From 320db9a0d6e0be79c14a345e629f897d9fa9d076 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 20:09:49 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 514 new, 6 updated, 540 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 3198976 -> 3215360 bytes data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-0.md | 29 +++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-1.md | 23 ++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-2.md | 17 +++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-3.md | 19 +++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-4.md | 39 ++++++++++ .../wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-0.md | 28 +++++++ .../wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-1.md | 33 ++++++++ .../wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-2.md | 16 ++++ .../wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-3.md | 35 +++++++++ .../Society_for_Scientific_Exploration-0.md | 71 ++++++++++++++++++ ..._for_engineered_negligible_senescence-0.md | 27 +++++++ ..._for_engineered_negligible_senescence-1.md | 28 +++++++ .../wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md | 39 ++++++++++ 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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:41.853115+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ian Pretyman Stevenson (October 31, 1918 – February 8, 2007) was a Canadian-born American psychiatrist, the founder and director of the Division of Perceptual Studies at the University of Virginia School of Medicine. He was a professor at the University of Virginia School of Medicine for fifty years. He was chair of their department of psychiatry from 1957 to 1967, Carlson Professor of Psychiatry from 1967 to 2001, and research professor of psychiatry from 2002 until his death in 2007. He helped to found the Society for Scientific Exploration in 1982. +He is best known for his research into evidence of reincarnation – the premise that emotions, memories, and even physical bodily features can be passed on from one life to another. Over his forty years of international research, he amassed three thousand cases of children who claimed to remember past lives. Stevenson was the author of around three hundred papers and fourteen books on reincarnation, including Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation (1966), Reincarnation and Biology and its simplified version Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect (both 1997), and European Cases of the Reincarnation Type (2003). +Stevenson was cautious in making claims about reincarnation. He emphasized that the information he collected was suggestive of reincarnation but "was not flawless and it certainly does not compel such a belief." He did, however, believe he had produced a body of evidence for reincarnation that should be taken seriously. His position was that reincarnation might possibly represent a third contributing factor, in addition to genetics and the environment, in the development of certain phobias, philias, unusual abilities, and illnesses. +In an obituary for Stevenson in The New York Times, Margalit Fox wrote that Stevenson's supporters saw him as a misunderstood genius, that his detractors regarded him as earnest but gullible, but that most scientists had simply ignored his research. Stevenson's critics contend that ultimately his conclusions are undermined by confirmation bias and motivated reasoning, and were reliant on anecdotal evidence rather than controlled experimental work. His case reports were also criticized for containing errors and omissions. Upon his retirement, Stevenson's work was continued by research colleagues such as Jim B. Tucker, Antonia Mills, Satwant Pasricha, and Erlendur Haraldsson. + +== Background == + +=== Personal life and education === +Ian Stevenson was born in Montreal and raised in Ottawa and was one of three children. His father, John Stevenson, was a Scottish lawyer who was working in Ottawa as the Canadian correspondent for The Times of London or The New York Times. His mother, Ruth, had an interest in theosophy and an extensive library on the subject, to which Stevenson attributed his own early interest in the paranormal. As a child he was often bedridden with bronchitis, a condition that continued into adulthood and engendered in him a lifelong love of books. According to Emily Williams Kelly, a colleague of his at the University of Virginia, he maintained a list of the books he had read, which numbered 3,535 between 1935 and 2003. +He studied medicine at St. Andrews University in Scotland from 1937 to 1939, but had to complete his studies in Canada because of the outbreak of the Second World War. He graduated from McGill University with a B.S.c. in 1942 and an M.D. in 1943. He was married to Octavia Reynolds from 1947 until her death in 1983. In 1985, he married Dr. Margaret Pertzoff (1926–2009), professor of history at Randolph-Macon Woman's College. She did not share his views on the paranormal, but tolerated them with what Stevenson called "benevolent silences." + +=== Early career === +After graduating, Stevenson conducted research in biochemistry. His first residency was at the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal (1944–1945), but his lung condition continued to bother him, and one of his professors at McGill advised him to move to Arizona for his health. He took up a residency at St. Joseph's Hospital in Phoenix, Arizona (1945–1946). After that, he held a fellowship in internal medicine at the Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation in New Orleans, became a Denis Fellow in Biochemistry at Tulane University School of Medicine (1946–1947), and a Commonwealth Fund Fellow in Medicine at Cornell University Medical College and New York Hospital (1947–1949). He became a U.S. citizen in 1949. +Emily Williams Kelly writes that Stevenson became dissatisfied with the reductionism he encountered in biochemistry, and wanted to study the whole person. He became interested in psychosomatic medicine, psychiatry and psychoanalysis, and in the late 1940s, worked at New York Hospital exploring psychosomatic illness and the effects of stress, and in particular why, for example, one person's response to stress might be asthma and another's high blood pressure. +He taught at Louisiana State University School of Medicine from 1949 to 1957 as assistant, then associate professor of psychiatry. +In the 1950s, he met Aldous Huxley (1894–1963), known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs, and studied the effects of L.S.D. and mescaline, one of the first academics to do so. Ian Stevenson, in his course of studies, tried and studied L.S.D. himself, describing three days of "perfect serenity." He wrote that at the time he felt he could "never be angry again," but added, "As it happens that didn't work out, but the memory of it persisted as something to hope for." +From 1951, he studied psychoanalysis at the New Orleans Psychoanalytic Institute and the Washington Psychoanalytic Institute, graduating from the latter in 1958, a year after being appointed head of the department of psychiatry at the University of Virginia. The orthodoxy within psychiatry and psychoanalysis at the time held that the personality is more plastic in one's early years, so when he argued against this in his paper "Is the human personality more plastic in infancy and childhood?" (American Journal of Psychiatry, 1957) his paper was not received well by his colleagues. He wrote that their response prepared him for the rejection he experienced over his work on the paranormal. + +== Reincarnation research == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..84ef56d2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Ian Stevenson" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:41.853115+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Early interest === +Stevenson described as the leitmotif of his career his interest in why one person would develop one disease, and another something different. He came to believe that neither environment nor heredity could account for certain fears, illnesses and special abilities, and that some form of personality or memory transfer might provide a third type of explanation. He acknowledged, however, the absence of evidence of a physical process by which a personality could survive death and transfer to another body, and he was careful not to commit himself fully to the position that reincarnation occurs. He argued only that his case studies could not, in his view, be explained by environment or heredity, and that "reincarnation is the best – even though not the only – explanation for the stronger cases we have investigated." He said in 1974, looking back on his work: +[W]hat I do believe is that, of the cases we now know, reincarnation--at least for some--is the best explanation that we have been able to come up with. There is an impressive body of evidence and it is getting stronger all the time. I think a rational person, if he wants, can believe in reincarnation on the basis of evidence.In 1958 and 1959, Stevenson contributed several articles and book reviews to Harper's about parapsychology, including psychosomatic illness and extrasensory perception, and in 1958, he submitted the winning entry to a competition organized by the American Society for Psychical Research, in honor of the philosopher William James (1842–1910). The prize was for the best essay on "paranormal mental phenomena and their relationship to the problem of survival of the human personality after bodily death." Stevenson's essay, "The Evidence for Survival from Claimed Memories of Former Incarnations" (1960), reviewed forty-four published cases of people, mostly children, who claimed to remember past lives. It caught the attention of Eileen J. Garrett (1893–1970), the founder of the Parapsychology Foundation, who gave Stevenson a grant to travel to India to interview a child who was claiming to have past-life memories. According to Jim Tucker, Stevenson found twenty-five other cases in just four weeks in India and was able to publish his first book on the subject in 1966, Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation. +Chester Carlson (1906–1968), the inventor of xerography, offered further financial help. Jim Tucker writes that this allowed Stevenson to step down as chair of the psychiatry department and set up a separate division within the department, which he called the Division of Personality Studies, later renamed the Division of Perceptual Studies. +When Carlson died in 1968, he left $1,000,000 to the University of Virginia to continue Stevenson's work. The bequest caused controversy within the university because of the nature of the research, but the donation was accepted, and Stevenson became the first Carlson Professor of Psychiatry. + +=== Case studies === +The bequest from Chester Carlson allowed Stevenson to travel extensively, sometimes as much as 55,000 miles (89,000 kilometres) a year, collecting around three thousand case studies based on interviews with children from Africa to Alaska. +In one case of claimed reincarnation, as Stevenson recounted it, a newborn girl in Sri Lanka screamed whenever she was carried near a bus or a bath. When she was old enough to talk, he said, she recounted a previous life as a girl of 8 or 9 who drowned after a bus knocked her into a flooded rice paddy; later investigation found the family of just such a dead girl living four or five kilometers away. The two families, Stevenson said, were believed to have had no contact. According to journalist Tom Shroder, "In interviewing witnesses and reviewing documents, Stevenson searched for alternate ways to account for the testimony: that the child came upon the information in some normal way, that the witnesses were engaged in fraud or self-delusion, that the correlations were the result of coincidence or misunderstanding. But in scores of cases, Stevenson concluded that no normal explanation sufficed." +In some cases, a child in a "past life" case may have birthmarks or birth defects that in some way correspond to physical features of the "previous person" whose life the child seems to remember. Stevenson's Reincarnation and Biology: A Contribution to the Etiology of Birthmarks and Birth Defects (1997) examined two hundred cases of birth defects or birthmarks on children claiming past-life memories. These included children with malformed or missing fingers who said they recalled the lives of people who had lost fingers; a boy with birthmarks resembling entrance and exit wounds who said he recalled the life of someone who had been shot; and a child with a scar around her skull three centimetres wide who said she recalled the life of a man who had had skull surgery. In many of the cases, in Stevenson's view, the witness testimony or autopsy reports appeared to support the existence of the injuries on the deceased's body. +Stevenson was cautious about making any definite claims about reincarnation in his research, but felt his body of evidence demanded serious attention. In 1989, he said, "[T]he evidence is not flawless and it certainly does not compel such a belief. Even the best of it is open to alternative interpretations, [but] one can only censure those who say there is no evidence whatever." + +== Reception == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ffa091ff6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Ian Stevenson" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:41.853115+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Criticism === +The Journal of the American Medical Association referred to Stevenson's Cases of the Reincarnation Type (1975) as a "painstaking and unemotional" collection of cases that were "difficult to explain on any assumption other than reincarnation." In September 1977, the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease devoted most of one issue to Stevenson's research. Writing in the journal, the psychiatrist Harold Lief described Stevenson as a methodical investigator and added, "Either he is making a colossal mistake, or he will be known (I have said as much to him) as 'the Galileo of the 20th century'." The issue proved popular: the journal's editor, the psychiatrist Eugene Brody, said he had received 300–400 requests for reprints. +Despite this early interest, most scientists ignored Stevenson's work. According to his New York Times obituary, his detractors saw him as "earnest, dogged but ultimately misguided, led astray by gullibility, wishful thinking and a tendency to see science where others saw superstition." Critics suggested that the children or their parents had deceived him, that he was too willing to believe them, and that he had asked them leading questions. Robert Todd Carroll wrote in his Skeptic's Dictionary that Stevenson's results were subject to confirmation bias, in that cases not supportive of the hypothesis were not presented as counting against it. Leonard Angel, a philosopher of religion, told The New York Times that Stevenson did not follow proper standards. "[B]ut you do have to look carefully to see it; that's why he's been very persuasive to many people." +In an article in Skeptical Inquirer Angel examined Stevenson's Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation (1974) and concluded that the research was so poorly conducted as to cast doubt on all Stevenson's work. He says that Stevenson failed to clearly and concisely document the claims made before attempting to verify them. Among a number of other faults, Angel says, Stevenson asked leading questions and did not properly tabulate or account for all erroneous statements. Angel writes: + +"In sum, Stevenson does not skillfully record, present, or analyze his own data. If a case regarded by Stevenson to be among the strongest of his cases — the only case of 20 that had its purported verifications conducted by Stevenson himself — falls apart under scrutiny as badly as the Imad Elawar case does, it is reasonable to conclude that the other cases, in which data were first gathered by untrained observers, are even less reliable than this one." +Skeptics have written that Stevenson's evidence was anecdotal and by applying Occam's razor there are prosaic explanations for the cases without invoking the paranormal. Psychologist and neurologist Terence Hines has written: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..391d05c15 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Ian Stevenson" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:41.853115+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"The major problem with Stevenson’s work is that the methods he used to investigate alleged cases of reincarnation are inadequate to rule out simple, imaginative storytelling on the part of the children claiming to be reincarnations of dead individuals. In the seemingly most