From 2b2ea77bb3aa077116f9e0079590a0cfbe8f3454 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 21:30:12 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 1305 new, 985 updated, 2347 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 16879616 -> 16879616 bytes ...ion_and_evolution_in_public_education-0.md | 43 ++++++++++++++++ ...ion_and_evolution_in_public_education-1.md | 37 ++++++++++++++ ...ion_and_evolution_in_public_education-2.md | 20 ++++++++ ...ion_and_evolution_in_public_education-3.md | 31 +++++++++++ ...ion_and_evolution_in_public_education-4.md | 32 ++++++++++++ .../wiki/Deutsche_Mathematik-0.md | 26 ++++++++++ .../wiki/Deutsche_Physik-0.md | 20 ++++++++ .../wiki/Deutsche_Physik-1.md | 42 +++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-0.md | 48 ++++++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-1.md | 27 ++++++++++ .../wiki/History_of_military_technology-0.md | 18 +++++++ .../wiki/History_of_military_technology-1.md | 17 +++++++ 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education has been the subject of substantial debate and conflict in legal, political, and religious circles. Globally, there are a wide variety of views on the topic. Most western countries have legislation that mandates only evolutionary biology is to be taught in the appropriate scientific syllabuses. + +== Overview == + +While many Christian denominations do not raise theological objections to the modern evolutionary synthesis as an explanation for the present forms of life on planet Earth, various socially conservative, traditionalist, and fundamentalist religious sects and political groups within Christianity and Islam have objected vehemently to the study and teaching of biological evolution. Some adherents of these Christian and Islamic religious sects or political groups are passionately opposed to the consensus view of the scientific community. Literal interpretations of religious texts are the greatest cause of conflict with evolutionary and cosmological investigations and conclusions. +Internationally, biological evolution is taught in science courses with limited controversy, with the exception of a few areas of the United States and several Muslim-majority countries, primarily Turkey. In the United States, the Supreme Court has ruled the teaching of creationism as science in public schools to be unconstitutional, irrespective of how it may be purveyed in theological or religious instruction. In the United States, intelligent design (ID) has been represented as an alternative explanation to evolution in recent decades, but its "demonstrably religious, cultural, and legal missions" have been ruled unconstitutional by a lower court. + +== By country == + +=== Australia === +Although creationist views are popular among religious education teachers and creationist teaching materials have been distributed by volunteers in some schools in Australia, many Australian scientists take an aggressive stance supporting the right of teachers to teach the theory of evolution, unhindered by religious restrictions. + +An essential element in the teaching of science is the encouragement of students and teachers to critically appraise the evidence for notions being taught as science. The Society states unequivocally that the dogmatic teaching of notions such as Creationism within a science curriculum stifles the development of critical thinking patterns in the developing mind and seriously compromises the best interests of objective public education. This could eventually hamper the advancement of science and technology as students take their places as leaders of future generations. + +=== Brazil === +In Brazil, teaching of creationism in scientific education classes is forbidden by the Ministry of Education (MEC). Religious education is not forbidden as such, but the federal constitution states that the union can neither impose, nor promote, nor finance any religion, because by law Brazil is a secular state. In 2004 however, teachers of religious education classes in schools of the education department of Rio de Janeiro began to present creationism in their classes as scientific fact. The practice was directly initiated by politicians in power who were promoting their personal religious views, and their action moved Brazilian scientists to protest the abuse. Subsequently, in congress a "religious bench," or faction, has become increasingly influential. For example, a Brazilian senator, Marcelo Crivella, the former Minister of Fishing and Aquaculture, publicly declared his religiously founded antagonism to evolution. Such prominent influences have drawn the attention of the defenders of the secular state. + +=== China === +Evolutionary theory is part of the public education in the People's Republic of China. As private religious schools are rare, nearly all students receiving primary and secondary education in Mainland China receive education that includes evolutionary theory. However, one study has identified limitations with the textbooks used in Mainland China, including the absence of topics covered in other countries such as the USSR and the USA. + +=== Council of Europe === + +On October 4, 2007, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) adopted its Resolution 1580 titled "The dangers of creationism in education". The resolution observed that "The war on the theory of evolution and on its proponents most often originates in forms of religious extremism closely linked to extreme right-wing political movements," and urged member states "firmly oppose the teaching of creationism as a scientific discipline on an equal footing with the theory of evolution and in general the presentation of creationist ideas in any discipline other than religion." + +=== Denmark === +On April 25, 2007, Member of Parliament Martin Henriksen (Danish People's Party) asked Education Minister Bertel Haarder (Liberal Party of Denmark) for information about how many educational institutions had received The Atlas of Creation (2006) by Harun Yahya. The minister responded that the Ministry of Education was not in possession of information about the number of educational institutions that had received the book. Further, he stated that the choice of educational materials is decided by local school boards. Moreover, it is his view that the end goal of primary school biology instruction is to enable students to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to explain the basic elements of heredity and evolution and to address the issues related to the biological coursework. +In interview sessions during 2002, less than 10% of the interviewed Danes declared the theory of evolution as being definitely false. + +=== Hungary === +Evolution was accepted by the Hungarian education system soon after Darwin wrote about it. + +=== India === +From April 2023, content on evolution was removed from science textbooks. According to India's National Council for Education, Research and Training (NCERT), this decision was made to lighten students' workload following the Covid-19 pandemic. In the broader sociopolitical context, some Hindu-nationalist politicians had recently been expressing skepticism about evolution, despite a longer history of compatibility between Hindu views and the theory of evolution. Many scientists and educators were critical of the deletion of evolution-related material from textbooks. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..75f38a73a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Creation and evolution in public education" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:59.849061+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Iran === +Iranian scientific development, especially the health-related aspects of biology, has been a goal of the Islamic government since the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Since Iranian traditional practice of Shi'a religion isn't preoccupied with Qur'anic literalism as in case of fundamentalist Wahhabism but ijtihad, many influential Iranian Shi'ite scholars, including several who were closely involved in the Iranian Revolution, are not opposed to evolutionary ideas in general, disagreeing that evolution necessarily conflicts with the Muslim mainstream. Evolution is incorporated in the science curriculum starting from the 5th grade. An emphasis is placed on empirical evidence, such as the study of fossils, rather than Islamic scripture, thus portraying geologists and other types of scientists as the authoritative voices of scientific knowledge. + +=== Israel === +In Israel, compulsory education is separate for secular Jews, ultra-Orthodox Jews and Arabs. In the ultra-Orthodox education system, theory of evolution is not being taught. It has been taught regularly in the secular education system. However, following the rise of religious right-wing parties, evolution has been gradually removed from the school curriculum. + +=== Japan === +The theory of evolution is taught in Japan as part of the education policy. The teaching of evolution began already under the Japanese Empire, and the first academic lecture on evolution was given at Tokyo Imperial University by American biology expert Edward Morse on September 12, 1877. + +=== Netherlands === +In the Netherlands some factions teach creationism in their own schools, besides evolution. In May 2005, a discussion on intelligent design erupted when Minister of Education Maria van der Hoeven suggested that debate about intelligent design might encourage discourse between the country's various religious groups. She sought to "stimulate an academic debate" on the subject. Following strong objection from some scientists, she dropped plans of holding a conference on the matter. After the 2007 elections, she was succeeded by Ronald Plasterk, described as a "molecular geneticist, staunch atheist and opponent of intelligent design." + +=== Norway === +In 1986, Norway's then-Minister of Church and Education Affairs Kjell Magne Bondevik proposed new education plans for the elementary and middle school levels which included skepticism of the theory of evolution and would hold that a final answer to the origin of mankind was unknown. The proposal was withdrawn after it had generated controversy. + +=== Pakistan === +Although it has been claimed that evolution is not taught in Pakistani universities; the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, which is the federal body which sets standards of course content, has knowledge and understanding of evolution as being compulsory for several courses such as microbiology, bioinformatics, zoology, botany as well as others. In 2006, the Pakistan Academy of Sciences became a signatory of the InterAcademy Panel Statement on "The teaching of evolution." Many of the contemporary titles on the creation–evolution controversy, such as those by biologist Richard Dawkins, are available for general sale. + +=== Poland === +Poland saw a controversy over creationism in 2006 when Deputy Education Minister Mirosław Orzechowski denounced evolution as a lie taught in Polish schools. His superior, Minister of National Education Roman Giertych, has stated that the theory of evolution would continue to be taught in Polish schools, "as long as most scientists in our country say that it is the right theory." Giertych's father, Member of the European Parliament Maciej Giertych, has however opposed the teaching of evolution and has claimed that "in every culture there are indications that we remember dinosaurs. The Scots have Nessie; we Poles have the Wawel dragon." + +=== Romania === +In 1998, Ioan Moisin, a Christian Democratic senator and a Greek Catholic priest, called upon Romania's Ministry of Education to establish a commission of Catholics who would revise biology textbooks and philosophical textbooks to not contradict Biblical creationism. Moisin disapproved of students learning from their religious teachers that God created human beings and then learning the contrary from biology and philosophy teachers that humans and apes descend from a common ancestor as a product of evolution by Darwinian natural selection. Moisin's proposal to establish the commission also sought to form a Council of Public Morality that would feature representatives composed of teachers and clergy, to oversee public education, and to be subordinated only to the direct authority of the President of Romania. Romania's Parliament and Ministry of Education never seriously considered the latter proposals. However, starting the year 2006 and ongoing Darwinian evolution was discontinued from newly printed school books throughout the country without being reintroduced. + +=== Russia === +In December 2006, a schoolgirl in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and her father took the issue of the teaching of evolution in Russian schools to court. The Russian Ministry of Education supports the theory of evolution. Representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church backed the suit. In February 2007, the first instance court, and in July, the second instance court, ruled in favour of the Ministry. +In August 2014 the Mayor of Kazan, Il'sur Metshin, expressed surprise at schools teaching the "theory of Darwin". He added that he intended to raise the question of the school curriculum at the federal level. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bb3304f3d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Creation and evolution in public education" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:59.849061+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Saudi Arabia === +As a religious state, Saudi Arabia has denied the theory of evolution in their science education. Science textbooks approved by the Saudi Ministry of Education have associated Darwin with Western philosophy which they reject and perceive to be "problematic". Saudi's denial of evolution originated from the lack of secularization in the nation, the continuing development of its education system, and its homogenic religious population. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, the only co-ed university in the state, received criticism for its co-ed establishment and was called for further scrutiny in its science curriculum. Sheikh Saad al-Shithri, a religious scholar, stated that "the recommendation is to set up sharia committees at this university to oversee these studies and look into what violates the sharia (Islamic law)". He further states, "We are looking at some of the sciences that have included some irregular and alien ideologies, like evolution and such other ideologies". +According to a poll by Reuters News, Saudi Arabia was ranked the highest in the list of countries that favor creationist views. As an Islamist state, Saudi education policies are centered around an Islamic worldview. This is referenced in various science textbooks, such a 6th grade textbook teaching divine creation by citing a Quran verse that states "we have indeed created man with the best of moulds". A 10th grade textbook includes a glossary of biological terms with religious explanation, such as the term adaptation being defined as "Allah, glory to him, created for organisms those characteristics and structures that enable them to live in their different environments". +A Saudi 12th-grade textbook mentions evolution by name only where it claims that Charles Darwin has "denied Allah's creation of humanity". The rest of the textbook focuses on descriptions of the taxonomic ranks: it makes no further mention of evolution, only quoting Qur'an verses as relevant to certain groups of animals. + +=== Serbia === +In Serbia the teaching of evolution was suspended for one week in 2004, under Minister of Education and Sport Ljiljana Čolić, only allowing schools to reintroduce evolution into the curriculum if they also taught creationism. "After a deluge of protest from scientists, teachers and opposition parties" says the BBC report, Čolić's deputy, Milan Brdar, made the statement, "I have come here to confirm Charles Darwin is still alive" and announced that the decision was reversed. Čolić resigned after the government said that she had caused "problems that had started to reflect on the work of the entire government." + +=== South Korea === +The theory of evolution is part of the educational curriculum in public schools in South Korea. However, in 2012, South Korean Ministry of Education announced that many high-school textbooks would be revised to remove certain examples of evolution, such as of the horse and the dinosaur Archaeopteryx, following a petition by a creationist group. The changes were limited to removal or revision of certain examples which were the subject of some debate; also, the group plans to submit further petitions to remove evolution of humans and the adaptation of finch beaks, with the end goal of diminishing the role of Darwinian evolution in teaching. However, the ensuing controversy prompted the government to appoint a panel of scientists to look into the matter, and the government urged the publishers to keep the references to evolution following the recommendation of the panel. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1ebaa12aa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Creation and evolution in public education" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:59.849061+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Turkey === +In Turkey, a country where the majority of population is Muslim, evolution is often a controversial subject. Evolution was added to the school curriculum shortly after the Turkish Revolution of the 1920s and 30s. There was some resistance to this, such as that of Said Nursî and his followers, but opposition was not particularly powerful. In fact, some prominent Turkish scholars during the first decades of the new-born Turkish republic, such as Ahmet Hamdi Akseki (d. 1951), who once served as the President of Religious Affairs of Turkey, and İzmirli İsmail Hakkı (d. 1946) thought that the theory of evolution cannot be seen as contrary to Islam because it was already to be found in the classical works of Muslim theology. In the 1980s, conservatives came into power, and used the ideas of scientific creationists in the US as a method of discrediting evolution (notwithstanding material on the age of the Earth, which Islamic creationism is less specific about). +One anti-evolutionist group in Turkey is the Istanbul based Bilim Araştırma Vakfı (BAV), or "Science Research Foundation," which was founded by Adnan Oktar in 1990. Its activities include campaigns against the teaching of evolution. It has been described as one of the strongest anti-evolution organizations outside of North America. US based creationist organizations such as the Institute for Creation Research (ICR) have worked alongside them. Some scientists have protested that anti-evolution books published by this group (such as The Evolution Deceit (1999) by Harun Yahya) have become more influential than real biology textbooks. The teaching of evolution in high schools has been fought by Ali Gören, a member of parliament and professor of medicine, who believes such education has negative effects. +The situation is very fragile, and the status of evolution in education varies from one government to the next. For example, in 1985 the Minister of National Education, Youth and Sports Vehbi Dinçerler had scientific creationism added to high school texts, and also had the discredited Lamarckism presented alongside Darwinism. Only in 1998 was this changed somewhat, with texts presenting a more balanced view, though still mentioning creationism and Lamarckism. At present the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party, which is sympathetic to creationist views, holds power. It was elected in 2002 and again with a greater majority in 2007. +In general, material that conflicts with religious beliefs is highly controversial in Turkey. For example, in November 2007 a prosecutor launched a probe into whether Richard Dawkins' book The God Delusion (2006) is "an attack on religious values." If convicted, the Turkish publisher and translator, Erol Karaaslan, would have faced a prison sentence of inciting religious hatred and insulting religious values. In April 2008, the defendant was acquitted by a court and a judge ruled against banning the book due to the fact that it limited freedom of thought. +Turkish academics who have defended evolutionary theory have received death threats, for instance Turkish biologist Aykut Kence received an email telling him to enjoy his "final days." Kence helped establish the Evolution Group, whose aim is to improve public understanding of evolution. However, opposition to creationism is not very powerful; Umit Sayin, a neurologist, describes academics and universities as "slow and sluggish" in their response. Kence maintains that "if knowledgeable people keep quiet, it only helps those who spread nonsense." +In June 2017, the education ministry announced the removal of evolution from the secondary school curriculum, scheduled to take effect in 2019; as of the date of the announcement the only other Muslim majority country where evolution is challenged in the education system was Saudi Arabia, where the concept is briefly named and heavily criticized in the curricula. + +=== United Kingdom === +In each of the countries of the United Kingdom, there is an agreed syllabus for religious education with the right of parents to withdraw their children from these lessons. The religious education syllabus does not involve teaching creationism, but rather teaching the central tenets of major world faiths. At the same time, the teaching of evolution is compulsory in publicly funded schools. For instance, the National Curriculum for England requires that students at Key Stage 4 (14–16) be taught: + +that the fossil record is evidence for evolution +how variation and selection may lead to evolution or extinction +Similar requirements exist in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. +In 2003, the Emmanuel Schools Foundation (previously the Vardy Foundation after its founder, Sir Peter Vardy) sponsored a number of "faith-based" academies where evolution and creationist ideas would be taught side-by-side in science classes. This caused a considerable amount of controversy. +The former Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, has expressed his view that creationism should not be taught in schools. +An organisation called Truth in Science has distributed teaching packs of creationist information to schools, and claims that fifty-nine schools are using the packs as "a useful classroom resource." The government has stated that "Neither intelligent design nor creationism are recognised scientific theories and they are not included in the science curriculum. The Truth in Science information pack is therefore not an appropriate resource to support the science curriculum." It is arranging to communicate this message directly to schools. +The teaching of creationism and intelligent design in schools in the UK is being opposed by the British Centre for Science Education (BCSE). +Some Democratic Unionist Party DUP politicians have called for creationism to be taught in schools. + +=== United States === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3af3622f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Creation and evolution in public education" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:29:59.849061+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the United States, creationists and proponents of evolution are engaged in a long-standing battle over the legal status of creation and evolution in the public school science classroom. The Edwards v. Aguillard ruling of the Supreme Court set a Lemon test that limits teaching of creationism in government run schools. However, as of 2014 at least 13 US states allow pro-creationist content to be taught either in charter schools or private schools that are at least partially supported by government funding. The 2022 Supreme Court ruling of Carson v. Makin necessitating that a school voucher program must not exclude religious private schools may prevent any state with a voucher program from preventing voucher money being provided to schools that teach creationism. + +== See also == +Creation–evolution controversy +Evolution and the Catholic Church +Flying Spaghetti Monster +Hindu views on evolution +Intelligent design in politics +Islamic views on evolution +Jewish views on evolution +Level of support for evolution +"Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution" +Religion and children + +== References == + +== External links == +Simpson, George Gaylord (1961). "One Hundred Years without Darwin are Enough". Teachers College Record. 60: 617–626. ISSN 0161-4681. Retrieved 2014-06-24. +Creation education materials and articles at Answers in Genesis +National Academy of Sciences (1998). Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/5787. ISBN 978-0-309063-64-7. LCCN 98016100. OCLC 245727856. Retrieved 2014-06-24. +Edis, Taner (Summer 1994). "Islamic Creationism in Turkey". Creation/Evolution. 34 (1). ISSN 0738-6001. Retrieved 2014-06-24. +Video (10:56) − "Raising Doubts About Evolution... in Science Class" on YouTube − (The New York Times / Retro Report; November 2017) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mathematik-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mathematik-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..796d99259 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mathematik-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Deutsche Mathematik" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mathematik" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:01.041815+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Deutsche Mathematik (German Mathematics) is a mathematics journal that was founded in 1936 by Ludwig Bieberbach and Theodor Vahlen. Vahlen was publisher on behalf of the German Research Foundation (DFG), and Bieberbach was chief editor. Other editors were Fritz Kubach, Erich Schönhardt, Werner Weber (all volumes), Ernst August Weiß (volumes 1–6), Karl Dörge, Wilhelm Süss (volumes 1–5), Günther Schulz (de), Erhard Tornier (volumes 1–4), Georg Feigl, Gerhard Kowalewski (volumes 2–6), Maximilian Krafft, Willi Rinow, Max Zacharias (volumes 2–5), and Oswald Teichmüller (volumes 3–7). In February 1936, the journal was declared the official organ of the German Student Union (DSt) by its Reichsführer, and all local DSt mathematics departments were requested to subscribe and actively contribute. In the 1940s, issues appeared increasingly delayed and bunched; the journal ended with a triple issue (due Dec 1942) in June 1944. +Deutsche Mathematik is also the name of a movement closely associated with the journal whose aim was to promote "German mathematics" and eliminate "Jewish influence" in mathematics, similar to the Deutsche Physik movement. As well as articles on mathematics, the journal published propaganda articles giving the Nazi viewpoint on the relation between mathematics and race (though these political articles mostly disappeared after the first two volumes). As a result of this many mathematics libraries outside Germany did not subscribe to it, so copies of the journal can be hard to find. This caused some problems in Teichmüller theory, as Oswald Teichmüller published several of his foundational papers in the journal. + + +== See also == +Mathematics in Nazi Germany + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Mehrtens, Herbert (1987), "Ludwig Bieberbach and "Deutsche Mathematik"", in Phillips, Esther R. (ed.), Studies in the history of mathematics, MAA Stud. Math., vol. 26, Washington, DC: Math. Assoc. America, pp. 195–241, ISBN 978-0-88385-128-9, MR 0913104 +M. A. H. N. (1936), "Deutsche Mathematik", Nature, 137 (3467): 596–597, Bibcode:1936Natur.137..596M, doi:10.1038/137596a0, S2CID 37098502, Book review +Segal, Sanford L. (2003), "Chapter seven: Ludwig Bieberbach and Deutsche Mathematik", Mathematicians under the Nazis, Princeton University Press, pp. 334–418, ISBN 978-0-691-00451-8, MR 1991149 +The title page, the table of contents, and some article pages of the journal's volume 1, issue 2 (1936) are linked from the blog Mathematicians are human beings (scientopia.org, 19 Sep 2011). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c595339db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Deutsche Physik" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:02.392981+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Deutsche Physik (German: [ˈdɔʏtʃə fyˈziːk], lit. "German Physics") or Aryan Physics (German: Arische Physik) was a nationalist movement in the German physics community in the early 1930s which had the support of many eminent physicists in Germany. The term appears in the title of a four-volume physics textbook by Nobel laureate Philipp Lenard in the 1930s. +Deutsche Physik was opposed to the work of Albert Einstein, who was ethnically Jewish, and other modern theoretically based physics, which was disparagingly labeled "Jewish physics" (German: Jüdische Physik). + +== Origins == + +This movement began as an extension of a German nationalistic movement in the physics community which went back to the start of World War I with Austria's declaration of war on 28 July 1914. On 25 August 1914, during the German Rape of Belgium, German troops used petrol to set fire to the library of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. The burning of the library led to a protest note which was signed by eight distinguished British scientists, namely William Bragg, William Crookes, Alexander Fleming, Horace Lamb, Oliver Lodge, William Ramsay, Lord Rayleigh, and J. J. Thomson. In 1915, this led to a counter-reaction in the form of an "appeal" formulated by Wilhelm Wien and addressed to German physicists and scientific publishers, which was signed by sixteen German physicists, including Arnold Sommerfeld and Johannes Stark. They claimed that German character had been misinterpreted and that attempts made over many years to reach an understanding between the two countries had obviously failed. Therefore, they opposed the use of the English language by German scientific authors, editors of books, and translators. A number of German physicists, including Max Planck and the especially passionate Philipp Lenard, a scientific rival of J. J. Thomson, had then signed further "declarations", so that gradually a "war of the minds" broke out. On the German side it was suggested to avoid an unnecessary use of English language in scientific texts (concerning, e.g., the renaming of German-discovered phenomena with perceived English-derived names, such as "X-ray" instead of "Röntgen ray"). It was stressed, however, that this measure should not be misunderstood as a rejection of British scientific thought, ideas and stimulations. +After the war, the perceived affronts of the Treaty of Versailles kept some of these nationalistic feelings running high, especially in Lenard, who had already complained about England in a small pamphlet at the beginning of the war. When, on 26 January 1920, the former naval cadet Oltwig von Hirschfeld tried to assassinate German Finance minister Matthias Erzberger, Lenard sent Hirschfeld a telegram of congratulation. After the 1922 assassination of politician Walther Rathenau, the government ordered flags flown at half mast on the day of his funeral, but Lenard ignored the order at his institute in Heidelberg. Socialist students organized a demonstration against Lenard, who was taken into protective custody by state prosecutor Hugo Marx. +During the early years of the twentieth century, Albert Einstein's theory of relativity caused bitter controversy within the worldwide physics community. There were many physicists, especially the "old guard", who were suspicious of the intuitive meanings of Einstein's theories, including Philipp Lenard, one of the authors of the Deutche Physik volumes. While the response to Einstein was based partly on his concepts being a radical break from earlier theories, there was also an anti-Jewish element to some of the criticism. The leading theoretician of the Deutsche Physik type of movement was Rudolf Tomaschek, who had re-edited the