From 2e96e4e06967cec5d76b636633810e4b273fbb65 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 20:00:21 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 148 new, 2 updated, 164 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 1118208 -> 1118208 bytes .../Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md | 39 +++++ .../Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md | 54 ++++++ .../wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md | 27 +++ .../wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md | 43 +++++ ...st_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md | 59 +++++++ ...st_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md | 45 +++++ ...st_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md | 32 ++++ ...of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md | 164 ++++++++++++++++++ .../wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks-0.md | 14 ++ .../wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md | 59 +++++++ .../wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md | 62 +++++++ .../wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md | 71 ++++++++ .../wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md | 2 +- 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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:17.507286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. + + +== Geometric optics (ray tracing) == + +Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. +Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. +The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction +Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to apply the ray-tracing technique to hexagonal ice crystal. Wendling et al. (1979) extended Jacobowitz's work from hexagonal ice particle with infinite length to finite length and combined Monte Carlo technique to the ray-tracing simulations. + + +== Classification == +The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by hexagonal ice crystals, large raindrops, and relevant links and applications. + + +=== Codes for light scattering by hexagonal ice crystals === + + +== Relevant scattering codes == +Discrete dipole approximation codes +Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders +Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres + + +== External links == +Scatterlib - Google Code repository of light scattering codes + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..211aad8bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Atmospheric radiative transfer codes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:18.655518+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. + + +== Methods == +At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. +A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending on temperature and other parameters). In addition, models may consider scattering from molecules or particles, as well as polarisation; however, not all models do so. + + +== Applications == +Radiative transfer codes are used in broad range of applications. They are commonly used as forward models for the retrieval of geophysical parameters (such as temperature or humidity). Radiative transfer models are also used to optimize solar photovoltaic systems for renewable energy generation. Another common field of application is in a weather or climate model, where the radiative forcing is calculated for greenhouse gases, aerosols, or clouds. In such applications, radiative transfer codes are often called radiation parameterization. In these applications, the radiative transfer codes are used in forward sense, i.e. on the basis of known properties of the atmosphere, one calculates heating rates, radiative fluxes, and radiances. +There are efforts for intercomparison of radiation codes. One such project was ICRCCM (Intercomparison of Radiation Codes in Climate Models) effort that spanned the late 1980s – early 2000s. The more current (2011) project, Continual Intercomparison of Radiation Codes, emphasises also using observations to define intercomparison cases. + + +== Table of models == + + +=== Molecular absorption databases === +For a line-by-line calculation, one needs characteristics of the spectral lines, such as the line centre, the intensity, the lower-state energy, the line width and the shape. + + +== See also == +Discrete dipole approximation codes +Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders +Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres +Optical properties of water and ice + + +== References == +Footnotes + +General +Bohren, Craig F. and Eugene E. Clothiaux, Fundamentals of atmospheric radiation: an introduction with 400 problems, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2006, 472 p., ISBN 3-527-40503-8. +Goody, R. M. and Y. L. Yung, Atmospheric Radiation: Theoretical Basis. Oxford University Press, 1996 (Second Edition), 534 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-510291-8. +Liou, Kuo-Nan, An introduction to atmospheric radiation, Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press, 2002, 583 p., International geophysics series, v.84, ISBN 0-12-451451-0. +Mobley, Curtis D., Light and water: radiative transfer in natural waters; based in part on collaborations with Rudolph W. Preisendorfer, San Diego, Academic Press, 1994, 592 p., ISBN 0-12-502750-8 +Petty, Grant W, A first course in atmospheric radiation (2nd Ed.), Madison, Wisconsin: Sundog Pub., 2006, 472 p., ISBN 0-9729033-1-3 +Preisendorfer, Rudolph W., Hydrologic optics, Honolulu, Hawaii: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research Laboratories, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, 1976, 6 volumes. +Stephens, Graeme L., Remote sensing of the lower atmosphere: an introduction, New York, Oxford University Press, 1994, 523 p. ISBN 0-19-508188-9. +Thomas, Gary E. and Knut Stamnes, Radiative transfer in the atmosphere and ocean, Cambridge, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1999, 517 p., ISBN 0-521-40124-0. +Zdunkowski, W., T. Trautmann, A. Bott, Radiation in the Atmosphere. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 496 pages, ISBN 978-0-521-87107-5 + + +== External links == +ITWC for radiative transfer \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5cd8b0d51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Azeotrope tables" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:21.065789+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. +The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). +A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. + + +== Binary azeotropes == + + +== Ternary azeotropes == +Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. + +‡Saddle azeotrope + +‡Saddle azeotrope + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1257db3db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "List of adiabatic concepts" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:12.724457+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. + + +== Automobiles == +Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. + + +== Meteorology == +Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. + + +== Quantum chemistry == +Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation + + +== Thermodynamics == +Adiabatic process +Adiabatic ionization +Adiabatic index +Adiabatic accessibility + + +== Quantum mechanics == +Adiabatic theorem +Adiabatic quantum motor + + +== Electronics == +Adiabatic circuit +Adiabatic logic + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd30bdcf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "List of applications of stainless steel" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. + +== Architecture == +The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. +Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. +Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being dazzled. It is also used for its ability to keep the surface of the roof close to ambient temperature. Examples of such airports include the Sacramento International Airport in California and the Hamad International Airport in Qatar. +Stainless steel is used for pedestrian and road bridges in the form of tubes, plates, or reinforcing bars. Examples include: the Cala Galdana Bridge in Menorca, the first stainless steel road bridge to be built; the Champlain Bridge in Montreal; the Oudesluijs bridge in Amsterdam, a bridge made using Construction 3D printing; the Padre Arrupe Bridge in Bilbao, which links the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao to the University of Deusto. the Sant Fruitos Pedestrian Bridge in Spain; Stonecutter's Bridge, Hong Kong; and The Helix Bridge, a pedestrian bridge in Singapore. + +== Art and monuments == + +=== Americas === +Cloud Gate, a sculpture by Anish Kapoor. (Chicago, United States) +Estacas, a sculpture by Ken Bortolazzo, created in 2009. Displayed at the Museum of Outdoor Arts in Greenwood Village, Colorado. +Gateway Arch (pictured) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric tons) of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless steel. (St. Louis, United States) +Jaime Latapí López's Cristo de Chiapas. Created in 2007. (Tuxla Guttierez, Mexico) +Metamorphosis by David Černỳ. Created in 2011 (Charlotte, United States) +Unisphere, constructed as the theme symbol of the 1964 New York World's Fair, is constructed of Type 304L stainless steel as a spherical framework with a diameter of 120 feet (37 m). (New York City, United States) +United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin. (Arlington, United States) + +=== Asia === +The Blossom pavilion by Zhan Wang. Created in 2015. (Shanghai, China) + +=== Europe === +Worker and Kolkhoz Woman by Vera Mukhina. Created in 1937. (Moscow, Russia) +The aluminium cladding of the spheres and tubes of the Atomium was renovated with stainless-steel cladding in 2006. (Brussels, Belgium) +Juraj Jánošík monument (Terchova, Slovakia) +La Danse de la fontaine émergente by Chen Zhen. Created in 2008. (Paris, France) +Man of Steel, currently under construction. (Rotherham, England) +The Sibelius Monument is made entirely of stainless steel tubes (Helsinki, Finland) +Sun Voyager by Jon Gunnar Arnason, 9 m × 18 m × 7 m. Created in 1990. (Reykjavik, Iceland) +The Big Elk by Linda Bakke. Created in 2015. (Stor-Elvdal, Norway) +The Kelpies (Falkirk, Scotland) +A Sea of Steel consists of fourteen steel sculptures by different artists. (Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands) + +== Water == +Stainless steels have a long history of application in contact with water due to their excellent corrosion resistance. Applications include a range of conditions including plumbing, potable water and wastewater treatment, desalination, and brine treatment. Types 304 and 316 stainless steels are standard materials of construction in contact with water. However, with increasing chloride contents, higher alloyed stainless steels such as Type 2205 and super austenitic and super duplex stainless steels are used. +Important considerations to achieve optimum corrosion performance are: + +the correct grade choice for the chloride content of the water; +avoidance of crevices when possible by good design; +adherence to good fabrication practices, particularly removing weld heat tint; +prompt drainage after hydrotesting. +The use of stainless steel piping has helped to reduce the losses of drinking water in Tokyo, Seoul, and Taipei. + +== Pulp, paper, and biomass conversion == +Stainless steels are used extensively in the pulp and paper industry to avoid iron contamination of the product and because of their corrosion resistance to the various chemicals used in the papermaking process. For example, duplex stainless steels are used in digesters to convert wood chips into wood pulp. 6% Mo superaustenitics are used in the bleach plant and Type 316 is used extensively in the paper machine. + +== Chemical and petrochemical processing == +Stainless steels are used extensively in the chemical and petrochemical industries for their corrosion resistance to aqueous, gaseous, and high-temperature environments, their mechanical properties at all temperatures, and occasionally for other special physical properties. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5dec80817 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "List of applications of stainless steel" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Food and beverage == +Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. +Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. +Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. + +== Vehicles == + +=== Automobiles === + +The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham had a stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the DMC DeLorean production automobile used Type 304 stainless steel body panels over a glass-reinforced plastic monocoque. Intercity buses made by Motor Coach Industries are partially made of stainless steel. The aft body panel of the Porsche Cayman model (2-door coupe hatchback) is made of stainless steel. Due to the Cayman's many curves and angles, it was discovered during early body prototyping that conventional steel could not be formed without cracking. Thus, Porsche was forced to use stainless steel. The body of the Tesla Cybertruck, which went into production in 2023, is composed of 300-series stainless steel. +The largest use of stainless steel in cars is the exhaust line. Environment protection requirements aimed at reducing pollution and noise for the entirety of a car's lifespan led to the use of ferritic stainless steels (typically AISI409/409Cb in North America, EN1.4511 and 1.4512 in Europe). They are used for collector, tubing, muffler, catalytic converter, tailpipe. Heat-resisting grades EN1.4913 or 1.4923 are used in parts of turbochargers, while other heat-resisting grades are used for exhaust gas recirculation and for inlet and exhaust valves. In addition, common rail injection systems and their injectors rely on stainless steels. +Stainless steel has proved to be the best choice for miscellaneous applications, such as stiffeners for windshield wiper blades, balls for seat belt operation device in case of accident, springs, fasteners, etc. +Some automotive manufacturers use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles. + +=== Light commuter trains === +Stainless steel is now used as one of the materials for tramlinks, together with aluminium alloys and carbon steel. Duplex grades tend to be preferred thanks to their corrosion resistance and higher strength, allowing a reduction of weight and a long life in maritime environments. + +=== Passenger rail cars === +Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels for additional structural strength. This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s but has since declined. One notable example was the early Pioneer Zephyr. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the Budd Company (USA), which has been licensed to Japan's Tokyu Car Corporation, and the Portuguese company Sorefame. Many railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel. In India, where rail infrastructure is developing, new stainless steel coaches in being put into service. South Africa is also commissioning stainless steel coaches. + +=== Aircraft === + +Budd also built two airplanes, the Budd BB-1 Pioneer and the Budd RB-1 Conestoga, out of stainless steel tube and sheet. The first, which had fabric wing coverings, is on display at the Franklin Institute, being the longest continuous display of an aircraft ever, since 1934. The RB-2 was almost all stainless steel, save for the control surfaces. One survives at the Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base. +The American Fleetwings Sea Bird amphibious aircraft of 1936 was also built using a spot-welded stainless steel hull. +Due to its thermal stability, the Bristol Aeroplane Company built the all-stainless steel Bristol 188 high-speed research aircraft, which first flew in 1963. However, the practical problems encountered meant that later high-speed aircraft, such as the Concorde, employed aluminium alloys. The experimental Mach 3 American bomber, the XB70 Valkyrie, made extensive use of stainless steel in its external structure due to the extreme heat encountered at those high speeds. +The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 interceptor aircraft was built predominantly out of stainless steel due to the Soviet Union's inability to mass-produce an aircraft made from lightweight titanium, the only other way found to protect from the extreme kinetic heating. It severely hindered the aircraft's flight performance and the MiG-25 had to be kept extremely secret to prevent the NATO allies from finding out about the realities of the aircraft's performance. It however holds the world altitude record for aircraft, at ~123,000 feet. +The use of stainless steel in mainstream aircraft is hindered by its excessive weight compared to other materials, such as aluminium. + +=== Spacecraft === +Stainless steel (SS) also has an application in spaceflight. The early Atlas rockets used stainless steel