impressive cases Stevenson (1975, 1977) has reported, the children claiming to be reincarnated knew friends and relatives of the dead individual. The children’s knowledge of facts about these individuals is, then, somewhat less than conclusive evidence for reincarnation." +Robert Baker wrote that many alleged past-life experiences can be explained in terms of known psychological factors. Baker attributed the recalling of past lives to a mixture of cryptomnesia and confabulation. British author and independent researcher Ian Wilson argued that a large number of Stevenson's cases consisted of poor children remembering wealthy lives or belonging to a higher caste. He speculated that such cases may represent a scheme to obtain money from the family of the alleged former incarnation. +The philosopher C.T.K. Chari of Madras Christian College in Chennai, a specialist in parapsychology, argued that Stevenson was naive and that the case studies were undermined by his lack of local knowledge. Chari wrote that many of the cases had come from societies, such as that of India, where people believed in reincarnation, and that the stories were simply cultural artifacts; he argued that, for children in many Asian countries, the recall of a past life is the equivalent of an imaginary playmate. The philosopher Keith Augustine made a similar argument. +Responding to this cultural argument, Stevenson said that it was precisely those societies that listened to children's claims about past lives, which in Europe or North America would normally be dismissed without investigation. To address the cultural concern, he wrote European Cases of the Reincarnation Type (2003), which presented forty cases he had examined in Europe. Moreover, Joseph Prabhu, professor emeritus of philosophy and religion at California State University, wrote that it is not true "that these cases are mainly to be found in cultures, where the belief in reincarnation is prevalent. In July 1974 Stevenson's colleague at the University of Virginia, J. G. Pratt, carried out a census of Stevenson's cases and found that of the 1339 cases then in Stevenson's file, 'the United States has the most, with 324 cases (not counting American Indian and Eskimo) and the next five countries in descending order are Burma (139 cases), India (135), Turkey (114), and Great Britain (111).'" +The philosopher Paul Edwards, editor-in-chief of Macmillan's Encyclopedia of Philosophy, became Stevenson's chief critic. From 1986 onwards, he devoted several articles to Stevenson's work, and discussed Stevenson in his Reincarnation: A Critical Examination (1996). He argued that Stevenson's views were "absurd nonsense" and that when examined in detail his case studies had "big holes" and "do not even begin to add up to a significant counterweight to the initial presumption against reincarnation." Stevenson, Edwards wrote, "evidently lives in a cloud-cuckoo-land." +Champe Ransom, whom Stevenson hired as an assistant in the 1970s, wrote an unpublished report about Stevenson's work, which Edwards cites in his Immortality (1992) and Reincarnation (1996). According to Ransom, Edwards wrote, Stevenson asked the children leading questions, filled in gaps in the narrative, did not spend enough time interviewing them, and left too long a period between the claimed recall and the interview; it was often years after the first mention of a recall that Stevenson learned about it. In only eleven of the 1,111 cases Ransom looked at had there been no contact between the families of the deceased and of the child before the interview; in addition, according to Ransom, seven of those eleven cases were seriously flawed. He also wrote that there were problems with the way Stevenson presented the cases, in that he would report his witnesses' conclusions, rather than the data upon which the conclusions rested. Weaknesses in cases would be reported in a separate part of his books, rather than during the discussion of the cases themselves. Ransom concluded that it all amounted to anecdotal evidence of the weakest kind. +Edwards cited the case of Corliss Chotkin Jr., in Angoon, Alaska, described by Stevenson, as an example that relied entirely on the word of one woman, the niece of Victor Vincent, a fisherman. (Victor Vincent was the person whose life Corliss Chotkin Jr., seemed to remember.) Edwards wrote that, among the many weaknesses in the case, the family were religious believers in reincarnation, Chotkin had birthmarks that were said to have resembled scars that Vincent had but Stevenson had not seen Vincent's scars, and all the significant details relied on the niece. Edwards said that Stevenson offered no information about her, except that several people told him she had a tendency, as Stevenson put it, to embellish or invent stories. Edwards wrote that similar weaknesses could be found in all of Stevenson's case studies. +Edwards charged that Stevenson referred to himself as a scientist but did not act like one. According to Edwards, he failed to respond to, or even mention, significant objections; the large bibliography in Stevenson's Children Who Remember Previous Lives (1987) does not include one paper or book from his opponents. + Stevenson wrote an introduction to a book, Second Time Round (1975), in which Edward Ryall, an Englishman, told of what he believed to be his memories of a past life as John Fletcher, a man who was born in 1645 in Taunton, England, and died forty years later near his home in Westonzoyland, Somerset. Stevenson investigated the case and discovered that some of the historical features from Ryall's book were accurate. Stevenson wrote, "I think it most probable that he has memories of a real previous life and that he is indeed John Fletcher reborn, as he believes himself to be". In 1976, however, John Taylor discovered that none of the available church records at the Westonzoyland church from 1645 to 1685 had entries for births, marriages, or deaths for the name Fletcher. Since no trace of the name could be found, he concluded that no man called John Fletcher actually existed and that the supposed memories were a fantasy Ryall had developed over the years. Stevenson later altered his opinion about the case. In his book European Cases of the Reincarnation Type, he wrote, "I can no longer believe that all of Edward Ryall's apparent memories derive from a previous life, because some of his details are clearly wrong," but he still suggested that Ryall acquired some information about 17th-century Somerset by paranormal means. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..900491bfa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Ian Stevenson" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:41.853115+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Concessions from critics === +Ian Wilson, one of Stevenson's critics, acknowledged that Stevenson had brought “a new professionalism to a hitherto crank-prone field.” Paul Edwards wrote that Stevenson “has written more fully and more intelligibly in defense of reincarnation than anybody else.” Though faulting Stevenson's judgment, Edwards wrote: “I have the highest regard for his honesty. All of his case reports contain items that can be made the basis of criticism. Stevenson could easily have suppressed this information. The fact that he did not speaks well for his integrity.” +Carl Sagan referred to what were apparently Stevenson's investigations in his book The Demon-Haunted World as an example of carefully collected empirical data, and though he rejected reincarnation as a parsimonious explanation for the stories, he wrote that the phenomenon of alleged past-life memories should be further researched. + +=== Support === +Remi J. Cadoret, wrote in The American Journal of Psychiatry that Stevenson's European Cases of the Reincarnation Type "provides an introduction to an exciting range of [unusual] phenomena and furnishes an inspiring example of a painstaking protocol to sift facts from fancy." +Lester S. King, pathologist, reviewed the first volume of Cases of the Reincarnation Type for the JAMA Journal. King wrote, "He may not convince skeptics, but he has placed on record a large amount of data that cannot be ignored." + +== Xenoglossy == +Although Stevenson mainly focused on cases of children who seemed to remember past lives, he also studied two cases in which adults under hypnosis seemed to remember a past life and show rudimentary use of a language they had not learned in the present life. Stevenson called this phenomenon "xenoglossy." The linguist Sarah Thomason, critiquing these cases, wrote that Stevenson is "unsophisticated about language" and that the cases are unconvincing. Thomason concluded, "the linguistic evidence is too weak to provide support for the claims of xenoglossy." William J. Samarin, a linguist from the University of Toronto, wrote that Stevenson corresponded with linguists in a selective and unprofessional manner. He said that Stevenson corresponded with one linguist in a period of six years "without raising any discussion about the kinds of thing that linguists would need to know." Another linguist, William Frawley, wrote, "Stevenson does not consider enough linguistic evidence in these cases to warrant his metaphysics." + +== Retirement == + +Stevenson stepped down as director of the Division of Perceptual Studies in 2002, although he continued to work as research professor of psychiatry. Bruce Greyson, editor of the Journal of Near-Death Studies, became director of the division. Jim Tucker, the department's associate professor of psychiatry and neurobehavioral sciences, continued Stevenson's research with children, examined in Tucker's book, Life Before Life: A Scientific Investigation of Children's Memories of Previous Lives (2005). + +== Death and experiment == +Stevenson died of pneumonia on February 8, 2007, at his home in Charlottesville, Virginia. In his will he endowed the Stevenson Chair in Philosophy and History of Science including Medicine, at McGill University Department of Social Studies of Medicine. +As one experiment to test for personal survival of bodily death, in the 1960s Stevenson set a combination lock using a secret word or phrase and placed it in a filing cabinet in the department, telling his colleagues he would try to pass the code to them after his death. Emily Williams Kelly told The New York Times: "Presumably, if someone had a vivid dream about him, in which there seemed to be a word or a phrase that kept being repeated—I don't quite know how it would work—if it seemed promising enough, we would try to open it using the combination suggested." + +== Works == +Books + +Selected articles + +An extended list of Stevenson's works is online. + +== See also == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63eb8e87e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Sluggish schizophrenia" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:39.646559+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sluggish schizophrenia or slow progressive schizophrenia (Russian: вялотеку́щая шизофрени́я, romanized: vyalotekushchaya shizofreniya) was a diagnostic category used in the Soviet Union to describe what was claimed to be a form of schizophrenia characterized by a slowly progressive course; it was diagnosed even in patients who showed no symptoms of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders, on the assumption that these symptoms would appear later. It was developed in the 1960s by Soviet psychiatrist Andrei Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, and was used exclusively in the USSR and several Eastern Bloc countries, until the fall of Communism starting in 1989. The diagnosis has long been discredited because of its scientific inadequacy and its use as a means of confining dissenters. It has never been used or recognized outside of the Eastern Bloc, or by international organizations such as the World Health Organization. It is considered a prime example of the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. +Sluggish schizophrenia was the most infamous of diagnoses used by Soviet psychiatrists, due to its usage against political dissidents. After being discharged from a hospital, persons diagnosed with sluggish schizophrenia were deprived of their civic rights, credibility and employability. The usage of this diagnosis has been internationally condemned. +In the Russian version of the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), which has long been used throughout present-day Russia, sluggish schizophrenia is no longer listed as a form of schizophrenia, but it is still included as a schizotypal disorder in section F21 of chapter V. +According to Sergei Jargin, the same Russian term "vyalotekushchaya" for sluggish schizophrenia continues to be used and is now translated in English summaries of articles not as "sluggish" but as "slow progressive". + +== Development of theory == +The term "sluggish schizophrenia" was introduced in the Soviet Union in the 1930s by Dr. Grunia Sukhareva. Sukhareva first used the term in a 1933 article in which she described a type of schizophrenia that developed slowly in children beginning before puberty. Sukhareva's term became a standard part of Soviet textbooks on schizophrenia in the 1940s. In the 1960s, Professor Andrei Snezhnevsky, the most prominent theorist of Soviet psychiatry and director of the Institute of Psychiatry of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, developed a novel classification of mental disorders postulating an original set of diagnostic criteria. Snezhnevsky and his colleagues who developed the concept were supported by Soviet psychiatrists Fedor Kondratev, Sergei Semyonov, and Yakov Frumkin. All were members of the "Moscow school" of psychiatry. +A majority of experts believe that the concept was developed under instructions from the Soviet secret service KGB and the Communist Party. + +== Use against political dissidents == + +Psychiatric diagnoses such as sluggish schizophrenia were used in the USSR for political purposes; the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia was most frequently used for Soviet dissidents. Sluggish schizophrenia as a diagnostic category was created to facilitate the stifling of dissidents and was a root of self-deception among psychiatrists to placate their consciences when the doctors acted as a tool of oppression in the name of a political system. American psychiatrist Peter Breggin points out that the term "sluggish schizophrenia" was created to justify involuntary treatment of political dissidents with drugs normally used for psychiatric patients. +Critics implied that Snezhnevsky designed the Soviet model of schizophrenia (and this diagnosis) to make political dissent a mental illness. +St. Petersburg academic psychiatrist professor Yuri Nuller notes that the concept of Snezhnevsky's school allowed psychiatrists to consider, for example, schizoid psychopathy and even schizoid character traits as early, delayed in their development, stages of the inevitable progredient process, rather than as personality traits inherent to the individual, the dynamics of which might depend on various external factors. The same also applied to a number of other personality disorders. It entailed the extremely broadened diagnostics of sluggish (neurosis-like, psychopathy-like) schizophrenia. Despite a number of its controversial premises, but in line with the traditions of then Soviet science, Snezhnevsky's hypothesis immediately acquired the status of dogma, which was later overcome in other disciplines but firmly stuck in psychiatry. Snezhnevsky's concept, with its dogmatism, proved to be psychologically comfortable for many psychiatrists, relieving them from doubt when making a diagnosis. +On the covert orders of the KGB, thousands of social and political reformers—Soviet dissidents—were incarcerated in mental hospitals after being labelled with diagnoses of sluggish schizophrenia. Snezhnevsky himself diagnosed, or was otherwise involved in, a series of famous dissident cases, and in dozens of cases he personally signed a commission decision on the legal insanity of dissidents who were in fact mentally healthy, including Vladimir Bukovsky, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Leonid Plyushch, Mikola Plakhotnyuk, and Pyotr Grigorenko. + +== Premises for using the diagnosis == +According to the Global Initiative on Psychiatry chief executive Robert van Voren, the political abuse of psychiatry in the USSR arose from the concept that people who opposed the Soviet regime were mentally ill (since there was no logical reason to oppose the sociopolitical system considered the best in the world). The diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia furnished a framework for explaining this behavior. This seemed to many Soviet psychiatrists a logical explanation for why someone would be willing to abandon his happiness, family, and career for a conviction so different from what most individuals seemed to believe. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5463e449e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Sluggish schizophrenia" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:39.646559+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Popularity of diagnosis == +Because of diagnoses of sluggish schizophrenia, Russia in 1974 had 5–7 cases of schizophrenia per 1,000 population, compared to 3–4 per 1,000 in the United Kingdom. In the 1980s, Russia had three times as many schizophrenic patients per capita as the US, twice as many schizophrenic patients as West Germany, Austria and Japan, and more schizophrenic patients than any Western country. The city with the highest diagnosed prevalence of schizophrenia in the world was Moscow. +Along with paranoia, sluggish schizophrenia was the diagnosis most frequently used for the psychiatric incarceration of dissenters. Darrel Regier of the National Institute of Mental Health, one of the U.S. experts who visited Soviet psychiatric hospitals in 1989, testified that a "substantial number" of political dissenters had been recognized as mentally sick on the basis of such symptoms as "anti-Soviet thoughts" or "delusions of reformism". +According to Moscow psychiatrist Alexander Danilin, the nosological approach in the Moscow psychiatric school established by Andrei Snezhnevsky (whom Danilin considered a state criminal) boiled down to the ability to diagnose schizophrenia. + +== Systematics by Snezhnevsky == +The Soviet model of schizophrenia is based on the hypothesis that a fundamental characteristic (by which schizophrenia spectrum disorders are distinguished clinically) is its longitudinal course. The hypothesis implies three main types of schizophrenia: + +Continuous: unremitting, proceeding rapidly ("malignant") or slowly ("sluggish"), with a poor prognosis +Periodic (or recurrent): characterized by an acute attack, followed by full remission with little or no progression +Mixed (German: schubweise; in German, schub means "phase" or "attack"): mixture of continuous and periodic types which occurs periodically and is characterized by only partial remission. +The classification of schizophrenia types attributed to Snezhnevsky is still used in Russia, and considers sluggish schizophrenia an example of the continuous type. The prevalence of Snezhnevsky's theories has particularly led to a broadening of the boundaries of disease such that even the mildest behavioral change is interpreted as indication of mental disorder. + +=== Conditions posed as symptoms === +A carefully crafted description of sluggish schizophrenia established that psychotic symptoms were non-essential for the diagnosis, but symptoms of psychopathy, hypochondria, depersonalization or anxiety were central to it. Symptoms considered part of the "negative axis" included pessimism, poor social adaptation and conflict with authorities, and were themselves sufficient for a formal diagnosis of "sluggish schizophrenia with few symptoms". +According to Snezhnevsky, patients with sluggish schizophrenia could present as seemingly sane but manifest minimal (and clinically relevant) personality changes which could remain unnoticed by the untrained eye. Patients with non-psychotic mental disorders (or who were not mentally ill) could be diagnosed with sluggish schizophrenia. +Harold Merskey and Bronislava Shafran write that many conditions which would probably be diagnosed elsewhere as hypochondriacal or personality disorders, anxiety disorders or depressive disorders appear liable to come under the banner of slowly progressive schizophrenia in Snezhnevsky's system. +The incidence of sluggish schizophrenia increased because, according to Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, patients with this diagnosis were capable of socially functioning almost normally. Their symptoms could resemble those of a neurosis or paranoia. Patients with paranoid symptoms retained insight into their condition, but overestimated their significance and had grandiose ideas of reforming society. Sluggish schizophrenia could have such symptoms as "reform delusions", "perseverance" and "struggle for the truth". As Viktor Styazhkin reported, Snezhnevsky diagnosed a reform delusion in every case where a patient "develops a new principle of human knowledge, drafts an ideal of human happiness or other projects for the benefit of mankind". +During the 1960s and 1970s, theories which contained ideas about reforming society, struggling for the truth, and religious convictions were not considered delusional paranoid disorders in nearly any foreign classifications; however, Soviet psychiatry (for ideological reasons) considered critiques of the political system and proposals to reform it as delusional behavior. The diagnoses of sluggish schizophrenia and paranoid states with delusions of reform were used only in the Soviet Union and several Eastern European countries. +An audience member at a lecture by Georgi Morozov on forensic psychiatry in the Serbsky Institute asked, "Tell us, Georgi Vasilevich, what is actually the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia?" Since the question was asked ironically Morozov replied ironically: "You know, dear colleagues, this is a very peculiar disease. There are not delusional disorders, there are not hallucinations, but there is schizophrenia!" +The two Soviet psychiatrists Marat Vartanyan and Andrei Mukhin in their interview to the Soviet newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda issued on 15 July 1987 explained how it was possible that a person might be mentally ill, while people surrounding him did not notice it, for example, in the case of "sluggish schizophrenia". What was meant by saying that a person is mentally ill? Marat Vartanyan said, "... When a person is obsessively occupied with something. If you discuss another subject with him, he is a normal person who is healthy, and who may be your superior in intelligence, knowledge and eloquence. But as soon as you mention his favourite subject, his pathological obsessions flare up wildly." Vartanyan confirmed that hundreds of people with this diagnosis were hospitalized in the Soviet Union. According to Mukhin, it took place because "they disseminate their pathological reformist ideas among the masses." A few months later the same newspaper listed "an exceptional interest in philosophical systems, religion and art" among symptoms of sluggish schizophrenia from a Manual on Psychiatry of Snezhnevsky's Moscow school. + +== Recognizing method, treatment and study == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aeeb8abee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Sluggish schizophrenia" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:39.646559+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Only specially instructed psychiatrists could recognize sluggish schizophrenia to indefinitely treat dissenters in a "Special Psychiatric Hospital" with heavy doses of antipsychotic medication. Convinced of the immortality of the totalitarian USSR, Soviet psychiatrists, especially in Moscow, did not hesitate to form "scientific" articles and defend dissertations by using the cases of dissidents. For example, Snezhnevsky diagnosed dissident Vladimir Bukovsky as schizophrenic on 5 July 1962 and on 12 November 1971 wrote to writer Viktor Nekrasov that the characteristics of Bukovsky's mental disease were included in the dissertation by Snezhnevsky's colleague. All the paper products were available in medical libraries. As Semyon Gluzman recollects, when he returned to Kiev in 1982 after his absence of ten years, he was amazed to see all this "scientific" literature in open storage at the Kiev medical library and was even more amazed to read all the "ridiculous stuff" hardly put into scientific psychiatric terminology. In their papers and dissertations on treatment for litigiousness and reformism, Kosachyov and other Soviet psychiatrists recommended compulsory treatment for persons with litigiousness and reformism, in the same psychiatric hospitals used for murderers: + +Compulsory treatment in psychiatric hospitals of special type is to be recommended in cases of brutal murders committed on delusional grounds as well as in cases of persistent litigiousness and reformism with an inclination to induce surrounding persons and with a tendency to repetition of the illegal acts. + +== Western criticism == +Westerners first became aware of sluggish schizophrenia and its political uses in the mid-1970s, as a result of the high reported incidence of schizophrenia in the Russian population. Snezhnevsky was personally attacked in the West as an example of psychiatric abuse in the USSR. He was charged with cynically developing a system of diagnosis that could be bent for political purposes. American psychiatrist Alan A. Stone stated that Western criticism of Soviet psychiatry focused on Snezhnevsky personally because he was responsible for the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia for "reformism" and other such symptoms. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42350aeb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Sluggish schizophrenia" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:39.646559+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Recurrence in post-Soviet countries == +In 2010, Yuri Savenko, the president of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia, warned that Professor Anatoly Smulevich, author of the monographs Problema Paranoyi (The Problem of Paranoia) (1972) and Maloprogredientnaya Shizofreniya (Continuous Sluggish Schizophrenia) (1987), which had contributed to the hyperdiagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia, had again begun to play the same role. Under his influence, therapists have begun to widely use antidepressants and antipsychotics but often in inadequate cases and in inappropriate doses, without consulting psychiatrists. This situation has opened up a huge new market for pharmaceutical firms, and the flow of the mentally ill to internists. +In their joint book Sociodinamicheskaya Psikhiatriya (Sociodynamic Psychiatry), Doctor of Medical Sciences professor of psychiatry Caesar Korolenko and Doctor of Psychological Sciences Nina Dmitrieva note that Smulevich's clinical description of sluggish schizophrenia is extremely elusive and includes almost all possible changes in mental status and conditions that occur in a person without psychopathology: euphoria, hyperactivity, unfounded optimism, irritability, explosiveness, sensitivity, inadequacy and emotional deficit, hysterical reactions with conversive and dissociative symptoms, infantilism, obsessive-phobic states and stubbornness. At present, the hyperdiagnosis of schizophrenia becomes especially negative due to a large number of schizophreniform psychoses caused by the increasing popularity of various esoteric sects. They practice meditation, sensory deprivation, special exercises with rhythmic movements which directly stimulate the deep subconscious and, by doing so, lead to the development of psychoses with mainly reversible course. Smulevich bases the diagnosis of continuous sluggish schizophrenia, in particular, on appearance and lifestyle and stresses that the forefront in the picture of negative changes is given to the contrast between retaining mental activity (and sometimes quite high capacity for work) and mannerism, unusualness of one's appearance and entire lifestyle. In his 2014 interview, Anatoly Smulevich says, "Now everything has slightly turned in a different way, sluggish schizophrenia has been transformed into schizotypal disorder, etc. I think it is not the end of his [Snezhnevsky's] teaching, because after a while, everything will get back into a rut, but it will not be a simple repetition but will get some new direction." +In 2009, Tatyana Dmitrieva, the then director of the Serbsky Center, said to the BBC Russian Service, "A diagnosis is now made only according to the international classification, so called ICD-10. In this classification, there is no sluggish schizophrenia, and therefore, even this diagnosis has not just been made for a long time." However, according to the 2012 interview by the president of the Ukrainian Psychiatric Association Semyon Gluzman to Radio Liberty, though the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia no longer exists in Ukraine, in Russia, as far as he knows, this diagnosis still exists, and was given to Mikhail Kosenko, one of the accused in the Bolotnaya Square case. The prosecution's case for his forced hospitalization rested on confirmation of the diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia that he has been treated for over the last 12 years, until 2013 when the diagnosis was changed to that of paranoid schizophrenia by the Serbsky Center experts who examined Kosenko and convinced the court to send him for compulsory treatment to a psychiatric hospital. Zurab Kekelidze (ru), who heads the Serbsky Center and is the chief psychiatrist of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation, confirmed that Kosenko was diagnosed with sluggish schizophrenia. +According to the commentary by the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia on the 2007 text by Vladimir Rotstein, a doctrinist of Snezhnevsky's school, there are sufficient patients with delusion of reformism in psychiatric inpatient facilities for involuntary treatment. In 2012, delusion of reformism was mentioned as a symptom of mental disorder in Psychiatry: National Manual. In the same year, Vladimir Pashkovsky in his paper reported that he diagnosed 4.7 percent of 300 patients with delusion of reform. As Russian sociologist Alexander Tarasov wrote, "you will be treated in a hospital so that you and all your acquaintances get to learn forever that only such people as Anatoly Chubais or German Gref can be occupied with reforming in our country." According to Raimonds Krumgolds, a former member of the political party The Other Russia, he was examined because of his "delusion of reformism", which gave rise to an assumption of slow progressive schizophrenia. In 2012, Tyuvina and Balabanova in their joint paper reported that they used sulpiride to treat slow progressive schizophrenia. + +== See also == +Drapetomania +Excited delirium +Female hysteria +Gaslighting +The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease +Oppositional defiant disorder +Sluggish cognitive tempo +Trump derangement syndrome + +== References == + +== Sources == + +== Further reading == +citeBukovsky, Vladimir (1978b). To build a castle: my life as a dissenter (PDF). Deutsch. pp. 194–223, 259–272, 355–391. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-01. Retrieved 2014-05-29. Russian text: citeBukovsky, Vladimir [Владимир Буковский] (1978a). И возвращается ветер… [And the wind returns…] (PDF) (in Russian). New York: Хроника [Khronika]. pp. 172–198, 233–244, 314–343. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-02-03. Retrieved 2014-06-11. +citeTernovsky, Leonard [Леонард Терновский] (1999). "Тайна ИГ" [The secret of the IG]. Карта: Российский независимый исторический и правозащитный журнал [Karta: Russian Independent Historical and Human Rights Defending Journal] (in Russian) (22–23): 68–96. Retrieved 4 February 2014. +citeLavretsky, Helen (1998). "The Russian Concept of Schizophrenia: A Review of the Literature". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 24 (4): 537–557. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033348. PMID 9853788. +citeVoren, Robert van (2009). On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin. Amsterdam—New York: Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-2585-1. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Scientific_Exploration-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Scientific_Exploration-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c09234d86 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Scientific_Exploration-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "Society for Scientific Exploration" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Scientific_Exploration" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:40.728774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Society for Scientific Exploration (SSE) is a group committed to studying fringe science. The opinions of the organization in regard to what are the proper limits of scientific exploration are often at odds with those of mainstream science. Critics argue that the SSE is devoted to disreputable ideas far outside the scientific mainstream. + + +== History == +The society was founded in 1982. Its first meeting took place at the University of Maryland, College Park in 1982. +Of the SSE and its journal, it has been said that "Pretty much anything that might have shown up on The X-Files or in the National Enquirer shows up first here. But what also shows up is a surprising attitude of skepticism." + + +== Activities == + + +=== Journal === + +The society's scientific journal, the Journal of Scientific Exploration, was established to provide a scientific forum for ufology, parapsychology, and cryptozoology, publishing research articles, essays, book reviews, and letters on those and many other topics that are largely ignored in mainstream journals. +The journal is peer-reviewed and was abstracted and indexed in Scopus. +The journal is edited by Stephen E. Braude. +The Spirituality and Psychiatry Special Interest Group of the Royal College of Psychiatrists says that the journal has reports about anomalies in science, particularly in the parapsychological and extraterrestrial fields. Some academics have noted that the journal publishes on anomalous issues, topics often on the fringe of science. + + +==== Criticism ==== +Kendrick Frazier, editor of Skeptical Inquirer and Committee for Skeptical Inquiry fellow, has suggested that:The JSE, while presented as neutral and objective, appears to hold a hidden agenda. They seem to be interested in promoting fringe topics as real mysteries and they tend to ignore most evidence to the contrary. They publish "scholarly" articles promoting the reality of dowsing, neo-astrology, ESP, and psychokinesis. Most of the prominent and active members are strong believers in the reality of such phenomena. Seth Kalichman regards the journal as a publisher of pseudoscience, with the journal serving as a "major outlet for UFOology, paranormal activity, extrasensory powers, alien abductions etc". +Philosopher of science Noretta Koertge described the journal as an "attempt to institutionalize pseudoscience". +Skeptic Robert Sheaffer writes that the SSE journal has published articles implying that certain topics, like paranormal activities, dowsing and reincarnation, are true and have been verified scientifically. The articles, often written in impressive jargon by scientists with impressive academic credentials, try to convince other scientists that further research into those topics is warranted; but, Sheaffer argues, those articles failed to convince the mainstream scientific community. + + +=== Annual meeting === +The SSE holds an annual meeting in the US every spring and periodic meetings in Europe. In the US meeting, around a hundred of researchers who came to hear talks on, as journalist Michael Lemonick writes, "among other things, consciousness physics, astrology and parapsychology ... [M]any of the scientists here are on the faculty at major universities, and were doing fine at conventional research. But sometimes that gets boring." +According to experimental psychologist Roger D. Nelson, head of the Global Consciousness Project, the SSE aims to "give everyone a respectful hearing. If we think a speaker is doing bad science, we consider it our duty to criticize it. We get our share of lunatics, but they don't hang around long." + + +=== 1998 UFO panel === +On June 19, 1998 it was reported that "an international panel of scientists" was convened to conduct "the first independent review of UFO phenomena since 1966", according to the wording used by Associated Press. The Skeptical Inquirer published an article by Robert Sheaffer who wrote that the SSE was a non-mainstream organization that was biased towards uncritically believing UFO phenomena, that the panel included many scientists that were UFO advocates but no scientists that were skeptics of UFO claims, and that all the uphold cases were old cases that had failed to convince any skeptic of its accuracy or veracity. These included the Cash-Landrum incident, the Trans-en-Provence Case and the Aurora, Texas UFO Incident. + + +== Membership == +As of 2005: + +the president was Charles Tolbert, an astronomer at the University of Virginia. +the editor of SSE's journal was Henry Bauer, a dean emeritus at Virginia Tech. +As of 2008, the Leaders Emeritus were Peter A. Sturrock, from the Department of Physics & Department of Applied Physics of Stanford University and Larry Frederick and Charles Tolbert from the Department of Astronomy of University of Virginia. + + +== Indexing and abstracting == +The Journal of Scientific Exploration is or has been indexed and abstracted in the following bibliographic databases: + +EBSCO Information Services +Microsoft Academic +Naver +Norwegian Register for Scientific Journals, Series and Publishers, only up to 2008. +Publons +Scimago +Scopus, up to 2018 when they discontinued its coverage. +WorldCat (OCLC) +The journal is also mentioned in the list of open-access journals maintained by DOAJ. + + +== References and notes == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5cf71e5fb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Strategies for engineered negligible senescence" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:43.006920+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Strategies for engineered negligible senescence (SENS) is a range of proposed regenerative medical therapies, either planned or currently in development, for the periodic repair of all age-related damage to human tissue. These therapies have the ultimate aim of maintaining a state of negligible senescence in patients and postponing age-associated disease. SENS was first defined by British biogerontologist Aubrey de Grey. While scientists agreed with de Grey that "research into the basic biology of ageing needs and deserves more support", they also viewed de Grey's proposals "to 'engineer' the body to prevent ageing indefinitely" as a fringe theory. De Grey later highlighted similarities and differences of SENS to subsequent categorization systems of the biology of aging, such as the highly influential Hallmarks of Aging published in 2013. +While some biogerontologists support the SENS program, others contend that the ultimate goals of de Grey's programme are too speculative given the current state of technology. The 31-member Research Advisory Board of de Grey's SENS Research Foundation have signed an endorsement of the plausibility of the SENS approach. + +== Framework == + +The term "negligible senescence" was first used in the early 1990s by professor Caleb Finch to describe organisms such as lobsters and hydras, which do not show symptoms of aging. The term "engineered negligible senescence" first appeared in print in Aubrey de Grey's 1999 book The Mitochondrial Free Radical Theory of Aging. De Grey defined SENS as a "goal-directed rather than curiosity-driven" approach to the science of aging, and "an effort to expand regenerative medicine into the territory of aging". +The ultimate objective of SENS is the eventual elimination of age-related diseases and infirmity by repeatedly reducing the state of senescence in the organism. The SENS project consists in implementing a series of periodic medical interventions designed to repair, prevent or render irrelevant all the types of molecular and cellular damage that cause age-related pathology and degeneration, in order to avoid debilitation and death from age-related causes. + +=== Strategies === +As described by SENS, the following table details major ailments and the program's proposed preventative strategies: + +== Scientific reception == +While some fields mentioned as branches of SENS are supported by the medical research community, e.g., stem cell research, anti-Alzheimers research and oncogenomics, the SENS programme as a whole has been a highly controversial proposal. Many of its critics argued in 2005 that the SENS agenda was fanciful and that the complicated biomedical phenomena involved in aging contain too many unknowns for SENS to be fully implementable in the foreseeable future. +Cancer may deserve special attention as an aging-associated disease, but the SENS claim that nuclear DNA damage only matters for aging because of cancer has been challenged in other literature, as well as by material studying the DNA damage theory of aging. More recently, biogerontologist Marios Kyriazis has criticised the clinical applicability of SENS by claiming that such therapies, even if developed in the laboratory, would be practically unusable by the general public. De Grey responded to one such criticism. + +=== 2005 EMBO Reports statement === +In November 2005, 28 biogerontologists published a statement of criticism in EMBO Reports, "Science fact and the SENS agenda: what can we reasonably expect from ageing research?," arguing "each one of the specific proposals that comprise the SENS agenda is, at our present stage of ignorance, exceptionally optimistic," and that some of the specific proposals "will take decades of hard work [to be medically integrated], if [they] ever prove to be useful." The researchers argue that while there is "a rationale for thinking that we might eventually learn how to postpone human illnesses to an important degree," increased basic research, rather than the goal-directed approach of SENS, is currently the scientifically appropriate goal. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..44b0d713f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Strategies for engineered negligible senescence" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:43.006920+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Technology Review contest == +In February 2005, the MIT Technology Review published an article by Sherwin Nuland, a Clinical Professor of Surgery at Yale University and the author of How We Die, that drew a skeptical portrait of SENS, at the time de Grey was a computer associate in the Flybase Facility of the Department of Genetics at the University of Cambridge. While Nuland praised de Grey's intellect and rhetoric, he criticized the SENS framework both for oversimplifying "enormously complex biological problems" and for promising relatively near-at-hand solutions to those unsolved problems. +During June 2005, David Gobel, CEO and co-founder of the Methuselah Foundation with de Grey, offered Technology Review $20,000 to fund a prize competition to publicly clarify the viability of the SENS approach. In July 2005, Jason Pontin announced a $20,000 prize, funded 50/50 by Methuselah Foundation and MIT Technology Review. The contest was open to any molecular biologist, with a record of publication in biogerontology, who could prove that the alleged benefits of SENS were "so wrong that it is unworthy of learned debate." Technology Review received five submissions to its challenge. In March 2006, Technology Review announced that it had chosen a panel of judges for the Challenge: Rodney Brooks, Anita Goel, Nathan Myhrvold, Vikram Sheel Kumar, and Craig Venter. Three of the five submissions met the terms of the prize competition. They were published by Technology Review on June 9, 2006. On July 11, 2006, Technology Review published the results of the SENS Challenge. +In the end, no one won the $20,000 prize. The judges felt that no submission met the criterion of the challenge and discredited SENS, although they unanimously agreed that one submission, by Preston Estep and his colleagues, was the most eloquent. Craig Venter succinctly expressed the prevailing opinion: "Estep et al. ... have not demonstrated that SENS is unworthy of discussion, but the proponents of SENS have not made a compelling case for it." Summarizing the judges' deliberations, Pontin wrote in 2006 that SENS is "highly speculative" and that many of its proposals could not be reproduced with current scientific technology. Myhrvold described SENS as belonging to a kind of "antechamber of science" where they wait until technology and scientific knowledge advance to the point where it can be tested. Estep and his coauthors challenged the result of the contest by saying both that the judges had ruled "outside their area of expertise" and had failed to consider de Grey's frequent misrepresentations of the scientific literature. + +== SENS Research Foundation == + +The SENS Research Foundation is a non-profit organization co-founded by Michael Kope, Aubrey de Grey, Jeff Hall, Sarah Marr and Kevin Perrott, which is based in California, United States. Its activities include SENS-based research programs and public relations work for the acceptance of and interest in related research. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Fishman, Jennifer R.; Settersten, Richard A. Jr.; Flatt, Michael A. (February 2010). "In the vanguard of biomedicine? The curious and contradictory case of anti-ageing medicine". Sociology of Health & Illness. 32 (2): 197–210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2009.01212.x. PMC 3414193. PMID 20003037. +Isaacson, Betsy (5 March 2015). "Silicon Valley Is Trying to Make Humans Immortal—and Finding Some Success". Newsweek. Retrieved 28 April 2021. +Mykytyn, Courtney Everts (February 2010). "A history of the future: The emergence of contemporary anti-ageing medicine". Sociology of Health & Illness. 32 (2): 181–196. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2009.01217.x. PMID 20149152. +Olshansky, S. Jay; Carnes, Bruce A. (2013). "Science Fact versus SENS Foreseeable". Gerontology. 59 (2): 190–192. doi:10.1159/000342959. PMID 23037994. S2CID 207588602. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..144206808 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Superstition in India" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:44.122700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Superstitions in India are prevalent and are based on myths, legends, fables, traditions and stories. +People stop if a black cat crosses their path, or if someone sneezes, auspicious work is postponed. Common superstitions in India today include a black cat crossing the road being bad luck, cutting fingernails/toenails at nighttime is considered to give bad luck, a crow calling meaning that guests are arriving, drinking milk after eating fish causing skin diseases, and itchy palms signaling the arrival of money. + +== Overview == +Superstitions are usually attributed to lack of education; however, this has not always been the case in India, as there are many educated people with beliefs considered superstitious by the public. Superstitious beliefs and practices vary from one region to another, ranging from harmless practices such as lemon-and-chili to terms in order to ward off the evil eye, to harmful acts like witch-burning. +Being part of tradition and religion, these beliefs and practices have been passed down from one generation to another for centuries. The Indian government has tried to put new laws prohibiting such practices into effect. Due to the rich history of superstition, these laws often face a lot of opposition from the general public. In 2013, Narendra Dabholkar, an anti-superstition specialist, who was also the founder of the Committee for the Eradication of Blind Faith, was fatally shot by two bikers for requesting the enactment of a law that prohibits black magic. Critics argued that the Indian constitution does not prohibit such acts. + +== Past == + +=== Sati === + +Sati is the act or custom of a Hindu widow burning herself or being burned to death on the funeral pyre of her husband. After watching the Sati of his own sister-in-law, Ram Mohan Roy began campaigning for abolition of the practice in 1811. The practice of Sati was abolished by Governor General Lord William Bentinck in British India in 1829. +On 4 September 1987, 18-year-old Roop Kanwar, from Deorala, Rajasthan, who had been married for 7 months, was burned to death on her husband's pyre. It was alleged the victim had tried to escape, but she was drugged and forced on to the pyre. On 1 October 1987, the legislative assembly of Rajasthan passed an ordinance against Sati, which was later turned into an Act. It was followed by pro-Sati rallies and protests in Jaipur. On 3 January 1988, the Indian parliament passed a new law (Commission (Prevention) of Sati Act 1987) based on Rajasthan's legislation of 1987, which also criminalized the glorification of Sati. Police charged Kanwar's father-in-law and brother-in-law of allegedly forcing her to commit the act, but they were acquitted in October 1996. + +=== Human sacrifice === + +Although human sacrifices are not prevalent in India, rare isolated incidents do happen, especially in rural areas. In some cases, humans have been replaced by animals and birds. This has caused backlash from animal rights groups, so in some places they have again been replaced by human effigies. The motives behind these sacrifices include inducing rainfall and helping childless women conceive. It is alleged that cases often go unreported or are covered up. Between 1999 and 2006, about 200 cases of child sacrifices were reported from Uttar Pradesh. + +== Prevalent == + +=== Auspicious days === +In Hinduism, people are believed to have auspicious or favourable days on which they will have a high probability of success in any task they do. Such days with a certain time are calculated based on the individual's birth star, moon, and planetary phases according to Hindu astrology. Starting a business or businesses signing new deals or starting new ventures is mostly conducted on auspicious days of persons involved in the business. Hindu marriages are also done in a matching auspicious time and date of a bride and groom according to Hindu astrology and horoscope of the bride and groom. + +=== Fortune telling === +Fortune telling is a common practice in India. Fortune tellers have a variety of ways of predicting the future like palmistry, consulting horoscope, numerology, parrot astrology, boom boom mattukaran etc. + +=== Godmen and faith healers === + +The word godman in modern usage is a colloquial blanket term used for charismatic spiritual leaders in India. Locally, they may be referred to as baba, swami, guru, shastri, bapu or bhagat. Many of them claim to have magic or psychic powers and perform miracles. On the other hand, some only provide spiritual advice. There are also female gurus. Many of them are worshiped by their followers as avatars or living gods. Many of them belong to ancient ascetic lineages or claim to be successor to some previous spiritual predecessor. Some of them have built large pan-Indian or international networks. Their recent success has been attributed to the use of mass media and public relations techniques. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..25b88460c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Superstition in India" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:44.122700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Horoscopes === +In India, people who follow Hindu religion believe to be born with a star on their name which is one of twenty seven stars in Hindu astrology based on their time and date of birth. They also believe that planets and their position and size and shape of moon such a full moon or full solar eclipse influence their day-to-day life. Horoscopes are tailored to each and every Hindu person and a horoscope typically mentions any defects or negative influences a person has or may face. Horoscope is used in marriages in which the bride and groom should have a matching horoscope which is also called Janam Kundali. Without a matching horoscope, a marriage between Hindu male and female may not happen. Hindu wedding matchmakers typically carry information about a person's horoscope. Hindu persons prefer arranged marriage as it allows them to find a bride or groom with a matching horoscope. +A person born under the influence of Mars (Mangala) is said to have Mangala Dosha ("mars defect"); such a person is called a manglik. According to the superstition, the marriage between a Manglik and a non-Manglik is disastrous. To prevent this disaster, the manglik person is first married to a tree, an animal, or an inanimate object, so that the purported evil effects of the mangala dosha befall on the mock "spouse". + +=== Lemons === + +Lemons are generally considered as a counter weapon to a "mantra" which is a spell that can be also used for trickery or evil. Some Hindu people also carry lemons while travelling so that they cannot fall under the spell of a "mantra" of a stranger. +According to the nimbu totka or nimbu mirchi totka superstition, hanging a lemon strung with seven chili peppers wards off evil spirits and Alakshmi, the Hindu goddess of misfortune. People hang lemons and chillies - sometimes with a piece of coal - outside their homes and shops, or in their vehicles. According to one explanation, the superstition may be based on the belief that beneficial Vitamin C from the lemon and the chillies is released into the air, and that their odor can repel insects and other pests. +Stepping on a lemon is also considered to cause harm to a person as the lemon may be enchanted with a "mantra" or a dark spell. Lemons and coconuts are used in Hindu rituals called pooja. Government of India frequently performs Hindu rituals on vehicles, computer and electronic equipment, airplanes, jetplanes and weapons. Breaking a coconut in such pooja is also common. Hindus do Shastra pooja which is goddess worship is performed on weapons. + +=== Solar and lunar eclipses === +There are several superstitions associated with solar eclipses. Solar eclipses are associated with war, violent events and disasters. Any cooked food is considered to have become impure during the event; they are thrown away or given to beggars. People don't eat or cook food during the event. Temples are closed before the event and reopened after the event is over. Many shops also remain closed. Pregnant women are advised to stay indoors. It is considered inauspicious to give birth during the event. Solar eclipse are also said to cause miscarriages Other people also avoid venturing outside. It is believed that the sun rays become toxic during the event and a bath must be taken after the event. Indian stock exchanges also observe a drop in trades during eclipses. There are some reports of disabled children being buried neck-deep in sand or mud in hopes of curing their disabilities. Similar beliefs exist around lunar eclipses, where food is avoided and people refrain from venturing outside. Rationalist organisations have been trying to eradicate these superstitions by organising events during eclipses, where people are encouraged to drink water and eat food. + +=== Vastu === +This is a superstition common in Hinduism which defines how a house or a building should be constructed and how the orientation and direction and location of rooms and doors should be arranged. Many construction companies in India construct buildings according to it. Hindus follow vastu and they believe that bad things happen in their life or deterioration of their health or disputes with others are due to vastu doshas or defects and they try hard to remedy those defects by altering living space or with other things which counter the effects of vastu. Vastu is similar to Feng shui in China but with more psychological implications for not following vastu correctly. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..505011b2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Superstition in India" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:44.122700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Notable persons and incidents ==== +Originally from Sri Lanka, Swami Premananda moved to India in 1984 and founded an ashram in Pudukkotai, Tamil Nadu, in 1989. In 1996, one of the girls living the ashram escaped and reported that she was raped and was pregnant. In view of the so-called spiritual powers of the accused, which included doing miracles like materializing vibhuti and regurgitating small Shiva lingams, an illusionist was invited to the court and he performed both the miracles in the open court. In 1997, the Swami was sentenced to life imprisonment and fined ₹60 lakh for 13 counts of rape and a murder. +Chandraswami, astrologer and spiritual guru, was a close associate of former Prime Minister Narasimha Rao. He was indicted in several lawsuits including in the assassination of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. In 2011, the Supreme Court of India fined him ₹9 crore (US$1.4 million) for multiple violations of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA). +In December 2002, Santosh Madhavan defrauded an Indian expatriate woman living in Dubai of DH 400,000 (₹50 lakh) by claiming he had supernatural powers, and disappeared. The Interpol issued an alert for his arrest on the advice of Dubai police. Later in 2008, his photograph was recognized by the woman in a magazine and she realized that the person was living in Kochin pretending to be a godman called Swami Amritha Chaitanya. On learning of the Interpol alert, he denied the allegations, but the local police were suspicious and decided to search his properties. The police discovered CDs containing child porn from the premises. He was convicted of raping under-aged children and sentenced to 16 years of imprisonment in May 2009. +In August 2002, when psychic surgeon Reverend Alex Orbito visited Bangalore from Philippines, some rationalists filed a case in the city court. The city court declared psychic surgery to be a trick and ordered the organizers to stop the event. The organizers ignored the order and decided to go ahead. The court ordered arrests for contempt of court but Alex Orbito evaded arrest and escaped from the country. Bangalore police has stated that there are no plans to extradite him but he will be arrested if he tries to return to Bangalore. +In September 2013, when the large and influential guru Asaram Bapu was acquitted for the rape of one of his devotees living at his ashram, his blindly trusting devotees learned about the true nature and practices at the ashram. In his ashrams, there were many types of abuses occurring in the name of being a true devotee. Underage girls were sexually abused. After being caught, he was sentenced to life. +Chintaharan Chauhan, an Indian man, dressed as a bride for 30 years in order to ward off illness and death from his family. He claimed that several people from his family started dying after his wife committed suicide when he left her. He thought that his wife's death was the reason behind the deaths in his family; therefore, he decided to dress as a bride in order to keep his wife alive within him, and stop the continuous series of deaths. + +==== Criticism ==== +Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, has criticized TV channels for broadcasting shows featuring godmen. Narendra Nayak, president of Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations, has stated that politicians patronizing godmen serves to sanction superstitions of the general public. Nayak has also debunked several so-called miracles of godmen like psychic surgery, materializing vibhuti, money, jewelry, and fire eating. He travels through villages demonstrating the tricks behind these miracles. + +=== Witch-hunts === +Some people, mostly in villages, have the belief that witchcraft and black magic (kala-jaadu) are effective. This prompts some to seek advice from witch doctors for health, financial or marital problems. Unfortunately, others, especially women, are accused of witchcraft, attacked, and occasionally killed. According to reports, widows or divorcees tend to be targeted to rob them of their property. Revered village witch-doctors are paid to brand specific persons as witches, so that they can be killed without repercussions. The existing laws have been ineffective in curbing the murders. In June 2013, the National Commission for Women (NCW) reported that according to National Crime Records Bureau statistics, 768 women had been murdered for allegedly practicing witchcraft since 2008. Alongside this, they announced plans for newer, more stringent laws. + +==== Recent cases ==== +Between 2001 and 2006, an estimated 300 people were killed in the state of Assam. In October 2003, three women were branded as witches and humiliated, afterwards they all committed suicide in Kamalpura village in Muzaffarpur district in Bihar. Between 2005 and 2010, about 35 witchcraft related murders reportedly took place in Odisha's Sundergarh district. In August 2013, a couple were hacked to death by a group of people in Kokrajhar district in Assam. In September 2013, in the Jashpur district of Chhattisgarh, a woman was murdered and her daughter was raped on the allegation that they were practicing black magic. + +== Incidents == + +=== 1995 Hindu milk miracle === + +On 21 September 1995, a Ganesha idol in Delhi was reported to have drunk the milk offered to it. Soon, as the news spread, similar phenomenon were reported from all over India and a few from abroad. Other idols, like those of Nandi and Shiva, were also reported drinking milk. The price of milk soared due to shortage and policemen had to be placed at temples to maintain order. Yash Pal, scientist and educator, called it an illusion. National Council for Science & Technology Communication (NCSTC) scientists demonstrated that it was caused by capillary action by mixing red dye with the milk. + +=== 2012 Sanal Edamaruku and the Jesus statue incident === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0b001ba3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Superstition in India" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:44.122700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On 10 March 2012, Sanal Edamaruku investigated a so-called miracle in Vile Parle, where a Jesus statue had started weeping and concluded that the problem was caused by faulty drainage. Later that day, during a TV discussion with some church members, Edamaruku accused the Catholic Church of miracle-mongering. On 10 April, Angelo Fernandes, President of the Maharashtra Christian Youth Forum, filed a police complaint against Edamaruku under Indian Penal Code Section 295A. In July, while on a tour in Finland, Edamaruku was informed by a friend that his house was visited by the police. Since the offence is not bailable, Edamaruku decided to stay in Finland. + +== Historical predictions and challenges == + +=== Historical predictions === +In September 1951, responding to a newspaper article about an astrologer predicting an imminent war with Pakistan, the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru expressed his desire to pass a law against astrology and sooth-saying. +In January 1962, Indian astrologers predicted a global catastrophe on Sunday, 4 February 1962. People took refuge in hills to escape the event. The Maharajah of Sikkim, Palden Thondup Namgyal postponed his marriage to Hope Cooke to 1963 on the advice of some astrologers. Business and travel also slowed down. People organised mass prayer meetings. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru called it a "matter for laughter". +In January 1981, several astrologers predicted 12 more months of Iran–Iraq War, an Indian general election in 1983 and a world war in March 1984. A doomsday prediction was also made by an astrologer for 1995, when 70–80 percent of the world population would be destroyed. +In June 1981, an astrologer made the prediction that Indira Gandhi, then Prime Minister of India, would be assassinated in September 1981. Her son Rajiv Gandhi would also be assassinated shortly afterwards. Then, following these events H. N. Bahuguna would become the Prime Minister. The astrologer was arrested in December for questioning. Indira Gandhi reportedly consulted astrologers herself. +In October 2004, several Indian astrologers predicted that John Kerry would win the 2004 US presidential election. They also predicted it would "rejuvenate" the United States, and bring peace in Iraq, the Middle East and Afghanistan. +In January 2012, several astrologers predicted that there will be no doomsday in 2012 and it will be a good year for India and the Indian economy. + +=== Challenges and empirical tests === +Before the general election in 2009, rationalist activist Narendra Nayak laid an open challenge to any soothsayer to answer 25 questions correctly about the forthcoming elections. The prize was set at ₹100,000 (about US$2,000). About 450 responses were mailed to him, but none were found to be correct. +The notable rationalist Prabir Ghosh has offered a prize of ₹5 million (US$ 78,600 approx) to anyone who can prove something unnatural or demonstrate supernatural powers of any kind without resorting to any tricks. + +== Reception == + +=== Criticism === +U. R. Rao, former chairman of Indian Space Research Organisation, has criticised astrology noting that astrology is more popular than astronomy, which may be affecting India's recognition in science. Meera Nanda, historian and author, has written that India cannot become a superpower in science, unless it eradicates its various superstitions including astrology. Others who have criticised astrology include, Jayant Narlikar (astrophysicist),P. M Bhargava (founder of Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology), Ram Puniyani (former IIT professor) and Yash Pal (physicist and educator). + +=== Defence === +Ashis Nandy, political psychologist, has argued that astrology should be considered a science and it is considered superstition only due to modern science being defined from a western viewpoint. + +== Surveys == + +=== Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists in India (2007) === +In 2007, a survey was conducted by the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture of the Trinity College with the help of Center for Inquiry (India) called "Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists in India". 1100 scientists surveyed from 130 institutes. 