famous physics textbook Grimsehl's Lehrbuch der Physik. In that book, which consists of several volumes, the Lorentz transformation was accepted, as well as the old quantum theory. However, Einstein's interpretation of the Lorentz transformation was not mentioned, and Einstein's name was completely ignored. Many classical physicists resented Einstein's dismissal of the notion of a luminiferous aether, which had been a mainstay of their work for the majority of their productive lives. They were not convinced by the empirical evidence for relativity. They believed that the measurements of the perihelion of Mercury and the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment might be explained in other ways, and the results of the Eddington eclipse experiment were experimentally problematic enough to be dismissed as meaningless by the more devoted doubters. Many of them were very distinguished experimental physicists, and Lenard was himself a Nobel laureate in Physics. + +== Under the Third Reich == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4af44f23c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Deutsche Physik" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:02.392981+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +When the Nazis entered the political scene, Lenard quickly attempted to ally himself with them, joining the party at an early stage. With another Nobel laureate in Physics, Johannes Stark, Lenard began a campaign to label Einstein's relativity as Jewish physics. +Lenard and Stark benefited considerably from this Nazi support. Under the rallying cry that physics should be more "German" and "Aryan", Lenard and Stark embarked on a Nazi-endorsed plan to replace physicists at German universities with "Aryan physicists". By 1935, though, this campaign was superseded by the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. There were no longer any Jewish physics professors in Germany, since under the Nuremberg Laws, Jews were not allowed to work in universities. Stark in particular also tried to install himself as the national authority on "German" physics under the principle of Gleichschaltung (literally, "coordination") applied to other professional disciplines. Under this Nazi-era paradigm, academic disciplines and professional fields followed a strictly linear hierarchy created along ideological lines. In his 1938 paper, "The Pragmatic and the Dogmatic Spirit in Physics", Stark contrasted a "pragmatic spirit" driven by experimentation, against a "dogmatic spirit" dominated by theoretical frameworks. He claimed that pragmatic spirit was exhibited primarily by men of the Nordic race while physicists with dogmatic spirit were primarily Jewish. +The figureheads of "Aryan physics" met with moderate success, but the support from the Nazi Party was not as great as Lenard and Stark would have preferred. They began to fall from influence after a long period of harassment of quantum physicist Werner Heisenberg, which included getting him labeled a "White Jew" in Das Schwarze Korps. Heisenberg was an extremely eminent physicist, and the Nazis realized that they were better off with him rather than without, however "Jewish" his theory might be in the eyes of Stark and Lenard. In an historic moment, Heisenberg's mother rang Heinrich Himmler's mother and asked her whether she would please tell the SS to give "Werner" a break. After beginning a full character evaluation, which Heisenberg both instigated and passed, Himmler forbade further attack on the physicist. Heisenberg would later employ his "Jewish physics" in the German project to develop nuclear fission for the purposes of nuclear weapons or nuclear energy use. Himmler promised Heisenberg that after Germany won the war, the SS would finance a physics institute to be directed by Heisenberg. +Lenard began to play less and less of a role, and soon Stark ran into even more difficulty, as other scientists and industrialists known for being exceptionally "Aryan" came to the defense of relativity and quantum mechanics. As historian Mark Walker puts it: + +... despite his best efforts, in the end his science was not accepted, supported, or used by the Third Reich. Stark spent a great deal of his time during the Third Reich fighting with bureaucrats within the Nazi state. Most of the Nazi leadership either never supported Lenard and Stark, or abandoned them in the course of the Third Reich. + +== Effect on the German nuclear program == +It is occasionally put forth that there is a great irony in the Nazis' labeling modern physics as "Jewish science", since it was exactly modern physics—and the work of many European exiles—which was used to create the atomic bomb. Even if the German government had not embraced Lenard and Stark's ideas, the German antisemitic agenda was enough by itself to destroy the Jewish scientific community in Germany. Furthermore, the German nuclear weapons program was never pursued with anywhere near the vigor of the Manhattan Project in the United States, and for that reason would likely not have succeeded in any case. The movement did not actually go as far as preventing the nuclear energy scientists from using quantum mechanics and relativity, but the education of young scientists and engineers suffered, not only from the loss of the Jewish scientists but also from political appointments and other interference. + +== See also == +Ahnenerbe (Nazi archaeology) +Criticism of the theory of relativity +Deutsche Mathematik +Japhetic theory +Lysenkoism +Politicization of science +Science and technology in Nazi Germany +Suppressed research in the Soviet Union +Wilhelm Müller (physicist) + +== References == + +== Further literature == +Ball, Philip, Serving the Reich: The Struggle for the Soul of Physics Under Hitler (University of Chicago Press, 2014). +Beyerchen, Alan, Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the physics community in the Third Reich (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977). +Hentschel, Klaus, ed. Physics and National Socialism: An anthology of primary sources (Basel: Birkhaeuser, 1996). +Philipp Lenard: Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen Band IV. Herausgegeben und kritisch kommentiert von Charlotte Schönbeck. [Posthumously, German Language.] Berlin: GNT-Verlag, 2003. ISBN 978-3-928186-35-3. Introduction, Content. +Walker, Mark, Nazi science: Myth, truth, and the German atomic bomb (New York: HarperCollins, 1995). + +== External links == + Works related to The Bad Nauheim Debate at Wikisource \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c55f9844 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Fire in the Blood (2013 film)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:03.713635+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fire in the Blood is a 2013 documentary film by Dylan Mohan Gray depicting what it claims is the intentional obstruction of access to low-cost antiretroviral drugs used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS to people in Africa and other parts of the global south, driven by multinational pharmaceutical companies holding patent monopolies and various Western governments (above all those of the United States, European Union and Switzerland) consistently supporting these companies. The film claims that the battle against what it refers to as a "genocidal blockade," which it estimates to have resulted in no less than ten to twelve million completely unnecessary deaths, was fought and (at least temporarily) won. +Fire in the Blood features contributions from former US President Bill Clinton, intellectual property activist James Love, global health reporter Donald McNeil, Jr. of The New York Times, HIV/AIDS treatment activist Zackie Achmat, pioneering generic drug maker Yusuf Hamied, former Pfizer executive-turned-whistleblower Peter Rost, Ugandan AIDS physician Peter Mugyenyi, and Nobel Prize-laureates Desmond Tutu and Joseph Stiglitz. +The film is narrated by Academy Award-winning actor William Hurt, who lent his voice to the film on a pro bono basis because he felt the story and subject matter were so important. +In November 2013, Fire in the Blood set a new record for the longest theatrical run by a non-fiction feature film in India: five weeks. +In November 2018, Australian journalist and documentary filmmaker John Pilger included Fire in the Blood among his selection of "26 landmark documentary films of the past seven decades." + +== Production == +Filmmaker Dylan Mohan Gray first learned of the issue in 2004, after he read an article in The Economist about the battle between pharmaceutical companies and the global public health community over access to lower-cost AIDS drugs for Africa. He decided to make the film three years later. +The film was shot on four continents from March 2008 to the end of 2010, while editing was completed in 2012. + +== Release == +The film was first released theatrically in Ireland on 21 February 2013, with the UK premiere the following day. It was released theatrically in the US on 7 September 2013 and in India on 11 October the same year, to outstanding reviews. +The film was released on the iTunes UK Store in mid-2013, and worldwide on VOD via its website in 2014. It released in the UK and India on DVD in the first quarter of 2014. +Thus far the film has been broadcast on television in the following countries, beginning in late 2013: Finland (YLE), Israel (Yes (Israel)), Norway (NRK), Spain (TVE), Switzerland (SRF), Austria (ORF), Poland (Telewizja Polska), Ireland (TG4), Brazil (Globosat), Denmark (DR), the United States (Audience Network) and Japan (NHK). Transnational broadcasters include AJE, Al Jazeera Arabic and Al Jazeera Balkans, along with DStv and GOtv across Sub-Saharan Africa as part of the "AfriDocs" initiative. +Fire in the Blood was the first Indian film to be selected for the World Cinema Documentary competition at the Sundance Film Festival and subsequently participated in over 100 leading film festivals in dozens of countries all over the world. + +== Awards and nominations == +Nominated for the Grand Jury Prize, World Documentary at the Sundance Film Festival, January 2013 +Shortlisted for the One World Media Award, February 2013 +Winner of the Justice Matters Award at the 27th Washington DC International Film Festival, April 2013 +Winner of the DOXA Feature Documentary Award at the DOXA Documentary Film Festival, May 2013 +Shortlisted for Best Cinema Documentary at the Grierson British Documentary Awards, July 2013 +Winner of the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Prize for Political Film at Filmfest Hamburg, October 2013 +Winner of the Audience Award for Best Documentary at the 16th Fairy Tales International Queer Film Festival in Calgary, June 2014 +Winner of the Best Documentary Award at the International Film Festival of Kashmir (IFFK) in Srinigar, August 2014 +Winner of the Grand Jury Award at The White Sands International Film Festival, New Mexico, September 2014 +Winner of the Best Feature Documentary Award at the Montréal International Black Film Festival, September 2014 +Winner of the IDPA Gold Award for Excellence in Nonfiction (Direction), 11th Indian Documentary Producers Association (IDPA) Awards, Mumbai, March 2015 +Winner of the IDPA Silver Award for Excellence in Nonfiction (Script), Mumbai, March 2015 +Winner of IDPA Jury Awards for Excellence in Cinematography (Jay Odedra), Excellence in Sound Design (Kunal Sharma), Mumbai, March 2015 +Winner of IDPA Jury Award for Best Film: Documentary over 30 Minutes, Mumbai, March 2015 + +== Critical response == +Fire in the Blood received positive critical notices, both to its North American premiere at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, as well as to its subsequent theatrical releases in Ireland, Britain, the United States and India. +The film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes has given Fire in the Blood a "92% fresh" rating based on 24 reviews as of January 2014. This ranks the film within the 5-10% best-reviewed films of 2013. +Certain critics, such as Gary Goldstein of the Los Angeles Times, while acknowledging the enormous importance of the topic, felt the film should have taken a more emotional approach to its "incendiary subject". The English critic Philip French, in his review for The Observer described the film as "quietly devastating", praised Gray's choice in avoiding a polemical tone and allowing the material to speak for itself. +Writing in Sight & Sound, Ashley Clark called Fire in the Blood "stirring" and added "Gray deserves credit for his own restraint... Such is the clarity of his ideological stance that any grandstanding would feel redundant." +David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter echoed this view, stating that "the admirable balance between impassioned argument and clear-sighted reporting in Dylan Mohan Gray's chronicle of the why and how makes Fire in the Blood indispensable viewing", adding that the "very smart", "extremely moving" film is "a shocking account of international trade terrorism sanctioned by Western governments" and "a powerful documentary that demands to be seen by as wide an audience as possible." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b6442ecfb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Fire in the Blood (2013 film)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:03.713635+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Other reactions == +Author John le Carré (who became involved with the issue of pharmaceutical company abuses while researching his landmark 2001 novel The Constant Gardener) called Fire in the Blood "a blessing... full of conviction, passion and unanswerable argument". +Australian-British journalist and documentary film maker, John Pilger wrote "Fire in the Blood is one of the most powerful, important and humane documentaries I have ever seen. It's the story of ordinary people standing up to unaccountable power. The struggle to save millions from the ravages of untreated HIV is revealed as a struggle against the new lords of the world, transnational corporations, their greed and lies. Genuine hope is rare these days -- you'll find it in this film." +Former (2001–06) United Nations Special Envoy for HIV/AIDS in Africa Stephen Lewis said "I was enraged as I watched, thinking of those years I spent as the Envoy, watching people die...I rarely watch 'AIDS documentaries'; they're remarkably repetitive as a rule, largely uninspired and yielding almost nothing new. [Fire in the Blood] is in a wholly different category; a terrific, riveting documentary...dramatic, compelling, but most of all, wonderfully humane. [Gray is] a remarkably gifted documentary film-maker." + +== Special screenings == +Special screenings of Fire in the Blood for policymakers have been held in such fora as the United Nations headquarters in New York City and Vienna, the European Parliament in Brussels, the World Health Assembly and UNAIDS headquarters in Geneva, along with dedicated screenings for lawmakers in Washington and New Delhi, and one hosted by the Indian Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) for ambassadors and consuls accredited to India. + +== Milestones == +(November 2013) Fire in the Blood sets a new all-time record for the longest theatrical run by any non-fiction feature film in Indian history +only feature-length Indian film to be selected in the main competition at a Top 5 international film festival between 2010 (Peepli Live) and 2014 (Liar's Dice) + +== References == + +== External links == +Fire in the Blood, official website +Fire in the Blood at IMDb \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..37cfe4f10 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "History of military technology" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:05.083851+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The history of military technology, including the military funding of science, has had a powerful transformative effect on the practice and products of scientific research since the early 20th century. Particularly since World War I, advanced science-based technologies