From 34d677f6e6e8f4d12c6045050f6d7bd79e1f75a5 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 21:27:11 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 1217 new, 973 updated, 2245 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 16879616 -> 16879616 bytes ...Law_Journal_of_Science_and_Technology-0.md | 51 +++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Biological_patent-0.md | 32 +++++++++ .../wiki/Biological_patent-1.md | 20 ++++++ .../wiki/Biological_patent-2.md | 30 +++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-0.md | 23 +++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-1.md | 22 +++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-2.md | 21 ++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-3.md | 34 ++++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-4.md | 27 ++++++++ .../wiki/Chemical_patent-0.md | 43 ++++++++++++ .../wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-0.md | 38 +++++++++++ .../wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-1.md | 25 +++++++ .../wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-2.md | 61 ++++++++++++++++++ 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L.J. Sci. & Tech.) is a triannual law journal edited by students at Albany Law School. It was established in 1990 and covers legal issues involving science and technology. The journal also organizes an annual symposia. + + +== Membership == +Members are students at Albany Law School. Students become eligible for journal membership upon completion of their first year of law school. Offers of membership are extended based on student class standing or on the results of a writing competition jointly administered by the school's three student-edited journals. + + +== Notable symposia == +Facebook Firing: The Intersection of Social Media, Employment, & Ethics (2013) +Building a High-Tech, 21st Century Economy (2015) + + +== Past Editors-in-Chief == +Vol. 36 - John Rainey (2026) +Vol. 35 - Savannah Everson (2025) +Vol. 34 - Natalie Turney (2024) +Vol. 33 - Claire Stratton (2023) +Vol. 32 - Anneliese Aliasso (2022) +Vol. 29 - Daniel Young (2019) +Vol. 27 - Erin Ginty (2017) +Vol. 26 - James Faucher II (2016) +Vol. 25 - Gary J. Repke, Jr. (2015) +Vol. 24 - Elizabeth A. Cappillino (2014) +Vol. 23 - Nadia Isobel Arginteanu (2013) +Vol. 22 - Christina M. French (2012) +Vol. 21 - Caitlin Donovan (2011) +Vol. 20 - Andrew Wilson (2010) +Vol. 19 - William Q. Lowe (2009) + + +== See also == +Albany Government Law Review +Albany Law Review +Indian Journal of Law and Technology + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..845845088 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Biological patent" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:06.993445+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A biological patent is a patent on an invention in the field of biology that by law allows the patent holder to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the protected invention for a limited period of time. The scope and reach of biological patents vary among jurisdictions, and may include biological technology and products, genetically modified organisms and genetic material. The applicability of patents to substances and processes wholly or partially natural in origin is a subject of debate. + +== Biological patents in different jurisdictions == + +=== Australia === +In February 2013, Judge Justice John Nicholas ruled in the Federal Court of Australia in favour of a Myriad Genetics patent on the BRCA1 gene. This was a landmark ruling, affirming the validity of patents on naturally occurring DNA sequences. However, the U.S. Supreme Court came to the opposite conclusion only a few months later. The Australian ruling has been appealed to the Full Bench of the Federal Court; submissions in the case include consideration of the U.S. Supreme Court ruling. This decision was decided in 2014, affirming Nicholas J's decision in favor of Myriad, confirming that isolated genetic material (genes) are valid subjects of patents. In October 2015, the High Court of Australia ruled that naturally occurring genes cannot be patented. + +=== Canada === +Per Canada's Patent Act, patents are granted by the Canadian Intellectual Property Office (CIPO). Patents will only be granted for "any new and useful art, process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter", and improvements thereon. Patents will not be granted for “mere scientific principle or abstract theorem.” In the case of pharmaceuticals, along with obtaining a patent, applicants must also seek approval from Health Canada. This process is governed by the Patented Medicines (Notice of Compliance) Regulations. +In Harvard College v Canada (Commissioner of Patents), also referred to as the oncomouse case, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that higher life forms were not patentable subject matter. The OncoMouse was one of the first transgenic mice developed for use in cancer research, and the first mammal to be the subject of a patent application. Writing for the majority, Bastarache J. asserted that it was the role of Parliament to address whether higher life forms should be patentable. In contrast, the United States Patent & Trademark Office issued the patents covering methods for providing a cell culture from a transgenic non-human anima to Harvard College. The patent was also allowed in Europe before eventually being revoked in 2006 for a failure to pay fees and file translations. Although animals cannot be patented, Canada allows for the patent of antibodies obtained through immunizing animals. +Methods of medical treatment cannot be patented in Canada, however, medical use claims such as the use of an antibody for the treatment of a particular disease is patentable. Further, antigens which have not been previously characterized are also patentable. +Gene patents confer a property right to the patent holder. While CIPO will grant patents for isolated gDNA and cDNA, the Supreme Court of Canada has not yet ruled on gene patentability. However, in 2016 the Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario (CHEO) sought to invalidate five Canadian patents held by Transgenomic. The gene patents covered the genes associated with, and genetic testing for Long QT syndrome. The parties reached a settlement. The patent was not invalidated, but, Transgenomic provided Canadian health institutions the right to test Canadians for the disease on a non-profit basis. In Association for Molecular Pathology v Myriad, the United States Supreme Court determined that genes were unpatentable products of nature and that no intellectual property existed as nothing was invented. Given this decision, the majority of Canadian Long QT syndrome tests were previously outsourced to the United States. After the settlement, domestic testing levels increased in Canada. The terms of the settlement could set a precedent for the repatriation of further genetic testing. + +=== Europe === +European Union directive 98/44/EC (the Biotech Directive) reconciled the legislation of biological patents among certain countries under the jurisdiction of the European Patent Organisation. It allows for the patenting of natural biological products, including gene sequences, as long as they are "isolated from [their] natural environment or produced by means of a technical process." +The European Patent Office has ruled that European patents cannot be granted for processes that involve the destruction of human embryos. +In the case of the oncomouse, the European Patent Office (EPO) allowed for the patent. The EPO's patent standards prohibits patents for inventions contrary to ordre public and morality. Patents also could not be issued for “animal varieties or essentially biological processes for the production of…animals”. The EPO undertook a utilitarian balancing test to make their determination on the ordre public and morality exceptions. They found that the likelihood of advancing cancer research and medical benefits outweighed potential suffering of the animal. The EPO also determined that the oncomouse was not an animal variety, and thus not excluded. An amended patent with claims limited to mice was issued. + +=== Japan === +Under the umbrella of biotechnology, applications for patents on biological inventions are examined according to general guidelines for patents. In response to requests for additional clarity, the Japan Patent Office (JPO) set forth specific guidelines for biology-related inventions. Over the years, the JPO has continued to amend these guidelines to clarify their application to new technologies. These amendments have broadened the scope of patents within the biotechnology industry. The Japanese Patent Act requires that patented inventions be “industrially applicable”, i.e. they must have market or commercial potential. The JPO explicitly lists “medical activities” among inventions that fall outside the scope of industrially applicable inventions, meaning that methods of surgery, therapy, and the diagnosis of human diseases cannot be patented. + +=== United States === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7829420f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Biological patent" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:06.993445+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the United States, up until 2013 natural biological substances themselves could have been patented (apart from any associated process or usage) if they were sufficiently "isolated" from their naturally occurring states. Prominent historical examples of such patents include those on adrenaline, insulin, vitamin B12, and various genes. A landmark ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court in June 2013 declared naturally