24% admitted to believing that holy-men can perform miracles and 38% believed that God could perform miracles. Whereas belief in faith healing was 16%, in Vaastu it was 14%, and in astrology it stood at 14%. 69% strongly approved introduction of astrology courses in universities. 67% strongly approved the tradition of seeking blessings of Tirupati before rocket launches. However, a majority of them agreed that the aim of development of scientific temper, which is a fundamental duty according to the Constitution's Article 51A (h), is not being fulfilled. Y. S. Rajan commented on this saying that most Indians don't feel there is a dichotomy between science and spirituality. Other the hand, Innaiah Narisetti, chairman of Center for Inquiry (India) and Pushpa Bhargava, the former director of the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, pointed out the lack of scientific temper among Indian scientists. + +=== Superstitions at Workplace (2012) === +In a survey, titled "Superstitons@Workplace", carried out by a staffing company called TeamLease in 2012. The survey covered 800 companies in 8 cities of which 61% of respondents admitted to having superstition and 51% admitted to following a superstition at their workplace and 48% believed that these practices had a positive effect on their productivity. It was noted that management didn't object to the practices as long as it didn't affect productivity. Most practices were related to Vaastu Shastra or Feng Shui, but other personal practices were also observed. 80% of female employees were comfortable with the practices being followed in their workplace, while it was 68% for males, and 63% admitted thinking that female employees are more superstitious. + +== Legal aspects == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abb212665 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Superstition in India" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:44.122700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Article 51 A (h), Constitution of India === +The Article 51 A (h) of the Constitution of India, lists "to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform" as a fundamental duty for every Indian citizen. Rationalist Narendra Nayak has argued the Article 51 A (h) is contrary to IPC 295A and the constitution should be held over to IPC 295A. There have been calls to implement this article more widely (e.g., 2011 Janhit Manch vs Union of India, Bombay High Court). + +=== Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954 === + +This act prohibits advertisements of magical remedies, like amulets or spells, for certain diseases. The law lists 56 of these diseases. The law also curbs sales and promotion of so-called miracle drugs and cures. But, the law is rarely enforced and several such products are freely available to the public. The law is considered severely outdated as 14 of the diseases in the list are now curable, and newer diseases like AIDS are not on the list. Some advertisements of these categories are also known to appear on cable television channels without much repercussions. Proposed amendments to this law has also raised questions regarding the status of traditional medicine systems like Yoga and Ayurveda with respect to modern medicine. + +=== Indian Penal Code, Section 295A === + +The Section 295A of the Indian Penal Code criminalises "deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage religious feelings of any class by insulting its religion or religious beliefs", it includes "words, either spoken or written, or by signs or by visible representations". The offence holds a maximum penalty of three years of prison. It has been argued that this law is unconstitutional under Article 19 (freedom of expression) in the past (e.g., 1957 Ramji Lal Modi vs State of Uttar Pradesh, Supreme Court). It has also been stated by rationalist Narendra Nayak and T. V. Venkateswaran of the Vigyan Prasar that IPC 295A is being used with a very wide definition to prosecute critics of religion, anti-superstition activists and rationalists. + +=== Regional laws === +The Prevention of Witch (Daain) Practices Act of 1999 outlaws witch-hunting in Bihar. It has also been adopted by the state of Jharkhand. It carries a sentence of 3 months for accusing a woman of being a witch and 6 months for causing any physical or mental harm. In 2005, Chhattisgarh passed the Tonahi Pratadna Nivaran Act. It holds a sentence of 3 years for accusing a woman of being a witch and 5 years for causing her physical harm. The upcoming Women (Prevention of Atrocities) Bill of 2012 in Rajasthan also covers witch-hunting. In December 2013, Odisha passed the Odisha Prevention of Witch-Hunting Bill which has a maximum penalty of seven years. Also in the same month, the Anti-Superstition and Black Magic Act was passed in Maharashtra. + +== Lawsuits == + +=== 2001 P. M. Bhargava vs UGC, Andhra High Court === +In 2001, following the UGC announcement of introducing astrology courses in universities, P.M. Bhargava, founder of Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology and others, filed a petition in the Andhra Pradesh High Court against UGC. The court dismissed the case on 27 April 2001, stating that it has no expertise in the subject and thus it cannot interfere unless UGC has clearly violated a law. + +=== 2004 P. M. Bhargava vs UGC, Supreme Court === +In 2004, P.M. Bhargava and two other petitioners, filed a Special Leave Petition (SLP) in the Supreme Court of India challenging the UGC decision to introduce astrology in universities. It argued that astrology is considered a pseudoscience, several members of the Indian scientific community have opposed the move, and it would undermine India's scientific credibility. The Government of India responded by stating that the course was not compulsory, but optional and several western universities allow astrology as a course choice. It sought dismissal of the case stating that the petitioners' concerns were unfounded. The Supreme Court dismissed the case on 5 May 2004. + +=== 2011 Janhit Manch vs Union of India, Bombay High Court === +In 2010, Janhit Manch, a non-profit organisation, filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the Bombay High Court seeking legislation to make teaching of scientific temper in schools compulsory, under Article 51 A (h) of the Constitution using Article 226, which defines the powers of the High Courts. It also requested that a disclaimer be added to advertisements about astrology, Vaastu Shastra, Feng Shui, tarot cards etc., under The Drugs and Magical Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954, stating that these are for entertainment only. On 3 February 2011, the Bombay High Court disposed the plea citing the 2004 Bhargava vs UGC, Supreme Court case. It further stated that Article 51 A (h) was too vague to be implemented using Article 266. + +== See also == +Anti-Superstition and Black Magic Act +Religion in India +Culture of India +Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti + +== References == + +== Further reading == + +Dr. Abraham Kovoor (2005). Begone Godmen. Jaico Publishing House. ISBN 978-8172243319. +Dr. Abraham Kovoor (2000). Gods, Demons & Spirits. Jaico Publishing House. ISBN 978-8172242169. +R. V. Kolhatkar. Vastu Nijaanijalu (Vaastu Myths) (in Telugu). Hyderabad Book Trust. +Varuna Verma (27 May 2012). "The God Busters". The Telegraph. India. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. +Ashwaq Masoodi (23 February 2014). "Witch hunting: Victims of superstition". Live Mint. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchless_knockout-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchless_knockout-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e09c1659f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchless_knockout-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Touchless knockout" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchless_knockout" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:45.307194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Touchless knockout or no-touch knockout is a fraudulent practice by con artists who claim knowledge of techniques by which an enemy combatant can be rendered unconscious solely by application of qi, kiai or similar methods, without making physical contact. This differs from pressure point techniques which involve light or slight contact to specific areas of the body causing unconsciousness. Skeptics believe apparent demonstrations of touchless knockout techniques to be hypnotism of, or acting (collusion) on the part of, the apparent victims of the technique. +One notable practitioner of the fictitious touchless knockout is George Dillman; he attempted to demonstrate the technique for a National Geographic Channel program about him and was unable to knock out volunteers previously unknown to him. Another martial artist who claimed but was unable to prove an ability to knock out without contact is Harry Thomas "Tom" Cameron, who was featured in episode eight of season one of Stan Lee's Superhumans and, unusually for that program, judged not to have any superhuman ability whatsoever. Cameron was also debunked in a Fox news investigation. Other people who have claimed, but been unable to prove under controlled conditions, an ability to perform a touchless knockout include Yanagi Ryuken of Japan (sometimes misidentified as Kiai Master Ryukerin), Jukka Lampila of Finland, and numerous practitioners of the Yellow Bamboo school of martial arts centered on Bali in Indonesia. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..71446d635 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Universal Darwinism" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:46.432377+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Universal Darwinism is a variety of approaches that extend the theory of Darwinism beyond its original domain of biological evolution on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of variation, selection and heredity proposed by Charles Darwin, so that they can apply to explain evolution in a wide variety of other domains, including psychology, linguistics, economics, culture, medicine, computer science, and physics. +Examples of patterns that have been postulated to undergo variation and selection, and thus adaptation, are genes, ideas (memes), theories, technologies, neurons and their connections, words, computer programs, firms, antibodies, institutions, law and judicial systems, quantum states and even whole universes. + +== History and development == +Conceptually, "evolutionary theorizing about cultural, social, and economic phenomena" preceded Darwin, but was still lacking the concept of natural selection. +Starting in the 1950s, Donald T. Campbell was one of the first and most influential authors to revive the tradition, and to formulate a generalized Darwinian algorithm directly applicable to phenomena outside of biology. In this, he was inspired by William Ross Ashby's view of self-organization and intelligence as fundamental processes of selection. His aim was to explain the development of science and other forms of knowledge by focusing on the variation and selection of ideas and theories, thus laying the basis for the domain of evolutionary epistemology. In the 1990s, Campbell's formulation of the mechanism of "blind-variation-and-selective-retention" (BVSR) was further developed and extended to other domains under the labels of "universal selection theory" or "universal selectionism" by his disciples Gary Cziko, Mark Bickhard, and Francis Heylighen. +Richard Dawkins may have first coined the term "universal Darwinism" in 1983 to describe his conjecture that any possible life forms existing outside the Solar System would evolve by natural selection just as they do on Earth. This conjecture was also presented in 1983 in a paper entitled “The Darwinian Dynamic” that dealt with the evolution of order in living systems and certain nonliving physical systems. It was suggested “that ‘life’, wherever it might exist in the universe, evolves according to the same dynamical law” termed the Darwinian dynamic. Henry Plotkin in his 1997 book on Darwin machines makes the link between universal Darwinism and Campbell's evolutionary epistemology. +The philosopher of mind Daniel Dennett, in his 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, developed the idea of a Darwinian process, involving variation, selection and retention, as a generic algorithm that is substrate-neutral and could be applied to many fields of knowledge outside of biology. He described the idea of natural selection as a "universal acid" that cannot be contained in any vessel, as it seeps through the walls and spreads ever further, touching and transforming ever more domains. He notes in particular the field of memetics in the social sciences. +In agreement with Dennett's prediction, over the past decades the Darwinian perspective has spread ever more widely, in particular across the social sciences as the foundation for numerous schools of study including memetics, evolutionary economics, evolutionary psychology, evolutionary anthropology, neural Darwinism, and evolutionary linguistics. Researchers have postulated Darwinian processes as operating at the foundations of physics, cosmology and chemistry via the theories of quantum Darwinism, observation selection effects and cosmological natural selection. +Author D. B. Kelley has formulated one of the most all-encompassing approaches to universal Darwinism. In his 2013 book The Origin of Everything, he holds that natural selection involves not the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, as shown by Darwin, but the preservation of favored systems in contention for existence. The fundamental mechanism behind all such stability and evolution is therefore what Kelley calls "survival of the fittest systems." Because all systems are cyclical, the Darwinian processes of iteration, variation and selection are operative not only among species but among all natural phenomena both large-scale and small. Kelley thus maintains that, since the Big Bang especially, the universe has evolved from a highly chaotic state to one that is now highly ordered with many stable phenomena, naturally selected. + +=== Gene-based Darwinian extensions === +Evolutionary psychology assumes that our emotions, preferences and cognitive mechanisms are the product of natural selection +Evolutionary educational psychology applies evolutionary psychology to education +Evolutionary developmental psychology applies evolutionary psychology to cognitive development +Darwinian Happiness applies evolutionary psychology to understand the optimal conditions for human well-being +Darwinian literary studies tries to understand the characters and plots of narrative on the basis of evolutionary psychology +Evolutionary aesthetics applies evolutionary psychology to explain our sense of beauty, especially for landscapes and human bodies +Evolutionary musicology applies evolutionary aesthetics to music +Evolutionary anthropology studies the evolution of human beings +Sociobiology proposes that social systems in animals and humans are the product of Darwinian biological evolution +Human behavioral ecology investigates how human behavior has become adapted to its environment via variation and selection +Evolutionary medicine investigates the origin of diseases by looking at the evolution both of the human body and of its parasites +Paleolithic diet proposes that the most healthy nutrition is the one to which our hunter-gatherer ancestors have adapted over millions of years +Paleolithic lifestyle generalizes the Paleolithic diet to include exercise, behavior and exposure to the environment +Molecular evolution studies evolution at the level of DNA, RNA and proteins +Biosocial criminology studies crime using several different approaches that include genetics and evolutionary psychology +Evolutionary linguistics studies the evolution of language, biologically as well as culturally \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7049577d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Universal Darwinism" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:46.432377+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Other Darwinian extensions === +Quantum Darwinism sees the emergence of classical states in physics as a natural selection of the most stable quantum properties +Cosmological natural selection hypothesizes that universes reproduce and are selected for having fundamental constants that maximize "fitness" +Complex adaptive systems models the dynamics of complex systems in part on the basis of the variation and selection of its components +Evolutionary archaeology is a Darwinian approach to the cultural evolution of tools +Evolutionary computation is a Darwinian approach to the generation of adapted computer programs +Genetic algorithms, a subset