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+---
+title: "Audit study"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_study"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:01:58.929950+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A type of study used in economics, sociology, political science, and psychology, an audit study is one in which trained employees of the researcher ("auditors") are matched on all characteristics except the one being tested for discrimination. These auditors then apply for a service, be it a job, financial advice regarding their stock portfolio, housing, or a credit card, to test for discrimination.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+Audit studies have been conducted to test the existence of discrimination in numerous occupations and services and in regards to multiple characteristics. For example, studies have been conducted to measure discrimination against racial minorities by real estate agents, racial discrimination in professional networking on LinkedIn and Twitter, requests on Airbnb, prices in online markets, emails to early childcare facilities  as well as gender discrimination against women applying for restaurant jobs. Most employment-related audit studies have focused on overqualified college students applying for low-paying jobs during the summer. They have also been used to measure racial and gender discrimination in academia, racial discrimination in the low and high ends of the labor market, discrimination in social integration,  and racial/ethnic discrimination in roommate selection.
+
+
+== Criticism ==
+Audit studies have been criticized because the auditors may look different to employers, and this may result in the appearance of discrimination when employers were really just making decisions based on appearance. The other limitations of these studies, according to their critics, include that they are unable to audit jobs found through interactions with other people directly, only those found through newspapers. Additionally, others have noted the lack of standardization of signals (primarily names) to indicate race through correspondence (e.g., resumes and emails). Aside from being a noisy signal, since not everybody may understand what, e.g., a "Black" name is, names have also been criticized for signalling additional information. For instance, in the USA, stereotypically Black names are associated with lower socioeconomic background within the Black community. However, some recent studies have used AI-generated images, pictures of hands, or pictures of actors to signal race.
+Other criticisms concern the ethics of running such experiments. Specifically, it has been pointed out that audit studies do typically not obtain informed consent of participants. Simultaneously, they generate some though usually low costs to participants and rarely provide benefits. Because of this, the literature has developed multiple guidlines to judge the ethics of an audit study on discrimination specifically. This includes judging (1) the potential harm to participants, (2) against the benefits of having a reliable measure of discrimination, (3) and taking into account whether there are other, less harmful ways to measure discrimination in the same setting. Finally, (4) deception should not strongly violate the norms of the setting the experiment is conducted in.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Academic bias
+Equal opportunity
+Gender discrimination in the medical professions
+Gender pay gap
+Sexism in academia
+Sociology of race and ethnic relations
+Vignette (psychology)
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism-0.md
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+---
+title: "Autodidacticism"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:00.088315+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) or self-education (also self-learning, self-study, and self-teaching) is the practice of education without the guidance of teachers. Autodidacts are self-taught people who learn a subject through self-study. Autodidacticism may involve, complement, or be an alternative to formal education. Formal education itself may have a hidden curriculum that requires self-study for the uninitiated.
+Generally, autodidacts choose the subject they will study, their studying material, and the studying rhythm and time. Autodidacts may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either a complement or an alternative to formal education. Many notable contributions have been made by autodidacts.
+The self-learning curriculum is infinite. One may seek out alternative pathways in education and use these to gain competency; self-study may meet some prerequisite-curricula criteria for experiential education or apprenticeship.
+Self-education techniques can include reading educational books or websites, watching educational videos and listening to educational audio recordings, or by visiting infoshops. One uses some space as a learning space, where one uses critical thinking to develop study skills within the broader learning environment until they've reached an academic comfort zone.
+
+== Terminology ==
+The term autodidact has its roots in the Ancient Greek words αὐτός (autós, lit. 'self') and διδακτικός (didaktikos, lit. 'teaching'). The related term didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education.
+Various terms are used to describe self-education. One such is heutagogy, coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia; others are self-directed learning and self-determined learning. In the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of their own learning. A truly self-determined learning approach also sees the heutagogic learner exploring different approaches to knowledge in order to learn; there is an element of experimentation underpinned by a personal curiosity.
+Andragogy "strive[s] for autonomy and self-direction in learning", while Heutagogy "identif[ies] the potential to learn from novel experiences as a matter of course [...] manage their own learning". Ubuntugogy is a type of cosmopolitanism that has a collectivist ethics of awareness concerning the African diaspora.
+
+== Modern era ==
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+---
+title: "Autodidacticism"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:00.088315+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Autodidacticism is sometimes a complement of modern formal education. As a complement to formal education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work.
+Before the twentieth century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his influential report on industry and innovators dated from 1853, literacy rates were higher in the United States than in England. However, even in the U.S., most children were not completing high school. High school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a larger percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine, or a divinity degree.
+Collegiate teaching was based on the classics (Latin, philosophy, ancient history, theology) until the early nineteenth century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800. Institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, typically for a fee.
+Prior to the nineteenth century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who, typically, had received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship. Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training. James Watt was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being "largely self-educated". Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Lunar Society. In the eighteenth century these societies often gave public lectures and were instrumental in teaching chemistry and other sciences with industrial applications which were neglected by traditional universities. Academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training.
+Years of schooling in the United States began to increase sharply in the early twentieth century. This phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor. The automated glass bottle-making machine is said to have done more for education than child labor laws because boys were no longer needed to assist. However, the number of boys employed in this particular industry was not that large; it was mechanization in several sectors of industry that displaced child labor toward education. For males in the U.S. born 1886–90, years of school averaged 7.86, while for those born in 1926–30, years of school averaged 11.46.
+One of the most recent trends in education is that the classroom environment should cater towards students' individual needs, goals, and interests. This model adopts the idea of inquiry-based learning where students are presented with scenarios to identify their own research, questions and knowledge regarding the area. As a form of discovery learning, students in today's classrooms are being provided with more opportunity to "experience and interact" with knowledge, which has its roots in autodidacticism.
+Successful self-teaching can require self-discipline and reflective capability. Some research suggests that the ability to regulate one's own learning may need to be modeled to some students so that they become active learners, while others learn dynamically via a process outside conscious control. To interact with the environment, a framework has been identified to determine the components of any learning system: a reward function, incremental action value functions and action selection methods. Rewards work best in motivating learning when they are specifically chosen on an individual student basis. New knowledge must be incorporated into previously existing information as its value is to be assessed. Ultimately, these scaffolding techniques, as described by Vygotsky (1978) and problem solving methods are a result of dynamic decision making.
+In his book Deschooling Society, philosopher Ivan Illich strongly criticized 20th-century educational culture and the institutionalization of knowledge and learning - arguing that institutional schooling as such is an irretrievably flawed model of education - advocating instead ad-hoc co-operative networks through which autodidacts could find others interested in teaching themselves a given skill or about a given topic, supporting one another by pooling resources, materials, and knowledge.
+Secular and modern societies have given foundations for new systems of education and new kinds of autodidacts. As Internet access has become more widespread the World Wide Web (explored using search engines such as Google) in general, and websites such as Wikipedia (including parts of it that were included in a book or referenced in a reading list), YouTube, Udemy, Udacity and Khan Academy in particular, have developed as learning centers for many people to actively and freely learn together. Organizations like The Alliance for Self-Directed Education (ASDE) have been formed to publicize and provide guidance for self-directed education. Entrepreneurs like Henry Ford, Steve Jobs, and Bill Gates are considered influential self-teachers.
+
+== History ==
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+---
+title: "Autodidacticism"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:00.088315+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The first philosophical claim supporting an autodidactic program to the study of nature and God was in the philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Alive son of the Vigilant), whose titular hero is considered the archetypal autodidact. The story is a medieval autodidactic utopia, a philosophical treatise in a literary form, which was written by the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Tufail in the 1160s in Marrakesh. It is a story about a feral boy, an autodidact prodigy who masters nature through instruments and reason, discovers laws of nature by practical exploration and experiments, and gains summum bonum through a mystical mediation and communion with God. The hero rises from his initial state of tabula rasa to a mystical or direct experience of God after passing through the necessary natural experiences. The focal point of the story is that human reason, unaided by society and its conventions or by religion, can achieve scientific knowledge, preparing the way to the mystical or highest form of human knowledge.
+Commonly translated as "The Self-Taught Philosopher" or "The Improvement of Human Reason", Ibn-Tufayl's story Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan inspired debates about autodidacticism in a range of historical fields from classical Islamic philosophy through Renaissance humanism and the European Enlightenment. In his book Reading Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan: a Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism, Avner Ben-Zaken showed how the text traveled from late medieval Andalusia to early modern Europe and demonstrated the intricate ways in which autodidacticism was contested in and adapted to diverse cultural settings.
+Autodidacticism apparently intertwined with struggles over Sufism in twelfth-century Marrakesh; controversies about the role of philosophy in pedagogy in fourteenth-century Barcelona; quarrels concerning astrology in Renaissance Florence in which Pico della Mirandola pleads for autodidacticism against the strong authority of intellectual establishment notions of predestination; and debates pertaining to experimentalism in seventeenth-century Oxford. Pleas for autodidacticism echoed not only within close philosophical discussions; they surfaced in struggles for control between individuals and establishments.
+In the story of Black American self-education, Heather Andrea Williams presents a historical account to examine Black American's relationship to literacy during slavery, the Civil War and the first decades of freedom. Many of the personal accounts tell of individuals who have had to teach themselves due to racial discrimination in education.