have been viewed as essential elements of a successful military. +World War I is often called "the chemists' war", both for the extensive use of poison gas and the importance of nitrates and advanced high explosives. Poison gas, beginning in 1915 with chlorine from the powerful German dye industry, was used extensively by the Germans and the British; over the course of the war, scientists on both sides raced to develop more and more potent chemicals and devise countermeasures against the newest enemy gases. Physicists also contributed to the war effort, developing wireless communication technologies and sound-based methods of detecting U-boats, resulting in the first tenuous long-term connections between academic science and the military. +World War II marked a massive increase in the military funding of science, particularly physics. In addition to the Manhattan Project and the resulting atomic bomb, British and American work on radar was widespread and ultimately highly influential in the course of the war; radar enabled detection of enemy ships and aircraft, as well as the radar-based proximity fuze. Mathematical cryptography, meteorology, and rocket science were also central to the war effort, with military-funded wartime advances having a significant long-term effect on each discipline. The technologies employed at the end—jet aircraft, radar and proximity fuzes, and the atomic bomb—were radically different from pre-war technology; military leaders came to view continued advances in technology as the critical element for success in future wars. The advent of the Cold War solidified the links between military institutions and academic science, particularly in the United States and the Soviet Union, so that even during a period of nominal peace military funding continued to expand. Funding spread to the social sciences as well as the natural sciences. Emerging fields such as digital computing, were born of military patronage. Following the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, military funding of science has decreased substantially, but much of the American military-scientific complex remains in place. +The sheer scale of military funding for science since World War II has instigated a large body of historical literature analyzing the effects of that funding, especially for American science. Since Paul Forman's 1987 article "Behind quantum electronics: National security as a basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960," there has been an ongoing historical debate over precisely how and to what extent military funding affected the course of scientific research and discovery. Forman and others have argued that military funding fundamentally redirected science—particularly physics—toward applied research, and that military technologies predominantly formed the basis for subsequent research even in areas of basic science; ultimately the very culture and ideals of science were colored by extensive collaboration between scientists and military planners. An alternate view has been presented by Daniel Kevles, that while military funding provided many new opportunities for scientists and dramatically expanded the scope of physical research, scientists by-and-large retained their intellectual autonomy. + +== Before the modern era == + +While there were numerous instances of military support for scientific work before the 20th century, these were typically isolated instances; knowledge gained from technology was generally far more important for the development of science than scientific knowledge was to technological innovation. Thermodynamics, for example, is a science partly born from military technology: one of the many sources of the first law of thermodynamics was Count Rumford's observation of the heat produced by boring cannon barrels. Mathematics was important in the development of the Greek catapult and other weapons, but analysis of ballistics was also important for the development of mathematics, while Galileo tried to promote the telescope as a military instrument to the military-minded Republic of Venice before turning it to the skies while seeking the patronage of the Medici court in Florence. In general, craft-based innovation, disconnected from the formal systems of science, was the key to military technology well into the 19th century. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38499a407 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "History of military technology" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:05.083851+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Even craft-based military technologies were not generally produced by military funding. Instead, craftsmen and inventors developed weapons and military tools independently and actively sought the interest of military patrons afterward. Following the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, governments and military leaders did try to harness the methods of both science and engineering for more specific ends, but frequently without success. In the decades leading up to the French Revolution, French artillery officers were often trained as engineers, and military leaders from this mathematical tradition attempted to transform the process of weapons manufacture from a craft-based enterprise to an organized and standardized system based on engineering principles and interchangeable parts (pre-dating the work of Eli Whitney in the U.S.). During the Revolution, even natural scientists participated directly, attempting to create “weapons more powerful than any we possess” to aid the cause of the new French Republic, though there were no means for the revolutionary army to fund such work. Each of these efforts, however, was ultimately unsuccessful in producing militarily useful results. A slightly different outcome came from the longitude prize of the 18th century, offered by the British government for an accurate method of determining a ship's longitude at sea (essential for the safe navigation of the powerful British navy): intended to promote—and financially reward—a scientific solution, it was instead won by a scientific outsider, the clockmaker John Harrison. However, the naval utility of astronomy did help increase the number of capable astronomers and focus research on developing more powerful and versatile instruments. +Through the 19th century, science and technology grew closer together, particularly through electrical and acoustic inventions and the corresponding mathematical theories. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a trend toward military mechanization, with the advent of repeating rifles with smokeless powder, long-range artillery, high explosives, machine guns, and mechanized transport along with telegraphic and later wireless battlefield communication. Still, independent inventors, scientists and engineers were largely responsible for these drastic changes in military technology (with the exception of the development of battleships, which could only have been created through organized large-scale effort). + +== World War I and the interwar years == + +World War I marked the first large-scale mobilization of science for military purposes. Prior to the war, the American military ran a few small laboratories as well as the Bureau of Standards, but independent inventors and industrial firms predominated. Similarly in Europe, military-directed scientific research and development was minimal. The powerful new technologies that led to trench warfare, however, reversed the traditional advantage of fast-moving offensive tactics; fortified positions supported by machine guns and artillery resulted in high attrition but strategic stalemate. Militaries turned to scientists and engineers for even newer technologies, but the introduction of tanks and aircraft had only a marginal impact; the use of poison gas made a tremendous psychological impact, but decisively favored neither side. The war ultimately turned on maintaining adequate supplies of materials, a problem also addressed by military-funded science—and, through the international chemical industry, closely related to the advent of chemical warfare. +The Germans introduced gas as a weapon in part because naval blockades limited their supply of nitrate for explosives, while the massive German dye industry could easily produce chlorine and organic chemicals in large amounts. Industrial capacity was completely mobilized for war, and Fritz Haber and other industrial scientists were eager to contribute to the German cause; soon they were closely integrated into the military hierarchy as they tested the most effective ways of producing and delivering weaponized chemicals. Though the initial impetus for gas warfare came from outside the military, further developments in chemical weapon technology might be considered military-funded, considering the blurring of lines between industry and nation in Germany. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8ee43d0d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "History of military technology" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:05.083851+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Following the first chlorine attack by the Germans in May 1915, the British quickly moved to recruit scientists for developing their own gas weapons. Gas research escalated on both sides, with chlorine followed by phosgene, a variety of tear gases, and mustard gas. A wide array of research was conducted on the physiological effects of other gases, such and hydrogen cyanide, arsenic compounds, and a host of complex organic chemicals. The British built from scratch what became an expansive research facility at Porton Down, which remains a significant military research institution into the 21st century. Unlike many earlier military-funded scientific ventures, the research at Porton Down did not stop when the war ended or an immediate goal was achieved. In fact, every effort was made to create an attractive research environment for top scientists, and chemical weapons development continued apace—though in secret—through the interwar years and into World War II. German military-backed gas warfare research did not resume until the Nazi era, following the 1936 discovery of tabun, the first nerve agent, through industrial insecticide research. +In the United States, the established tradition of engineering was explicitly competing with the rising discipline of physics for World War I military largess. A host of inventors, led by Thomas Edison and his newly created Naval Consulting Board, cranked out thousands of inventions to solve military problems and aid the war effort, while academic scientists worked through the National Research Council (NRC) led by Robert Millikan. Submarine detection was the most important problem that both the physicists and inventors hoped to solve, as German U-boats were decimating the crucial naval supply lines from the U.S. to England. Edison's Board produced very few useful innovations, but NRC research resulted in a moderately successful sound-based methods for locating submarines and hidden ground-based artillery, as well as useful navigational and photographic equipment for aircraft. Because of the success of academic science in solving specific military problems, the NRC was retained after the war's end, though it gradually decoupled from the military. +Many industrial and academic chemists and physicists came under military control during the Great War, but post-war research by the Royal Engineers Experimental Station at Porton Down and the continued operation of the National Research Council were exceptions to the overall pattern; wartime chemistry funding was a temporary redirection of a field largely driven by industry and later medicine, while physics grew closer to industry than to the military. The discipline of modern meteorology, however, was largely built from military funding. During World War I, the French civilian meteorological infrastructure was largely absorbed into the military. The introduction of military aircraft during the war as well as the role of wind and weather in the success or failure of gas attacks meant meteorological advice was in high demand. The French army (among others) created its own supplementary meteorological service as well, retraining scientists from other fields to staff it. At war's end, the military continued to control French meteorology, sending weathermen to French colonial interests and integrating weather service with the growing air corps; most of the early-twentieth century growth in European meteorology was the direct result of military funding. World War II would result in a similar transformation of American meteorology, initiating a transition from an apprenticeship system for training weathermen (based on intimate knowledge of local trends and geography) to the university-based, science-intensive system that has predominated since. + +== World War II == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8afcd9238 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "History of military technology" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:05.083851+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +If World War I was the chemists' war, World War II was the physicists' war. As with other total wars, it is difficult to draw a line between military funding and more spontaneous military-scientific collaboration during World War II. Well before the Invasion of Poland, nationalism was a powerful force in the German physics community (see Deutsche Physik); the military mobilization of physicists was all but irresistible after the rise of National Socialism. German and Allied investigations of the possibility of a nuclear bomb began in 1939 at the initiative of civilian scientists, but by 1942 the respective militaries were heavily involved. The German nuclear energy project had two independent teams, a civilian-controlled team under Werner Heisenberg and a military-controlled led by Kurt Diebner; the latter was more explicitly aimed at producing a bomb (as opposed to a power reactor) and received much more funding from the Nazis, though neither was ultimately successful. +In the U.S., the Manhattan Project and other projects of the Office of Scientific Research and Development resulted in a much more extensive military-scientific venture, the scale of which dwarfed previous military-funded research projects. Theoretical work by a number of British and American scientists resulted in significant optimism about the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction. As the physicists convinced military leaders of the potential of nuclear weapons, funding for actual development was ratcheted up rapidly. A number of large laboratories were created across the United States for work on different aspects of the bomb, while many existing facilities were reoriented to bomb-related work; some were university-managed while others were government-run, but all were ultimately funded and directed by the military. The May 1945 surrender of Germany, the original intended target for the bomb, did virtually nothing to slow the project's momentum. After Japan's surrender immediately following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, many scientists returned to academia or industry, but the Manhattan Project infrastructure was too large—and too effective—to be dismantled wholesale; it became the model for future military-scientific work, in the U.S. and elsewhere. +Other wartime physics research, particularly in rocketry and radar technology, was less significant in popular culture but much more significant for the outcome of the war. German rocketry was driven by the pursuit of Wunderwaffen, resulting in the V-2 ballistic missile; the technology as well as the personal expertise of the German rocketry community was absorbed by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. rocket programs after the war, forming the basis of long-term military funded rocketry, ballistic missile, and later space research. Rocket science was only beginning to make impact by the final years of the war. German rockets created fear