diff --git a/_index.db b/_index.db index a040ed5fa..5ac9c3aa3 100644 Binary files a/_index.db and b/_index.db differ diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_(taxonomy)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_(taxonomy)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9eadb3b3f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_(taxonomy)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Affinity (taxonomy)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_(taxonomy)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:16.623989+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Affinity (taxonomy) – mainly in life sciences or natural history – refers to resemblance suggesting a common descent, phylogenetic relationship, or type. The term does, however, have broader application, such as in geology (for example, in descriptive and theoretical works), and similarly in astronomy (for example, see "Centaur object" in the context of 2060 Chiron's close affinity with icy comet nuclei.) + + +== Basis == +In taxonomy the basis of any particular type of classification is the way in which objects in the domain resemble each other. A resemblance of a type that seems appropriate to the classification that we propose, we may call an affinity, and when we decide how to classify say, a specimen of rock or butterfly, we justify our decision according to the affinities that we observe. +Other resemblances we dismiss as being out of context or at least non-cogent; for example, in deciding whether to classify a lizard as having closer affinities to a snake than to a table, biologists rely on affinities such as the scales, blood, physiology, vertebral anatomy, and reproductive system as being more relevant than the possession of four "feet". + + +== Application and obstacles == +Analysing and determining the proper classification of an organism, a rock, or an astronomic object according to a particular system is often a difficult and treacherous procedure. Problems in such fields of study have tripped up whole generations of workers in recent centuries. When the position is not clear from an early stage, the first step after beginning to determine, evaluate, and describe the attributes of the object, is to determine the affinities and evaluate their significance. +The number of legs might well be a significant affinity in comparing different types of related organisms such as crustaceans, but irrelevant in comparing a ten-limbed cephalopod with a ten-limbed solifugid (including its pedipalps as limbs). Such a comparison would be no more cogent than the foregoing example of the lizard and the table. +There are many such examples in nature; we see both a lungfish and a porpoise as having closer (but largely different) affinities to a cow than to a tuna, and a bat as having closer affinities to a banteng than to a bird or a butterfly, although a banteng has no "wings". These are considerations arising from the principles discussed in articles on Homology (biology) and Analogy (biology). +It is clear that there is an element of subjectivity to the recognition of affinities; that is implicit in such dictionary definitions as: ""Affinity: the closeness of relation between plants as shown by similarity of important organs." That definition is over a century old, but it is typical of the basis on which taxonomists had to work till recently, and in practice still must use; it is not practical to sequence the genome of every specimen. Nucleic acid analyses are eroding many difficulties, but there is a long way to go. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7cc2af44c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "List of natural history dealers" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:15.431724+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Natural history specimen dealers had an important role in the development of science in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. They supplied the rapidly growing, both in size and number, museums and educational establishments and private collectors whose collections, either in entirety or parts finally entered museums. +Most sold not just zoological, botanical and geological specimens but also +equipment and books. Many also sold archaeological and ethnographic items. They purchased +specimens from professional and amateur collectors, sometimes collected themselves as well as acting as agents for the sale of +collections. Many were based in mercantile centres notably Amsterdam, Hamburg, and London or +in major cities. Some were specialists and some were taxonomic authorities who wrote scientific works and manuals, some functioned as trading museums or institutes. +This is a list of natural history dealers from the 16th to the 19th century: here are names that are frequently encountered in museum collections. + +Johan Hans Abegg (fl. 1882–1885) Mineral collector and dealer in Zurich. +Augustus Theodore Abel (?1802-1882); German Mineral dealer resident in Ballarat. +Anton Franz Abraham Preparator and dealer in educational materials at " "Naturhistorisches Institut" on Beatrixgasse, Vienna, 1896, on Ungargasse, Vienna in 1903–1906.Supplied specimens to Archduke Franz Ferdinand. +Ludwig Anker (1822, Budapest -1887) Insektenhändler +Mary Anning +Bernardino Astfäller (1879–1964) Insektenhändler in Meran +Louis Thomas Jérôme Auzoux Paris +Andreas Bang-Haas +Otto Bang-Haas +Max Bartel (1879–1914) Berlin +Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka +Julius Böhm (c. 1850?-1925) Vienna mineral dealers as "Österr.