From 2fdf1f38163b39e18237fac26a2d44bc688a8749 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 20:08:48 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 475 new, 5 updated, 500 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 2760704 -> 2830336 bytes .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-0.md | 15 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-1.md | 11 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-10.md | 30 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-11.md | 20 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-12.md | 25 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-13.md | 13 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-14.md | 19 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-2.md | 11 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-3.md | 26 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-4.md | 30 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-5.md | 32 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-6.md | 23 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-7.md | 24 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-8.md | 31 + .../wiki/Objections_to_evolution-9.md | 24 + .../wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-0.md | 22 + 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z^{CTwhU;mW7@UXFM$Sba)l;-R3DiR%uWYrfc?&!F0+2&@*xx-x)n3mwJQJKfkY%IDy@bSR2!EBM@UUjZqaGCoJ{-HDeFW=m(bs}sFX W=)+ke%PL$fEZ=;ly;VV>O8*53WPaEH diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd93e43f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 1/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Objections to evolution have been raised since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, his theory of evolution (the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection) initially met opposition from scientists with different theories, but eventually came to receive near-universal acceptance in the scientific community. The observation of evolutionary processes occurring (as well as the modern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence) has been uncontroversial among mainstream biologists since the 1940s. +Since then, criticisms and denials of evolution have come from religious groups, rather than from the scientific community. Although many religious groups have found reconciliation of their beliefs with evolution, such as through theistic evolution, other religious groups continue to reject evolutionary explanations in favor of creationism, the belief that the universe and life were created by supernatural forces. The U.S.-centered creation–evolution controversy has become a focal point of perceived conflict between religion and science. +Several branches of creationism, including creation science, neo-creationism, geocentric creationism and intelligent design, argue that the idea of life being directly designed by a god or intelligence is at least as scientific as evolutionary theory, and should therefore be taught in public education. Such arguments against evolution have become widespread and include objections to evolution's evidence, methodology, plausibility, morality, and scientific acceptance. The scientific community does not recognize such objections as valid, pointing to detractors' misinterpretations of such things as the scientific method, evidence, and basic physical laws. + +== History == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ee7eab4ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 2/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the early 19th century with the theory (developed between 1800 and 1822) of the transmutation of species put forward by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). The scientific community initially opposed the idea of evolution, with notable criticism from Georges Cuvier (1769–1832). The idea that laws control nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe's The Constitution of Man of 1828 and with the anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation of 1844. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arise through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors, but while most scientists accepted natural selection as a valid and empirically testable hypothesis, Darwin's view of it as the primary mechanism of evolution was rejected by some. Darwin's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon fossil evidence, and the X Club (operative from 1864 to 1893) formed to defend the concept of evolution against opposition from the church and wealthy amateurs. At that time the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided – natural selection – was actively disputed by scientists in favour of alternative theories such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis. Darwin's gradualistic account was also opposed by the ideas of saltationism and catastrophism. Lord Kelvin led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations for the age of the Earth at between 24 and 400 million years, and his views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance. Geological estimates disputed Kelvin's age of the earth, and the geological approach gained strength in 1907 when radioactive dating of rocks revealed the Earth as billions of years old. The specific hereditary mechanism which Darwin hypothesized, pangenesis, which supported gradualism, also lacked any supporting evidence and was disputed by the empirical tests (1869 onwards) of Francis Galton. Although evolution itself was scientifically unchallenged, uncertainties about the mechanism in the era of "the eclipse of Darwinism" persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s' inclusion of Mendelian inheritance and the rise of the modern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence, such as that from genetics, which confirmed Darwin's predictions and refuted the competing hypotheses. Protestantism, especially in America, broke out in "acrid polemics" and argument about evolution from 1860 to the 1870s—with the turning point possibly marked by the death of Louis Agassiz in 1873—and by 1880 a form of "Christian evolution" was becoming the consensus. In Britain, while publication of The Descent of Man by Darwin in 1871 reinvigorated debate from the previous decade, Sir Henry Chadwick (1920–2008) notes a steady acceptance of evolution "among more educated Christians" between 1860 and 1885. As a result, evolutionary theory was "both permissible and respectable" by 1876. Frederick Temple's lectures on The Relations between Religion and Science (1884) on how evolution was not "antagonistic" to religion highlighted this trend. Temple's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1896 demonstrated the broad acceptance of evolution within the church hierarchy. For decades the Roman Catholic Church avoided officially rejecting evolution. However, the Church would rein in Catholics who proposed that evolution could be reconciled with the Bible, as this conflicted with the First Vatican Council's (1869–70) finding that everything was created out of nothing by God, and to deny that finding could lead to excommunication. In 1950 the encyclical Humani generis of Pope Pius XII first mentioned evolution directly and officially. It allowed one to enquire into the concept of humans coming from pre-existing living matter, but not to question Adam and Eve or the creation of the soul. In 1996 Pope John Paul II labelled evolution "more than a hypothesis" and acknowledged the large body of work accumulated in its support, but reiterated that any attempt to give a material explanation of the human soul is "incompatible with the truth about man". Pope Benedict XVI in 2005 reiterated the conviction that human beings "are not some casual and meaningless product of evolution. Each of us is the result of a thought of God. Each of us is willed, each of us is loved, each of us is necessary." At the same time, Pope Benedict promoted the study of the relationship between the concepts of creation and evolution, based on the conviction that there cannot be a contradiction between faith and reason. Along these lines, the research project "Thomistic Evolution", run by a team of Dominican scholars, endeavours to reconcile the scientific evidence on evolution with the teaching of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274). Islamic views on evolution ranged from those believing in literal creation (as implied in the Quran) to many educated Muslims who subscribed to a version of theistic or guided evolution in which the Quran reinforced rather than contradicted mainstream science. This occurred relatively early, as medieval madrasas taught the ideas of Al-Jahiz, a Muslim scholar from the 9th century, who proposed concepts similar to natural selection. However, acceptance of evolution remains low in the Muslim world, as prominent figures reject evolution's underpinning philosophy of materialism as unsound to human origins and a denial of Allah. Further objections by Muslim authors and writers largely reflect those put forward in the Western world. Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies, early religious objections to Darwin's theory continue in use in opposition to evolution. The idea that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the Genesis account of Creation. Believers in Biblical infallibility attacked Darwinism as heretical. The natural theology of the early-19th century was typified by William Paley's 1802 version of the watchmaker analogy, an argument from design still deployed by the creationist movement. Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset, and when Darwin's theory was published, ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation, while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non-specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans. This position has been adopted by denominations of Christianity and Judaism in line with modernist theology which views the Bible and Torah as allegorical, thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion. However, in the 1920s Christian fundamentalists in the United States developed their literalist arguments against modernist theology into opposition to the teaching of evolution, with fears that Darwinism had led to German militarism and posed a threat to religion and morality. This opposition developed into the creation–evolution controversy, involving Christian literalists in the United States objecting to the teaching of evolution in public schools. Although early objectors dismissed evolution as contradicting their interpretation of the Bible, this argument was legally invalidated when the United States Supreme Court ruled in Epperson v. Arkansas in 1968 that forbidding the teaching of evolution on religious grounds violated the Establishment Clause. Since then creationists have developed more nuanced objections to evolution, alleging variously that it is unscientific, infringes on creationists' religious freedoms, or that the acceptance of evolution is a religious stance. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1590dd6b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 11/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A recent objection of creationists to evolution is that evolutionary mechanisms such as mutation cannot generate new information. Creationists such as William A. Dembski, Werner Gitt, and Lee Spetner have attempted to use information theory to dispute evolution. Dembski has argued that life demonstrates specified complexity, and proposed a law of conservation of information that extremely improbable "complex specified information" could be conveyed by natural means but never originated without an intelligent agent. Gitt asserted that information is an intrinsic characteristic of life and that an analysis demonstrates the mind and will of their Creator. +These claims have been widely rejected by the scientific community, which asserts that new information is regularly generated in evolution whenever a novel mutation or gene duplication arises. Dramatic examples of entirely new and unique traits arising through mutation have been observed in recent years, such as the evolution of nylon-eating bacteria which developed new enzymes to efficiently digest a material that never existed before the modern era. There is no need to account for the creation of information when an organism is considered together with the environment it evolved in. The information in the genome forms a record of how it was possible to survive in a particular environment. The information is gathered from the environment through trial and error, as mutating organisms either reproduce or fail. +The concept of specified complexity is widely regarded as mathematically unsound and has not been the basis for further independent work in information theory, in the theory of complex systems, or in biology. + +=== Violation of the second law of thermodynamics === + +Another objection is that evolution violates the second law of thermodynamics. The law states that "the entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium". In other words, an isolated system's entropy (a measure of the dispersal of energy in a physical system so that it is not available to do mechanical work) will tend to increase or stay the same, not decrease. Creationists argue that evolution violates this physical law by requiring an increase in order (i.e., a decrease in entropy). +The claims have been criticized for ignoring that the second law only applies to isolated systems. Organisms are open systems as they constantly exchange energy and matter with their environment: for example animals eat food and excrete waste, and radiate and absorb heat. It is argued that the Sun-Earth-space system does not violate the second law because the enormous increase in entropy due to the Sun and Earth radiating into space dwarfs the local decrease in entropy caused by the existence and evolution of self-organizing life. +Since the second law of thermodynamics has a precise mathematical definition, this argument can be analyzed quantitatively. This was done by physicist Daniel F. Styer, who concluded: "Quantitative estimates of the entropy involved in biological evolution demonstrate that there is no conflict between evolution and the second law of thermodynamics." +In a published letter to the editor of The Mathematical Intelligencer titled "How anti-evolutionists abuse mathematics", mathematician Jason Rosenhouse stated: + +The fact is that natural forces routinely lead to local decreases in entropy. Water freezes into ice and fertilised eggs turn into babies. Plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen, but [we do] not invoke divine intervention to explain the process ... thermodynamics offers nothing to dampen our confidence in Darwinism. + +== Moral implications == +Other common objections to evolution allege that evolution leads to objectionable results, such as eugenics and Nazi racial theory. It is argued that the teaching of evolution degrades values, undermines morals, and fosters irreligion or atheism. These may be considered appeals to consequences (a form of logical fallacy), as the potential ramifications of belief in evolutionary theory have nothing to do with its truth. + +=== Humans as animals === +In biological classification, humans are animals, a basic point which has been known for more than 2,000 years. Aristotle already described man as a political animal and Porphyry defined man as a rational animal, a definition accepted by the Scholastic philosophers in the Middle Ages. The creationist J. Rendle-Short asserted in Creation magazine that if people are taught evolution they can be expected to behave like animals. In evolutionary terms, humans are able to acquire knowledge and change their behaviour to meet social standards, so humans behave in the manner of other humans. + +=== Social effects === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..88da795c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 12/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 1917, Vernon Kellogg published Headquarters Nights: A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium, which asserted that German intellectuals were totally committed to might-makes-right due to "whole-hearted acceptance of the worst of Neo-Darwinism, the Allmacht of natural selection applied rigorously to human life and society and Kultur." This strongly influenced the politician William Jennings Bryan, who saw Darwinism as a moral threat to America and campaigned against evolutionary theory; his campaign culminated in the Scopes Trial, which effectively prevented teaching of evolution in most public schools until the 1960s. +R. Albert Mohler, Jr., president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky, wrote August 8, 2005, in NPR's Taking Issue essay series, that "Debates over education, abortion, environmentalism, homosexuality and a host of other issues are really debates about the origin — and thus the meaning — of human life. ...evolutionary theory stands at the base of moral relativism and the rejection of traditional morality." +Henry M. Morris, engineering professor and founder of the Creation Research Society and the Institute of Creation Research, claims that evolution was part of a pagan religion that emerged after the Tower of Babel, was part of Plato's and Aristotle's philosophies, and was responsible for everything from war to pornography to the breakup of the nuclear family. He has also claimed that perceived social ills like crime, teenage pregnancies, homosexuality, abortion, immorality, wars, and genocide are caused by a belief in evolution. +Pastor D. James Kennedy of The Center for Reclaiming America for Christ and Coral Ridge Ministries claims that Darwin was responsible for Adolf Hitler's atrocities. In Kennedy's documentary and the accompanying pamphlet with the same title, Darwin's Deadly Legacy, Kennedy states that "To put it simply, no Darwin, no Hitler." In his efforts to expose the "harmful effects that evolution is still having on our nation, our children, and our world," Kennedy also states that, "We have had 150 years of the theory of Darwinian evolution, and what has it brought us? Whether Darwin intended it or not, millions of deaths, the destruction of those deemed inferior, the devaluing of human life, increasing hopelessness." The Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture fellow Richard Weikart has made similar claims, as have other creationists. The claim was central to the documentary film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (2008) promoting intelligent design creationism. The Anti-Defamation League describes such claims as outrageous misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery, and as trivializing the "...many complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry. Hitler did not need Darwin or evolution to devise his heinous plan to exterminate the Jewish people, and Darwin and evolutionary theory cannot explain Hitler's genocidal madness. Moreover, anti-Semitism existed long before Darwin ever wrote a word." +Young Earth creationist Kent Hovind blames a long list of social ills on evolution, including communism, socialism, World War I, World War II, racism, the Holocaust, Stalin's war crimes, the Vietnam War, Pol Pot's Killing Fields, the increase in crime and unwed mothers. Hovind's son Eric Hovind claims that evolution is responsible for tattoos, body piercing, premarital sex, unwed births, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), divorce, and child abuse. +Such accusations are counterfactual, and there is evidence that the opposite seems to be the case. A study published by the author and illustrator Gregory S. Paul found that religious beliefs, including belief in creationism and disbelief in evolution, are positively correlated with social ills like crime. The Barna Group surveys find that Christians and non-Christians in the U.S. have similar divorce rates, and the highest divorce rates in the U.S. are among Baptists and Pentecostals, both sects which reject evolution and embrace creationism. +Michael Shermer argued in Scientific American in October 2006 that evolution supports concepts like family values, avoiding lies, fidelity, moral codes and the rule of law. He goes on to suggest that evolution gives more support to the notion of an omnipotent creator, rather than a tinkerer with limitations based on a human model, the more common image subscribed to by creationists. Careful analysis of the creationist charges that evolution has led to moral relativism and the Holocaust yields the conclusion that these charges appear to be highly suspect. Such analyses conclude that the origins of the Holocaust are more likely to be found in historical Christian antisemitism than in evolution. +Evolution has been used to justify Social Darwinism, the exploitation of so-called "lesser breeds without the law" by "superior races", particularly in the nineteenth century. Typically strong European nations that had successfully expanded their empires could be said to have "survived" in the struggle for dominance. With this attitude, Europeans except for Christian missionaries rarely adopted any customs and languages of local people under their empires. Creationists have frequently maintained that Social Darwinism—leading to policies designed to reward the most competitive—is a logical consequence of "Darwinism" (the theory of natural selection in biology). Biologists and historians have stated that this is a fallacy of appeal to nature, since the theory of natural selection is merely intended as a description of a biological phenomenon and should not be taken to imply that this phenomenon is good or that it ought to be used as a moral guide in human society. + +=== Atheism === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c5523cff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 13/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Another charge leveled at evolutionary theory by creationists is that belief in evolution is either tantamount to atheism, or conducive to atheism. It is commonly claimed that all proponents of evolutionary theory are "materialistic atheists". On the other hand, Davis A. Young argues that creation science itself is harmful to Christianity because its bad science will turn more away than it recruits. Young asks, "Can we seriously expect non-Christians to develop a respect for Christianity if we insist on teaching the brand of science that creationism brings with it?" However, evolution neither requires nor rules out the existence of a supernatural being. Philosopher Robert T. Pennock makes the comparison that evolution is no more atheistic than plumbing. H. Allen Orr, professor of biology at University of Rochester, notes that: + +Of the five founding fathers of twentieth-century evolutionary biology—Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane, Ernst Mayr, and Theodosius Dobzhansky—one was a devout Anglican who preached sermons and published articles in church magazines, one a practicing Unitarian, one a dabbler in Eastern mysticism, one an apparent atheist, and one a member of the Russian Orthodox Church and the author of a book on religion and science. +In addition, a wide range of religions have reconciled a belief in a supernatural being with evolution. Molleen Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education found that "of Americans in the twelve largest Christian denominations, 89.6% belong to churches that support evolution education." These churches include the "United Methodist Church, National Baptist Convention USA, Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Presbyterian Church (USA), National Baptist Convention of America, African Methodist Episcopal Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church, and others." A poll in 2000 done for People for the American Way found that 70% of the American public felt that evolution was compatible with a belief in God. Only 48% of the people polled could choose the correct definition of evolution from a list, however. +One poll reported in the journal Nature showed that among American scientists (across various disciplines), about 40 percent believe in both evolution and an active deity (theistic evolution). This is similar to the results reported for surveys of the general American public. Also, about 40 percent of the scientists polled believe in a God that answers prayers, and believe in immortality. While about 55% of scientists surveyed were atheists, agnostics, or nonreligious theists, atheism is far from universal among scientists who support evolution, or among the general public that supports evolution. Very similar results were reported from a 1997 Gallup Poll of the American public and scientists. + +Traditionalists still object to the idea that diversity in life, including human beings, arose through natural processes without a need for supernatural intervention, and they argue against evolution on the basis that it contradicts their literal interpretation of creation myths about separate "created kinds". However, many religions, such as Catholicism which does not endorse nor deny evolution, have allowed Catholics to reconcile their own personal belief with evolution through the idea of theistic evolution. + +== See also == +Alternatives to Darwinian evolution +Rejection of evolution by religious groups + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3bcc77950 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 14/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Bibliography == +Behe, Michael J. (1996). Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-82754-4. LCCN 96000695. OCLC 34150540. Bowler, Peter J. (1992) [Original hardback edition published 1983]. The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades Around 1900 (Johns Hopkins Paperbacks ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4391-4. LCCN 82021170. OCLC 611262030. Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23693-6. LCCN 2002007569. OCLC 49824702. Butterfield, Nicholas J. (2001). "Ecology and evolution of Cambrian plankton". In Zhuravlev, Andrey Yu.; Riding, Robert (eds.). The Ecology of the Cambrian Radiation. Critical Moments in Paleobiology and Earth History Series; Perspectives in Paleobiology and Earth History Series. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10613-9. LCCN 00063901. OCLC 44869047. Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st ed.). London: John Murray. LCCN 06017473. OCLC 741260650. The book is available from The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. Retrieved 2015-03-30. Darwin, Charles (1866). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (4th ed.). London: John Murray. OCLC 44636697. Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9. LCCN 2006015506. OCLC 68965666. Dawkins, Richard (2010) [First published in Great Britain in 2009 by Bantam Press]. The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution (First Free Press trade pbk. ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4165-9479-6. LCCN 2010655116. OCLC 685121521. Dembski, William A. (1998). The Design Inference: Eliminating Chance through Small Probabilities. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62387-2. LCCN 98003020. OCLC 38551103. Fowler, Thomas (2007). The Evolution Controversy: A Survey of Competing Theories. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. ISBN 978-0-8010-3174-8. LCCN 2007011459. OCLC 122291332. Fry, Iris (2000). Emergence of Life on Earth: A Historical and Scientific Overview. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2740-6. LCCN 99023153. OCLC 41090659. Gould, Stephen J. (1983). Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes (1st ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-01716-8. LCCN 82022259. OCLC 8954357. Ham, Ken (1987). The Lie: Evolution. Green Forest, AR: Master Books. ISBN 978-0-89051-158-9. LCCN 00108776. OCLC 50574665. Hempel, Carl Gustav (1965) [Essay originally published 1950 in Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 41 (11): 41–63]. "Problems and Changes in the Empiricist Criterion of Meaning" (PDF). Aspects of Scientific Explanation and other Essays in the Philosophy of Science. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. LCCN 65015441. OCLC 522395. Hoyle, Fred (1982). Evolution From Space (The Omni Lecture) and Other Papers on the Origin of Life. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89490-083-9. LCCN 82008856. OCLC 8495145. Hoyle, Fred; Wickramasinghe, Chandra (1982) [Originally published 1981; London: J. M. Dent & Sons]. Evolution from Space: A Theory of Cosmic Creationism (Reprint ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-45031-1. LCCN 82005622. OCLC 8430789. Hoyle, Fred; Wickramasinghe, Chandra (1986). Archaeopteryx, the Primordial Bird: A Case of Fossil Forgery. Swansea, Wales: Christopher Davies. ISBN 978-0-7154-0665-6. OCLC 17768215. Hoyle, Fred; Wickramasinghe, Chandra (1993). Our Place in the Cosmos: The Unfinished Revolution. London: J. M. Dent & Sons. ISBN 978-0-460-86084-0. LCCN 94130735. OCLC 30817228. Isaak, Mark (2007). The Counter-Creationism Handbook. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24926-4. LCCN 2006047492. OCLC 69241583. Kehoe, Alice B. (1984) [Originally published 1983]. "The Word of God". In Godfrey, Laurie R. (ed.). Scientists Confront Creationism (Later prt. ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30154-0. LCCN 82012500. OCLC 12399341. Kellogg, Vernon (1917). Headquarters Nights: A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium. Boston: The Atlantic Monthly Press. LCCN 17025619. OCLC 1171749. The book is available from the Internet Archive. Retrieved 2015-04-07. Kitcher, Philip (1982). Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-11085-3. LCCN 82009912. OCLC 8477616. Klyce, Brig; Wickramasinghe, Chandra (2003). "Creationism versus Darwinism: A Third Alternative". In Campbell, John Angus; Meyer, Stephen C. (eds.). Darwinism, Design and Public Education. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-675-7. LCCN 2003020507. OCLC 53145654. Moore, James R. (1979). The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870–1900. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21989-1. LCCN 77094372. OCLC 4037223. Morris, Henry M., ed. (1974). Scientific Creationism. Prepared by the technical staff and consultants of the Institute for Creation Research. San Diego, CA: Creation-Life Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89051-003-2. LCCN 74014160. OCLC 1556752. Morris, Henry M. (1982). The Troubled Waters of Evolution (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Creation-Life Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89051-087-2. LCCN 82083647. OCLC 10143785. Morris, Henry M. (1989). The Long War Against God: The History and Impact of the Creation/Evolution Conflict. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. ISBN 978-0-8010-6257-5. LCCN 89039261. OCLC 20296637. Patterson, John W. (1984) [Originally published 1983]. "Thermodynamics and Evolution". In Godfrey, Laurie R. (ed.). Scientists Confront Creationism (Later prt. ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30154-0. LCCN 82012500. OCLC 12399341. Pennock, Robert T. (1999). Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16180-0. LCCN 98027286. OCLC 44966044. Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James; Daly, Jonathan W.; Von Laue, Theodore H. (2014). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society. Vol. II: Since 1600 (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-09142-9. LCCN 2014943347. OCLC 898154349. Plantinga, Alvin (1993). Warrant and Proper Function. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0195078640.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-507864-0. LCCN 92000408. OCLC 25628862. Popper, Karl (1985) [Originally published 1976]. Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography. La Salle, IL: Open Court. ISBN 978-0-08-758343-6. LCCN 85011430. OCLC 12103887. Quine, Willard Van Orman (1953) [Essay originally published 1951 in The Philosophical Review, 60 (1): 20–43]. "Two Dogmas of Empiricism". From a Logical Point of View: Nine Logico-Philosophical Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. LCCN 53005074. OCLC 1470269. Ridley, Mark (2004). Evolution (3rd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-0345-9. LCCN 2003000140. OCLC 51330593. Sarfati, Jonathan; Matthews, Mike (2002). Refuting Evolution 2. Green Forest, AR: Master Books. ISBN 978-0-89051-387-3. LCCN 2002113698. OCLC 54206922. Scott, Eugenie (2005) [Originally published 2004; Westport, CT: Greenwood Press]. Evolution Vs. Creationism: An Introduction. Foreword by Niles Eldredge (1st pbk. ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24650-8. LCCN 2005048649. OCLC 60420899. Strobel, Lee (2004). The Case for a Creator: A Journalist Investigates Scientific Evidence That Points Toward God. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-24144-7. LCCN 2003023566. OCLC 53398125. Temple, Frederick (1884). The Relations Between Religion and Science. Eight Lectures Preached Before the University of Oxford in the Year 1884 on the Foundation of the Late Rev. John Bampton, M.A. Bampton Lectures. London: Macmillan and Co. ISBN 978-1-108-00027-7. LCCN 38016289. OCLC 556953. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) +Weikart, Richard (2004). From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6502-8. LCCN 2003065613. OCLC 53485256. Wells, Jonathan (2000). Icons of Evolution: Science or Myth?. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89526-276-9. LCCN 00062544. OCLC 44768911. Yahya, Harun (1999) [Translated from the Turkish edition of 1997]. The Evolution Deceit: The Scientific Collapse of Darwinism and its Ideological Background. Istanbul, Turkey: Okur. ISBN 978-9758415007. LCCN 2001336710. OCLC 46701250. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..284fec6f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 15/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Young, David A. (1988) [Originally published 1982; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan]. Christianity and the Age of the Earth. Thousand Oak, CA: Artisan Publishers. ISBN 978-0-934666-27-5. LCCN 81016266. OCLC 20135091. Meyer, Stephen C., and Mark Terry. "Darwin's doubt: The explosive origin of animal life and the case for intelligent design Archived 2024-06-13 at the Wayback Machine." New York (2013). + +== Further reading == +Coleman, Simon; Carlin, Leslie, eds. (2004). The Cultures of Creationism: Anti-Evolution in English-Speaking Countries. Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-0912-4. LCCN 2003045172. OCLC 51867865. +Denton, Michael (1986) [Originally published in Great Britain in 1985 by Burnett Books Limited]. Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (1st U.S. ed.). Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler. ISBN 978-0-917561-05-4. LCCN 85013556. OCLC 12214328. + +== External links == + +Video (10:56) − "Raising Doubts About Evolution... in Science Class" on YouTube − (NYT / Retro Report; November 2017) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fa64dfcd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 3/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Creationists have appealed to democratic principles of fairness, arguing that evolution is controversial and that science classrooms should therefore "Teach the Controversy". These objections to evolution culminated in the intelligent-design movement in the 1990s and early 2000s that unsuccessfully attempted to present itself as a scientific alternative to evolution. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f6db57fc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 4/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Defining evolution == +A major source of confusion and ambiguity in any creation–evolution debate arises from the definition of evolution itself. In the context of biology, evolution is genetic changes in populations of organisms over successive generations. The word also has a number of different meanings in different fields, from evolutionary computation to molecular evolution to sociocultural evolution to stellar and galactic evolution. + +Evolution in colloquial contexts can refer to any sort of "progressive" development or gradual improvement, and a process that results in greater quality or complexity. When misapplied to biological evolution this common meaning can lead to frequent misunderstandings. For example, the idea of devolution ("backwards" evolution) is a result of erroneously assuming that evolution is directional or has a specific goal in mind (cf. orthogenesis). In reality, the evolution of a biological organism has no "objective" and is only showing increasing ability of successive generations to survive and reproduce in their environment; and increased suitability is only defined in relation to this environment. Biologists do not regard any one species (such as humans) as more highly evolved or advanced than another. Certain sources have been criticized for indicating otherwise due to a tendency to evaluate nonhuman organisms according to anthropocentric standards rather than according to more objective ones. +Evolution also does not require that organisms become more complex. Although the biological development of different forms of life shows an apparent trend towards the evolution of biological complexity, there is a question as to whether this appearance of increased complexity is real, or whether it comes from neglecting the fact that the majority of life on Earth has always consisted of prokaryotes. In this view, complexity is not a necessary consequence of evolution, but specific circumstances of evolution on Earth frequently made greater complexity advantageous and thus naturally selected for. Depending on the situation, organisms' complexity can either increase, decrease, or stay the same, and all three of these trends have been observed in studies of evolution. +Creationist sources frequently define evolution according to a colloquial, rather than the scientific meaning. As a result, many attempts to rebut evolution do not address the findings of evolutionary biology (see straw-man argument). This also means that advocates of creationism and evolutionary biologists often simply speak past each other. + +== Scientific acceptance == + +=== Status as a theory === + +Critics of evolution assert that evolution is "just a theory", which emphasizes that scientific theories are never absolute, or misleadingly presents it as a matter of opinion rather than of fact or evidence. This reflects a difference of the meaning of theory in a scientific context: whereas in colloquial speech a theory is a conjecture or guess, in science, a theory is an explanation whose predictions have been verified by experiments or other evidence. Evolutionary theory refers to an explanation for the diversity of species and their ancestry which has met extremely high standards of scientific evidence. An example of evolution as theory is the modern synthesis of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian inheritance. As with any scientific theory, the modern synthesis is constantly debated, tested, and refined by scientists, but there is an overwhelming consensus in the scientific community that it remains the only robust model that accounts for the known facts concerning evolution. +Critics also state that evolution is not a fact. In science a fact is a verified empirical observation while in colloquial contexts a fact can simply refer to anything for which there is overwhelming evidence. For example, in common usage theories such as "the Earth revolves around the Sun" and "objects fall due to gravity" may be referred to as "facts", even though they are purely theoretical. From a scientific standpoint, therefore, evolution may be called a "fact" for the same reason that gravity can: under the scientific definition, evolution is an observable process that occurs whenever a population of organisms genetically changes over time. Under the colloquial definition, the theory of evolution can also be called a fact, referring to this theory's well-established nature. Thus, evolution is widely considered both a theory and a fact by scientists. +Similar confusion is involved in objections that evolution is "unproven", since no theory in science is known to be absolutely true, only verified by empirical evidence. This distinction is an important one in philosophy of science, as it relates to the lack of absolute certainty in all empirical claims, not just evolution. Strict proof is possible only in formal sciences such as logic and mathematics, not natural sciences (where terms such as "validated" or "corroborated" are more appropriate). Thus, to say that evolution is not proven is trivially true, but no more an indictment of evolution than calling it a "theory". The confusion arises in that the colloquial meaning of proof is simply "compelling evidence", in which case scientists would indeed consider evolution "proven". + +=== Degree of acceptance === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0fe829e28 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 5/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An objection is often made in the teaching of evolution that evolution is controversial or contentious. Unlike past creationist arguments which sought to abolish the teaching of evolution altogether, this argument makes the claim that evolution should be presented alongside alternative views since it is controversial, and students should be allowed to evaluate and choose between the options on their own. +This objection forms the basis of the "Teach the Controversy" campaign by the Discovery Institute, a think tank based in Seattle, Washington, to promote the teaching of intelligent design in U.S. public schools. This goal followed the Institute's "wedge strategy", an attempt to gradually undermine evolution and ultimately to "reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview, and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." Several other attempts were made to insert intelligent design or creationism into the U.S. public school curriculum, including the failed Santorum Amendment in 2001. +Scientists and U.S. courts have rejected this objection on the grounds that science is not based on appeals to popularity, but on evidence. The scientific consensus of biologists determines what is considered acceptable science, not popular opinion or fairness, and although evolution is controversial in the public arena, it is entirely uncontroversial among experts in the field. +In response, creationists have disputed the level of scientific support for evolution. The Discovery Institute has gathered over 761 scientists as of August 2008 to sign A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism in order to show that there are a number of scientists who dispute what they refer to as "Darwinian evolution". This statement did not profess outright disbelief in evolution, but expressed skepticism as to the ability of "random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life." Several counter-petitions have been launched in turn, including A Scientific Support for Darwinism, which gathered over 7,000 signatures in four days, and Project Steve, a tongue-in-cheek petition that has gathered the signatures of 1,497 (as of May 22, 2024) evolution-supporting scientists named "Steve" (or any similar variation thereof—Stephen, Stephanie, Esteban, etc.). +Creationists have argued for over a century that evolution is a "theory in crisis" that will soon be overturned, based on objections that it lacks reliable evidence or violates natural laws. These objections have been rejected by most scientists, as have claims that intelligent design, or any other creationist explanation, meets the basic scientific standards that would be required to make them scientific alternatives to evolution. It is also argued that even if evidence against evolution exists, it is a false dilemma to characterize this as evidence for intelligent design. +A similar objection to evolution is that certain scientific authorities—mainly pre-modern ones—have doubted or rejected evolution. Most commonly, it is argued that Darwin "recanted" on his deathbed, a false anecdote originating from Lady Hope's story. These objections are generally rejected as appeals to authority. + +== Scientific status == +A common neo-creationist objection to evolution is that evolution does not adhere to normal scientific standards—that it is not genuinely scientific. It is argued that evolutionary biology does not follow the scientific method and therefore should not be taught in science classes, or at least should be taught alongside other views (i.e., creationism). These objections often deal with: + +the very nature of evolutionary theory, +the scientific method, and +the philosophy of science. + +=== Religious nature === + +Creationists commonly argue that "evolution is a religion; it is not a science." The purpose of this criticism is to reframe the debate from one between science (evolution) and religion (creationism) to between two religious beliefs—or even to argue that evolution is religious while intelligent design is not. Those that oppose evolution frequently refer to supporters of evolution as "evolutionists" or "Darwinists". +The arguments for evolution being a religion generally amount to arguments by analogy: it is argued that evolution and religion have one or more things in common, and that therefore evolution is a religion. Examples of claims made in such arguments are statements that evolution is based on faith, and that supporters of evolution dogmatically reject alternative suggestions out-of-hand. These claims have become more popular in recent years as the neo-creationist movement has sought to distance itself from religion, thus giving it more reason to make use of a seemingly anti-religious analogy. +Supporters of evolution have argued in response that no scientist's claims are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years to form first neo-Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis. The claim that evolution relies on faith is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence, and therefore does not require faith. +The argument that evolution is religious has been rejected in general on the grounds that religion is not defined by how dogmatic or zealous its adherents are, but by its spiritual or supernatural beliefs. But evolution is neither dogmatic nor based on faith, and they accuse creationists of equivocating between the strict definition of religion and its colloquial usage to refer to anything that is enthusiastically or dogmatically engaged in. United States courts have also rejected this objection: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1d36a961 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 6/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Assuming for the purposes of argument, however, that evolution is a religion or religious tenet, the remedy is to stop the teaching of evolution, not establish another religion in opposition to it. Yet it is clearly established in the case law, and perhaps also in common sense, that evolution is not a religion and that teaching evolution does not violate the Establishment Clause, Epperson v. Arkansas, supra, Willoughby v. Stever, No. 15574-75 (D.D.C. May 18, 1973); aff'd. 504 F.2d 271 (D.C. Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 420 U.S. 924 (1975); Wright v. Houston Indep. School Dist., 366 F. Supp. 1208 (S.D. Tex 1978), aff.d. 486 F.2d 137 (5th Cir. 1973), cert. denied 417 U.S. 969 (1974). +A related claim is that evolution is atheistic (see the Atheism section below); creationists sometimes merge the two claims and describe evolution as an "atheistic religion" (cf. humanism). This argument against evolution is also frequently generalized into a criticism of all science; it is argued that "science is an atheistic religion", on the grounds that its methodological naturalism is as unproven, and thus as "faith-based", as the supernatural and theistic beliefs of creationism. + +=== Unfalsifiability === +A statement is considered falsifiable if there is an observation or a test that could be made that would demonstrate that the statement is false. Statements that are not falsifiable cannot be examined by scientific investigation since they permit no tests that evaluate their accuracy. Creationists such as Henry M. Morris have claimed that any observation can be fitted into the evolutionary framework, so it is impossible to demonstrate that evolution is wrong and therefore evolution is non-scientific. +Evolution could be falsified by many conceivable lines of evidence, such as: + +the fossil record showing no change over time, +confirmation that mutations are prevented from accumulating in a population, or +observations of organisms being created supernaturally or spontaneously. +J. B. S. Haldane, when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution, replied "fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era." Numerous other potential ways to falsify evolution have also been proposed. For example, the fact that humans have one fewer pair of chromosomes than the great apes offered a testable hypothesis involving the fusion or splitting of chromosomes from a common ancestor. The fusion hypothesis was confirmed in 2005 by discovery that human chromosome 2 is homologous with a fusion of two chromosomes that remain separate in other primates. Extra, inactive telomeres and centromeres remain on human chromosome 2 as a result of the fusion. The assertion of common descent could also have been disproven with the invention of DNA sequencing methods. If true, human DNA should be far more similar to chimpanzees and other great apes, than to other mammals. If not, then common descent is falsified. DNA analysis has shown that humans and chimpanzees share a large percentage of their DNA (between 95% and 99.4% depending on the measure). Also, the evolution of chimpanzees and humans from a common ancestor predicts a (geologically) recent common ancestor. Numerous transitional fossils have since been found. Hence, human evolution has passed several falsifiable tests. +Many of Darwin's ideas and assertions of fact have been falsified as evolutionary science has developed, but these amendments and falsifications have uniformly confirmed his central concepts. In contrast, creationist explanations involving the direct intervention of the supernatural in the physical world are not falsifiable, because any result of an experiment or investigation could be the unpredictable action of an omnipotent deity. +In 1976, the philosopher Karl Popper said that "Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme." He later changed his mind and argued that Darwin's "theory of natural selection is difficult to test" with respect to other areas of science. +In his 1982 book, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism, philosopher of science Philip Kitcher specifically addresses the "falsifiability" question by taking into account notable philosophical critiques of Popper by Carl Gustav Hempel and Willard Van Orman Quine and provides a definition of theory other than as a set of falsifiable statements. As Kitcher points out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of "theory", observations of Uranus when it was first discovered in 1781 would have "falsified" Isaac Newton's celestial mechanics, as there were irregularities in its orbit that did not line up with predictions. Instead of discarding Newtonian mechanics as a viable explanation of the solar system's motion, people suggested that another planet, not yet observed at the time, influenced Uranus' orbit—and this prediction was indeed eventually confirmed. Kitcher agrees with Popper that "there is surely something right in the idea that a science can succeed only if it can fail." But he insists that we view scientific theories as consisting of an "elaborate collection of statements", some of which are not falsifiable, and others—what he calls "auxiliary hypotheses", which are. + +=== Tautological nature === +A related claim to the supposed unfalsifiability of evolution is that natural selection is tautological. Specifically, it is often argued that the phrase "survival of the fittest" is a tautology, in that fitness is defined as ability to survive and reproduce. This phrase was first used by Herbert Spencer in 1864 but is rarely used by biologists. Additionally, fitness is more accurately defined as the state of possessing traits that make survival more likely; this definition, unlike simple "survivability", avoids being trivially true. +Similarly, it is argued that evolutionary theory is circular reasoning, in that evidence is interpreted as supporting evolution, but evolution is required to interpret the evidence. An example of this is the claim that geological strata are dated through the fossils they hold, but that fossils are in turn dated by the strata they are in. However, in most cases strata are not dated by their fossils, but by their position relative to other strata and by radiometric dating, and most strata were dated before the theory of evolution was formulated. + +== Evidence == + +Objections to the fact that evolution occurs tend to focus on specific interpretations about the evidence. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9dd86c483 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 7/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Lack of observation === + +A common claim of creationists is that evolution has never been observed. Challenges to such objections often come down to debates over how evolution is defined (see the Defining evolution section above). Under the conventional biological definition of evolution, it is a simple matter to observe evolution occurring. Evolutionary processes, in the form of populations changing their genetic composition from generation to generation, have been observed in different scientific contexts, including the evolution of fruit flies, mice, and bacteria in the laboratory, and of tilapia in the field. Such studies on experimental evolution, particularly those using microorganisms, are now providing important insights into how evolution occurs, especially in the case of antibiotic resistance. +In response to such examples, creationists say there are two major subdivisions of evolution to be considered, microevolution and macroevolution, and it is questionable if macro-evolution has been physically observed to occur. Most creationist organizations do not dispute the occurrence of short-term, relatively minor evolutionary changes, such as that observed even in dog breeding. Rather, they dispute the occurrence of major evolutionary changes over long periods of time, which by definition cannot be directly observed, only inferred from microevolutionary processes and the traces of macroevolutionary ones. +As biologists define macroevolution, both microevolution and macroevolution have been observed. Speciations, for example, have been directly observed many times. Additionally, the modern evolutionary synthesis draws no distinction in the processes described by the theory of evolution when considering macroevolution and microevolution as the former is simply at the species level or above and the latter is below the species level. An example of this is ring species. + +Additionally, past macroevolution can be inferred from historical traces. Transitional fossils, for example, provide plausible links between several different groups of organisms, such as Archaeopteryx linking birds and non-avian dinosaurs, or the Tiktaalik linking fish and limbed amphibians. Creationists dispute such examples, from asserting that such fossils are hoaxes or that they belong exclusively to one group or the other, to asserting that there should be far more evidence of obvious transitional species. Darwin himself found the paucity of transitional species to be one of the greatest weaknesses of his theory: Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate links? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely graduated organic chain and this, perhaps, is the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory. The explanation lies, as I believe, in the extreme imperfection of the geological record. Darwin appealed to the limited collections then available, the extreme lengths of time involved, and different rates of change with some living species differing very little from fossils of the Silurian period. In later editions he added "that the periods during which species have been undergoing modification, though very long as measured by years, have probably been short in comparison with the periods during which these same species remained without undergoing any change." The number of clear transitional fossils has increased enormously since Darwin's day, and this problem has been largely resolved with the advent of the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which predicts a primarily stable fossil record broken up by occasional major speciations. +As more and more compelling direct evidence for inter-species and species-to-species evolution has been gathered, creationists have redefined their understanding of what amounts to "created kinds", and have continued to insist that more dramatic demonstrations of evolution be experimentally produced. One version of this objection is "Were you there?", popularized by young Earth creationist Ken Ham. It argues that because no one except God could directly observe events in the distant past, scientific claims are just speculation or "story-telling". DNA sequences of the genomes of organisms allow an independent test of their predicted relationships, since species which diverged more recently will be more closely related genetically than species which are more distantly related; such phylogenetic trees show a hierarchical organization within the tree of life, as predicted by common descent. +In fields such as astrophysics or meteorology, where direct observation or laboratory experiments are difficult or impossible, the scientific method instead relies on observation and logical inference. In such fields, the test of falsifiability is satisfied when a theory is used to predict the results of new observations. When such observations contradict a theory's predictions, it may be revised or discarded if an alternative better explains the observed facts. For example, Newton's theory of gravitation was replaced by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity when the latter was observed to more precisely predict the orbit of Mercury. + +=== Unreliable evidence === +A related objection is that evolution is based on unreliable evidence, claiming that evolution is not even well-evidenced. Typically, this is either based on the argument that evolution's evidence is full of frauds and hoaxes, that current evidence for evolution is likely to be overturned as some past evidence has been, or that certain types of evidence are inconsistent and dubious. +Arguments against evolution's reliability are thus often based on analyzing the history of evolutionary thought or the history of science in general. Creationists point out that in the past, major scientific revolutions have overturned theories that were at the time considered near-certain. They thus claim that current evolutionary theory is likely to undergo such a revolution in the future, on the basis that it is a "theory in crisis" for one reason or another. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57dabaa20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 8/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Critics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientific hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man forgery. It is argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution, the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error. Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused of being fraudulent at various times, including Archaeopteryx, peppered moth melanism, and Darwin's finches; these claims have been subsequently refuted. +It has also been claimed that certain former pieces of evidence for evolution which are now considered out-of-date and erroneous, such as Ernst Haeckel's 19th-century comparative drawings of embryos, used to illustrate his recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"), were not merely errors but frauds. Molecular biologist Jonathan Wells criticizes biology textbooks by alleging that they continue to reproduce such evidence after it has been debunked. In response, the National Center for Science Education notes that none of the textbooks reviewed by Wells makes the claimed error, as Haeckel's drawings are shown in a historical context with discussion about why they are wrong, and the accurate modern drawings and photos used in the textbooks are misrepresented by Wells. + +=== Unreliable chronology === + +Creationists claim that evolution relies on certain types of evidence that do not give reliable information about the past. For example, it is argued that radiometric dating technique of evaluating a material's age based on the radioactive decay rates of certain isotopes generates inconsistent and thus unreliable results. Radiocarbon dating based on the carbon-14 isotope has been particularly criticized. It is argued that radiometric decay relies on a number of unwarranted assumptions such as the principle of uniformitarianism, consistent decay rates, or rocks acting as closed systems. Such arguments have been dismissed by scientists on the grounds that independent methods have confirmed the reliability of radiometric dating as a whole; additionally, different radiometric dating methods and techniques have independently confirmed each other's results. +Another form of this objection is that fossil evidence is not reliable. This is based on a much wider range of claims. These include that there are too many "gaps" in the fossil record, that fossil-dating is circular (see the Unfalsifiability section above), or that certain fossils, such as polystrate fossils, are seemingly "out of place". Examination by geologists have found polystrate fossils to be consistent with in situ formation. It is argued that certain features of evolution support creationism's catastrophism (cf. Great Flood), rather than evolution's gradualistic punctuated equilibrium, which some assert is an ad hoc theory to explain the fossil gaps. + +== Plausibility == + +=== Improbability === + +A common objection to evolution is that it is simply too unlikely for life, in its complexity and apparent "design", to have arisen "by chance". It is argued that the odds of life having arisen without a deliberate intelligence guiding it are so incredibly low that it is unreasonable not to infer an intelligent designer from the natural world, and specifically from the diversity of life. A more extreme version of this argument is that evolution cannot create complex structures (see the Creation of complex structures section below). The idea that it is simply too implausible for life to have evolved is often wrongly encapsulated with a quotation that the "probability of life originating on Earth is no greater than the chance that a hurricane, sweeping through a scrapyard, would have the luck to assemble a Boeing 747"—a claim attributed to astrophysicist Fred Hoyle and known as Hoyle's fallacy. Hoyle was a Darwinist, atheist and anti-theist, but advocated the theory of panspermia, in which abiogenesis begins in outer space and primitive life on Earth is held to have arrived via natural dispersion. +Views superficially similar, but unrelated to Hoyle's, are thus invariably justified with arguments from analogy. The basic idea of this argument for a designer is the teleological argument, an argument for the existence of God based on the perceived order or purposefulness of the universe. A common way of using this as an objection to evolution is by appealing to the 18th-century philosopher William Paley's watchmaker analogy, which argues that certain natural phenomena are analogical to a watch (in that they are ordered, or complex, or purposeful), which means that, like a watch, they must have been designed by a "watchmaker"—an intelligent agent. This argument forms the core of intelligent design, a neo-creationist movement seeking to establish certain variants of the design argument as legitimate science, rather than as philosophy or theology, and have them be taught alongside evolution. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5802e9822 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 9/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Supporters of evolution generally respond by arguing that this objection is simply an argument by lack of imagination, or argument from incredulity: a certain explanation is seen as being counterintuitive, and therefore an alternate, more intuitive explanation is appealed to instead. In actuality, evolution is not based on "chance", but on predictable chemical interactions: natural processes, rather than supernatural beings, are the "designer". Although the process involves some random elements, it is the non-random selection of survival-enhancing genes that drives the evolution of complex and ordered patterns. The fact that the results are ordered and seem "designed" is no more evidence for a supernatural intelligence than the appearance of complex non-living phenomena (e.g. snowflakes). It is also argued that there is insufficient evidence to make statements about the plausibility or implausibility of abiogenesis, that certain structures demonstrate poor design, and that the implausibility of life evolving exactly as it did is no more evidence for an intelligence than the implausibility of a deck of cards being shuffled and dealt in a certain random order. +It has also been noted that arguments against some form of life arising "by chance" are really objections to nontheistic abiogenesis, not to evolution. Indeed, arguments against "evolution" are based on the misconception that abiogenesis is a component of, or necessary precursor to, evolution. Similar objections sometimes conflate the Big Bang with evolution. +Christian apologist and philosopher Alvin Plantinga, who believes evolution must have been guided if it occurred, has formalized and revised the improbability argument as the evolutionary argument against naturalism, which asserts that it is irrational to reject a supernatural, intelligent creator because the apparent probability of certain faculties evolving is so low. Specifically, Plantinga claims that evolution cannot account for the rise of reliable reasoning faculties. Plantinga argues that whereas a God would be expected to create beings with reliable reasoning faculties, evolution would be just as likely to lead to unreliable ones, meaning that if evolution is true, it is irrational to trust whatever reasoning one relies on to conclude that it is true. This novel epistemological argument has been criticized similarly to other probabilistic design arguments. It has also been argued that rationality, if conducive to survival, is more likely to be selected for than irrationality, making the natural development of reliable cognitive faculties more likely than unreliable ones. +A related argument against evolution is that most mutations are harmful. However, the vast majority of mutations are neutral, and the minority of mutations which are beneficial or harmful are often situational; a mutation that is harmful in one environment may be helpful in another. + +=== Unexplained aspects of the natural world === + +In addition to complex structures and systems, among the phenomena that critics variously claim evolution cannot explain are consciousness, hominid intelligence, instincts, emotions, metamorphosis, photosynthesis, homosexuality, music, language, religion, morality, and altruism (see altruism in animals). Most of these, such as hominid intelligence, instinct, emotion, photosynthesis, language, and altruism, have been well-explained by evolution, while others remain mysterious, or only have preliminary explanations. No alternative explanation has been able to adequately explain the biological origin of these phenomena either. +Creationists argue against evolution on the grounds that it cannot explain certain non-evolutionary processes, such as abiogenesis, the Big Bang, or the meaning of life. In such instances, evolution is being redefined to refer to the entire history of the universe, and it is argued that if one aspect of the universe is seemingly inexplicable, the entire body of scientific theories must be baseless. At this point, objections leave the arena of evolutionary biology and become general scientific or philosophical disputes. +Astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe have argued in favor of cosmic ancestry, and against abiogenesis and evolution. + +== Impossibility == +This class of objections is more radical than the above, claiming that a major aspect of evolution is not merely unscientific or implausible, but rather impossible, because it contradicts some other law of nature or is constrained in such a way that it cannot produce the biological diversity of the world. + +=== Creation of complex structures === + +Living things have fantastically intricate features—at the anatomical, cellular and molecular level— that could not function if they were any less complex or sophisticated. The only prudent conclusion is that they are the products of intelligent design, not evolution. +Modern evolutionary theory posits that all biological systems must have evolved incrementally, through a combination of natural selection and genetic drift. Both Darwin and his early detractors recognized the potential problems that could arise for his theory of natural selection if the lineage of organs and other biological features could not be accounted for by gradual, step-by-step changes over successive generations; if all the intermediary stages between an initial organ and the organ it will become are not all improvements upon the original, it will be impossible for the later organ to develop by the process of natural selection alone. Complex organs such as the eye had been presented by William Paley as exemplifying the need for design by God, and anticipating early criticisms that the evolution of the eye and other complex organs seemed impossible, Darwin noted that: + +[R]eason tells me, that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist; if further, the eye does vary ever so slightly, and the variations be inherited, which is certainly the case; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life, then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection, though insuperable by our imagination, can hardly be considered real. +Similarly, ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins said on the topic of the evolution of the feather in an interview for the television program The Atheism Tapes: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c36e6f3d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Objections to evolution" +chunk: 10/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:38.113008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There's got to be a series of advantages all the way in the feather. If you can't think of one, then that's your problem not natural selection's problem... It's perfectly possible feathers began as fluffy extensions of reptilian scales to act as insulators... The earliest feathers might have been a different approach to hairiness among reptiles keeping warm. + +Creationist arguments have been made such as "What use is half an eye?" and "What use is half a wing?". Research has confirmed that the natural evolution of the eye and other intricate organs is entirely feasible. Creationist claims have persisted that such complexity evolving without a designer is inconceivable and this objection to evolution has been refined in recent years as the more sophisticated irreducible complexity argument of the intelligent design movement, formulated by Michael Behe. Biochemist Michael Behe has argued that current evolutionary theory cannot account for certain complex structures, particularly in microbiology. On this basis, Behe argues that such structures were "purposely arranged by an intelligent agent". +Irreducible complexity is the idea that certain biological systems cannot be broken down into their constituent parts and remain functional, and therefore that they could not have evolved naturally from less complex or complete systems. Whereas past arguments of this nature generally relied on macroscopic organs, Behe's primary examples of irreducible complexity have been cellular and biochemical in nature. He has argued that the components of systems such as the blood clotting cascade, the immune system, and the bacterial flagellum are so complex and interdependent that they could not have evolved from simpler systems. +In the years since Behe proposed irreducible complexity, new developments and advances in biology such as an improved understanding of the evolution of flagella, have already undermined these arguments. The idea that seemingly irreducibly complex systems cannot evolve has been refuted through evolutionary mechanisms, such as exaptation (the adaptation of organs for entirely new functions) and the use of "scaffolding", which are initially necessary features of a system that later degenerate when they are no longer required. Potential evolutionary pathways have been provided for all of the systems Behe used as examples of irreducible complexity. + +==== Cambrian explosion complexity argument ==== + +The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around 539 million years ago of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record, and many more phyla now extinct. This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms. Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. Over the following 70 or 80 million years the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today, although they did not resemble the species of today. +The basic problem with this is that natural selection calls for the slow accumulation of changes, where a new phylum would take longer than a new class which would take longer than a new order, which would take longer than a new family, which would take longer than a new genus would take longer than emergence of a new species but the apparent occurrence of high-level taxa without precedents is perhaps implying unusual evolutionary mechanisms. +There is general consensus that many factors helped trigger the rise of new phyla, but there is no generally accepted consensus about the combination and the Cambrian explosion continues to be an area of controversy and research over why so rapid, why at the phylum level, why so many phyla then and none since, and even if the apparent fossil record is accurate. Some recent advances suggest that there is no clearly definable "Cambrian Explosion" event in the fossil record, but rather that there was a progression of transitional radiations starting with the Ediacaran period and continuing at a similar rate into the Cambrian. +An example of opinions involving the commonly cited rise in oxygen Great Oxidation Event from biologist PZ Myers summarizes: "What it was was environmental changes, in particular the bioturbation revolution caused by the evolution of worms that released buried nutrients, and the steadily increasing oxygen content of the atmosphere that allowed those nutrients to fuel growth; ecological competition, or a kind of arms race, that gave a distinct selective advantage to novelties that allowed species to occupy new niches; and the evolution of developmental mechanisms that enabled multicellular organisms to generate new morphotypes readily." The increase in molecular oxygen (O2) also may have allowed the formation of the protective ozone layer (O3) that helps shield Earth from lethal UV radiation from the Sun. + +=== Creation of information === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..900677e44 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Philosophical skepticism (UK spelling: scepticism; from Greek σκέψις skepsis, "inquiry") is a family of philosophical views that question the possibility of knowledge. It differs from other forms of skepticism in that it even rejects very plausible knowledge claims that belong to basic common sense. Philosophical skeptics are often classified into two general categories: Those who deny all possibility of knowledge, and those who advocate for the suspension of judgment due to the inadequacy of evidence. This distinction is modeled after the differences between the Academic skeptics and the Pyrrhonian skeptics in ancient Greek philosophy. Pyrrhonian skepticism is a practice of suspending judgment, and skepticism in this sense is understood as a way of life that helps the practitioner achieve inner peace. Some types of philosophical skepticism reject all forms of knowledge while others limit this rejection to certain fields, for example, knowledge about moral doctrines or about the external world. Some theorists criticize philosophical skepticism based on the claim that it is a self-refuting idea since its proponents seem to claim to know that there is no knowledge. Other objections focus on its implausibility and distance from regular life. + +== Overview == + +Philosophical skepticism is a doubtful attitude toward commonly accepted knowledge claims. Skepticism in general is a questioning attitude toward all kinds of knowledge claims. In this wide sense, it is quite common in everyday life: many people are ordinary skeptics about parapsychology or about astrology because they doubt the claims made by proponents of these fields. But the same people are not skeptical about other knowledge claims like the ones found in regular school books. Philosophical skepticism differs from ordinary skepticism in that it even rejects knowledge claims that belong to basic common sense and seem to be very certain. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as radical doubt. In some cases, it is even proclaimed that one does not know that "I have two hands" or that "the sun will come out tomorrow". In this regard, philosophical skepticism is not a position commonly adopted by regular people in everyday life. This denial of knowledge is usually associated with the demand that one should suspend one's beliefs about the doubted proposition. This means that one should neither believe nor disbelieve it but keep an open mind without committing oneself one way or the other. Philosophical skepticism is often based on the idea that no matter how certain one is about a given belief, one could still be wrong about it. From this observation, it is argued that the belief does not amount to knowledge. Philosophical skepticism follows from the consideration that this might be the case for most or all beliefs. Because of its wide-ranging consequences, it is of central interest to theories of knowledge since it questions their very foundations. +According to some definitions, philosophical skepticism is not just the rejection of some forms of commonly accepted knowledge but the rejection of all forms of knowledge. In this regard, we may have relatively secure beliefs in some cases but these beliefs never amount to knowledge. Weaker forms of philosophical skepticism restrict this rejection to specific fields, like the external world or moral doctrines. In some cases, knowledge per se is not rejected but it is still denied that one can ever be absolutely certain. +There are only few defenders of philosophical skepticism in the strong sense. In this regard, it is much more commonly used as a theoretical tool to test theories. On this view, it is a philosophical methodology that can be utilized to probe a theory to find its weak points, either to expose it or to modify it in order to arrive at a better version of it. However, some theorists distinguish philosophical skepticism from methodological skepticism in that philosophical skepticism is an approach that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge, whereas methodological skepticism is an approach that subjects all knowledge claims to scrutiny with the goal of sorting out true from false claims. Similarly, scientific skepticism differs from philosophical skepticism in that scientific skepticism is an epistemological position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence. In practice, the term most commonly references the examination of claims and theories that appear to be pseudoscience, rather than the routine discussions and challenges among scientists. +In ancient philosophy, skepticism was seen not just as a theory about the existence of knowledge but as a way of life. This outlook is motivated by the idea that suspending one's judgment on all kinds of issues brings with it inner peace and thereby contributes to the skeptic's happiness. + +=== Classification === +Skepticism can be classified according to its scope. Local skepticism involves being skeptical about particular areas of knowledge (e.g. moral skepticism, skepticism about the external world, or skepticism about other minds), whereas radical skepticism claims that one cannot know anything—including that one cannot know about knowing anything. +Skepticism can also be classified according to its method. Western philosophy has two basic approaches to skepticism. Cartesian skepticism—named somewhat misleadingly after René Descartes, who was not a skeptic but used some traditional skeptical arguments in his Meditations to help establish his rationalist approach to knowledge—attempts to show that any proposed knowledge claim can be doubted. Agrippan skepticism focuses on justification rather than the possibility of doubt. According to this view, none of the ways in which one might attempt to justify a claim are adequate. One can justify a claim based on other claims, but this leads to an infinite regress of justifications. One can use a dogmatic assertion, but this is not a justification. One can use circular reasoning, but this fails to justify the conclusion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d4c8820bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Skeptical scenarios === +A skeptical scenario is a hypothetical situation which can be used in an argument for skepticism about a particular claim or class of claims. Usually the scenario posits the existence of a deceptive power that deceives our senses and undermines the justification of knowledge otherwise accepted as justified, and is proposed in order to call into question our ordinary claims to knowledge on the grounds that we cannot exclude the possibility of skeptical scenarios being true. Skeptical scenarios have received a great deal of attention in modern Western philosophy. +The first major skeptical scenario in modern Western philosophy appears in René Descartes's Meditations on First Philosophy. At the end of the first Meditation Descartes writes: "I will suppose ... that some evil demon of the utmost power and cunning has employed all his energies to deceive me." + +The "evil demon problem", also known as "Descartes's evil demon", was first proposed by René Descartes. It invokes the possibility of a being who could deliberately mislead one into falsely believing everything that you take to be true. +The "brain in a vat" hypothesis is cast in contemporary scientific terms. It supposes that one might be a disembodied brain kept alive in a vat and fed false sensory signals by a mad scientist. Further, it asserts that since a brain in a vat would have no way of knowing that it was a brain in a vat, you cannot prove that you are not a brain in a vat. +The "dream argument", proposed by both René Descartes and Zhuangzi, supposes reality to be indistinguishable from a dream. +The "five minute hypothesis", most notably proposed by Bertrand Russell, suggests that we cannot prove that the world was not created five minutes ago (along with false memories and false evidence suggesting that it was not only five minutes old). +The "simulated reality hypothesis" or "Matrix hypothesis" suggests that everyone, or even the entire universe, might be inside a computer simulation or virtual reality. +The "Solipsistic" theory that claims that knowledge of the world is an illusion of the Self. + +=== Epistemological skepticism === +Skepticism, as an epistemological view, calls into question whether knowledge is possible at all. This is distinct from other known skeptical practices, including Cartesian skepticism, as it targets knowledge in general instead of individual types of knowledge. +Skeptics argue that belief in something does not justify an assertion of knowledge of it. In this, skeptics oppose foundationalism, which states that there are basic positions that are self-justified or beyond justification, without reference to others. (One example of such foundationalism may be found in Spinoza's Ethics.) +Among other arguments, skeptics use the Münchhausen trilemma and the problem of the criterion to claim that no certain belief can be achieved. This position is known as "global skepticism" or "radical skepticism." Foundationalists have used the same trilemma as a justification for demanding the validity of basic beliefs. Epistemological nihilism rejects the possibility of human knowledge, but not necessarily knowledge in general. +There are two different categories of epistemological skepticism, which can be referred to as mitigated and unmitigated skepticism. The two forms are contrasting but are still true forms of skepticism. Mitigated skepticism does not accept "strong" or "strict" knowledge claims but does, however, approve specific weaker ones. These weaker claims can be assigned the title of "virtual knowledge", but must be to justified belief. Some mitigated skeptics are also fallibilists, arguing that knowledge does not require certainty. Mitigated skeptics hold that knowledge does not require certainty and that many beliefs are, in practice, certain to the point that they can be safely acted upon in order to live significant and meaningful lives. Unmitigated skepticism rejects both claims of virtual knowledge and strong knowledge. Characterizing knowledge as strong, weak, virtual or genuine can be determined differently depending on a person's viewpoint as well as their characterization of knowledge. Unmitigated skeptics believe that objective truths are unknowable and that man should live in an isolated environment in order to win mental peace. This is because everything, according to them, is changing and relative. The refusal to make judgments is of uttermost importance since there is no knowledge; only probable opinions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c3e7d0e15 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Criticism === +Philosophical skepticism has been criticized in various ways. Some criticisms see it as a self-refuting idea while others point out that it is implausible, psychologically impossible, or a pointless intellectual game. This position is based on the idea that philosophical skepticism not only rejects the existence of knowledge but seems to make knowledge claims itself at the same time. For example, to claim that there is no knowledge seems to be itself a knowledge claim. This problem is particularly relevant for versions of philosophical skepticism that deny any form of knowledge. So the global skeptic denies that any claim is rationally justified but then goes on to provide arguments in an attempt to rationally justify their denial. Some philosophical skeptics have responded to this objection by restricting the denial of knowledge to certain fields without denying the existence of knowledge in general. Another defense consists in understanding philosophical skepticism not as a theory but as a tool or a methodology. In this case, it may be used fruitfully to reject and improve philosophical systems despite its shortcomings as a theory. +Another criticism holds that philosophical skepticism is highly counterintuitive by pointing out how far removed it is from regular life. For example, it seems very impractical, if not psychologically impossible, to suspend all beliefs at the same time. And even if it were possible, it would not be advisable since "the complete skeptic would wind up starving to death or walking into walls or out of windows". This criticism can allow that there are some arguments that support philosophical skepticism. However, it has been claimed that they are not nearly strong enough to support such a radical conclusion. Common-sense philosophers follow this line of thought by arguing that regular common-sense beliefs are much more reliable than the skeptics' intricate arguments. George Edward Moore, for example, tried to refute skepticism about the existence of the external world, not by engaging with its complex arguments, but by using a simple observation: that he has two hands. For Moore, this observation is a reliable source of knowledge incompatible with external world skepticism since it entails that at least two physical objects exist. +A closely related objection sees philosophical skepticism as an "idle academic exercise" or a "waste of time". This is often based on the idea that, because of its initial implausibility and distance from everyday life, it has little or no practical value. In this regard, Arthur Schopenhauer compares the position of radical skepticism to a border fortress that is best ignored: it is impregnable but its garrison does not pose any threat since it never sets foot outside the fortress. One defense of philosophical skepticism is that it has had important impacts on the history of philosophy at large and not just among skeptical philosophers. This is due to its critical attitude, which remains a constant challenge to the epistemic foundations of various philosophical theories. It has often provoked creative responses from other philosophers when trying to modify the affected theory to avoid the problem of skepticism. +According to Pierre Le Morvan, there are two very common negative responses to philosophical skepticism. The first understands it as a threat to all kinds of philosophical theories and strives to disprove it. According to the second, philosophical skepticism is a useless distraction and should better be avoided altogether. Le Morvan himself proposes a positive third alternative: to use it as a philosophical tool in a few selected cases to overcome prejudices and foster practical wisdom. + +== History of Western skepticism == + +=== Ancient Greek skepticism === + +Ancient Greek skeptics were not "skeptics" in the contemporary sense of selective, localized doubt. Their concerns were epistemological, noting that truth claims could not be adequately supported, and psychotherapeutic, noting that beliefs caused mental perturbation. +The Western tradition of systematic skepticism goes back at least as far as Pyrrho of Elis (b. c. 360 BCE) and arguably to Xenophanes (b. c. 570 BCE). Parts of skepticism also appear among the "5th century sophists [who] develop forms of debate which are ancestors of skeptical argumentation. They take pride in arguing in a persuasive fashion for both sides of an issue." +In Hellenistic philosophy, Pyrrhonism and Academic Skepticism were the two schools of skeptical philosophy. Subsequently, the words Academic and Pyrrhonist were often used to mean skeptic. + +==== Pyrrhonism ==== + +Like other Hellenistic philosophies, the goal of Pyrrhonism was eudaimonia, which the Pyrrhonists sought through achieving ataraxia (an untroubled state of mind), which they found could be induced by producing a state of epoché (suspension of judgment) regarding non-evident matters. Epoché could be produced by pitting one dogma against another to undermine belief, and by questioning whether a belief could be justified. In support of this questioning Pyrrhonists developed the skeptical arguments cited above (the Ten Modes of Aenesidemus and the Five Modes of Agrippa) demonstrating that beliefs cannot be justified: + +===== Pyrrho of Elis ===== + +According to an account of Pyrrho's life by his student Timon of Phlius, Pyrrho extolled a way to become happy and tranquil: + +'The things themselves are equally indifferent, and unstable, and indeterminate, and therefore neither our senses nor our opinions are either true or false. For this reason then we must not trust them, but be without opinions, and without bias, and without wavering, saying of every single thing that it no more is than is not, or both is and is not, or neither is nor is not. + +===== Aenesidemus ===== + +Pyrrhonism faded as a movement following the death of Pyrrho's student Timon. The Academy became slowly more dogmatic such that in the first century BCE Aenesidemus denounced the Academics as "Stoics fighting against Stoics", breaking with the Academy to revive Pyrrhonism. Aenesidemus's best known contribution to skepticism was his now-lost book, Pyrrhonian Discourses, which is only known to us through Photius, Sextus Empiricus, and to a lesser extent Diogenes Laërtius. The skeptical arguments most closely associated with Aenesidemus are the ten modes described above designed to induce epoche. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e898e02b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== Sextus Empiricus ===== + +The works of Sextus Empiricus (c. 200 CE) are the main surviving account of ancient Pyrrhonism. Long before Sextus's time, the Academy had abandoned skepticism and had been destroyed as a formal institution. Sextus compiled and further developed the Pyrrhonists' skeptical arguments, most of which were directed against the Stoics but included arguments against all of the schools of Hellenistic philosophy, including the Academic skeptics. +Sextus, as the most systematic author of the works by Hellenistic skeptics which have survived, noted that there are at least ten modes of skepticism. These modes may be broken down into three categories: one may be skeptical of the subjective perceiver, of the objective world, and the relation between perceiver and the world. His arguments are as follows. +Subjectively, the powers of the senses and reasoning may vary among different people. And since knowledge is a product of one or the other, and since neither are reliable, knowledge would seem to be in trouble. For instance, a color-blind person sees the world quite differently from everyone else. Moreover, one cannot even give preference based on the power of reason, i.e., by treating the rational animal as a carrier of greater knowledge than the irrational animal, since the irrational animal is still adept at navigating their environment, which suggests the ability to "know" about some aspects of the environment. +Secondly, the personality of the individual might also influence what they observe, since (it is argued) preferences are based on sense-impressions, differences in preferences can be attributed to differences in the way that people are affected by the object. (Empiricus: 56) +Third, the perceptions of each individual sense seemingly have nothing in common with the other senses: i.e., the color "red" has little to do with the feeling of touching a red object. This is manifest when our senses "disagree" with each other: for example, a mirage presents certain visible features, but is not responsive to any other kind of sense. In that case, our other senses defeat the impressions of sight. But one may also be lacking enough powers of sense to understand the world in its entirety: if one had an extra sense, then one might know of things in a way that the present five senses are unable to advise us of. Given that our senses can be shown to be unreliable by appealing to other senses, and so our senses may be incomplete (relative to some more perfect sense that one lacks), then it follows that all of our senses may be unreliable. (Empiricus: 58) +Fourth, our circumstances when one perceives anything may be either natural or unnatural, i.e., one may be either in a state of wakefulness or sleep. But it is entirely possible that things in the world really are exactly as they appear to be to those in unnatural states (i.e., if everything were an elaborate dream). (Empiricus: 59) +One can have reasons for doubt that are based on the relationship between objective "facts" and subjective experience. The positions, distances, and places of objects would seem to affect how they are perceived by the person: for instance, the portico may appear tapered when viewed from one end, but symmetrical when viewed at the other; and these features are different. Because they are different features, to believe the object has both properties at the same time is to believe it has two contradictory properties. Since this is absurd, one must suspend judgment about what properties it possesses due to the contradictory experiences. (Empiricus: 63) +One may also observe that the things one perceives are, in a sense, polluted by experience. Any given perception—say, of a chair—will always be perceived within some context or other (i.e., next to a table, on a mat, etc.) Since this is the case, one often only speaks of ideas as they occur in the context of the other things that are paired with it, and therefore, one can never know of the true nature of the thing, but only how it appears to us in context. (Empiricus: 64) +Along the same lines, the skeptic may insist that all things are relative, by arguing that: + +Absolute appearances either differ from relative appearances, or they do not. +If absolutes do not differ from relatives, then they are themselves relative. +But if absolutes do differ from relatives, then they are relative, because all things that differ must differ from something; and to "differ" from something is to be relative to something. (Empiricus: 67) +Finally, one has reason to disbelieve that one knows anything by looking at problems in understanding objects by themselves. Things, when taken individually, may appear to be very different from when they are in mass quantities: for instance, the shavings of a goat's horn are white when taken alone, yet the horn intact is black. + +===== Skeptical arguments ===== +The ancient Greek Pyrrhonists developed sets of arguments to demonstrate that claims about reality cannot be adequately justified. Two sets of these arguments are well known. The oldest set is known as the ten tropes of Aenesidemus—although whether he invented the tropes or just systematized them from prior Pyrrhonist works is unknown. The tropes represent reasons for epoché (suspension of judgment). These are as follows: + +Different animals manifest different modes of perception; +Similar differences are seen among individual men; +For the same man, information perceived with the senses is self-contradictory +Furthermore, it varies from time to time with physical changes +In addition, this data differs according to local relations +Objects are known only indirectly through the medium of air, moisture, etc. +These objects are in a condition of perpetual change in color, temperature, size and motion +All perceptions are relative and interact one upon another +Our impressions become less critical through repetition and custom +All men are brought up with different beliefs, under different laws and social conditions +Another set are known as the five tropes of Agrippa: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8f3086bbb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Dissent – The uncertainty demonstrated by the differences of opinions among philosophers and people in general. +Progress ad infinitum – All proof rests on matters themselves in need of proof, and so on to infinity, i.e, the regress argument. +Relation – All things are changed as their relations become changed, or, as we look upon them from different points of view. +Assumption – The truth asserted is based on an unsupported assumption. +Circularity – The truth asserted involves a circularity of proofs. +According to Victor Brochard "the five tropes can be regarded as the most radical and most precise formulation of philosophical skepticism that has ever been given. In a sense, they are still irresistible today." + +==== Academic skepticism ==== + +Pyrrho's thinking subsequently influenced the Platonic Academy, arising first in the Academic skepticism of the Middle Academy under Arcesilaus (c. 315 – 241 BCE) and then the New Academy under Carneades (c. 213–129 BCE). Clitomachus, a student of Carneades, interpreted his teacher's philosophy as suggesting an account of knowledge based on truth-likeness. The Roman politician and philosopher, Cicero, was also an adherent of the skepticism of the New Academy, even though a return to a more dogmatic orientation of the school was already beginning to take place. + +==== Augustine on skepticism ==== + +In 386 CE, Augustine published Contra Academicos (Against the Academic Skeptics), which argued against claims made by the Academic Skeptics (266–90 BCE) on the following grounds: + +Objection from Error: Through logic, Augustine argues that philosophical skepticism does not lead to happiness like the Academic Skeptics claim. His arguments is summarized as: +A wise man lives according to reason, and thus is able to be happy. +One who is searching for knowledge but never finds it is in error. +Imperfection objection: People in error are not happy, because being in error is an imperfection, and people cannot be happy with an imperfection. +Conclusion: One who is still seeking knowledge cannot be happy. +Error of Non-Assent: Augustine's argument that suspending belief does not fully prevent one from error. His argument is summarized below. +Introduction of the error: Let P be true. If a person fails to believe P due to suspension of belief in order to avoid error, the person is also committing an error. +The Anecdote of the Two Travelers: Travelers A and B are trying to reach the same destination. At a fork in the road, a poor shepherd tells them to go left. Traveler A immediately believes him and reaches the correct destination. Traveler B suspends belief, and instead believes in the advice of a well-dressed townsman to go right, because his advice seems more persuasive. However, the townsman is actually a samardocus (con man) so Traveler B never reaches the correct destination. +The Anecdote of the Adulterer: A man suspends belief that adultery is bad, and commits adultery with another man's wife because it is persuasive to him. Under Academic Skepticism, this man cannot be charged because he acted on what was persuasive to him without assenting belief. +Conclusion: Suspending belief exposes individuals to an error as defined by the Academic Skeptics. + +=== Skepticism's revival in the sixteenth century === +Francisco Sanches's That Nothing is Known (published in 1581 as Quod nihil scitur) is one of the crucial texts of Renaissance skepticism. + +==== Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) ==== + +The most notable figure of the Skepticism revival in the 1500s, Michel de Montaigne wrote about his studies of Academic Skepticism and Pyrrhonism through his Essais. +His most notable writings on skepticism occurred in an essay written mostly in 1575–1576, "Apologie de Raimond Sebond", when he was reading Sextus Empiricus and trying to translate Raimond Sebond's writing, including his proof of Christianity's natural existence. The reception to Montaigne's translations included some criticisms of Sebond's proof. Montaigne responded to some of them in Apologie, including a defense for Sebond's logic that is skeptical in nature and similar to Pyrrhonism. His refutation is as follows: + +Critics claiming Sebond's arguments are weak show how egoistic humans believe that their logic is superior to others'. +Many animals can be observed to be superior to humans in certain respects. To argue this point, Montaigne even writes about dogs who are logical and creates their own syllogisms to understand the world around them. This was an example used in Sextus Empiricus. +Since animals also have rationality, the over-glorification of man's mental capabilities is a trap—man's folly. One man's reason cannot be assuredly better than another's as a result. +Ignorance is even recommended by religion so that an individual can reach faith through obediently following divine instructions to learn, not by one's logic. + +==== Marin Mersenne (1588–1648) ==== + +Marin Mersenne was an author, mathematician, scientist, and philosopher. He wrote in defense of science and Christianity against atheists and Pyrrhonists before retiring to encourage development of science and the "new philosophy", which includes philosophers like Gassendi, Descartes, Galileo, and Hobbes. A major work of his in relation to Skepticism is La Verité des Sciences, in which he argues that although we may not be able to know the true nature of things, we can still formulate certain laws and rules for sense-perceptions through science. +Additionally, he points out that we do not doubt everything because: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..26755f471 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Humans do agree about some things, for example, an ant is smaller than an elephant +There are natural laws governing our sense-perceptions, such as optics, which allow us to eliminate inaccuracies +Man created tools such as rulers and scales to measure things and eliminate doubts such as bent oars, pigeons' necks, and round towers. +A Pyrrhonist might refute these points by saying that senses deceive, and thus knowledge turns into infinite regress or circular logic. Thus Mersenne argues that this cannot be the case, since commonly agreed upon rules of thumb can be hypothesized and tested over time to ensure that they continue to hold. +Furthermore, if everything can be doubted, the doubt can also be doubted, so on and so forth. Thus, according to Mersenne, something has to be true. Finally, Mersenne writes about all the mathematical, physical, and other scientific knowledge that is true by repeated testing, and has practical use value. Notably, Mersenne was one of the few philosophers who accepted Hobbes's radical ideology—he saw it as a new science of man. + +=== Skepticism in the seventeenth century === + +==== Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) ==== +During his long stay in Paris, Thomas Hobbes was actively involved in the circle of major skeptics like Gassendi and Mersenne who focus on the study of skepticism and epistemology. Unlike his fellow skeptic friends, Hobbes never treated skepticism as a main topic for discussion in his works. Nonetheless, Hobbes was still labeled as a religious skeptic by his contemporaries for raising doubts about Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch and his political and psychological explanation of the religions. Although Hobbes himself did not go further to challenge other religious principles, his suspicion for the Mosaic authorship did significant damage to the religious traditions and paved the way for later religious skeptics like Spinoza and Isaac La Peyrère to further question some of the fundamental beliefs of the Judeo-Christian religious system. Hobbes's answer to skepticism and epistemology was innovatively political: he believed that moral knowledge and religious knowledge were in their nature relative, and there was no absolute standard of truth governing them. As a result, it was out of political reasons that certain truth standards about religions and ethics were devised and established in order to form a functioning government and stable society. + +==== Baruch Spinoza and religious skepticism ==== +Baruch Spinoza was among the first European philosophers who were religious skeptics. He was quite familiar with the philosophy of Descartes and unprecedentedly extended the application of the Cartesian method to the religious context by analyzing religious texts with it. Spinoza sought to dispute the knowledge-claims of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic religious system by examining its two foundations: the Scripture and the Miracles. He claimed that all Cartesian knowledge, or the rational knowledge should be accessible to the entire population. Therefore, the Scriptures, aside from those by Jesus, should not be considered the secret knowledge attained from God but just the imagination of the prophets. The Scriptures, as a result of this claim, could not serve as a base for knowledge and were reduced to simple ancient historical texts. Moreover, Spinoza also rejected the possibility for the Miracles by simply asserting that people only considered them miraculous due to their lack of understanding of the nature. By rejecting the validity of the Scriptures and the Miracles, Spinoza demolished the foundation for religious knowledge-claim and established his understanding of the Cartesian knowledge as the sole authority of knowledge-claims. Despite being deeply skeptical of the religions, Spinoza was in fact exceedingly anti-skeptical towards reason and rationality. He steadfastly confirmed the legitimacy of reason by associating it with the acknowledgement of God, and thereby skepticism with the rational approach to knowledge was not due to problems with the rational knowledge but from the fundamental lack of understanding of God. Spinoza's religious skepticism and anti-skepticism with reason thus helped him transform epistemology by separating the theological knowledge-claims and the rational knowledge-claims. + +==== Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) ==== + +Pierre Bayle was a French philosopher in the late 17th century that was described by Richard Popkin to be a "supersceptic" who carried out the skeptic tradition to the extreme. Bayle was born in a Calvinist family in Carla-Bayle, and during the early stage of his life, he converted into Catholicism before returning to Calvinism. This conversion between religions caused him to leave France for the more religiously tolerant Holland where he stayed and worked for the rest of his life. +Bayle believed that truth cannot be obtained through reason and that all human endeavor to acquire absolute knowledge would inevitably lead to failure. Bayle's main approach was highly skeptical and destructive: he sought to examine and analyze all existing theories in all fields of human knowledge in order to show the faults in their reasoning and thus the absurdity of the theories themselves. In his magnum opus, Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (Historical and Critical Dictionary), Bayle painstakingly identified the logical flaws in several works throughout the history in order to emphasize the absolute futility of rationality. Bayle's complete nullification of reason led him to conclude that faith is the final and only way to truth. +Bayle's real intention behind his extremely destructive works remained controversial. Some described him to be a Fideist, while others speculated him to be a secret Atheist. However, no matter what his original intention was, Bayle did cast significant influence on the upcoming Age of Enlightenment with his destruction of some of the most essential theological ideas and his justification of religious tolerance Atheism in his works. + +=== Skepticism in the Age of Enlightenment === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..49f4b551a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== David Hume (1711–1776) ==== +David Hume was among the most influential proponents of philosophical skepticism during the Age of Enlightenment and one of the most notable voices of the Scottish Enlightenment and British Empiricism. He especially espoused skepticism regarding inductive reasoning, and questioned what the foundation of morality was, creating the is–ought problem. His approach to skepticism is considered even more radical than that of Descartes. +Hume argued that any coherent idea must be either a mental copy of an impression (a direct sensory perception) or copies of multiple impressions innovatively combined. Since certain human activities like religion, superstition, and metaphysics are not premised on any actual sense-impressions, their claims to knowledge are logically unjustified. Furthermore, Hume even demonstrates that science is merely a psychological phenomenon based on the association of ideas: often, specifically, an assumption of cause-and-effect relationships that is itself not grounded in any sense-impressions. Thus, even scientific knowledge is logically unjustified, being not actually objective or provable but, rather, mere conjecture flimsily based on our minds perceiving regular correlations between distinct events. Hume thus falls into extreme skepticism regarding the possibility of any certain knowledge. Ultimately, he offers that, at best, a science of human nature is the "only solid foundation for the other sciences". + +==== Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) ==== + +Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to provide a ground for empirical science against David Hume's skeptical treatment of the notion of cause and effect. Hume (1711–1776) argued that for the notion of cause and effect no analysis is possible which is also acceptable to the empiricist program primarily outlined by John Locke (1632–1704). But, Kant's attempt to give a ground to knowledge in the empirical sciences at the same time cut off the possibility of knowledge of any other knowledge, especially what Kant called "metaphysical knowledge". So, for Kant, empirical science was legitimate, but metaphysics and philosophy was mostly illegitimate. The most important exception to this demarcation of the legitimate from the illegitimate was ethics, the principles of which Kant argued can be known by pure reason without appeal to the principles required for empirical knowledge. Thus, with respect to metaphysics and philosophy in general (ethics being the exception), Kant was a skeptic. This skepticism as well as the explicit skepticism of G. E. Schulze gave rise to a robust discussion of skepticism in German idealistic philosophy, especially by Hegel. Kant's idea was that the real world (the noumenon or thing-in-itself) was inaccessible to human reason (though the empirical world of nature can be known to human understanding) and therefore we can never know anything about the ultimate reality of the world. Hegel argued against Kant that although Kant was right that using what Hegel called "finite" concepts of "the understanding" precluded knowledge of reality, we were not constrained to use only "finite" concepts and could actually acquire knowledge of reality using "infinite concepts" that arise from self-consciousness. + +=== Skepticism in the 20th century and contemporary philosophy === +G. E. Moore famously presented the "Here is one hand" argument against skepticism in his 1925 paper, "A Defence of Common Sense". Moore claimed that he could prove that the external world exists by simply presenting the following argument while holding up his hands: "Here is one hand; here is another hand; therefore, there are at least two objects; therefore, external-world skepticism fails". His argument was developed for the purpose of vindicating common sense and refuting skepticism. Ludwig Wittgenstein later argued in his On Certainty (posthumously published in 1969) that Moore's argument rested on the way that ordinary language is used, rather than on anything about knowledge. +In contemporary philosophy, Richard Popkin was a particularly influential scholar on the topic of skepticism. His account of the history of skepticism given in The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (first edition published as The History of Scepticism From Erasmus to Descartes) was accepted as the standard for contemporary scholarship in the area for decades after its release in 1960. Barry Stroud also published a number of works on philosophical skepticism, most notably his 1984 monograph, The Significance of Philosophical Scepticism. From the mid-1990s, Stroud, alongside Richard Fumerton, put forward influential anti-externalist arguments in favor of a position called "metaepistemological scepticism". Other contemporary philosophers known for their work on skepticism include James Pryor, Keith DeRose, and Peter Klein. + +== History of skepticism in non-Western philosophy == + +=== Ancient Indian skepticism === + +==== Ajñana ==== + +Ajñana (literally 'non-knowledge') were the skeptical school of ancient Indian philosophy. It was a śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. + +==== Buddhism ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db0460c69 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The historical Buddha asserted certain doctrines as true, such as the possibility of nirvana; however, he also upheld a form of skepticism with regards to certain questions which he left "un-expounded" (avyākata) and some he saw as "incomprehensible" (acinteyya). Because the Buddha saw these questions (which tend to be of metaphysical topics) as unhelpful on the path and merely leading to confusion and "a thicket of views", he promoted suspension of judgment towards them. This allowed him to carve out an epistemic middle way between what he saw as the extremes of claiming absolute objectivity (associated with the claims to omniscience of the Jain Mahavira) and extreme skepticism (associated with the Ajñana thinker Sanjaya Belatthiputta). +Later Buddhist philosophy remained highly skeptical of Indian metaphysical arguments. The Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna in particular has been seen as the founder of the Madhyamaka school, which has been in turn compared with Greek Skepticism. Nagarjuna's statement that he has "no thesis" (pratijña) has parallels in the statements of Sextus Empiricus of having "no position". Nagarjuna famously opens his magnum opus, the Mulamadhyamakakarika, with the statement that the Buddha claimed that true happiness was found through dispelling 'vain thinking' (prapañca, also "conceptual proliferation"). +According to Richard P. Hayes, the Buddhist philosopher Dignaga is also a kind of skeptic, which is in line with most early Buddhist philosophy. Hayes writes: + +...in both early Buddhism and in the Skeptics one can find the view put forward that man's pursuit of happiness, the highest good, is obstructed by his tenacity in holding ungrounded and unnecessary opinions about all manner of things. Much of Buddhist philosophy, I shall argue, can be seen as an attempt to break this habit of holding on to opinions. +Scholars like Adrian Kuzminski have argued that Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 365–270) might have been influenced by Indian Buddhists during his journey with Alexander the Great. + +==== Cārvāka philosophy ==== + +The Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) school of materialism, also known as Lokāyata, is a classically cited (but historically disputed) school of ancient Indian philosophy. While no texts or authoritative doctrine have survived, followers of this system are frequently mentioned in philosophical treatises of other schools, often as an initial counterpoint against which to assert their own arguments. +Cārvāka is classified as a "heterodox" (nāstika) system, characterized as a materialistic and atheistic school of thought. This school was also known for being strongly skeptical of the claims of Indian religions, such as reincarnation and karma. + +==== Jainism ==== + +While Jain philosophy claims that is it possible to achieve omniscience, absolute knowledge (Kevala Jnana), at the moment of enlightenment, their theory of anekāntavāda or 'many sided-ness', also known as the principle of relative pluralism, allows for a practical form of skeptical thought regarding philosophical and religious doctrines (for un-enlightened beings, not all-knowing arihants). +According to this theory, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth. Jain doctrine states that, an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and, as such, they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to inherent limitations of the humans. Anekāntavāda is literally the doctrine of non-onesidedness or manifoldness; it is often translated as "non-absolutism". Syādvāda is the theory of conditioned predication which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that epithet "Syād" be attached to every expression. Syādvāda is not only an extension of Anekānta ontology, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own force. As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term "syāt" should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement. For Jains, fully enlightened beings are able to see reality from all sides and thus have ultimate knowledge of all things. This idea of omniscience was criticized by Buddhists such as Dharmakirti. + +=== Ancient Chinese philosophy === + +==== Zhuang Zhou (c. 369 – c. 286 BCE) ==== +Zhuang Zhou (莊子, "Master Zhuang") was a famous ancient Chinese Taoism philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought period. Zhuang Zhou demonstrated his skeptical thinking through several anecdotes in the preeminent work Zhuangzi attributed to him: + +"The Debate on the Joy of Fish" (知魚之樂) : In this anecdote, Zhuang Zhou argued with his fellow philosopher Hui Shi whether they knew the fish in the pond were happy or not, and Zhuang Zhou made the famous observation that "You are not I. How do you know that I do not know that the fish are happy?" (Autumn Floods 秋水篇, Zhuangzi) +"The Butterfly of the Dream"(周公夢蝶) : The paradox of "Butterfly Dream" described Zhuang Zhou's confusion after dreaming himself to be a butterfly: "But he didn't know if he was Zhuang Zhou who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming that he was Zhuang Zhou." (Discussion on Making All Things Equal 齊物篇, Zhuangzi) +Through these anecdotes in Zhuangzi, Zhuang Zhou indicated his belief in the limitation of language and human communication and the inaccessibility of universal truth. This establishes him as a skeptic. But he was by no means a radical skeptic: he only applied skeptical methods partially, in arguments demonstrating his Taoist beliefs. He held the Taoist beliefs themselves dogmatically. + +==== Wang Chong (27 – c. 100 CE) ==== +Wang Chong (王充) was the leading figure of the skeptic branch of the Confucianism school in China during the first century CE. He introduced a method of rational critique and applied it to the widespread dogmatism thinking of his age like phenomenology (the main contemporary Confucianism ideology that linked all natural phenomena with human ethics), state-led cults, and popular superstition. His own philosophy incorporated both Taoism and Confucianism thinkings, and it was based on a secular, rational practice of developing hypotheses based on natural events to explain the universe which exemplified a form of naturalism that resembled the philosophical idea of Epicureans like Lucretius. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b4f2a646 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Philosophical skepticism" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:39.314400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Medieval Islamic philosophy === +The Incoherence of the Philosophers, written by the scholar Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), marks a major turn in Islamic epistemology. His encounter with skepticism led Ghazali to embrace a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God. +In the autobiography Ghazali wrote towards the end of his life, The Deliverance From Error (Al-munqidh min al-ḍalāl ), Ghazali recounts how, once a crisis of epistemological skepticism was resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast...the key to most knowledge", he studied and mastered the arguments of Kalam, Islamic philosophy, and Ismailism. Though appreciating what was valid in the first two of these, at least, he determined that all three approaches were inadequate and found ultimate value only in the mystical experience and spiritual insight he attained as a result of following Sufi practices. William James, in Varieties of Religious Experience, considered the autobiography an important document for "the purely literary student who would like to become acquainted with the inwardness of religions other than the Christian", comparing it to recorded personal religious confessions and autobiographical literature in the Christian tradition. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Popkin, Richard H. 2003. The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle. New York: Oxford University Press. +Popkin, Richard H. and J.R. Maia Neto, eds. 2007. Skepticism: An Anthology. New York: Prometheus Books. +Beiser, Frederick C. 1987. The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. +Breker, Christian. 2011. Einführender Kommentar zu Sextus Empiricus' "Grundriss der pyrrhonischen Skepsis", Mainz, 2011: electr. publication, University of Mainz. available online Archived January 12, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (comment on Sextus Empiricus's "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" in German language) +di Giovanni, George and H.S. Harris, eds. 2000. Between Kant and Hegel: Texts in the Development of Post-Kantian Idealism. Translated with Introductions by George di Giovanni and H.S. Harris. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. +Forster, Michael N. 1989. Hegel and Skepticism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. +Harris, H.S. 1985. "Skepticism, Dogmatism and Speculation in the Critical Journal". In di Giovanni and Harris 2000. +Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. 1802. "On the Relationship of Skepticism to Philosophy, Exposition of its Different Modifications and Comparison of the Latest Form with the Ancient One". Translated by H.S. Harris. In di Giovanni and Harris 2000. +Leavitt, Fred. 2021. "If Ignorance is Bliss We Should All be Ecstatic." Open Books. +Lehrer, Keith, 1971. "Why Not Scepticism?" Philosophical Forum, vol. II, pp. 283-298. +Jesús Padilla Gálvez, Scepticism as Philosophical Superlative, in: Wittgenstein and the Sceptical Tradition, António Marques & Rui Bertrand Romao (Eds.), Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien: Peter Lang, 2020, pp. 113–122. +François-Xavier de Peretti, « Stop Doubting with Descartes », dans M. Garcia-Valdecasas, J. Milburn, J.-B. Guillon (éds.), « Anti-skepticism », Topoi. An International Review of Philosophy, Springer Nature, on line 3.11.2022 doi:10.1007/s11245-022-09822-0 +François-Xavier de Peretti, « Descartes sceptique malgré lui ? », International Journal for the Study of Skepticism, 11 (3), 2021, Brill, Leyde, pp. 177–192. Online publication date: 15 octobre 2020. doi:10.1163/22105700-bja10016 +Thorsrud, Harald. 2009. Ancient Scepticism. Berkeley: University of California Press. +Unger, Peter. 1975. Ignorance: A Case for Scepticism. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 2002. +Zeller, Eduard and Oswald J. Reichel. 1892. The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. + +== External links == +Klein, Peter. "Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174. +Ancient Greek Skepticism entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy +Renaissance Skepticism entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy +Contemporary Skepticism entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy +Responses to skepticism by Keith DeRose +Article: Skepticism and Denial by Stephen Novella MD, The New England Journal of Skepticism +Classical Skepticism Archived February 3, 2010, at the Wayback Machine by Peter Suber +Review and summary of Skepticism and the Veil of Perception by Michael Huemer \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c11686312 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Plastic Fantastic" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:40.453578+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Plastic Fantastic: How the Biggest Fraud in Physics Shook the Scientific World is a 2009 book by U.S.