+"Sinai, Saint Catherine's Monastery, Ms. Gr. 1219". Greek Sticherarion with Old Byzantine Chartres notation (11th century).
+"Holy Mount Athos, Mone Vatopaidiou, Ms. 1488". Triodion, Pentekostarion and Oktoechos with Coislin (standard repertoire of the moveabe cycle) and Chartres notation (Oktoechos and apokryphs) (11th century). Library of Congress.
+"Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, fonds Coislin, ms. 220". Heirmologion in canon order (KaO) and prosomoia with developed Coislin notation (11th & 12th centuries).
+"Sinai, Saint Catherine's Monastery, Ms. Gr. 1217". Greek Sticherarion (only Menaion) with Old Byzantine Coislin notation (11th-12th century).
+"Moscow, Rossiysky Gosudarstvenny Archiv Drevnich Aktov (РГАДА), Fond 381 Ms. 152". Old Church Slavonic Sticherarion (Menaion from 1 September until 2 February) with znamenny notation (12th century).
+"Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, fonds grec, Ms. 356". Menaion fragment (October–July) written in developed Coislin notation (about 1200).
+"Mount Sinai, St. Catherine's Monastery, Ms. syr. 261". Syriac Sticherarion written in Coislin Notation from Saint Catherine's Monastery (13th century). Retrieved 15 August 2012.
+
+=== Latin chant books and notated tonaries ===
+"Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, fonds. lat., Ms. 13159, fol. 167-167'". Tonaryfragment of St. Riquier in the "Psalter of Charlemagne" (ed. by Huglo 1971, 26-28). Retrieved 15 January 2012.
+"Metz, Médiathèque, Ms. 351, fol. 66-76". Tonary of Metz (copied 878). 14 May 2008. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
+"Laon, Bibliothèque municipale, Ms. 118, fol. A.1'-A.12'". Gradual-Sacramentary and Lectionary of the Abbey Saint-Denis (late 9th century). Retrieved 17 May 2024.
+"Einsiedeln, Stiftsbibliothek, Ms. 121, p. 417-427". Psalmody of the Communiones in the Gradual and Notker's Sequentiary from the Einsiedeln Monastery (960-970). Retrieved 4 January 2012.
+"Staatsbibliothek Bamberg, Msc.Lit.5, fol. 5-27". Tonary of Reichenau (copied 1001 in Reichenau). Retrieved 17 May 2024.
+William of Volpiano. "Montpellier, Bibliothèque interuniversitaire Historique de Médecine, Ms. H159, pp.7-322". Toner-Gradual & fragment of an Antiphonary of the Abbey St. Bénigne in Dijon. Retrieved 17 May 2024. Edition: Codex H. 159 de la Bibliothèque de l'École de médecine de Montpellier: Antiphonarium tonale missarum, XIe siècle. Paléographie musicale. Vol. 7–8. Solesmes: Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Solesmes. 1901–1905.
+"Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, fonds lat., Ms. 1121". Troper, Sequentiary, and Tonary of St. Martial de Limoges, Adémar de Chabannes (11th century). Retrieved 30 December 2011.
+"Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, fonds lat., Ms. 909". Troper, Sequentiary, and Tonary of St. Martial de Limoges (11th century). Retrieved 30 December 2011.
+"Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, fonds lat., Ms. 1118". Troper, Tonary, Sequentiary and Proser from Southwestern France, Région d'Auch (11th century). Retrieved 30 December 2011.

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+---
+title: "Hagiopolitan Octoechos"
+chunk: 10/11
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:13.278479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Studies ==
+Alexandru, Maria (2000). Studie über die 'großen Zeichen' der byzantinischen musikalischen Notation unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Periode vom Ende des 12. bis Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts. University Copenhagen.
+Amargianakis, George (1977). "An Analysis of Stichera in the Deuteros Modes: The Stichera idiomela for the Month of September in the Modes Deuteros, Plagal Deuteros, and Nenano; transcribed from the Manuscript Sinai 1230 <A.D. 1365>" (PDF). Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge Grec et Latin. 22–23: 1–269.
+Atkinson, Charles M. (2001). "Tonus in the Carolingian Era: A Terminal Spannungsfeld.". In Bernhard, Michael (ed.). Quellen und Studien zur Musiktheorie des Mittelalters (PDF). Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 19–46. ISBN 978-3-76-966008-1.
+Atkinson, Charles M. (2008). The critical nexus: Tone-System, Mode, and Notation in Early Medieval Music. Oxford, New York [etc.]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514888-6.
+Busse Berger, Anna Maria (2005), Medieval Music and the Art of Memory, Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-19-514888-6.
+Chrysanthos of Madytos (1832), Θεωρητικὸν μεγὰ τῆς Μουσικῆς, Triest: Michele Weis, retrieved 11 April 2012.
+Floros, Constantin; Neil K. Moran (2009). The Origins of Russian Music - Introduction to the Kondakarian Notation. Frankfurt/Main etc.: Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-59553-4.
+Frøyshov, Stig Simeon R. (2007). "The Early Development of the Liturgical Eight-Mode System in Jerusalem". Saint Vladimir's Theological Quarterly. 51: 139–178. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
+Gerlach, Oliver (2009). Im Labyrinth des Oktōīchos – Über die Rekonstruktion mittelalterlicher Improvisationspraktiken in liturgischer Musik. Vol. 2. Berlin: Ison. ISBN 9783000323065. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
+Gerlach, Oliver (2012). "About the Import of the Byzantine Intonation Aianeoeane in an 11th Century Tonary". In Altripp, Michael (ed.). Byzanz in Europa. Europas östliches Erbe: Akten des Kolloquiums 'Byzanz in Europa' vom 11. bis 15. Dezember 2007 in Greifswald. Studies in Byzantine History and Civilization. Vol. 2. Turnhout: Brepols. pp. 172–183. doi:10.1484/M.SBHC_EB.1.100945. ISBN 978-2-503-54153-2.
+Hannick, Christian, ed. (1991). Rhythm in Byzantine Chant – Acta of the Congress held at Hernen Castle in November 1986. Hernen: Bredius Foundation.
+Huglo, Michel (1971), Les Tonaires: Inventaire, Analyse, Comparaison, Publications de la Société française de musicologie, vol. 2, Paris: Société française de musicologie.
+Huglo, Michel (2000), "Grundlagen und Ansätze der mittelalterlichen Musiktheorie", in Ertelt, Thomas; Zaminer, Frieder (eds.), Die Lehre vom einstimmigen liturgischen Gesang, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, vol. 4, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, pp. 17–102, ISBN 978-3-534-01204-6.
+Husmann, Heinrich (1970). "Die oktomodalen Stichera und die Entwicklung des byzantinischen Oktoëchos". Archiv für Musikwissenschaft. 27 (4): 304–325. doi:10.2307/930047. JSTOR 930047.
+Husmann, Heinrich; Jeffery, Peter (2001). "Syrian church music". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.27274. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
+Jacobsthal, Gustav (1897). Die chromatische Alteration im liturgischen Gesang der abendländischen Kirche. Berlin: Springer.
+Jeffery, Peter (2001), "The Earliest Oktōēchoi: The Role of Jerusalem and Palestine in the Beginnings of Modal Ordering", The Study of Medieval Chant: Paths and Bridges, East and West; In Honor of Kenneth Levy, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, pp. 147–209, ISBN 978-0-85115-800-6, retrieved 14 April 2012.
+Jeffery, Peter (2001). "Oktōēchos". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.50097. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
+Makris, Eustathios (2005). "The Chromatic Scales of the Deuteros Modes in Theory and Practice". Plainsong and Medieval Music. 14: 1–10. doi:10.1017/S0961137104000075. ISSN 0961-1371. S2CID 162385479.
+Maloy, Rebecca (2009). "Scolica Enchiriadis and the 'non-Diatonic' Plainsong Tradition". Early Music History. 28: 61–96. doi:10.1017/S0261127909000369. S2CID 192197222.
+Manik, Liberty (1969). Das arabische Tonsystem im Mittelalter. Leiden: Brill.
+Lingas, Alexander (1999). "Performance Practice and the Politics of Transcribing Byzantine Chant" (PDF). Acta Musicae Byzantinae: Revista Centrului de Studii Bizantine Iaşi. 6: 56–76. Retrieved 11 August 2013.
+Möller, Hartmut (1993). "Zur Frage der musikgeschichtlichen Bedeutung der ʻacademiaʼ am Hofe Karls des Großen: Die Musica Albini". In Frobenius, Wolf; Schwindt-Gross, Nicole; Sick, Thomas (eds.). Akademie und Musik. Erscheinungsweisen und Wirkungen des Akademiegedankens in Kultur- und Musikgeschichte: Institutionen, Veranstaltungen, Schriften. Festschrift für Werner Braun zum 65. Geburtstag, zugleich Bericht über das Symposium. Saarbrücker Studien zur Musikwissenschaft. Saarbrücken: Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag. pp. 269–288. ISBN 978-3-925036-82-8.
+Neubauer, Eckhard (1998), "Die acht "Wege" der arabischen Musiklehre und der Oktoechos – Ibn Misğah, al-Kindī und der syrisch-byzantinische oktōēchos", Arabische Musiktheorie von den Anfängen bis zum 6./12. Jahrhundert: Studien, Übersetzungen und Texte in Faksimile, Publications of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science: The science of music in Islam, vol. 3, Frankfurt am Main: Inst. for the History of Arab.-Islamic Science, pp. 373–414.
+Neubauer, Eckhard (1990). "Arabische Anleitungen zur Musiktherapie". Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften. 6: 227–272.
+Phillips, Nancy (2000), "Notationen und Notationslehren von Boethius bis zum 12. Jahrhundert", in Ertelt, Thomas; Zaminer, Frieder (eds.), Die Lehre vom einstimmigen liturgischen Gesang, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, vol. 4, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, pp. 293–324, ISBN 978-3-534-01204-6.
+Pfisterer, Andreas (2002). Cantilena Romana: Untersuchungen zur Überlieferung des gregorianischen Chorals. Paderborn: Schöningh. ISBN 978-3-506-70631-7.
+Poliakova, Svetlana (June 2009). Sin 319 and Voskr 27 and the Triodion Cycle in the Liturgical Praxis in Russia during the Studite Period (PDF) (Thesis). Lissabon: Universidade Nova de Lisboa. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
+Powers, Harold (2001). "Mode, § II Medieval Modal Theory, 1. The Elements, (ii) The Byzantine Model: oktōēchos". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.43718. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
+Raasted, Jørgen (1966). Intonation Formulas and Modal Signatures in Byzantine Musical Manuscripts. Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae, Subsidia. Vol. 7. Copenhagen: E. Munksgaard.
+Raasted, Jørgen (1988). "Die Jubili Finales und die Verwendung von interkalierten Vokalisen in der Gesangspraxis der Byzantiner". In Brandl, Rudolf Maria (ed.). Griechische Musik und Europa: Antike, Byzanz, Volksmusik der Neuzeit; Symposion "Die Beziehung der griechischen Musik zur Europäischen Musiktradition" vom 9. - 11. Mai 1986 in Würzburg. Orbis musicarum. Aachen: Ed. Herodot. pp. 67–80. ISBN 978-3-924007-77-5.
+Richter, Lukas. "Zosimus of Panopolis". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.31036.
+Strunk, William Oliver (1942). "The Tonal System of Byzantine Music". The Musical Quarterly. 28 (2): 190–204. doi:10.1093/mq/XXVIII.2.190.
+Strunk, William Oliver (1945). "Intonations and Signatures of the Byzantine Modes". The Musical Quarterly. 31 (3): 339–355. doi:10.1093/mq/XXXI.3.339.
+Strunk, William Oliver (1960). "The Antiphons of the Oktoechos". Journal of the American Musicological Society. 13 (1/3): 50–67. doi:10.2307/830246. JSTOR 830246.
+Taft, Robert (1977). "The Evolution of the Byzantine 'Divine Liturgy'". Orientalia Christiana Periodica. 43: 8–30. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
+Tillyard, H. J. W. (1935). Handbook of the middle Byzantine musical notation (PDF). Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae, Subsidia. Vol. 1. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard.
+Troelsgård, Christian (2007). "A New Source for the Early Octoechos? Papyrus Vindobonensis G 19.934 and its musical implications". Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of the ASBMH (PDF). pp. 668–679. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
+Troelsgård, Christian (2011). Byzantine neumes: A New Introduction to the Middle Byzantine Musical Notation. Monumenta musicae byzantinae, Subsidia. Vol. 9. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-635-3158-0.
+Troelsgård, Christian (2001). "Psalm, § III Byzantine Psalmody". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.48161. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
+Wellesz, Egon (1961). A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-816111-0. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
+Werner, Eric (1948). "The Origin of the Eight Modes in Music: A Study in Musical Symbolism". Hebrew College Annual. 21: 211–255. JSTOR 23503693.
+Werner, Eric (1959). The Sacred Bridge. London: Dennis Dobson. Retrieved 17 May 2024.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenophilia-0.md