-ungar. Mineralien-Comptoir" or Austro-Hungarian Mineral Dealership. +Auguste Boissonneau (1802-1883, Paris) Bird skin dealer. +Edward Percy Bottley Gregory, Bottley & Lloyd geology and mineral dealership +Ernst August Böttcher, born 14 June 1870 Naturalien und Lehrmittel-Anstalt Berlin C. 2, Brüderstrasse 15. +August Friedrich Böttcher +Brazenor Bros Dealers in zoological specimens in Brighton from 1858 to 1937. +Nérée Boubée Paris +Adolphe Boucard +Braun; Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (1800–1864) Fossil and mineral dealer in Regensburg de:Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Braun +Brendel and Sohn Botanical modelmakers in Breslau and Berlin. +Antonie Augustus Bruijn Dutch East Indies +Jean Baptiste Lucien Buquet (Paris) +Gustav Calliess (1871-1956) Insektenhändler in Guben +Emile Clement Australia +William Deans Cowan Madagascar +Giuseppe De Cristoforis (Milan) +Eduard Dämel Insect dealer in Hamburg. +Robert Damon Natural history dealer in Weymouth +Walter Dannatt Natural history dealer in Lee, London, mainly Lepidoptera. +Jules Desbrochers des Loges French insect dealer. +Émile Deyrolle (1838–1917) French naturalist and natural history dealer in Paris. The business was originally owned by his naturalist grandfather, Jean-Baptiste Deyrolle who opened his shop in 1831 at 23, Rue de la Monnaie. Émile's father Achille Deyrolle ran the business for many years. It is now at 46, rue du Bac, Paris +Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode trader of bird skins in the Dutch East Indies. +Henri Donckier de Donceel Paris insect dealer +Richard Henry Puech Dupont (1798 –1873) Paris trader (Quai Saint-Michel) in specimens of beetles and birds. +Alfred William Ecutt (1879-) Newport, Wales. +William Eling (also known as William Ealing, c.1790-1853), shell and marine specimen dealer based at Deptford. +Entomologisch Institut Hamburg (E. M. Schulz) Hamburg 22, Hamburgerstrasse 45. +Josef Erber(c. 1830 – c. 1918) Mineral and natural history dealer in Vienna St. Ullrich, Siebensterngasse No. 29. +Anton Hermann Fassl Naturhistorisches-Institut, 948 Zeidlerstrasse, Teplitz, Bohemia, Germany (now the Czech Republic) +Adolarius Jacob Forster (1739–1806).Leading mineral dealer of the 18th century with premises in London, Paris and St. Petersburg. +R. Fuess Berlin - Steglitz mineral and petrographic specimens an instruments Heinrich Ludwig Rudolf Fuess (1838–1917)de:Rudolf Fuess. +Gustav Adolph Frank (1809–1880) Natural history dealer in Amsterdam who had worldwide trade connections. +Václav Frič (1839–1916) Prague +Hans Fruhstorfer + +Alfred George Gabriel (1884–1968) English butterfly dealer who also worked for the British Museum. +Otto Garlepp and Gustav Garlepp Otto (1864-1959) Gustav (1862 – 1907) South America +Bruno Geisler (1857-1945) New Guinea bird skins +Karl Ludwig Giesecke Mineral dealer in Copenhagen. +Johann Cesar VI. Godeffroy The Godeffroy Museum and dealership. +Richard Haensch Berlin +Johann Wilhelm Adolf Hansemann (1784–1862) German insect dealer +Thomas Hawkins + +Henry Heuland (1778–1856) London Mineral collector and dealer +Alexander Heyne Berlin +George Humphrey London dealer in shells and ‘curiosities’ in the 18th century. +Charles Jamrach +Charles Georges Javet +Edward Wesley Janson London +Jan Kalinowski Peru +Heinrich Kühn (naturalist) (1860-1906) Birds and butterflies East Indies, New Guinea +Emil Riemel, Mühen, Augustenstrasse 41 Insect dealer +Kny-Scheerer Company, 404 West Twenty- seventh street, New York. Agency for German dealers - specimens, equipment. Active 1900- 1930s? +Friedrich Kohl (1839–1907) Fossil and mineral dealer + +Adam August Krantz (1809–1872); Natural history dealer in Berlin after 1850 in Bonn. +Frank H. Lattin & Co. Albion, New York +Benjamin Leadbeater (1760–1837) Dealer in ornithological specimens. +Hermann von Maltzan (1843 – 1891) Conchology +Charles Johnson Maynard (1845–1929) Natural history dealer in Boston and Newton, Massachusetts. +Friedrich Christian Meuschen +Heinrich Benno Möschler +Eugène Le Moult +August Müller +Ida Laura Pfeiffer +Maison Azoux +Maison Tramond Established by the mid-19th century at 9 Rue de l' Ecole de Medicine in Paris. Later "Maison Tramond - N. Rouppert successeur".Models of human and comparative anatomy and osteological preparations. +Albert Stewart Meek +Wilhelm Neuburger Berlin (between 1900 and 1910) Insect dealer +Heinrich Michael Neustetter Insect dealer, Vienna +Friedrich Wilhelm Niepelt +Gustav Paganetti-Hummler as Zoologische Institut für Balkanforschung des Gust. Paganetti-Hummler +Ludwig Parreys (1796–1879) Parreys lived in Vienna, where he was dealer in natural history objects. Trading as Ludwig and Joseph Mann, he supplied zoological specimens to many leading taxonomists whose collections are now conserved by natural history museums. +Émile Parzudaki (1829-1899) and Charles Parzudaki 2 rue Bouloi, Paris, mainly bird mounts and skins. +Andrew Pritchard London +Max Quedenfeldt Berlin insect dealer. +Orazio Querci (and family). Butterfly dealer in Florence, Italy - collected extensively in Spain and Portugal also Cuba. Supplied butterflies to Roger Verity and European butterflies to R.C. Williams, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. +Lovell Augustus Reeve \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..024b18224 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "List of natural history dealers" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:15.431724+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Edmund Reitter "Natural History Institute" 1879 -1880 Vienna, 1881-1891 Mödling, after 1891 Paskau and Munich (extant). +Carl Ribbe +Heinrich Ribbe (1832–1898) Entomologist and dealer in Berlin +Hermann Rolle Berlin +William Frederick Henry Rosenberg (1868–1957) 57 Haverstock Hill, London fl. 1920s. Claimed to hold 5,000 bird species as scientific skins (and to be the largest bird skin dealership in the world). Supplier to museums and private collectors. Traveller. +Emil Adolf Rossmässler Natural History dealer +Karl Rost +Fritz Rühl +Auguste Sallé +L.W. Schaufuß else E. Klocke, Dresden +Christian Julius Wilhelm Schiede +Wilhelm Schlüter +Gustav Schneider (1867–1958) Basel +Gustav Schrader +Wilhelm Schlüter +Abraham Scrivener (fl. 1840s) naturalist and merchant with a shop at Deptford Bridge, Greenwich. +Paul Smart +Southwick & Jencks’ Natural History Store Providence, Rhode Island +Otto Staudinger +Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn Marine specimens. +Wilh. Steeg "Dr. Steeg & Reuter" after 1879. Crystallographic microscope slides. +Alexandre Stuer(fl. 1890s-1920?) Paris mineral dealer. Owner of Comptoir Géologique et Minéralogique, 40, rue de Mathurins and at 4, rue de Castellane. +John Crace Stevens Covent Gardens auctioneer. +Emanuel Sweerts (1552–1612) Dutch merchant and natural history dealer. + +Rudolf Tancré (1842–1934) Anklam, Pomerania Dealer in Lepidoptera mainly of Central Asia and Siberia. +Georg Thorey - Hamburg pharmacist and beetle collector. Also sold beetles to other natural