-based science reporter Eugenie Samuel Reich. + + +== Plot == +In Plastic Fantastic, Reich investigates how Jan Hendrik Schön, a young physicist working in the field of advanced microelectronics at Bell Labs, was able to repeatedly fabricate scientific results to mislead his collaborators, journal editors, and the scientific community. The book is based on interviews with 126 scientists. +The book carries ISBN 978-0-230-22467-4, and was initially published by Palgrave MacMillan. + + +== See also == +List of books about the politics of science +The Great Betrayal: Fraud In Science +Scientific misconduct + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a54945968 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Radical Psychology Network" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:41.662928+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Radical Psychology Network (RadPsyNet) is an organization with the goal of encouraging reform in the field of psychology. It began in Toronto in 1993 when two dozen people attended a discussion at the American Psychological Association convention entitled "Will Psychology Pay Attention to Its Own Radical Critics?" + + +== Overview == +The aim of the group is to change the status quo of psychology. Challenging psychology's traditional focus on minor reform, members emphasise enhancing human welfare by working for fundamental social change. They claim that psychology itself has too often oppressed people rather than liberated them and they work to redress this imbalance. In keeping with this aim, RadPsyNet co-founders Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky co-edited Critical Psychology: An Introduction in 1997, and many RadPsyNet members are active in academic critical psychology as well as in opposition to psychological abuses. +Today the group has more than 500 members in over three dozen countries. Members include psychologists and others, academics and practitioners, faculty and students, psychotherapists and patients. It publishes the online Radical Psychology Journal (published for ten years until its final issue in 2011) and sponsors an active email discussion list. + + +== See also == +Critical psychology +Psychopolitical validity, coined by Isaac Prilleltensky in 2003 as a way to evaluate Community Psychology research + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Radical Psychology Network homepage +Critical Psychology: An Introduction (book) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..66184a8a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,124 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 1/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The replication crisis, also known as the reproducibility or replicability crisis, refers to widespread failures to reproduce published scientific results. Because the reproducibility of empirical results is the cornerstone of the scientific method, such failures undermine the credibility of theories and challenge substantial parts of scientific knowledge. +Psychology and medicine have been focal points for replication efforts, with researchers systematically reexamining classic studies to verify their reliability and, when failures emerge, to identify the underlying causes. Data strongly indicates that other natural and social sciences are also affected. +The phrase "replication crisis" was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. Considerations of causes and remedies have given rise to a new scientific discipline known as metascience, which uses methods of empirical research to examine empirical research practice. +Researchers distinguish two forms of reproducibility. Reproducibility in a narrow sense refers to reexamining and validating the analysis of a set of data. The second category, replication, involves repeating an experiment or study with new, independent data to verify the original conclusions. + +== Background == + +=== Replication === +Replication has been called "the cornerstone of science". Environmental health scientist Stefan Schmidt began a 2009 review with this description of replication: + +Replication is one of the central issues in any empirical science. To confirm results or hypotheses by a repetition procedure is at the basis of any scientific conception. A replication experiment to demonstrate that the same findings can be obtained in any other place by any other researcher is conceived as an operationalization of objectivity. It is the proof that the experiment reflects knowledge that can be separated from the specific circumstances (such as time, place, or persons) under which it was gained. +But no universal definition of replication or related concepts has been agreed on. Replication types include: + +direct (repeating procedures as closely as possible), +systematic (repeating with intentional changes), and +conceptual (testing hypotheses using different procedures to assess generalizability). +Reproducibility can also be distinguished from replication, as referring to reproducing the same results using the same data set. Reproducibility of this type is why many researchers make their data available to others for testing. +Replication failures do not indicate that affected fields lack scientific rigor. Rather, they reflect the normal operation of science—a mechanism by which unsupported hypotheses are eliminated, but which often functions slowly and inconsistently. +A hypothesis is generally considered supported when the results match the predicted pattern and that pattern is found to be statistically significant. Under null hypothesis assumption, results are deemed statistically significant when their probability falls below a predetermined threshold (the significance level). This generally answers the question of how unlikely such results would be by chance alone if no true effect existed in the statistical population. If the probability associated with the test statistic exceeds the chosen critical value, the results are considered statistically significant. The p-value represents the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true. The standard threshold p < 0.05 means accepting a 5% false positive rate. Some fields use smaller p-values, such as p < 0.01 (1% chance of a false positive) or p < 0.001 (0.1% chance of a false positive). But a smaller chance of a false positive often requires greater sample sizes or a greater chance of a false negative (a correct hypothesis being erroneously found incorrect). Although p-value testing is the most commonly used method, it is not the only one. + +=== Statistics === +Certain terms commonly used in discussions of the replication crisis have technically precise meanings, which are presented here. +In the most common case, null hypothesis testing, there are two hypotheses, a null hypothesis + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + + and an alternative hypothesis + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + +. The null hypothesis is typically of the form "X and Y are statistically independent". For example, the null hypothesis might be "taking drug X does not change 1-year recovery rate from disease Y", and the alternative hypothesis is that it does change. +As testing for full statistical independence is difficult, the full null hypothesis is often reduced to a simplified null hypothesis "the effect size is 0", where "effect size" is a real number that is 0 if the full null hypothesis is true, and the larger the effect size is, the more the null hypothesis is false. For example, if X is binary, then the effect size might be defined as the change in the expectation of Y upon a change of X: + + + + ( + + effect size + + ) + = + + E + + [ + Y + + | + + X + = + 1 + ] + − + + E + + [ + Y + + | + + X + = + 0 + ] + + + {\displaystyle ({\text{effect size}})=\mathbb {E} [Y|X=1]-\mathbb {E} [Y|X=0]} + +Note that the effect size as defined above might be zero even if X and Y are not independent, such as when their relationship is non-linear (such as + + + + Y + ∼ + + + N + + + ( + 0 + , + 1 + + + X + ) + + + {\displaystyle Y\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,1+X)} + +) or when one variable affects different subgroups oppositely. Since different definitions of "effect size" capture different ways for X and Y to be dependent, there are many definitions of effect size. +In practice, effect sizes cannot be directly observed, but must be measured by statistical estimators. For example, the above definition of effect size is often measured by Cohen's d estimator. The same effect size might have multiple estimators, as they have tradeoffs between efficiency, bias, variance, etc. This further increases the number of possible statistical quantities that can be computed on a single dataset. When an estimator for an effect size is used for statistical testing, it is called a test statistic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..25016b47b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,627 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 2/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A null hypothesis test is a decision procedure which takes in some data, and outputs either + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + + or + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + +. If it outputs + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + +, it is usually stated as "there is a statistically significant effect" or "the null hypothesis is rejected". +Often, the statistical test is a (one-sided) threshold test, which is structured as follows: + +Gather data + + + + D + + + {\displaystyle D} + +. +Compute a test statistic + + + + t + [ + D + ] + + + {\displaystyle t[D]} + + for the data. +Compare the test statistic against a critical value/threshold + + + + + t + + threshold + + + + + {\displaystyle t_{\text{threshold}}} + +. If + + + + t + [ + D + ] + > + + t + + threshold + + + + + {\displaystyle t[D]>t_{\text{threshold}}} + +, then output + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + +, else, output + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + +. +A two-sided threshold test is similar, but with two thresholds, such that it outputs + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + + if either + + + + t + [ + D + ] + < + + t + + threshold + + + − + + + + + {\displaystyle t[D] + + t + + threshold + + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle t[D]>t_{\text{threshold}}^{+}} + + +There are 4 possible outcomes of a null hypothesis test: false negative, true negative, false positive, true positive. A false negative means that + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + + is true, but the test outcome is + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + +; a true negative means that + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + + is true, and the test outcome is + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + +, etc. + +Significance level, false positive rate, or the alpha level, is the probability of finding the alternative to be true when the null hypothesis is true: + + + + ( + + significance + + ) + := + α + := + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 0 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle ({\text{significance}}):=\alpha :=Pr({\text{find }}H_{1}|H_{0})} + +For example, when the test is a one-sided threshold test, then + + + + α + = + P + + r + + D + ∼ + + H + + 0 + + + + + ( + t + [ + D + ] + > + + t + + threshold + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle \alpha =Pr_{D\sim H_{0}}(t[D]>t_{\text{threshold}})} + + where + + + + D + ∼ + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle D\sim H_{0}} + + means "the data is sampled from + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + +". +Statistical power, true positive rate, is the probability of finding the alternative to be true when the alternative hypothesis is true: + + + + ( + + power + + ) + := + 1 + − + β + := + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle ({\text{power}}):=1-\beta :=Pr({\text{find }}H_{1}|H_{1})} + +where + + + + β + + + {\displaystyle \beta } + + is also called the false negative rate. For example, when the test is a one-sided threshold test, then + + + + 1 + − + β + = + P + + r + + D + ∼ + + H + + 1 + + + + + ( + t + [ + D + ] + > + + t + + threshold + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle 1-\beta =Pr_{D\sim H_{1}}(t[D]>t_{\text{threshold}})} + +. +Given a statistical test and a data set + + + + D + + + {\displaystyle D} + +, the corresponding p-value is the probability that the test statistic is at least as extreme, conditional on + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + +. For example, for a one-sided threshold test, + + + + p + [ + D + ] + = + P + + r + + + D + ′ + + ∼ + + H + + 0 + + + + + ( + t + [ + + D + ′ + + ] + > + t + [ + D + ] + ) + + + {\displaystyle p[D]=Pr_{D'\sim H_{0}}(t[D']>t[D])} + +If the null hypothesis is true, then the p-value is distributed uniformly on + + + + [ + 0 + , + 1 + ] + + + {\displaystyle [0,1]} + +. Otherwise, it is typically peaked at + + + + p + = + 0.0 + + + {\displaystyle p=0.0} + + and roughly exponential, though the precise shape of the p-value distribution depends on what the alternative hypothesis is. +Because the p-values are distributed uniformly on + + + + [ + 0 + , + 1 + ] + + + {\displaystyle [0,1]} + + under the null hypothesis, researchers can set any significance level + + + + α + + + {\displaystyle \alpha } + + by computing the p-value, then output + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + + if + + + + p + [ + D + ] + < + α + + + {\displaystyle p[D]<\alpha } + +. This is usually stated as "the null hypothesis is rejected at significance level + + + + α + + + {\displaystyle \alpha } + +", or " + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + ( + p + < + α + ) + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}\;(p<\alpha )} + +", such as "smoking is correlated with cancer (p < 0.001)". + +=== History === +The replication crisis dates to a number of events in the early 2010s. Felipe Romero identified four precursors to the crisis: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c1947520 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,294 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 11/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +and the probability of replicating the statistical study is + + + + P + r + ( + + replication + + + | + + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + = + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + + + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 0 + + + ) + P + r + ( + + H + + 0 + + + + | + + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle Pr({\text{replication}}|{\text{ find }}H_{1})=Pr({\text{find }}H_{1}|H_{1})Pr(H_{1}|{\text{ find }}H_{1})+Pr({\text{find }}H_{1}|H_{0})Pr(H_{0}|{\text{ find }}H_{1})} + +which is also different from + + + + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle Pr(H_{1}|{\text{ find }}H_{1})} + +. In particular, for a fixed level of significance, the probability of replication increases with power, and prior probability for + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + +. If the prior probability for + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + + is small, then one would require a high power for replication. +For example, if the prior probability of the null hypothesis is + + + + P + r + ( + + H + + 0 + + + ) + = + 0.9 + + + {\displaystyle Pr(H_{0})=0.9} + +, and the study found a positive result, then the posterior probability for + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + + is + + + + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + = + 0.50 + + + {\displaystyle Pr(H_{1}|{\text{ find }}H_{1})=0.50} + +, and the replication probability is + + + + P + r + ( + + replication + + + | + + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + = + 0.25 + + + {\displaystyle Pr({\text{replication}}|{\text{ find }}H_{1})=0.25} + +. + +=== Problem with null hypothesis testing === +Some argue that null hypothesis testing is itself inappropriate, especially in "soft sciences" like social psychology. +As repeatedly observed by statisticians, in complex systems, such as social psychology, "the null hypothesis is always false", or "everything is correlated". If so, then if the null hypothesis is not rejected, that does not show that the null hypothesis is true, but merely that it was a false negative, typically due to low power. Low power is especially prevalent in subject areas where effect sizes are small and data is expensive to acquire, such as social psychology. +Furthermore, when the null hypothesis is rejected, it might not be evidence for the substantial alternative hypothesis. In soft sciences, many hypotheses can predict a correlation between two variables. Thus, evidence against the null hypothesis "there is no correlation" is no evidence for one of the many alternative hypotheses that equally well predict "there is a correlation". Fisher developed the NHST for agronomy, where rejecting the null hypothesis is usually good proof of the alternative hypothesis, since there are not many of them. Rejecting the hypothesis "fertilizer does not help" is evidence for "fertilizer helps". But in psychology, there are many alternative hypotheses for every null hypothesis. +In particular, when statistical studies on extrasensory perception reject the null hypothesis at extremely low p-value (as in the case of Daryl Bem), it does not imply the alternative hypothesis "ESP exists". Far more likely is that there was a small (non-ESP) signal in the experiment setup that has been measured precisely. +Paul Meehl noted that statistical hypothesis testing is used differently in "soft" psychology (personality, social, etc.) from physics. In physics, a theory makes a quantitative prediction and is tested by checking whether the prediction falls within the statistically measured interval. In soft psychology, a theory makes a directional prediction and is tested by checking whether the null hypothesis is rejected in the right direction. Consequently, improved experimental technique makes theories more likely to be falsified in physics but less likely to be falsified in soft psychology, as the null hypothesis is always false since any two variables are correlated by a "crud factor" of about 0.30. The net effect is an accumulation of theories that remain unfalsified, but with no empirical evidence for preferring one over the others. + +=== Base rate fallacy === +According to philosopher Alexander Bird, a possible reason for the low rates of replicability in certain scientific fields is that a majority of tested hypotheses are false a priori. On this view, low rates of replicability could be consistent with quality science. Relatedly, the expectation that most findings should replicate would be misguided and, according to Bird, a form of base rate fallacy. Bird's argument works as follows. Assuming an ideal situation of a test of significance, whereby the probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis is 5% (i.e. Type I error) and the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis is 80% (i.e. Power), in a context where a high proportion of tested hypotheses are false, it is conceivable that the number of false positives would be high compared to those of true positives. For example, in a situation where only 10% of tested hypotheses are actually true, one can calculate that as many as 36% of results will be false positives. +The claim that the falsity of most tested hypotheses can explain low rates of replicability is even more relevant when considering that the average power for statistical tests in certain fields might be much lower than 80%. For example, the proportion of false positives increases to a value between 55.2% and 57.6% when calculated with the estimates of an average power between 34.1% and 36.4% for psychology studies, as provided by Stanley and colleagues in their analysis of 200 meta-analyses in the field. A high proportion of false positives would then result in many research findings being non-replicable. +Bird notes that the claim that a majority of tested hypotheses are false a priori in certain scientific fields might be plausible given factors such as the complexity of the phenomena under investigation, the fact that theories are seldom undisputed, the "inferential distance" between theories and hypotheses, and the ease with which hypotheses can be generated. In this respect, the fields Bird takes as examples are clinical medicine, genetic and molecular epidemiology, and social psychology. This situation is radically different in fields where theories have outstanding empirical basis and hypotheses can be easily derived from theories (e.g., experimental physics). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4c481622b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 12/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Consequences == +When effects are wrongly stated as relevant in the literature, failure to detect this by replication will lead to the canonization of such false facts. +A 2021 study found that papers in leading general interest, psychology and economics journals with findings that could not be replicated tend to be cited more over time than reproducible research papers, likely because these results are surprising or interesting. The trend is not affected by publication of failed reproductions, after which only 12% of papers that cite the original research will mention the failed replication. Further, experts are able to predict which studies will be replicable, leading the authors of the 2021 study, Marta Serra-Garcia and Uri Gneezy, to conclude that experts apply lower standards to interesting results when deciding whether to publish them. + +=== Public awareness and perceptions === +Concerns have been expressed within the scientific community that the general public may consider science less credible due to failed replications. Research supporting this concern is sparse, but a nationally representative survey in Germany showed that more than 75% of Germans have not heard of replication failures in science. The study also found that most Germans have positive perceptions of replication efforts: only 18% think that non-replicability shows that science cannot be trusted, while 65% think that replication research shows that science applies quality control, and 80% agree that errors and corrections are part of science. + +=== Response in academia === +With the replication crisis of psychology earning attention, Princeton University psychologist Susan Fiske drew controversy for speaking against critics of psychology for what she called bullying and undermining the science. She called these unidentified "adversaries" names such as "methodological terrorist" and "self-appointed data police", saying that criticism of psychology should be expressed only in private or by contacting the journals. Columbia University statistician and political scientist Andrew Gelman responded to Fiske, saying that she had found herself willing to tolerate the "dead paradigm" of faulty statistics and had refused to retract publications even when errors were pointed out. He added that her tenure as editor had been abysmal and that a number of published papers she edited were found to be based on extremely weak statistics; one of Fiske's own published papers had a major statistical error and "impossible" conclusions. + +=== Credibility revolution === +Some researchers in psychology indicate that the replication crisis is a foundation for a "credibility revolution", where changes in standards by which psychological science are evaluated may include emphasizing transparency and openness, preregistering research projects, and replicating research with higher standards for evidence to improve the strength of scientific claims. Such changes may diminish the productivity of individual researchers, but this effect could be avoided by data sharing and greater collaboration. + +== Remedies == +Focus on the replication crisis has led to renewed efforts in psychology to retest important findings. A 2013 special edition of the journal Social Psychology focused on replication studies. +Standardization as well as (requiring) transparency of the used statistical and experimental methods have been proposed. Careful documentation of the experimental set-up is considered crucial for replicability of experiments and various variables may not be documented and standardized such as animals' diets in animal studies. +A 2016 article by John Ioannidis elaborated on "Why Most Clinical Research Is Not Useful". Ioannidis describes what he views as some of the problems and calls for reform, characterizing certain points for medical research to be useful again; one example he makes is the need for medicine to be patient-centered (e.g. in the form of the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute) instead of the current practice to mainly take care of "the needs of physicians, investigators, or sponsors". + +=== Reform in scientific publishing === + +==== Metascience ==== + +Metascience is the use of scientific methodology to study science itself. It seeks to increase the quality of scientific research while reducing waste. It is also known as "research on research" and "the science of science", as it uses research methods to study how research is done and where improvements can be made. Metascience is concerned with all fields of research and has been called "a bird's eye view of science." In Ioannidis's words, "Science is the best thing that has happened to human beings ... but we can do it better." +Meta-research continues to be conducted to identify the roots of the crisis and to address them. Methods of addressing the crisis include pre-registration of scientific studies and clinical trials as well as the founding of organizations such as CONSORT and the EQUATOR Network that issue guidelines for methodology and reporting. Efforts continue to reform the system of academic incentives, improve the peer review process, reduce the misuse of statistics, combat bias in scientific literature, and increase the overall quality and efficiency of the scientific process. + +==== Presentation of methodology ==== +Some authors have argued that the insufficient communication of experimental methods is a major contributor to the reproducibility crisis and that better reporting of experimental design and statistical analyses would improve the situation. These authors tend to plead for both a broad cultural change in the scientific community of how statistics are considered and a more coercive push from scientific journals and funding bodies. But concerns have been raised about the potential for standards for transparency and replication to be misapplied to qualitative as well as quantitative studies. +Business and management journals that have introduced editorial policies on data accessibility, replication, and transparency include the Strategic Management Journal, the Journal of International Business Studies, and the Management and Organization Review. + +==== Result-blind peer review ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5113a114d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 13/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In response to concerns in psychology about publication bias and data dredging, more than 140 psychology journals have adopted result-blind peer review. In this approach, studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before they are conducted and on the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs, and the theoretical justifications for their statistical analysis techniques before data collection or analysis is done. Early analysis of this procedure has estimated that 61% of result-blind studies have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated 5% to 20% in earlier research. In addition, large-scale collaborations between researchers working in multiple labs in different countries that regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess have become much more common in psychology. + +==== Pre-registration of studies ==== + +Scientific publishing has begun using pre-registration reports to address the replication crisis. The registered report format requires authors to submit a description of the study methods and analyses prior to data collection. Once the method and analysis plan is vetted through peer-review, publication of the findings is provisionally guaranteed, based on whether the authors follow the proposed protocol. One goal of registered reports is to circumvent the publication bias toward significant findings that can lead to implementation of questionable research practices. Another is to encourage publication of studies with rigorous methods. +The journal Psychological Science has encouraged the preregistration of studies and the reporting of effect sizes and confidence intervals. The editor in chief also noted that the editorial staff will be asking for replication of studies with surprising findings from examinations using small sample sizes before allowing the manuscripts to be published. + +==== Metadata and digital tools for tracking replications ==== +It has been suggested that "a simple way to check how often studies have been repeated, and whether or not the original findings are confirmed" is needed. Categorizations and ratings of reproducibility at the study or results level, as well as addition of links to and rating of third-party confirmations, could be conducted by the peer-reviewers, the scientific journal, or by readers in combination with novel digital platforms or tools. + +=== Statistical reform === + +==== Requiring smaller p-values ==== +Many publications require a p-value of p < 0.05 to claim statistical significance. The paper "Redefine statistical significance", signed by a large number of scientists and mathematicians, proposes that in "fields where the threshold for defining statistical significance for new discoveries is p < 0.05, we propose a change to p < 0.005. This simple step would immediately improve the reproducibility of scientific research in many fields." Their rationale is that "a leading cause of non-reproducibility (is that the) statistical standards of evidence for claiming new discoveries in many fields of science are simply too low. Associating 'statistically significant' findings with p < 0.05 results in a high rate of false positives even in the absence of other experimental, procedural and reporting problems." +This call was subsequently criticised by another large group, who argued that "redefining" the threshold would not fix current problems, would lead to some new ones, and that in the end, all thresholds needed to be justified case-by-case instead of following general conventions. A 2022 followup study examined these competing recommendations' practical impact. Despite high citation rates of both proposals, researchers found limited implementation of either the p < 0.005 threshold or the case-by-case justification approach in practice. This revealed what the authors called a "vicious cycle", in which scientists reject recommendations because they are not standard practice, while the recommendations fail to become standard practice because few scientists adopt them. + +==== Addressing misinterpretation of p-values ==== + +Although statisticians are unanimous that the use of "p < 0.05" as a standard for significance provides weaker evidence than is generally appreciated, there is a lack of unanimity about what should be done about it. Some have advocated that Bayesian methods should replace p-values. This has not happened on a wide scale, partly because it is complicated and partly because many users distrust the specification of prior distributions in the absence of hard data. A simplified version of the Bayesian argument, based on testing a point null hypothesis was suggested by pharmacologist David Colquhoun. The logical problems of inductive inference were discussed in "The Problem with p-values" (2016). +The hazards of reliance on p-values arises partly because even an observation of p = 0.001 is not necessarily strong evidence against the null hypothesis. Despite the fact that the likelihood ratio in favor of the alternative hypothesis over the null is close to 100, if the hypothesis was implausible, with a prior probability of a real effect being 0.1, even the observation of p = 0.001 would have a false positive risk of 8 percent. It would still fail to reach the 5 percent level. +It was recommended that the terms "significant" and "non-significant" should not be used. p-values and confidence intervals should still be specified, but they should be accompanied by an indication of the false-positive risk. It was suggested that the best way to do this is to calculate the prior probability that would be necessary to believe in order to achieve a false positive risk of a certain level, such as 5%. The calculations can be done with various computer software. This reverse Bayesian approach, which physicist Robert Matthews suggested in 2001, is one way to avoid the problem that the prior probability is rarely known. + +==== Encouraging larger sample sizes ==== +To improve the quality of replications, larger sample sizes than those used in the original study are often needed. Larger sample sizes are needed because estimates of effect sizes in published work are often exaggerated due to publication bias and large sampling variability associated with small sample sizes in an original study. Further, using significance thresholds usually leads to inflated effects, because particularly with small sample sizes, only the largest effects will become significant. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..29bb9229c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 14/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Cross-validation ==== +One common statistical problem is overfitting, that is, when researchers fit a regression model over a large number of variables but a small number of data points. For example, a typical fMRI study of emotion, personality, and social cognition has fewer than 100 subjects, but each subject has 10,000 voxels. The study would fit a sparse linear regression model that uses the voxels to predict a variable of interest, such as self-reported stress. But the study would then report on the p-value of the model on the same data it was fitted to. The standard approach in statistics, where data is split into a training and a validation set, is resisted because test subjects are expensive to acquire. +One possible solution is cross-validation, which allows model validation while also allowing the whole dataset to be used for model-fitting. + +=== Replication efforts === + +==== Funding ==== +In July 2016, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research made €3 million available for replication studies. The funding is for replication based on reanalysis of existing data and replication by collecting and analysing new data. Funding is available in the areas of social sciences, health research and healthcare innovation. +In 2013, the Laura and John Arnold Foundation funded the launch of The Center for Open Science with a $5.25 million grant. By 2017, it provided an additional $10 million in funding. It also funded the launch of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford at Stanford University run by Ioannidis and medical scientist Steven Goodman to study ways to improve scientific research. It also provided funding for the AllTrials initiative led in part by medical scientist Ben Goldacre. + +==== Emphasis in post-secondary education ==== + +Based on coursework in experimental methods at MIT, Stanford, and the University of Washington, it has been suggested that methods courses in psychology and other fields should emphasize replication attempts rather than original studies. Such an approach would help students learn scientific methodology and provide numerous independent replications of meaningful scientific findings that would test the replicability of scientific findings. Some have recommended that graduate students should be required to publish a high-quality replication attempt on a topic related to their doctoral research prior to graduation. + +==== Replication database ==== +There has been a concern that replication attempts have been growing. As a result, this may lead to lead to research waste. In turn, this has led to a need to systematically track replication attempts. As a result, several databases have been created (e.g.). The databases have created a replication database that includes psychology among other disciplines, to promote theory-driven research and optimize the use of academic and institutional resource, while promoting trust in science. + +===== Final year thesis ===== +Some institutions require undergraduate students to submit a final year thesis that consists of an original piece of research. Daniel Quintana, a psychologist at the University of Oslo in Norway, has recommended that students should be encouraged to perform replication studies in thesis projects, as well as being taught about open science. + +===== Semi-automated ===== + +Researchers demonstrated a way of semi-automated testing for reproducibility: statements about experimental results were extracted from, as of 2022 non-semantic, gene expression cancer research papers and subsequently reproduced via robot scientist "Eve". Problems of this approach include that it may not be feasible for many areas of research and that sufficient experimental data may not get extracted from some or many papers even if available. + +==== Involving original authors ==== +Psychologist Daniel Kahneman argued that, in psychology, the original authors should be involved in the replication effort because the published methods are often too vague. Others, such as psychologist Andrew Wilson, disagree, arguing that the original authors should write down the methods in detail. An investigation of replication rates in psychology in 2012 indicated higher success rates of replication in replication studies when there was author overlap with the original authors of a study (91.7% successful replication rates in studies with author overlap compared to 64.6% successful replication rates without author overlap). + +==== Big team science ==== +The replication crisis has led to the formation and development of various large-scale and collaborative communities to pool their resources to address a single question across cultures, countries and disciplines. The focus is on replication, to ensure that the effect generalizes beyond a specific culture and investigate whether the effect is replicable and genuine. This allows interdisciplinary internal reviews, multiple perspectives, uniform protocols across labs, and recruiting larger and more diverse samples. Researchers can collaborate by coordinating data collection or fund data collection by researchers who may not have access to the funds, allowing larger sample sizes and increasing the robustness of the conclusions. + +=== Broader changes to scientific approach === + +==== Emphasize triangulation, not just replication ==== +Psychologist Marcus R. Munafò and Epidemiologist George Davey Smith argue, in a piece published by Nature, that research should emphasize triangulation, not just replication, to protect against flawed ideas. They claim that, + +replication alone will get us only so far (and) might actually make matters worse ... [Triangulation] is the strategic use of multiple approaches to address one question. Each approach has its own unrelated assumptions, strengths and weaknesses. Results that agree across different methodologies are less likely to be artefacts. ... Maybe one reason replication has captured so much interest is the often-repeated idea that falsification is at the heart of the scientific enterprise. This idea was popularized by Karl Popper's 1950s maxim that theories can never be proved, only falsified. Yet an overemphasis on repeating experiments could provide an unfounded sense of certainty about findings that rely on a single approach. ... philosophers of science have moved on since Popper. Better descriptions of how scientists actually work include what epistemologist Peter Lipton called in 1991 "inference to the best explanation". + +==== Complex systems paradigm ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ede6a28cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 15/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The dominant scientific and statistical model of causation is the linear model. The linear model assumes that mental variables are stable properties which are independent of each other. In other words, these variables are not expected to influence each other. Instead, the model assumes that the variables will have an independent, linear effect on observable outcomes. +Social scientists Sebastian Wallot and Damian Kelty-Stephen argue that the linear model is not always appropriate. An alternative is the complex system model which assumes that mental variables are interdependent. These variables are not assumed to be stable, rather they will interact and adapt to each specific context. They argue that the complex system model is often more appropriate in psychology, and that the use of the linear model when the complex system model is more appropriate will result in failed replications. + +...psychology may be hoping for replications in the very measurements and under the very conditions where a growing body of psychological evidence explicitly discourages predicting replication. Failures to replicate may be plainly baked into the potentially incomplete, but broadly sweeping failure of human behavior to conform to the standard of independen[ce] ... + +==== Replication should seek to revise theories ==== +Replication is fundamental for scientific progress to confirm original findings. However, replication alone is not sufficient to resolve the replication crisis. Replication efforts should seek not just to support or question the original findings, but also to replace them with revised, stronger theories with greater explanatory power. This approach therefore involves pruning existing theories, comparing all the alternative theories, and making replication efforts more generative and engaged in theory-building. However, replication alone is not enough, it is important to assess the extent that results generalise across geographical, historical and social contexts is important for several scientific fields, especially practitioners and policy makers to make analyses in order to guide important strategic decisions. Reproducible and replicable findings was the best predictor of generalisability beyond historical and geographical contexts, indicating that for social sciences, results from a certain time period and place can meaningfully drive as to what is universally present in individuals. + +==== Open science ==== + +Open data, open source software and open source hardware all are critical to enabling reproducibility in the sense of validation of the original data analysis. The use of proprietary software, the lack of the publication of analysis software and the lack of open data prevents the replication of studies. Unless software used in research is open source, reproducing results with different software and hardware configurations is impossible. CERN has both Open Data and CERN Analysis Preservation projects for storing data, all relevant information, and all software and tools needed to preserve an analysis at the large experiments of the LHC. Aside from all software and data, preserved analysis assets include metadata that enable understanding of the analysis workflow, related software, systematic uncertainties, statistics procedures and meaningful ways to search for the analysis, as well as references to publications and to backup material. CERN software is open source and available for use outside of particle physics and there is some guidance provided to other fields on the broad approaches and strategies used for open science in contemporary particle physics. +Online repositories where data, protocols, and findings can be stored and evaluated by the public seek to improve the integrity and reproducibility of research. Examples of such repositories include the Open Science Framework, Registry of Research Data Repositories, and Psychfiledrawer.org. Sites like Open Science Framework offer badges for using open science practices in an effort to incentivize scientists. However, there have been concerns that those who are most likely to provide their data and code for analyses are the researchers that are likely the most sophisticated. Ioannidis suggested that "the paradox may arise that the most meticulous and sophisticated and method-savvy and careful researchers may become more susceptible to criticism and reputation attacks by reanalyzers who hunt for errors, no matter how negligible these errors are". + +== See also == +Base rate fallacy +Black swan theory +Correlation does not imply causation +Data dredging +Decline effect +Estimation statistics +Exploratory data analysis +Extension neglect +Falsifiability +Invalid science +Misuse of statistics +Naturalism +Observer bias +p-value +Problem of induction +Sampling bias +Selection bias +Statistical hypothesis testing +Uniformitarianism + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..250fefd1d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 3/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Social priming failures: In the early 2010s, two direct replication attempts failed to reproduce results from social psychologist John Bargh's much-cited "elderly-walking" study (originally published in 1996). This experiment was part of a series of three studies that had been widely cited throughout the years, was regularly taught in university courses, and had inspired many conceptual replications. These replication failures triggered intense disagreement between replication researchers and the original authors. Notably, many of the conceptual replications of the original studies also failed to replicate in subsequent direct replications. +Experiments on extrasensory perception: Social psychologist Daryl Bem conducted a series of experiments supposedly providing evidence for the controversial phenomenon of extrasensory perception. Bem faced substantial criticism of his study's methodology. Reanalysis of his data found no evidence for extrasensory perception. The experiment also failed to replicate in subsequent direct replications. According to Romero, what the community found particularly upsetting was that many of the flawed procedures and statistical tools used in Bem's studies were part of common research practice in psychology. +Biomedical replication failures: Scientists from biotech companies Amgen and Bayer Healthcare reported alarmingly low replication rates (11–20%) of landmark findings in preclinical oncological research. +P-hacking studies and questionable research practices: Since the late 2000s, a number of studies in metascience showed how commonly adopted practices in many scientific fields, such as exploiting the flexibility of the process of data collection and reporting, could greatly increase the probability of false positive results. These studies suggested how a significant proportion of published literature in several scientific fields could be nonreplicable research. +This series of events generated a great deal of skepticism about the validity of existing research in light of widespread methodological flaws and failures to replicate findings. This led prominent scholars to declare a "crisis of confidence" in psychology and other fields, and the ensuing situation came to be known as the "replication crisis". +Although the beginning of the replication crisis can be traced to the early 2010s, some authors point out that concerns about replicability and research practices in the social sciences had been expressed much earlier. Romero notes that authors voiced concerns about the lack of direct replications in psychological research in the late 1960s and early 1970s. He also writes that certain studies in the 1990s were already reporting that journal editors and reviewers are generally biased against publishing replication studies. +In the social sciences, the blog Data Colada (whose three authors coined the term "p-hacking" in a 2014 paper) has been credited with contributing to the start of the replication crisis. +University of Virginia professor and cognitive psychologist Barbara Spellman has written that many criticisms of research practices and concerns about replicability of research are not new. She reports that between the late 1950s and the 1990s, scholars were already expressing concerns about a possible crisis of replication, a suspiciously high rate of positive findings, questionable research practices, the effects of publication bias, issues with statistical power, and bad standards of reporting. +Spellman also identifies reasons that the reiteration of these criticisms and concerns in recent years led to a full-blown crisis and challenges to the status quo. First, technological improvements facilitated conducting and disseminating replication studies, and analyzing large swaths of literature for systemic problems. Second, the research community's increasing size and diversity made the work of established members more easily scrutinized by other community members unfamiliar with them. According to Spellman, these factors, coupled with increasingly limited resources and misaligned incentives for doing scientific work, led to a crisis in psychology and other fields. +According to Andrew Gelman, the works of Paul Meehl, Jacob Cohen, and Tversky and Kahneman in the 1960s-70s were early warnings of replication crisis. In discussing the origins of the problem, Kahneman himself noted historical precedents in subliminal perception and dissonance reduction replication failures. +It had been repeatedly pointed out since 1962 that most psychological studies have low power (true positive rate), but low power persisted for 50 years, indicating a structural and persistent problem in psychological research. + +== Prevalence == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82f727028 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 4/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== In psychology === +Several factors have combined to put psychology at the center of the conversation. Some areas of psychology once considered solid, such as social priming and ego depletion, have come under increased scrutiny due to failed replications. Much of the focus has been on social psychology, although other areas of psychology such as clinical psychology, developmental psychology, and educational research have also been implicated. +In August 2015, the first open empirical study of reproducibility in psychology was published, called The Reproducibility Project: Psychology. Coordinated by psychologist Brian Nosek, researchers redid 100 studies in psychological science from three high-ranking psychology journals (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, and Psychological Science). Of 97 original studies with significant effects, 36% replicated successfully (p value below 0.05), with effect sizes averaging half the original magnitude. Among non-replications, 25% directly contradicted the original while 49% were inconclusive due to underpowered designs. The same paper examined the reproducibility rates and effect sizes by journal and discipline. Study replication rates were 23% for the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48% for Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, and 38% for Psychological Science. Studies in the field of cognitive psychology had a higher replication rate (50%) than studies in the field of social psychology (25%). This inconclusiveness reflected inadequate statistical power: replication samples were approximately 40% the size of the originals. +A study published in 2018 in Nature Human Behaviour replicated 21 social and behavioral science papers from Nature and Science, finding that only about 62% could successfully reproduce original results. +Similarly, in a study conducted under the auspices of the Center for Open Science, a team of 186 researchers from 60 laboratories (representing 36 nationalities from six continents) conducted replications of 28 classic and contemporary findings in psychology. The study's focus was not only whether the original papers' findings replicated but also the extent to which findings varied as a function of variations in samples and contexts. Overall, 50% of findings failed to replicate despite large sample sizes. When findings did replicate, they consistently replicated across most samples. When they failed, they consistently failed across contexts, suggesting contextual sensitivity was not the primary driver of replication failures. This evidence is inconsistent with a proposed explanation that failures to replicate in psychology are likely due to changes in the sample between the original and replication study. +Results of a 2022 study suggest that many earlier brain–phenotype studies ("brain-wide association studies" (BWAS)) produced invalid conclusions as the replication of such studies requires samples from thousands of individuals due to small effect sizes. + +=== In medicine === + +Of 49 medical studies from 1990 to 2003 with more than 1000 citations, 92% found that the studied therapies were effective. Of these studies, 16% were contradicted by subsequent studies, 16% had found stronger effects than did subsequent studies, 44% were replicated, and 24% remained largely unchallenged. A 2011 analysis by researchers with pharmaceutical company Bayer found that, at most, a quarter of Bayer's in-house findings replicated the original results. But the analysis of Bayer's results found that the results that did replicate could often be successfully used for clinical applications. +In a 2012 paper, C. Glenn Begley, a biotech consultant working at Amgen, and Lee Ellis, a medical researcher at the University of Texas, found that only 11% of 53 pre-clinical cancer studies had replications that could confirm conclusions from the original studies. In late 2021, The Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology examined 53 top papers about cancer published between 2010 and 2012 and showed that among studies that provided sufficient information to be redone, the effect sizes were 85% smaller on average than the original findings. A survey of cancer researchers found that half of them had been unable to reproduce a published result. Another report estimated that almost half of randomized controlled trials contained flawed data (based on the analysis of anonymized individual participant data (IPD) from more than 150 trials). + +=== In other disciplines === + +==== In nutrition science ==== +In nutrition science, for most food ingredients, there were studies that found that the ingredient has an effect on cancer risk. Specifically, out of a random sample of 50 ingredients from a cookbook, 80% had articles reporting on their cancer risk. Statistical significance decreased for meta-analyses. + +==== In economics ==== +Economics has lagged behind other social sciences and psychology in its attempts to assess replication rates and increase the number of studies that attempt replication. A 2016 study in the journal Science replicated 18 experimental studies published in two leading economics journals, The American Economic Review and the Quarterly Journal of Economics, between 2011 and 2014. It found that approximately 61% of studies successfully replicated, though the replicated effect sizes were only 66% of the original reported effect sizes on average, suggesting that the original studies' effect sizes were inflated. About 20% of studies published in The American Economic Review are contradicted by other studies despite relying on the same or similar data sets. A study of empirical findings in the Strategic Management Journal found that about 30% of 27 retested articles showed statistically insignificant results for previously significant findings, whereas about 4% showed statistically significant results for previously insignificant findings. + +==== In water resource management ==== +A 2019 study in Scientific Data estimated with 95% confidence that of 1,989 articles on water resources and management published in 2017, study results might be reproduced for only 0.6% to 6.8%, largely because the articles did not provide sufficient information to allow for replication. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..00cfd67c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 5/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Across fields === +A 2016 survey by Nature on 1,576 researchers who took a brief online questionnaire on reproducibility found that more than 70% of researchers have tried and failed to reproduce another scientist's experiment results (including 87% of chemists, 77% of biologists, 69% of physicists and engineers, 67% of medical researchers, 64% of earth and environmental scientists, and 62% of all others), and more than half have failed to reproduce their own experiments. But fewer than 20% had been contacted by another researcher unable to reproduce their work. The survey found that fewer than 31% of researchers believe that failure to reproduce results means that the original result is probably wrong, although 52% agree that a significant replication crisis exists. Most researchers said they still trust the published literature. In 2010, Fanelli (2010) found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as astronomy or geosciences. Fanelli argued that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases. +Early analysis of result-blind peer review, which is less affected by publication bias, has estimated that 61% of result-blind studies in biomedicine and psychology have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated 5% to 20% in earlier research. +In 2021, a study conducted by University of California, San Diego found that papers that cannot be replicated are more likely to be cited. Nonreplicable publications are often cited more even after a replication study is published. + +== Causes == +There are many proposed causes for the replication crisis. + +=== Historical and sociological causes === +The replication crisis may be triggered by the "generation of new data and scientific publications at an unprecedented rate" that leads to "desperation to publish or perish" and failure to adhere to good scientific practice. +Predictions of an impending crisis in the quality-control mechanism of science can be traced back several decades. Derek de Solla Price—considered the father of scientometrics, the quantitative study of science—predicted in his 1963 book Little Science, Big Science that science could reach "senility" as a result of its own exponential growth. Some present-day literature seems to vindicate this "overflow" prophecy, lamenting the decay in both attention and quality. +Historian Philip Mirowski argues that the decline of scientific quality can be connected to its commodification, especially spurred by major corporations' profit-driven decision to outsource their research to universities and contract research organizations. +Social systems theory, as expounded in the work of German sociologist Niklas Luhmann, inspires a similar diagnosis. This theory holds that each system, such as economy, science, religion, and media, communicates using its own code: true and false for science, profit and loss for the economy, news and no-news for the media, and so on. According to some sociologists, science's mediatization, commodification, and politicization, as a result of the structural coupling among systems, have led to a confusion of the original system codes. + +=== Problems with the publication system in science === + +==== Publication bias ==== +Publication bias—the tendency to publish only positive, significant results—creates the "file drawer effect", where negative results remain unpublished. This produces misleading literature and biased meta-analyses. Only a very small proportion of academic journals in psychology and neurosciences explicitly welcomed submissions of replication studies in their aim and scope or instructions to authors. This does not encourage reporting on, or even attempts to perform, replication studies. Among 1,576 researchers Nature surveyed in 2016, only a minority had ever attempted to publish a replication, and several respondents who had published failed replications noted that editors and reviewers demanded that they play down comparisons with the original studies. An analysis of 4,270 empirical studies in 18 business journals from 1970 to 1991 reported that less than 10% of accounting, economics, and finance articles and 5% of management and marketing articles were replication studies. Publication bias is augmented by the pressure to publish and the author's own confirmation bias, and is an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a certain degree of skepticism on the part of readers. +When publication bias is considered along with the fact that a majority of tested hypotheses might be false a priori, it is plausible that a considerable proportion of research findings might be false positives, as shown by metascientist John Ioannidis. In turn, a high proportion of false positives in the published literature can explain why many findings are nonreproducible. +Another publication bias is that studies that do not reject the null hypothesis are scrutinized asymmetrically. For example, they are likely to be rejected as being difficult to interpret or having a Type II error. Studies that do reject the null hypothesis are not likely to be rejected for those reasons. +In popular media, there is another element of publication bias: the desire to make research accessible to the public led to oversimplification and exaggeration of findings, creating unrealistic expectations and amplifying the impact of non-replications. In contrast, null results and failures to replicate tend to go unreported. This explanation may apply to power posing's replication crisis. + +==== Mathematical errors ==== +Even high-impact journals have a significant fraction of mathematical errors in their use of statistics. For example, 11% of statistical results published in Nature and BMJ in 2001 are "incongruent", meaning that the reported p-value is mathematically different from what it should be if it were correctly calculated from the reported test statistic. These errors were likely from typesetting, rounding, and transcription errors. +Among 157 neuroscience papers published in five top-ranking journals that attempt to show that two experimental effects are different, 78 erroneously tested instead for whether one effect is significant while the other is not, and 79 correctly tested for whether their difference is significantly different from 0. + +==== "Publish or perish" culture ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82573bc29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 6/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Academic "publish or perish" culture exacerbates publication bias. Intense pressure to publish in recognized journals, driven by hypercompetitive environments and bibliometric career evaluations, incentivizes researchers to prioritize publishable results over validity. According to Fanelli, this pushes scientists to employ a number of strategies aimed at making results "publishable". In the context of publication bias, this can mean adopting behaviors aimed at making results positive or statistically significant, often at the expense of their validity. +According to Center for Open Science founder Brian Nosek