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+---
+title: "Hellenophilia"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenophilia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:15.775753+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hellenophilia is the idea that all western science began in Greek tradition. This is discussed in length by David Pingree in his address to colleagues. Hellenophilia is a way of thought that allows those who look into the history of science to be blinded to science born in other cultures. Pingree states, in explanation of the term that "a Hellenophile suffers from a form of madness that blinds him or her to historical truth" He continues by explaining the main symptoms of Hellenophilia "the first of these is that the Greeks invented science; the second is that they discovered a way to truth, the scientific method, that we are now successfully following; the third is that the only real sciences are those that began in Greece; and the fourth (and last?) is that the true definition of science is just that which scientists happen to be doing now, following a method or methods adumbrated by the Greeks, but never fully understood or utilized by them".
+An anthropological etiology of Greek innovation in natural science is advanced by sociologist Michael G. Horowitz in "The Scientific Dialectic of Ancient Greece and the Cultural Tradition of Indo-European Speakers".
+Although Hellenophilia relates directly to the history of science, it is important to look at it through aspects of history that lend to the habit, other than the symptoms listed by Pingree. One of these habits, as described by David C. Lindberg is looking at the history of science as starting with writing in fully syllabic systems. According to Lindberg the beginning of syllabic writing was around 1500 B.C. However, fully alphabetic writing was apparent in Greece in 800 B.C.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)-0.md

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+---
+title: "History of Geology and Mining (Information System)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:16.877164+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Information System "History of Geology and Mining" (Russian: Информационная система «История геологии и горного дела») is a scientific information system (knowledge base, bibliographic database and non-commercial website) containing biographical, bibliographical data and documents about scientists, scientific organizations, and publications related to geological and mining sciences. It is a joint project of the Geological Institute and the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It represents the first attempt to systematize and provide access to a large array of data in the field of the history of geology and mining. It was created to support and facilitate scientific research in the history of science.
+
+== History ==
+The information system is a continuation of the printed publications in the series “Materials on the History of Geology in the USSR”.
+Versions of the "History of Geology and Mining" information system:
+
+Test version on the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences website (2011—2015 — scirus.benran.ru/higeo.
+At the Geological Institute RAS: 2015–2025 at higeo.ginras.ru. New test version at https://higeo.ru
+
+== Description and structure ==
+
+The system was created based on the customizable network software complex "SciRus" developed at the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences (part of the Information and Library Council of the RAS). Software development by: N. Kalenov, A. Senko, and M. Yakshin.
+The information system on the history of geology includes core data about scientists:
+
+Data for scientific biographies of scientists
+Organizations (academies, educational institutions, institutes, and scientific societies), geography and research directions
+Printed sources (journals, newspapers, and other serial publications)
+Brief scientific biographies of scientists (under development)
+Major scientific works and references to them (URLs and DOIs are provided where available)
+Literature about scientists and references to it (URLs are provided where available)
+Documents related to scientists (questionnaires, manuscripts, event programs, correspondence, and other documents)
+Links to portraits of scientists, group photographs, engravings, and other images.
+The data array is centered around the scientist's profile. A large portion of the documents are still being processed or are currently in closed access: about 10,000 folders on scientists, >15,000 photographs and other images.
+Internal integrated search across many parameters is the primary functionality of the Information System.
+
+== History ==
+Since 1949, Vladimir Vladimirovich Tikhomirov began collecting materials on the history of geological sciences at the Institute of Geological Sciences of the USSR Academy of Sciences (predecessor of the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences). In 1951, he founded and headed the "Office of the History of Geological Sciences". A group of historians of science and bibliographers continued to collect and process information on the history of Earth sciences, actively began surveying geologists from across the USSR, and compiling bibliographies of scientists' works on bibliographic cards. Additionally, they collected photographs, illustrations for publications, and information about various geological scientific organizations and events (congresses, meetings, conferences, anniversaries, and other events).
+In 1956, upon the formation of the Geological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the "Office" was renamed the "Laboratory of the History of Geology", and later the "Department for the history of geology". Based on the collected material, the following began to be published:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)-1.md

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+---
+title: "History of Geology and Mining (Information System)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:16.877164+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+1961—1992 — Materials of the Commission for the Geological Study of the USSR.
+1965—1973 — Biographies and bibliographies of scientists in the form of bibliographic dictionaries, edited for the first 7 issues by V. V. Tikhomirov.
+In 1991, the Department for the history of geology moved to the newly established Vernadsky State Geological Museum.
+Data collection began using Microsoft Access; by 2007, brief information on 1,700 scientists whose works were significant for the development of Earth sciences had been entered. The system was then planned to be integrated into the standard software complex "Scientific Institute of the RAS", in cooperation with the Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre of the RAS.
+In 2008, the history of geology group began work under the Program of the RAS Presidium — the Electronic Library "Scientific Heritage of Russia", which united information resources of scientific institutes, archives, and libraries of the RAS. The library hosted publications of naturalists and geologists (up to 1945), their biographical essays, and portraits. A section "Natural History Collections" was created with descriptions of museum items from historical and monographic collections related to scientists. Therefore, the modern information system is integrated (links to scientific works, information about authors, etc.) with the "Scientific Heritage of Russia" electronic library.
+Research on the topic of the Information System "History of Geology and Mining" began in 2010. Under modern conditions, processing the accumulated materials was only possible using information technology, and to maximize cooperation with the scientific community, it was decided to place it on the Internet. The Department of the History of Geology, together with the Library for Natural Sciences of the RAS (BEN RAS), began developing a new Internet resource — the information system "History of Geology and Mining". Since 2011, the system began to be populated with lists of scientific works and literature about scientists. Priority was given to full members, corresponding members, and foreign members (professors, extraordinary and ordinary academicians) of the national academy, which changed its name over time:
+Since May 2015, following the return of the research unit "Group of the History of Geology" to the Geological Institute RAS (GI RAS), the Information System came under the management of GI RAS and BEN RAS. From 2015 to 2018, the scientific work of populating the system was a planned research topic for fundamental research at GI RAS — "History of Major Achievements in Geology and Mining Sciences: Information System 'History of Geology and Mining'".
+In 2019, the information system moved to the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (higeo.ginras.ru), featuring over 900 scientists. The database volume is about 2 gigabytes. Registered with Rospatent: authors — I. G. Malakhova and I. P. Vtorov, rights holder — Geological Institute RAS.
+The number of scientist profiles with their bibliographies presented in the Information System is constantly increasing: 2021 — 1200; 2024 — 1700; 2026 — over 1900 geologists.
+Since 2017, the Information System has been used by 5th-year students of the Geological Faculty of Moscow State University in the History of Geology course.
+
+== See also ==
+Bibliography
+Information system
+History of geology
+
+== References ==
+
+== Literature ==
+Yakshin M. M. Novy'e vozmozhnosti programmnogo kompleksa «SciRus» [New Capabilities of the "SciRus" Software Complex] // Informacionnoe obespechenie nauki: Novy'e texnologii. Presentation, 2013.
+Yakshin M. M. Razvitie platformy' SciRus [Development of the SciRus Platform] // Informacionnoe obespechenie nauki: Novy'e texnologii. M.: BEN RAN, 2015. P. 203–207.
+Kalenov N. E., Malakhova I. G. Informacionnaya sistema «Istoriya geologii i gornogo dela» kak primer integracii raznorodny'x resursov [Information System "History of Geology and Mining" as an Example of Integration of Heterogeneous Resources] // Informacionnoe obespechenie nauki: novy'e texnologii. Ekaterinburg: CNB UrO RAN, 2017. P. 125–131.
+Vtorov I. P. The Information System «History of Geology and Mining» as a scientific tool for historians of Earth sciences // IOP Publishing: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019. Vol. 350. 012020. DOI 10.1088/1755-1315/350/1/012020
+Malakhova I. G., Vtorov I. P. Informacionnaya sistema «Istoriya geologii i gornogo dela» kak e'lement edinogo cifrovogo prostranstva nauchny'x znanij v oblasti istorii nauki [Information System "History of Geology and Mining" as an Element of the Unified Digital Space of Scientific Knowledge in the Field of History of Science] // Edinoe cifrovoe prostranstvo nauchny'x znanij: problemy' i resheniya [Unified Digital Space of Scientific Knowledge: Problems and Solutions]. Moscow: Direkt-Media, 2021. P. 186–198.
+Malakhova I.G., Vtorov I.P, Kirillov S.A. The History of Geosciences as the Resource for the Digital Space of Scientific Knowledge of the Russian Academy of Sciences // CEUR Workshop Proceedings. Vol. 2990. 2021. P. 50–61.
+Rogov M. A. Osnovy' raboty' s nauchnoj informaciej v seti Internet dlya geologov i biologov / Otv. red. N. B. Kuznecov. M.: GIN RAN, 2022. (Trudy' Geologicheskogo instituta RAN; Vyp. 633). [Fundamentals of Working with Scientific Information on the Internet for Geologists and Biologists / Ed. by N. B. Kuznetsov. M.: GI RAS, 2022. (Proceedings of the Geological Institute RAS; Iss. 633).]
+
+== External links ==
+http://higeo.ginras.ru and updated version at https://higeo.ru — Information System "History of Geology and Mining".
+Rospatent Registration — No. 2019622087 from November 15, 2019, Bulletin No. 11.
+Group of the History of Geology on the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences website.
+Information Systems of Scientific Institutions of the Russian Academy of Sciences on the RAS website.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-0.md