history collectors. +Johann Friedrich Gustav Umlauff (1833–1889) Proprietor of prominent Hamburg-based natural history and ethnographic dealership and associated museum. +Unio Itineraria a German Scientific Society based in Esslingen am Neckar sold specimens as a dealership. +Van Ingen & Van Ingen +Jules Verreaux Owner of Maison Verreaux, established in 1803 by his father, Jacques Philippe Verreaux, at Place des Vosges in Paris, which was the earliest known company that dealt with objects of natural history. +Jean Villet Cape Town +Voigt & Hochgesang Göttingen +Józef Warszewicz Guatemala 1844–1850 +Henry Augustus Ward Founder of Ward's Natural History Establishment in Rochester, New York. +Rowland Ward London +White Watson +William Watkins Began trading in 1874 in Eastbourne. In 1879 the address was 36 The Strand, London. In 1907 the dealership became Watkins & Doncaster (1907). In 1937 ownership passed to Frederick Metté an expert on bird eggs. +Frank Blake Webster's Naturalists Supply Depot 409 Washington Street, Hyde Park, Massachusetts +Walter Freeman Webb (1869–1957) Shell dealer St. Petersburg, Florida +Henry Whitely +Bryce McMurdo Wright father (1814–1875) or son (1850–1895), both with same name and both dealers at 90 Great Russell Street, London. They dealt in minerals and fossils, ethnographic and archaeological objects. +Bohuslav Železný Prague 1890-? Lepidoptera. +Karl Wahnes New Guinea, Borneo, Solomon Islands Leipoptera, Coleoptera, Birds +Emil Weiske Saalfeld Insect and bird collector and dealer. +Rudolf Zimmermann (1878–1943) mineralogist and dealer in natural history specimens for schools based in Chemnitz, Saxony. Author of Die Mineralien. Eine Anleitung zum Sammeln und Bestimmen derselben nebst einer Beschreibung der wichtigsten Arten + +== See also == +Insektenbörse +Taxidermists + +== References == + +Mark V. Barrow, 2000 The Specimen Dealer: Entrepreneurial Natural History in America's Gilded Age Journal of the History of Biology 33: 493–534 [1] +Günther, Albert C. L. G. (Albert Carl Ludwig Gotthilf) 1904-1912 The history of the collections contained in the natural history departments of the British Museum. British Museum London, Printed by order of the Trustees +Horn et al., 1990: Collectiones entomologicae. Berlin. +Mearns B. & Mearns R., 1998: The Bird Collectors. Academic Press, London + +== External links == + +Archive of taxidermists \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md index 179ea6b5e..2a26fec27 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:06.102599+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:14.271358+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-1.md index 8687353ef..d7e6de2b6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:06.102599+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:14.271358+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md index 3f92cf524..fc149c6ec 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:06.102599+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:14.271358+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..542d9ab4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Structuralism (philosophy of science)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:05.133111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the philosophy of science, structuralism (also known as scientific structuralism or as the structuralistic theory-concept) asserts that all aspects of reality are best understood in terms of empirical scientific constructs of entities and their relations, rather than in terms of concrete entities in themselves. + +== Overview == + +Structuralism is an active research program in the philosophy of science, which was first developed in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s by several analytic philosophers. +As an instance of structuralism, the concept of matter should be interpreted not as an absolute property of nature in itself, but instead of how scientifically grounded mathematical relations describe how the concept of matter interacts with other properties, whether that be in a broad sense such as the gravitational fields that mass-produces or more empirically as how matter interacts with sense systems of the body to produce sensations such as weight. +Structuralism's aim is to comprise all important aspects of an empirical theory in one formal framework. The proponents of this meta-theoretic theory are Frederick Suppe, Patrick Suppes, Ronald Giere, Joseph D. Sneed, Wolfgang Stegmüller, Carlos Ulises Moulines, Wolfgang Balzer, John Worrall, Elie Georges Zahar, Pablo Lorenzano, Otávio Bueno, Anjan Chakravartty, Tian Yu Cao, Steven French, and Michael Redhead. +The term "structural realism" for the variation of scientific realism motivated by structuralist arguments, was coined by American philosopher Grover Maxwell in 1968. In 1998, the British structural realist philosopher James Ladyman distinguished epistemic and ontic forms of structural realism. + +== Variations == + +=== Epistemic structural realism === +The philosophical concept of (scientific) structuralism is related to that of epistemic structural realism (ESR). ESR, a position originally and independently held by Henri Poincaré (1902), Bertrand Russell (1927), and Rudolf Carnap (1928), was resurrected by John Worrall (1989), who proposes that there is retention of structure across theory change. Worrall, for example, argued that Fresnel's equations imply that light has a structure and that Maxwell's equations, which replaced Fresnel's, do also; both characterize light as vibrations. Fresnel postulated that the vibrations were in a mechanical medium called "ether"; Maxwell postulated that the vibrations were of electric and magnetic fields. The structure in both cases is the vibrations and it was retained when Maxwell's theories replaced Fresnel's. Because structure is retained, structural realism both (a) avoids pessimistic meta-induction and (b) does not make the success of science seem miraculous, i.e., it puts forward a no-miracles argument. + +==== Newman problem ==== +The so-called Newman problem (also Newman's problem, Newman objection, Newman's objection) refers to the critical notice of Russell's The Analysis of Matter (1927) published by Max Newman in 1928. Newman argued that the ESR claim that one can know only the