in their fuel tanks. The tank structure of the Centaur upper stage of the Atlas V and Vulcan Centaur launchers uses SS. +The outer cladding of the modules and the Integrated Truss Structure of the International Space Station use stainless steel alloys. +Components of the Space Launch System use SS.. +Both stages of SpaceX Starship are largely made of type 300 SS. + +== Medicine == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..577ed78f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "List of applications of stainless steel" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. +Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. + +== Energy == +Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. +Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most common) that convert electrical energy into hydrogen gas by water electrolysis. Conversely, stainless steel is used in fuel cells which perform the opposite reaction, combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and electrical energy. + +== Culinary == +Stainless steel is often preferred for kitchen sinks because of its ruggedness, durability, heat resistance, and ease of cleaning. In better models, acoustic noise is controlled by applying resilient undercoating to dampen vibrations. The material is also used for cladding of surfaces such as appliances and backsplashes. +Cookware and bakeware may be clad in stainless steels to enhance their cleanability and durability and to permit their use in induction cooking (this requires a magnetic grade of stainless steel, such as 432). Because stainless steel is a poor conductor of heat, it is often used as a thin surface cladding over a core of copper or aluminium, which conducts heat more readily. +Cutlery is often made of stainless steel, for low corrosion, ease of cleaning, negligible toxicity, and ability to avoid flavoring the food by electrolytic activity. + +== Jewelry == +Stainless steel is used for jewelry and watches, with 316L being the type commonly used. Oxidizing stainless steel briefly gives it radiant colors that can also be used for coloration effects. + +== Firearms == +Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some handgun models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 pistol, can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster), or rust when scratched. + +== 3D printing == +Some 3D printing providers have developed proprietary stainless steel sintering blends for use in rapid prototyping. One popular stainless steel grade used in 3D printing is 316L stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel products manufactured via 3D printing tend to have a more refined microstructure; this, in turn, results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not as commonly used as materials like Ti6Al4V, due to the availability of more cost-effective traditional manufacturing methods for stainless steel. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e96144ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,164 @@ +--- +title: "List of asteroid-discovering observatories" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:16.235397+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. +For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). + + +== Observatories == + + +=== Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === +The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === + +The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === + +Between 1968 and 1982, Carlos Torres discovered or co-discovered with S. Cofré and others a number of asteroids from the Chilean Cerro El Roble Station. It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Chichibu Observatory === +This is the private observatory of Naoto Sato in Chichibu, Saitama, Japan. This Observatory has IAU observatory code 369. +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Dynic Astronomical Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Emerald Lane Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Fair Oaks Ranch Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Geisei Observatory === +Tsutomu Seki is the director of the Geisei Observatory in Geisei, Kōchi, Japan. +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Jurassien-Vicques Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Kingsnake Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Kitami Observatory === +Kitami Observatory has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Lime Creek Observatory === +Private observatory of Robert Linderholm (1933–2013); it discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Mount Nyukasa Station === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Nanyo Observatory === +Nanyo Civil Astronomical Observatory was established in 1986 by the Nanyo Astronomical Lovers Club, located in Nan'yō, Yamagata, Japan. This astronomy society was founded in 1983. +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Oaxaca Observatory === +Oaxaca Observatory has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Osservatorio Astronomico di Monte Agliale === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Osservatorio Astronomico di Pianoro === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Osservatorio Astronomico Sormano === + +The Sormano Astronomical Observatory in northern Italy has discovered the asteroid 344581 Albisetti. Previously accredited discoveries have now been reassigned to the various amateur astronomers using the observatory. These include Valter Giuliani, Piero Sicoli, Pierangelo Ghezzi, Francesco Manca, Paolo Chiavenna, Graziano Ventre and Augusto Testa. +Marco Cavagna, was also an observer and discoverer of minor planets at Sormano until his death in 2005. The