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+---
+title: "History of beliefs about the human body"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:20.435646+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The human body has been subject of much debate. How people are defined, and what defined them – be it their anatomy or their energy or both – depends on culture and time. Culture not only defines how sex is perceived but also how gender is defined.  Today gender, sex, and identity continue to be of much debate and change based on what place and people are being examined.
+The early modern idea of the body was a cultural ideal, an understanding and approach to how the body works and what place that body has in the world.  All cultural ideals of the body in the early modern period deal with deficiencies and disorders within a body, commonly told through a male ideal.  Ideas of the body in the early modern period form the history of how bodies should be and how to correct the body when something has gone wrong.  Therefore, early modern conceptions of the body were not biological as there was not a restrictive biological view of the human body as established by modern science.
+Conceptions of the body are primarily either eastern, based in China and involving practices such as Traditional chinese medicine, or western, which follows the Greek traditions of science and is more closely related to modern science despite original anatomists and ideas of the body being just as unscientific as Chinese practices.
+
+== Historiography ==
+
+In Western historical research, scholars began investigating the cultural history of the human body in detail in the 1980s. The movement is particularly associated with the historian of medicine Roy Porter, whose 1991 article 'History of the Body' was a seminal study. 1995 saw the foundation of the journal Body and Society, by which time the field of the history of the body was already extensive and diverse.
+Porter pointed out that Western historiography had previously assumed mind–body dualism (i.e. that the body is fundamentally separate from the mind or soul) and therefore that the cultural history of bodies as material objects had been overlooked: 'given the abundance of evidence available, we remain remarkably ignorant about how individuals and social groups have experienced, controlled, and projected their embodied selves. How have people made sense of the mysterious link between "self" and its extensions? How have they managed the body as an intermediary between self and society?' He emphasised that the history of the body is important to understanding histories of coercion and control, sex and gender, and other important but culturally varied aspects of human experience.
+Another prominent voice in the field at the same time was Caroline Walker Bynum, whose 1988 Holy Feast and Holy Fast became a landmark study. Both Bynum and Porter noted that during the 1980s Western history of the body research drew on post-structuralist thought, such as Michel Foucault's ideas of biopolitics and biopower, which emphasised that state power is not abstract, but exercised through and over human bodies. But both expressed a concern that research was focusing too much on discourse about bodies, rather than on material bodies themselves. Drawing on Mikhail Bakhtin's 1965 Rabelais and His World, they promoted a more materially orientated direction in the history of the body.
+Another seminal study around the same time was Thomas Laqueur's 1990 Making Sex: Body and Gender from Greeks to Freud, which explored the social importance of different conceptions of the sexed body over time.
+
+== Ebers Papyrus ==
+
+The Ebers Papyrus is an Egyptian medical text and is the oldest known record of the human body, dating back to 3000 BC. The Ebers Papyrus describes the body by physical examination and what can be felt. Clinical investigations such as the Pulse, percussion of the body, the recognition of diseased or disordered states.
+“If thou examinst a swelling of the covering of his belly's horns above his pudenda (sex organs) then thou shalt place thy finger on it and examine his belly and knock on the fingers (percuss) if thou examinst his that has come out and has arisen by his cough. Then thou shalt say concerning it: it is a swelling of the covering of his belly. It is a disease which I will treat”.
+The distinct medical tone focuses on what can be felt externally to infer the maladies of the body. The body was born in the correct state but could was fallible and  fixable with the correct intervention and feeling and using the senses to identify what has gone wrong. The Ebers Papyrus refers to many god-like and spiritual infestations of the body that could not be explained at the time. Despite the explanations for maladies by spiritual rational, the interventions described to investigate and see the body were distinctly disconnected for the spirit or life force of the body and was principally about what could be seen or touched.
+Descriptions of the exact placement of the heart within the body, the circulation of blood are in no doubt accurate as Egyptians practiced embalming their dead by removal of organs and placement of them in jars.
+
+== Medical Body in Ancient Greece ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-1.md

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+---
+title: "History of beliefs about the human body"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:20.435646+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Greek philosophers separated the body and the energy of the body into separate but equal and interacting categories. Aristotle defined the energy which gives the body its movement as the soul. The soul and the body are therefore linked but can remain separate entities. This is in refutation of Dualists who view the body and mind as separate states and should be treated and examined differently and Materialists who view all parts of the body, even the soul as having a physical manifestation in the body. Aristotle finds the middle ground and accepts both of these views, that the soul has aspects that cannot be felt by normal methods, and physical manifestations that can be felt.  "For even if one and being are spoken of in several ways, what is properly so spoken of is the actuality" — Aristotle in De Anima
+Aristotle forms the idea of Hylomorphism, that the soul and the body are not capable of being split apart without destroying both in the process. Despite this idea of the body and the soul Aristotle viewed disorder in what could be seen and felt. He was a proponent of the humoral theory that classified disorder as imbalances of the 4 fluids of the body. Aristotle was unable to dissect humans but did so to many animals and was an early founder of comparative anatomy. Aristotle did contend quasi spiritual manifestations of the body principally through sexual distinctions. He wrote that the sex of humans:
+“is determined by the male principle already contained in the semen. If this is not strong enough, then the opposite must necessarily come into existence, and the opposite of man is woman.”
+
+Aristotle clearly superimposed man as the more important figure in men and women but presents an almost Qi like representation of how sexes are defined. Aristotle presents it as a physical manifestation in semen, but in context to his descriptions of the soul and body it is not clear that he meant something physical.
+
+== European Judeo-Christian ==
+European ideologies of the body define disorder as only things that can be touched or explored. If something could not be explored then intrusions into these areas were performed. Therefore, the body in Greek and European cultures is defined as being ailed by something physical, something that can be found and altered to produce order. Judeo-Christian ideologies have heavily influenced the definitions of the body and its disorders and therefore the male body is often explained in place of the female body.
+
+=== The one-sex body model ===
+
+A major intervention in the history of the body in the West was Thomas W. Laqueur's 1990 book Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Laqueur argued that from the eighteenth century into the late twentieth, Western societies had generally thought of humans as having two fundamentally sexes, male and female. But Laqueur argued that from ancient times, the prevailing intellectual understanding of sex was that women were anatomically simply an inferior form of men. For example, Renaldus Columbus, writing about what he proposed as the discovery of the clitoris, stated that, "like a penis, "if you touch it, you will find it rendered a little harder and oblong to such a degree that it shows itself as a sort of male member." (There was much debate on the actual discovery of the clitoris between male European scientists and many claimed to have described it first: by dissecting the human body and writing down what was observed these European scientists could claim in their idea of the body that they had discovered or created new knowledge.) This one-sex model was seen as consistent, in Abrahamic thought, with the Genesis creation narrative, in which Eve is formed from Adam's rib.
+Laqueur's argument has been enormously influential on the history of the body in the West, and applied by historians to a range of societies outside Laqueur's original scope, such as medieval Iceland. However, scholars specialising in pre-eighteenth-century history have often been critical of the idea that the one-sex body really was dominant in everyday life, or even in intellectual circles.
+
+=== The Vitruvian Man ===
+The Vitruvian Man is a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci that depicts the European ideal of a man. The figure is extremely muscular and focuses on the exterior of the body, what can be seen and felt. This was the standard of beauty of humans and continues to be the ideal body of European traditions. There is no Vitruvian women.
+
+== Medical body in East Asian medical literature ==
+
+Eastern ideologies of the body explain what can be detected, not only felt and examined. This comes from the idea that there is not only what can be physically seen and touched but what cannot be. Energy or more aptly the means by which your body can manifest itself in the world cannot be seen but, was thought to  be able to be detected. Definitions of the body and its disorders therefore focus on physical manifestations of energy through the body. This is mostly seen in Traditional Chinese medicine and has today been explained in physical ways by modern science. The ideal body of east Asian medical literature was not muscular and instead focused on key energy manifestations in the body for directed therapy.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-2.md

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+---
+title: "History of beliefs about the human body"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:20.435646+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Yellow Emperors body ===
+The Yellow Emperor's Body is a term derived from the references to the Yellow Emperor within the Ancient Chinese book, the "book of change". The Term describes the references to both the physical body that can be touched, felt, and interact with the physical world, but also the sense of person and self that the body. The dualism of the body as both the physical self and the subjective consciousness is how Chinese defined the body. The Yellow Emperor's body is a metaphor to describe a body that focuses on the individual and not the general, focusing on disorder as not just a physical malady.
+The yellow emperor is revered in China and was the founder of acupuncture. The yellow emperor is said to of derived his medical practices from a  conversation with a community physician. The manuscript is recorded in the Yellow Emperors Inner Cannon, and it being recorded in this way represents the attention to the individuals perspective in creating therapies like acupuncture to treat body ailments.
+The Inner Cannon was revised by natural Philosophers of the time and the approved version of the Han Court and became a foundational text for the ideals and perceptions of the human body. It focused on Qi, Yin and Yang balance, and Five phase theory to explain health can disease.
+
+==== Qi ====
+Referred to as the life force of the body, or the means by which the body is able to be animated. Qi is not limited to the physical but is intertwined with the cosmological. A tiny bit of qi, known as primordial qi is integrated in humans at birth. As one grows it is due to the primordial qi, as one fades it is because of the qi, and when one dies it is because their qi has been exhausted.
+
+==== Yin and Yang ====
+These are variations and representations of qi that define how a human exists in the world, a system of complementary opposites. Yin and Yang defined gender differences  seen in the population. A baby born male simply had more Yang Qi energy where as a female has dominant Yin energy. Transgenderism, hermaphroditism and other variations of the body can be explained by the Yin and Yang Qi ideas of the body much better than the European counterparts.
+
+==== Five Phases ====
+Other types of change in the world were classified by Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal and Water. Applied to the body these 5 forces were the Liver, Heart, Spleen, Lung, and Kidney. These representations of the physical world in the body was understood dynamically and represents a deeper connection to the non animate objects and surroundings of a human. The body was not only physical sphere but a cosmological one interconnected to all physical and non physical quantities of life.
+
+=== Disorders - Cheng Congzhou ===
+The clinician and patient encounter is a spiritual connection. It is not just about what is done but what is said and how it is said, how information is revealed and what information is not. Cheng Congzhou a physician in 1581 was a local doctor in Yangshou and documented his patient encounters in detail. The importance of not only qi but blood is seen in his records: Fang Shunian's mother, the scholar's Honored Lady,4 was sixty three years old. Her constitution was naturally weak and emaciated. Her qi and Blood were both depleted. Normally all her six pulses were extremely "subtle" and "fine"; even when she caught cold they did not become very "big" or "pounding."The interactions of the physical body and the cosmological essence of a body was how disorders of the body was framed in this doctors account.
+
+== The corpse ==
+The practices surrounding a corpse differ widely among cultures. Diogenes is famously said to have wanted his lifeless body to be thrown to the wolves so that his body can return to nature. Cultural practices that revere the dead across all cultures reveal that even in European cultures that attempt to adhere purely to what can be seen and touched, recognize that there is a more cosmic necessity to the body and connection to the physical and cosmological worlds.
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scholarship-0.md