+
+== Future role ==
+The role of self-directed learning continues to be investigated in learning approaches, along with other important goals of education, such as content knowledge, epistemic practices and collaboration. As colleges and universities offer distance learning degree programs and secondary schools provide cyber school options for K–12 students, technology provides numerous resources that enable individuals to have a self-directed learning experience. Several studies show these programs function most effectively when the "teacher" or facilitator is a full owner of virtual space to encourage a broad range of experiences to come together in an online format. This allows self-directed learning to encompass both a chosen path of information inquiry, self-regulation methods and reflective discussion among experts as well as novices in a given area. Furthermore, massive open online courses (MOOCs) make autodidacticism easier and thus more common.
+A 2016 Stack Overflow poll reported that due to the rise of autodidacticism, 69.1% of software developers appear to be self-taught.
+
+== Notable individuals ==
+
+Some notable autodidacts can be broadly grouped in the following interdisciplinary areas:
+
+Artists and authors
+Actors, musicians, and other artists
+Architects
+Engineers, inventors and software developers (Computer programmers)
+Scientists, historians, and educators
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bach, James Marcus (11 October 2011). Secrets of a Buccaneer-Scholar: Self-Education and the Pursuit of Passion. Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4391-0908-3.
+Blaschke, L. M. (2012). "Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning". The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning. 13 (1): 56–71. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v13i1.1076.
+Brown, Resa Steindel (28 January 2007). The Call to Brilliance: A True Story to Inspire Parents and Educators. Fredric Pr. ISBN 978-0-9778369-0-1.
+Cameron, Brent (4 November 2005). SelfDesign: Nurturing Genius Through Natural Learning. Sentient Publications. ISBN 978-1-59181-044-5.
+Hailey, Kendall (1 January 1989). The Day I Became an Autodidact and the Advice, Adventures, and Acrimonies That Befell Me Thereafter. Delta. ISBN 978-0440550136.
+Hase, Stewart; Kenyon, Chris (January 2000). "From Andragogy to Heutagogy". Original UltiBASE Publication. Southern Cross University. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
+Hase, Stewart; Kenyon, Chris (2019) [July 2007]. "Heutagogy: A Child of Complexity Theory". Complicity. 4 (1): 111–118. doi:10.29173/cmplct8766. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
+Llewellyn, Grace (29 September 2021). The Teenage Liberation Handbook: How to Quit School and Get a Real Life and Education. Lowry House Publishers. ISBN 978-0962959196.
+McAuliffe, M.; Hargreaves, D.; Winter, A.; Chadwick, G. (11 November 2015) [2009]. "Does Pedagogy Still Rule?". Australasian Journal of Engineering Education. 15 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1080/22054952.2009.11464018. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
+"Open Syllabus: Mapping the college curriculum across 20.9 million syllabi". Open Syllabus. Retrieved 10 April 2024. Non-profit archive [...] provides top-down views of the curriculum across thousands of schools to support curricular innovation, lifelong learning, and student success.
+Rancière, Jacques (1 July 1991). The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804719698.
+Reimer, Everett (1 January 1971). School is Dead: An Essay on Alternatives in Education. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140801699.
+Solomon, Joan (28 August 2003). The Passion to Learn: An Inquiry into Autodidactism. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415304184.
+Stark, Kio (10 April 2013). Don't Go Back to School: A Handbook for Learning Anything. Kio Stark. ISBN 978-0988949003.
+
+== External links ==
+ Quotations related to Autodidacticism at Wikiquote
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_ecology_field_methods-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_ecology_field_methods-0.md
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+---
+title: "Avian ecology field methods"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_ecology_field_methods"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:01.276869+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There are many field methods available for conducting avian ecological research.  They can be divided into three types: counts, nest monitoring, and capturing and marking.
+
+
+== Basic counts ==
+Basic bird counts are a good way to estimate population size, detect changes in population size or species diversity, and determine the cause of the changes if environmental or habitat data is collected as well.  Basic bird counts can be completed fairly easily and inexpensively, and they provide general information about the status of a bird population.
+Birds can be directly counted on breeding colonies, and at roosts, flocks, or Leks.  Large diurnal migrants, like many raptors, can be counted as they pass through migration bottlenecks.  Small nocturnal migrants are harder to count, but many advances have been made in the use of radar and microphone arrays to identify and count them.
+
+
+=== Point counts and area searches ===
+Perhaps the simplest method of counting birds is called a "point count", in which a trained observer records all the birds seen and heard from a point count station for a set period of time.  A series of point counts completed over a fixed route can then be compared to the results of the same point counts in other seasons or years. A similar method, called an area search, involves searching throughout a fixed area for a set amount of time and recording the number of birds seen and heard.
+
+
+== Nest monitoring ==
+
+Nest monitoring is essential for measuring the reproductive success of a population, which is important for identifying changes in a population's birth rate.  Nests can be found either through systematic searching of the birds’ preferred habitat or by watching birds for behavioral clues.  A researcher can then track the success of each nest by regularly checking nests for signs of hatching, fledging, or predation.
+Nest monitoring can also provide extremely valuable information about nesting behavior, habitat selection, and nest predation. Cameras can be used to study bird to monitor nest and record information about nest survival, nesting behaviors, or even to catch nest predators in the act.  The timing of breeding in relation to weather variables can be studied, as well as the size of eggs and chicks in relation to food quality and abundance. Records of habitat variables at each nest provide helpful information on the birds’ nest site selection criteria, and maps of all nests found in a study area allow for examination of how territories are distributed through the habitat.
+
+
+== Capturing and marking ==
+
+Capturing and marking birds allows for individuals to be identified whenever or wherever they are captured or seen again. It is a powerful method for studying bird migration, estimating population sizes and survival rates, and recognizing changes in productivity.  There are many different ways to capture birds, but the most widely used method is a mist net, a net made of fine nylon mesh which is nearly invisible.  Birds fly into the net, becoming entangled, and are extracted by researchers.  Birds can then be identified, measured, weighed, and marked with a small aluminum band bearing a unique number.  The number is reported to a central database so that information about the bird can be updated if the bird is ever recaptured somewhere else.  Birds may also be marked with a locally unique combination of colored plastic leg bands, leg flags, patagial tags, or dyes which allow the bird to be recognized in the field without requiring recapture.  Finally, a bird may be outfitted with a radio or satellite transmitter, which enables the bird to be tracked as it moves around within the local landscape or even as it migrates around the world.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Australian Bird Count (ABC)
+Breeding Bird Survey
+Christmas Bird Count (CBC) (in the Western Hemisphere)
+Seabird Colony Register (SCR)
+The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds
+Tucson Bird Count (TBC) (in Arizona in the US)
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braiding_knowledge-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braiding_knowledge-0.md
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+---
+title: "Braiding knowledge"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braiding_knowledge"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:02.437237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Braiding knowledge is a research framework that combines traditional knowledge with "Western" science to address contemporary issues.
+
+
+== Organizations ==
+The following organizations center the use of braiding knowledge in their mission statements.
+
+
+=== Center for Braiding Indigenous Knowledges and Science ===
+The Center for Braiding Indigenous Knowledges and Science (CBIKS) was founded in 2023 with funding by the National Science Foundation’s Science and Technology Centers: Integrative Partnerships program by co-principal investigators: Sonya Atalay, Ora Marek-Martinez, Bonnie Newsom, and Jon Woodruff. The Center is located on the MIT campus with eight regional hubs across the U.S. and in Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand, and Australia. Research is fully community-driven and in full collaboration with community partners at all education levels. CBIKS is currently directed by Sonya Atalay.
+
+
+=== Braiding Knowledge Project ===
+The Braiding Knowledge Project, founded in 2021, is led by Melissa Tehee, Breanne Litts, and Rogelio Cardona-Rivera between Utah State University and the University of Utah with funding from the Spencer Foundation and the National Science Foundation.
+
+
+=== Braiding Knowledges Canada (BKC) ===
+BKC is a Canadian not-for-profit corporation established in 2019 that promotes decolonizing practices through place-based, community-driven environmental research. The corporation is supported by a five-year grant from the Government of Canada’s Strategic Science Fund Program from 2024 to 2029. BKC is based out of the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronosequence-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronosequence-0.md
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+---
+title: "Chronosequence"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronosequence"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:04.866584+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A chronosequence describes a set of ecological sites that share similar attributes but represent different ages.
+A common assumption in establishing chronosequences is that no other variable besides age (such as various abiotic components and biotic components) has changed between sites of interest. Because this assumption cannot always be tested for environmental study sites, the use of chronosequences in field successional studies has recently been debated.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+
+
+=== Forest sciences ===
+Since many processes in forest ecology take a long time (decades or centuries) to develop, chronosequence methods are used to represent and study the time-dependent development of a forest. Field data from a forest chronosequence can be collected in a short period of several months. 
+
+
+=== Soil science ===
+Chronosequences used in soil studies consist of sites that have developed over different periods of time with relatively small differences in other soil-forming factors. Such groups of sites are used to assess the influence of time as a factor in pedogenesis.