occurring DNA sequences ineligible for patents. + +== Ethics == + +=== Patenting genes === +Gene patents are a form of intellectual property which provide the patent holder with the exclusive right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the invention for a specified period of time, typically twenty years. +The patenting of genes is a controversial issue in terms of bioethics. Some believe it is unethical to patent genetic material because it treats life as a commodity, or that it undermines the dignity of people and animals by allowing ownership of genes. Some say that living materials occur naturally, and therefore cannot be patented. Along with concerns about the commodification of human life, the medical community has also warned that gene patents can inhibit the practice of medicine and progress of science. For example, the American Medical Association's stance is that gene patents inhibit access to genetic testing for patients and hinder research on genetic disease. A contrary position is that forbidding patents on biotechnological innovations would also be unethical. Supporters of this idea suggest that patents allow the public, as well as policy makers, to hold the owner of the patent(s) accountable. They favour biological patents because they require disclosure of information to the public. +Agreements such as the Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) require members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to have intellectual property protection laws in place for most biological innovation. The cost of research and development for innovations such as biologics is extremely high. Such protection regimes help to protect innovators from free-riders. Based on these provisions, it is unlikely that many countries will prohibit patents on genes altogether. +Another area of controversy in genetic patenting is how gene samples are obtained. Prior consent is required to collect genetic samples, and collection of samples from people requires consent at the national and community levels as well as the individual level. Conflicts have resulted when consent is not obtained at all three levels. The question of benefit sharing also arises when obtaining genetic samples, specifically the potential responsibility of the collector to share any benefits or profits of the discoveries with the population or person from whom the sample came. +The last major ethical issue involving gene patents is how the patents are used post-issuance. The use of patented materials and processes will be very expensive or even prohibited to some degree by conditions the patent owner sets. Limiting access like this would directly impact agricultural institutes and university researchers, among others. There is potential that holders of biotechnology patents will exploit their rights in order to make larger profits, at the potential expense of farmers, healthcare patients, and other users of patented technologies. The ethics of using patents to increase profits are also debated. A typical argument in favour of biotech patents is that they enable companies to earn money that the companies in turn invest in further research. Without these patents, some worry that companies would no longer have the resources or motives to perform competitive, viable biotech research. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ac8b883ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Biological patent" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:06.993445+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Patents relating to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of COVID-19 === +In light of the COVID-19 pandemic, several companies around the world raced to develop testing, vaccines, and cures for COVID-19. This required a substantial investment of time and money, and patents were used to protect this innovation. Patent holders are able to refuse licensing for third-parties to manufacture the patented medicine, creating a monopoly for the patent holder and lower supply levels. Furthermore, patent-holders control pricing for licensing and access. This patent-regime has the potential to limit access to life-saving vaccines and cures, especially for those in poor countries. Pharmaceutical industry executives diminished the idea of sharing intellectual property, arguing that companies would have no incentive to innovate if their patents were considered worthless during a pandemic. However, health advocates argue that taxpayers substantially contributed to the development of the vaccines and they should thus be regarded as global public goods. +A lack of access to medication and vaccines is especially problematic during a global pandemic. In April 2020, the Director General of the World Health Organization supported a proposal by Carlos Alvarado, to create a pool of rights for testing medicine and vaccine with free access or affordable licensing terms for all countries. He asked all companies, countries, and research institutions to support “open data, open science, and open collaboration.” He warned that poorer countries would be the hardest hit by the pandemic and failure to assist could prolong the pandemic. +Instead, patent-holders have undertaken case-by-case negotiations to form exclusive licensing contracts. This approach is criticized by the global health community as being too slow, especially where variants are concerned. Further, some poor countries such as South Africa paid more per dose for vaccines than rich countries and the European Union. +One potential remedy is for States to implement compulsory patent licenses. These licenses give the State power to grant permission to third parties to formulate generic versions of the medicine for use in that state. This is beneficial to states with lesser buying power. However, such initiatives are not popular with industry. In March 2020, Israel became the first country to issue a COVID-19 related compulsory license under Section 104 of the Patent Statute. This provision allowed Israel to undermine the patent regime for national defence purposes. No consultation with the patent-holder is required and there is no right for judicial review. The permit allowed Israel to import a generic version of Kaletra from India to treat COVID patients. Canada's Bill C-13, which came into force in March 2020, allows the Commissioner of Patents to allow the country to produce, sell, and use a patented invention if the Federal Minister of Health deems there to be a public health emergency. Although no consultation with patent-holders is required, the country will compensate them with an amount “the Commissioner considers to be adequate remuneration in the circumstances.” Germany also has allowed its Federal Health Minister to take executive action to make medicines available in return for adequate compensation. France amended their patent law to preclude the need for amicable negotiations with patent-holders where urgency exists. +These issues may also be addressed through use of voluntary licensing proposals. Alternatively, public pressure on patent holders may play a significant role. For example, Labrador Diagnostics LLC, which purchased patents from the defunct Theranos, brought an action, and sought an injunction against BioFire Diagnostics for making COVID-19 diagnostic tests. The action was abandoned after public backlash. + +== See also == +Bioprospecting and biopiracy +Budapest Treaty +Copyright status of genetic sequences +Human Genome Project +The Lens + +== References == + +== External links == +Relevant legal provisions of the European Patent Convention: +Article 53(a) EPC: "Exceptions to patentability" (formerly Article 53a EPC 1973) +Rule 28 EPC: "Exceptions to patentability" (formerly Rule 23c EPC 1973), barring the patentability of, notably, "processes for cloning human beings" (Rule 28(a) EPC); "processes for modifying the germ line genetic identity of human beings" (Rule 28(b) EPC); and "uses of human embryos for industrial or commercial purposes" (Rule 28(c) EPC) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..40819d8e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Buck v. Bell" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927), is a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., in which the Court ruled that a state statute permitting compulsory sterilization of the unfit, including the intellectually disabled, "for the protection and health of the state" did not violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Despite changing attitudes about sterilization, the Supreme Court has never expressly overturned Buck v. Bell. It is widely believed to have been weakened by Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942), which deemed compulsory sterilization of male habitual criminals unconstitutional. Legal scholar and Holmes biographer G. Edward White, in fact, wrote, "the Supreme Court has distinguished the case [Buck v. Bell] out of existence". In addition, federal statutes, including the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, provide protections for people with disabilities, defined as both physical and mental impairments. + +== Background == +The modern concept of eugenics was propounded in 1883 by Francis Galton, who also coined the name. The idea first became popular in the United States and had found proponents in Europe by the start of the 20th century; 42 of the 58 research papers presented at the First International Congress of Eugenics, held in London in 1912, were from American scientists. Indiana passed the first eugenics sterilization statute in 1907, but it was legally flawed. To remedy that situation, Harry Laughlin, of the Eugenics Record Office (ERO) at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, designed a