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+---
+title: "History of scholarship"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scholarship"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:17.982038+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The history of scholarship is the historical study of fields of study which are not covered by the English term "science" (cf., history of science), but are covered by, for example, the German term "Wissenschaft" (i.e., all kinds of academic studies). Examples include the history of classical studies, philosophy, religion, biblical studies, historiography, music, art, and literature. 
+It is a field which has recently undergone a complete renewal and is now a major branch of research. In 2015, the Society for the History of the Humanities was established, coinciding with the launch of the journal History of Humanities in 2016. Both developments reflect the field’s growing institutional presence and international scholarly collaboration.
+
+
+== Classical scholarship ==
+Rudolph Pfeiffer (1968) describes the history of classical scholarship from its revival inspired by Petrarch to the achievements of the Italian humanists and the independent movement in Holland (including Erasmus) and the German scholar-reformers. Pfeiffer traces the development of classical scholarship in the countries of Western Europe through the next two centuries, with particular attention to sixteenth-century France and eighteenth-century England. Finally he provides an account of the new approach made by Winckelmann and his successors in Germany.
+
+
+== Philosophers, scholars, polymaths, and scientists ==
+The word scientist was coined by the English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell in 1833. Until then there was no differentiation between the history of science, the history of philosophy, and the history of scholarship.
+Before 1700 the fields of scholarship were not of a size that made academic specialisation necessary. Academic disciplines as we know them today did not exist. Scholars were generally active in both the sciences and what are now called the Arts and Humanities.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Art history
+Cultural history
+Historic recurrence
+History of archaeology
+History of books
+History of education
+History of European universities
+History of knowledge
+History of mathematics
+History of writing
+Human science
+Intellectual history
+Medieval university
+Scholarly method
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Grafton, Anthony (1983). Joseph Scaliger: A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship I: Textual Criticism and Exegesis. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
+Weinberg, Joanna (2006). A Sixteenth Century Hebraic Approach to the New Testament. In: History of scholarship: a selection of papers from the Seminar on the History of Scholarship held annually at the Warburg Institute, edited by Christopher Ligota and Jean-Louis Quantin. Oxford (pp. 231–250)
+Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (1982). History of Classical Scholarship. The Johns Hopkins University Press
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Seminar on the History of Scholarship is held annually at the Warburg Institute (Oxford-Warburg Studies)
+The scholarships through scholefy scholarships all over the world through scholefy
+A.A. Donohue:  History of Scholarship of Classical Art History

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ice age"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:21.570677+00:00"
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+---
+
+An ice age is a period of time when the lower temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere results in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. The term is applied in several different senses to very long and comparatively short periods of cooling. Colder periods are called glacials or ice ages, and warmer periods are called interglacials.
+Earth's climate alternates between icehouse and greenhouse periods based on whether there are glaciers on the planet, and for most of Earth's history it has been in a greenhouse period with little or no permanent ice. Over the very long term, Earth is currently in an icehouse period called the Late Cenozoic Ice Age, which started 34 million years ago. There have been colder and warmer periods within this ice age, and the term is also applied to the Quaternary glaciation, which started 2.58 million years ago. Within this period, the Last Interglacial ended 115,000 years ago, and was followed by the Last Glacial Period (LGP), which gave way to the current warm Holocene, which started 11,700 years ago. The most severe cold period of the LGP was the Last Glacial Maximum, which reached its maximum between 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. The most recent glaciation was the Younger Dryas between 12,800 and 11,700 years ago.
+
+== History of research ==
+
+In 1742, Pierre Martel (1706–1767), an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, visited the valley of Chamonix in the Alps of Savoy. Two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the glaciers, saying that they had once extended much farther. Later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and chamois hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin (1767–1858) explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpentier (1786–1855) in 1834. Comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in Goethe's scientific work. Such explanations could also be found in other parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist Ernst von Bibra (1806–1878) visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, the natives attributed fossil moraines to the former action of glaciers.
+Meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport. The Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas (1712–1772) was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice was a cause of the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist, James Hutton (1726–1797), explained erratic boulders in the Alps by the action of glaciers. Two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist Göran Wahlenberg (1780–1851) published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon.

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+title: "Ice age"
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+category: "reference"
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+---
+
+Only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark (1762–1839) argued for a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations. He attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earth's orbit. Esmark discovered the similarity between moraines near Haukalivatnet lake near sea level in Rogaland and moraines at branches of Jostedalsbreen. Esmark's discovery were later attributed to or appropriated by Theodor Kjerulf and Louis Agassiz.
+During the following years, Esmark's ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish and German scientists. At the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson (1774–1854) seemed to be relatively open to Esmark's ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen (1992). Jameson's remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark. In Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi (1797–1849), a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker (since incorporated in the southern Thuringian city of Meiningen), adopted Esmark's theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about the polar ice caps once reaching as far as the temperate zones of the globe.
+In Val de Bagnes, a valley in the Swiss Alps, there was a long-held local belief that the valley had once been covered deep in ice, and in 1815 a local chamois hunter called Jean-Pierre Perraudin attempted to convert the geologist Jean de Charpentier to the idea, pointing to deep striations in the rocks and giant erratic boulders as evidence. Charpentier held the general view that these signs were caused by vast floods, and he rejected Perraudin's theory as absurd. In 1818 the engineer Ignatz Venetz joined Perraudin and Charpentier to examine a proglacial lake above the valley created by an ice dam as a result of the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, which threatened to cause a catastrophic flood when the dam broke. Perraudin attempted unsuccessfully to convert his companions to his theory, but when the dam finally broke, there were only minor erratics and no striations, and Venetz concluded that Perraudin was right and that only ice could have caused such major results. In 1821 he read a prize-winning paper on the theory to the Swiss Society, but it was not published until Charpentier, who had also become converted, published it with his own more widely read paper in 1834.
+In the meantime, the German botanist Karl Friedrich Schimper (1803–1867) was studying mosses which were growing on erratic boulders in the alpine upland of Bavaria. He began to wonder where such masses of stone had come from. During the summer of 1835 he made some excursions to the Bavarian Alps. Schimper came to the conclusion that ice must have been the means of transport for the boulders in the alpine upland. In the winter of 1835–36 he held some lectures in Munich. Schimper then assumed that there must have been global times of obliteration ("Verödungszeiten") with a cold climate and frozen water. Schimper spent the summer months of 1836 at Devens, near Bex, in the Swiss Alps with his former university friend Louis Agassiz (1801–1873) and Jean de Charpentier. Schimper, Charpentier and possibly Venetz convinced Agassiz that there had been a time of glaciation. During the winter of 1836–37, Agassiz and Schimper developed the theory of a sequence of glaciations. They mainly drew upon the preceding works of Venetz, Charpentier and on their own fieldwork. Agassiz appears to have been already familiar with Bernhardi's paper at that time. At the beginning of 1837, Schimper coined the term "ice age" ("Eiszeit") for the period of the glaciers. In July 1837 Agassiz presented their synthesis before the annual meeting of the Swiss Society for Natural Research at Neuchâtel. The audience was very critical, and some were opposed to the new theory because it contradicted the established opinions on climatic history. Most contemporary scientists thought that Earth had been gradually cooling down since its birth as a molten globe.
+In order to persuade the skeptics, Agassiz embarked on geological fieldwork. He published his book Study on Glaciers ("Études sur les glaciers") in 1840. Charpentier was put out by this, as he had also been preparing a book about the glaciation of the Alps. Charpentier felt that Agassiz should have given him precedence as it was he who had introduced Agassiz to in-depth glacial research. As a result of personal quarrels, Agassiz had also omitted any mention of Schimper in his book.
+It took several decades before the ice age theory was fully accepted by scientists. This happened on an international scale in the second half of the 1870s, following the work of James Croll, including the publication of Climate and Time, in Their Geological Relations in 1875, which provided a credible explanation for the causes of ice ages.

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+title: "Ice age"
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:21.570677+00:00"
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+---
+
+== Evidence ==
+There are three main types of evidence for ice ages: geological, chemical, and paleontological.
+Geological evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, glacial moraines, drumlins, valley cutting, and the deposition of till or tillites and glacial erratics. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence for earlier glaciations, making it difficult to interpret. Furthermore, this evidence was difficult to date exactly; early theories assumed that the glacials were short compared to the long interglacials. The advent of sediment and ice cores revealed the true situation: glacials are long, interglacials short. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out.
+The chemical evidence mainly consists of variations in the ratios of isotopes in fossils present in sediments and sedimentary rocks and ocean sediment cores. For the most recent glacial periods, ice cores provide climate proxies, both from the ice itself and from atmospheric samples provided by included bubbles of air. Because water containing lighter isotopes has a lower heat of evaporation, its proportion decreases with warmer conditions. This allows a temperature record to be constructed. This evidence can be confounded, however, by other factors recorded by isotope ratios.
+The paleontological evidence consists of changes in the geographical distribution of fossils. During a glacial period, cold-adapted organisms spread into lower latitudes, and organisms that prefer warmer conditions become extinct or retreat into lower latitudes. This evidence is also difficult to interpret because it requires:
+
+sequences of sediments covering a long period of time, over a wide range of latitudes and which are easily correlated;
+ancient organisms which survive for several million years without change and whose temperature preferences are easily diagnosed; and
+the finding of the relevant fossils.
+Despite the difficulties, analysis of ice core and ocean sediment cores has provided a credible record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years. These also confirm the linkage between ice ages and continental crust phenomena such as glacial moraines, drumlins, and glacial erratics. Hence the continental crust phenomena are accepted as good evidence of earlier ice ages when they are found in layers created much earlier than the time range for which ice cores and ocean sediment cores are available.
+
+== Major ice ages ==
+
+There have been at least five major ice ages in Earth's history (the Huronian, Cryogenian, Andean-Saharan, late Paleozoic, and the latest Quaternary Ice Age). Outside these ages, Earth was previously thought to have been ice-free even in high latitudes; such periods are known as greenhouse periods. However, other studies dispute this, finding evidence of occasional glaciations at high latitudes even during apparent greenhouse periods.
+
+Rocks from the earliest well-established ice age, called the Huronian, have been dated to around 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago during the early Proterozoic Eon. Several hundreds of kilometers of the Huronian Supergroup are exposed 10 to 100 kilometers (6 to 62 mi) north of the north shore of Lake Huron, extending from near Sault Ste. Marie to Sudbury, northeast of Lake Huron, with giant layers of now-lithified till beds, dropstones, varves, outwash, and scoured basement rocks. Correlative Huronian deposits have been found near Marquette, Michigan, and correlation has been made with Paleoproterozoic glacial deposits from Western Australia. The Huronian ice age was caused by the elimination of atmospheric methane, a greenhouse gas, during the Great Oxygenation Event.
+The next well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last billion years, occurred from 720 to 630 million years ago (the Cryogenian period) and may have produced a Snowball Earth in which glacial ice sheets reached the equator, possibly being ended by the accumulation of greenhouse gases such as CO2 produced by volcanoes. "The presence of ice on the continents and pack ice on the oceans would inhibit both silicate weathering and photosynthesis, which are the two major sinks for CO2 at present." It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent Ediacaran and Cambrian explosion, though this model is recent and controversial.
+The Andean-Saharan occurred from 460 to 420 million years ago, during the Late Ordovician and the Silurian period.