+
+
+=== Ecology ===
+Chronosequences are often used to study the changes in plant communities during succession. A classic example of using chronosequences to study ecological succession is in the study of plant and microbial succession in recently deglaciated zones. For example, a study from 2005 used the distance from the nose of a glacier as a proxy for site age.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Co-production (approach)"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-production_(approach)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:06.033625+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Co-production (or coproduction) is an approach in the development and delivery of public services and technology in which citizens and other key stakeholders and concepts in human society are implicitly involved in the process. In many countries, co-production is increasingly perceived as a new public administration paradigm as it involves a whole new thinking about public service delivery and policy development. In co-productive approaches, citizens are not only consulted, but are part of the conception, design, steering, and ongoing management of services. The concept has a long history, arising out of radical theories of knowledge in the 1970s, and can be applied in a range of sectors across society including health research, and science more broadly. 
+
+== Definitions ==
+An organisation called the Co-production Network for Wales describes co-production as "an asset-based approach to public services that enables people providing and people receiving services to share power and responsibility, and to work together in equal, reciprocal and caring relationships". According to Governance International, co-production is about "public service organisations and citizens making better use of each other's assets, resources and contributions".
+Co-production is designed to address real-world application of knowledge and forms part of what is termed Mode 2 of knowledge production, which in the sociology of science is used to describe one of the ways that knowledge is formed. In Mode 2, science and technology studies move from extreme technological determinism and social constructivism, to a more systemic understanding of how technology and society 'co-produce' each other. Co-production is functionally comparable to the concepts of causality loop, positive feedback, and co-evolution – all of which describe how two or more variables of a system affect and essentially create each other, albeit with respect to different variables operating at different scales.
+
+== Origins ==
+Experiments on co-production on public services have been launched in many countries, from Denmark to Malaysia, the UK and the US.
+The term 'co-production' was originally coined in the late 1970s by Elinor Ostrom and colleagues at Indiana University to explain why neighbourhood crime rates went up in Chicago when the city's police officers retreated from the street into cars. Similarly to Jane Jacobs' assessment of the importance of long-time residents to the safety and vitality of New York's old neighbourhoods, Ostrom noted that by becoming detached from people and their everyday lives on the streets, Chicago's police force lost an essential source of insider information, making it harder for them to do their work as effectively.
+What Ostrom and her colleagues were recognising was that services – in this case policing – rely as much upon the unacknowledged knowledge, assets and efforts of service 'users' as the expertise of professional providers. It was the informal understanding of local communities and the on the ground relationships they had developed with police officers that had helped keep crime levels down. In short, the police needed the community as much as the community needed the police. The concept of the 'core economy', first articulated by Neva Goodwin and subsequently developed by Edgar S. Cahn, is helpful in explaining this further.
+The core economy is made up of all the resources embedded in people's everyday lives – time, energy, wisdom, experience, knowledge and skills – and the relationships between them – love, empathy, watchfulness, care, reciprocity, teaching and learning. Similar to the role played by the operating system of a computer, the core economy is the basic, yet essential, platform upon which 'specialist programmes' in society, the market economy and public services run. Our specialised services dealing with crime, education, care, health and so on are all underpinned by the family, the neighbourhood, community and civil society.
+This understanding has helped to radically reframe the potential role of 'users' and 'professionals' in the process of producing services. Far from being passive consumers, or needy drains on public finances, people, their family, friends and communities are understood as important agents with the capacity to design and even deliver services with improved outcomes.
+Professionals, for their part, need to find ways of engaging meaningfully with the core economy; helping it to grow, flourish and realise its full potential – not atrophy as a result of neglect or exploitation. Significantly, as the New Economics Foundation (NEF) note:
+"This is not about consultation or participation – except in the broadest sense. The point is not to consult more, or involve people more in decisions; it is to encourage them to use the human skills and experience they have to help deliver public or voluntary services. It is, according to Elizabeth Hoodless at Community Service Volunteers, about "broadening and deepening" public services so that they are no longer the preserve of professionals or commissioners, but a shared responsibility, both building and using a multi-faceted network of mutual support".
+
+== Areas of application ==
+
+=== Science, technology and society ===
+From a more science, technology and society (STS) perspective, Sheila Jasanoff, has written that "Co-production is shorthand for the proposition that the ways in which we know and represent the world (both nature and society) are inseparable from the ways in which we chose to live in." Co-production draws on constitutive (such as Actor–network theory) and interactional work (such as the Edinburgh School) in STS. As a sensitizing concept, the idiom of co-production looks at four themes: "the emergence and stabilization of new techno-scientific objects and framings, the resolution of scientific and technical controversies; the processes by which the products of techno-science are made intelligible and portable across boundaries; and the adjustment of science's cultural practices in response to the contexts in which science is done." Studies employing co-production often follow the following pathways: "making identities, making institutions, making discourses, and making representations"
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+---
+title: "Co-production (approach)"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-production_(approach)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:06.033625+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Co-production of climate services ===
+A disconnect exists between the climate information that is produced by science (in terms of weather forecasts and climate projections) and what is needed by users to make climate-resilient decisions. The mismatch usually relates to time scales, spatial scales, and metrics. Co-producing climate services, by bringing together producers and users of climate information for dialogue, can lead to the creation of new knowledge that is more appropriate for use in terms of being tailored and targeted to particular decisions.
+As in other fields, co-production of climate services, can create challenges due to differences in the incentives, priorities and languages of the various parties (often grouped into "producers" of information and "users" of information). Although there are no recipes for how to co-produce climate services, there are a number of building blocks and principles. 
+
+== Concepts of co-production ==
+Co-production is based on the production of own services and resources by citizens, completely or in part. It involves the willingness of citizens or users together with public services to design, implement and improve the delivery of services in order to innovate and transform public services. 
+
+=== Co-management ===
+The concept of co-management implies the introduction of a third party (citizens, users, private organization or other public organization) into the process of management of the delivery of the service. The involvement of the third party actually takes place from the nineteenth century, however, it was not defined as a concept back then.
+Co-management creates the phenomenon by bringing relations between different organizations to internal production process and creating new networks, which in some cases brings strong positive impact, however, can be seen as negative due to the lack of accountability and increasing competition between different networks.
+
+=== Co-governance ===
+The concept of co-governance lies under the arrangement of the third party and public agencies if decision making and planning of public services.
+
+=== Co-design ===
+Co-designing refers to the process of a collective knowledge sharing and knowledge creation. Key components of a co-design process can involve:
+
+Intentionally involving target users in designing solutions;
+Postponing design decisions until after gathering feedback;
+Synthesizing feedback from target users into insights;
+Developing solutions based on feedback.
+
+=== Co-delivery ===
+Co-delivery implies the improvement of outcomes with a collective effort. It is usually implemented as non-profit organization.
+
+=== Co-assessment ===
+Co-assessment refers to the monitoring of public service quality and outcomes. Co-assessment of public services brings a radically different perspective to deciding what works – and what doesn't. However, co-assessment can carry potential risks such as: lack of knowledge, lack of resources, time consumption.
+
+=== Co-produced knowledge ===
+Scholars have discussed the role of co-production in decolonising research and implementation of services by including a mixture of research, state and public (community) stakeholders in the process; a process that results in strong mutual ownership. Particularly this has been linked to the "triangle that moves the mountain" approach for addressing social challenges, originally developed in Thailand.
+
+== Challenges ==
+Co-production, as a method, approach and mind-set, is very different from traditional models of service provision. As has been shown, it fundamentally alters the relationship between service providers and users; it emphasises people as active agents, not passive beneficiaries; and, in large part because of this alternative process, it tends to lead towards better, more preventative outcomes in the long-term.
+Because of its radically different nature, however, people wishing to practice co-production face a number of significant challenges. As NEF/NESTA comments:
+"Overall, the challenge seems to amount to one clear problem. Co-production, even in the most successful and dramatic examples, barely fits the standard shape of public services or charities or the systems we have developed to 'deliver' support, even though [in the UK] policy documents express ambitions to empower and engage local communities, to devolve power and increase individuals' choice and control."
+This misfit makes practising co-production difficult, and mainstreaming good practice particularly so. Existing structures and frameworks work against, not with, co-production. In order for it to flourish as a viable alternative to the expensive and in many cases failing, status quo change needs to take place.
+NEF/NESTA highlight four areas where such change will be required;
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+title: "Co-production (approach)"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-production_(approach)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:06.033625+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Funding and Commissioning: Commissioners of public money will need to change their established ways of doing things. Applying strict quantitative targets and stipulating rigid, short-term outputs with a mind to economic efficiency acts as a barrier to co-produced service models. In order to 'commission for change' narrow outputs need to be broadened and complemented by outcomes based commissioning.
+Generating evidence and making the case for co-production: The obvious reason why many commissioning frameworks favour outputs over outcomes is that they are simply measured, making it deceptively easy to evaluate success or failure. But real success is not easily measurable. Nor are many of the preventative benefits of co-production easy to quantify. Making the case for co-production and capturing its complex and myriad benefits is a key challenge.
+Taking successful approaches to scale: It is fair to say that the majority of examples where co-production is being successfully practiced take place at a local scale. To a great extent this has been instrumental to their success; they are rooted in local realities, have grown organically from the ground based on local assets and ideas and emphasise the importance of face-to-face relationships. There is a potential tension to be overcome here; ensuring that a service remains locally rooted, whilst simultaneously expanding the scope of coverage nationally. Where this has been achieved (see KeyRing, Shared Lives and LAC in Australia) the tendency towards replication and blueprinting has been strongly resisted. Instead of simplistically transplanting a 'model' in new regions, these organisations have taken forward a common 'method' that involves engaging with local assets and resources in a consistent way.