abstract structure of the external world trivializes scientific knowledge. The basis of his argument is the realization that "[a]ny collection of things can be organized so as to have structure W, provided there are the right +number of them", where W is an arbitrary structure. + +==== Response to the Newman problem ==== +John Worrall (2000) advocates a version of ESR augmented by the Ramsey sentence reconstruction of physical theories (a Ramsey sentence aims at rendering propositions containing non-observable theoretical terms clear by substituting them with observable terms). John Worrall and Elie Georges Zahar (2001) claim that Newman's objection applies only if a distinction between observational and theoretical terms is not made. +Ramsey-style epistemic structural realism is distinct from and incompatible with the original Russellian epistemic structural realism (the difference between the two being that Ramsey-style ESR makes an epistemic commitment to Ramsey sentences, while Russellian ESR makes an epistemic commitment to abstract structures, that is, to (second-order) isomorphism classes of the observational structure of the world and not the (first-order) physical structure itself). Ioannis Votsis (2004) claims that Russellian ESR is also impervious to the Newman objection: Newman falsely attributed the trivial claim "there exists a relation with a particular abstract structure" to ESR, while ESR makes the non-trivial claim that there is a unique physical relation that is causally linked with a unique observational relation and the two are isomorphic. + +==== Further criticism ==== +The traditional scientific realist and notable critic of structural realism Stathis Psillos (1999) remarks that "structural realism is best understood as issuing an epistemic constraint on what can be known and on what scientific theories can reveal." He thinks that ESR faces a number of insurmountable objections. These include among others that ESR's only epistemic commitment is uninterpreted equations which are not by themselves enough to produce predictions and that the "structure versus nature" distinction that ESR appeals to cannot be sustained. +Votsis (2004) replies that the structural realist "does subscribe to interpreted equations, but attempts to distinguish between interpretations that link the terms to observations from those that do not" and he can appeal to the Russellian view that "nature" just means the non-isomorphically specifiable part of entities. +Psillos also defends David Lewis's descriptive-causal theory of reference (according to which the abandoned theoretical terms after a theory change are regarded as successfully referring "after all") and claims that it can adequately deal with referential continuity in conceptual transitions, during which theoretical terms are abandoned, thus rendering ESR redundant. +Votsis (2004) replies that a scientific realist needs not tie the approximate truth of a theory to referential success. Notably, structural realism initially did not dictate any particular theory of reference; however Votsis (2012) proposed a structuralist theory of reference according to which "scientific terms are able to refer to individual objects, i.e. in a term-by-term fashion, but that to fix this reference requires taking into account the relations these objects instantiate" (in this view, structural descriptions serve as reference determiners). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..76ce9459d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Structuralism (philosophy of science)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:05.133111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ontic structural realism === +While ESR claims that only the structure of reality is knowable, ontic structural realism (OSR) goes further to claim that structure is all there is. In this view, reality has no "nature" underlying its observed structure. Rather, reality is fundamentally structural, though variants of OSR disagree on precisely which aspects of structure are primitive. OSR is strongly motivated by modern physics, particularly quantum field theory, which undermines intuitive notions of identifiable objects with intrinsic properties. Some early quantum physicists held this view, including Hermann Weyl (1931), Ernst Cassirer (1936), and Arthur Eddington (1939). Recently, OSR has been called "the most fashionable ontological framework for modern physics". +Max Tegmark takes this concept even further with the mathematical universe hypothesis, which proposes that, if our universe is only a particular structure, then it is no more real than any other structure. + +== Definition of structure == + +In mathematical logic, a mathematical structure is a standard concept. A mathematical structure is a set of abstract entities with relations between them. The natural numbers under arithmetic constitute a structure, with relations such as "is evenly divisible by" and "is greater than". Here the relation "is greater than" includes the element (3, 4), but not the element (4, 3). Points in space and the real numbers under Euclidean geometry are another structure, with relations such as "the distance between point P1 and point P2 is real number R1"; equivalently, the "distance" relation includes the element (P1, P2, R1). Other structures include the Riemann space of general relativity and the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics. The entities in a mathematical structure do not have any independent existence outside their participation in relations. Two descriptions of a structure are considered equivalent, and to be describing the same underlying structure, if there is a correspondence between the descriptions that preserves all relations. +Many proponents of structural realism formally or informally ascribe "properties" to the abstract objects; some argue that such properties, while they can perhaps be "shoehorned" into the formalism of relations, should instead be considered distinct from relations. + +== Proposed structures == +In quantum field theory (QFT), traditional proposals for "the most basic known structures" divide into "particle interpretations" such as ascribing reality to the Fock space of particles, and "field interpretations" such as considering the quantum wavefunction to be identical