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+title: "Ice age"
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+
+The evolution of land plants at the onset of the Devonian period caused a long term increase in planetary oxygen levels and reduction of CO2 levels, which resulted in the late Paleozoic icehouse. Its former name, the Karoo glaciation, was named after the glacial tills found in the Karoo region of South Africa. There were extensive polar ice caps at intervals from 360 to 260 million years ago in South Africa during the Carboniferous and early Permian periods. Correlatives are known from Argentina, also in the center of the ancient supercontinent Gondwanaland.
+Although the Mesozoic Era retained a greenhouse climate over its timespan and was previously assumed to have been entirely glaciation-free, more recent studies suggest that brief periods of glaciation occurred in both hemispheres during the Early Cretaceous. Geologic and palaeoclimatological records suggest the existence of glacial periods during the Valanginian, Hauterivian, and Aptian stages of the Early Cretaceous. Ice-rafted glacial dropstones indicate that in the Northern Hemisphere, ice sheets may have extended as far south as the Iberian Peninsula during the Hauterivian and Aptian. Although ice sheets largely disappeared from Earth for the rest of the period (potential reports from the Turonian, otherwise the warmest period of the Phanerozoic, are disputed), ice sheets and associated sea ice appear to have briefly returned to Antarctica near the very end of the Maastrichtian just prior to the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.
+The Quaternary Glaciation / Quaternary Ice Age started about 2.58 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary Period when the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere began. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000- and 100,000-year time scales called glacial periods, glacials or glacial advances, and interglacial periods, interglacials or glacial retreats. Earth is currently in an interglacial, and the last glacial period ended about 11,700 years ago. All that remains of the continental ice sheets are the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets and smaller glaciers such as on Baffin Island.
+The definition of the Quaternary as beginning 2.58 Ma is based on the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene-Oligocene Boundary). The term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase.
+Ice ages can be further divided by location and time; for example, the names Riss (180,000–130,000 years bp) and Würm (70,000–10,000 years bp) refer specifically to glaciation in the Alpine region. The maximum extent of the ice is not maintained for the full interval. The scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior ice sheets almost completely, except in regions where the later sheet does not achieve full coverage.
+
+== Glacials and interglacials ==
+
+Within the current glaciation, more temperate and more severe periods have occurred. The colder periods are called glacial periods, the warmer periods interglacials, such as the Eemian Stage. There is evidence that similar glacial cycles occurred in previous glaciations, including the Andean-Saharan and the late Paleozoic ice house.  The glacial cycles of the late Paleozoic ice house are likely responsible for the deposition of cyclothems.
+Glacials are characterized by cooler and drier climates over most of Earth and large land and sea ice masses extending outward from the poles. Mountain glaciers in otherwise unglaciated areas extend to lower elevations due to a lower snow line. Sea levels drop due to the removal of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps. There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. The glacials and interglacials coincide with changes in orbital forcing of climate due to Milankovitch cycles, which are periodic changes in Earth's orbit and the tilt of Earth's rotational axis.
+Earth has been in an interglacial period known as the Holocene for around 11,700 years, and an article in Nature in 2004 argues that it might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Predicted changes in orbital forcing suggest that the next glacial period would begin at least 50,000 years from now. Moreover, anthropogenic forcing from increased greenhouse gases is estimated to potentially outweigh the orbital forcing of the Milankovitch cycles for hundreds of thousands of years.
+
+== Feedback processes ==
+Each glacial period is subject to positive feedback mechanisms, which makes it more severe, and negative feedback which dampens the overall climate response to different types of forcing. In the case of Quaternary ice ages, Earth's high albedo from ice sheets and atmospheric dust as well as low concentrations of atmospheric CO2 contributed to cold glacial climates.

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+title: "Ice age"
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+---
+
+=== Positive ===
+An important form of feedback is provided by Earth's albedo, which is how much of the sun's energy is reflected rather than absorbed by Earth. Ice and snow increase Earth's albedo, while forests reduce its albedo. When the air temperature decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and they reduce forest cover. This continues until competition with a negative feedback mechanism forces the system to an equilibrium.
+One theory is that when glaciers form, two things happen: the ice grinds rocks into dust, and the land becomes dry and arid. This allows winds to transport iron rich dust into the open ocean, where it acts as a fertilizer that causes massive algal blooms that pulls large amounts of CO2 out of the atmosphere. This in turn makes it even colder and causes the glaciers to grow more.
+In 1956, Ewing and Donn hypothesized that an ice-free Arctic Ocean leads to increased snowfall at high latitudes. When low-temperature ice covers the Arctic Ocean there is little evaporation or sublimation and the polar regions are quite dry in terms of precipitation, comparable to the amount found in mid-latitude deserts. This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer. An ice-free Arctic Ocean absorbs solar radiation during the long summer days, and evaporates more water into the Arctic atmosphere. With higher precipitation, portions of this snow may not melt during the summer and so glacial ice can form at lower altitudes and more southerly latitudes, reducing the temperatures over land by increased albedo as noted above. Furthermore, under this hypothesis the lack of oceanic pack ice allows increased exchange of waters between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans, warming the Arctic and cooling the North Atlantic. (Current projected consequences of global warming include a brief ice-free Arctic Ocean period by 2050.) Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also reduce the global ocean water circulation. Such a reduction (by reducing the effects of the Gulf Stream) would have a cooling effect on northern Europe, which in turn would lead to increased low-latitude snow retention during the summer. It has also been suggested that during an extensive glacial, glaciers may move through the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, extending into the North Atlantic Ocean far enough to block the Gulf Stream.
+
+=== Negative ===
+Ice sheets that form during glaciations erode the land beneath them. This can reduce the land area above sea level and thus diminish the amount of space on which ice sheets can form. This mitigates the albedo feedback, as does the rise in sea level that accompanies the reduced area of ice sheets, since open ocean has a lower albedo than land.
+Another negative feedback mechanism is the increased aridity occurring with glacial maxima, which reduces the precipitation available to maintain glaciation. The glacial retreat induced by this or any other process can be amplified by similar inverse positive feedbacks as for glacial advances.
+According to research published in Nature Geoscience, human emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) will defer the next glacial period. Researchers used data on Earth's orbit to find the historical warm interglacial period that looks most like the current one and from this have predicted that the next glacial period would usually begin within 1,500 years. They go on to predict that emissions have been so high that it will not.
+
+== Causes ==
+The causes of ice ages are not fully understood for either the large-scale ice age periods or the smaller ebb and flow of glacial–interglacial periods within an ice age. The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles; the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on Earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.
+Some of these factors influence each other. For example, changes in Earth's atmospheric composition (especially the concentrations of greenhouse gases) may alter the climate, while climate change itself can change the atmospheric composition (for example by changing the rate at which weathering removes CO2).
+Maureen Raymo, William Ruddiman and others propose that the Tibetan and Colorado Plateaus are immense CO2 "scrubbers" with a capacity to remove enough CO2 from the global atmosphere to be a significant causal factor of the 40 million year Cenozoic Cooling trend. They further claim that approximately half of their uplift (and CO2 "scrubbing" capacity) occurred in the past 10 million years.
+
+=== Changes in Earth's atmosphere ===
+There is evidence that greenhouse gas levels fell at the start of ice ages and rose during the retreat of the ice sheets, but it is difficult to establish cause and effect (see the notes above on the role of weathering). Greenhouse gas levels may also have been affected by other factors which have been proposed as causes of ice ages, such as the movement of continents and volcanism.
+The Snowball Earth hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late Proterozoic was ended by an increase in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, mainly from volcanoes, and some supporters of Snowball Earth argue that it was caused in the first place by a reduction in atmospheric CO2. The hypothesis also warns of future Snowball Earths.
+In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar insolation provide the initial trigger for Earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.

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+title: "Ice age"
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+---
+
+=== Position of the continents ===
+The geological record appears to show that ice ages start when the continents are in positions which block or reduce the flow of warm water from the equator to the poles and thus allow ice sheets to form. The ice sheets increase Earth's reflectivity and thus reduce the absorption of solar radiation. With less radiation absorbed the atmosphere cools; the cooling allows the ice sheets to grow, which further increases reflectivity in a positive feedback loop. The ice age continues until the reduction in weathering causes an increase in the greenhouse effect.
+There are three main contributors from the layout of the continents that obstruct the movement of warm water to the poles:
+
+A continent sits on top of a pole, as Antarctica does today.
+A polar sea is almost land-locked, as the Arctic Ocean is today.
+A supercontinent covers most of the equator, as Rodinia did during the Cryogenian period.
+Since today's Earth has a continent over the South Pole and an almost land-locked ocean over the North Pole, geologists believe that Earth will continue to experience glacial periods in the geologically near future.
+Some scientists believe that the Himalayas are a major factor in the current ice age, because these mountains have increased Earth's total rainfall and therefore the rate at which carbon dioxide is washed out of the atmosphere, decreasing the greenhouse effect. The Himalayas' formation started about 70 million years ago when the Indo-Australian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate, and the Himalayas are still rising by about 5 mm per year because the Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm/year. The history of the Himalayas broadly fits the long-term decrease in Earth's average temperature since the mid-Eocene, 40 million years ago.
+
+=== Fluctuations in ocean currents ===
+
+Another important contribution to ancient climate regimes is the variation of ocean currents, which are modified by continent position, sea levels and salinity, as well as other factors. They have the ability to cool (e.g. aiding the creation of Antarctic ice) and the ability to warm (e.g. giving the British Isles a temperate as opposed to a boreal climate). The closing of the Isthmus of Panama about 3 million years ago may have ushered in the present period of strong glaciation over North America by ending the exchange of water between the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
+Analyses suggest that ocean current fluctuations can adequately account for recent glacial oscillations. During the last glacial period the sea-level fluctuated 20 to 30 metres (66 to 98 ft) as water was sequestered, primarily in the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. When ice collected and the sea level dropped sufficiently, flow through the Bering Strait (the narrow strait between Siberia and Alaska is about 50 metres – 165 feet – deep today) was reduced, resulting in increased flow from the North Atlantic. This realigned the thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic, increasing heat transport into the Arctic, which melted the polar ice accumulation and reduced other continental ice sheets. The release of water raised sea levels again, restoring the ingress of colder water from the Pacific with an accompanying shift to northern hemisphere ice accumulation.
+According to a study published in Nature in 2021, all glacial periods of ice ages over the last 1.5 million years were associated with northward shifts of melting Antarctic icebergs which changed ocean circulation patterns, leading to more CO2 being pulled out of the atmosphere. The authors suggest that this process may be disrupted in the future as the Southern Ocean will become too warm for the icebergs to travel far enough to trigger these changes.
+
+=== Uplift of the Tibetan plateau ===
+Matthias Kuhle's geological theory of Ice Age development was suggested by the existence of an ice sheet covering the Tibetan Plateau during the Ice Ages (Last Glacial Maximum?). According to Kuhle, the plate-tectonic uplift of Tibet past the snow-line has led to a surface of c. 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) changing from bare land to ice with a 70% greater albedo. The reflection of energy into space resulted in a global cooling, triggering the Pleistocene Ice Age. Because this highland is at a subtropical latitude, with four to five times the insolation of high-latitude areas, what would be Earth's strongest heating surface has turned into a cooling surface.
+Kuhle explains the interglacial periods by the 100,000-year cycle of radiation changes due to variations in Earth's orbit. This comparatively insignificant warming, when combined with the lowering of the Nordic inland ice areas and Tibet due to the weight of the superimposed ice-load, has led to the repeated complete thawing of the inland ice areas.
+
+=== Variations in Earth's orbit ===