+Co-production also suits smaller organisations (traditionally those in the third sector) that are more used to working in less structured and hierarchical ways. This is something that large public sector structures are much less used to doing. If co-production is to be a mainstream way of working across public sector services, a structural and cultural shift will also need to take place.
+
+Developing required professional skills: Years of working to narrowly defined roles and job descriptions has understandably led to many public service professionals seeing their 'clients' through circumscribed lenses; as patients that need to be cared for, rather than people who could be enabled. It can also be difficult for any professional to relinquish control and 'hand over the stick'; not only does this challenge occupational identities but it also confers a greater sense of risk – co-production can be 'messy' and is inimical to rigid control. If the hearts and minds of those delivering services on the ground cannot be changed, and if the necessary skills associated with relinquishing control are not embedded, co-production is likely to be constrained.
+
+== Resources and examples ==
+Interactive Good Practice Co-Production Catalogue from Wales
+The coproduced Marco Calvallo Mental Health Center
+Skills for Health Work with people and significant others to develop services to improve their mental health
+Co-Production Network 
+Co-production Wales, All in this together
+Parents as Pre-school Education Service Co-producers in Lithuania
+Co-production - Enhancing the role of citizens in governance and service delivery (EU 2018)
+
+== See also ==
+Participatory development
+Participatory action research
+
+== Notes ==
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+title: "Co-production (approach)"
+chunk: 4/4
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:06.033625+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Selected co-production bibliography ==
+Alford, J. (1998), A public management road less traveled: clients as co-producers of public services. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 57 (4), 128-137.
+Alford, J. (2007), Engaging public sector clients: from service delivery to co-production. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
+Barnes, M., Harrison, S., Mort, M., Shardlow, P. and Wistow G. (1999),  'The new management of community care: users groups, citizenship and co-production' in G.Stoker,  New Management of British Local Governance. Houndmills: Macmillan.
+Tony Bovaird (2007), "Beyond engagement and participation – user and community co-production of public services", Public Administration Review, 67 (5): 846-860 (2007).
+Tony Bovaird and Elke Loeffler (2010), "User and community co-production of public services and public policies through collective decision-making: the role of emerging technologies" in T. Brandsen and Marc Holzer (Eds), The Future of Governance. Newark, NJ: National Center for Public Performance.
+Tony Bovaird and Elke Loeffler (2012), "From Engagement to Co-production: How Users and Communities Contribute to Public Services" in Taco Brandsen and Victor Pestoff (Eds), New Public Governance, the Third Sector and Co-Production. London: Routledge.
+Matthew Horne and Tom Shirley (2009), Co-production in public services: a new partnership with citizens. London: Cabinet Office.
+Roger Dunston, Alison Lee, David Boud, Pat Brodie and Mary Chiarella (2008), " Co-Production and Health System Reform – From Re-Imagining To Re-Making", Australian Journal of Public Administration, 68 (1): 39 – 52.
+Elke Löffler, Tony Bovaird, Salvador Parrado and Greg van Ryzin (2008), "If you want to go fast, walk alone. If you want to go far, walk together": Citizens and the co-production of public services. Report to the EU Presidency. Paris: Ministry of Finance, Budget and Public Services.
+Brudney, J. and England, R. 1983. Towards a definition of the co-production concept. Public Administration Review, 43 (10), 59-65.
+Cahn, E.S. 2001. No More Throw-Away People: the Co-Production Imperative. Washington DC: Essential Books.
+Hyde, P. and Davies, H.T.O. 2004. Service design, culture and performance: collusion and co-production in health care. Human Relations, 57 (1), 1407–1426.
+Joshi, A. and Moore, M. 2003. Institutionalised Co-production: Unorthodox Public Service Delivery in Challenging Environments. Brighton: IDS.
+Kretzmann, J. and McKnight, J. 1993. Building Communities from the Inside-Out: A Path Toward Finding and Mobilizing a Community's Assets.
+Lovelock, C. and Young, R.F. 1979. 'Look to customers to increase productivity', Harvard Business Review, 57 (May–June), 168-178.
+Needham, C. (2009), Co-production: an emerging evidence base for adult social care transformation. SCIE Research Briefing 31. London: Social Care Institute for Excellence.
+Richard Normann (1984), Service Management: Strategy and Leadership in the Service Business, John Wiley and Sons.
+Ostrom, E. 1996. Crossing the great divide: coproduction, synergy and development. World Development. 24 (6), 1073-87.
+Parks, R.B. et al. 1981. Consumers as coproducers of public services: some economic and institutional considerations. Policy Studies Journal, 9 (Summer), 1,001-11.
+Percy, S. 1984. Citizen participation in the co-production of urban services. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 19 (4), 431 – 446.
+Pestoff,  V. and Brandsen, T. 2007, Co-production: the third sector and the delivery of public services. London: Routledge.
+Pocobello, R., Sehity, T. el, Negrogno, L., Minervini, C., Guida, M., & Venerito, C. n.d. Comparison of a co-produced mental health service to traditional services: A co-produced mixed-methods cross-sectional study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, n/a(n/a). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12681
+Ramirez, R. 1999. 'Value co-production: intellectual origins and implications for practice and research', Strategic Management Journal, 20 (1), 49-65.
+Sharp, E. 1980. Towards a new understanding of urban services and citizen participation: the co-production concept. Midwest Review of Public Administration, 14, 105-118.
+Walker, P. 2002. Co-production. In Mayo, E. and Moore, H. (eds). Building the Mutual State: Findings from Virtual Thinktank. London: New Economics Foundation.
+Warren, R., Harlow, K.S. and Rosentraub, M.S. 1982. 'Citizen participation in services: methodological and policy issues in co-production research', Southwestern Review of Management and Economics, 2: 41-55.
+Whitaker, G. 1980. Co-production: citizen participation in service delivery. Public Administration Review, 40, 240-246.
+Wickström, S. 1996. The customer as co-producer. European Journal of Marketing, 30(4):6-19.
+Zeleny, M. 1978. Towards Self-Service Society. New York: Columbia University Press.
+
+== External links ==
+"The Parable of the Blobs and Squares", animated video, on why co-production matters.
+Tijerino, Adamira (2014). Video
+"Governance International - Homepage". Govint.org. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
+"Together we can change the rules to make the economy work for everyone". Neweconomics.org. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
+"Public Service Co-Production - Value For People". 18 May 2011. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
+"Frankie Hine-Hughes's Page - Fiery Spirits Community of Practice". 2 April 2016. Archived from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
+"Is there a third wave of change? - Public Service". 22 July 2011. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
+"Institute of Local Government Studies (INLOGOV) - School of Government and Society - University of Birmingham". Birmingham.ac.uk. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
+"Governance International - co-production". Govint.org. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
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+---
+title: "Community-engaged research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community-engaged_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:07.181236+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Community-engaged research (CEnR) is the process of working collaboratively with groups of people affiliated by geographic proximity, special interests, or similar situations with respect to issues affecting their well-being. One of the most widely used forms of community-engaged research is community-based participatory research (CBPR), though it also encompasses action research and participatory action research. Another form of community-engaged research is integrated knowledge translation (iKT), defined as "an approach to doing research that applies the principles of knowledge translation to the entire research process". The iKT evolves around the concept of engaging different levels of knowledge users (community members, organizations working in the community, and policy makers) as equal partners in the research activities so that research outputs are more relevant to, and more likely to be useful to, the knowledge users. 
+
+
+== History ==
+Community-engaged research arose in response to historical abuse of marginalized people by researchers, who failed to consider the needs of the community and potential benefits of the research. Types of CEnR include action research, community-based participatory research (CBPR), and participatory action research (PAR). The field of CEnR has grown rapidly since 2005.
+
+
+== Process ==
+Community-engaged research is planned in partnership with the community that is the intended target of the research. It requires the development of partnerships between researchers and the community, cooperation and negotiation between parties, collaboration, and a commitment to addressing local health concerns. This can create additional steps not traditionally found in research projects, such as jointly creating a mission statement or a memorandum of understanding to establish terminology, timelines, and expectations. These planning steps typically occur before funding is secured for the research project so that a meaningful and trusting relationship is the platform for the research activities. Community members may be skeptical of research conducted without compensation; researchers and the community can collaborate to define fair compensation for participation. The researchers also can involve the community members in the research activities and ensuring community member capacity building needs.
+CEnR projects exist along a spectrum of the level of community involvement. In order from least- to most-involved, examples are investigator-driven research, community-placed research, community-based research, community-based participatory research, and community-driven research.
+
+
+== Scope ==
+Reviews of community-engaged research indicate that this type of research predominantly occurs in the US and the Americas. Europe is represented chiefly by studies in the United Kingdom, and some studies have been conducted in Australia as well. Few reviews of community-engaged research have included work done in Africa or Asia. 
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Cross-sectional study"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sectional_study"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:08.440904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In medical research, epidemiology, social science, and biology, a cross-sectional study (also known as a cross-sectional analysis, transverse study, prevalence study) is a type of research design that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time—that is, cross-sectional data.
+In economics, cross-sectional studies typically involve the use of cross-sectional regression, in order to sort out the existence and magnitude of causal effects of one independent variable upon a dependent variable of interest at a given point in time. They differ from time series analysis, in which the behavior of one or more economic aggregates is traced through time.