and destruction in London, but had only modest military significance, while air-to-ground rockets enhanced the power of American air strikes; jet aircraft also went into service by the end of the war. Radar work before and during the war provided even more of an advantage for the Allies. British physicists pioneered long-wave radar, developing an effective system for detecting incoming German air forces. Work on potentially more precise short-wave radar was turned over to the U.S.; several thousand academic physicists and engineers not participating the Manhattan Project did radar work, particularly at MIT and Stanford, resulting in microwave radar systems that could resolve more detail in incoming flight formations. Further refinement of microwave technology led to proximity fuzes, which greatly enhanced the ability of the U.S. Navy to defend against Japanese bombers. Microwave production, detection and manipulation also formed the technical foundation to complement the institutional foundation of the Manhattan Project in much post-war defense research. + +== American Cold War science == +In the years immediately following World War II, the military was by far the most significant patron of university science research in the U.S., and the national labs also continued to flourish. After two years in political limbo (but with work on nuclear power and bomb manufacture continuing apace) the Manhattan Project became a permanent arm of the government as the Atomic Energy Commission. The Navy—inspired by the success of military-directed wartime research—created its own R&D organization, the Office of Naval Research, which would preside over an expanded long-term research program at Naval Research Laboratory as well as fund a variety of university-based research. Military money following up the wartime radar research led to explosive growth in both electronics research and electronics manufacturing. The Air Force became an independent service branch from the Army and established its own research and development system, and the Army followed suit (though it was less invested in academic science than the Navy or Air Force). Meanwhile, the perceived communist menace of the Soviet Union caused tensions—and military budgets—to escalate rapidly. +The Department of Defense primarily funded what has been broadly described as “physical research,” but to reduce this to merely chemistry and physics is misleading. Military patronage benefited a large number of fields, and in fact helped create a number of the modern scientific disciplines. At Stanford and MIT, for example, electronics, aerospace engineering, nuclear physics, and materials science—all physics, broadly speaking—each developed in different directions, becoming increasingly independent of parent disciplines as they grew and pursued defense-related research agendas. What began as interdepartmental laboratories became the centers for graduate teaching and research innovation thanks to the broad scope of defense funding. The need to keep up with corporate technology research (which was receiving the lion's share of defense contracts) also prompted many science labs to establish close relationships with industry. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e55a244bf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "History of military technology" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:05.083851+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Computing === +The complex histories of computer science and computer engineering were shaped, in the first decades of digital computing, almost entirely by military funding. Most of the basic component technologies for digital computing were developed through the course of the long-running Whirlwind-SAGE program to develop an automated radar shield. Virtually unlimited funds enabled two decades of research that only began producing useful technologies by the end of the 50s; even the final version of the SAGE command and control system had only marginal military utility. More so than with previously established disciplines receiving military funding, the culture of computer science was permeated with a Cold War military perspective. Indirectly, the ideas of computer science also had a profound effect on psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience through the mind-computer analogy. + +=== Geosciences and astrophysics === +The history of earth science and the history of astrophysics were also closely tied to military purposes and funding throughout the Cold War. American geodesy, oceanography, and seismology grew from small sub-disciplines in into full-fledged independent disciplines as for several decades, virtually all funding in these fields came from the Department of Defense. A central goal that tied these disciplines together (even while providing the means for intellectual independence) was the figure of the Earth, the model of the earth's geography and gravitation that was essential for accurate ballistic missiles. In the 1960s, geodesy was the superficial goal of the satellite program CORONA, while military reconnaissance was in fact a driving force. Even for geodetic data, new secrecy guidelines worked to restrict collaboration in a field that had formerly been fundamentally international; the Figure of the Earth had geopolitical significance beyond questions of pure geoscience. Still, geodesists were able to retain enough autonomy and subvert secrecy limitations enough to make use of the findings of their military research to overturn some of the fundamental theories of geodesy. Like geodesy and satellite photography research, the advent of radio astronomy had a military purpose hidden beneath official astrophysical research agenda. Quantum electronics permitted both revolutionary new methods of analyzing the universe and—using the same equipment and technology—the monitoring of Soviet electronic signals. +Military interest in (and funding of) seismology, meteorology and oceanography was in some ways a result of the defense-related payoffs of physics and geodesy. The immediate goal of funding in these fields was to detect clandestine nuclear testing and track fallout radiation, a necessary precondition for treaties to limit the nuclear weapon technology earlier military research had created. In particular, the feasibility of monitoring underground nuclear explosions was crucial to the possibility of a comprehensive rather than Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. But the military-funded growth of these disciplines continued even when no pressing military goals were driving them; as with other natural sciences, the military also found value in having ‘scientists on tap' for unforeseen future R&D needs. + +=== Biological sciences === +The biological sciences were also affected by military funding, but, with the exception of nuclear physics-related medical and genetic research, largely indirectly. The most significant funding sources for basic research before the rise of the military-industrial-academic complex were philanthropic organizations such as the Rockefeller Foundation. After World War II (and to some extent before), the influx of new industrial and military funding opportunities for the physical sciences prompted philanthropies to divest from physics research—most early work in high-energy physics and biophysics had been the product of foundation grants—and refocus on biological and medical research. +The social sciences also found limited military support from the 1940s to the 1960s, but much defense-minded social science research could be—and was—pursued without extensive military funding. In the 1950s, social scientists tried to emulate the interdisciplinary organizational success of the physical sciences' Manhattan Project with the synthetic behavioral science movement. Social scientists actively sought to promote their usefulness to the military, researching topics related to propaganda (put to use in Korea), decision making, the psychological and sociological causes and effects of communism, and a broad constellation of other topics of Cold War significance. By the 1960s, economists and political scientists offered up modernization theory for the cause of Cold War nation-building; modernization theory found a home in the military in the form of Project Camelot, a study of the process of revolution, as well as in the Kennedy administration's approach to the Vietnam War. Project Camelot was ultimately canceled because of the concerns it raised about scientific objectivity in the context of such a politicized research agenda; though natural sciences were not yet susceptible to implications of the corrupting influence of military and political factors, the social sciences were. + +== Historical debate == +Historian Paul Forman, in his seminal 1987 article, proposed that not only had military funding of science greatly expanded the scope and significance of American physics, it also initiated "a qualitative change in its purposes and character." Historians of science were beginning to turn to the Cold War relationship between science and the military for detailed study, and Forman's “distortionist critique” (as Roger Geiger has described it) served to focus the ensuing debates. +Forman and others (e.g., Robert Seidel, Stuart Leslie, and for the history of the social sciences, Ron Robin) view the influx of military money and the focus on applied rather than basic research as having had, at least partially, a negative impact on the course of subsequent research. In turn, critics of the distortionist thesis, beginning with Daniel Kevles, deny that the military "seduced American physicists from, so to speak, a 'true basic physics'." Kevles, as well as Geiger, instead view the effects of military funding relative to such funding simply being absent—rather than put to alternate scientific use. +Most recent scholarship has moved toward a tempered version of Forman's thesis, in which scientists retained significant autonomy despite the radical changes brought about by military funding. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..44711c625 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "History of military technology" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:05.083851+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== See also == +History of weapons +Big Science +Funding of science +Historiography of science +History of radar +History of science and technology +History of technology +Military-industrial complex +Military science +Military technology +Military medicine +Military Wireless Museum in the Midlands + +== External links == + +== Notes and references == + +== Further reading == +Andrade, Tonio. The gunpowder age: China, military innovation, and the rise of the West in world history (Princeton University Press, 2017). +Barrett, Ann H., and Armand Vincent Cardello. Military food engineering and ration technology (DEStech Publications, 2012) online +Bolia, Robert, et al. "A history lesson on the use of technology to support military decision making and command and control." in Decision making in complex environments (CRC Press, 2017) pp. 191–200. online +Bousquet, Antoine. "A revolution in military affairs?: Changing technologies and changing practices of warfare." in Technology and World Politics (Routledge, 2017) pp. 165–181. [1] +Burmaoglu, Serhat, and Ozcan Sarıtas. "Changing characteristics of warfare and the future of Military R&D." Technological Forecasting and Social Change 116 (2017): 151–161. online +Chin, Warren. "Technology, war and the state: past, present and future." International Affairs 95.4 (2019): 765–783. online +DeVries, Kelly Robert, Kelly DeVries, and Robert Douglas Smith. Medieval military technology ( University of Toronto Press, 2012) online. +Evangelista, Matthew. Innovation and the arms race: How the United States and the Soviet Union develop new military technologies (Cornell University Press, 2020). online +Gabriel, Richard A. Between flesh and steel: A history of military medicine from the middle ages to the war in Afghanistan (Potomac Books, 2013) online. +Horowitz, Michael C., and Shira Pindyck. "What is a military innovation and why it matters." Journal of Strategic Studies (2022): 1-30. online +Kuo, Kendrick. "Military Innovation and Technological Determinism: British and US Ways of Carrier Warfare, 1919–1945." Journal of Global Security Studies 6.3 (2021): ogaa046. +McNeill, William H. The pursuit of power: Technology, armed force, and society since AD 1000 (University of Chicago Press, 1982), a major scholarly survey online +Nicholson, Helen J. Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300-1500 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017) online. +Piehler, G. Kurt, ed. Encyclopedia of military science (Sage Publications, 2013). +Purton, Peter Fraser. The Medieval Military Engineer: From the Roman Empire to the Sixteenth Century (Boydell & Brewer, 2018). +Turchin, Peter, et al. "Rise of the war machines: Charting the evolution of military technologies from the Neolithic to the Industrial Revolution." PloS one 16.10 (2021): e0258161. online +Van Creveld, Martin. Transformation of war (Simon and Schuster, 2009). online \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ce424f061 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:06.400391+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) is a non-profit organization based in Nixon, Nevada, for the purpose of political activism against the emergent field of population genetics for human migration research. The term "biocolonialism" is a neologism—a portmanteau of "bio-" and "colonialism"—used by the IPCB to pejoratively characterize population genetics research as part of invasive and destructive assimilation against indigenous peoples. +The group claims to advocate for the interests of indigenous peoples, to assist "in the protection of their genetic resources, indigenous knowledge, cultural and human rights from the negative effects of biotechnology." In particular, the IPCB's protests were based on a rejection of participating in scientific research that would negate or otherwise contradict traditional Native American accounts and narratives about their ancestral origins, and lend support to other alternate views. +IPCB was a signatory of the Indigenous Peoples' Seattle Declaration in 1999. + + +== History == +The IPCB was founded in 1999 by the current Executive Director Debra Harry, following her growing concerns over a perceived impact of genetic colonialism on the lives of indigenous peoples. The organization objects to genetic variation research on isolated populations, as well as its prospective commercial exploration; claiming it as a global threat, not only to the self-determination of all indigenous peoples, but also to the non-indigenous world and to the earth itself. +In 2005 and 2006, the group protested against the National Geographic's Genographic Project. + + +== See also == +Convention on Biological Diversity +George Annas, a director of IPCB +Jonathan Marks, a director of IPCB +Stuart Newman, a director of IPCB + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Chris Richards, Interview with Debra Harry and the Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism, New Internationalist, December 2005 accessed at [1] August 4, 2006 +Statements by organizations representing indigenous and local communities, on Convention on Biological Diversity website, accessed at [2] August 4, 2006 + + +== External links == +IPCB - Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..adb45e793 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design in politics" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:07.671842+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The intelligent design movement has conducted an organized campaign largely in the United States that promotes a pseudoscientific, neo-creationist religious agenda calling for broad social, academic and political changes centering on intelligent design. + +== International context == + +Though creationism and intelligent design are not supported by many mainstream scientists, there are