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+
+The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other.
+There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice age is the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by ice cores that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milanković orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun, the precession of Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north latitude varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m2 to 550 W/m2). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too cool to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some believe that the strength of the orbital forcing is too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO2 may explain this mismatch.
+While Milankovitch forcing predicts that cyclic changes in Earth's orbital elements can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial–interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacial–interglacial oscillation has been 100,000 years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity and orbital inclination. Yet this is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovitch. During the period 3.0–0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41,000-year period of changes in Earth's obliquity (tilt of the axis). The reasons for dominance of one frequency versus another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in Earth's climate system.  Recent work suggests that the 100K year cycle dominates due to increased southern-pole sea-ice increasing total solar reflectivity.
+The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller, Gordon J. F. MacDonald, and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as Earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the Solar System. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Jose Antonio Rial.
+William Ruddiman has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000 and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by Didier Paillard. Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles can be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The jumps are induced by the orbital forcing, while in the early Pleistocene the 41,000-year glacial cycles resulted from jumps between only two climate states. A dynamical
+model explaining this behavior was proposed by Peter Ditlevsen. This is in support of the suggestion that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles are not due to the weak 100,000-year eccentricity cycle, but a non-linear response to mainly the 41,000-year obliquity cycle.
+
+=== Variations in the Sun's energy output ===
+There are at least two types of variation in the Sun's energy output:
+
+In the very long term, astrophysicists believe that the Sun's output increases by about 7% every one billion years.
+Shorter-term variations such as sunspot cycles, and longer episodes such as the Maunder Minimum, which occurred during the coldest part of the Little Ice Age.
+The long-term increase in the Sun's output cannot be a cause of ice ages.
+
+=== Volcanism ===
+Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to the inception and/or the end of ice age periods. At times during the paleoclimate, carbon dioxide levels were two or three times greater than today. Volcanoes and movements in continental plates contributed to high amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide from volcanoes probably contributed to periods with highest overall temperatures. One suggested explanation of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum is that undersea volcanoes released methane from clathrates and thus caused a large and rapid increase in the greenhouse effect.  There appears to be no geological evidence for such eruptions at the right time, but this does not prove they did not happen.
+
+== Recent glacial and interglacial phases ==
+
+The current geological period, the Quaternary, which began about 2.6 million years ago and extends into the present, is marked by warm and cold episodes, cold phases called glacials (Quaternary ice age) lasting about 100,000 years, and warm phases called interglacials lasting 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the Last Glacial Period ended about 10,000 years ago. Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the Holocene.
+
+=== Glacial stages in North America ===

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+---
+title: "Ice age"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:21.570677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The major glacial stages of the current ice age in North America are the Illinoian, Eemian, and Wisconsin glaciation. The use of the Nebraskan, Afton, Kansan, and Yarmouthian stages to subdivide the ice age in North America has been discontinued by Quaternary geologists and geomorphologists. These stages have all been merged into the Pre-Illinoian in the 1980s.
+During the most recent North American glaciation, during the latter part of the Last Glacial Maximum (26,000 to 13,300 years ago), ice sheets extended to about 45th parallel north. These sheets were 3 to 4 kilometres (1.9 to 2.5 mi) thick.
+
+This Wisconsin glaciation left widespread impacts on the North American landscape. The Great Lakes and the Finger Lakes were carved by ice deepening old valleys. Most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers and later filled with glacial meltwaters. The old Teays River drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the Ohio River drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as Niagara Falls, which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall, at the present Clark Reservation State Park near Syracuse, New York, is now dry.
+The area from Long Island to Nantucket, Massachusetts was formed from glacial till, and the plethora of lakes on the Canadian Shield in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of loess many dozens of feet thick in the Missouri Valley. Post-glacial rebound continues to reshape the Great Lakes and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets.
+The Driftless Area, a portion of western and southwestern Wisconsin along with parts of adjacent Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois, was not covered by glaciers.
+
+== Effects of glaciation ==
+
+Although the last glacial period ended more than 8,000 years ago, its effects can still be felt today. For example, the moving ice carved out the landscape in Canada (See Canadian Arctic Archipelago), Greenland, northern Eurasia and Antarctica. The erratic boulders, till, drumlins, eskers, fjords, kettle lakes, moraines, cirques, horns, etc., are typical features left behind by the glaciers. The weight of the ice sheets was so great that they deformed Earth's crust and mantle. After the ice sheets melted, the ice-covered land rebounded. Due to the high viscosity of Earth's mantle, the flow of mantle rocks which controls the rebound process is very slow—at a rate of about 1 cm/year near the center of rebound area today.
+During glaciation, water was taken from the oceans to form the ice at high latitudes, thus global sea level dropped by about 110 meters, exposing the continental shelves and forming land-bridges between land-masses for animals to migrate. During deglaciation, the melted ice-water returned to the oceans, causing sea level to rise. This process can cause sudden shifts in coastlines and hydration systems resulting in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed ice dams resulting in salination of lakes, new ice dams creating vast areas of freshwater, and a general alteration in regional weather patterns on a large but temporary scale. It can even cause temporary reglaciation. This type of chaotic pattern of rapidly changing land, ice, saltwater and freshwater has been proposed as the likely model for the Baltic and Scandinavian regions, as well as much of central North America at the end of the last glacial maximum, with the present-day coastlines only being achieved in the last few millennia of prehistory. Also, the effect of elevation on Scandinavia submerged a vast continental plain that had existed under much of what is now the North Sea, connecting the British Isles to Continental Europe.
+The redistribution of ice-water on the surface of Earth and the flow of mantle rocks causes changes in the gravitational field as well as changes to the distribution of the moment of inertia of Earth. These changes to the moment of inertia result in a change in the angular velocity, axis, and wobble of Earth's rotation.
+The weight of the redistributed surface mass loaded the lithosphere, caused it to flex and also induced stress within Earth. The presence of the glaciers generally suppressed the movement of faults below. During deglaciation, the faults experience accelerated slip triggering earthquakes. Earthquakes triggered near the ice margin may in turn accelerate ice calving and may account for the Heinrich events. As more ice is removed near the ice margin, more intraplate earthquakes are induced and this positive feedback may explain the fast collapse of ice sheets.
+In Europe, glacial erosion and isostatic sinking from the weight of ice made the Baltic Sea, which before the Ice Age was all land drained by the Eridanos River.
+
+== Future ice ages ==

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+---
+title: "Ice age"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:21.570677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Based on past estimates for interglacial durations of about 10,000 years, there was some concern in the 1970s that the next glacial period would be imminent. Human impact is now seen as possibly extending what would already be an unusually long warm period. Ice ages go through cycles of about 100,000 years, but the next one may well be avoided due to human carbon dioxide emissions. According to Stephen Barker of Cardiff University, without human interference, the next glaciation of the Earth would "occur within the next 11,000 years, and it would end in 66,000 years' time."
+A 2015 report by the Past Global Changes Project says simulations show that a new glaciation is unlikely to happen within the next approximately 50,000 years, before the next strong drop in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation occurs "if either atmospheric CO2 concentration
+remains above 300 ppm or cumulative carbon emissions exceed 1000 Pg C" (i.e. 1,000 gigatonnes carbon). "Only for an atmospheric CO2 content below the preindustrial level may a glaciation occur within the next 10 ka. ... Given the continued anthropogenic CO2 emissions, glacial inception is very unlikely to occur in the next 50 ka, because the timescale for CO2 and temperature reduction toward unperturbed values in the absence of active removal is very long [IPCC, 2013], and only weak precessional forcing occurs in the next two precessional cycles." (A precessional cycle is around 21,000 years, the time it takes for the perihelion to move all the way around the tropical year.)
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Works cited ===
+Montgomery, Keith (2010). "Development of the glacial theory, 1800–1870". Historical Simulation
+
+== External links ==
+
+Cracking the Ice Age Archived 2017-09-04 at the Wayback Machine from PBS
+Rina Torchinsky (9 Aug 2021). "Scientists unveil 'best-preserved Ice Age animal ever found'". AccuWeather. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
+Raymo, M. (July 2011). "Overview of the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis". Archived from the original on 2008-10-22.
+Eduard Y. Osipov, Oleg M. Khlystov. Glaciers and meltwater flux to Lake Baikal during the Last Glacial Maximum. Archived 2016-03-12 at the Wayback Machine
+Black, R. (9 January 2012). "Carbon emissions 'will defer Ice Age'". Science and Environment. BBC News. Archived from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.

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+---
+title: "Indigenous science"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:23.915803+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Indigenous science is the application and intersection of Indigenous knowledge and science. This field is based on careful observation of the environment, and through experimentation. It is a holistic field, informed by physical, social, mental and cultural knowledge. When applied to ecology and the environment, it can be sometimes termed traditional ecological knowledge. Indigenous science involves the knowledge systems and practices of Indigenous peoples, which are rooted in their cultural traditions and relationships to their indigenous context. There are some similar methods of Western science including (but not limited to): observation, prediction, interpretation, and questioning. There are also some areas in which Western science and Indigenous science differ. Indigenous knowledge is place and case-specific and does not attempt to label or generalize natural processes. Western science strives to find commonalities and theories that can be applied to all areas, such as Newton's Laws of Physics. This is because most Indigenous knowledge stems from the relationship humans have with their environment, which is passed down through stories or is discovered through observation. Western knowledge takes a different approach by isolating targets to study, splitting them from their surroundings and making sets of assumptions and theories. Community is a larger aspect of Indigenous science, and conclusions are shared through oral tradition and family knowledge, whereas most Western science research is published in a journal specific to that scientific field, and may restrict access to various papers.
+There is a history of oppression against Native Americans beginning when settlers came to America, and this has carried into the field of Indigenous science as American scientists and academics have overlooked the findings and knowledge of Indigenous people. Multiple studies found that Indigenous perspectives are rarely represented in empirical studies, and has led to the underrepresentation of Native people in research fields. In addition, Western researchers have benefitted from the research they do about Indigenous nations, while the tribes do not receive compensation for their work and information.
+In addition to a lack of compensation, Indigenous peoples in Canada have also been subjected to unethical and exploitative research practices. In the 1930s and 1940s, Canadian researchers subjected approximately 600 Indigenous infants to “human experimental work,” reportedly using them as “guinea pigs” to collect data related to the tuberculosis vaccine.These practices have been cited as part of a broader history of colonial research, in which Indigenous communities were treated as objects of study rather than as peoples with autonomy, consent, and rights.
+Higher recognition and advocacy of Indigenous people in the 21st century has increased the visibility of this field. There has been a growing recognition of the potential benefits of incorporating Indigenous perspectives and knowledge, particularly in fields such as ecology and environmental management.
+
+== Oral traditions in Indigenous science ==
+Indigenous knowledge and experiences are often passed down orally from generation to generation. Indigenous knowledge has an empirical basis and has traditionally been used to predict and understand the world. Such knowledge has informed studies of human management of natural processes.
+This oral knowledge is embedded in songs and dances, which allows for accurate information to be passed down for centuries as songs and dances are easier to remember, and harder to change than spoken stories. Oral histories are not fairy tales or legends, but have arisen through intense observation and are a critical part of Indigenous culture. 
+For instance, in Australian aboriginal tribes, oral traditions are a key tool for passing information of geological events. One recent application was the discovery of the Henbury Meteorite site, as songs and dances from various aboriginal tribes marked when and where the meteorite touched down, while no Western historians had been able to determine its placement. Oral storytelling is also used to map ocean levels after the most recent ice age, and is used in astronomy, ecology, and agriculture.
+
+== In ecology ==
+
+Indigenous science is related to the term "traditional ecological knowledge" or "TEK" which is specific category of Indigenous science that applies to the natural world, usually focused on agriculture, sustainability and wildlife.
+The study of ecology focuses on the relationships and patterns between organisms in their environment. TEK is place-based, so the information and understanding that is applied to this field from Indigenous groups is context-dependent. One example of such work is ethnobiology which employs Indigenous knowledge and botany to identify and classify species. TEK has been used to provide perspectives on matters such as how a declining fish population affects nature, the food web, and coastal ecosystems.
+Indigenous science has helped to address ecological challenges including the restoration of salmon, management of seabird harvests, outbreaks of hantavirus, and addressing wildfires. As well as in ecology, Indigenous knowledge has been used in biological areas including animal behavior, evolution, physiology, life history, morphology, wildlife conservation, wildlife health, and taxonomy.