of evolutionary computation, models variation by "genetic" operators (mutation and recombination) +Evolutionary robotics applies Darwinian algorithms to the design of autonomous robots +Artificial life uses Darwinian algorithms to let organism-like computer agents evolve in a software simulation +Evolutionary art uses variation and selection to produce works of art +Evolutionary music does the same for works of music +Clonal selection theory sees the creation of adapted antibodies in the immune system as a process of variation and selection +Neural Darwinism proposes that neurons and their synapses are selectively pruned during brain development +Evolutionary epistemology of theories assumes that scientific theories develop through variation and selection +Memetics is a theory of the variation, transmission, and selection of cultural items, such as ideas, fashions, and traditions +Dual inheritance theory a framework for cultural evolution developed largely independently of memetics +Cultural selection theory is a theory of cultural evolution related to memetics +Cultural materialism is an anthropological approach that contends that the physical world impacts and sets constraints on human behavior. +Environmental determinism is a social science theory that proposes that it is the environment that ultimately determines human culture. +Evolutionary economics studies the variation and selection of economic phenomena, such as commodities, technologies, institutions and organizations. +Evolutionary ethics investigates the origin of morality, and uses Darwinian foundations to formulate ethical values +Big History is the science-based narrative integrating the history of the universe, earth, life, and humanity. Scholars consider Universal Darwinism to be a possible unifying theme for the discipline. + +== Books == +Campbell, John. Universal Darwinism: the path of knowledge. +Cziko, Gary. Without Miracles: Universal Selection Theory and the Second Darwinian Revolution. +Hodgson, Geoffrey Martin; Knudsen, Thorbjorn. Darwin's Conjecture: The Search for General Principles of Social and Economic Evolution. +Kelley, D. B. The Origin of Everything via Universal Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Systems in Contention for Existence. +Plotkin, Henry. Evolutionary Worlds without End. +Plotkin, Henry. Darwin Machines and the Nature of Knowledge. +Dennett, Daniel. Darwin's Dangerous Idea. + +== See also == + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == +UniversalSelection.com \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eee169424 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Vertebral subluxation" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:47.746570+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In chiropractic, a vertebral subluxation means pressure on nerves, abnormal functions creating a lesion in some portion of the body, either in its action or makeup (defined by D.D. Palmer and B.J. Palmer, founders of chiropractic). Chiropractors claim subluxations are not necessarily visible on X-rays. +Straight chiropractors continue to follow Palmer's tradition, claiming that vertebral subluxation has considerable health effects and also adding a visceral component to the definition. Most medical experts and some mixer chiropractors consider these ideas to be pseudoscientific and dispute these claims, as there is no scientific evidence for the existence of chiropractic subluxations or proof they or their treatment have any effects on health. +The use of the word vertebral subluxation should not be confused with the term's precise usage in medicine, which considers only the anatomical relationships. +According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a chiropractic subluxation is a "dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity, and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact". The WHO notes that this is "different from the current medical definition" of a subluxation, which is a "structural displacement" significant enough to be "visible on static imaging studies" such as X-rays. Chiropractic is a field of alternative treatment outside scientific mainstream medicine, whose practitioners (chiropractors) are not medical doctors. + +== History == +In 1910, D.D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, wrote:Nerves carry impulses outward and sensations inward. The activity of these nerves, or rather their fibers, may become excited or allayed by impingement, the result being a modification of functionating—too much or not enough action—which is dis-ease.In 1909, D.D. Palmer's son, B.J. Palmer, incorrectly claimed that chiropractic subluxation caused contagious diseases, writing:Chiropractors have found in every disease that is supposed to be contagious, a cause in the spine. In the spinal column we will find a subluxation that corresponds to every type of disease. If we had one hundred cases of small-pox, I can prove to you where, in one, you will find a subluxation and you will find the same conditions in the other ninety-nine. I adjust one and return his functions to normal... . There is no contagious disease... . There is no infection... . There is a cause internal to man that makes of his body in a certain spot, more or less a breeding ground [for microbes]. It is a place where they can multiply, propagate, and then because they become so many they are classed as a cause. + +== Clinical practice == + +=== Definitions === +Chiropractors use and have used various terms to express this concept: subluxation, vertebral subluxation (VS), vertebral subluxation complex (VSC), "killer subluxations", and the "silent killer". +Chiropractors along with some physical therapists and osteopathic physicians, have also used another term, BOOP, meaning "bone out of place". + +The WHO definition of the chiropractic vertebral subluxation is:A lesion or dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact. It is essentially a functional entity, which may influence biomechanical and neural integrity.The purported displacement is not necessarily visible on static imaging studies, such as X-rays. This is in contrast to the medical definition of spinal subluxation which, according to the WHO, is a "significant structural displacement", and therefore visible on X-rays. +As of 2014, the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners states: + +The specific focus of chiropractic practice is known as the chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction. A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness. +In 1996 an official consensus definition of subluxation was formed. Cooperstein and Gleberzon have described the situation: "... although many in the chiropractic profession reject the concept of "subluxation" and shun the use of this term as a diagnosis, the presidents of at least a dozen chiropractic colleges of the Association of Chiropractic Colleges (ACC) developed a consensus definition of "subluxation" in 1996. It reads: + +Chiropractic is concerned with the preservation and restoration of health, and focuses particular attention on the subluxation. A subluxation is a complex of functional and/or structural and/or pathological articular changes that compromise neural integrity and may influence organ system function and general health. A subluxation is evaluated, diagnosed, and managed through the use of chiropractic procedures based on the best available rational and empirical evidence. +In 2001 the World Federation of Chiropractic, representing the national chiropractic associations in 77 countries, adopted this consensus statement which reaffirms belief in the vertebral subluxation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..37e7757d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Vertebral subluxation" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:47.746570+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The ACC paradigm has been criticized by chiropractic authors:All in all, the ambiguities that permeate the ACC's statements on subluxation render it inadequate as a guide to clinical research... Whether the ACC's subluxation claims have succeeded as a political statement is beyond our concern here. These assertions were published as a priori truths (what many chiropractors have traditionally referred to as "principle"), and are exemplary of scientifically unjustified assertions made in many corners of the profession. It matters not whether unsubstantiated assertions are offered for clinical, political, scientific, educational, marketing or other purposes; when offered without acknowledgment of their tentative character, they amount to dogmatism. We contend that attempts to foster unity (among the schools or in the wider profession) at the expense of scientific integrity is ultimately self-defeating. To be sure, the profession's lack of cultural authority is based in part upon our characteristic disunity. However, attempts to generate unity by adoption of a common dogma can only bring scorn and continued alienation from the wider health care community and the public we all serve.In May 2010 the General Chiropractic Council, the statutory regulatory body for chiropractors in the United Kingdom, issued guidance for chiropractors stating that the chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex "is an historical concept" and "is not supported by any clinical research evidence that would allow claims to be made that it is the cause of disease or health concerns." +The chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex has been a source of controversy since its inception in 1895 due to the lack of empirical evidence for its existence, its metaphysical origins, and claims of its far reaching effects on health and disease. Although some chiropractic associations and colleges support the concept of subluxation, many in the chiropractic profession reject it and shun the use of this term as a diagnosis. In the United States and in Canada the term nonallopathic lesion may be used in place of subluxation. +Other chiropractors consider subluxation as more of an abstract concept rather than a medical condition. Tedd Koren says, + +The vertebral subluxation cannot be precisely defined because it is an abstraction, an intellectual construct used by chiropractors, chiropractic researchers, educators and others to explain the success of the chiropractic adjustment. +This is not a unique state of affairs, abstract entities populate many branches of science... +Subluxations, genes, gravity, the ego and life are all heuristic devices, "useful fictions" that are used to explain phenomenon that are far larger than our understanding. We use them as long as they work for us and discard or limit their application when they become unwieldy or unable to account for new observations... +Critics of chiropractic have incorrectly assumed that chiropractic is based on the theory or principle that vertebral subluxations cause "pinched" nerves that cause disease. They have it backwards. Chiropractic is based on the success of the spinal adjustment. The theory attempting to explain the success of the adjustment (nerve impingement, disease, subluxations) followed its clinical discovery. +Examples of such erroneous criticisms based on this straw man argument abound in the medical literature. Some examples: "The teachers, research workers and practitioners of medicine reject the so-called principle on which chiropractic is based and correctly and bluntly label it a fraud and hoax on the human race." "The basis of chiropractic is completely unscientific." The theory on which chiropractic is based [is false], namely that a "subluxation" of a spinal vertebra presses on a nerve interfering with the passage of energy down that nerve causing disease to organs supplied by that nerve, and that chiropractic "adjustments" can alleviate the pressure thereby treating or preventing such disease. There is no scientific evidence for the validity of this theory." +To be fair, statements by some chiropractors have tended to perpetuate this misunderstanding: "Pressure on nerves causes irritation and tension with deranged functions as a result." + +When chiropractors declare that "pinched nerves" "nerve impingement" "spinal fixations" or others mechanisms of action explain how subluxations affect the person and how chiropractic works they are making the same mistake medical critics make – assuming chiropractic is based on theory. Mechanisms and theories are useful tools, but their limitations should always be kept in mind. + +=== International Classification of Diseases coding === +The differences between a medical subluxation and a chiropractic "vertebral subluxation" create confusion and difficulties when it comes to following official ICD-9 and ICD-10 coding. In a 2014 article in Dynamic Chiropractic by a chiropractor who is a certified professional coder, these difficulties were discussed in detail. He noted that the WHO recognizes the differences between the two types of "subluxations", and also pointed out certain difficulties for chiropractors:...the official definition of 739 codes is "nonallopathic lesions, not elsewhere classified.... In other words, 739 is a code that does not describe a subluxation. It does not even say what the patient has; it says that there is no code to describe what the patient has.... [T]he elusive "vertebral subluxation complex" I learned about in school has no place in the ICD-9 code set. All we get is 739, which is a code for conditions that do not have a code. +ICD-9 has never provided a code that truly describes this and differentiates between the chiropractic subluxation and the allopathic subluxation. Chiropractors have been compelled to try to fit a square peg into a round hole for many years.At the time of writing (August 2014) it was still uncertain which codes in the newer ICD-10 would be useful for chiropractors and how they would be interpreted. + +=== Components === +Traditionally there have been five components that form the chiropractic subluxation. + +Spinal Kinesiopathology +Neuropathophysiology/Neuropathology +Myopathology +Histopathology +Biochemical changes + +=== Diagnosis === +Historically, the detection of spinal misalignment (subluxations) by the chiropractic profession has relied on X-ray findings and physical examination. At least two of the following four physical signs and/or symptoms must be documented to qualify for reimbursement : + +Pain and tenderness +Asymmetry/misalignment +Range of motion abnormality +Tissue/tone changes + +=== Rationale === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8d56c7491 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Vertebral subluxation" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:47.746570+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +It has been proposed that a vertebral subluxation can negatively affect general health by altering the neurological communication between the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. Although individuals may not always be symptomatic, straight chiropractors believe that the presence of vertebral subluxation is in itself justification for correction via spinal adjustment. +V. Strang, D.C., describes several hypotheses on how a misaligned vertebra may cause interference to the nervous system in his book, Essential Principles of Chiropractic: + +Nerve compression hypothesis: suggests that when the vertebrae are out of alignment, the nerve roots and/or spinal cord can become pinched or irritated. While the most commonly referenced hypothesis, and easiest for a patient to understand, it may be the least likely to occur. +Proprioceptive insult hypothesis: focuses on articular alterations causing hyperactivity of the sensory nerve fibers. +Somatosympathetic reflex hypothesis: all the visceral organ functions can be reflexly affected by cutaneous or muscular stimulation. +Somatosomatic reflex hypothesis: afferent impulses from one part of the body can result in reflex activity in other parts of the body. +Viscerosomatic reflex hypothesis: visceral afferent fibers cause reflex somatic problems. +Somatopsychic hypothesis: the effects of a subluxation on the ascending paths of the reticular activating system. +Neurodystrophic hypothesis: focuses on lowered tissue resistance that results from abnormal innervation. +Dentate ligament-cord distortion hypothesis: upper cervical misalignment can cause the dentate ligaments to put a stress on the spinal cord. +Psychogenic hypothesis: emotions, such as stress, causing contraction in skeletal muscles. +The vertebral subluxation has been described as a syndrome with signs and symptoms which include: altered alignment; aberrant motion; palpable soft tissue changes; localized/referred pain; muscle contraction or imbalance; altered physiological function; reversible with adjustment/manipulation; focal tenderness. + +=== Procedure === + +Chiropractic treatment of vertebral subluxation focuses on delivering a chiropractic adjustment which is a high velocity low amplitude (HVLA) thrust to the dysfunctional spinal segments to help correct the chiropractic subluxation complex. Spinal adjustment is the primary procedure used by chiropractors in the adjustment. + +=== Disagreement amongst practitioners === +The chiropractic subluxation is the heart of the split between "straight" and "mixer" chiropractors. Straight chiropractors continue to follow Palmer's vitalistic tradition, claiming that subluxation has considerable health effects and also adding a visceral component to the definition, while mixers, as exemplified by the United Kingdom's General Chiropractic Council, consider it a historical concept with no evidence identifying it as the cause of disease. + +Some chiropractors have described the disagreements within the profession about the concept, and have written skeptically about BOOP as an antiquated idea. In 1992 one wrote:The main problem we often run into is the bone out of place (BOOP) concept. It seems we somehow step on toes when we describe the spine as a functioning entity instead of a stack of bones that can be shifted back and forth into the ideal configuration. The BOOP concept will eventually fade, and we are grateful for its contribution to chiropractic. For many decades, it offered a model to work from. This model has been updated by the rest of the healing profession, but chiropractors have been hesitant to let this antiquated model go. Some within our profession hold onto this model with a religious fervor. The chiropractic profession has moved into a new age. The BOOP concept has been updated and science is ever upon us in the 90s. Let's start asking questions again and drive the chiropractic profession kicking and screaming into the 21st century.Chiropractor David Seaman wrote in 1994 about the "brutal civil war":According to various gossip columnists in chiropractic, our profession appears to be currently enmeshed in a brutal civil war between BOOP (bone-out-of-place) practitioners and low back pain practitioners. It should be known that the BOOPers incorrectly call themselves subluxation-based practitioners. My experience has demonstrated that the BOOPers do not know enough about subluxation to call themselves subluxation-based chiropractors. We would all do well to not be subluxation-based in the BOOP sense. It should also be known that this so-called war is really an over-dramatized skirmish between vocal BOOPers and a theoretical group of anti-chiropractic DCs. I have yet to meet any of these anti-chiropractic DCs. Unfortunately, the BOOPers seem to think that those who do not embrace the totality of BOOP philosophy are merely non-BOOPers who are still very pro-chiropractic and appreciate the philosophy of chiropractic from a contemporary and nondogmatic perspective.In an article written in 2004, Seaman openly disparaged the idea still propounded by "modern-day advocates of this concept":... it is essentially impossible to have nerve interference. To summarize, nerve interference is described, by modern-day advocates of this concept, as a reduction of neural or mental impulses, which occurs in response to a bone-out-of-place (BOOP) subluxation... Clearly, the BOOP subluxation model fails miserably when considered in the light of basic neuroscience facts... BOOP subluxationists become angry and defensive when the BOOP model of subluxation is criticized... The reactionary nature of certain BOOP subluxationists is to accuse those who don't buy into the BOOP model of being anti-chiropractic—an astonishing leap of ignorance, to say the least. Furthermore, anyone who does not buy into the model is trying to "medicalize chiropractic"—another example of low-IQ thinking. And if tears do not well up in your eyes when you hear the phrase, "The power that made the body, heals the body," you are accused of having no passion for chiropractic—still another example of depressed, frontal-lobe activity. Even worse, if you don't buy into every bizarre, New Age, tree-hugging notion that comes down the pike and is circularly attached to subluxation, you will be accused of being an atheist—an excellent example of the need for psychiatrists and the drugs they prescribe. + +== Evidence of condition == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f1e329cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Vertebral subluxation" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:47.746570+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Believers within the chiropractic tradition assert that spinal health and function are directly related to general health and well-being, including visceral disorders, but the efficacy and validity of spinal manipulation to address visceral disorders systems remains a source of controversy within the chiropractic profession. The usefulness of spinal manipulation for organic disorders is not supported by evidence. Chiropractic professors and researchers, Nansel and Szlazak, found that:the proper differential diagnosis of somatic (musculoskeletal) vs. visceral (organ) dysfunction represents a challenge for both the medical and chiropractic physician. The afferent convergence mechanisms, which can create signs and symptoms that are virtually indistinguishable with respect to their somatic vs. visceral etiologies, suggest it is not unreasonable that this somatic visceral-disease mimicry could very well account for the "cures" of presumed organ disease that have been observed over the years in response to various somatic therapies (e.g., spinal manipulation, acupuncture, Rolfing, Qi Gong, etc.) and may represent a common phenomenon that has led to "holistic" health care claims on the part of such clinical disciplines. +Considering this phenomenon, Seaman suggests that the chiropractic concept of joint complex (somatic) dysfunction should be incorporated into the differential diagnosis of pain and visceral symptoms because these dysfunctions often generate symptoms similar to those produced by true visceral disease and says that this mimicry leads to unnecessary surgical procedures and medications. +Other chiropractic researchers have also questioned some of the claimed effects of vertebral subluxation: + +The literature supports the existence of somatovisceral and viscerosomatic reflexes, but there is little or no evidence to support the notion that the spinal derangements (often referred to as subluxations by chiropractors) can cause prolonged aberrant discharge of these reflexes. Equally unsupported in the literature is the notion that the prolonged activation of these reflexes will manifest into pathological state of tissues, and most relevantly, that the application of spinal manipulative therapy can alter the prolonged reflex discharge or be associated with a reversal of the pathological degeneration of the affected reflexes or tissues. The evidence that has been amassed is largely anecdotal or case report based and it has attracted much intra disciplinary debate because of its frequent association with certain approaches to management (largely described as being traditional or "philosophical" in nature). +Still other chiropractic researchers stated quite directly: + +... early chiropractic philosophy ... considered disease the result of spinal nerve dysfunction caused by misplaced (subluxated) vertebrae. Although rejected by medical science, this concept is still [2000] accepted by a minority of chiropractors. ... Indeed, many progressive chiropractors have rejected the historical concept of the chiropractic subluxation in favor of ones that more accurately describe the nature of the complex joint disfunctions they treat. +Professor Philip S. Bolton of the School of Biomedical Sciences at University of Newcastle, Australia writes in Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, "The traditional chiropractic vertebral subluxation hypothesis proposes that vertebral misalignment cause illness, disease, or both. This hypothesis remains controversial." His objective was, "To briefly review and update experimental evidence concerning reflex effects of vertebral subluxations, particularly concerning peripheral nervous system responses to vertebral subluxations. Data source: Information was obtained from chiropractic or, scientific peer-reviewed literature concerning human or animal studies of neural responses to vertebral subluxation, vertebral displacement or movement, or both." He concluded, "Animal models suggest that vertebral displacements and putative vertebral subluxations may modulate activity in group I to IV afferent nerves. However, it is not clear whether these afferent nerves are modulated during normal day-to-day activities of living and, if so, what segmental or whole-body reflex effects they may have." +Edzard Ernst has stated that the "core concepts of chiropractic, subluxation and spinal manipulation, are not based on sound science." +An area of debate among chiropractors is whether "vertebral subluxation" is a metaphysical concept (as posited in B. J. Palmer's philosophy of chiropractic) or a real phenomenon. In an article on vertebral subluxation, the chiropractic authors wrote: + +Subluxation syndrome is a legitimate, potentially testable, theoretical construct for which there is little experimental evidence. Acceptable as hypothesis, the widespread assertion of the clinical meaningfulness of this notion brings ridicule from the scientific and health care communities and confusion within the chiropractic profession. We believe that an evidence-orientation among chiropractors requires that we distinguish between subluxation dogma vs. subluxation as the potential focus of clinical research. We lament efforts to generate unity within the profession through consensus statements concerning subluxation dogma, and believe that cultural authority will continue to elude us so long as we assert dogma as though it were validated clinical theory. +Other chiropractors have declared its unproven status as an area that needs reform: + +Some may suggest that chiropractors should promote themselves as the experts in "correcting vertebral subluxation." However, the scientific literature has failed to demonstrate the very existence of the subluxation. Until and unless sound research published in credible journals demonstrates the existence and reliable identification of vertebral subluxation, and vertebral subluxation is found to be an important public health problem, society at large will not care about its correction. Thus, "subluxation correction" alone is not a viable option for chiropractic's future. +A Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center article describes the mainstream understanding of vertebral subluxation theory: + +Since its origin, chiropractic theory has based itself on "subluxations," or vertebrae that have shifted position in the spine. These subluxations are said to impede nerve outflow and cause disease in various organs. A chiropractic treatment is supposed to "put back in" these "popped out" vertebrae. For this reason, it is called an "adjustment." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..05461520f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Vertebral subluxation" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:47.746570+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +However, no real evidence has ever been presented showing that a given chiropractic treatment alters the position of any vertebrae. In addition, there is no real evidence that impairment of nerve outflow is a major contributor to common illnesses, or that spinal manipulation changes nerve outflow in such a way as to affect organ function. +In 2009, four scholarly chiropractors concluded that epidemiologic evidence does not support chiropractic's most fundamental theory. Since its inception, the vast majority of chiropractors have postulated that "subluxations" (misalignments) are the cause or underlying cause of ill health and can be corrected with spinal "adjustments". After searching the scientific literature, the chiropractic authors concluded: + +No supportive evidence is found for the chiropractic subluxation being associated with any disease process or of creating suboptimal health conditions requiring intervention. Regardless of popular appeal, this leaves the subluxation construct in the realm of unsupported speculation. This lack of supportive evidence suggests the subluxation construct has no valid clinical applicability. +In 2005, four leading chiropractic researchers leveled strong critiques of chiropractic dogma: + +Lastly, the ACC claims that chiropractors use the 'best available rational and empirical evidence' to detect and correct subluxations. This strikes us as pseudoscience, since the ACC does not offer any evidence for the assertions they make, and since the sum of all the evidence that we are aware of does not permit a conclusion about the clinical meaningfulness of subluxation. To the best of our knowledge, the available literature does not point to any preferred method of subluxation detection and correction, nor to any clinically practical method of quantifying compromised "neural integrity," nor to any health benefit likely to result from subluxation correction. +In 2015, internationally accredited chiropractic colleges from Bournemouth University, University of South Wales, University of Southern Denmark, University of Zürich, Institut Franco-Européen de Chiropraxie, and University of Johannesburg made an open statement which included: "The teaching of the vertebral subluxation complex as a vitalistic construct that claims that it is the cause of disease is unsupported by evidence. Its inclusion in a modern chiropractic curriculum in anything other than an historic context is therefore inappropriate and unnecessary." + +== References == + +== External links == +Vertebral Subluxation in Chiropractic Practice – Council on Chiropractic Practice +Models of Vertebral Subluxation: A Review – Christopher Kent, DC +Chiropractic's Elusive Subluxation – Stephen Barrett, M.D. +Subluxation – The Silent Killer – Ronald Carter, DC, MA, Past President, Canadian Chiropractic Association \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViXra-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViXra-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a31cc4c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViXra-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "ViXra" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViXra" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:48.891426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +viXra is an electronic e-print archive known for unorthodox and fringe science. It was set up by independent physicist Philip Gibbs as an alternative to the dominant arXiv service operated by Cornell University. Its name comes from arXiv spelled backwards. + + +== Description == +Although dominated by physics and mathematics submissions, viXra aims to cover topics across the whole scientific community. It accepts submissions without requiring authors to have an academic affiliation and without any threshold for quality. The e-prints on viXra are grouped into seven broad categories: physics, mathematics, computational science, biology, chemistry, humanities, and other areas. Anyone may post anything on viXra, though house rules do prohibit "vulgar, libellous, plagiaristic or dangerously misleading" content. As a result, the site has a reputation among physicists for hosting "material of no interest". Physicist Gerard 't Hooft writes, "When a paper is published in viXra, it is usually a sign that it is not likely to contain acceptable results. It may, but the odds against that are considerable". +Gibbs originally started the archive to cater to researchers who believed that their preprints had been unfairly rejected or reclassified by the arXiv moderators. As of 2013, it had over 4000 preprints, and by December 2020, the number had grown to 36,321. A 2020 study of preprint servers found that as of September of that year, viXra hosted 440 preprints about COVID-19. +viXra uses the same article numbering schema as arXiv: yymm.iiiii, where y stands for last two digits of the year, m stands for the month, and i stands for a sequential index among articles sent during the month. + + +== See also == +List of preprint repositories + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +Kelk, David; Devine, David (2012). "A Scienceographic Comparison of Physics Papers from the arXiv and viXra Archives". arXiv:1211.1036 [cs.DL]. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md index 4934ffb04..ef5c38992 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:44.113231+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:09:38.573269+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" ---