observatory's 0.5-meter telescope was named in his honor. + + +=== Osservatorio Colleverde di Guidonia === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Rand Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Rozhen National Astronomical Observatory === +The Rozhen Observatory has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Sendai Astronomical Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Sunflower Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Tenagra II Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Tzec Maun Observatory (Mayhill) === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Uenohara Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Uto Observatory === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Yatsugatake-Kobuchizawa === +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +=== Yorii Observatory === +At Yorii Observatory, Japanese amateur astronomers Masaru Arai and Hiroshi Mori have discovered 45 minor planets (credited by the MPC as per 2016):Scr + + +=== Zeno Observatory === +Tom Stafford discovered a number of asteroids since 1997, including 12061 Alena, 12533 Edmond, 13436 Enid, 13688 Oklahoma, at Zeno Observatory (observatory code 727) in Edmond, Oklahoma. +It has discovered the following asteroids: + + +== See also == +List of minor planets § Main index +List of observatory codes +List of minor planet discoverers § Discovering dedicated institutions +Asteroid impact prediction § Surveys +List of near-Earth object observation projects + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Minor planet discoverers (alphabetically) +Minor planet discoverers (ordered by number of discoveries) +Reports from Geisei Observatory +The telescopes at Geisei Observatory +Marco Cavagna's obituary at the Sormano Observatory website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..344b2d899 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "List of atomic clocks" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:19.901827+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of some experimental laboratory atomic clocks worldwide. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9dbb7facd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "List of laser applications" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. + +== Scientific == +In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: + +A wide variety of interferometric techniques +Raman spectroscopy +Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy +Atmospheric remote sensing +Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena +Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. +Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. +Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. +Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. +In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. +Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. +The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. + +=== Spectroscopy === +Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range of wavelengths. By careful design of the laser components, the purity of the laser light (measured as the "linewidth") can be improved more than the purity of any other light source. This makes the laser a very useful source for spectroscopy. The high intensity of light that can be achieved in a small, well collimated beam can also be used to induce a nonlinear optical effect in a sample, which makes techniques such as Raman spectroscopy possible. Other spectroscopic techniques based on lasers can be used to make extremely sensitive detectors of various molecules, able to measure molecular concentrations in the parts-per-1012 (ppt) level. Due to the high power densities achievable by lasers, beam-induced atomic emission is possible: this technique is termed Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). + +=== Heat treatment === +Heat treating with the lasers allows selective surface hardening against wear with little or no distortion of the component. Because this eliminates much part reworking that is currently done, the laser system's capital cost is recovered in a short time. An inert, absorbent coating for laser heat treatment has also been developed that eliminates the fumes generated by conventional paint coatings during the heat-treating process with CO2 laser beams. +One consideration crucial to the success of a heat treatment operation is control of the laser beam irradiance on the part surface. The optimal irradiance distribution is driven by the thermodynamics of the laser-material interaction and by the part geometry. +Typically, irradiances between 500 and 5000 W/cm^2 satisfy the thermodynamic constraints and allow the rapid surface heating and minimal total heat input required. For general heat treatment, a uniform square or rectangular beam is one of the best options. For some special applications or applications where the heat treatment is done on an edge or corner of the part, it may be better to have the irradiance decrease near the edge to prevent melting. + +=== Weather === +Research shows that scientists may one day be able to induce rain and lightning storms (as well as micro-manipulating some other weather phenomena) using high energy lasers. Such a breakthrough could potentially eradicate droughts, help alleviate weather related catastrophes, and allocate weather resources to areas in need. + +=== Lunar laser ranging === + +When the Apollo astronauts visited the Moon, they planted retroreflector arrays to make possible the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. Laser beams are focused through large telescopes on Earth aimed toward the arrays, and the time taken for the beam to be