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+title: "Indigenous science"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:23.915803+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Place based sciences ==
+Indigenous science may offer a different perspective from what is traditionally thought of as "science". In particular, Indigenous science is tied to territory, cultural practices, and experiences/teachings in explicit ways that are often absent in normal scientific discourse. 
+Place based Indigenous science also is common outside of the academic sphere. Climatology scientists in Alaska and the Artic commonly work with traditional knowledge (Qaujimajatuqangit) among the Inuit when studying long-term changes in sea ice, along with studying other aspects of biology. In the Canadian Arctic, large data organizations like the Inuvialuit Settlement Region Online Platform, Marxan, and Nunaliit Atlas Framework inform marine and coastal management practices by using Inuit knowledge. Many times, this information is passed down in Inuit communities by generation using oral tradition and informs the communities on harvesting, hunting, traveling, and living on the land. This information may apply to decisions on conservation of harvesting sties and mating sites of various animals in the Artic. Inuit knowledge of these areas includes seasonal variations, ecological dynamics, wind direction, and ice dynamics. This knowledge has been gained through historical memories, family and community relations, place names, and open water or sea ice routes. 
+Place names are common in many different Indigenous groups cultures, and are relevant for ecological knowledge. In Inuit communities, place names indicate group knowledge, memories, experiences and observations of the area. One example is Salliq, an island east of Igloolik. Salliq means "the furthest island from the mainland", and contextualizes the island in reference to its surroundings. Place names are also common in Kānaka Maoli culture, or Native Hawaiian culture. One example is the naming of mountains and craters. Halemaʻumaʻu is a crater on Hawaiʻi and means "House [surrounded by] ʻamaʻu ferns." This name is tied both to ecology, and to oral histories of the Kānaka Maoli, as it tells of a battle between two supernatural beings - Pele and Kamapuaʻa, but also describes that this crater is home to the largest tree ferns on the island.
+
+== Education ==
+Collaboration between Indigenous communities and research scientists can be seen in Indigenous-led projects and community work enacted as a starting point for the collaborations. This collaboration has steadily been increasing, one reason being higher education, especially at Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCU). Many TCUs offer associates degrees, while 19 offer a bachelor's degree and 3 universities offer a masters (Haskell Indian Nations University, the Institute of American Indian and Alaska Native Culture and Arts Development, and Sinte Gleska University). TCUs were created to give American Indian and Alaska Native students education, but students from other demographics can attend as well. There are many barriers to higher education, especially for historically marginalized and underrepresented groups. TCUs are a way to overcome these barriers. These universities are usually located close to reservations and serve low-income students, allowing education to be accessible to Native Americans. TCUs also provide a platform for scientific advancement and action, as Haskell University hosted their first symposium on climate change in November, 2024. This event connected Haskell students and professors with individuals from larger public and private research universities, such as University of Kansas, University of Missouri-Kansas City, UCLA and Harvard.
+
+== Indigenous technologies ==
+The definition of technology is "the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry." Examples of Indigenous technologies that were developed for specific use based on their location and culture include: clam gardens, fish weirs, and culturally modified trees (CMTs). Indigenous technologies are available in a wide range of subjects such as: agri- and mari-culture, fishing, forest management and resource exploitation, astronomy, atmospheric, and land based management techniques. 
+
+=== Agriculture ===
+Indigenous tribes that utilize agriculture technologies include the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), O'odham, Wampanoag, Cherokee, Great Lakes tribes (including the Menominee, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi) and more. Some of these agricultural techniques are based on a mixed-crop, shifting cultivation system growing corn, beans, and squash together in the same mounds; an inter-cropping system known as the three sisters. The use of the three sisters originated in the 1100s in Mesoamerica and is known as milpa, and diffused throughout North America and Canada. In this horticultural technique, each plant offers something to the others, thus improving the crop yield. Corn is a high-caloric food, supported by the beans, which provide nitrogen from nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live on their roots, and squash provide ground cover (suppresses weeds and keeps soil moist). Other crops incorporated in the inter-cropping system included sunflowers or grains like barley or maygrass.

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+title: "Indigenous science"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:23.915803+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Engineering ===
+Many different Indigenous tribes in America have built homes from natural resources. One example can be found at Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde, or Anasazi, in Northwestern New Mexico and Southwestern Colorado. Ancestral Puebloans built houses on the ground near the cliffs of the Colorado Plateau, and carved others into the face of the cliff, ultimately spanning almost 10,000 square miles across Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon both have more than 600 rooms each, many of which were made from sandstone that was carved into rectangular blocks, and glued together with a mix of mud and water. In addition to physically building these homes, the Ancestral Puebloans used mathematical knowledge like the golden ratio - which has been used to make the Egyptian pyramids, Ancient Greek architecture and the Notre Dame -  to construct a Sun Temple.
+Water management was critical as well in this area, and ancestral Pueblo people had early knowledge of hydrological theory, water transport and storage. This allowed them to create four main reservoirs that helped sustain the population. 
+The Hohokam tribe in Arizona also managed their water resources up until 1450, and created irrigation networks that were more extensive than any other irrigation system created during their time. This allowed an influx of agriculture, as canals spread across 135 miles of land and brought water to crops far from the rivers. Ultimately, the population of Hohokam became too large to sustain in the late 15th century, and the irrigation systems failed. However, their descendants, the Akimel O'odham and Tohono O'odham people, continue to live in Phoenix, Arizona and surrounding areas, and farming continues to be an important part of their cultures.
+
+=== Forestry ===
+The Menominee tribe in Wisconsin operates the Menominee Forest which covers 217,000 acres of land, and promotes sustainable forest management. For more than 150 years, the Menominee tribe has been utilizing techniques such as silviculture, even and uneven-aged management, tree grouping, and conservation. Silviculture is the practice of developing and managing forests and takes into consideration the age of the tree, the species, shade tolerance, and the health of the entire forest. Even-aged management cultivates shade intolerant trees, and relies on wind and fire disturbances. The Menominee forestry workers mimic these natural disturbances with various treatments like group openings and clear cuts. Uneven-aged management favors trees that are shade tolerant by only cutting a couple in one area, as to not leave any land fully bare. Their strategies have been effective, as there is currently more timber on the land than when the business was in its early management, in 1854. This forest land has been recognized by the United Nations and was certified by the Forest Stewardship Council, a prestigious label given to responsible forestry departments.
+
+=== Wayfinding ===
+Polynesian and Hawaiian Wayfinders have been trained to navigate the oceans using stars, the sun, and the ocean swells to understand where a vessel is when it is at sea. This requires understanding of trade winds, currents, astronomy, fish and weather cycles. Wayfinding was only possible due to more than 1,500 years of practice and observation by Pacific Islanders. Currently, there is a reclamation movement for wayfinding, which started in the 1970s, when one voyaging canoe, the Hōkūle'a, was created by the Polynesian Wayfinding Society with the purpose of bringing back this traditional practice and reclaiming culture. The Hōkūle'a has made multiple voyages, the first being from Maui to Tahiti and has inspired multiple other voyaging canoes to set out, and for education of wayfinding to increase.
+
+== Notable scholars ==
+Nancy C. Maryboy
+Karlie Noon
+Lydia Jennings
+Ian Saem Majnep
+Robin Wall Kimmerer
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Institute for the History of Natural Sciences"
+chunk: 1/1
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:25.034617+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Institute for the History of Natural Sciences (IHNS CAS; Chinese: 中国科学院自然科学史研究所; pinyin: Zhōngguó Kēxuéyuàn Zìrán Kēxuéshǐ Yánjiūsuǒ) is a leading research institution in China dedicated to the study of the history of science, technology, and medicine. It is affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).
+
+
+== History ==
+The Institute for the History of Natural Sciences was founded in 1957 with the active involvement of the renowned British biochemist and historian of science Joseph Needham (Chinese: 李约瑟, Lǐ Yuēsè) and a group of Chinese scholars. Its establishment was initiated to systematically research China's rich scientific and technological heritage and its place in world history. Initially, the institute was located in the Gulou district of Beijing.
+
+
+== Research Focus ==
+The institute's primary mission is to conduct fundamental and applied research on the history of science and technology in China and the world, and to promote the development of this discipline.
+Key research areas include:
+
+History of Science and Technology in China: Studying traditional Chinese science, technology, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and their interaction with society and culture.
+History of World Science: Comparative studies, history of scientific exchanges, study of the Scientific Revolution and the development of modern science.
+Theoretical Studies in History of Science: Methodology, philosophy, and sociology of science.
+Preservation of Scientific and Technological Heritage: Identifying and researching tangible and intangible objects of scientific and technological heritage.
+Science, Technology and Society (STS): Investigating the interrelations between scientific/technological progress and social development.
+The IHNS plays a central role in developing and institutionalizing the history of science as an academic discipline in China. Its research contributes significantly to the global understanding of the history of science and highlights China's contributions to scientific and technological development.
+
+
+== Structure ==
+The institute comprises several research departments (实验室) and centers (中心):
+
+Department of Ancient Science History
+Department of Modern Science History
+Department of History of Technology
+Department of History of Medicine
+Center for the Study of Scientific Heritage
+Center for Science, Technology and Society (STS)
+The institute also hosts the Chinese Society for the History of Science and Technology (CSHST; 中国科学技术史学会), the main professional association in this field in China.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+The institute is a leading publisher of academic literature on the history of science:
+
+Chinese Annals of History of Science and Technology (中国科学技术史)
+Studies in the History of Natural Sciences (SHNS; 自然科学史研究)
+The multi-volume General History of Science and Technology in China
+The series Studies in the History of Western Science.
+Translations of classic works of world historiography of science.
+
+
+== International Cooperation ==
+IHNS actively develops international connections, participating in joint research projects and academic exchanges. The institute collaborates with leading centers for the history of science worldwide, including:
+
+S.I. Vavilov Institute for the History of Science and Technology RAS (Russia)
+Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (Germany)
+Harvard University (USA)
+University of Cambridge (UK)
+Université Paris Cité (France)
+
+
+== Leadership ==
+Notable former directors of the institute include historians of science:
+
+Xi Zezong (席泽宗)
+Chen Jianqiu (陈建勛).
+
+
+== See also ==
+Chinese Academy of Sciences
+History of science and technology in China
+Joseph Needham
+Chinese Society for the History of Science and Technology
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+www.ihns.cas.cn – Official website, (in English)
+cshst.org.cn – Chinese Society for the History of Science and Technology (English page)