+In medical research, cross-sectional studies differ from case-control studies in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case-control studies typically include only individuals who have developed a specific condition and compare them with a matched sample, often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. Cross-sectional studies are descriptive studies (neither longitudinal nor experimental). Unlike case-control studies, they can be used to describe, not only the odds ratio, but also absolute risks and relative risks from prevalences (sometimes called prevalence risk ratio, or PRR).  They may be used to describe some feature of the population, such as prevalence of an illness, but cannot prove cause and effect. Longitudinal studies differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time.
+
+== Healthcare ==
+Cross-sectional studies involve data collected at a defined time. They are often used to assess the prevalence of acute or chronic conditions, but cannot be used to answer questions about the causes of disease or the results of intervention. Cross-sectional data cannot be used to infer causality because temporality is not known. They may also be described as censuses. Cross-sectional studies may involve special data collection, including questions about the past, but they often rely on data originally collected for other purposes. They are moderately expensive, and are not suitable for the study of rare diseases. Difficulty in recalling past events may also contribute bias.
+
+=== Advantages ===
+The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies to be made at little or no expense. This is a major advantage over other forms of epidemiological study. A natural progression has been suggested from cheap cross-sectional studies of routinely collected data which suggest hypotheses, to case-control studies testing them more specifically, then to cohort studies and trials which cost much more and take much longer, but may give stronger evidence. In a cross-sectional survey, a specific group is looked at to see if an activity, say alcohol consumption, is related to the health effect being investigated, say cirrhosis of the liver. If alcohol use is correlated with cirrhosis of the liver, this would support the hypothesis that alcohol use may be associated with cirrhosis.
+
+=== Disadvantages ===
+Routine data may not be designed to answer the specific question.
+Routinely collected data does not normally describe which variable is the cause and which is the effect. Cross-sectional studies using data originally collected for other purposes are often unable to include data on confounding factors, other variables that affect the relationship between the putative cause and effect. For example, data only on present alcohol consumption and cirrhosis would not allow the role of past alcohol use, or of other causes, to be explored. Cross-sectional studies are very susceptible to recall bias.
+Most case-control studies collect specifically designed data on all participants, including data fields designed to allow the hypothesis of interest to be tested. However, in issues where strong personal feelings may be involved, specific questions may be a source of bias. For example, past alcohol consumption may be incorrectly reported by an individual wishing to reduce their personal feelings of guilt. Such bias may be less in routinely collected statistics, or effectively eliminated if the observations are made by third parties, for example taxation records of alcohol by area.In addition, there may be cohort effect, in which differences in social and environmental influences are treated as developmental changes due to ageing. Since the occurrence of differences is consistent with the division of generations and ethnic groups, that is, a group of people experiencing a common historical event is affected by a common influence, it is difficult to obtain the causal relationship of the event.
+
+==== Weaknesses of aggregated data ====
+Cross-sectional studies can contain individual-level data (one record per individual, for example, in national health surveys). However, in modern epidemiology it may be impossible to survey the entire population of interest, so cross-sectional studies often involve secondary analysis of data collected for another purpose. In many such cases, no individual records are available to the researcher, and group-level information must be used. Major sources of such data are often large institutions like the Census Bureau or the Centers for Disease Control in the United States. Recent census data is not provided on individuals, for example in the UK individual census data is released only after a century. Instead data is aggregated, usually by administrative area. Inferences about individuals based on aggregate data are weakened by the ecological fallacy.
+Also consider the potential for committing the "atomistic fallacy" where assumptions about aggregated counts are made based on the aggregation of individual level data (such as averaging census tracts to calculate a county average).  For example, it might be true that there is no correlation between infant mortality and family income at the city level, while still being true that there is a strong relationship between infant mortality and family income at the individual level. All aggregate statistics are subject to compositional effects, so that what matters is not only the individual-level relationship between income and infant mortality, but also the proportions of low, middle, and high income individuals in each city. Because case-control studies are usually based on individual-level data, they do not have this problem.
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+---
+title: "Cross-sectional study"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sectional_study"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:08.440904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Economics ==
+In economics, cross-sectional analysis has the advantage of avoiding various complicating aspects of the use of data drawn from various points in time, such as serial correlation of residuals. It also has the advantage that the data analysis itself does not need an assumption that the nature of the relationships between variables is stable over time, though this comes at the cost of requiring caution if the results for one time period are to be assumed valid at some different point in time.
+An example of cross-sectional analysis in economics is the regression of money demand—the amounts that various people hold in highly liquid financial assets—at a particular time upon their income, total financial wealth, and various demographic factors. Each data point is for a particular individual or family, and the regression is conducted on a statistical sample drawn at one point in time from the entire population of individuals or families. In contrast, an intertemporal analysis of money demand would use data on an entire country's holdings of money at each of various points in time, and would regress that on contemporaneous (or near-contemporaneous) income, total financial wealth, and some measure of interest rates. The cross-sectional study has the advantage that it can investigate the effects of various demographic factors (age, for example) on individual differences; but it has the disadvantage that it cannot find the effect of interest rates on money demand, because in the cross-sectional study at a particular point in time all observed units are faced with the same current level of interest rates.
+
+== See also ==
+Longitudinal study
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+
+== External links ==
+Study Design Tutorial Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine
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+---
+title: "Cross-sequential study"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sequential_study"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:09.630502+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A cross-sequential design is a research method that combines both a longitudinal design and a cross-sectional design. It aims to correct for some of the problems inherent in the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
+In a cross-sequential design (also called an "accelerated longitudinal" or "convergence" design), a researcher wants to study development over some large period of time within the lifespan. Rather than studying particular individuals across that whole period of time (e.g. 20–60 years) as in a longitudinal design, or multiple individuals of different ages at one time (e.g. 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, and 60 years) as in a cross-sectional design, the researcher chooses a smaller time window (e.g. 20 years) to study multiple individuals of different starting ages. An example of a cross-sequential design is shown in the table below.
+
+In this table, over a span of 10 years, from 2000 to 2010, 7 overlapping cohorts with different starting ages could be studied to provide information on the whole span of development from ages 20 to 60.
+This design has been used in studies to investigate career trajectories in academia and other phenomena.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_foresight-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_foresight-0.md
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+---
+title: "Customer foresight"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_foresight"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:10.845215+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Customer foresight is a new field of applied research. It aims to understand future consumer preferences and wishes with regard to tomorrow's products and services. It does so by combining customer research and foresight research elements. Customer foresight can be conceived as an interaction with projected future markets through selected customers by understanding their wishes and attitudes, ideas and visions as well as their perception of signals and drivers of change. Even though the concept cannot predict the future, it enables companies to prepare for different future scenarios and thus improves strategy and decision-making processes.
+
+
+== Definition and classification ==
+As the future combines both continuity and change, not everything one knows today will disappear tomorrow. Some things will change significantly while others will not. But even today, research reveals that numerous inventions fail due to a lack of customer centricity. Consequently, anticipating future customer needs and behaviors constitutes a challenge when developing future product portfolios. This is especially relevant for industries with long planning cycles because these industries have to develop value propositions today for the customers of tomorrow. However, this involves dealing with many unknowns e.g. future everyday life or future consumption patterns. This is why, customer foresight starts with analyzing the consumer needs, values and motivations of today. Methods in the field of customer research that can be applied at this stage are e.g. qualitative and quantitative surveys, behavioral observation and experience, ethnographic research, cultural analysis or value and motivation research. On the basis of these consumer insights, transformations and change dynamics are projected into the future. As a result, a space of possibility is defined.
+In order to then understand future realities, customer and foresight research are combined. Foresight tools to apply can for example be scenario planning, trend research and science fiction. However, also quantitative methods such as time series analysis can be used. Their application allows for understanding dynamics of change and projecting the envisioned developments into the future. The following graphic visualizes and classifies the approach in the sweet spot of customer and foresight research.
+
+At the intersection of customer and foresight research, it is then crucial to understand the interaction of customers with drivers of change or future realities. As customer foresight relies a lot on insight generation through interactions, a systematic selection of study participants is of great importance. Through interacting with Trend Receivers or other study participants, insights are generated which are then analyzed. The following section provides a more detailed description of the stages of typical customer foresight projects.
+
+
+== Stages of customer foresight projects ==
+The customer foresight journey typically starts with the identification of relevant business needs by e.g. analyzing market dynamics, visions and objectives and value propositions. In a second step, change dynamics are analyzed and research materials on future scenarios are collected e.g. by applying scenario planning, doing desk research, roadmapping and gathering inputs from science fiction (for an example of a multi-method study approach in the field of customer foresight see Hahn et al. 2016). Then, the most suitable dialogue partners and project participants are selected by applying pyramiding techniques, screening, scouting or broadcasting. The interviews can be organized in role-playing, workshop formats or in-depth interviews. Based on these inputs, practical implications are identified which are then integrated by decision makers through strategy workshops, backtesting or design thinking sprints. As a consequence, customer foresight insights are transferred into business value.
+
+
+== Mass customer foresight ==
+
+As the name already alludes, mass customer foresight is about insights that are valid for the mass market or the average customer and are representative for societies or markets. In contrast to customer foresight, it uses large scale, quantitative tools to examine future consumer behavior in a representative way. The following figure classifies the concept with regard to customer insight and foresight.