reflected back to Earth measured to determine the distance between the Earth and Moon with high accuracy. + +=== Photochemistry === +Some laser systems, through the process of mode locking, can produce extremely brief pulses of light - as short as picoseconds or femtoseconds (10−12 - 10−15 seconds). Such pulses can be used to initiate and analyze chemical reactions, a technique known as photochemistry. The short pulses can be used to probe the process of the reaction at a very high temporal resolution, allowing the detection of short-lived intermediate molecules. This method is particularly useful in biochemistry, where it is used to analyse details of protein folding and function. + +=== Laser scanner === + +Laser barcode scanners are ideal for applications that require high speed reading of linear codes or stacked symbols. + +=== Laser cooling === + +A technique that has recent success is laser cooling. This involves atom trapping, a method where a number of atoms are confined in a specially shaped arrangement of electric and magnetic fields. Shining particular wavelengths of light at the ions or atoms slows them down, thus cooling them. As this process is continued, they all are slowed and have the same energy level, forming an unusual arrangement of matter known as a Bose–Einstein condensate. + +=== Nuclear fusion === + +Some of the world's most powerful and complex arrangements of multiple lasers and optical amplifiers are used to produce extremely high intensity pulses of light of extremely short duration, e.g. laboratory for laser energetics, National Ignition Facility, GEKKO XII, Nike laser, Laser Mégajoule, HiPER. These pulses are arranged such that they impact pellets of tritium–deuterium simultaneously from all directions, hoping that the squeezing effect of the impacts will induce atomic fusion in the pellets. This technique, known as "inertial confinement fusion", so far has not been able to achieve "breakeven", that is, so far the fusion reaction generates less power than is used to power the lasers, however; experiments at the National Ignition Facility were able to demonstrate fusion reactions that generate more energy than was contained within the lasers driving the reaction. + +=== Particle acceleration === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d1447e6b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "List of laser applications" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. + +=== Microscopy === +Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. +Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. + +== Military == + +=== Directly as an energy weapon === +A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. + +=== Defensive countermeasures === +Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. + +=== Disorientation === +Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. + +=== Guidance === +Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by means of a laser beam. + +=== Target designator === + +Another military use of lasers is as a laser target designator. This is a low-power laser pointer used to indicate a target for a precision-guided munition, typically launched from an aircraft. The guided munition adjusts its flight-path to home in to the laser light reflected by the target, enabling a great precision in aiming. The beam of the laser target designator is set to a pulse rate that matches that set on the guided munition to ensure munitions strike their designated targets and do not follow other laser beams which may be in use in the area. The laser designator can be shone onto the target by an aircraft or nearby infantry. Lasers used for this purpose are usually infrared lasers, so the enemy cannot easily detect the guiding laser light. + +=== Firearms === + +==== Laser sight ==== + +The laser has in most firearms applications been used as a tool to enhance the targeting of other weapon systems. For example, a laser sight is a small, usually visible-light laser placed on a handgun or a rifle and aligned to emit a beam parallel to the barrel. Since a laser beam has low divergence, the laser light appears as a small spot even at long distances; the user places the spot on the desired target and the barrel of the gun is aligned (but not necessarily allowing for bullet drop, windage, distance between the direction of the beam and the axis of the barrel, and the target mobility while the bullet travels). +Most laser sights use a red laser diode. Others use an infrared diode to produce a dot invisible to the naked human eye but detectable with night vision devices. The firearms adaptive target acquisition module LLM01 laser light module combines visible and infrared laser diodes. In the late 1990s, green diode pumped solid state laser (DPSS) laser sights (532 nm) became available. + +==== Eye-targeted lasers ==== +A less-lethal laser weapon was developed by the U.S. Air Force to temporarily impair an adversary's ability to fire a weapon or to otherwise threaten enemy forces. This unit illuminates an opponent with harmless low-power laser light and can have the effect of dazzling or disorienting the subject or causing them to flee. Several types of dazzlers are now available, and some have been used in combat. +There remains the possibility of using lasers to blind, since this requires relatively low power levels and is easily achievable in a man-portable unit. However, most nations regard the deliberate permanent blinding of the enemy as forbidden by the rules of war (see Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons). Although several nations have developed blinding laser weapons, such as China's ZM-87, none of these are believed to have made it past the prototype stage. +In addition to the