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+---
+title: "Jennifer Michael Hecht"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:14.489664+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Jennifer Michael Hecht (born November 23, 1965) is a teacher, author, poet, historian, and philosopher. She was an associate professor of history at Nassau Community College (1994–2007) and most recently taught at The New School in New York City.
+Hecht has seven published books, her scholarly articles have been published in many journals and magazines, and her poetry has appeared in The New Yorker, The New Republic, Ms. Magazine, and Poetry Magazine, among others. She has also written essays and book reviews for The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Philadelphia Inquirer, The American Scholar, The Boston Globe and other publications. She has written several columns for The New York Times online "Times Select." In 2010 Hecht was one of the five nonfiction judges for the National Book Award.
+Hecht is a longtime blogger for The Best American Poetry series web site and maintains a personal blog on her website. She resides in Brooklyn, New York.
+
+== Background ==
+Born in Glen Cove, New York on Long Island, Hecht attended Adelphi University, where she earned a BA in history, for a time studying at the Université de Caen, and the Université d'Angers. She earned her PhD in the history of science from Columbia University in 1995 and taught at Nassau Community College from 1994 to 2007, finally as a tenured associate professor of history. Hecht has taught in the MFA programs at The New School and Columbia University, and is a fellow of the New York Institute for the Humanities.
+Hecht is married and has two children.
+She has appeared on television on the Discovery Channel, The Morning Show with Marcus Smith, Road to Reason and MSNBC's Hardball, and on radio on The Brian Lehrer Show, The Leonard Lopate Show, On Being (formerly known as Speaking of Faith), All Things Considered, The Joy Cardin Show, and others.
+
+== Intellectual interests and writings ==
+Of her three major intellectual interests, she ranks them, "Poetry came first, then historical scholarship, then public atheism, and they probably remain in that order in my dedication to them."
+Originally intending to be a poet, she was drawn to the history of science. Her first book, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and Anthropology in France, 1876-1936, grew out of her dissertation on some late 19th-century anthropologists who formed the Society of Mutual Autopsy. The members would dissect each other's brains after death, and Hecht, having noticed their atheism, came to understand that this was being done not only for the sake of scientific finds, but perhaps to prove to the Catholic Church that the soul does not exist.
+While researching her first book, she came to realize that there was no sufficient history of atheism, and that led to her second book, Doubt: A History.
+While writing Doubt, she found that many atheists went beyond simply stating that there are no gods and also made profound suggestions about how people should think of life and how we should live. That led to her third book, The Happiness Myth, which starts there and goes on to look at present-day attitudes about how to be happy. She calls it "a work of Skepticism in the modern sense of debunking."
+In 2023, Hecht published The Wonder Paradox: Embracing the Weirdness of Existence and Poetry of Our Lives, combining her interests of poetry and atheism, in which she explores finding meaning to life through poetry, rather than religion.
+
+== Philosophy ==

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+Hecht believes that, "the basic modern assumptions about how to be happy are nonsense." In a review of her book, The Happiness Myth for The New York Times, Alison McCulloch summed it up, "What you think you should do to be happy, like getting fitter and thinner, is part of a 'cultural code' — 'an unscientific web of symbolic cultural fantasies' — and once you realize this, you will perhaps feel a little more free to be a lot more happy." Similarly, in an interview on the Point of Inquiry podcast in 2007, she said "I'm not trying really to get somebody out of depression, but I sure am trying to get people to not be so worried, so anxious over things that really don't matter."
+She has written against agnosticism, calling "philosophically silly" the argument that because you can't prove a negative we have to allow for the possibility of God. "Either you doubt everything to the point where you can't speak, or you make reasoned decisions."
+Hecht is an anti-suicide advocate, writing an entire book (Stay: A History of Suicide and the Philosophies Against It) arguing against it. She believes not only that "Suicide is delayed homicide", but also "that you owe it to your future self to live". She does not believe in life after death, urging that we should remember death and remember that it's the end. "I think this world is extraordinary and I also think it's a pain in the ass. And I'm happy to be here and I'm ok with not being here forever."
+She believes that morality is not magical, it is the attempt to do right. And rather than either being handed to us by God or just made up by each person, is inherent in human groups. "There are deep rules of morality that we as human beings, in human groups, 'invented' on biological and social and intellectual lines."
+Her poetry and philosophy often intersect, and she has taught a course called "Poets and Philosophy" at the New School for many years. Her own taste is for poets who are concerned with philosophical or religious questions. "Leopardi's misery makes me as happy as Schopenhauer's does, though I am ever aware of the equal cacophony of birth and pleasure that shadow their admittedly much more deafening symphony of death and suffering. Dickinson I treasure beyond measure and think she's mostly on my side of the nonbeliever line; anyway, she's my number-one poet. Hopkins has a few rhyming hunks of pure passion, frustrated but wild, which I love with a love that is more than a love, but which only go so far. Donne is deep and great company, but he leans too much into comforting delusions for me, often when he is at his best in poetic chops and pyrotechnics. Rilke is a lifesaving self-help writer and a bit of a brilliant con artist."
+
+== Atheism ==
+Hecht was raised Jewish and believed in God until she was twelve when she had what she describes as a "Talking Heads headshift", standing in her parents' house saying, "This is not my beautiful couch, I am not your beautiful daughter." In the days that followed she came to see that "we are one species among great nature, and as the trees very slowly rot, so do our pampered haunches." Eventually, she replaced faith in God with faith in humanity.
+Hecht has been an outspoken member of the secular community since 2003, accepting the label "atheist" somewhat reluctantly. "Initially after writing my book Doubt, I avoided the atheist label, saying only that I did not believe in God. After some reflection, I realized I needed to defend what I truly believe. I now call myself an 'atheist,' and proudly."
+Hecht is an honorary board member of the Freedom From Religion Foundation. In 2009, she told the FFRF convention audience: "If there is no God — and there isn't — then we [humans] made up morality. And I'm very impressed."
+In her 2007 interview for the Point of Inquiry podcast, when asked, "Do you think religion might actually be harmful for one's happiness?", she said, "Yes ... when I wrote Doubt it was very much to show people who felt that doubting religion or getting away from religion was painful. I find the world in which the natural world that we see is the world, in which we make up no other, I find that world to be the best one. I'm glad there's no afterlife. I like the world as it is. And I think that religion does add a tremendous amount of guilt and pain and trouble." Hecht does not, however, believe that religion is all bad. In that same interview, she went on to say, "The beautiful building and coming together and reminding oneself of community, of how we must each take the role that is given us, know yourself, remember death, control your desires, these are the big messages of wisdom. And religion got it right that you have to meditate on them for them to work."
+In a December 2013 article for Politico Magazine, Hecht examined "The Last Taboo" in American politics, atheism. Referencing newly retired Rep. Barney Frank's lack of religious belief she wrote, "Was it really harder to come out as an atheist politician in 2013 than as a gay one 25 years ago?"

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+title: "Jennifer Michael Hecht"
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+== Published works ==
+Her debut poetry collection, The Next Ancient World, artfully mixes contemporary and ancient world views, histories, and myths. In 2002 it received the Tupelo Press Judge's Prize in Poetry, the Norma Farber First Book Award from the Poetry Society of America, as well as ForeWord Magazine's award for Poetry Book of the Year. Her second collection, Funny, explores the implications of the human love of humor and jokes. It won the 2005 Felix Pollak Prize from the University of Wisconsin Press. Her most recent collection, Who Said (Copper Canyon Press, 2013), playfully asks the title question of some of the most iconic English language poems.
+In 2003 Hecht published two books of history and philosophy with two different publishers. The first, Doubt: A History, is an epic, worldwide study of religious doubt throughout history. The other, The End of the Soul, is a profile of an unusual group of nineteenth-century French anthropologists who formed the Society of Mutual Autopsy to discover links between personality, ability and brain morphology. It received the prestigious Ralph Waldo Emerson Award for 2004 from Phi Beta Kappa society "for scholarly studies that contribute significantly to interpretations of the intellectual and cultural condition of humanity."
+In 2007 Hecht published The Happiness Myth: Why What We Think Is Right Is Wrong in which she attempts to examine happiness through historical perspective. Hecht maintains that our current perception of happiness is affected by culture, and that future generations may well mock our view of happiness as we make fun of earlier generations.
+In 2013 Hecht published Stay: A History of Suicide and the Philosophies Against It. It is a study of intellectual and cultural history, in which she channels her grief for two friends lost to suicide into a search for persuasive arguments against it; arguments she hopes to bring back into public consciousness.
+In 2023 Hecht published The Wonder Paradox: Embracing the Weirdness of Existence and the Poetry of Our Lives.
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+=== History and philosophy ===
+2003 The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and Anthropology in France, 1876-1936 — ISBN 0-231-12846-0
+2003 Doubt, A History: The Great Doubters and Their Legacy of Innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson — ISBN 0-06-009772-8
+2007 The Happiness Myth: The Historical Antidote to What Isn't Working Today — ISBN 0-06-081397-0
+2013 Stay: A History of Suicide and the Philosophies Against It — ISBN 0-300-18608-8
+2023 The Wonder Paradox: Embracing the Weirdness of Existence and the Poetry of Our Lives — ISBN 0-374-29274-4
+
+==== Selected journal articles ====
+Hecht, Jennifer Michael (April 2000). "Vacher de Lapouge and the Rise of Nazi Science". Journal of the History of Ideas. 61 (2): 285–304. doi:10.1353/jhi.2000.0018. S2CID 170993471. Retrieved April 12, 2014. This article examines Georges Vacher de Lapouge's contribution to the ideology in the Nazi "Final Solution". "Lapouge's contribution to racism was a quantitative, well-written race theory that was replete with the language and tools of science. It was particularly appealing because it described a collection of human groups which sounded too scientific and clinical to be political."
+Hecht, Jennifer Michael (March 1999). "The Solvency of Metaphysics: The Debate over Racial Science and Moral Philosophy in France,1890–1919". Isis. 90 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1086/384239. S2CID 143737005. Retrieved April 12, 2014.
+Hecht, Jennifer Michael (Summer 1997). "A vigilant anthropology: Léonce Manouvrier and the disappearing numbers". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 33 (3): 221–240. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6696(199722)33:3<221::aid-jhbs2>3.0.co;2-u.
+Hecht, Jennifer Michael (December 2013). "Stopping Suicide". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved April 12, 2014.
+
+=== Poetry ===
+2001 The Next Ancient World — ISBN 0-9710310-0-2
+2005 Funny — ISBN 0-299-21400-1
+2013 Who Said (Copper Canyon Press) – ISBN 978-1-55659-449-6
+
+==== Collections ====
+Best American Poetry 2005, Paul Muldoon and David Lehman, eds. (Scribner's, 2005).
+Good Poems for Hard Times, Garrison Keillor, ed. (Viking/Penguin, 2005).
+Poetry Daily, Boller, Selby, and Yost, eds. (Sourcebooks, 2003).
+Good Poems, Garrison Keillor, ed. (Viking/Penguin, 2002).
+Poems to Live by in Uncertain Times, Joan Murray, ed. (Beacon, 2001).
+The Best American Poetry 1999, Robert Bly and David Lehman, eds. (Scribner's, 1999).
+
+== Translations ==
+
+=== Portuguese ===
+Dúvida: uma História (Ediouro, 2005)
+O Mito de Felicidade (Larousse, 2011)
+
+=== Italian ===
+Dubbio: una storia (Ariele, 2010)
+
+=== Korean ===
+"의심의 역사" (Imago, 2011)
+"행복이란 무엇인가" (Gongjon, 2012)
+
+=== Japanese ===
+自殺の思想史―抗って生きるために (みすず書房, 2022)
+
+=== Spanish ===
+La futura antigüedad (Cielo Eléctrico, 2021)
+
+=== Arabic ===
+(2014, تاريخ الشك" (المركز القومي للترجمة. القاهرة"
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Jennifer Michael Hecht official website
+Video lecture by Jennifer Michael Hecht on the history of religious and philosophical doubt.
+Scale of Doubt Quiz created by Jennifer Michael Hecht Archived May 5, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
+Poetic Atheism blog
+The Lion and the Honeycomb, part of The Best American Poetry blog
+"Sheathing the Bodkin: Combatting Suicide – A Conversation with Jennifer Michael Hecht" Archived October 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Ideas Roadshow, 2015