From 235a2a536625e4971fd0af041bd056f110230cec Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 20:07:31 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 426 new, 4 updated, 449 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 2387968 -> 2392064 bytes ...f_the_Military_Geographical_Institute-0.md | 27 + ...ssification_of_electromagnetic_fields-0.md | 648 ++++++++++++++++++ ...assification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-0.md | 47 ++ ...assification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-1.md | 29 + .../wiki/Division_(taxonomy)-0.md | 35 + .../wiki/Dustbin_category-0.md | 20 + data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md | 54 ++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md | 151 ++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md | 34 + .../Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences-0.md | 17 + .../wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science-0.md | 39 ++ .../wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things-0.md | 38 + .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions-0.md | 15 + 14 files changed, 1154 insertions(+) create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_of_the_Military_Geographical_Institute-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_electromagnetic_fields-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_category-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions-0.md diff 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+1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Building of the Military Geographical Institute" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_of_the_Military_Geographical_Institute" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:22.739770+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Building of the Military Geographical Institute (Polish: Gmach Wojskowego Instytutu Geograficznego) is a modernist and neoclassical building in Warsaw, Poland, at 97 Jerusalem Avenue, within the Ochota district. Opened in 1934, it served as the headquarters of the Military Geographical Institute until 1949. The building is listed on the national heritage list. + + +== History == +The building was designed by Antoni Dygat, and constructed between 1933 and 1934, as the headquarters of the Military Geographical Institute. +In 2000, on its façade was installed a commemorative plaque dedicated to the officers and employees of the institute who were killed during the Second World War. In 2007, the building was entered into the national heritage list. + + +== Architecture == +The building has reinforced concrete structure, with 4 stories, and a 6-storey-tall clock tower, and bears elements of neoclassical and modern styles. It also has two inner courtyards. Its façade is lined with sandstone plates. It also features two cartouche depicting 16 coat of arms of the voivodeships of the Second Polish Republic. The originals were destroyed in the 1960s, and their replicas were installed in 2018. +Its hall features a 1937 fresco by Boleslaw Cybis and Jan Zamoyski, titled Bolesław the Brave drawing borders of Poland on the Oder, as well as a 1938 sgraffito by Edward Manteuffel-Szoege, titled The Map of Poland. + + +== Gallery == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_electromagnetic_fields-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_electromagnetic_fields-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aebf1ca74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_electromagnetic_fields-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,648 @@ +--- +title: "Classification of electromagnetic fields" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_electromagnetic_fields" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:31.107619+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In differential geometry and theoretical physics, the classification of electromagnetic fields is a pointwise classification of bivectors at each point of a Lorentzian manifold. It is used in the study of solutions of Maxwell's equations and has applications in Einstein's theory of relativity. + + +== Classification theorem == +The electromagnetic field at a point p (i.e. an event) of a Lorentzian spacetime is represented by a real bivector F = Fab defined over the tangent space at p. +The tangent space at p is isometric as a real inner product space to E1,3. That is, it has the same notion of vector magnitude and angle as Minkowski spacetime. To simplify the notation, we will assume the spacetime is Minkowski spacetime. This tends to blur the distinction between the tangent space at p and the underlying manifold; fortunately, nothing is lost by this specialization, for reasons we discuss as the end of the article. +The classification theorem for electromagnetic fields characterizes the bivector F in relation to the Lorentzian metric η = ηab by defining and examining the so-called "principal null directions". Let us explain this. +The bivector Fab yields a skew-symmetric linear operator Fab = Facηcb defined by lowering one index with the metric. It acts on the tangent space at p by ra → Fabrb. We will use the symbol F to denote either the bivector or the operator, according to context. +We mention a dichotomy drawn from exterior algebra. A bivector that can be written as F = v ∧ w, where v, w are linearly independent, is called simple. Any nonzero bivector over a 4-dimensional vector space either is simple, or can be written as F = v ∧ w + x ∧ y, where v, w, x, and y are linearly independent; the two cases are mutually exclusive. Stated like this, the dichotomy makes no reference to the metric η, only to exterior algebra. But it is easily seen that the associated skew-symmetric linear operator Fab has rank 2 in the former case and rank 4 in the latter case. +To state the classification theorem, we consider the eigenvalue problem for F, that is, the problem of finding eigenvalues λ and eigenvectors r which satisfy the eigenvalue equation + + + + + + F + + a + + + + + + + + b + + + + r + + b + + + = + λ + + + r + + a + + + . + + + {\displaystyle F^{a}{}_{b}r^{b}=\lambda \,r^{a}.