applications that cross over with military applications, a widely known law enforcement use of lasers is for lidar to measure the speed of vehicles. + +==== Holographic weapon sight ==== +A holographic weapon sight uses a laser diode to illuminate a hologram of a reticle built into a flat glass optical window of the sight. The user looks through the optical window and sees a cross hair reticle image superimposed at a distance on the field of view. + +== Medical == + +Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sunspots, wrinkles, birthmarks, and hair): see laser hair removal. Laser types used in dermatology include ruby (694 nm), alexandrite (755 nm), pulsed diode array (810 nm), Nd:YAG (1064 nm), Ho:YAG (2090 nm), and Er:YAG (2940 nm). +Eye surgery and refractive surgery +Soft tissue surgery: CO2, Er:YAG laser +Laser scalpel (General surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic) +Photobiomodulation (i.e. laser therapy) +"No-Touch" removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord. +In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic procedures, tooth whitening, and oral surgery +Cancer treatment +Burn and surgical scar management: scar contracture CO2 (especially the newer fractionated CO2 lasers), redness and itch (Pulsed Dye laser - PDL), post-inflammatory hyper-pigmentation (Q-switched lasers :Ruby, Alexandrite), burn scar unwanted hair growth and trapped hairs (Ruby, IPL and numerous hair removal lasers) + +== Industrial and commercial == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..59d592f21 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "List of laser applications" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. +In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. +Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. +A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: + +Laser cutting +Laser welding +Laser drilling +Laser marking +Laser cleaning +Laser cladding, a surface engineering process applied to mechanical components for reconditioning, repair work or hardfacing +Photolithography +Optical communications over optical fiber or in free space +Laser peening +Guidance systems (e.g., ring laser gyroscopes) +Laser rangefinder / surveying, +Lidar / pollution monitoring, +Digital minilabs +Barcode readers +Laser engraving of printing plate +Laser bonding of additive marking materials for decoration and identification, +Laser pointers +Laser mice +Laser accelerometers +OLED display manufacturing +Holography +Bubblegrams +Optical tweezers +Writing subtitles onto motion picture films. +Power beaming, which is a possible solution to transfer energy to the climber of a Space elevator +3D laser scanners for accurate 3D measurement +Laser line levels are used in surveying and construction. Lasers are also used for guidance for aircraft. +Extensively in both consumer and industrial imaging equipment. +In laser printers: gas and diode lasers play a key role in manufacturing high resolution printing plates and in image scanning equipment. +Diode lasers are used as a lightswitch in industry, with a laser beam and a receiver which will switch on or off when the beam is interrupted, and because a laser can keep the light intensity over larger distances than a normal light, and is more precise than a normal light it can be used for product detection in automated production. +Laser alignment +Additive manufacturing +Plastic welding +Metrology - handheld and robotic laser systems for Aerospace, Automotive and Rail applications +To store and retrieve data in optical discs, such as CDs and DVDs +Blu-ray + +=== Entertainment and recreation === +Laser lighting displays accompany many music concerts +Laser tag +Laser harp: a musical instrument were the strings are replaced with laser beams +As a light source for digital cinema projectors + +=== Surveying and ranging === + +== Images == + +== See also == +List of laser articles +Non-lethal weapon + +== References == + +== External links == + +Coherent.com article on Applications for lasers \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md index 1570633fd..65be970b4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md index 4452c6914..4d3981342 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md index e2f64f6ba..faa04dc67 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md index 87b2bbc37..ec6bfbd76 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c6d562fe0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "UNESCO Science Report" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:09.814460+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. + +== History == +In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. +The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce the World Communication and Information Report 1999−2000. +The World Science Report was first officially evoked in 1992 in the Preliminary Proposals by the Director-General concerning the Programme and Budget for 1994-1995. This document was submitted to UNESCO's Executive Board, which has 58 rotating member states and meets twice a year to monitor the implementation of UNESCO's programme. The document states that, 'on the basis of the lessons drawn from drafting and publishing the first UNESCO World Science Report, measures will be taken to refine and improve this undertaking'. +The World Science Report was initially an output of UNESCO's Science, Technology and Society programme. The World Science Report replaced the UNESCO journal Impact of Science on Society, which dated from the 1950s. Jacques Richardson, Head of UNESCO's Science and Society Section from 1972 to 1985 and former editor of Impact of Science on Society, observed in Sixty Years of Science at UNESCO (2006) that 'the publication of Impact continued until the early 1990s, when it was converted into the biennial World Science Report'. The editor of the first three World Science Reports (1993, 1996 and 1998) was Howard Moore, who had succeeded Jacques Richardson as editor of Impact of Science on Society. The first edition of the report reflects this influence, since the World Science Report 1993 included a section popularizing contemporary issues in basic sciences. +In 2000, the production of world reports was suspended pending the outcome of an external evaluation of UNESCO's policy with regard to world reports. The evaluation recommended to the Executive Board of UNESCO that, 'in the future, there should be one single UNESCO world report to be published every two years on a specific issue to be chosen by the organs [sic] of the Organization in an interactive way and presented to the General Conference for further debate, while the existing world reports should continue as analytical reports on the state of the art in education, the sciences, culture, and communication and information in four- to six-year intervals.' +Several of the existing reports were consequently revived, including the World Science Report, World Social Science Report (in 2010) and the World Education Report. The latter was renamed the Education for All Global Monitoring Report. +In order to avoid confusion with UNESCO's new series of thematic world reports, UNESCO's analytical report on the state of the global support system for science was renamed the UNESCO Science Report. Susan Schneegans was Coordinator and Editor in Chief of the series from 2003 to 2021. +In line with the recommendations of the external evaluation of UNESCO's policy with regard to world reports, the periodicity of the UNESCO Science Report was changed to five years in 2005 and the series adopted a stronger focus on monitoring global trends and developments not only in science and technology policy but also in innovation policy. The focus has been on demonstrating that science, technology and innovation policy and science governance do not evolve in a vacuum but, rather, are influenced by political, socio-economic and environmental factors and, in turn, influence these. +The five-year interval between reports reflects the fact that 'a quinquennial report has the advantage of being able to focus on longer-term trends, rather than becoming entrenched in descriptions of short-term annual fluctuations which, with respect to policy and science and technology indicators, rarely add much value'. +By 2024, four editions of the UNESCO Science Report had been published, in 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2021. The release of the latter edition was delayed to June 2021 to enable the report to analyse the initial impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the world's science systems. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7670de14 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "UNESCO Science Report" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:09.814460+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Geographical coverage == +Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. +Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability science was not yet mainstream in academic publishing by 2021, according to the report's assessment of output on 56 topics of priority for reaching the Sustainable Development Goals, even though countries were investing more than before in green technologies. +The 2021 edition concluded that countries would need to invest more in research and innovation, if they were to succeed in their dual digital and green transition. More than 30 countries had already raised their research spending between 2014 and 2018, in line with their commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals. Despite this progress, eight out of ten countries still devoted less than 1% of GDP to research in 2018, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, perpetuating their dependence on foreign technologies. +The 2015 edition of the UNESCO Science Report had provided data on 189 countries and profiles of varying length of 140 countries. It contained three global chapters, 13 regional chapters and 11 chapters on individual countries, namely on: Brazil, Canada, China, India, Iran, Israel, Malaysia, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Russian Federation and United States of America. +Themes covered in 2015 include the recent reform of higher education in Afghanistan, West Africa's first Policy on Science and Technology (ECOPOST), science and technology in individual countries, including Brazil, Botswana, Kazakhstan, Malawi, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zimbabwe and the Pacific Islands, biomedical research in the United States, challenges facing innovation in Malaysia, the anticipated effect of Brexit on science and technology, the status of female participation in scientific research and the development of South-South cooperation in science. +The UNESCO Science Report has evolved over the years and the report's geographical coverage has expanded. The 2015 edition of the UNESCO Science Report observed that, 'although most research and development is taking place in high-income countries, innovation is pervasive and is occurring in countries across the full spectrum of income levels'. +All the reports in the series are open access. They may be downloaded and purchased in various languages. + +== External links == +UNESCO Science Report official website + +== Sources == + This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: Towards 2030​, UNESCO. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file