+
+The concept was developed by Goethe University and the Foresight Academy as an extension to the customer foresight concept. The latter is often criticized as too elitist because the application of the e.g. Trend Receiver methodology by its definition implies that the subjects do not embody the average consumer. Since the customer base of many companies consists of the broad mass of people it can be important to enrich insights generated in the course of interactions with a selection of customers with the view of a representative sample. Consequently, the importance of these insights for corporate strategy formulation can be increased.
+An example for such a mass customer foresight study is the research project which was carried out in the course of the collaboration between Goethe University and the Foresight Academy. Here, such a quantitative study was designed and carried out within Germany, China and the United States. The research project built on the results of a Trend Receiver study that examined the question “How do we want to live in 10 years?” within six areas of life: living, leisure and work; health and nutrition, consumption and finance; communication; identity and expression as well as community and society. The qualitative insights generated through the interviews were used as the hypotheses to validate within the joint quantitative survey. As a consequence, empirical research can approve or reject projections made and increase the validity of the qualitative results and their importance for corporate strategy and decision making.
+While customer foresight itself is quite a new research field, mass customer foresight is even more new and still rather in the experimental stages. However, it will be interesting to observe its further development in theory and practice.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Early adopter – Early customer of a company, product, or technology
+Futures studies – Study of postulating possible futures
+Innovation – Practical implementation of improvements
+Lead user – Market research term
+Market research – Type of business activity
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_tag-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_tag-0.md
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+---
+title: "Data storage tag"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_tag"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:12.030778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A data storage tag (DST), also sometimes known as an archival tag, is a combination of a data logger and multiple sensors that record data at predetermined intervals. DSTs usually have a large memory size and a long lifetime: most are supported by batteries that allow the tag to record positions for several years. Alternatively some tags are solar powered and allow the scientist to set their own interval; this then allows data to be recorded for significantly longer than battery-only powered tags.
+
+
+== Operation ==
+Data storage tags can have a variety of sensors; temperature, depth, light, salinity, pressure, pitch and roll, GPS, magnetic and compass. They can be used internally or externally in fish, marine animals or research animals. They are also used in other industries such as the food and beverage industry. 
+At the end of the monitoring period, the loggers can be connected to a computer and the data uploaded for analysis. Data collected by data storage tags can be used to infer locations of the animal when it is at large.
+
+
+== Deployment ==
+Archival tags archive data to internal memory. Once they are recovered the data is then extracted by the researcher. The tag is generally mounted to the animal either by cutting a slit into the animal, inserting the tag, and sewing the opening closed. Alternatively researchers externally attach tags to animals by running anchor lines through the tag and into the dorsal fin for most "fish" species. For turtles the tag is epoxied to the shell of the turtle. 
+
+
+== See also ==
+Acoustic tag
+Animal migration tracking
+GIS and aquatic science
+Pop-up satellite archival tag
+
+
+== Notes ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design-based_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design-based_research-0.md
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+---
+title: "Design-based research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design-based_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:15.526914+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Design-based research (DBR) is a type of research methodology used by researchers in the learning sciences, which is a sub-field of education.  The basic process of DBR involves developing solutions (called "interventions") to problems. Then, the interventions are put to use to test how well they work. The iterations may then be adapted and re-tested to gather more data. The purpose of this approach is to generate new theories and frameworks for conceptualizing learning, instruction, design processes, and educational reform. Data analysis often takes the form of iterative comparisons.
+
+
+== Role within the learning sciences ==
+Methodologically, the learning sciences differs from other fields in educational research. It focuses on the study of learners, their localities, and their communities.  The design-based research methodology is often used by learning scientists in their inquiries because this methodological framework considers the subject of study to be a complex system involving emergent properties that arise from the interaction of more variables than are initially known to researchers, including variables stemming from the researchers themselves (Brown, 1992). Rather than attempting to isolate all the various factors that impact learning as in traditional research, the learning sciences employ design based research methodologies which appeal to an approach to the study of learning – in particular human learning both inside and outside of school – that embraces the complex system nature of learning systems.  Learning scientists often look at the interactions amongst variables as key components to study, yet acknowledge that within learning environments the interactions are often too complex to study all or completely understand.  This stance has been validated by the findings of Cronbach and Snow (1977) which suggest that Aptitude-Treatment Interactions, where variables are isolated in an effort to determine what factors "most" influence learning, will not be informative but rather inaccurate and potentially misleading if used as a ground for educational decisions or educational research of complex learning situations such as those characteristic of human beings in their lived experiences.
+
+
+== History and controversy ==
+The method was first proposed as design-experiments by Allan Collins in 1990 and Ann Brown in 1992. Collins originally proposed design-experiments as contributing to a 'design science', like aeronautics or artificial intelligence, rather than analytic science that seeks to explain natural phenomena. In the mid-1990s, a group called the National Design Experiment Consortium was founded by the late Jan Hawkins, then of Educational Development Corporation, to refine the method. In 1999, Christopher Hoadley founded the Design-Based Research Collective, funded by the Spencer Foundation, and coined the modern term for the method.
+Design-based research methodologies are often viewed as non-scientific by traditional experimental psychologists because design-based research does not follow formal definitions of scientific method.  In 2000, Charles Desforges famously called design experiments 'neither designed, nor experiments'.  Design-based research is viewed as an outgrowth of product development processes rather than scientific research. Critics see "design science" as an application of science to develop products or instructional interventions rather than scientific research.  Some researchers question whether design-based research is primarily useful as an exploratory research method geared towards producing designed artifacts, or whether it can validly test robust theories that are contingent on designed artifacts or interventions.
+
+
+== Varieties and forms of design-based research methodologies ==
+As mentioned in the conclusion to the 2008 ICLS keynote([1]), there are several forms of design based research now in use in education research.  These are associated with papers from:
+
+Brown and Collins
+Cobb
+Hmelo-Silver
+Kelly & Lesh
+
+
+== Related works ==
+Anderson, T., & Shattuck, J. (2012). "Design-based research: A decade of progress in education research?" Educational Researcher, 41(1), 16–25. doi:10.3102/0013189X11428813
+Bannan-Ritland, B. (2003). "The role of design in research: The integrative learning design framework". Educational Researcher. 32(1) 21–24.
+Cronbach, L. J. & R. E. Snow (1977): Aptitudes and instructional methods: a handbook for research on interactions. New York: Irvington.
+Brown, A.L. (1992). "Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex interventions in classroom settings". The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141–178. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0202_2
+Collins, A. (1990). "Toward a Design Science of Education". New York: Center for Technology in Education. http://cct2.edc.org/ccthome/reports/tr1.html
+Collins, A. (1992). "Toward a Design Science of Education". In E. Scanlon & T. O'Shea (Eds.), New directions in educational technology (pp. 15–22). New York: Springer-Verlag.
+Cobb, P., Confrey, J. diSessa, A., Lehrer, R. and Schauble, L. (2003). "Design Experiments in Educational Research".  Educational Researcher.  32(1) 9–13.
+Deforges, C. (2000). "Familiar challenges and new approaches: necessary advances in theory and methods in research on teaching and learning". Paper presented at the Desmond Nuttall/Carfax Memorial Lecture. Cardiff, UK.
+Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). "Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry." Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5–8, 35–37. http://www.designbasedresearch.org/reppubs/DBRC2003.pdf
+Hoadley, C. (2002). "Creating context: Design-based research in creating and understanding CSCL". In G. Stahl (Ed.), Computer Support for Collaborative Learning 2002 (pp. 453–462). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
+Kelly, A. E. (2004). "Design research in education: Yes, but is it methodological?" The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 115–128. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1301_6
+Mor, Y. (2010) 'A Design Approach to Research in Technology Enhanced Mathematics Education', PhD thesis, Institute of Education, University of London
+Reeves, T., Herrington, J. and Oliver, R. (2005) "Design Research: A Socially Responsible Approach to Instructional Technology Research in Higher Education". Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 16(2), 97–116.
+Shavelson, R. J. and Towne, L. (Eds.) (2002) Scientific Research in Education.  National Academy Press.  Washington D.C.
+Shavelson, R. J., Phillips, D. C., Towne, L., & Feuer, M. J. (2003). "On the science of educational design studies". Educational Researcher, 32(1), 25–28.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Design Science Methodology
+Design-based learning
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Edu-Tech Wiki
+Interviews with design-based research experts (videos) AERA International Convention, 2006.
+Designed-Based research (video) DiSessa, A. (2006). Presented at the London Knowledge Lab.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science-0.md
index 2f6ed72fb..fac00e761 100644
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 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:13.249584+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science_(methodology)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science_(methodology)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Design science (methodology)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science_(methodology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:14.418805+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Design science research (DSR) is a research paradigm focusing on the development and validation of prescriptive knowledge in information science. Herbert Simon distinguished the natural sciences, concerned with explaining how things are, from design sciences which are concerned with how things ought to be, that is, with devising artifacts to attain goals.   Design science research methodology (DSRM) refers to the research methodologies associated with this paradigm. It spans the methodologies of several research disciplines, for example information technology, which offers specific guidelines for evaluation and iteration within research projects.
+DSR focuses on the development and performance of (designed) artifacts with the explicit intention of improving the functional performance of the artifact. DSRM is typically applied to categories of artifacts including algorithms, human/computer interfaces, design methodologies (including process models) and languages. Its application is most notable in the Engineering and Computer Science disciplines, though is not restricted to these and can be found in many disciplines and fields. DSR, or constructive research, in contrast to explanatory science research, has academic research objectives generally of a more pragmatic nature. Research in these disciplines can be seen as a quest for understanding and improving human performance. Such renowned research institutions as the MIT Media Lab, Stanford University's Center for Design Research, Carnegie Mellon University's Software Engineering Institute, Xerox’s PARC, and Brunel University London’s Organisation and System Design Centre, use the DSR approach.