} + + +The skew-symmetry of F implies that: + +either the eigenvector r is a null vector (i.e. η(r,r) = 0), or the eigenvalue λ is zero, or both. +A 1-dimensional subspace generated by a null eigenvector is called a principal null direction of the bivector. +The classification theorem characterizes the possible principal null directions of a bivector. It states that one of the following must hold for any nonzero bivector: + +the bivector has one "repeated" principal null direction; in this case, the bivector itself is said to be null, +the bivector has two distinct principal null directions; in this case, the bivector is called non-null. +Furthermore, for any non-null bivector, the two eigenvalues associated with the two distinct principal null directions have the same magnitude but opposite sign, λ = ±ν, so we have three subclasses of non-null bivectors: + +spacelike: ν = 0 +timelike : ν ≠ 0 and rank F = 2 +non-simple: ν ≠ 0 and rank F = 4, +where the rank refers to the rank of the linear operator F. + + +== Physical interpretation == +The algebraic classification of bivectors given above has an important application in relativistic physics: the electromagnetic field is represented by a skew-symmetric second rank tensor field (the electromagnetic field tensor) so we immediately obtain an algebraic classification of electromagnetic fields. +In a cartesian chart on Minkowski spacetime with metric signature mostly-minus, + + + + ( + + η + + μ + ν + + + ) + = + + diag + + ( + + + − + − + − + ) + + + {\displaystyle (\eta _{\mu \nu })={\text{diag}}(+---)} + +, the electromagnetic field tensor has components + + + + + + F + + a + b + + + = + + ( + + + + + 0 + + + + B + + z + + + + + − + + B + + y + + + + + + E + + x + + + + / + + c + + + + + − + + B + + z + + + + + 0 + + + + B + + x + + + + + + E + + y + + + + / + + c + + + + + + B + + y + + + + + − + + B + + x + + + + + 0 + + + + E + + z + + + + / + + c + + + + + − + + E + + x + + + + / + + c + + + − + + E + + y + + + + / + + c + + + − + + E + + z + + + + / + + c + + + 0 + + + + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle F_{ab}=\left({\begin{matrix}0&B_{z}&-B_{y}&E_{x}/c\\-B_{z}&0&B_{x}&E_{y}/c\\B_{y}&-B_{x}&0&E_{z}/c\\-E_{x}/c&-E_{y}/c&-E_{z}/c&0\end{matrix}}\right)} + + +where + + + + + E + + x + + + , + + E + + y + + + , + + E + + z + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{x},E_{y},E_{z}} + + and + + + + + B + + x + + + , + + B + + y + + + , + + B + + z + + + + + {\displaystyle B_{x},B_{y},B_{z}} + + denote respectively the components of the electric and magnetic fields, as measured by an inertial observer (at rest in our coordinates). As usual in relativistic physics, we will find it convenient to work with geometrised units in which + + + + c + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle c=1} + +. In the "Index gymnastics" formalism of special relativity, the Minkowski metric + + + + η + + + {\displaystyle \eta } + + is used to raise and lower indices. + + +=== Invariants === +The fundamental invariants of the electromagnetic field are: + + + + + P + ≡ + + + 1 + 2 + + + + F + + a + b + + + + + F + + a + b + + + = + ‖ + + + + B + → + + + + + ‖ + + 2 + + + − + + + + ‖ + + + + E + → + + + + + ‖ + + 2 + + + + + c + + 2 + + + + + = + − + + + 1 + 2 + + + + + + + + ∗ + + + + F + + a + b + + + + + + + + + ∗ + + + + F + + a + b + + + + + {\displaystyle P\equiv {\frac {1}{2}}F_{ab}\,F^{ab}=\|{\vec {B}}\|^{2}-{\frac {\|{\vec {E}}\|^{2}}{c^{2}}}=-{\frac {1}{2}}{}^{*}F_{ab}\,{}^{*}F^{ab}} + + + + + + Q + ≡ + + + 1 + 4 + + + + F + + a + b + + + + + + + + + ∗ + + + + F + + a + b + + + = + + + 1 + 8 + + + + ϵ + + a + b + c + d + + + + F + + a + b + + + + F + + c + d + + + = + + + + + + + E + → + + + + ⋅ + + + + B + → + + + + + c + + + + + {\displaystyle Q\equiv {\frac {1}{4}}F_{ab}\,{}^{*}F^{ab}={\frac {1}{8}}\epsilon ^{abcd}F_{ab}F_{cd}={\frac {{\vec {E}}\cdot {\vec {B}}}{c}}} + +. +(Fundamental means that every other invariant can be expressed in terms of these two.) +A null electromagnetic field is characterised by + + + + P + = + Q + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle P=Q=0} + +. In this case, the invariants reveal that the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular and that they are of the same magnitude (in geometrised units). An example of a null field is a plane electromagnetic wave in Minkowski space. +A non-null field is characterised by + + + + + P + + 2 + + + + + + Q + + 2 + + + ≠ + + 0 + + + {\displaystyle P^{2}+Q^{2}\neq \,0} + +. If + + + + P + ≠ + 0 + = + Q + + + {\displaystyle P\neq 0=Q} + +, there exists an inertial reference frame for which either the electric or magnetic field vanishes. (These correspond respectively to magnetostatic and electrostatic fields.) If + + + + Q + ≠ + 0 + + + {\displaystyle Q\neq 0} + +, there exists an inertial frame in which electric and magnetic fields are proportional. + + +== Curved Lorentzian manifolds == +So far we have discussed only Minkowski spacetime. According to the (strong) equivalence principle, if we simply replace "inertial frame" above with a frame field, everything works out exactly the same way on curved manifolds. + + +== See also == +Electromagnetic peeling theorem +Electrovacuum solution +Lorentz group +Petrov classification + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Landau, Lev D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1973). The Classical Theory of Fields. New York: Pergamon. ISBN 0-08-025072-6. See section 25. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..26f7d3e53 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Classification of the sciences (Peirce)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:27.642558+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) did considerable work over a period of years on the classification of +sciences (including mathematics). His classifications are of interest both as a map for navigating his philosophy and as an accomplished polymath's survey of research in his time. Peirce himself was well grounded and produced work in many research fields, including logic, mathematics, statistics, philosophy, spectroscopy, gravimetry, geodesy, chemistry, and experimental psychology. + +== Classifications == +Philosophers have done little work on classification of the sciences and mathematics since Peirce's time. Noting Peirce's "important" contribution, Denmark's Birger Hjørland commented: "There is not today (2005), to my knowledge, any organized research program about the classification of the sciences in any discipline or in any country". As Miksa (1998) writes, the "interest for this question largely died in the beginning of the 20th century". It is not clear whether Hjørland includes the classification of mathematics in that characterization. + +=== Taxa === +In 1902 and 1903 Peirce elaborates classifications of the sciences in: + +"A Detailed Classification of the Sciences" in Minute Logic (Feb.–Apr. 1902), Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP) v. 1, paragraphs 203–283 +July 1902 application to the Carnegie institution (MS L75) +"An Outline Classification of the Sciences (CP 1.180-202) in his "A Syllabus of Certain Topics in Logic" (1903), wherein his classifications of the sciences take more or less their final form +However, only in the "Detailed Classification" and the Carnegie application does he discuss the taxa which he used, which were inspired by the biological taxa of Louis Agassiz. + +=== Sciences === +In 1902, he divided science into Theoretical and Practical. Theoretical Science consisted of Science of Discovery and Science of Review, the latter of which he also called "Synthetic Philosophy", a name taken from the title of the vast work, written over many years, by Herbert Spencer. Then, in 1903, he made it a three-way division: Science of Discovery, Science of Review, and Practical Science. In 1903 he characterized Science of Review as: + +...arranging the results of discovery, beginning with digests, and going on to endeavor to form a philosophy of science. Such is the nature of Humboldt's Cosmos, of Comte's Philosophie positive, and of Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy. The classification of the sciences belongs to this department. +Peirce had already for a while divided the Sciences of Discovery into: + +(1) Mathematics – draws necessary conclusions about hypothetical objects +(2) Cenoscopy – philosophy about positive phenomena in general, such as confront a person at every waking moment, rather than special classes, and not settling theoretical issues by special experiences or experiments +(3) Idioscopy – the special sciences, about special classes of positive phenomena, and settling theoretical issues by special experiences or experiments +Thus Peirce ends up framing two fields each of which is philosophy in a sense: cenoscopic philosophy which precedes the special sciences, and synthetic philosophy (that is to say, science of review), which does take advantage of the results of all the sciences of discovery and develops, for instance, classifications of the sciences. +Peirce opens his 1903 classification (the "Syllabus" classification) with a concise statement of method and purpose: + +This classification, which aims to base itself on the principal affinities of the objects classified, is concerned not with all possible sciences, nor with so many branches of knowledge, but with sciences in their present condition, as so many businesses of groups of living men. It borrows its idea from Comte's classification; namely, the idea that one science depends upon another for fundamental principles, but does not furnish such principles to that other. It turns out that in most cases the divisions are trichotomic; the First of the three members relating to universal elements or laws, the Second arranging classes of forms and seeking to bring them under universal laws, the Third going into the utmost detail, describing individual phenomena and endeavoring to explain them. But not all the divisions are of this character.... +The following table is based mostly on Peirce's 1903 classification, which was more or less the final form. But see after the table for discussion of his later remarks on the divisions of logic. + +==== Logic's divisions later ==== +In a piece which the Collected Papers editors called "Phaneroscopy" and dated as 1906, Peirce wrote (CP 4.9): + +...I extend logic to embrace all the necessary principles of semeiotic, and I recognize a logic of icons, and a logic of indices, as well as a logic of symbols; and in this last I recognize three divisions: Stecheotic (or stoicheiology), which I formerly called Speculative Grammar; Critic, which I formerly called Logic; and Methodeutic, which I formerly called Speculative Rhetoric +Thus the three main 1903 departments of logic were now sub-departments of the study of the logic of symbols. +In a letter to J. H. Kehler, printed in The New Elements of Mathematics v.3, p. 207 and dated 1911, Peirce wrote: + +I have now sketched my doctrine of Logical Critic, skipping a good deal. I recognize two other parts of Logic. One which may be called Analytic examines the nature of thought, not psychologically but simply to define what it is to doubt, to believe, to learn, etc., and then to base critic on these definitions is my real method, though in this letter I have taken the third branch of logic, Methodeutic, which shows how to conduct an inquiry. This is what the greater part of my life has been devoted to, though I base it upon Critic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c4c36cbc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Classification of the sciences (Peirce)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:27.642558+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There in 1911 Peirce does not mention the 1906 division into logics of