model eugenic law that was reviewed by legal experts. In 1924, the Commonwealth of Virginia adopted a statute authorizing the compulsory sterilization of the intellectually disabled for the purpose of eugenics, a statute closely based on Laughlin's model. +The superintendent of the Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded, Dr. Albert Sidney Priddy, had already performed hundreds of forced sterilizations by creatively interpreting laws which allowed surgery to benefit the "physical, mental or moral" condition of the inmates at the Colony. Looking to determine if the new law would survive a legal challenge, Priddy filed a petition with his board of directors to sterilize Carrie Buck, an 18-year-old patient at the institution who he claimed had a mental age of 9. + +Priddy maintained that Buck represented a genetic threat to society. According to him, Buck's 52-year-old mother possessed a mental age of 8, had a record of prostitution and immorality, and had three children without good knowledge of their paternity. Carrie Buck, one of those children, had been adopted and attended school for five years, reaching the level of sixth grade. However, according to Priddy, Buck eventually proved to be "incorrigible" and gave birth to an illegitimate child. Her adoptive family had her committed to the State Colony as "feeble-minded", feeling they were no longer capable of caring for her. It was later claimed that Buck's pregnancy was not caused by any "immorality" on her own part. In the summer of 1923, while her adoptive mother was away "on account of some illness", her adoptive mother's nephew allegedly raped Buck, and her later commitment has been described as an attempt by the family to save their reputation. + +== Buck family == +Carrie Buck was born in Charlottesville, Virginia, the first of three children born to Emma Buck; she also had a half-sister, Doris Buck, and a half-brother, Roy Smith. Little is known about Emma Buck except that she was poor and married to Frederick Buck, who abandoned her early in their marriage. Emma was committed to the Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded after being accused of "immorality", prostitution, and having syphilis. + +After her birth, Carrie Buck was placed with foster parents, John and Alice Dobbs. She attended public school, where she was noted to be an average student. When she was in sixth grade, the Dobbses removed her to have her help with housework. +At 17, Buck became pregnant as a result of being raped by Alice Dobbs' nephew, Clarence Garland. On January 23, 1924, the Dobbses had her committed to the Virginia Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded on the grounds of feeblemindedness, incorrigible behavior, and promiscuity. Her commitment is said to have been due to the family's embarrassment at Buck's pregnancy from the rape incident. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d25786d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Buck v. Bell" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On March 28, 1924, she gave birth to a daughter. Since Buck had been declared mentally incompetent to raise her child, the Dobbses adopted the baby and named her "Vivian Alice Elaine Dobbs". She attended Venable Public Elementary School of Charlottesville for four terms, from September 1930 until May 1932. By all accounts, Vivian was of average intelligence, far above feeblemindedness.She was a perfectly normal, quite average student, neither particularly outstanding nor much troubled. In those days before grade inflation, when C meant "good, 81–87" (as defined on her report card) rather than barely scraping by, Vivian Dobbs received A's and B's for deportment and C's for all academic subjects but mathematics (which was always difficult for her, and where she scored a D) during her first term in Grade 1A, from September 1930 to January 1931. She improved during her second term in 1B, meriting an A in deportment, C in mathematics, and B in all other academic subjects; she was placed on the honor roll in April 1931. Promoted to 2A, she had trouble during the fall term of 1931, failing mathematics and spelling but receiving A in deportment, B in reading, and C in writing and English. She was "retained in 2A" for the next term – or "left back" as we used to say, and scarcely a sign of imbecility as I remember all my buddies who suffered a similar fate. In any case, she again did well in her final term, with B in deportment, reading, and spelling, and C in writing, English, and mathematics during her last month in school. This daughter of "lewd and immoral" women excelled in deportment and performed adequately, although not brilliantly, in her academic subjects.In June 1932, Vivian contracted measles. She died from a secondary intestinal infection, enteric colitis, at the age of 8. + +== Court case == +Virginia's General Assembly passed the Eugenical Sterilization Act in 1924. According to American historian Paul A. Lombardo, politicians wrote the law to benefit a malpracticing doctor avoiding lawsuits from patients who had been the victims of forced sterilization. Eugenicists used Buck to legitimize this law in the 1927 Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell through which they sought to gain legal permission for Virginia to sterilize Buck. + +Carrie Buck found herself in the Colony in June 1924, shortly before her 18th birthday. Priddy quickly made the connection between Emma and Carrie, and he knew about the recently born Vivian: the board of directors issued an order for the sterilization of Buck and her guardian appealed the case to the Circuit Court of Amherst County. +In order to fully validate the law to Priddy's satisfaction, the Board's determination had to be defended in court. Thus, Irving P. Whitehead was appointed to "defend" Carrie from the Board's ruling. Whitehead was not only a close friend of Priddy, a former member of the Colony Board and, unsurprisingly, a staunch believer in forced sterilization, but also a childhood friend of Aubrey E. Strode, who drafted the 1924 Eugenical Sterilization Act. +While the litigation was making its way through the court system, Priddy died and his successor, John Hendren Bell, took up the case. + +Throughout Carrie's trial, a succession of witnesses offered testimony that was hearsay, contentious, speculative, and simply absurd. Because Priddy and Strode felt it crucial to establish that Carrie's entire family "stock" was defective, witnesses who had never met Carrie testified to rumors and anecdotes surrounding her and her family. One of the few witnesses to testify with first-hand knowledge of Carrie, a nurse from Charlottesville who had intermittent contact with Carrie over the years, recalled that in grammar school Carrie had been caught writing notes to boys. Priddy, of course, had once sterilized a girl for that transgression. For his testimony, Priddy felt the need to point out that Carrie had a "rather badly formed face." +Whitehead failed to adequately defend Buck and counteract the prosecutors. Not only did he call no witnesses, but he did not challenge the prosecution's witnesses' lack of firsthand knowledge or their dodgy scientific claims. Whitehead did not even call Carrie's teachers, who could have proven, with documented evidence, that Carrie had been an average student, including one teacher who wrote that Carrie was "very good" at "deportment and lessons." Instead, it seemed that Whitehead was often testifying against his own client, taking it for granted that she was of "low caliber." He did not challenge the claim that Carrie was illegitimate, which was false as a matter of Virginia state law because Carrie's parents were married at the time of her birth. Nor did he argue that Carrie's supposed "immorality" and Vivian's illegitimacy were due to a rape by the Dobbs' nephew, Clarence Garland. +Buck lost in the trial court, where noted Virginia eugenicist Joseph DeJarnette testified against her. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b97380c83 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Buck v. Bell" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Legal appeals and rulings === +The case then moved to the Supreme Court of Appeals of Virginia, where Whitehead offered a 5‑page compared to the state's 40-page brief. Buck lost there too. Her only recourse was to the U.S. Supreme Court, but that was merely an illusion: even if Whitehead had put forth an effort, Carrie's case was put before a Supreme Court with at least two avowed believers in eugenics: Chief Justice (and former president) William Howard Taft and Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. In 1915, Taft had written the introduction to the book How to Live, which contained a sizable portion devoted to eugenics. As for Holmes, in 1921, he told future justice Felix Frankfurter that he had no problem "restricting propagation by the undesirables and putting to death infants that didn't pass the examination." +Buck and her guardian contended that the due process clause guarantees all adults the right to procreate which was being violated. They also made the argument that the Equal Protection Clause in the 14th Amendment was being violated since not all similarly situated people were being treated the same. The sterilization law was only for the "feeble-minded" at certain state institutions and made no mention of other state institutions or those who were not in an institution. +The legal challenge was consciously collusive, brought on behalf of the state to test the legality of the statute. The cross examination and witnesses produced by Whitehead were ineffectual and allegedly a result of his alliance with Strode during the trial. There was no real litigation between the prosecution and the