+Design science is a valid research methodology to develop solutions for practical engineering problems. Design science is particularly suitable for wicked problems.
+
+== Objectives ==
+The main goal of DSR is to develop knowledge that professionals of the discipline in question can use to design solutions for their field problems. Design sciences focus on the process of making choices on what is possible and useful for the creation of possible futures,
+rather than on what is currently existing. This mission can be compared to that of the ‘explanatory sciences’, like the natural sciences and sociology, which is to develop knowledge to describe, explain and predict. Hevner states that the main purpose of DSR is achieving knowledge and understanding of a problem domain by building and application of a designed artifact.
+
+== Evolution and applications ==
+Since the first days of computer science, computer scientists have been doing DSR without naming it. They have developed new architectures for computers, new programming languages, new compilers, new algorithms, new data and file structures, new data models, new database management systems, and so on.  Much of the early research was focused on systems development approaches and methods. The dominant research philosophy in many disciplines has focused on developing cumulative, theory-based research results in order to make prescriptions. It seems that this ‘theory-with-practical-implications’ research strategy has not delivered on this aim, which led to search for practical research methods such as DSR.
+
+== Characteristics ==
+The design process is a sequence of expert activities that produces an innovative product. The artifact enables the researcher to get a better grasp of the problem; the re-evaluation of the problem improves the quality of the design process and so on. This build-and-evaluate loop is typically iterated a number of times before the final design artifact is generated. In DSR, the focus is on the so-called field-tested and grounded technological rule as a possible product of Mode 2 research with the potential to improve the relevance of academic research in management. Mode 1 knowledge production is purely academic and mono-disciplinary, while Mode 2 is multidisciplinary and aims at solving complex and relevant field problems.
+
+== Guidelines in information systems research ==
+Hevner et al. have presented a set of guidelines for DSR within the discipline of Information Systems (IS). DSR requires the creation of an innovative, purposeful artifact for a special problem domain. The artifact must be evaluated in order to ensure its utility for the specified problem. In order to form a novel research contribution, the artifact must either solve a problem that has not yet been solved, or provide a more effective solution. Both the construction and evaluation of the artifact must be done rigorously, and the results of the research presented effectively both to technology-oriented and management-oriented audiences.
+Hevner counts 7 guidelines for a DSR:
+
+Design as an artifact: Design-science research must produce a viable artifact in the form of a construct, a model, a method, or an instantiation.
+Problem relevance: The objective of design-science research is to develop technology-based solutions to important and relevant business problems.
+Design evaluation: The utility, quality, and efficacy of a design artifact must be rigorously demonstrated via well-executed evaluation methods.
+Research contributions: Effective design-science research must provide clear and verifiable contributions in the areas of the design artifact, design foundations, and/or design methodologies.
+Research rigor: Design-science research relies upon the application of rigorous methods in both the construction and evaluation of the design artifact.
+Design as a search process: The search for an effective artifact requires utilizing available means to reach desired ends while satisfying laws in the problem environment.
+Communication of research: Design-science research must be presented effectively both to technology-oriented as well as management-oriented audiences.
+Transparency in DSR is becoming an emerging concern. DSR strives to be practical and relevant. Yet few researchers have examined the extent to which practitioners can meaningfully utilize theoretical knowledge produced by DSR in solving concrete real-world problems. There is a potential gulf between theoretical propositions and concrete issues faced in practice—a challenge known as design theory indeterminacy. Guidelines for addressing this challenges are provided in Lukyanenko et al. 2020.
+
+== The engineering cycle and the design cycle ==
+
+The engineering cycle is a framework used in Design Science for Information Systems and Software Engineering, proposed by Roel Wieringa.
+
+== Artifacts ==
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Design science (methodology)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science_(methodology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:14.418805+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Artifacts within DSR are perceived to be knowledge containing. This knowledge ranges from the design logic, construction methods and tool to assumptions about the context in which the artifact is intended to function (Gregor, 2002).
+The creation and evaluation of artifacts thus forms an important part in the DSR process which was described by Hevner et al., (2004) and supported by March and Storey (2008) as revolving around “build and evaluate”.
+DSR artifacts can broadly include: models, methods, constructs, instantiations and design theories (March & Smith, 1995; Gregor 2002; March & Storey, 2008, Gregor and Hevner 2013), social innovations, new or previously unknown properties of technical/social/informational resources (March, Storey, 2008), new explanatory theories, new design and developments models and implementation processes or methods (Ellis & Levy 2010).
+
+== A three-cycle view ==
+DSR can be seen as an embodiment of three closely related cycles of activities. The relevance cycle initiates DSR with an application context that not only provides the requirements for the research as inputs but also defines acceptance criteria for the ultimate evaluation of the research results.  The rigor cycle provides past knowledge to the research project to ensure its innovation. It is incumbent upon the researchers to thoroughly research and reference the knowledge base in order to guarantee that the designs produced are research contributions and not routine designs based upon the application of well-known processes.  The central design cycle iterates between the core activities of building and evaluating the design artifacts and processes of the research.
+
+== Ethical issues ==
+DSR in itself implies an ethical change from describing and explaining of the existing world to shaping it. One can question the values of information system research, i.e., whose values and what values dominate it, emphasizing that research may openly or latently serve the interests of particular dominant groups. The interests served may be those of the host organization as perceived by its top management, those of information system users, those of information system professionals or potentially those of other stakeholder groups in society.
+
+== Academic Examples of Design Science Research ==
+There are limited references to examples of DSR, but Adams has completed two PhD research topics using Peffers et al.'s DSRP (both associated with digital forensics but from different perspectives):
+2013: The Advanced Data Acquisition Model (ADAM): A process model for digital forensic practice 
+2024: The Advanced Framework for Evaluating Remote Agents (AFERA): A Framework for Digital Forensic Practitioners 
+
+== See also ==
+Empirical research
+Action research
+Participant observation
+Case study
+Design thinking
+
+== References ==
+
+== Research examples ==
+Adams, R., Hobbs, V., Mann, G., (2013). The Advanced Data Acquisition Model (ADAM): A process model for digital forensic practice. URL: http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/14422/2/02Whole.pdf
+
+== Further reading ==
+March, S. T., Smith, G. F., (1995). Design and natural science research on information technology. Decision Support Systems, 15(4), pp. 251–266.
+March, S. T., Storey, V. C., (2008). Design Science in the Information Systems Discipline: An introduction to the special issue on design science research, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 32(4), pp. 725–730.
+Mettler T, Eurich M, Winter R (2014). "On the Use of Experiments in Design Science Research: A Proposition of an Evaluation Framework". Communications of the AIS. 34 (1): 223–240.
+Opdenakker, Raymond en Carin Cuijpers (2019),’Effective Virtual Project Teams: A Design Science Approach to Building a Strategic Momentum’, Springer Verlag.
+Van Aken, J. E. (2004). Management Research Based on the Paradigm of the Design Sciences: The Quest for Field-Tested and Grounded Technological Rules. Journal of Management Studies, 41(2), 219–246.
+Watts S, Shankaranarayanan G., Even A. Data quality assessment in context: A cognitive perspective. Decis Support Syst. 2009;48(1):202-211.
+
+== External links ==
+Design Science Research in Information System and Technology community
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_cell-substrate_impedance_sensing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_cell-substrate_impedance_sensing-0.md
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+---
+title: "Electric cell-substrate impedance sensing"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_cell-substrate_impedance_sensing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:16.654964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Electric cell-substrate impedance sensing or ECIS (a trademark of Applied BioPhysics Inc.) refers to a non-invasive biophysical approach to monitor living animal cells in vitro, i.e. within a well-defined laboratory environment.
+In ECIS the cells are grown on the surface of small and planar gold-film electrodes, which are deposited on the bottom of a cell culture dish (Petri dish). The AC impedance of the cell-covered electrode is then measured at one or several frequencies as a function of time. Due to the insulating properties of their membranes the cells behave like dielectric particles so that the impedance increases with increasing coverage of the electrode until a confluent (i.e. continuous) layer of cells is established. In confluent cell layers the measured impedance is mainly determined by the three-dimensional shape of the cells. If cell shape changes occur, the current pathways through and around the cell bodies change as well, leading to a corresponding increase or decrease of impedance. Thus, by recording time-resolved impedance measurements, cell shape changes can be followed in real time with sub-microscopic resolution and can be used for bioanalytic purposes.
+As the shape of animal cells responds very sensitively to alterations in metabolism as well as chemical, biological or physical stimuli, the ECIS technique is applied in various experimental settings in cell biological research laboratories. It can be used as a sensor in cytotoxicity studies, drug development or as a non-invasive means to follow cell adhesion to in vitro surfaces. Equipments based on the ECIS technique are also dedicated to monitor the chemokinetic activity of adherent cells spread on the electrode surface (micromotion), barrier function, as well as their chemotactic activities in ECIS-based wound healing assays.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Microphysiometry
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_trip-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_trip-0.md
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+---
+title: "Field trip"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_trip"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:17.862922+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A field trip or excursion is a journey by a group of associated peers, such as coworkers or school students, to a place away from their normal environment for the purpose of education or leisure, either within their country or abroad.