and his colleagues, "publish or perish" culture created a situation whereby the goals and values of single scientists (e.g., publishability) are not aligned with the general goals of science (e.g., pursuing scientific truth). This is detrimental to the validity of published findings. +Philosopher Brian D. Earp and psychologist Jim A. C. Everett argue that, although replication is in the best interests of academics and researchers as a group, features of academic psychological culture discourage replication by individual researchers. They argue that performing replications can be time-consuming, and take away resources from projects that reflect the researcher's original thinking. They are harder to publish, largely because they are unoriginal, and even when they can be published they are unlikely to be viewed as major contributions to the field. Replications "bring less recognition and reward, including grant money, to their authors". +In his 1971 book Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems, philosopher and historian of science Jerome R. Ravetz predicted that science—in its progression from "little" science composed of isolated communities of researchers to "big" science or "techno-science"—would suffer major problems in its internal system of quality control. He recognized that the incentive structure for modern scientists could become dysfunctional, creating perverse incentives to publish any findings, however dubious. According to Ravetz, quality in science is maintained only when there is a community of scholars, linked by a set of shared norms and standards, who are willing and able to hold each other accountable. + +==== Standards of reporting ==== +Certain publishing practices also make it difficult to conduct replications and to monitor the severity of the reproducibility crisis, for articles often come with insufficient descriptions for other scholars to reproduce the study. The Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology showed that of 193 experiments from 53 top papers about cancer published between 2010 and 2012, only 50 experiments from 23 papers have authors who provided enough information for researchers to redo the studies, sometimes with modifications. None of the 193 papers examined had its experimental protocols fully described and replicating 70% of experiments required asking for key reagents. The aforementioned study of empirical findings in the Strategic Management Journal found that 70% of 88 articles could not be replicated due to a lack of sufficient information for data or procedures. In water resources and management, most of 1,987 articles published in 2017 were not replicable because of a lack of available information shared online. In studies of event-related potentials, only two-thirds the information needed to replicate a study were reported in a sample of 150 studies, highlighting that there are substantial gaps in reporting. + +==== Procedural bias ==== +By the Duhem-Quine thesis, scientific results are interpreted by both a substantive theory and a theory of instruments. For example, astronomical observations depend both on the theory of astronomical objects and the theory of telescopes. A large amount of non-replicable research might accumulate if there is a bias of the following kind: faced with a null result, a scientist prefers to treat the data as saying the instrument is insufficient; faced with a non-null result, a scientist prefers to accept the instrument as good, and treat the data as saying something about the substantive theory. + +==== Cultural evolution ==== +Smaldino and McElreath proposed a simple model for the cultural evolution of scientific practice. Each lab randomly decides to produce novel research or replication research, at different fixed levels of false positive rate, true positive rate, replication rate, and productivity (its "traits"). A lab might use more "effort", making the ROC curve more convex but decreasing productivity. A lab accumulates a score over its lifetime that increases with publications and decreases when another lab fails to replicate its results. At regular intervals, a random lab "dies" and another "reproduces" a child lab with a similar trait as its parent. Labs with higher scores are more likely to reproduce. Under certain parameter settings, the population of labs converge to maximum productivity even at the price of very high false positive rates. + +=== Questionable research practices === + +Questionable research practices are behaviors that exploit researcher degrees of freedom (researcher DF)—choices in study design, data analysis, or reporting—to inflate false positive rates and undermine reproducibility. Examples of questionable research practices include data dredging, selective reporting of only statistically significant findings, HARKing (hypothesizing after results are known), PARKing (pre-registering after results are known), and conducting inappropriate power analyses. + +==== Genesis ==== +Researchers' degrees of freedom occur at many stages: hypothesis formulation, design of experiments, data collection and analysis, and reporting of research. Analyses of identical datasets by different teams, even absent incentives for significant findings, often yield divergent results in disciplines such as psychology, linguistics, and ecology. This is because research design and data analysis entail numerous decisions that are not sufficiently constrained by a field's best practices and statistical methodologies. As a result, researcher DF can lead to situations where some failed replication attempts use a different, yet plausible, research design or statistical analysis; such studies do not necessarily undermine previous findings. Multiverse analysis, a method that makes inferences based on all plausible data-processing pipelines, provides a solution to the problem of analytical flexibility. Sensitivity analysis explores modelling specifications to create a comprehensive view of how different analytical choices influence outcomes. Collaborative approaches can be used to compensate for questionable research practices. In multianalyst approaches, different analysts conduct different analyses to address questions. This collaborative validation fosters intellectual honesty and exposes questionable research practices, leading to more reliable and robust scientific conclusions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..31e75a53a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 7/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== In medicine ==== +Irreproducible medical studies commonly share these characteristics: investigators not being blinded to the experimental versus the control arms; failure to repeat experiments; lack of positive and negative controls; failing to report all the data; inappropriate use of statistical tests; and use of reagents that were not appropriately validated. + +==== In AI research ==== +In machine learning research, a range of questionable practices have emerged due to intense pressure to achieve state-of-the-art benchmark results. Common evaluation questionable practices include "benchmark overfitting" by repeatedly tuning hyperparameters on held-out test sets, selectively reporting the best of multiple random seeds or experimental runs, and "metric hacking" through unreported post hoc decisions such as choice of tokenization or evaluation scripts that inflate scores. Researchers also frequently cherry-pick tasks or datasets where their proposed model outperforms baselines, omit negative or lower-performing results, and obscure compute budgets to present energy-intensive methods as efficient. Such practices can give a misleading impression of model progress and hinder fair comparisons across methods. Moreover, many machine learning studies suffer from irreproducible research practices that impede replication and auditing. Key issues include incomplete disclosure of training details—such as dataset preprocessing, exact model hyperparameters, random seeds, and hardware configurations—and failure to release code or data used in experiments. Researchers often omit versions of dependencies or rely on proprietary datasets, preventing others from reproducing results. Even for public benchmarks, subtle "data leakage" through inadvertent inclusion of test data in training splits remains widespread. Together, these questionable practices undermine the validity and credibility of reported findings in machine learning and pose substantial barriers to cumulative scientific progress. + +In October 2024, Communications of the ACM published a peer-reviewed critique of a 2021 Nature paper by researchers from Google. The critique described "a smorgasbord of questionable practices in ML, including irreproducible research practices, multiple variants of cherry-picking, misreporting, and likely data contamination (leakage)" with a reference to Leech et al. The criticized paper claimed progress in fast chip design using reinforcement learning, but supported the claim with experiments on proprietary training and test datasets whose statistical details were undisclosed, preventing independent reproduction outside the company. Specific execution times for both the proposed approach and prior techniques on individual test cases were not disclosed in the paper, but later studies found that Google's method ran orders of magnitude more slowly than the Cadence Design Systems tools available at the same time. The critique cross-checked such studies and highlighted such questionable practices in the Nature paper as (i) selective reporting of results on only a subset of benchmarks, (ii) unfavorable comparisons to weaker baseline methods, (iii) use of inconsistent evaluation metrics, and (iv) undisclosed use of commercial software data that was only admitted years after the original work and multiple rounds of criticism. +Additionally, the research may have suffered from data leakage, where separation of training and testing data could not be verified using published data, considered a significant flaw in experimental design. After it rebranded as AlphaChip in 2024, multiple researchers voiced skepticism about the Google approach, as well as the data and source code released. The questionable research practices and independent researchers' inability to reproduce AlphaChip performance underscored the need for transparent, reproducible benchmarks and rigorous evaluation standards to ensure genuine progress in the field of electronic design automation. + +==== Prevalence ==== +According to IU professor Ernest O'Boyle and psychologist Martin Götz, around 50% of researchers surveyed across various studies admitted engaging in HARKing. In a survey of 2,000 psychologists by behavioral scientist Leslie K. John and colleagues, around 94% of psychologists admitted having employed at least one questionable research practice. More specifically, 63% admitted failing to report all of a study's dependent measures, 28% to report all of a study's conditions, and 46% to selectively reporting studies that produced the desired pattern of results. In addition, 56% admitted having collected more data after having inspected already collected data, and 16% to having stopped data collection because the desired result was already visible. According to biotechnology researcher J. Leslie Glick's estimate in 1992, 10% to 20% of research and development studies involved either questionable research practices or outright fraud. The methodology used to estimate questionable research practices has been contested, and more recent studies suggested lower prevalence rates on average. + +=== Fraud === +Questionable research practices are considered a separate category from more explicit violations of scientific integrity, such as data falsification. A 2009 meta-analysis found that 2% of scientists across fields admitted falsifying studies at least once and 14% admitted knowing someone who did. Such misconduct was, according to one study, reported more frequently by medical researchers than by others. Prominent examples (see also List of scientific misconduct incidents) include scientific fraud by social psychologist Diederik Stapel, cognitive psychologist Marc Hauser, and social psychologist Lawrence Sanna. In 2018, some researchers viewed scientific fraud as uncommon. A 2025 Northwestern University study found that "the publication of fraudulent science is outpacing the growth rate of legitimate scientific publications". The study also discovered broad networks of organized scientific fraudsters. +In March 2024, Harvard Business School's investigative committee, after reviewing a nearly 1,300-page report unsealed during Professor Francesca Gino's $25 million lawsuit against Harvard and the Data Colada bloggers, found that Gino "committed research misconduct intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly" by falsifying data in four published studies. The report documented that Gino had altered participant responses—including changing 104 moral-impurity ratings (flipping low values to high in one experimental condition and vice versa in another) and manipulating four networking-intentions items, for a total of 168 modified observations—to make the data conform to her hypotheses. She also engaged in selective reporting by publishing only the "Posted" dataset while omitting the original Qualtrics archives and misrepresented the provenance of her data by attributing discrepancies to alleged third-party tampering rather than to deliberate changes by her research team. In June 2023 Gino was placed on unpaid administrative leave, and in May 2025 Harvard revoked her tenure—the first such action in roughly 80 years—citing egregious violations of academic integrity. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2a2ce2d38 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 8/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Statistical issues === + +==== Low statistical power ==== +Low statistical power hinders replication for three reasons: (1) low-power replications have reduced ability to detect true effects, (2) low-power original studies produce biased effect size estimates leading to undersized replications, and (3) low-power original studies yield results unlikely to reflect true effects. +Mathematically, the probability of replicating a previous publication that rejected a null hypothesis + + + + + H + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{0}} + + in favor of an alternative + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + + is + + + + ( + + significance + + ) + P + r + ( + + H + + 0 + + + + | + + + publication + + ) + + + ( + + power + + ) + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + publication + + ) + ≤ + ( + + power + + ) + + + {\displaystyle ({\text{significance}})Pr(H_{0}|{\text{publication}})+({\text{power}})Pr(H_{1}|{\text{publication}})\leq ({\text{power}})} + +assuming significance is less than power. Thus, low power implies low probability of replication, regardless of how the previous publication was designed, and regardless of which hypothesis is really true. +Stanley and colleagues estimated the average statistical power of psychological literature by analyzing data from 200 meta-analyses. They found that on average, psychology studies have between 33.1% and 36.4% statistical power. These values are quite low compared to the 80% considered adequate statistical power for an experiment. Across the 200 meta-analyses, the median of studies with adequate statistical power was between 7.7% and 9.1%, implying that a positive result would replicate with probability less than 10%, regardless of whether the positive result was a true positive or a false positive. +The statistical power of neuroscience studies is quite low. The estimated statistical power of fMRI research is between .08 and .31, and that of studies of event-related potentials was estimated as .72‒.98 for large effect sizes, .35‒.73 for medium effects, and .10‒.18 for small effects. +In a study published in Nature, psychologist Katherine Button and colleagues conducted a similar study with 49 meta-analyses in neuroscience, estimating a median statistical power of 21%. Meta-scientist John Ioannidis and colleagues computed an estimate of average power for empirical economic research, finding a median power of 18% based on literature drawing upon 6.700 studies. In light of these results, it is plausible that a major reason for widespread failures to replicate in several scientific fields might be very low statistical power on average. +The same statistical test with the same significance level will have lower statistical power if the effect size is small under the alternative hypothesis. Complex inheritable traits are typically correlated with a large number of genes, each of small effect size, so high power requires a large sample size. In particular, many results from the candidate gene literature suffered from small effect sizes and small sample sizes and would not replicate. More data from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) come close to solving this problem. As a numeric example, most genes associated with schizophrenia risk have low effect size (genotypic relative risk, GRR). A statistical study with 1000 cases and 1000 controls has 0.03% power for a gene with GRR = 1.15, which is already large for schizophrenia. In contrast, the largest GWAS to date has ~100% power for it. + +==== Positive effect size bias ==== + +Even when the study replicates, the replication typically has a smaller effect size. Underpowered studies have a large effect size bias. + +In studies that statistically estimate a regression factor, such as the + + + + k + + + {\displaystyle k} + + in + + + + Y + = + k + X + + + b + + + {\displaystyle Y=kX+b} + +, when the dataset is large, noise tends to cause the regression factor to be underestimated, but when the dataset is small, noise tends to cause the regression factor to be overestimated. + +==== Problems of meta-analysis ==== +Meta-analyses have their own methodological problems and disputes, which leads to rejection of the meta-analytic method by researchers whose theory is challenged by meta-analysis. +Rosenthal proposed the "fail-safe number" (FSN) to avoid the publication bias against null results. It is defined as follows: Suppose the null hypothesis is true; how many publications would be required to make the current result indistinguishable from the null hypothesis? +Rosenthal's point is that certain effect sizes are large enough, such that even if there is a total publication bias against null results (the "file drawer problem"), the number of unpublished null results would be impossibly large to swamp out the effect size. Thus, the effect size must be statistically significant even after accounting for unpublished null results. +One objection to the FSN is that it is calculated as if unpublished results are unbiased samples from the null hypothesis. But if the file drawer problem is true, then unpublished results would have effect sizes concentrated around 0. Thus fewer unpublished null results would be necessary to swap out the effect size, and so the FSN is an overestimate. +Another problem with meta-analysis is that bad studies are "infectious" in the sense that one bad study might cause the entire meta-analysis to overestimate statistical significance. + +==== P-hacking ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b8d4b50c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 9/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Various statistical methods can be applied to make the p-value appear smaller than it really is. This need not be malicious, as moderately flexible data analysis, routine in research, can increase the false-positive rate to above 60%. +For example, if one collects some data, applies several different significance tests to it, and publishes only the one that happens to have a p-value less than 0.05, then the total p-value for "at least one significance test reaches p < 0.05" can be much larger than 0.05, because even if the null hypothesis were true, the probability that one out of many significance tests is extreme is not itself extreme. +Typically, a statistical study has multiple steps, with several choices at each step, such as during data collection, outlier rejection, choice of test statistic, choice of one-tailed or two-tailed test, etc. These choices in the "garden of forking paths" multiply, creating many "researcher degrees of freedom". The effect is similar to the file-drawer problem, as the paths not taken are not published. +Consider a simple illustration. Suppose the null hypothesis is true, and we have 20 possible significance tests to apply to the dataset. Also suppose the outcomes to the significance tests are independent. By definition of "significance", each test has probability 0.05 to pass with significance level 0.05. The probability that at least 1 out of 20 is significant is, by assumption of independence, + + + + 1 + − + ( + 1 + − + 0.05 + + ) + + 20 + + + = + 0.64 + + + {\displaystyle 1-(1-0.05)^{20}=0.64} + +. +Another possibility is the multiple comparisons problem. In 2009, it was twice noted that fMRI studies had a suspicious number of positive results with large effect sizes, more than would be expected since the studies have low power (one example had only 13 subjects). It pointed out that over half of the studies would test for correlation between a phenomenon and individual fMRI voxels, and only report on voxels exceeding chosen thresholds. + +Optional stopping is a practice where one collects data until some stopping criterion is reached. Though a valid procedure, it is easily misused. The problem is that p-value of an optionally stopped statistical test is larger than it seems. Intuitively, this is because the p-value is supposed to be the sum of all events at least as rare as what is observed. With optional stopping, there are even rarer events that are difficult to account for, i.e. not triggering the optional stopping rule, and collecting even more data before stopping. Neglecting these events leads to a p-value that is too low. In fact, if the null hypothesis is true, any significance level can be reached if one is allowed to keep collecting data and stop when the desired p-value (calculated as if one has always been planning to collect exactly this much data) is obtained. For a concrete example of testing for a fair coin, see p-value#optional stopping. +More succinctly, the proper calculation of p-value requires accounting for counterfactuals, that is, what the experimenter could have done in reaction to data that might have been. Accounting for what might have been is hard even for honest researchers. One benefit of preregistration is to account for all counterfactuals, allowing the p-value to be calculated correctly. +The problem of early stopping is not just limited to researcher misconduct. There is often pressure to stop early if the cost of collecting data is high. Some animal ethics boards even mandate early stopping if the study obtains a significant result midway. +Such practices are widespread in psychology. In a 2012 survey, 56% of psychologists admitted to early stopping, 46% to only reporting analyses that "worked", and 38% to post hoc exclusion, that is, removing some data after analysis was already performed on the data before reanalyzing the remaining data (often on the premise of "outlier removal"). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..840670db5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,332 @@ +--- +title: "Replication crisis" +chunk: 10/15 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:42.938117+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Statistical heterogeneity ==== +As also reported by Stanley and colleagues, a further reason studies might fail to replicate is high heterogeneity of the to-be-replicated effects. Heterogeneity (variance in research findings due to multiple true effect sizes rather than one) is measured by the I-squared statistic, which quantifies unexplained variation in effect sizes across studies. This variation can be due to differences in experimental methods, populations, cohorts, and statistical methods between replication studies. Heterogeneity poses a challenge to studies attempting to replicate previously found effect sizes. When heterogeneity is high, subsequent replications have a high probability of finding an effect size radically different than that of the original study. +Importantly, significant levels of heterogeneity are also found in direct/exact replications of a study. Stanley and colleagues discuss this while reporting a study by quantitative behavioral scientist Richard Klein and colleagues, where the authors attempted to replicate 15 psychological effects across 36 different sites in Europe and the U.S. In the study, Klein and colleagues found significant amounts of heterogeneity in 8 out of 16 effects (I-squared = 23% to 91%). Importantly, while the replication sites intentionally differed on a variety of characteristics, such differences could account for very little heterogeneity . According to Stanley and colleagues, this suggested that heterogeneity could have been a genuine characteristic of the phenomena being investigated. For instance, phenomena might be influenced by so-called "hidden moderators" – relevant factors that were previously not understood to be important in the production of a certain effect. +In their analysis of 200 meta-analyses of psychological effects, Stanley and colleagues found a median percent of heterogeneity of I-squared = 74%. According to the authors, this level of heterogeneity can be considered "huge". It is three times larger than the random sampling variance of effect sizes measured in their study. If considered along sampling error, heterogeneity yields a standard deviation from one study to the next even larger than the median effect size of the 200 meta-analyses they investigated. The authors conclude that if replication is defined by a subsequent study finding a sufficiently similar effect size to the original, replication success is not likely even if replications have very large sample sizes. Importantly, this occurs even if replications are direct or exact since heterogeneity nonetheless remains relatively high in these cases. + +==== Others ==== +Within economics, the replication crisis may be also exacerbated because econometric results are fragile: using different but plausible estimation procedures or data preprocessing techniques can lead to conflicting results. + +=== Context sensitivity === +New York University professor Jay Van Bavel and colleagues argue that a further reason findings are difficult to replicate is the sensitivity to context of certain psychological effects. On this view, failures to replicate might be explained by contextual differences between the original experiment and the replication, often called "hidden moderators". Van Bavel and colleagues tested the influence of context sensitivity by reanalyzing the data of the widely cited Reproducibility Project carried out by the Open Science Collaboration. They re-coded effects according to their sensitivity to contextual factors and then tested the relationship between context sensitivity and replication success in various regression models. +Context sensitivity was found to negatively correlate with replication success, such that higher ratings of context sensitivity were associated with lower probabilities of replicating an effect. Importantly, context sensitivity significantly correlated with replication success even when adjusting for other factors considered important for reproducing results (e.g., effect size and sample size of original, statistical power of the replication, methodological similarity between original and replication). In light of the results, the authors concluded that attempting a replication in a different time, place or with a different sample can significantly alter an experiment's results. Context sensitivity thus may be a reason certain effects fail to replicate in psychology. + +=== Bayesian explanation === +In the framework of Bayesian probability, by Bayes' theorem, rejecting the null hypothesis at significance level 5% does not mean that the posterior probability for the alternative hypothesis is 95%, and the posterior probability is also different from the probability of replication. Consider a simplified case where there are only two hypotheses. Let the prior probability of the null hypothesis be + + + + P + r + ( + + H + + 0 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle Pr(H_{0})} + +, and the alternative + + + + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + ) + = + 1 + − + P + r + ( + + H + + 0 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle Pr(H_{1})=1-Pr(H_{0})} + +. For a given statistical study, let its false positive rate (significance level) be + + + + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 0 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle Pr({\text{find }}H_{1}|H_{0})} + +, and true positive rate (power) be + + + + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle Pr({\text{find }}H_{1}|H_{1})} + +. For illustrative purposes, let significance level be 0.05 and power be 0.45 (underpowered). +Now, by Bayes' theorem, conditional on the statistical studying finding + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + + to be true, the posterior probability of + + + + + H + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{1}} + + actually being true is not + + + + 1 + − + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 0 + + + ) + = + 0.95 + + + {\displaystyle 1-Pr({\text{find }}H_{1}|H_{0})=0.95} + +, but + + + + + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + = + + + + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + ) + + + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 0 + + + ) + P + r + ( + + H + + 0 + + + ) + + + P + r + ( + + find + + + H + + 1 + + + + | + + + H + + 1 + + + ) + P + r + ( + + H + + 1 + + + ) + + + + + + {\displaystyle Pr(H_{1}|{\text{ find }}H_{1})={\frac {Pr({\text{ find }}H_{1}|H_{1})Pr(H_{1})}{Pr({\text{ find }}H_{1}|H_{0})Pr(H_{0})+Pr({\text{ find }}H_{1}|H_{1})Pr(H_{1})}}} + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5533308db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Science in a Free Society" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:45.281843+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Science in a Free Society is the 2nd full length book by the Austrian philosopher of science, Paul Feyerabend. It was published in 1978 by Schocken Books and later reprinted by Verso Books. While Feyerabend never published a second edition, Verso pressed four copies in 1982, 1983, 1985, and 1987. +Parts of the book were reprinted in later editions of Against Method. The book largely develops arguments from the first edition of Against Method and spells out their political implications. The book also contains a collection of previously published material in which he responds to some of his critics of Against Method. In 1979, Feyerabend also published, in German, Erkenntnis für freie Menschen (Knowledge for Free People), which contains roughly two-thirds of the material from Science in a Society while expanding on some sections and diminishing others. + + +== Content == +The book is divided into three sections: + +"Reason and Practice" expounds Feyerabend's theory of rationality as something embedded in, rather than separate from, traditions. +"Science in a Free Society" develops Feyerabend's views about the place of science in democratic societies. +"Conversations with Illiterates" provides responses to criticisms of Against Method. + + +=== Reason and Practice === +The first section develops a version of Protagorean relativism. Feyerabend argues against two views: idealism, which he defines as the view that the authority of reason is independent from tradition and practice, and naturalism or the view that the authority of reason derives from practice. Idealism is wrong, Feyerabend argues, because the