to the underlying reality. Varying interpretations of quantum mechanics provide one complication; another, perhaps minor, complication is that neither fields nor particles are completely localized in standard QFT. A third, less obvious, complication is that "unitarily inequivalent representations" are endemic in QFT; for example, the same patch of spacetime can be represented by a vacuum by an inertial observer, but as a thermal heat bath by an accelerating observer that perceives Unruh radiation, raising the difficult question of whether the vacuum structure or heat bath structure is the real structure, or whether both of these inequivalent structures are separately real. Another example, which does not require the complications of curved spacetime, is that in ferromagnetism, symmetry-breaking analysis results in inequivalent Hilbert spaces. More broadly, QFT's infinite degrees of freedom lead to inequivalent representations in the general case. +In general relativity, scholars often grant a "basic structure" status to the spacetime structure, sometimes via its metric. + +== See also == +Constructive empiricism, a rival yet related view +Semantic view of theories, a view often associated with structuralism +Structural-systematic philosophy, a particular form of structural realism + +== Notes == +^ α: Not to be confused with the distinct tradition of French (semiotic) structuralism. +^ β: So-called 'pessimistic meta-inductions' about theoretical knowledge have the following basic form: "Proposition p is widely believed by most contemporary experts, but p is like many other hypotheses that were widely believed by experts in the past and are disbelieved by most contemporary experts. We have as much reason to expect p to befall their fate as not, therefore we should at least suspend judgement about p if not actively disbelieve it." + +== Citations == + +== References == +W. Balzer, C. U. Moulines, J. D. Sneed, An Architectonic for Science: the Structuralist Approach. Reidel, Dordrecht, 1987. +C. M. Dawe, "The Structure of Genetics," PhD dissertation, University of London, 1982. +Humphreys, P., ed. (1994). Patrick Suppes: Scientific Philosopher, Vol. 2: Philosophy of Physics, Theory Structure and Measurement, and Action Theory, Synthese Library (Springer-Verlag). +J. D. Sneed, The Logical Structure of Mathematical Physics. Reidel, Dordrecht, 1971 (revised edition 1979). +Wolfgang Stegmüller, Probleme und Resultate der Wissenschafttheorie und Analytischen Philosophie: Die Entwicklung des neuen Strukturalismus seit 1973, 1986. +Frederick Suppe, ed., The Structure of Scientific Theories. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977[1974]. +John Worrall, "Structural Realism: the Best of Both Worlds" in: D. Papineau (ed.), The Philosophy of Science (Oxford, 1996). +T. Perrone, "Models, Theory Dislodgment, and Epistemic Non Asymptotic Enrichment", Idee, 7/2014, 211–230. + +== External links == +Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Structuralism in Physics" +Ioannis Votsis – Structural Realism Bibliography (last updated on 29 June 2020) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f01ceba74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Suspension of judgment" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:06.269957+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Suspended judgment is a cognitive process and a rational state of mind in which one withholds judgments, particularly on the drawing of moral or ethical conclusions. The opposite of suspension of judgment is premature judgement, usually shortened to prejudice. While prejudgment involves drawing a conclusion or making a judgment before having the information relevant to such a judgment, suspension of judgment involves waiting for all the facts before making a decision. + + +== Law == +Suspension of judgment is used in civil law to indicate a court's decision to nullify a civil judgment. Motions to set aside judgments entered in civil cases in the United States district courts are governed by Rule 60 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure which opens with the statement, "On motion and just terms, the court may relieve a party or its legal representative from a final judgment, order, or proceeding...". The rule is quite straightforward and court room application is mostly as stated. In the New York Law Journal David Bliven argues that suspended judgement ought to be an alternative disposition in family offenses (a type of civil case), particularly in cases where a family judgement is being used as behavior modification rather than a reason to arrest. +More generally in jurisprudence, the ideal juror is expected to presume innocence of the person tried in court. And in the case of conviction, a suspended sentence is one of the possible sentences available to the court. + + +== Science == +Suspension of judgment is a cornerstone of standard research methodology. Much of the scientific method is designed to encourage the suspension of judgments until observations can be made, tested, and verified through peer review. In 1877, Charles Sanders Peirce characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, belief being that on which one is prepared to act. He framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt, which he held to be fruitless. He believed that the scientific method excels the other methods of reasoning by being designed to eventually arrive at the most secure beliefs. Starting from the idea that people seek not truth per se but instead to subdue irritating, inhibitory doubt, Peirce showed how, through the struggle, some can come to submit to truth for the sake of belief's integrity, seek as truth the guidance of potential practice correctly to its given goal, and wed themselves to the scientific method. +The advance of social science often depends on excluding cognitive bias, of which many forms are known. + + +== Philosophy == +Within philosophy, suspension of judgment is typically associated with positivism and skepticism, most especially Pyrrhonism where it is referred to as epoché, but it is not limited to these areas. The 17th century rationalist René Descartes, for example, used it as the cornerstone of his epistemology. In a process that he called methodological skepticism (now also known as Cartesian