defense, and thus the Supreme Court did not receive sufficient evidence to make a fair decision on the "friendly [law]suit." + +==== Supreme Court ==== +On May 2, 1927, in an 8–1 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court accepted that Buck, her mother and her daughter were "feeble-minded" and "promiscuous," and that it was in the state's interest to have her sterilized. The ruling found that the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924 did not violate the U.S. Constitution and legitimized the sterilization procedures until they were repealed in 1974. +Taft assigned the opinion to Holmes. His first draft was criticized by colleagues for substituting rhetorical flourishes about eugenics for legal analysis. Taft wrote: + +Some of the brethren [the other justices] are troubled about the case, especially [Justice Pierce] Butler. May I suggest that you make a little full [the explanation of] the care Virginia has taken in guarding against undue or hasty action, proven absence of danger to the patient, and other circumstances tending to lessen the shock that many feel over the remedy? The strength of the facts in three generations of course is the strongest argument. +Justice Holmes made clear that the challenge was not upon the medical procedure involved, but on the process of the substantive law. The Court was satisfied that the Virginia Sterilization Act complied with the requirements of due process, since sterilization could not occur until a proper hearing had occurred, at which the patient and a guardian could be present, and the patient had the right to appeal the decision. They also found that, since the procedure was limited to people housed in state institutions, it did not deny the patient equal protection of the law. And finally, since the Virginia Sterilization Act was not a penal statute, the Court held that it did not violate the Eighth Amendment, since it is not intended to be punitive. Citing the best interests of the state, Justice Holmes affirmed the value of a law like Virginia's in order to prevent the nation from being "swamped with incompetence." The Court accepted without evidence that Carrie and her mother were promiscuous, and that the three generations of Bucks shared the genetic trait of feeblemindedness. Thus, it was in the state's best interest to have Carrie Buck sterilized. The decision was seen as a major victory for eugenicists.We have seen more than once that the public welfare may call upon the best citizens for their lives. It would be strange if it could not call upon those who already sap the strength of the State for these lesser sacrifices, often not felt to be such by those concerned, in order to prevent our being swamped with incompetence. It is better for all the world, if instead of waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crime, or to let them starve for their imbecility, society can prevent those who are manifestly unfit from continuing their kind. The principle that sustains compulsory vaccination is broad enough to cover cutting the Fallopian tubes. [...] Three generations of imbeciles are enough.Holmes concluded his argument by citing Jacobson v. Massachusetts as a precedent for the decision, stating "Three generations of imbeciles are enough". The sole dissenter, Justice Pierce Butler, a devout Catholic, did not write a dissenting opinion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..65e240bf2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Buck v. Bell" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Aftermath === +According to famed eugenicist Harry H. Laughlin, whose written testimony was presented during the trial in his absence, Buck's legal defeat signaled the end of "eugenical sterilization's 'experimental period.'" Following the Supreme Court ruling, over two dozen states enacted similar laws, including Oregon and the Carolinas, doubling American sterilizations from 6,000 to more than 12,000 by 1947. Buck was sterilized on October 19, 1927, roughly five months after the Supreme Court trial verdict. She became the first Virginian sterilized since the 1924 Eugenical Sterilization Act passed. The Virginia sterilization law is said to have inspired Nazi Germany's 400,000 sterilizations, including those sanctioned under the 1933 Law for Protection Against Genetically Defective Offspring. +Carrie Buck was operated upon, receiving a compulsory salpingectomy (a form of tubal ligation). She was later paroled from the institution as a domestic worker to a family in Bland, Virginia. She was an avid reader until her death in 1983. Her daughter Vivian had been pronounced "feeble minded" after a cursory examination by ERO field worker Dr. Arthur Estabrook. According to his report, Vivian "showed backwardness", thus the "three generations" of the majority opinion. It is worth noting that the child did very well in school for the two years that she attended (she died of complications from measles in 1932), even being listed on her school's honor roll in April 1931. + +== Effects == + +The effect of Buck v. Bell was to legitimize eugenic sterilization laws in the United States as a whole. While many states already had sterilization laws on their books, their use was erratic and effects practically non-existent in every state except for California. After Buck v. Bell, dozens of states added new sterilization statutes, or updated their constitutionally non-functional ones already enacted, with statutes which more closely mirrored the Virginia statute upheld by the Court. +The Virginia statute that Buck v. Bell upheld was designed in part by the eugenicist Harry H. Laughlin, superintendent of Charles Benedict Davenport's Eugenics Record Office in Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Laughlin had, a few years previously, conducted studies on the enforcement of sterilization legislation throughout the country and had concluded that the reason for their lack of use was primarily that the physicians who would order the sterilizations were afraid of prosecution by patients upon whom they operated. Laughlin saw the need to create a "Model Law" that could withstand constitutional scrutiny, clearing the way for future sterilization operations. The Nazi jurists designing the German Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring based it largely on Laughlin's "Model Law", although development of that law preceded Laughlin's. Nazi Germany held Laughlin in such high regard that they arranged for him to receive an honorary doctorate from Heidelberg University in 1936. At the Subsequent Nuremberg trials after World War II, counsel for SS functionary Otto Hofmann explicitly cited Holmes's opinion in Buck v. Bell in his defense. +Sterilization rates under eugenic laws in the United States climbed from 1927 until Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942). While Skinner v. Oklahoma did not specifically overturn Buck v. Bell, it created enough of a legal quandary to discourage many sterilizations. By 1963, sterilization laws were almost wholly out of use, though some remained officially on the books for many years. Language referring to eugenics was removed from Virginia's sterilization law, and the current law, passed in 1988 and amended in 2013, authorizes only the voluntary sterilization of those 18 and older, after the patient has given written consent and the doctor has informed the patient of the consequences as well as alternative methods of contraception. +The story of Carrie Buck's sterilization and the court case was made into a television drama in 1994, Against Her Will: The Carrie Buck Story. It was also referred to in 1934's sensational film Tomorrow's Children, and was covered in the October 2018 American Experience documentary "The Eugenics Crusade". +Although this opinion and eugenics remain widely condemned, the decision in the case has not been formally overturned. Buck v. Bell was cited as a precedent by the opinion of the court (part VIII) in Roe v. Wade, but by Justice Blackmun in support of some limits to abortion rights. +In the 1996 case of Fieger v. Thomas, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit both recognized and criticized Buck v. Bell by writing, "as Justice Holmes pointed out in the only part of Buck v. Bell that remains unrepudiated, a claim of a violation of the Equal Protection Clause based upon selective enforcement 'is the usual last resort of constitutional arguments'". In 2001, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit cited Buck v. Bell to protect the constitutional rights of a woman coerced into sterilization without procedural due process. The court stated that error and abuse will result if the state does not follow the procedural requirements, established by Buck v. Bell, for performing an involuntary sterilization. +Derek Warden has shown how the decision in Buck v. Bell has been affected by the Americans with Disabilities Act. +In Chiles v. Salazar, Justice Neil Gorsuch cited Buck v. Bell in the majority opinion to indicate that "currently prevailing professional views may not always end well". + +== See also == + +== References == + +=== Notes === + +=== Citations === + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d8ff8f176 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Buck v. Bell" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cohen, Adam (2016), Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics, and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck, Penguin, ISBN 978-1-59420-418-0. +Cullen-DuPont, Kathryn. Encyclopedia of Women's History in America (Infobase Publishing, 2009) pp 37–38 +Breed, Allen G. (August 13, 2011). "Eugenics victim, son fighting together for justice". Winfall, North Carolina. Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved August 13, 2011. +Bruinius, Harry (2007). Better for All the World: The Secret History of Forced Sterilization and America's Quest for Racial Purity. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-375-71305-7. +Leuchtenburg, William E. (1995), "Mr. Justice Holmes and Three Generations of Imbeciles", The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt, New York: Oxford, pp. 3–25, ISBN 978-0-19-511131-6. +Lombardo, Paul (2008), Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell., Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 365, ISBN 978-0-8018-9010-9 +Smith, J. David. The Sterilization of Carrie Buck (New Horizon Press, 1989) + +== External links == + +Text of Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927) is available from: CourtListener Findlaw Google Scholar Internet Archive Justia Library of Congress Professor Thomas D. Russell +An account of the case from the Dolan DNA Learning Center +Buck v. Bell (Case File #31681), archives.gov +"Eugenics." Archived April 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, University of Virginia +"Buck v. Bell (1927)" by N. Antonios and C. Raup at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia +Buck v. Bell at Encyclopedia Virginia +"Noah Feldman on 'Buck v. Bell'". Mahindra Humanities Center. February 13, 2014. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021 – via YouTube. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_patent-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_patent-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..764a465b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_patent-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Chemical patent" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_patent" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:09.617535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A chemical patent, pharmaceutical patent or drug patent is a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceuticals industry. Strictly speaking, in most jurisdictions, there are essentially no differences between the legal requirements to obtain a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceutical fields, in comparison to obtaining a patent in the other fields, such as in the mechanical field. A chemical patent or a pharmaceutical patent is therefore not a sui generis right, i.e. a special legal type of patent. +Chemical patent claims often use generic, Markush structures contained within them, named after the inventor Eugene Markush who won a lawsuit in the US in 1925 to allow such structures to be used in patent claims. These generic structures are used to make the patent claim as broad as possible. +In the United States, patents on pharmaceuticals were considered unethical by the medical profession during most of the nineteenth-century. Drug patent terms in the US were extended from 17 to 20 years in 1994. +Pharmaceutical patents are typically more valuable than any other type of patents, and thus play an essential role in the pharmaceutical industry. There are several reasons for this peculiarity: + +the cost of research and development and getting an approval of a new medication, as well as the risk (failure rate) in developing a new pharmaceutical ingredient, is orders of magnitude higher than the cost of developing most other products. +on the other hand, the cost of making a known chemical is substantially lower, than the cost of developing a new pharmaceutical. +the patent monopoly of pharmaceuticals is usually policed by the government (FDA in the US), but in other industries the patent owner has to bear substantial expenses to enforce its patent monopoly. +A 2021 analysis of the most valuable US pharmaceutical patents published in the Orange Book between 2000 and 2018 showed that ca. 25% of these patents end up litigated in courts, but only 26% of these litigated patents are invalidated, well below the overall patent invalidation rate of 43%. 94% of these invalidated patents are not the highly innovative “primary’ patents on the active ingredient, but weaker follow-on patents (that claim changes in formulation, dissolution profile, new use), that should have not been allowed by examiners in the first place. Remarkably, the prosecution histories of most of these invalidated patents share striking similarity in having the same assignees, the same prosecuting attorneys, and the same examiners. Examiners approve litigated patents after having issued fewer office actions than they do with unlitigated patents. For litigated patents it takes approximately five office actions before allowance. In contrast, for the average, it takes approximately eight office actions before an allowance. +The main reason for invalidating these weak follow-up patents in courts is obviousness in view of the prior art, which was not considered by the examiner. Nevertheless, the authors conclude, that "having examiners spend more time on the important patents ... is not likely to help much; examiners who get more time to work on important cases now do not do more work, but instead cut and paste their existing work from prior cases." As a better alternative, the authors suggests, that the patent owners identify in advance, which patents they intend to list in the Orange Book, and have these patents examined by USPTO's Central Reexamination Unit with a higher level of scrutiny than regular examiners do. + + +== See also == +Compulsory licensing (patents) +Criticism of pharmaceutical patents +Evergreening +Generic drug +Supplementary protection certificate + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +European Commission, Pharmaceuticals, Sector Inquiry, 2008 (Public Consultation, Preliminary Report). +"Patents and Pharmaceuticals", a paper given on 29 November 2008 at the Presentation of the Directorate-General of Competition's Preliminary Report of the Pharma-sector inquiry, by the Rt. Hon. Sir Robin Jacob +India wins landmark patent battle, BBC News, March 9, 2005 +"HIV/AIDS, Patents and the TRIPS Agreement: Issues and Options", United States Congressional Research Service, July 27, 2001 +"Pharmaceutical Patent Term Extensions: A Brief Explanation", United States Congressional Research Service, January 31, 2002 + + +== External links == +Patent Opposition Database, an online resource launched by Doctors without Borders as "a tool which can be used to explore how to challenge unfair patents and their negative impact on access to medicines." ("About". Patent Opposition Database. MSF Access Campaign. Archived from the original on 2012-10-07. Retrieved October 13, 2012.) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..407735590 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Clandestine chemistry" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Clandestine chemistry is chemistry carried out in secret, and particularly in illegal drug laboratories. Larger labs are usually run by gangs or organized crime intending to produce for distribution on the black market. Smaller labs can be run by individual chemists working clandestinely in order to synthesize smaller amounts of controlled substances or simply out of a hobbyist interest in chemistry, often because of the difficulty in ascertaining the purity of other, illegally synthesized drugs obtained on the black market. The term clandestine lab is generally used in any situation involving the production of illicit compounds, regardless of whether the facilities being used qualify as a true laboratory. + +== History == + +Ancient forms of clandestine chemistry included the manufacturing of explosives. +From 1919 to 1933, the United States prohibited the sale, manufacture, or transportation of alcoholic beverages. This opened a door for brewers to supply their own town with alcohol. Just like modern-day drug labs, distilleries were placed in rural areas. The term moonshine generally referred to "corn whiskey", that is, a whiskey-like liquor made from corn. Today, American-made corn whiskey can be labeled or sold under that name, or as bourbon or Tennessee whiskey, depending on the details of the production process. + +== Psychoactive substances == + +=== By precursor chemicals === + +Prepared substances (as opposed to those that occur naturally in a consumable form, such as cannabis and psilocybin mushrooms) require reagents. Some drugs, like cocaine and morphine, are extracted from plant sources and refined with the aid of chemicals. Semi-synthetic drugs such as heroin are made starting from alkaloids extracted from plant sources which are the precursors for further synthesis. In the case of heroin, a mixture of alkaloids is extracted from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) by incising its seed capsule, whereupon a milky fluid (the opium 'latex') bleeds out of the incisions which is then left to dry out and scraped off the bulbs, yielding raw opium. Morphine, one of many alkaloids in opium, is then extracted out of the opium by acid-base extraction and turned into heroin by reacting it with acetic anhydride. Other drugs (such as methamphetamine and MDMA) are normally made from commercially available chemicals, though both can also be made from naturally occurring precursors. Methamphetamine can be made from ephedrine, one of the naturally occurring alkaloids in ephedra (Ephedra sinica). MDMA can be made from safrole, the major constituent of several etheric oils like sassafras. Governments have adopted a strategy of chemical control as part of their overall drug control and enforcement plans. Chemical control offers a means of attacking illicit drug production and disrupting the process before the drugs have entered the market. +Because many legitimate industrial chemicals such as anhydrous ammonia and iodine are also necessary in the