icons, indices and symbols. Critic and Methodeutic appear, as in 1902 and 1903, as the second and third main departments of logic. Analytic is now the first department and the word "Stechiology" goes unused. He includes in Analytic the consideration of issues which, back in his 1902 Carnegie Institute application, he had discussed in sections on logic with headings such as "Presuppositions of Logic" and "On the Logical Conception of Mind" that he had placed before the sections on logic's departments (stechiology, critic, and methodeutic). +On the question of the relationship between Stechiology and the Analytic that seems to have replaced it, note that, in Draft D of Memoir 15 in his 1902 Carnegie Institute application, Peirce said that stechiology, also called grammatica speculativa, amounts to an Erkenntnisslehre, a theory of cognition, provided that that theory is stripped of matter irrelevant and inadmissible in philosophical logic, irrelevant matter such as all truths (for example, the association of ideas) established by psychologists, insofar as the special science of psychology depends on logic, not vice versa. In that same Carnegie Institute application as in many other places, Peirce treated belief and doubt as issues of philosophical logic apart from psychology. + +== Notes == + +== References == +Peirce, C.S., 1902, "An Outline Classification of the Sciences", The Collected Papers, vol. 1, pp. 203–283 (1902) Eprint, from projected book Minute Logic. +Peirce, C.S., 1902, "On the Classification of the Theoretic Sciences of Research", Manuscript L75.350-357, Arisbe Eprint Archived 2013-11-03 at the Wayback Machine, from "Logic, Considered As Semeiotic", Manuscript L75, with draft sections labeled and interpolated into the final (submitted July 1902) version of the 1902 Carnegie Institute application, Joseph Ransdell, ed., Arisbe Eprint Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine. +Peirce, C.S., 1903, "A Detailed Classification of the Sciences", The Collected Papers, vol. 1, pp. 180–202 (1903) Eprint and Eprint, from "A Syllabus Of Certain Topics In Logic", the Essential Peirce, vol. 2, pp. 258–330. +Vehkavaara, Tommi, 2001, "The outline of Peirce's classification of sciences (1902-1911)", "Eprint" (PDF). (11.4 KiB). +Vehkavaara, Tommi, 2003, "Development of Peirce's classification of sciences - three stages: 1889, 1898, 1903", "Eprint" (PDF). (19.4 KiB). + +== External links == +Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway Archived 2022-11-30 at the Wayback Machine, Joseph Ransdell, ed. +The Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms, Mats Bergman & Sami Paavola, eds. +C.S. Peirce’s: Architectonic Philosophy, Albert Atkin, 2004, 2005, the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. +Speziali, Pierre (1973). "Classification of the Sciences". In Wiener, Philip P (ed.). Dictionary of the History of Ideas. ISBN 0-684-13293-1. Retrieved 2009-12-02. +Classification (of the sciences) (once there, scroll down) by Professor A. C. Armstrong Jr. (Wesleyan University) in the Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, James Mark Baldwin, ed., 1901–1905. +Peirce's first classification of sciences (1889); Peirce's classification of theoretical sciences and arts (1898); Peirce's outline classification of sciences (1903). Compiled by Tommi Vehkavaara, 2003. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..09d75f9d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Division (taxonomy)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:28.751956+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In biological taxonomy, division is a rank that is used differently in zoology and in botany. +In botany and mycology, division is the traditional name for a rank now considered equivalent to phylum. The use of either term is allowed under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. +The main divisions of land plants are the Marchantiophyta (liverworts), Anthocerotophyta (hornworts), Bryophyta (mosses), Filicophyta (ferns), Sphenophyta (horsetails), Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgos), Pinophyta (conifers), Gnetophyta (gnetophytes), and the Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms, flowering plants). The Magnoliophyta now dominate terrestrial ecosystems, comprising 80% of vascular plant species. +In zoology, the term division is applied to an optional rank subordinate to the infraclass and superordinate to the legion and cohort. A widely used classification (e.g. Carroll 1988) recognises teleost fishes as a Division Teleostei within Class Actinopterygii (the ray-finned fishes). Less commonly (as in Milner 1988), living tetrapods are ranked as Divisions Amphibia and Amniota within the clade of vertebrates with fleshy limbs (Sarcopterygii). + + +== Proposals for standardisation == +In 1978, a group of botanists including Harold Charles Bold, Arthur Cronquist and Lynn Margulis proposed replacing the term "division" with "phylum" in botanical nomenclature, arguing that maintaining different terms for the same taxonomic rank across biological kingdoms created unnecessary confusion. This was particularly problematic for unicellular eukaryotes, where heterotrophic organisms were classified under zoological nomenclature (using "phylum") while autotrophic organisms fell under botanical nomenclature (using "division"). They proposed updating the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature to use "phylum" and "subphylum" throughout, while maintaining that names originally published as divisions would be treated as if they had been published as phyla. + + +== Molecular phylogenetic classification == +The use of molecular methods, particularly 16S ribosomal RNA analysis, helped establish major bacterial divisions in the 1980s. In 1985, Carl Woese and colleagues identified ten major groups of eubacteria through oligonucleotide signature analysis, noting that these groupings were "appropriately termed eubacterial Phyla or Divisions." This work