authority of reason depends on its ability to be integrated into a coherent practice. If one were to apply a view of rationality to practice and the practice were to suffer, then the theory of rationality can be rejected. Naturalism is wrong because it treats the norms that already happen to be in practice dogmatically. Feyerabend develops a view that synthesizes elements of each, which he claims amounts to a form of relativism. +To allow for collective decision making when traditions conflict, Feyerabend argues for two kinds of dialogues: "guided" and "open" exchanges. Guided exchanges require shared assumptions that 'guide' the deliberation process whereas open exchanges have no prior constraints introduced upon dialogue. + + +=== Science in a Free Society === +The second section spells out the political implications of relativism. Feyerabend argues against the view that there should be 'experts' who dictate policy decisions and that experts should be supervised by democratically representative laypeople. He argues that expertise is often exaggerated and laypeople are competent enough to criticize their views. This includes scientific experts. Because of this, Feyerabend thinks that science and the state should be separated in an analogous way as the religion and the state are separated in secular societies. + + +=== Conversations with Illiterates === +The final section collects some of Feyerabend's previously published responses to criticisms of Against Method. This section is largely polemical and argues that many of his critics suffered from illiteracy. + + +== Scholarly reception == +Responses to Science in a Free Society were mixed, but largely positive. + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f63adad6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Science wars" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:46.434506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the philosophy of science, the science wars were a series of scholarly and public discussions in the 1990s over the social place of science in making authoritative claims about the world. +Encyclopedia.com, citing the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, describes the science wars as the + +"complex of discussions about the way the sciences are related to or incarnated in culture, history, and practice. [...] [which] came to be called a 'war' in the mid 1990s because of a strong polarization over questions of legitimacy and authority. One side [...] is concerned with defending the authority of science as rooted in objective evidence and rational procedures. The other side argues that it is legitimate and fruitful to study the sciences as institutions and social-technical networks whose development is influenced by linguistics, economics, politics, and other factors surrounding formally rational procedures and isolated established facts." +The science wars took place principally in the United States in the 1990s in the academic and mainstream press. Scientific realists (such as Norman Levitt, Paul R. Gross, Jean Bricmont and Alan Sokal) accused many writers, whom they described as 'postmodernist', of having effectively rejected scientific objectivity, the scientific method, empiricism, and scientific knowledge. +Though much of the theory associated with 'postmodernism' (see post-structuralism) did not make any interventions into the natural sciences, the scientific realists took aim at its general influence. The scientific realists argued that large swathes of scholarship, amounting to a rejection of objectivity and realism, had been influenced by major 20th-century post-structuralist philosophers (such as Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze, Jean-François Lyotard and others), whose work they declare to be incomprehensible or meaningless. They implicate a broad range of fields in this trend, including cultural studies, feminist studies, comparative literature, media studies, and especially science and technology studies, which does apply such methods to the study of science. +Physicist N. David Mermin understands the science wars as a series of exchanges between scientists and "sociologists, historians and literary critics" who the scientists "thought ...were ludicrously ignorant of science, making all kinds of nonsensical pronouncements. The other side dismissed these charges as naive, ill-informed and self-serving." Sociologist Harry Collins wrote that the "science wars" began "in the early 1990s with attacks by natural scientists or ex-natural scientists who had assumed the role of spokespersons for science. The subject of the attacks was the analysis of science coming out of literary studies and the social sciences." + +== Historical background == +Until the mid-20th century, the philosophy of science had concentrated on the viability of scientific method and knowledge, proposing justifications for the truth of scientific theories and observations and attempting to discover at a philosophical level why science worked. +Karl Popper, an early opponent of logical positivism in the 20th century, repudiated the classical observationalist/inductivist form of scientific method in favour of empirical falsification. He is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist/verificationist account of knowledge which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy". +His criticisms of scientific method were adopted by several postmodernist critiques. +A number of 20th-century philosophers maintained that logical models of pure science do not apply to actual scientific practice. It was the publication of Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962, however, which fully opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part socially determined and that it did not operate under the simple logical laws put forward by the logical positivist school of philosophy. +Kuhn described the development of scientific knowledge not as a linear increase in truth and understanding, but as a series of periodic revolutions which overturned the old scientific order and replaced it with new orders (what he called "paradigms"). Kuhn attributed much of this process to the interactions and strategies of the human participants in science rather than its own innate logical structure. (See sociology of scientific knowledge). +Some interpreted Kuhn's ideas to mean that scientific theories were, either wholly or in part, social constructs, which many interpreted as diminishing the claim of science to representing objective reality, and that reality had a lesser or potentially irrelevant role in the formation of scientific theories. In 1971, Jerome Ravetz published Scientific knowledge and its social problems, a book describing the role that the scientific community, as a social construct, plays in accepting or rejecting objective scientific knowledge. + +=== Postmodernism === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8a598c885 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Science wars" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:46.434506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A number of different philosophical and historical schools, often grouped together as "postmodernism", began reinterpreting scientific achievements of the past through the lens of the practitioners, often positing the influence of politics and economics in the development of scientific theories in addition to scientific observations. Rather than being presented as working entirely from positivistic observations, many scientists of the past were scrutinized for their connection to issues of gender, sexual orientation, race, and class. Some more radical philosophers, such as Paul Feyerabend, argued that scientific theories were themselves incoherent and that other forms of knowledge production (such as those used in religion) served the material and spiritual needs of their practitioners with equal validity as did scientific explanations. +Imre Lakatos advanced a midway view between the "postmodernist" and "realist" camps. For Lakatos, scientific knowledge is progressive; however, it progresses not by a strict linear path where every new element builds upon and incorporates every other, but by an approach where a "core" of a "research program" is established by auxiliary theories which can themselves be falsified or replaced without compromising the core. Social conditions and attitudes affect how strongly one attempts to resist falsification for the core of a program, but the program has an objective status based on its relative explanatory power. Resisting falsification only becomes ad-hoc and damaging to knowledge when an alternate program with greater explanatory power is rejected in favor of another with less. But because it is changing a theoretical core, which has broad ramifications for other areas of study, accepting a new program is also revolutionary as well as progressive. Thus, for Lakatos the character of science is that of being both revolutionary and progressive; both socially informed and objectively justified. + +== The science wars == +In Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels With Science (1994), scientists Paul R. Gross and Norman Levitt accused postmodernists of anti-intellectualism, presented the shortcomings of relativism, and suggested that postmodernists knew little about the scientific theories they criticized and practiced poor scholarship for political reasons. The authors insist that the "science critics" misunderstood the theoretical approaches they criticized, given their "caricature, misreading, and condescension, [rather] than argument". The book sparked the so-called science wars. Higher Superstition inspired a New York Academy of Sciences conference titled The Flight from Science and Reason, organized by Gross, Levitt, and Gerald Holton. Attendees of the conference were critical of the polemical approach of Gross and Levitt, yet agreed upon the intellectual inconsistency of how laymen, non-scientist, and social studies intellectuals dealt with science. + +=== Social Text === +In 1996, Social Text, a left-wing Duke University publication of postmodern critical theory, compiled a "Science Wars" issue containing brief articles by postmodernist academics in the social sciences and the humanities, that emphasized the roles of society and politics in science. In the introduction to the issue, the Social Text editor, activist Andrew Ross, said that the attack upon science studies was a conservative reaction to reduced funding for scientific research. He characterized the Flight from Science and Reason conference as an attempted "linking together a host of dangerous threats: scientific creationism, New Age alternatives and cults, astrology, UFO-ism, the radical science movement, postmodernism, and critical science studies, alongside the ready-made historical specters of Aryan-Nazi science and the Soviet error of Lysenkoism" that "degenerated into name-calling". +In another Social Text article, the postmodern sociologist Dorothy Nelkin characterised Gross and Levitt's vigorous response as a "call to arms in response to the failed marriage of Science and the State"—in contrast to the scientists' historical tendency to avoid participating in perceived political threats, such as creation science, the animal rights movement, and anti-abortionists' attempts to curb fetal research. At the end of the Soviet–American Cold War (1945–91), military funding of science declined, while funding agencies demanded accountability, and research became directed by private interests. Nelkin suggested that postmodernist critics were "convenient scapegoats" who diverted attention from problems in science. +Also in 1996, physicist Alan Sokal had submitted an article to Social Text titled "Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity", which proposed that quantum gravity is a linguistic and social construct and that quantum physics supports postmodernist criticisms of scientific objectivity. The staff published it in the "Science Wars" issue as a relevant contribution, later claiming that they held the article back from earlier issues due to Sokal's alleged refusal to consider revisions. Later, in the May 1996 issue of Lingua Franca, in the article "A Physicist Experiments With Cultural Studies", Sokal exposed his parody-article, "Transgressing the Boundaries" as an experiment testing the intellectual rigor of an academic journal that would "publish an article liberally salted with nonsense if (a) it sounded good and (b) it flattered the editors' ideological preconceptions". The matter became known as the "Sokal Affair" and brought greater public attention to the wider conflict. +Jacques Derrida, a frequent target of anti-relativist and anti-postmodern criticism in the wake of Sokal's article, responded to the hoax in "Sokal and Bricmont Aren't Serious", first published in Le Monde. He called Sokal's action sad (triste) for having overshadowed Sokal's mathematical work and ruined the chance to sort out controversies of scientific objectivity in a careful way. Derrida went on to fault him and co-author Jean Bricmont for what he considered an act of intellectual bad faith: they had accused him of scientific incompetence in the English edition of a follow-up book (an accusation several English reviewers noted), but deleted the accusation from the French edition and denied that it had ever existed. He concluded, as the title indicates, that Sokal was not serious in his approach, but had used the spectacle of a "quick practical joke" to displace the scholarship Derrida believed the public deserved. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c1622e80 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Science wars" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:46.434506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Continued conflict === +In the first few years after the 'Science Wars' edition of Social Text, the seriousness and volume of discussion increased significantly, much of it focused on reconciling the 'warring' camps of postmodernists and scientists. One significant event was the 'Science and Its Critics' conference in early 1997; it brought together scientists and scholars who study science and featured Alan Sokal and Steve Fuller as keynote speakers. The conference generated the final wave of substantial press coverage (in both news media and scientific journals), though by no means resolved the fundamental issues of social construction and objectivity in science. +Other attempts have been made to reconcile the two camps. Mike Nauenberg, a physicist at the University of California, Santa Cruz, organized a small conference in May 1997 that was attended by scientists and sociologists of science alike, among them Alan Sokal, N. David Mermin and Harry Collins. In the same year, Collins organized the Southampton Peace Workshop, which again brought together a broad range of scientists and sociologists. The Peace Workshop gave rise to the idea of a book that intended to map out some of the arguments between the disputing parties. The One Culture?: A Conversation about Science, edited by chemist Jay A. Labinger and sociologist Harry Collins, was eventually published in 2001. The book's title is a reference to C. P. Snow's The Two Cultures. It contains contributions from authors such as Alan Sokal, Jean Bricmont, Steven Weinberg, and Steven Shapin. +Other significant publications related to the science wars include Fashionable Nonsense by Sokal and Jean Bricmont (1998), The Social Construction of What? by Ian Hacking (1999) and Who Rules in Science by James Robert Brown (2004). +To John C. Baez, the Bogdanov Affair in 2002 served as the bookend to the Sokal controversy: the review, acceptance, and publication of papers, later alleged to be nonsense, in peer-reviewed physics journals. Cornell physics professor Paul Ginsparg, argued that the cases are not at all similar and that the fact that some journals and scientific institutions have low standards is "hardly a revelation". The new editor in chief of the journal Annals of Physics, who was appointed after the controversy along with a new editorial staff, had said that the standards of the journal had been poor leading up to the publication since the previous editor had become sick and died. +Interest in the science wars has waned considerably in recent years. Though the events of the science wars are still occasionally mentioned in the mainstream press, they have had little effect on either the scientific community or the community of critical theorists. Both sides continue to maintain that the other does not understand their theories, or mistakes constructive criticisms and scholarly investigations for attacks. In 1999, the French sociologist Bruno Latour—at the time believing that the natural sciences are socially constructivist—said, "Scientists always stomp around meetings talking about 'bridging the two-culture gap', but when scores of people from outside the sciences begin to build just that bridge, they recoil in horror and want to impose the strangest of all gags on free speech since Socrates: only scientists should speak about science!" Subsequently, Latour has suggested a re-evaluation of sociology's epistemology based on lessons learned from the Science Wars: "... scientists made us realize that there was not the slightest chance that the type of social forces we use as a cause could have objective facts as their effects". +Reviewing Sokal's Beyond the Hoax, Mermin stated that "As a sign that the science wars are over, I cite the 2008 election of Bruno Latour [...] to Foreign Honorary Membership in that bastion of the establishment, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences" and opined that "we are not only beyond Sokal's hoax, but beyond the science wars themselves". +However, more recently, some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their critiques have, at times, been counter-productive and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. +Writing about these developments in the context of global warming, Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we said?" +Kendrick Frazier notes that Latour is interested in helping to rebuild trust in science and that Latour has said that some of the authority of science needs to be regained. +In 2016, Shawn Lawrence Otto, in his book The War on Science: Who's Waging It, Why It Matters, and What We can Do About It, that the winners of the war on science "will chart the future of power, democracy, and freedom itself." + +== See also == +Chomsky–Foucault debate +Culture war +Deconstruction +Grievance studies affair +Historiography of science +Nature versus nurture +Normative science +Positivism +Positivism dispute +Science for the People +Scientific rationalism +Scientism +Searle–Derrida debate +Strong programme +Suppressed research in the Soviet Union +Teissier affair + +== Notes == + +== References == +Ashman, Keith M. and Barringer, Philip S. (ed.) (2001). After the science wars, Routledge, London. ISBN 0-415-21209-X +Gross, Paul R. and Levitt, Norman (1994). Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels With Science, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. ISBN 0-8018-4766-4 +Sokal, Alan D. (1996). Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity, Social Text 46/47, 217–252. +Callon, Michel (1999). Whose Impostures? Physicists at War with the Third Person, Social Studies of Science 29(2), 261–286. +Parsons, Keith (ed.) (2003). The Science Wars: Debating Scientific Knowledge and Technology, Prometheus Books, Amherst, NY, US. ISBN 1-57392-994-8 +Labinger, Jay A. and Collins, Harry (eds.) (2001). The One Culture?: A Conversation About Science, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-46723-6 +Brown, James R. (2001). Who Rules in Science? An Opinionated Guide to the Wars, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. + +== External links == +Papers by Alan Sokal on the "Social Text Affair" +Henriques, Gregg (1 June 2012). "Revisiting the Science Wars | Psychology Today". Psychology Today. Retrieved 3 June 2023. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md index 0bfc7ce9a..fc03c84c5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:23.727176+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:47.652343+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md index b4badd366..5ca2ec2bc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:23.727176+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:47.652343+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md index 5841095ff..29fd8f271 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:23.727176+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:47.652343+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md index 563e2ea05..7d11d76de 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:23.727176+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:47.652343+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monsanto_Years-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monsanto_Years-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..60ea5e560 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monsanto_Years-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "The Monsanto Years" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monsanto_Years" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:36.728873+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Monsanto Years is the 37th studio album by Canadian-American singer-songwriter Neil Young and the American rock group Promise of the Real, released on June 29, 2015, on Reprise Records. A concept album which criticizes the agribusiness company Monsanto, it is Young's thirty-fifth studio album and the third by Promise of the Real. The album is the first collaboration between Young and Promise of the Real. The group is fronted by Lukas Nelson and features his brother Micah, both sons of Willie Nelson. +The album was produced by both Young and John Hanlon, and is accompanied by a film documenting the recording process. + + +== Background == +Young had a long-time friendship with Willie Nelson and his sons, Lukas and Micah, and jammed with Lukas' bandmates in Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real after 2014's Farm Aid. Micah reflects on their relationship with Young: "Neil doesn't want us to hold back musically, and we all were quickly absorbed into the fold with him. We look up to him with respect, but he never treated us like we were younger, he treats us as equals. He's now our homie and he doesn’t act like he's 71." + + +== Writing == +Songs on the album reflect Young's dissatisfaction with genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, and the lack of requirements that GMO-sourced foods be labelled as such. The song "A Rock Star Bucks a Coffee Shop" reflects Young's unhappiness at Starbucks' efforts to prevent a Vermont referendum from taking effect that would have required the labeling of GMO-sourced food products. + +The song "People Want to Hear About Love" reflect Young's challenges in balancing his competing desires to sing about social issues but also express more personal, emotional topics in his songs. He explained to Marc Maron: "The song started from... I was playing a lot of songs about anti-corporate songs and all these things, and somebody just, I got the message, people want to hear about love, that's what they want to hear. I'm going, 'Well, I don't give a, I don't care. I've sang about love already. "Only Love Can Break Your Heart". I sang about many aspects of love.' Just quite recently I did an album called Storytone that's all about love. That was only a couple albums ago. I'm going, 'Does this mean that I can only do 'that'? And I can't talk about things like the dangers of different things and incongruous things that are happening. Pollution, corruption, corporate government.' Those things, I think they're interesting." + + +== Recording == +Recording for the album began January 2015. Young announced that he was recording an album with the band—including non-member Micah—at a converted movie theater Teatro in Oxnard, California, the site where Willie Nelson's Teatro album was recorded. Young sent a CD to his collaborators with demos to allow them to learn some of the new songs before arriving to perform together on the new compositions. +The recording was filmed by Don Hannah alongside live rehearsals in April 2015 for a film also entitled The Monsanto Years. +Young debuted a music video for "Wolf Moon" on June 10, 2015. + + +== Reception == + + +=== Critical === +In a highly positive review, The Guardian's Jon Dennis gave the album five stars out of five. Praising the contributions of Promise of the Real, Dennis wrote: [The band] sound not unlike Crazy Horse, and supply all the big riffs, crashing major chords and harmonies that have characterised Young's best records for five decades." Zach Schonfeld of The A.V. Club gave the album a "C" rating, opining that the concept of the album and its execution were "underproduced, underwritten, and not likely to take up more than a few months (if not weeks or days) of Young's promotional energies before he moves to the next thing" but with some highlights among the harder rock songs. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album 3.5 stars out of 5, claiming that: "Young uses his sturdy footing to lash out at what he perceives as destructive forces – to our dinner tables and social fabric – and if the individual message may wind up fading like yesterday's newspapers, the music will keep The Monsanto Years burning bright". An Associated Press review of the album argued that Young's criticisms of corporate greed descend into preachiness, saying Young's anger is "so real that it could be tasted, but there is something discomfiting about Young positioning himself as an all-knowing seer, putting people down for wanting simpler, cheerier songs." +Billboard solicited the opinions of corporations criticized on the album, including Monsanto, whose representative said: "Many of us at Monsanto have been and are fans of Neil Young. Unfortunately, for some of us, his current album may fail to reflect our strong beliefs in what we do every day to help make agriculture more sustainable. We recognize there is a lot of misinformation about who we are and what we do—and unfortunately several of those myths seem to be captured in these lyrics." Notably all the corporations mentioned in album lyrics except for Chevron provided their responses for the request to comment on the album songs. Reacting to the "Big Box" track Walmart said: "As you might have seen recently, Walmart raised its lowest starting wage to $9 an hour. We're proud of the opportunity we provide people to build a career and have a chance at a better life." Starbucks commented on "A Rock Star Bucks a Coffee Shop": "Starbucks has not taken a position on the issue of GMO [genetically modified organism] labeling. As a company with stores and a product presence in every state, we prefer a national solution." + + +=== Commercial === +The album debuted at No. 21 on the Billboard 200 albums chart on its first week of release, selling around 18,000 copies in the United States in its first week. It also debuted at No. 4 on Billboard's Rock Albums chart. and No. 2 on the Folk Albums chart. As of June 2016, the album has sold 41,000 copies in the US. + + +=== Monsanto === +Criticism of the company led Monsanto to investigate Young and write an internal memo on his social media activity and music. + + +== Track listing == + + +== Personnel == +Neil Young – vocals, guitar, production +Lukas Nelson – guitar, backing vocals +Micah Nelson – electric guitar, electric charango, backing vocals +Corey McCormick – bass guitar, backing vocals +Tato Melgar – percussion +Anthony Logerfo – drums +Technical personnel + +Johnnie Burik – assistant engineering +Alberto Hernandez – assistant engineering +John Hanlon – production, engineering +John Hausmann – stage and monitor engineering +Chris Kasych – stage and monitor engineering +Keith "Moby" Lanoux – guitar tech +Bob Ludwig – mastering +Jeff Pinn – engineering +Jimmy Sloan – assistant engineering, production coordination +Artwork + +Neil Young, Lukas Nelson, Corey McCormick, Tato Melgar, Anthony Logerfo – cover design +Micah Nelson – cover painting, DVD label art, cover design +Gary Burden – art direction +Howard Chandler Christy – booklet painting +Jenice Heo – art direction +Eric Johnson – cover art, lettering +Other Shoe Photography – booklet cover photography + + +== Charts == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4934ffb04 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Viktor Schauberger" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:08:44.113231+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Viktor Schauberger (Austrian German: [ˈʃaʊbɛrɡɐ]; 30 June 1885 – 25 September 1958) was an Austrian forest caretaker, naturalist, philosopher, pseudoscientist, and inventor. + + +== Early life == +Schauberger was born in Holzschlag, Upper Austria on 30 June 1885. His parents were Leopold Schauberger and Josefa, née Klimitsch. From 1891 to 1897, he attended the elementary school in Aigen, then until 1900 the state grammar school in Linz. Until 1904, he went to the forestry school in Aggsbach in the Kartause Aggsbach, where he passed the exam as a forester. From 1904 to 1906, he was a forest clerk in Groß-Schweinbarth in Lower Austria. + + +== Technology == +Nick Cook visited the PKS bio-technical institute, Pythagoras-Kepler System, in the Salzkammergut Mountains. Viktor's grandson Joerg gave Nick access to the family archives, which included Viktor's books, letters, diary, and patent applications. Besides inventing a log flume, Viktor worked on bio-technical machinery. In 1939, Viktor filed a patent with the Reich Patent Office for a "multistage centrifuge with concentrically juxtaposed pressure chambers," a means of propelling machines through air or water, water purification, or electricity generation. In 1940, Viktor contracted Kaempfer in Berlin to build the machine, then in February 1941, switched to the Kertl company in Vienna. In March 1941, he started working in secret for the Nazis. By 1944, this included the use of slave labor from the Mauthausen concentration camp. At the end of the war, the US apprehended Viktor, and debriefed him over the next nine months. In 1957, Viktor and his son Walter, were invited to the US by Karl Gerchsheimer and Robert Donner, to put Viktor's implosion technology into production. Viktor died soon after returning to Linz. + + +== Books == +Schauberger, Viktor: Unsere sinnlose Arbeit – Die Quelle der Weltkrise, Der Aufbau durch Atomverwandlung, nicht Atomzertrümmerung (1933, Krystall-Verlag GmbH, 2001, Jörg Schauberger, ISBN 978-3902262004) (Released in English as Our Senseless Toil – The Cause of the World Crisis – Progress Through Transformation of the Atom – Not its destruction) +Schauberger, Viktor & Coats, Callum: Eco-Technology 1: The Water Wizard – The Extraordinary Properties of Natural Water (1998, Gateway Books, ISBN 978-1858600482) +Schauberger, Viktor & Coats, Callum: Eco-Technology 2: Nature as Teacher – New Principles in the Working of Nature (1999, Gateway Books, ISBN 978-1858600567) +Schauberger, Viktor & Coats, Callum: Eco-Technology 3: The Fertile Earth – Nature's Energies in Agriculture, Soil Fertilisation and Forestry (1999, Gateway Books, ISBN 978-1858600604) +Schauberger, Viktor & Coats, Callum: Eco-Technology 4: Energy Evolution – Harnessing Free Energy from Nature (2000, Gateway Books, ISBN 978-1858600611) +Viktor Schauberger (2006). Das Wesen des Wassers : Originaltexte, herausgegeben und kommentiert von Jörg Schauberger (in German). Baden, München: AT Verl. ISBN 978-3038002727. OCLC 315001786.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +The Schauberger Family Trust (PKS) maintains an archive with many of Viktor Schauberger's original manuscripts and a small museum with models and prototypes by Viktor Schauberger \ No newline at end of file