significant minorities in the general public in most developed countries that say they doubt or reject the theory of evolution, likely because of their religious beliefs. In underdeveloped countries where rates of religious belief are much higher, support of evolution is consequently lower. + +== Europe == +In Europe, religion generally has much less influence on politics than in the United States or the developing world. Despite this, there are pockets of creationist and intelligent design activity. + +=== Council of Europe === +The Council of Europe's Committee on Culture, Science and Education released a report in June 2007 entitled "The Dangers of Creationism in Education". One of the council members, Anne Brasseur said that the aim of the report was to anchor evolution in school curricula, and warned that there was still resistance in many European countries. She provided the following examples in an interview with German newspaper Der Spiegel: + +A former deputy education minister of Poland called the theory of evolution a lie. +Activism against teaching evolution in grade school by some Russian parents +A 2004 proposed decree against evolution +A proposed "Genesis-Land" theme park in Switzerland based on the Creation Museum in Kentucky. +Creationist lectures and symposia in the United Kingdom +The publication and free distribution of the "Atlas of Creation" by Harun Yahya in Turkey +The Ministry of Education for the German state of Hesse allowing the teaching of theory of creation in biology class +The publishing house "Studiengemeinschaft Wort und Wissen" is now publishing the sixth edition of a grade school textbook that includes the theory of intelligent design. + +== North America == + +=== Canada === +Unlike in the United States the issue has never been the subject of a major Supreme Court case, nor does it figure prominently in the national media. +In Canada, education is the constitutional responsibility of the provinces. No province has taught creationism in its official public school curriculum in modern times, however, there are various different approaches to the teaching of evolution and religion across the country, as well as various exceptions for separate schools (publicly funded religious school, primarily Catholic), private schools, alternative schools, Reserve schools, charter schools, and so on. In most provincial curricula (excluding Quebec, where it has been mandatory in elementary schools since 2004) evolutionary theory is only required in Grade 11 or 12; however, it can be taught earlier at the discretion of local school boards and teachers. +Around 63,000 Canadian children attend "Christian" (primarily evangelical) schools outside of the provincial systems (which include both the public [secular] and Catholic schools), where they are generally taught creationism rather than evolution. +In 2006, the ministry of education in Quebec ordered unlicensed private evangelical Christian schools to start teaching evolution and sexual education, otherwise the schools would be closed. In Ontario, private schools are not required to teach either evolution or sex education. +In 2009, the government under the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta introduced Bill 44 which allows parents to pull their children out of public school classrooms if they disagree with the controversial subject matter being discussed (such as evolution or homosexuality). Later amendments to the bill clarified that parents could choose to pull their children from religion classes, but not from science classes. + +=== United States === +A number of specific political strategies and tactics have been employed by intelligent design proponents. These range from attempts at the state level to undermine or remove altogether the presence of evolutionary theory from the public school classroom, to having the federal government mandate the teaching of intelligent design, to 'stacking' municipal, county and state school boards with intelligent design proponents. The Discovery Institute has been driving force in most cases, providing a range of support from material assistance to federal, state and regional elected representatives in the drafting of bills to supporting and advising individual parents confronting their school boards. +A feature of the Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns has been extensive lobbying and public relations campaigns conducted on behalf of intelligent design proponents in order to overcome professional setbacks such as that of Guillermo Gonzalez, Richard Sternberg and Francis Beckwith. These efforts are focused on two efforts: the Teach the Controversy and Critical Analysis of Evolution campaigns. These campaigns gained prominence after the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial where Judge John E. Jones III ruled that teaching intelligent design or presenting it as an alternative to evolution was a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution because intelligent design is not legitimate science but essentially religious in nature. +Both the Teach the Controversy and Critical Analysis of Evolution strategies and resources for them come from the Discovery Institute and its Center for Science and Culture, the hub of the intelligent design movement. These strategies are seen as another iteration of the Discovery Institute's campaign to "defeat [the] materialist world view" represented by the theory of evolution in favor of "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions". According to the Center for Science and Culture's weblog, at least 10 state legislatures are now considering legislation reconsidering how evolution is taught. Many of these initiatives benefit from significant legal assistance from a number of conservative legal foundations including the Thomas More Law Center, the Alliance Defense Fund, and Quality Science Education for All (QSEA). All have litigated extensively on behalf of the movement. + +==== Specific cases ==== + +===== 1999 & 2005 creationist Kansas Boards of Education ===== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..83832f1d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design in politics" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:07.671842+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 1999 the Kansas Board of Education voted to delete references to evolution from Kansas science standards. This had the net effect of removing the teaching of evolution from the state's science curriculum. The move angered the mainstream science community which predicted a resulting loss of rigor and quality in science education. The Board's decision was in part influenced by the presence of recently elected conservative Christians to the board and heavy lobbying by the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture, then known as the "Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture" (CRSC). Subsequent elections altered the membership of the school board and led to renewed backing for evolution instruction in 2001. +Elections in 2004 gave religious conservatives a contentious 6-4 majority. The board in 2005 was finalizing new science standards which would have guided teachers about how and what to teach students. A proposal advanced by conservatives and intelligent design proponents, with support from the Center for Science and Culture, was similar to the Critical Analysis of Evolution plan for which the Center lobbied the Ohio Board of Education in 2002. It would not have eliminated evolution entirely from instruction, nor would it require intelligent design to be presented as an alternative to evolution, but the Critical Analysis of Evolution plan treated evolution as a flawed theory, a position that defied mainstream scientific views. +On 8 November 2005, the Kansas Board of Education, chaired by veterinarian Steve Abrams, approved new science teaching standards that included the Critical Analysis of Evolution. The Discovery Institute was key in the drafting and adoption of the new standards which were approved by 6 to 4, reflecting the makeup of religious conservatives on the board. +Critics of the new Kansas standards noted that they promoted the teaching of intelligent design. Kansas standards previously supported evolutionary theory, which held that all life had a common origin. Creationists claimed that theory had been challenged by their interpretation of fossils and molecular biology. They had also echoed the standard intelligent design argument that there is a controversy as to whether changes over time in one species can lead to a new species. +After the board of education decided to include more criticism of evolution in its school science standards, a University of Kansas professor, Paul Mirecki, proposed to teach a class called "Special Topics in Religion: intelligent design, Creationism and other Religious Mythologies." The class was cancelled and the professor was forced to resign as chairman of the university's religious studies department. Mirecki had alleged that he was also assaulted and beaten by creationists who opposed his teaching of the class +In primary election held on August 1, 2006, pro-creationist conservative Republicans lost their 6-4 board majority when incumbent Connie Morris from Cheyenne County, Kansas, was defeated by moderate Republican Sally Cauble, of Liberal, Kansas. Another slot which until then was held by a retiring conservative whose son-in-law from Idaho, Brad Patzer, ran for her office, was won by Jana Shaver, a pro-evolution Republican from Independence, Kansas. +Morris had described evolution in a taxpayer-funded constituent newsletter as "an age-old fairy tale" and "a nice bedtime story" unsupported by science. +The fate of Education Commissioner and former Koch brothers Kansas Policy Institute director, Bob Corkins, was sealed by the ouster of the anti-evolutionists in 2006. He was an appointee of the board's creationists and endured strong criticism for his lack of previous educational leadership experience. Republican state Sen. John Vratil, characterized Corkins' hiring as education commissioner as "sort of like making Saddam Hussein president of the United States." The executive director of the American Association of School Administrators, Paul Houston, had written a letter referring to Corkins as an "amateur." + +===== 2000 Congressional briefing ===== +In 2000, the leading intelligent design proponents operating through the Discovery Institute held a congressional briefing in Washington, D.C., to promote intelligent design to lawmakers. Sen. Rick Santorum was (and continues to be) one of intelligent design's most vocal supporters. One result of this briefing was that Sen. Santorum inserted pro-intelligent design language into the No Child Left Behind bill calling for students to be taught why evolution "generates so much continuing controversy," an assertion heavily promoted by the Discovery Institute. + +===== 2001 Santorum Amendment ===== + +The Santorum Amendment was a failed proposed amendment to the 2001 education act No Child Left Behind of 2001. The inclusion of the amendment in the Act was heavily lobbied for by the Discovery Institute, which also participated in the drafting of the original language of the amendment. Although only a modified form of the amendment appeared in the conference report, the amendment itself was not included in the legislation that President George W. Bush signed. +It was not the victory intelligent design proponents had hoped for. Conference reports do not carry the weight of law and are merely explanatory in nature, and, in any case, the amendment failed. Nonetheless, an email newsletter by the Discovery Institute contained the sentence "Undoubtedly this will change the face of the debate over the theories of evolution and intelligent design in America. ... It also seems that the Darwinian monopoly on public science education, and perhaps the biological sciences in general, is ending" and Senator Sam Brownback of Kansas cited the amendment as vindicating the 1999 Kansas school board decision (since overturned) to eliminate evolution questions from State tests. Consistent with the Wedge strategy its inclusion in the conference report on the failed amendment continues to be incorrectly cited by the Discovery Institute and other intelligent design supporters as providing federal sanction for intelligent design. Reps. John Boehner and Steve Chabot of Ohio and Sen. Judd Gregg of New Hampshire, along with Santorum, have signed letters supporting the Discovery Institute's interpretation of the Santorum amendment. One of those letters was sent to the president and vice-president of the Ohio Board of Education in 2002; the other was sent to the Texas Board of Education in 2003, see below. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3aebb9542 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design in politics" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:07.671842+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== 2001 Louisiana, House Bill 1286 ===== +This bill directs that the state shall not print or distribute any material containing claims known to be false or fraudulent. It also specifically provides for any citizen to be able to sue the state using the provisions of this bill. + +===== 2001 Michigan, House Bill 4382 ===== +A bill proposed by Rep. Gosselin (House Bill 4382) which sought to amend 1976 PA 451, "The revised school code". The bill directed that In the science standards, all references to "evolution" and "how species change through time" would be modified to indicate that this is an unproven theory, by adding the phrase "all students will explain the competing theories of evolution and natural selection based on random mutation and the theory that life is the result of the purposeful, intelligent design of a creator." The bill also directed that in the science standards for middle and high school, all references to "evolution" and "natural selection" would be modified to indicate that these are unproven theories, by adding the phrase "describe how life may be the result of the purposeful, intelligent design of a creator." And in the science standards for middle and high school, the bill directed all references to "evolution" and "natural selection" would be modified to indicate that these are unproven theories, by adding the phrase "explain the competing theories of evolution and natural selection based on random mutation and the theory that life is the result of the purposeful, intelligent design of a creator." The bill also would have required that the recommended model core academic curriculum content standards that are developed and periodically updated by the state board comply with these provisions. Also under the bill the State Board would have been required to make these revisions as soon as practicable after the effective date of the bill, if it had been enacted. +Text of HB4382 (PDF) + +===== 2001 Georgia, House Bill 391 ===== +This bill directed teachers to distinguish between "philosophical materialism" and "authentic science", and extended to teachers the "right" to present and critique any scientific theory of the origins or life or species. Failed in committee. + +===== 2001 West Virginia, House Bill 2554 ===== +An "equal-time" bill, described in its title as "Providing for the teaching of creation science and evolution science on an equal basis in the public schools." HB2554 was introduced in the state legislature in February 2001, and died in committee. + +===== 2001 Kanawha County, West Virginia ===== +In February 2001 a parent filed a complaint with the Kanawha County Board of Education claiming that science textbooks used there contain "false and fraudulent" information about evolution. The parent and 30 cosigners opposed to evolution asserted that the textbooks are in violation of state law because they are outdated or inaccurate. As evidence that textbooks which include evolution are flawed, they cited Jonathan Well's of the Discovery Institute book Icons of Evolution. The board rejected the claim. + +===== 2001 Arkansas, House Bill 2548 ===== +In 2001 Representative Jim Holt proposed