provided early molecular evidence for the equivalence of bacterial divisions with phyla and helped establish a phylogenetic basis for high-level bacterial classification. + + +== Viruses and prokaryotes == +In 2020, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) formalised a 15-rank hierarchical classification system, ranging from the highest rank "realm" (rather than domain) down through the lower ranks, notably using "phylum" rather than "division". Under this system, the first viral realm established was Riboviria, encompassing all RNA viruses that encode an RNA-directed RNA polymerase. +In 2021, the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP) formally included the rank of phylum for the first time, adopting the suffix "-ota" for phylum names. This led to the publication of names for 46 prokaryotic phyla with cultured representatives, replacing some established names with neologisms – for example, "Proteobacteria" became "Pseudomonadota" and "Firmicutes" became "Bacillota". + + +== References == + + +=== Works cited === +Carroll, Robert L. (1988), Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution, New York: W.H. Freeman & Co., ISBN 0-716-7-1822-7 +Milner, Andrew (1988), "The relationships and origin of living amphibians", in M.J. Benton (ed.), 'The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, vol. 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 59–102{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_category-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_category-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b34c183e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_category-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Dustbin category" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_category" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:29.896656+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term "dustbin category" is sometimes used to describe a category that includes people or things that might be heterogeneous, only loosely related or poorly understood. It has been used in discussion of law, linguistics, medicine, sociology and other disciplines. For example: + +Some patients' symptoms do not fit well with any recognised category and there is a danger these may be forced into a 'dustbin' category such as 'depression, not otherwise specified.' + + +== See also == +Wastebasket taxon + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3408987f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Observatory" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:23.886763+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysics, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. +The term observatoire has been used in French since at least 1976 to denote any institution that compiles and presents data on a particular subject (such as public health observatory) or for a particular geographic area (European Audiovisual Observatory). + +== Astronomical observatories == + +Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories according to location: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based. Historically, ground-based observatories were as simple as containing a mural instrument (for measuring the angle between stars) or Stonehenge (which has some alignments on astronomical phenomena). Astronomical observatories may be private or they may be public. + +=== Ground-based observatories === + +Ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the entire upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes. +For optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a large percentage of clear nights per year, dry air, and are at high elevations. At high elevations, the Earth's atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence and resulting in better astronomical "seeing". Sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra. Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the US, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory and Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile. +Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A—a place in the central part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility. + +==== Solar observatories ==== + +==== Radio observatories ==== +Beginning in 1933, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such an instrument, or collection of instruments, with supporting facilities such as control centres, visitor housing, data reduction centers, and/or maintenance facilities are called radio observatories. Radio observatories are similarly located far from major population centers to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, TV, radar, and other EMI emitting devices, but unlike optical observatories, radio observatories can be placed in valleys for further EMI shielding. Some of the world's major radio observatories include the Very Large Array in New Mexico, United States, Jodrell Bank in the UK, Arecibo in Puerto Rico, Parkes in New South Wales, Australia, and Chajnantor in Chile. A related discipline is Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI). + +==== Highest astronomical observatories ==== + +Since the mid-20th century, a number of astronomical observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above 4,000–5,000 m (13,000–16,000 ft). The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, located near the summit of a 4,205 m (13,796 ft) volcano in Hawaiʻi. The Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m (17,160 ft), was the world's highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now been surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory, an optical-infrared telescope on a remote 5,640 m (18,500 ft) mountaintop in the Atacama Desert of Chile. + +==== Oldest astronomical observatories ==== + +The oldest proto-observatories, in the sense of an observation post for astronomy, + +Wurdi Youang, Australia +Zorats Karer, Karahunj, Armenia +Loughcrew, Ireland +Newgrange, Ireland +Stonehenge, Great Britain +Chankillo, Peru +El Caracol, Mexico +Buto, Egypt +Abu Simbel, Egypt +Kokino, Kumanovo, North Macedonia +Observatory at Rhodes, Greece +Goseck circle, Germany +Ujjain, India +Arkaim, Russia +Newark Earthworks, Hopewell Culture (United States of America) +Cheomseongdae, South Korea +Angkor Wat, Cambodia +The oldest true observatories, in the sense of a specialized research institute, include: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..60db2e504 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,151 @@ +--- +title: "Observatory" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:23.886763+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +825: Al-Shammisiyyah Observatory, Baghdad, Iraq +869: Mahodayapuram Observatory, Kerala, India +1259: Maragheh Observatory, Azerbaijan, Iran +1276: Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory, China +1420: Ulugh Beg Observatory, Samarqand, Uzbekistan +1442: Beijing Ancient Observatory, China +1577: Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din, Turkey +1580: Uraniborg, Denmark (present-day Sweden) +1581: Stjärneborg, Denmark (present-day Sweden) +1633: Leiden Observatory, Netherlands +1642: Panzano Observatory, Italy +1642: Round Tower, Denmark +1667: Paris Observatory, France +1675: Royal Greenwich Observatory, England +1695: Sukharev Tower, Russia +1711: Berlin Observatory, Germany +1724: Jantar Mantar, India +1753: Stockholm Observatory, Sweden +1753: Vilnius University Observatory, Lithuania +1753: Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada, Spain +1759: Trieste Observatory, Italy. +1757: Macfarlane Observatory, Scotland. +1759: Turin Observatory, Italy. +1764: Brera Astronomical Observatory, Italy. +1765: Mohr Observatory, Indonesia. +1771: Lviv Observatory, Ukraine. +1774: Observatory of the Vatican, Italy. +1785: Dunsink Observatory, Ireland. +1786: Madras Observatory, India. +1789: Armagh Observatory, Northern Ireland. +1790: Royal Observatory of Madrid, Spain, +1803: National Astronomical Observatory, Bogotá, Colombia. +1811: Tartu Old Observatory, Estonia +1812: Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte, Naples, Italy +1830/1842: Depot of Charts & Instruments/US Naval Observatory, US +1830: Yale University Observatory Atheneum, US +1834: Helsinki University Observatory, Finland +1838: Hopkins Observatory, Williams College, US +1838: Loomis Observatory, Western Reserve Academy, US +1839: Pulkovo Observatory, Russia +1842: Cincinnati Observatory, US +1844: Georgetown University Astronomical Observatory, US +1847: Harvard College Observatory, US +1854: Detroit Observatory, US +1871: Argentine National Observatory, Argentina +1873: Quito Astronomical Observatory, Ecuador +1878: Lisbon Astronomical Observatory, Portugal +1884: McCormick Observatory, US +1888: Lick Observatory, US +1890: Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, US +1894: Lowell Observatory, US +1895: Theodor Jacobsen Observatory, US +1897: Yerkes Observatory, US +1899: Kodaikanal Solar Observatory, India + +=== Space-based observatories === + +Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above Earth's atmosphere. Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was able to be serviced by the Space Shuttles while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced. + +=== Airborne observatories === + +Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earth's atmosphere. They also have an advantage over space telescopes: The instruments can be deployed, repaired and updated much more quickly and inexpensively. The Kuiper Airborne Observatory and the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy use airplanes to observe in the infrared, which is absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere. High-altitude balloons for X-ray astronomy have been used in a variety of countries. + +=== Neutrino observatories === + +Example underground, underwater or under ice neutrino observatories include: + +1998–2003 Gallium Neutrino Observatory +1999–2006 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory +2003 Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope +2010 IceCube Neutrino Observatory +2012 Helium and Lead Observatory (HALO) + +== Meteorological observatories == + +Example meteorological observatories include: +1762 Kremsmünster Observatory, Austria +1781 Hohenpeißenberg Meteorological Observatory, Germany +1841 Colaba Observatory, India +1868 Kandilli Observatory, Türkiye +1869 New York Meteorological Observatory in Central Park, New York +1871 Argentine National Observatory, Argentina +1883 Hong Kong Observatory, Hong Kong +1885 Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Massachusetts +1932 Mount Washington Observatory, New Hampshire +1956 Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii + +=== See also === +World Meteorological Organization + +== Marine observatories == +A marine observatory is a scientific institution whose main task is to make observations in the fields of meteorology, geomagnetism and tides that are important for the navy and civil shipping. An astronomical observatory is usually also attached. Some of these observatories also deal with nautical weather forecasts and storm warnings, astronomical time services, nautical calendars and seismology. +Example marine observatories include: + +1676 Royal Greenwich Observatory at London +1753 Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada in San Fernando, Spain +1830 United States Naval Observatory +1868 German Maritime Observatory in Hamburg +1871–1918 Austro-Hungarian Pola Naval Observatory, in what is now Pula, Croatia +1882 Observatoire Oceanologique de Villefranche, France +1908 St. Andrews Biological Station, Canada +2006 European Multidisciplinary Seafloor and water column Observatory (EMSO) + +=== See also === +Fixed-point ocean observatory +Integrated Ocean Observing System + +== Magnetic observatories == +A magnetic observatory is a facility which precisely measures the total