processing and synthesis of most illicitly produced drugs, preventing the diversion of these chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacturing is a difficult job. Governments often place restrictions on the purchase of large quantities of chemicals that can be used in the production of illicit drugs, usually requiring licenses or permits to ensure that the purchaser has a legitimate need for them. + +==== Suppliers of precursor chemicals ==== +Chemicals critical to the production of cocaine, heroin, and synthetic drugs are produced in many countries throughout the world. Many manufacturers and suppliers exist in Europe, China, India, the United States, and many other countries. +Historically, chemicals critical to the synthesis or manufacture of illicit drugs are introduced into various venues via legitimate purchases by companies that are registered and licensed to do business as chemical importers or handlers. Once in a country or state, the chemicals are diverted by rogue importers or chemical companies, by criminal organizations and individual violators, or acquired as a result of coercion and/or theft on the part of drug traffickers. In response to stricter international controls, drug traffickers have increasingly been forced to divert chemicals by mislabeling the containers, forging documents, establishing front companies, using circuitous routing, hijacking shipments, bribing officials, or smuggling products across international borders. + +==== Enforcement of controls on precursor chemicals ==== + +===== General ===== +The Multilateral Chemical Reporting Initiative encourages governments to exchange information on a voluntary basis in order to monitor international chemical shipments. Over the past decade, key international bodies like the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the U.N. General Assembly's Special Session (UNGASS) have addressed the issue of chemical diversion in conjunction with U.S. efforts. These organizations raised specific concerns about potassium permanganate and acetic anhydride. +To facilitate the international flow of information about precursor chemicals, the United States, through its relationship with the Inter-American Drug Control Abuse Commission (CICAD), continues to evaluate the use of precursor chemicals and assist countries in strengthening controls. Many nations still lack the capacity to determine whether the import or export of precursor chemicals is related to legitimate needs or illicit drugs. The problem is complicated by the fact that many chemical shipments are either brokered or transshipped through third countries in an attempt to disguise their purpose or destination. +Beginning in July 2001, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) has opted to organize an international conference with the goal of devising a specific action plan to counter the traffic in MDMA precursor chemicals. They hope to prevent the diversion of chemicals used in the production of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), including MDMA (ecstasy) and methamphetamine. +In June 2015, the European Commission approved Regulation (EU) 2015/1013 which outlined for the monitoring of drug precursors traded between the Union and third countries. The Regulation also establishes uniform procedures for licensing and registration of operators and users who are listed in a European database tracking drug precursors. +Despite this long history of law enforcement actions, restrictions of chemicals, and even covert military actions, many illicit drugs are still widely available all over the world. + +===== Cocaine ===== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47b0fa252 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Clandestine chemistry" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Operation Purple is a U.S. DEA driven international chemical control initiative designed to reduce the illicit manufacture of cocaine in the Andean Region, identify rogue firms and suspect individuals, gather intelligence on diversion methods, trafficking trends, and shipping routes, and take administrative, civil and/or criminal action as appropriate. Critical to the success of this operation is the communication network that gives notification of shipments and provides the government of the importer sufficient time to verify the legitimacy of the transaction and take appropriate action. The effects of this initiative have been dramatic and far-reaching. Operation Purple has exposed a significant vulnerability among traffickers, and has grown to include almost thirty nations. According to the DEA, Operation Purple has been highly effective at interfering with cocaine production. However, illicit chemists always find new methods to evade the DEA's scrutiny. +In countries where strict chemical controls have been put in place, illicit drug production has been seriously affected. For example, few of the chemicals needed to process coca leaf into cocaine are manufactured in Bolivia or Peru. Most are smuggled in from neighbouring countries with advanced chemical industries or diverted from a smaller number of licit handlers. Increased interdiction of chemicals in Peru and Bolivia has contributed to final product cocaine from those countries being of lower, minimally oxidized quality (i.e. containing a lower than desirable oxygen fraction per unit mass of the drug). +As a result, Bolivian lab operators are now using inferior substitutes such as cement instead of lime and sodium bicarbonate instead of ammonia and recycled solvents like ether. Some non-solvent fuels such as gasoline, kerosene and diesel fuel are even used in place of solvents. +Manufacturers are attempting to streamline a production process that virtually eliminates oxidation to produce cocaine base. Some laboratories are not using sulfuric acid during the maceration state; consequently, less cocaine alkaloid is extracted from the leaf, producing less cocaine hydrochloride, the powdered cocaine marketed for overseas consumption. + +===== Heroin ===== + +Similarly, heroin-producing countries depend on supplies of acetic anhydride (AA) from the international market. This heroin precursor continues to account for the largest volume of internationally seized chemicals, according to the International Narcotics Control Board. Since July 1999, there have been several notable seizures of acetic anhydride in Turkey (amounting to nearly seventeen metric tons) and Turkmenistan (totaling seventy-three metric tons). +Acetic anhydride, the most commonly used chemical agent in heroin processing, is virtually irreplaceable. According to the DEA, Mexico remains the only heroin source route to heroin laboratories in Afghanistan. Authorities in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan routinely seize ton-quantity shipments of diverted acetic anhydride. +The lack of acetic anhydride has caused clandestine chemists in some countries to substitute it for lower quality precursors such as acetic acid and results in the formation of impure black tar heroin that contains a mixture of drugs not found in heroin made with pure chemicals. +DEA's Operation Topaz is a coordinated international strategy targeting acetic anhydride. In place since March 2001, a total of thirty-one countries are currently organized participants in the program in addition to regional participants. The DEA reports that as of June 2001, some 125 consignments of acetic anhydride had been tracked totaling 618,902,223 kilograms. As of July 2001, there has been approximately 20 shipments of AA totaling 185,000 kilograms either stopped or seized. + +===== Amphetamines ===== + +The practice of clandestine chemistry to synthesize controlled substance analogues and circumvent drug laws was first noticed in the late 1960s, as types of drugs became controlled substances in many countries. With the Title 21 United States Code (USC) Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of October 27, 1970 amphetamines became controlled substances in the United States. Prior to this, amphetamine sulfate first became widely available as an over-the-counter (OTC) nasal decongestant inhaler in 1933, marketed by SKF under the brand name Benzedrine. Shortly afterward, physicians began documenting amphetamine's general stimulant properties and subsequently its potential for treating narcolepsy, which prompted SKF in 1938 to begin also manufacturing amphetamine sulfate as tablets. Initially, the frequency of amphetamine use was negligible; however, by 1959 its popularity as a therapeutic agent and also an illicit drug had skyrocketed nationwide, causing the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) to reclassify amphetamine from OTC to prescription-only. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..81cd536fe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Clandestine chemistry" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== Methamphetamine ===== +As of the early 1990s, methamphetamine use was concentrated among young white males in California and nearby states. Since then its use has spread both demographically and geographically. Methamphetamine has been a favorite among various populations including motorcycle gangs, truckers, laborers, soldiers, and ravers. Known as a "club drug", the National Institute on Drug Abuse tracks its incidence of use in children as young as twelve, and the prevalence of users increases with age. +In the 1980s and early 1990s, most methamphetamine production in the United States occurred in small independent laboratories. Phenylacetone, one precursor of methamphetamine, became a Schedule II controlled immediate precursor in 1979. Underground chemists searched for alternative methods for producing methamphetamine. The two predominant methods which appeared both involve the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. At the time, neither was a watched chemical, and pills containing the substance could be bought by the thousands without raising any kind of suspicion. +In the 1990s, the DEA recognized that legally imported precursors were being diverted to the production of methamphetamine. Changes to federal regulations in 1988 and throughout the 1990s enabled the DEA to more closely track the ephedrine and pseudoephedrine precursors. Many individual States have enacted precursor control laws which limit the sale of over-the-counter cold medications which contain ephedrine or pseudoephedrine. This made it somewhat more difficult for underground chemists to produce methamphetamine. In May 1995, the DEA shut down two major suppliers of precursors in the United States, seizing 25 metric tons of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from Clifton Pharmaceuticals and 500 cases of pseudoephedrine from X-Pressive Looks, Inc. (XLI). The immediate market impact suggests that they had been providing more than 50 percent of the precursors used nationally to produce methamphetamine. However, the market rapidly rebounded. +The methamphetamine situation also changed in the mid-1990s as Mexican organized crime became a major player in its production and distribution, operating "super-labs" which produced a substantial percentage of the drugs being sold. According to the DEA, the seizure of 3.5 metric tons of pseudoephedrine in Texas in 1994 revealed that Mexican trafficking groups were producing methamphetamine on an unprecedented scale. More recent reports indicate an ongoing presence of Mexican trafficking. + +=== By process === + +==== Distillation ==== + +===== Alcohol ===== + +Another old form of clandestine chemistry is the illegal brewing and distillation of alcohol. This is frequently done to avoid taxation on spirits. +In some countries, moonshine stills are illegal to sell, import, and own without permission. However, enthusiasts explain on internet forums how to obtain equipment and assemble it into a still. To cut costs, stainless steel vessels are often replaced with plastic stills, vessels made from polypropylene that can withstand relatively high heat. + +==== Catalysts ==== + +===== Pyrolysis ===== + +====== THC ====== +Conversion of CBD to THC can occur with heat acting as a catalyst. + +=== By contamination === + +==== Alcoholic drinks ==== +Alcoholic drinks that are known to be contaminated. + +Diethylene glycol, used dangerously by some winemakers in sweet wines + +===== Moonshine ===== + +==== Black tar heroin ==== +Black tar heroin is a free base form of heroin that is sticky like tar or hard like coal. Its dark color is the result of crude processing methods that leave behind impurities. +Black tar as a type holds a variable admixture morphine derivatives—predominantly 6-MAM (6-monoacetylmorphine) which is another result of crude acetylation. The lack of proper reflux during acetylation fails to remove much of the moisture retained in the acetylating agent, glacial acetic acid. + +==== Contaminated cocaine ==== + +===== Black cocaine ===== +Black cocaine (Spanish: coca negra) is a mixture of regular cocaine base or cocaine hydrochloride with various other substances. + +===== Cocaine paste ===== +Coca paste (paco, basuco, oxi) is a crude extract of the coca leaf which contains 40% to 91% cocaine freebase along with companion coca alkaloids and varying quantities of benzoic acid, methanol, and kerosene. + +==== Krokodil ==== +Illicitly produced desomorphine is typically far from pure and often contains large amounts of toxic substances and contaminants as a result of being "cooked" and used without any significant effort to remove the byproducts and leftovers from synthesis. Injecting any such mixture can cause serious damage to the skin, blood vessels, bone and muscles, sometimes requiring limb amputation in long-term users. Its melting point is 189 °C. +Causes of this damage are from iodine, phosphorus and other toxic substances that are present after synthesis. + +==== Methamphetamine ==== + +A common adulterant is dimethyl sulfone, a solvent and cosmetic base without known effect on the nervous system; other adulterants include dimethylamphetamine HCl, ephedrine HCl, sodium thiosulfate, sodium chloride, sodium glutamate, and a mixture of caffeine with sodium benzoate. +Although the prevalence of domestic meth labs continues to be high in western states, they have spread throughout the United States. It has been suggested that "do-it-yourself" meth production in rural areas is reflective of a broader DIY approach that includes activities such as hunting, fishing, and fixing one’s cars, trucks, equipment, and house. Toxic chemicals resulting from methamphetamine production may be hoarded or clandestinely dumped, damaging land, water, plant life and wild life, and posing a risk to humans. Waste from methamphetamine labs is frequently dumped on federal, public, and tribal lands. The chemicals involved can explode and clandestine chemistry has been implicated in both house and wild land fires. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7ee19ffd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Clandestine chemistry" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In Oregon, Brett Sherry of the Oregon Clandestine Drug Lab Cleanup Program has been quoted as stating that only 10–20% of drug labs are discovered by police. +Statistics reporting the prevalence of meth labs and arrest of meth producers can vary greatly from county to county and state to state. Factors affecting policing and reporting include funding, specialized training, support from local residents, and willingness to make the issue a priority in policing. How information is categorized and tracked may also inflate or minimize the apparent results. +Missouri has reported some of the highest rates of meth-lab arrests in the country, and has pursued an aggressive and highly publicized policy of policing meth labs. This has resulted in as many as 205 cases per year in one county. In contrast, West Virginia reports and/or prosecutes very few cases. It's possible that these low numbers are because of cost. +In WV, a police agency which reports a meth lab is responsible for the cost of its cleanup—which can cost tens of thousands of dollars, as proper disposal of toxic and hazardous materials is very expensive. The high cost of cleanup is a clear disincentive for all agencies, but especially those with limited budgets. +In 2016, Michigan reported an increase in incidents following the formation of the Midland County Methamphetamine Protocol Team in 2015. However, many of the cases reported involved meth users making small amounts of the drug using a crude and dangerous "one-pot method". These small operations were for both personal use and for sale to others. +The DEA's El Paso Intelligence Center data from 2012 to 2014 is showing a downward trend in the number of clandestine methamphetamine labs; down from a high of 15,196 in 2010. Drug seizure quantities, on the other hand, are steadily increasing since 2007, according to data from the DEA's System to Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE) (see table to the right). + +===== Cleanup ===== + +Clean up processes were regulated by the EPA as of 2007. The Methamphetamine Remediation Research Act of 2007 required EPA to develop guidelines for remediation of former methamphetamine labs. This creates guidelines for States and local agencies to improve "our national understanding of identifying the point at which former methamphetamine laboratories become clean enough to inhabit again." The legislation also required that EPA periodically update the guidelines, as appropriate, to reflect the best available knowledge and research. +Making a former meth lab site safer for habitation requires two basic efforts: + +Gross chemical removal +This is the process in which law enforcement or a Drug Enforcement Administration contractors removes the obvious dangers from the site. Obvious dangers include containers of chemicals, equipment, and apparatus that could be used to make illegal drugs, drug paraphernalia, and other illegal items. This process does not cleanup or remove chemical spills, stains or residue that could be harmful to inhabitants. A property that has had only a gross chemical removal is not fit for habitation. +Clandestine remediation +The cleaning of interior structures and, if applicable, the surrounding land, surface waters and groundwater by an EPA approved or National Crime Scene Cleanup Association certified company. This is the process of removing the residue and waste from the site after the gross chemical removal is done. A property that has been remediated should present minimal to no health risk to occupants. + +==== MPPP ==== +MPTP may be accidentally produced during the manufacture of MPPP. 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), a metabolite of MPTP, causes rapid onset of irreversible symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease. + +==== PCP ==== +Embalming fluid has been found as a by-product of PCP manufacture. Marijuana cigarettes dipped in embalming fluid, sometimes also laced with PCP are known as fry or fry sticks. + +== Explosives == +Clandestine chemistry is not limited to drugs; it is also associated with explosives, and other illegal chemicals. Of the explosives manufactured illegally, nitrate esters such as nitroglycerin and EGDN and organic peroxides such as acetone peroxide and HMTD are easiest to produce due to the ease with which the precursors can be acquired from common household chemicals, such as glycerin, antifreeze and hexamine fuel tablets. +Uncle Fester is a writer who commonly writes about different aspects of clandestine chemistry. Secrets of Methamphetamine Manufacture is among his most popular books, and is considered required reading for DEA agents. More of his books deal with other aspects of clandestine chemistry, including explosives, and poisons. Fester is, however, considered by many to be a faulty and unreliable source for information in regard to the clandestine manufacture of chemicals. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == +Clandestine labs FAQ at Erowid +New 'shake-and-bake' method for making crystal meth gets around drug laws but is no less dangerous \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._D._C._Willard-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._D._C._Willard-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4ee4f7ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._D._C._Willard-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "F. D. C. Willard" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._D._C._Willard" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:04.093310+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +F. D. C. Willard (1968–1982) was the pen name of Chester, a Siamese cat, used on several papers written by his owner, J. H. Hetherington, in physics journals. On one occasion, he was listed as the sole author. + + +== Background == +In 1975, the American physicist and mathematician Jack H. Hetherington of Michigan State University wanted to publish some of his research results in the field of low-temperature physics in the scientific journal Physical Review Letters. A colleague, to whom he had given his paper for review, pointed out that Hetherington had used the first person plural, "we", in his text, and that the journal would reject this form on submissions with a sole author. Rather than take the time to retype the article to use the singular form, or to bring in a co-author, Hetherington decided to invent one. + + +== Publications == + +Hetherington had a Siamese cat named Chester, who had been sired by a Siamese named Willard. Fearing that colleagues might recognize his pet's name, he thought it better to use the pet's initial. Aware that most Americans have at least two given names, he invented two more given names based on the scientific name for a house cat, Felis domesticus, and abbreviated them accordingly as F. D. C. His article, entitled "Two-, Three-, and Four-Atom Exchange Effects in bcc ³He" and written by J. H. Hetherington and F. D. C. Willard, was accepted by the Physical Review and published in number 35 (November 1975). +At the 15th International Conference on Low Temperature Physics in 1978 in Grenoble, Hetherington's co-author was exposed: Hetherington had sent some signed copies of his article to friends and colleagues and included the "signature" (paw prints) of his co-author in them. Later, another essay appeared, this time solely authored by F. D. C. Willard, entitled "L'hélium 3 solide. Un antiferromagnétique nucléaire", published (in French) in September 1980 in the French popular science magazine La Recherche. Subsequently, Willard disappeared as an author from the professional world. + + +== Reception == +The unmasking of Hetherington's co-author on the Physical Review essay, which was frequently referenced, caused the co-authorship to become world-famous. The story goes that when inquiries were made to Hetherington's office at Michigan State University, and Hetherington was absent, the callers would ask to speak to the co-author instead. F. D. C. Willard appeared henceforth repeatedly in footnotes, where he was thanked for "useful contributions to the discussion" or oral communications, and even offered a position as a professor. F. D. C. Willard is sometimes included in lists of "Famous Cats" or "Historical Cats". +As an April Fool's joke, in 2014 the American Physical Society announced that cat-authored papers, including the Hetherington–Willard paper, would henceforth be open-access. Papers of the APS usually require subscription or membership for web access, whereas the Hetherington–Willard paper is labelled "Free to Read". + + +== See also == + +List of animals awarded human credentials +List of individual cats +Polly Matzinger (an immunologist who listed her Afghan Hound, Galadriel Mirkwood, as a co-author) + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Sam Stall (January 2007). 100 Cats Who Changed Civilization: History's Most Influential Felines. Quirk Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-59474-163-0. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f490f6375 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Spherical cow" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:26:57.871990+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The spherical cow is a humorous metaphor for highly simplified scientific models of complex phenomena. Originating in theoretical physics, the metaphor refers to some scientific tendencies to develop toy models that reduce a problem to the simplest form imaginable, making calculations more feasible, even if the simplification hinders the model's application to reality. + + +== History == +The phrase comes from a joke that spoofs the simplifying assumptions sometimes used in theoretical physics. + + Milk production at a dairy farm was low, so the farmer wrote to the local university, asking for help from academia. A multidisciplinary team of professors was assembled, headed by a theoretical physicist, and two weeks of intensive on-site investigation took place. The scholars then returned to the university, notebooks crammed with data, where the task of writing the report was left to the team leader. Shortly thereafter the physicist returned to the farm, saying to the farmer, "I have the solution, but it works only in the case of spherical cows in a vacuum." + +John Harte, who received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin in 1965, reported that he first heard the joke as a graduate student. One of the earliest published references is in a 1970 article by Arthur O. Williams Jr. of Brown University, who described it as "a professional joke that circulated among scientists a few years ago". +The story is told in many variants, including a joke about a physicist who said he could predict the winner of any race provided it involved spherical horses moving through a vacuum. A 1973 letter to the editor in the journal Science describes the "famous story" about a physicist whose solution to a poultry farm's egg-production problems began with "Postulate a spherical chicken". + + +== Cultural references == + +The concept is familiar enough that the phrase is sometimes used as shorthand for the entire issue of proper modeling. For example, Consider a Spherical Cow is a 1985 book about problem solving using simplified models. A 2015 paper on the systemic errors introduced by simplifying assumptions about spherical symmetries in galactic dark-matter haloes was titled "Milking the spherical cow – on aspherical dynamics in spherical coordinates". +References to the joke appear even outside the field of scientific modeling. "Spherical Cow" was chosen as the code name for the Fedora 18 Linux distribution. In the sitcom The Big Bang Theory, a joke is told by Dr. Leonard Hofstadter with the punchline mentioning "spherical chickens in a vacuum", in "The Cooper-Hofstadter Polarization" episode. In the space gravity simulator educational video game Universe Sandbox, a spherical cow was added as a user-placeable object in March 2023. +A 2026 April Fools' Day paper in the American Journal of Physics discusses multipole approximations of the cow's gravitational potential and surface shape, which are useful in analyzing "the spindown of a rotating cow due to the emission of gravitational waves" and the "cow tipping problem" respectively. + + +== See also == +Assume a can opener, a joke about invalid assumptions in economics +Fermi problem, efforts to produce very broad estimates +Homo economicus, a hypothetical rational person +Naïve physics, also called folk physics +Schwarzschild metric, an exact solution of the Einstein field equations assuming a uniform spherical symmetric nonrotating uncharged mass in a vacuum + + +== References == + + +== External links == +NASA:Exploration of the Universe Division – Supernova models as spherical cows +Hubble Heritage Gallery Page: related history from Space Telescope Institute \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umma_gumma-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umma_gumma-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7dcc0311e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umma_gumma-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Umma gumma" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umma_gumma" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:26:59.283175+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Umma gumma is a species of damselfly in the family Calopterygidae. The genus name was established in 1890 and this species described in 2015 from Africa was found to belong to the genus. The species was named after the Pink Floyd album Ummagumma. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md index c5d7ecbe9..1170e4f19 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_2_(book)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:35:09.144917+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:02.939398+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-1.md index ff4e863d0..4ef257d9f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_(book)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:35:07.917301+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:27:01.686050+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" ---