doubt), he asserted that in order to gain a solid foundation when building one's system of knowledge and belief, one must first doubt everything. Only by eliminating preconceptions and prejudgments can one come to know what is true. +Descartes' methodology is called hyperbolic doubt because it's an extreme form of doubt, casting even slightly suspect into the light of further scrutiny. Hyperbolic doubt is posited in four general points: + +Only information that you know to be true should be accepted. +Take known truths and break them down into their basic components. +Solve the simplest problems first. +Take the remaining problems and make complete lists of them. +Descartes goal in the 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy was to systematically doubt all beliefs and do a ground-up rebuild of only definitely true things as an undoubted basis for the sciences. As an example take a look at the opening line of the volume: + + Several years have now elapsed since I first became aware that I had accepted, even from my youth, many false opinions for true, and that consequently what I afterward based on such principles was highly doubtful; and from that time I was convinced of the necessity of undertaking once in my life to rid myself of all the opinions I had adopted, and of commencing anew the work of building from the foundation... +Through this work Descartes showed that unless one is very careful there are grounds to doubt the reasoning behind any knowledge. He states that this is mostly due to the unreliable nature of sensory knowledge and makes that case with the examples of the dream and the demon. + + +=== The dream argument === + +Descartes hypothesized that due to the possibility of very realistic dreams humans can only believe that we're awake. Through the systematic procedure of 'phenomenological reduction', one is thought to be able to suspend judgment regarding the general or naive philosophical belief in the existence of the external world, and thus examine phenomena as they are originally given to consciousness. However, by the end of The Meditations, he concludes that in retrospect we can certainly distinguish dreaming and reality: + +"But when I distinctly see where things come from and where and when they come to me, and when I can connect my perceptions of them with my whole life without a break then I can be certain that when I encounter these things I am not asleep but awake." — Descartes: Selected Philosophical Writings +Dreaming is also a starting position for the speculation that we may be living in a simulation. Proponents of this viewpoint will sometimes argue that a particular type of simulated reality occurs nightly. The basic claim is that opponents of the simulation hypothesis that a sleeping mind is an unreliable mechanism for differentiated reality from illusion. + + +=== The Evil Demon === + +The idea of the "evil demon" (also known as the "malicious demon") or "evil genius" is one of several methods of systematic doubt employed in the Meditations. Descartes reasoned that it could be possible for what he referred to as an evil demon to be controlling our experiences. There are some Cartesian scholars whom opine that the demon is omnipotent though omnipotence of the evil demon would be contrary to Descartes' hypothesis, as he rebuked accusations of the demon having omnipotence. + + +== See also == +Agnosticism +Bracketing +Suspension of disbelief + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testability-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testability-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1b18c45c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testability-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Testability" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:07.572128+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Testability is a primary aspect of science and the scientific method. There are two components to testability: + +Falsifiability or defeasibility, which means that counterexamples to the hypothesis are logically possible. +The practical feasibility of observing a reproducible series of such counterexamples if they do exist. +In short, a hypothesis is testable if there is a possibility of deciding whether it is true or false based on experimentation by anyone. This allows anyone to decide whether a theory can be supported or refuted by data. However, the interpretation of experimental data may be also inconclusive or uncertain. Karl Popper introduced the concept that scientific knowledge had the property of falsifiability as published in The Logic of Scientific Discovery. + + +== See also == + +Confirmability +Controllability +Observability +Scientific method +Test method + + +== Further reading == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad23fdbd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Twyman's law" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:08.893317+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Twyman's law states that "Any figure that looks interesting or different is usually wrong", following the principle that "the more unusual or interesting the data, the more likely they are to have been the result of an error of one kind or another". It is named after the media and market researcher Tony Twyman and has been described as one of the most important laws of data analysis. +The law is based on the fact that errors in data measurement and analysis can lead to observed quantities that are wildly different from typical values. These errors are usually more common than real changes of similar magnitude in the underlying process being measured. For example, if an analyst at a software company notices that the number of users has doubled overnight, the most likely explanation is a bug in logging, rather than a true increase in users. +The law can also be extended to situations where the underlying data is influenced by unexpected factors that differ from what was intended to be measured. For example, when schools show unusually large improvements in test scores, subsequent investigation often reveals that those scores were driven by fraud. + + +== See also == +Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence +Zebra (medicine) +Regression toward the mean + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violation_paradigm-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violation_paradigm-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bbaed1e2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violation_paradigm-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Violation paradigm" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violation_paradigm" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:10.160078+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A violation paradigm is a scientific method where the scientist perturbs an expected factor to look at the subject's following reactions. These reactions are believed to be relevant to the process studied. For example, creating wrong word segmentations in a text will destabilize the reader. This warns the researcher that the respondent's brain considers the characters are united into words, and not just as a succession of given sets of letters. The process was originally developed by Danks, Bohn & Fear (1983), and proved valid (Chen 1999). + + +== See also == +Danks, Bohn, Fear (1983), Comprehension processes in oral reading, The process of language understanding, pp. 193–223. +Chen, H.-C. (1999), "How do readers of Chinese process words during reading for comprehension ?", Reading Chinese Script: A Cognitive Analysis, Routledge, pp. 257–278, ISBN 9780805824780 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-0.md index 28f238b82..387126aed 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:15:05.983985+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:11.339554+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-1.md index b6bcf5799..d32984a3b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:15:05.983985+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:11.339554+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cdcdd60cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Woozle effect" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:12.579282+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Woozle effect, also known as evidence by citation, occurs when a source is widely cited for a claim that the source does not adequately support, giving said claim undeserved credibility. If results are not replicated and no one notices that a key claim was never well-supported in its original publication, faulty assumptions may affect further research. +The Woozle effect is somewhat similar to circular reporting in journalism, where someone makes a questionable claim, and a journalist unthinkingly accepts the claim and republishes it without realizing its dubious and unreliable origins. In turn, other journalists and the public then continue to repeat and duplicate the unsupported claim. + +== Origin and definition == +A Woozle is an imaginary character in the A. A. Milne book Winnie-the-Pooh, published in 1926. In chapter three, "In which Pooh and Piglet Go Hunting and Nearly Catch a Woozle", Winnie-the-Pooh and Piglet start following tracks left in snow believing they are the tracks of an imaginary animal called a woozle. The tracks keep multiplying until Christopher Robin explains to them that they have been following their own tracks in circles around a spinney. +Prior to the introduction of the specific term "Woozle effect", the underlying concept dates back over 60 years. Bevan (1953), writing about scientific methodology and research errors in the field of psychology, uses the term "scientific woozle hunters". Wohlwill (1963) refers to a "hunt for the woozle" in social science research, and Stevens (1971) cautions readers about woozles in the study of a misquoted letter. +The term "woozle effect" was coined by Beverly D. Houghton in 1979 during a panel discussion, in order: "...to critique the burgeoning belief in a myth/archetype [of] the batterer emerging from the [then] virtually nonexistent literature and the popular press." More recently she described the effect as "reification-by-accretion". Other researchers have attributed the term to Richard Gelles (1980), and to Gelles and Murray A. Straus (1988). Gelles and Straus argue that the woozle effect describes a pattern of bias seen within social sciences and which is identified as leading to multiple errors in individual and public perception, academia, policy making, and government. +A woozle is also a claim, made about research, that is not supported by original findings. According to Donald G. Dutton, a woozle effect, or a woozle, occurs when frequent citation of previous publications that lack evidence misleads individuals, groups and the public into thinking or believing there is evidence, and non-facts become urban myths and factoids. The creation of woozles is often linked to the changing of language from qualified ("it may", "it might", "it could") to absolute form ("it is"), firming up language and introducing ideas and views not held by an original author or supported by evidence. +Dutton sees the woozle effect as an example of confirmation bias and links it to belief perseverance and groupthink. Because in the social sciences empirical evidence may be based on experiential reports rather than objective measurements, there may be a tendency for researchers to align evidence with expectation. According to Dutton, it is also possible that the social sciences may be likely to align with contemporary views and ideals of social justice, leading to bias in favor of those ideals. Gambrill (2012) links the woozle effect to the processes that create pseudoscience. Gambrill and Reiman (2011) also link it with more deliberate propaganda techniques; they also identify introductory phrases like "Every one knows ...", "It is clear that ...", "It is obvious that ...", "It is generally agreed that ..." as alarm bells that what follows might be a Woozle line of reasoning. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a216a91f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Woozle effect" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:18:12.579282+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Examples == +In 1980, Gelles illustrated the Woozle effect, showing how work by Gelles (1974) based on a small sample and published in The Violent Home by Straus, who had written the foreword for Gelles's book, was presented as if it applied to a large sample. Both of these were then cited by Langley & Levy in their 1977 book, Wife Beating: The Silent Crisis. In the 1998 book Intimate Violence, Gelles and Straus use the Winnie-the-Pooh woozle to illustrate how poor practice in research and self-referential research causes older research to be taken as fresh evidence causing error and bias. +One notable example of the effect can be seen in citations of "Addiction Rare in Patients Treated with Narcotics", a letter to the editor by Jane Porter and Hershel Jick published by the New England Journal of Medicine in 1980. The letter, which was five sentences long and unlikely to have been peer reviewed according to a NEJM spokesperson, reported findings from analysis of medical records regarding the use of pain medication for hospital patients and concluded that "despite widespread use of narcotic drugs in hospitals, the development of addiction is rare in medical patients with no history of addiction". Although the study only concerned use of narcotics in hospital settings, over time it was increasingly cited to support claims that addiction to painkillers was similarly uncommon among patients prescribed narcotics to take at home. The authors of a 2017 letter published in the NEJM concerning the original 1980 letter found 608 citations of Porter and Jick, with a "sizable increase" after the release of OxyContin in 1995: Purdue Pharma, the manufacturers of OxyContin, cited the Porter and Jick study, as well as others, to argue that it carried a low risk of addiction. In 2007, Purdue and three of the company's senior executives pleaded guilty to federal criminal charges that they had misled regulators, physicians and patients about the addiction risk associated with taking OxyContin. The 1980 study was also misrepresented in both academic and non-academic publications: it was described as an "extensive study" by Scientific American, whilst Time said that it was a "landmark study" showing that "exaggerated fear that patients would become addicted" to opiates was "basically unwarranted", and an article in the journal Seminars in Oncology claimed that the Porter and Jick study examined cancer patients when the letter made no mention of what illnesses the patients were suffering from. The authors of the 2017 NEJM letter suggested that the inappropriate citations of the 1980 study played a role in the North American opioid epidemic by under-representing the risk of addiction: the page for the Porter and Jick letter on the Journal's website now includes a note informing the reader that it "has been 'heavily and uncritically cited' as evidence that addiction is rare with opioid therapy". +In a study conducted by the Vera Institute of Justice, Weiner and Hala (2008) reported some of the research-related difficulties associated with measuring human trafficking. They describe and map the unfolding of the Woozle effect in connection with prevalence estimates of human trafficking. Searching the relevant literature between 1990 and 2006, Weiner and Hala found 114 prevalence estimates in 45 publications. Only one of the publications cited original research, and several prevalence estimates appeared unsourced. The authors concluded that the sources they reviewed lacked citations, adequate operational definition, and discussion of methodology. Stransky and Finkelhor (2008/2012) criticize the general methodology involved in human trafficking research. They cite the Woozle effect and post a prominent warning on the first page of their report cautioning against citing any specific estimates they present, as the close inspection of the figures "...reveals that none are based on a strong scientific foundation." +Gambrill and Reiman (2011) analyze scientific papers and mass-market communications about social anxiety and conclude that many of them engage in disease mongering by presenting the disease model of social anxiety as an incontrovertible fact by resorting to unchallenged repetition techniques and by leaving out of the discourse any competing theories. Gambrill and Reiman further note that even after educating their subjects about the tell-tale signs of such techniques, many of them still failed to pick up the signs in a practical test. + +James J. Kimble gives as an example the 1994–2015 historiography of the 1943 American "We Can Do It!" wartime poster. After Michigan resident Geraldine Hoff Doyle said in 1994 that she was the real-life model for the poster, many sources repeated her assertion without checking the two foundational assumptions: that Doyle was the young factory worker pictured in a 1942 wartime photograph, and that the photograph had inspired commercial artist J. Howard Miller to create the poster. Though some media representations described the connection as unconfirmed, many more enthusiastically endorsed it. The weight of these multiple endorsements gave Doyle's story a "convincing" authority, despite the lack of authority in establishing the connection. In 2015, Kimble found the original photographic print of the factory worker, its caption identifying the young woman as Naomi Parker, working in California in March 1942, when Doyle was still in high school. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Sources == +Dutton, Donald G. (2006). Rethinking Domestic Violence. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1304-4. +Gelles, Richard J. (1974). The Violent Home: A Study of Physical Aggression Between Husbands and Wives. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-0381-4. +Gelles, Richard J. (1980). "Violence in the Family: A Review of Research in the Seventies". Journal of Marriage and Family. 42 (4): 873–885. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.474.9431. doi:10.2307/351830. JSTOR 351830. +Gelles, Richard J.; Straus, Murray Arnold (1988). Intimate Violence. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-61752-3. +Stransky, Michelle; Finkelhor, David (2012) [2008]. Sex trafficking of minors: How many juveniles are being prostituted in the US? (PDF) (Report). Crimes Against Children Research Center. pp. 1–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 5 February 2014. +Suss, Richard A. (2021). "ASPECTS, The Mismeasure of Stroke: A Metrological Investigation". OSF Preprints. doi:10.31219/osf.io/c4tkp. S2CID 242764761. \ No newline at end of file