intensity of Earth's magnetic field for field strength and direction at standard intervals. Geomagnetic observatories are most useful when located away from human activities to avoid disturbances of anthropogenic origin, and the observation data is collected at a fixed location continuously for decades. Magnetic observations are aggregated, processed, quality checked and made public through data centers such as INTERMAGNET. +The types of measuring equipment at an observatory may include magnetometers (torsion, declination-inclination fluxgate, proton precession, Overhauser-effect), variometer (3-component vector, total-field scalar), dip circle, inclinometer, earth inductor, theodolite, self-recording magnetograph, magnetic declinometer, azimuth compass. Once a week at the absolute reference point calibration measurements are performed. +Example magnetic observatories include: + +1833 Göttingen Observatory, Germany +1840 Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory, Canada +1842 Kew Observatory, UK +1904 Eskdalemuir Observatory, UK +1961 Boulder Geomagnetic Observatory, Colorado + +== Seismic observatories == + +Example seismic observation projects and observatories include: + +International Seismological Summary +Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory +EarthScope +GEOSCOPE Observatory +World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Network + +== Geodetic observatories == + +== Cosmic-ray observatories == + +== Gravitational wave observatories == +Example gravitational wave observatories include: + +LIGO +European Gravitational Observatory + +== Wildlife observatories == + +== Volcano observatories == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f6c3eb1f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Observatory" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:23.886763+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts the monitoring of a volcano as well as research in order to understand the potential impacts of active volcanism. Among the best known are the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Vesuvius Observatory. Mobile volcano observatories exist with the USGS VDAP (Volcano Disaster Assistance Program), to be deployed on demand. Each volcano observatory has a geographic area of responsibility it is assigned to whereby the observatory is tasked with spreading activity forecasts, analyzing potential volcanic activity threats and cooperating with communities in preparation for volcanic eruption. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Aubin, David; Charlotte Bigg, and H. Otto Sibum, eds. The Heavens on Earth: Observatories and Astronomy in Nineteenth-Century Science and Culture (Duke University Press; 2010) 384 pages; Topics include astronomy as military science in Sweden, the Pulkovo Observatory in the Russia of Czar Nicholas I, and physics and the astronomical community in late 19th-century America. +Brunier, Serge, et al. Great Observatories of the World (2005). +Dick, Steven. Sky and Ocean Joined: The U.S. Naval Observatory 1830–2000 (2003). +Gressot Julien and Jeanneret Romain, « Determining the right time, or the establishment of a culture of astronomical precision at Neuchâtel Observatory in the mid-19th century », Journal for the History of Astronomy, 53(1), 2022, 27–48, https://doi.org/10.1177/00218286211068572 +Leverington, David. Observatories and Telescopes of Modern Times – Ground-Based Optical and Radio Astronomy Facilities since 1945. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2017, ISBN 9780521899932. +McCray, W. Patrick. Giant Telescopes: Astronomical Ambition and the Promise of Technology (2004); focuses on the Gemini Observatory. +Sage, Leslie, and Gail Aschenbrenner. A Visitor's Guide to the Kitt Peak Observatories (2004). + +== External links == + +Dearborn Observatory Records, Northwestern University Archives, Evanston, Illinois (archived 4 September 2015) +Coordinates and satellite images of astronomical observatories on Earth +Milkyweb Astronomical Observatory Guide world's largest database of astronomical observatories since 2000 – about 2000 entries +List of amateur and professional observatories in North America with custom weather forecasts +Map showing many of the Astronomical Observatories around the world (with drilldown links) +Mt. Wilson Observatory Archived 2007-10-24 at the Wayback Machine +Observatories with Clear Sky Clocks \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fbbb57a5d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Roatan Institute for Marine Sciences" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:25.092267+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Roatan Institute for Marine Sciences (RIMS) is a scientific research center located in Roatán, department of Islas de la Bahía, in the Republic of Honduras. +It is part of Anthony's Key Resort, a tourist complex belonging to the Galindo family, that offers accommodations in bungalows, kayaking, spas, excursions and various interactions with captive dolphins such as swimming. It was founded in 1989 with the purpose of investigating coral reefs and aquatic life in general in the coastal zones of Honduras and the surrounding areas. The institute also has a small marine museum and the "Dolphin Discovery Camp" for the study of dolphin behavior (two when it started) and in 2017 the population of the dolphinarium was twenty-six cetaceans. Of these, seven were captured wild, one was rescued and eighteen were born there. They are spread over two coastal enclosures, one on the small island of Bailey's Key (Dolphin Encounter) and the other on the main island of Roatán (Dolphin Presentation). +The institute has scientific research programs that are visited by students from colleges, universities, and high schools from abroad. +Héctor and Iván are two of the dolphins, whose behavior was studied by the psychologist Dr. Stan Kuczaj. These dolphins use complex language with each other, which is the basis of scientific study to understand them better. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..51b3cea57 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "The Worlds of Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:21.054881+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Worlds of Science is a series of science book paperbacks by various authors published by Pyramid Books in the 1960s. The series included both reprints of works originally published independently and new works written especially for the series. Prominent contributors included Isaac Asimov and L. Sprague de Camp, among others. +Books in the series include: + +The Human Brain, by John Pfeifer +Maya, by Charles Gallenkamp +Nine Planets, by Alan E. Nourse +Living Earth, by Peter Farb +Chemistry Creates a New World, by Bernard Jaffe +The Road to Man, by Herbert Wendt +Giants of Science, by Philip Cane +Snakes of the World, by Raymond Ditmars +The ABC of Physics, by Jerome S. Meyer +Computers, by Stanley L. Englebardt +Man and Dolphin, by John C. Lilly +Kingdom of the Octopus, by Frank W. Lane +Dinosaurs, by Nicholas Hotton III +The Story of Weather, by Capt. David C. Holmes, USN +Fact and Fancy, by Isaac Asimov +Electronics, by Stanley L. Englebardt +Conquest of the Moon, by William Hines +Elephant, by L. Sprague de Camp +New Worlds of Oceanography, by Captain John E. Long +New Frontiers in Medicine, by Stanley Englebardt +The Human Machine, by Harry Moody +The Borders of Mathematics, by Willy Ley +Volcanoes and Earthquakes, by Elliott B. Roberts + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad97d4e18 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Why People Believe Weird Things" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:18.709466+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time is a 1997 book by science writer Michael Shermer. The foreword was written by Stephen Jay Gould. + + +== Summary == +In the first section, Shermer discusses the ideas that he has towards racism. He also explains his conversion to Deism from New Age mysticism (to which he had converted from being a Fundamentalist Christian Baptist). +In part two Shermer explains paranormal thinking and how one comes to believe in things without evidence. He uses Edgar Cayce as an example, and while he agrees with parts of Ayn Rand's Objectivism, he criticizes its moral absolutism and argues that many follow her philosophy unquestioningly, which he believes contradicts free thinking. +Part three begins with Shermer describing several debates he had with Duane Gish. He lays out some creationist arguments in 25 separate claims, and attempts to debunk each one with his own evidence. He closes retelling how a constitutional ban on teaching creationism in public schools was narrowly upheld at the Supreme Court of the United States in 1987. +Shermer shows that the Holocaust deniers reject proven facts for, as he states, ideological reasons. Like the creationists, he asserted, many Holocaust deniers believe that the evidence sides with them. He describes meeting and arguing with the deniers and lays out their arguments then shows evidence to support his own statements. +In part five Shermer relates Frank J. Tipler to Voltaire's character Pangloss to show how smart people deceive themselves. Shermer explores the psychology of scholars and business men who give up their careers in their pursuit to broadcast their paranormal beliefs. In his last chapter, added to the revised version, Shermer explains why he believes that "intelligent people" can be more susceptible to believing in weird things than others. + + +== Reception == +According to Reason, "Shermer's episodic book covers a wide range of subjects, in a wide range of manners. He takes ritual jabs at such old debunker punching bags as ESP and UFOs (through UFOlogy's newest twist, alien abduction of humans). You'll also find cogent debunkings of strange phenomena such as fire walking and psychics who can discover "unknowable" facts about strangers. The longest sections of the book take on the more-substantive issues of creationism and Holocaust denial." It was given 4 out of 5 stars by popularscience.co.uk, which said "In this classic, originally published in 1997 but reviewed in a new UK edition, he gives a powerful argument for taking the sceptical viewpoint". According to the Los Angeles Times, "Shermer's directly written book is the perfect handbook to thrust on anyone you know who has been lured into conforming paranoias that circulate amid the premillennial jitters." +The Independent Thinking Review wrote, "This is a book that deserves to be widely read. Skeptics and critical thinkers can learn from it, but more importantly, it's a book to give those who maybe aren't as skeptical as you, those who need some clear and reasonable arguments to gently push them in a more critical direction. Read this book yourself: buy it for someone whose mind you care about." + + +== See also == +Skepticism +The Psychology of the Occult + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Why People Believe Weird Things excerpt of the book of author's website +Why People Believe Weird Things review from The Skeptic's Dictionary +Why People Believe Weird Things review from Reason magazine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e8777a8b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Wild Solutions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:07:19.949807+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Wild Solutions: How Biodiversity is Money in the Bank is a 2001 book by biologists Andrew Beattie and Paul R. Ehrlich. The authors explain the value of "wild solutions" to technical and medical problems that may reside in the diversity of the Earth's estimated 5 to 10 million species. Beattie and Ehrlich describe the role of natural substances in medicine, pest control, and manufacturing. The book won a National Outdoor Book Award in 2001. +A second edition came out in 2004. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file