a bill in the Arkansas legislature that would make it illegal for the state or any of its agencies to use state funds to purchase materials that contained false or fraudulent claims. A list of such claims was provided in the text of House Bill 2548 (HB2548). Much of the text of the examples given was either quoted verbatim from anti-evolutionary sources or was a close paraphrase of such materials. The sources cited in the bill included the cartoon tract, "Big Daddy?" published by Jack Chick. Critics of the bill alleged that many of the "examples" selected were themselves either false or misleading. March 21, 2001, Representative Holt invited his friend and controversial anti-evolutionist Kent Hovind to testify before a committee of the Arkansas Legislature in support of the bill. In April 2001 a motion was passed to postpone HB 2548 indefinitely for study during the interim by the Joint Interim Committee on Education. + +===== 2001 Montana, House Bill 588 ===== +House Bill 588 by Rep. Joe Balyeat, R-Bozeman, was presented as an "objectivity in science education" measure, and would have directed the approval of evolution and creationism materials by an appointed six-member committee. The bill failed in committee. + +===== 2001 Pennsylvania Board of Education ===== +In July 2001 the Pennsylvania Board of Education gave final approval to revised science standards. Language in early versions of the standards sought to raise questions about the status of evolution as science and a theory. Science educators and other Pennsylvania citizens expressed concern that the proposed standards might open the way to teaching creationism in science classes because of ambiguous or unclear wording. However, the final standards do not contain the contested language and the standards were approved by the legislature. + +===== 2002 Ohio Board of Education ===== +In March 2002 Ohio held hearings on revising the state science standards. The Discovery Institute's Stephen C. Meyer proposed to the Ohio Board of Education the Institute's Critical Analysis of Evolution that featured intelligent design prominently in its curricula. +Concurrently, a factitious redefinition of science to include God was proposed to the Ohio legislature, so that the legislature would then be able to get behind the set of standards that included intelligent design. The Discovery Institute's model lesson plan was adopted in part by the state for Ohio science teachers in October 2002, though the Board advised that the science standards do "not mandate the teaching or testing of intelligent design". This was touted as a significant victory by the Discovery Institute. +In February 2006, the Ohio Board of Education voted 11-4 to delete the science standard and correlating lesson plan adopted in 2002. The board also rejected a competing plan from intelligent design proponents to request a legal opinion from the state attorney general on the constitutionality of the science standards. Intelligent design proponents pledged to force another vote on the issue. + +===== 2002 Cobb County, Georgia ===== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..56273e6ff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design in politics" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:07.671842+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 2002 the Cobb County school board required stickers placed in a science textbook. Stating that evolution was "a theory, not a fact," the sticker was placed in the ninth-grade biology text after parents complained to the Cobb County school board that alternative ideas about the origin of life were not presented. A group of parents represented by the American Civil Liberties Union sued the school board, claiming the stickers violate the separation of church and state. The trial was resolved in January 2005 when U.S. District Judge Clarence Cooper ruled the sticker was unconstitutional. In the verdict he wrote, "By denigrating evolution, the school board appears to be endorsing the well-known prevailing alternative theory, creationism or variations thereof, even though the sticker does not specifically reference any alternative theories." In December 2005 the federal appeal court panel made comments sharply criticising the lower court ruling in advance of releasing their decision. Judge Ed Carnes said that the words on the sticker are "technically accurate," and that "From nonlife to life is the greatest gap in scientific theory. There is less evidence supporting it than there is for other theories. It sounds to me like evolution is more vulnerable and deserves more critical thinking," suggesting that he did not understand the distinction between evolution and abiogenesis. In December 2006 Cobb County School Board agreed to settle the long-running legal case. The county will not order the placement of "any stickers, labels, stamps, inscriptions, or other warnings or disclaimers bearing language substantially similar to that used on the sticker that is the subject of this action." + +===== 2003 Texas State Board of Education, textbook controversy ===== +In 2003 The Texas State Board of Education was considering 11 different textbooks for inclusion in the 2004-2005 school year. Fellows of the Discovery Institute testified to the Board that whatever textbooks are adopted should introduce statements on the "weaknesses of the theory of evolution" and include "competing theories, such as intelligent design." The DI had strong interest in the Texas debate because the state is the second largest purchaser of textbooks in the country. Thus any changes publishers make to cater to the state would likely be seen elsewhere. + +===== 2004/2005 Richard Sternberg ===== + +The Sternberg peer review controversy arose over whether an article published in a scientific journal that supported the controversial concept of intelligent design was properly peer-reviewed. The journal's editor, Richard Sternberg, was an active proponent of intelligent design with ties to the Discovery Institute, and the article's author, Stephen C. Meyer, is an official of the Discovery Institute. The journal's publisher ultimately withdrew Meyer's article saying Sternberg published it outside of the normal review process, a statement Sternberg disputes. +In the course of his defense Sternberg claimed he was the subject of religious discrimination due to his belief in intelligent design by the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History, where he served as an unpaid research associate. Sternberg's claim is contradicted by John G. West, Vice President and Senior Fellow of the Discovery Institute and Associate Director of the Institute's Center for Science & Culture who wrote, "The first misunderstanding is the belief that intelligent design is based on religion rather than science. Intelligent design is a scientific inference based on empirical evidence, not on religious texts." Despite West's clear rejection of Sternberg's claim, Republican representatives, other Discovery Institute affiliates and intelligent design advocates Mark Souder and Rick Santorum authored a report supporting Sternberg's claim of discrimination. The report was commissioned by Souder in his capacity as subcommittee chairman of the House of Representatives Committee on Government Reform but published by Souder as an individual representative without it gaining any official standing by the Committee, which never formally accepted it. + +===== 2005 Pennsylvania, House Bill 1007 ===== +On March 16, 2005, a bill, HB 1007, promoting "intelligent design" creationism was introduced in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives and referred to the Education Committee. If enacted, HB 1007 would add a section ("Teaching Theories on the Origin of Man and Earth") to the Public School Code of 1949. That new section would allow school boards to add "intelligent design" to any curriculum containing evolution and allow teachers to use, subject to the approval of the board, "supporting evidence deemed necessary for instruction on the theory of intelligent design." The term "intelligent design" is not defined in the bill. Presumably attempting to prevent a challenge to its constitutionality, HB 1007 explicitly states, "When providing supporting evidence on the theory of intelligent design, no teacher in a public school may stress any particular denominational, sectarian or religious belief." +In June 2005 John G. West and Seth Cooper of the Discovery Institute wrote a letter to Pennsylvania Representative Jess M. Stairs urging Stairs and the Pennsylvania legislature not to pass HB1007. This reflects a shift in the strategy of the intelligent design proponents. Anticipating legal challenges to the constitutionality of laws that mandate teaching of intelligent design, proponents feel including intelligent design content in science curricula under the guise of "scientific criticisms" or "evidence against evolution," within the pretense of "teaching the controversy" is a more defensible strategy. + +===== 2005 Kansas evolution hearings ===== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a9a7e7ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design in politics" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:07.671842+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A series of hearings instigated by the Discovery Institute held in Topeka, Kansas May 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education to review changes how the origin of life would be taught in the state's public high school science classes. The hearings were boycotted by the scientific community, and views expressed represented largely those of intelligent design advocates. The result of the hearings was the adoption of new science standards by the fundamentalist-dominated board in defiance of the State Board Science Hearing Committee that relied upon the institute's Critical Analysis of Evolution lesson plan and adopted the institute's Teach the Controversy approach. In August 2006 conservative Republicans lost their majority on the board in a primary election. The moderate Republican and Democrats gaining seats vowed to overturn the 2005 school science standards and adopt those recommended by a State Board Science Hearing Committee that were rejected by the previous board. +On the 13th of February, 2007, the Kansas State Board of Education approved a new curriculum which removed any reference to Intelligent Design as part of science. In the words of Dr Bill Wagnon, the board chairman, "Today the Kansas Board of Education returned its curriculum standards to mainstream science". The new curriculum, as well as a document outlining the differences with the previous curriculum, has been posted on the Kansas State Department of Education's website. + +===== 2005/2004 Dover, Pennsylvania Board of Education ===== + +In 2004 the Dover, Pennsylvania Board of Education passed a resolution requiring 9th grade biology teachers to read a statement that the Pennsylvania Academic Standards require the teaching of evolution, but then the statement proceeds to seed doubts about evolution's validity and directs students to study intelligent design and the intelligent design textbook Of Pandas and People as an alternative. Three of the school board members in the minority of the vote resigned in protest, and science teachers in the district refused to read the statement to their ninth-grade students, citing the Pennsylvania code of education, which states that teachers cannot present information they believe to be false. Instead, the statement was read to students by a school administrator. +The American Civil Liberties Union filed a lawsuit on behalf of eleven parents contending that the school board policy violates the First Amendment. A hearing (Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Area School District) in Federal District Court was scheduled for September 2005. +The school board claims there are "gaps" in evolution, which it emphasizes is a theory rather than established fact, and that students have a right to consider other views on the origins of life. The school board claims it does not teach intelligent design but simply makes students aware of its existence as an alternative to evolution. It denies intelligent design is "religion in disguise," despite being represented in court by the Thomas More Law Center, a conservative Christian nonprofit which says it uses litigation to promote "the religious freedom of Christians and time-honored family values." +The Discovery Institute's John West said the case displayed the ACLU's "Orwellian" effort to stifle scientific discourse and objected to the issue being decided in court. "It's a disturbing prospect that the outcome of this lawsuit could be that the court will try to tell scientists what is legitimate scientific inquiry and what is not," West said. "That is a flagrant assault on free speech." Opponents, represented by the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the National Association of Biology Teachers contend that his statement is not just ironic, but hypocritical, considering that the Discovery Institute not only tries to tell scientists and academics what is legitimate scientific inquiry and what is not (in disputing philosophical naturalism), but as a matter of policy seeks to redefine what constitutes legitimate science. +In May, 2005, the publisher of Of Pandas and People, the Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE), filed a motion seeking to intervene in the case. FTE argued that a ruling that "intelligent design" was religious would have severe financial consequences, citing possible losses in the neighborhood of half a million dollars. By intervening, FTE would have become a co-defendant with the Dover Area School Board, and able to bring its own lawyers and expert witnesses to the case. FTE's president Jon Buell implied that if allowed to intervene, FTE would bring William A. Dembski and Stephen C. Meyer as expert witnesses. In his decision on the motion, Judge John E. Jones III ruled that FTE was not entitled to intervene in the case because its motion to intervene was not timely, describing FTE's excuses for not trying to become involved earlier as "both unavailing and disingenuous." Judge Jones also held that FTE failed to demonstrate that it has "a significantly protectable interest in the litigation warranting intervention as a party" and that its interests will not be adequately represented by the defendants. +In a November 2005 election the citizens of Dover voted out their pro-intelligent design schoolboard. +On December 20, 2005, U.S. District Judge John E. Jones III, in his 139-page ruling on Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, struck down the school board's policy requiring a statement be read endorsing intelligent design as an alternative to evolution in 9th grade high school biology classes. In his ruling Jones wrote that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature. In response the Discovery Institute accused Judge Jones of being an "activist judge". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..287cd214a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design in politics" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:07.671842+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== 2006 Ohio - Proposed Template for Ohio Teachers ===== +A 2006 proposal before the Ohio Board of Education drafted by Conservative Board member Colleen Grady, would create a "template" based on the Discovery Institute's Critical Analysis of Evolution lesson plan for use by 10th-grade science teachers for classroom discussions evolution, global warming, stem-cell research and cloning. +Grady's proposal was widely regarded as an attempt to circumvent the board's February 2006 vote to retract a controversial model lesson plan and to remove the indicator on which it was based from the standards; the indicator, which called for students to be able to "describe how scientists continue to investigate and critically analyze aspects of evolutionary theory," was generally criticized as providing a pretext for instilling scientifically unwarranted doubts about evolution. +Critics have noted that Grady's proposal will allow for the introduction of intelligent design in public schools, although the executive director of the Intelligent Design Network of Ohio, Roddy Bullock, says that the template would merely permit criticism of evolution, via a Teach the Controversy approach. However, in noting that the purpose of the template is to "open up these topics to different points of view, to different lines of evidence, to different interpretations of the evidence, to give students a more objective approach to science education," and given that outside of creationism and intelligent design there are no alternatives to evolution, various groups such as Americans United for Separation of Church and State are in opposition to the proposal. +In fact, on July 11, Americans United for Separation of Church and State filed a request under the Ohio open records law asking for copies of the Grady proposal as well as all documents and correspondence by the Board of Education and the Department of Education relating to proposed changes to the state’s science standards. The group's executive director, Rev. Barry W. Lynn, urged the Ohio board to reject any effort to reopen the dispute over science education, noting +"Public school students in Ohio deserve sound science education, not religious dogma masquerading as science. It’s time for Religious Right allies on the board to drop their unwise agenda and focus on policies that will benefit all of Ohio’s students." + +===== 2007 Mississippi, House Bill 625 ===== +Representative Mike Lott (R-District 104) introduced House Bill 625 on January 9, 2007. If enacted the bill would "authorize local school boards to allow for the teaching of creationism or intelligent design." Lott was quoted as saying, "The school board of a school district may allow the teaching of creationism or intelligent design in the schools within the district. However, if the theory of evolution is required to be taught as part of the school district's science curriculum, in order to provide students with a comprehensive education in science, the school board also must include the teaching of creationism or intelligent design in the science curriculum". Similar bills to include the teaching of creationism and intelligent design in public classrooms were submitted in 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005. None were adopted. + +===== 2009 Florida Senate Bill ===== +In February 2009 Senator Stephen R. Wise announced that he was sponsoring plans to introduce a bill requiring teachers who teach evolution to also discuss the idea of intelligent design. + +===== 2025 North Dakota, Senate Bill 2355 ===== +State Senator Michael Dwyer (R-District 47) introduced Senate Bill 2355 four days after the second inauguration of Donald Trump, on January 24, 2025. This bill as proposed would require a change to the state science content standards mandating that intelligent design be included and be taught as "a viable scientific theory." It passed through committee before failing on the second reading one month after it was introduced. + +==== Intelligent design lawsuits ==== + +===== The Dover trial ===== + +In 2005, the constitutionality of presenting intelligent design in public high school science classes as a valid scientific alternative to evolution was considered by the court in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, the "Dover trial." There plaintiffs successfully argued that intelligent design is a form of creationism, and that the school board policy requiring the presentation of intelligent design as an alternative to evolution as an "explanation of the origin of life" thus violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In his ruling, the judge found that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature and that "ID’s backers have sought to avoid the scientific scrutiny, which we have now determined that it cannot withstand, by advocating that the controversy, but not ID itself, should be taught in science class. This tactic is at best disingenuous, and at worst a canard. The goal of the IDM is not to encourage critical thought, but to foment a revolution which would supplant evolutionary theory with ID." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2594171f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Intelligent design in politics" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:07.671842+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== 2005 University of California at Berkeley suit ===== +In October 2005, the National Science Foundation and the University of California, Berkeley’s Museum of Paleontology were sued by intelligent design proponents for running a website for school teachers called 'Understanding Evolution'. The lawsuit was brought by Jeanne Caldwell and Larry Caldwell, the husband and wife founders of the anti-evolution, pro-intelligent design group Quality Science Education for All. The Caldwells argued that University of California was "taking a position on evolution and attempting to persuade minor students to accept that position." Michael R. Smith, the assistant chancellor for legal affairs at Berkeley, said that the university would defend the lawsuit "with vigor and enthusiasm." +The suit alleged that a university-maintained webpage that contains statements from 17 religious organizations endorsing the teaching of evolution and in so doing violated the separation of church and state. The Caldwells objected specifically to one web page that says it's a misconception that science and religion are incompatible. +"Basically, what we have is a page that deals with the misconceptions and challenges to the teaching of evolution, and we provided resources to teachers to answer them," said Roy Caldwell. "One of those questions is, 'Aren't religion and evolution incompatible?' and we say, 'no,' and point to a number of sites by clerics and others who make that point." +The plaintiffs alleged that these statements constituted a preference for certain religious viewpoints in violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The suit was dismissed 13 March 2006 when judge granted the University of California's motion to dismiss the case on the grounds that the plaintiffs lacked standing. + +== See also == +Anti-evolution legislation +Creation and evolution in public education + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Three_Hundred-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Three_Hundred-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1d4369ad8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Three_Hundred-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Letter of Three Hundred" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Three_Hundred" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:09.300028+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Letter of Three Hundred (Russian: Письмо трёхсот) was a series of letters sent by Soviet scientists to the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1955, calling for an end to the dominance of Trofim Lysenko's doctrine in Soviet biology. The first and most important of these letters was a 21-page memorandum signed by a large group of Soviet scientists and sent on 11 October 1955. The memorandum assessed the state of biology in the Soviet Union in the mid-1950s and sharply criticized the scientific views and practical activities of Lysenko, who at the time was one of the country’s most influential figures in biological science. It ultimately contributed to Lysenko’s resignation as president of VASKhNIL and to the removal of some of his supporters from other leading posts in the Soviet scientific establishment. The text of the letter, with some cuts, was first openly published in Pravda on 13 January 1989. + + +== Background == +In the late 1940s and early 1950s, with the support of the leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet state, Lysenko expanded and promoted his theories through ideological and pseudoscientific rhetoric, advanced his supporters, and moved against his opponents. Scientific debate in biology was effectively prohibited during the period of Lysenko’s dominance, and his opponents were isolated, removed from positions, and in some cases physically repressed. +By the mid-1950s, many Soviet scientists had come to believe that decades of Lysenko’s monopoly had done severe damage not only to biological science but also to the international prestige of the Soviet Union. At a time when physics and chemistry were advancing rapidly in the Soviet Union and abroad, and when genetics and molecular biology were making major international advances through discoveries in radiation biology, the structure of DNA, and the mechanisms of genetic replication and information transfer, Lysenko’s claims and repeated promises of success for “Michurinist biology” increasingly appeared sterile and scientifically untenable. +After the death of Joseph Stalin, opposition to Lysenko in Soviet biology revived. Biologists committed to classical genetics had previously sent many private letters to the Soviet leadership, including to the Central Committee, the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union, and even the Soviet procuracy, describing the damage caused by Lysenko and his associates. When these individual appeals produced no response, the idea emerged of a collective letter signed by a large number of scientists. + + +== Discussion and consequences == +Nikita Khrushchev, who personally sympathized with Lysenko, reportedly described the letter as “outrageous” after learning of it. At the same time, Vsevolod Stoletov, then first deputy minister of higher education of the Soviet Union, proposed that Khrushchev organize a broad scientific discussion in which the supporters of the officially approved doctrine would supposedly prevail and demonstrate their correctness. Instead, the discussion expanded support for the letter’s authors within scientific circles and contributed to the near-total isolation of Lysenko, despite his continuing political backing. +The letter contributed to Lysenko’s resignation as president of VASKhNIL in 1956, although he later regained influence under Khrushchev. After Khrushchev’s fall from power in 1964, Lysenko’s position weakened decisively, and in 1965 he was removed from the Institute of Genetics. + + +== Signatories and supporters == +The memorandum was signed by a large group of Soviet scientists, including biologists as well as prominent figures from related fields such as physics, mathematics, and chemistry. +Among the signatories were biologists such as Boris Astaurov, Nikolai Dubinin, Vladimir Sukachev, Nikolai Timofeev-Ressovsky, Nikolai Nasonov, and Mikhail Navashin, together with scientists from other disciplines including Lev Landau, Igor Tamm, Vitaly Ginzburg, Yakov Zeldovich, Pyotr Kapitsa, Andrei Sakharov, Mstislav Keldysh, Sergei Sobolev, Pavel Alexandrov, and Alexander Frumkin. +Additional supporting statements were submitted by other scientists and specialist groups, including representatives of mathematics, physics, and agricultural science. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_controversies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_controversies-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..29be22328 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_controversies-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "List of climate change controversies" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_controversies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:10.590757+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There are past and present public debates over certain aspects of climate change: how much has occurred in modern times, what causes it, what its effects will be, and what action should be taken to curb it now or later, and so forth. In the scientific literature, there is a very strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. +The controversies are now primarily political rather than scientific, as there is a scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and is driven by human activities. Public debates that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases (climate sensitivity). Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature, where such issues are treated as resolved, and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States and Australia than globally. + + +== Debates around details in the science == + +There have been many debates around the details of climate change science. Climate change deniers and "skeptics" tend to cherry-pick data or studies, and then trump up any scientific discussions or apparent discrepancies that match with their agenda. Many of those apparent discrepancies have been reconciled in the meantime, climate models have become more accurate, the scientific consensus on climate change has strengthened and so forth. For example, climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth has published widely on the topic of climate variability and has exposed flaws in the publications of other scientists. +For past debates and controversies on scientific details see for example: + +History of climate change science § Discredited theories and reconciled apparent discrepancies +Climate change denial § Discussing specific aspects of climate change science +Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change § Challenges and controversies (the IPCC assessment reports, like the most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarise the state of the art of climate science at the time). + + +== Debates over most effective response to warming == + +There have been debates on the best responses to slow global warming, and their timing. The debates are around the specific actions for climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation, or climate action in general. See for example: + +Economic analysis of climate change +Climate change denial § Delaying climate change mitigation measures +Climate change denial § Pushing for adaptation only +Climate action (Climate crisis) + + +== See also == + +Attitude polarization +History of climate change policy and politics +Manufactured controversy +Politicization of science +Right-wing antiscience + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_letters_by_academics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_letters_by_academics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0acc86477 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_letters_by_academics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of open letters by academics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_letters_by_academics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:30:11.896018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article lists notable open letters that were initiated by scientists or other academics or have a substantial share of academic signees. +Open letters that are not open for signing by other academics or the public in general and have not received both a large number of signatures – in specific no less than 10 before 2000 and no less than 40 after 2010 – and substantial media attention are not included, nor are petitions. With the advent of the Internet and World Wide Web, such open letters may have become far more frequent. +Open letters targeting or defending individual academics or small groups of scholars as well as letters calling for retractions of specific studies are not included. + + +== See also == +Collective action +Collective intelligence +Scientific consensus +Scientific controversy +Policy +2026 in the environment#Open policy proposals +Timeline of computing 2020–present#Open policy proposals +Policy § Induction of policies +In the media and public awareness +Reality § Media +Science communication +Science journalism +Solutions journalism +Similar documents +Letter of three hundred, only made public retrospectively +World Scientists' Warning to Humanity + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file