+When arranged by a school administration for students, it is also known as school trip in the United Kingdom, Australia, Kenya, New Zealand and Bangladesh, and school tour in Ireland.
+A 2022 study, which used randomized controlled trial data, found that culturally enriching field trips led students to show a greater interest in arts, greater tolerance for people with different views, and boosted their educational outcomes.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+The purpose of the field trip is usually observation for education, non-experimental research or to provide students with experiences outside their everyday activities, such as going camping with teachers and their classmates. The aim of this research is to observe the subject in its natural state and possibly collect samples. It is seen that more-advantaged children may have already experienced cultural institutions outside of school, and field trips provide common ground between more-advantaged and less-advantaged children to share the same cultural experiences.
+Field trips often involve three steps: preparation, activities and follow-up activity. Preparation applies to both the students and the teachers. Teachers often take the time to learn about the destination and the subject before the trip. Activities on the field trips often include: lectures, tours, worksheets, videos and demonstrations. Follow-up activities are generally discussions in the classroom once the field trip is completed.
+In Western culture people first come across this method during school years when classes are taken on school trips to visit a geological or geographical feature of the landscape, for example. Much of the early research into the natural sciences was of this form. Charles Darwin is an important example of someone who has contributed to science through the use of field trips.
+Popular field trip sites include zoos, nature centers, community agencies such as fire stations and hospitals, government agencies, local businesses, amusement parks, science museums and factories. Field trips provide alternative educational opportunities for children and can benefit the community if they include some type of community service. Field trips also let students take a break from their normal routine and experience more hands-on learning. Places like zoos and nature centers often have an interactive display that allows children to touch plants or animals.
+Today, culturally enriching field trips are in decline. Museums across the United States report a steep drop in school tours. For example, the Field Museum in Chicago at one time welcomed more than 300,000 students every year. Recently, the number is below 200,000. Between 2002 and 2007, Cincinnati arts organizations saw a 30 percent decrease in student attendance. A survey by the American Association of School Administrators found that more than half of schools eliminated planned field trips in 2010–11.
+
+
+== Site school ==
+A variation on the field trip is the "site-based program" or "site-school" model, where a class temporarily relocates to a non-school location for an entire week to take advantage of the resources on the site.  As with a multi-day field trip, appropriate overnight camping or lodging arrangements are often made to accommodate the experience.  The approach was first developed at the Calgary Zoo in Alberta, Canada in 1993, and "Zoo School" was inaugurated in 1994.  The Calgary Board of Education then approached the Glenbow Museum and Archives to create a "Museum School" in 1995 followed by the Calgary Science Centre (1996), the University of Calgary (1996), Canada Olympic Park (1997), the Inglewood Bird Sanctuary (1998), Calgary City Hall (2000), Cross Conservation Area (2000), the Calgary Stampede (2002), the Calgary Aero-Space Museum (2005), and the Fire Training Academy (2008). One of the newer schools in Calgary is Tinker School and Social Enterprise School as STEM Learning Lab (2018)  The model spread across Alberta (with 15 sites in Edmonton alone), throughout Canada and in the United States.  Global coordination of the model is through the "Beyond the Classroom Network".
+
+
+== Europe ==
+In Europe, School Trip, a 2002 German-Polish film, describes the German students' trip to Poland during the summer.
+
+
+== School trips in east Asia ==
+
+In Japan, in addition to the one-day field trip, the school trip, called shūgaku ryokō (Japanese: 修学旅行, literally "learning journey"), has a history since 1886, and is now part of the middle school and high school curriculum, with all students participating in such a program. The trip is usually longer than several days, such as a week or several weeks long. The typical locations visited within Japan are regions of national or historical significance, such as ancient capitals of Kyoto and Nara, Nagasaki, for its experience with nuclear weapons and historical significance as the sole international port during the country's 17th–19th century isolationist foreign policy Japanese: 鎖国, romanized: sakoku (さこく)  and Nikkō 日光, popular onsen spa town renowned for its beauty. Travelling abroad is occasionally chosen as an option by some schools.
+In other Asian regions/countries such as South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, the school trip, when arranged, tends to become a voluntary part of the school curriculum. When Japan was selected, the Japanese government waived the entry visa.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+School bus
+Museum education
+Excursion
+Grand Tour
+Experiential learning
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_matching-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_matching-0.md
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+---
+title: "Force matching"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_matching"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:19.049219+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Force matching is a research method consisting of test subjects attempting to produce a set forces that are equal to a set of more reliable reference forces.
+
+
+== Types ==
+
+
+=== Biomechanical ===
+A subject’s maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) is recorded and used to normalize both reference forces and results between subjects. During the test subjects are assisted in producing a reference force using various types of feedback (static weight or visual display of force generated).  This is followed by an attempt of the subject to generate the reference force without assistance. The duration for both reference and matching tasks is usually four seconds. Results are taken as a mean value of force generated over a time interval set by the researcher. Time intervals are generally one second long and near the end of the attempt. Reference forces are typically set as a percentage of a subject’s MVC while error is typically reported as a percentage of a subject’s MVC.
+
+
+=== Atomic ===
+It is one of the effective research method to obtain realistic classical interatomic potential or force field for molecular dynamics simulation with high degree of transferability for systems which the first principles or ab initio method is capable of treating. This method is based on fitting the forces on individual atoms in a number of reference structures, cohesive energies and stresses on unit cell obtained from first principles calculation with those obtained from classical interatomic potential. The target of the computational fitting is to determine unknown coefficients in classical interatomic potential function. This method is developed by F. Ercolessi, and J. B. Adams during 1992 and 1993 at Department of Material Science and Engineering at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. The enormous number of reference structures, which can reach several thousand values, makes it possible to fit large number of parameters needed for potential in binary and ternary systems.
+For Lennard-Jones potential:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          V
+          
+            LJ
+          
+        
+        =
+        4
+        ε
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              
+                (
+                
+                  
+                    σ
+                    r
+                  
+                
+                )
+              
+              
+                12
+              
+            
+            −
+            
+              
+                (
+                
+                  
+                    σ
+                    r
+                  
+                
+                )
+              
+              
+                6
+              
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}=4\varepsilon \left[\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{12}-\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{6}\right],}
+  
+
+where ε is the depth of the potential well, σ is the finite distance at which the inter-particle potential is zero, r is the distance 
+between the particles. These two unknown parameters can be fitted to reproduce experimental data or accurate data obtained from 
+first principle calculations. Differentiating the L-J potential with respect to r gives an expression for the net inter-molecular force between 2 molecules.  This inter-molecular force may be attractive or repulsive, depending on the value of r.  When r is very small, the molecules repel each other. In force matching method the forces from classical potential
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+          
+            LJ
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            
+              d
+              
+                V
+                
+                  LJ
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              d
+              r
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        4
+        ε
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              (
+              
+                
+                  12
+                  r
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            
+              
+                (
+                
+                  
+                    σ
+                    r
+                  
+                
+                )
+              
+              
+                12
+              
+            
+            −
+            
+              (
+              
+                
+                  6
+                  r
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+            
+              
+                (
+                
+                  
+                    σ
+                    r
+                  
+                
+                )
+              
+              
+                6
+              
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F_{\text{LJ}}=-{\frac {dV_{\text{LJ}}}{dr}}=4\varepsilon \left[\left({\frac {12}{r}}\right)\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{12}-\left({\frac {6}{r}}\right)\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{6}\right]}
+  
+ are compared with reference force 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F^{0}}
+  
+ calculated from ab initio method to determine 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          σ
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\sigma }}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ε
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\varepsilon }}
+  
+.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+Biomechanical force matching has been used by researchers to describe the accuracy of muscle contractions under various conditions. It has been observed that the thumb is more accurate in force matching than fingers are. Impairment of the extensor pollicis longus has not produced a decrease in force matching accuracy of the flexor pollicis longus.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Kilbreath, S. L.; Gandevia, S. C. (December 1993), "Neural and biomechanical specializations of human thumb muscles revealed by matching weights and grasping objects", Journal of Physiology, 472: 537–556, doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1993.sp019961, PMC 1160501, PMID 8145159
+Kilbreath, S. L.; Gandevia, S. C.; Wirianski, A.; Hewitt, B (15 December 1995), "Human flexor pollicis longus: Role of peripheral inputs in weight-matching", Neuroscience Letters, 201 (3): 203–206, doi:10.1016/0304-3940(95)12179-X, PMID 8786840
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frascati_Manual-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frascati_Manual-0.md
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frascati_Manual-0.md
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+---
+title: "Frascati Manual"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frascati_Manual"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:20.224055+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Frascati Manual is a document setting forth the methodology for collecting statistics about research and development. The Manual was prepared and published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+The Frascati Manual classifies budgets according to what is done, what is studied, and who is studying it.  For example, an oral history project conducted by a religious organization would be classified as being basic research, in the field of humanities (the sub-category of history), and performed by a non-governmental, non-profit organization.
+
+
+=== Three forms of research ===
+The manual gives definitions for: basic research, applied research, Research and development; research personnel: researchers, technicians, auxiliary personnel. 
+The Frascati Manual classifies research into three categories:
+
+Basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view.
+Applied research is original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific, practical aim or objective.
+Experimental development is systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience and producing additional knowledge, which is directed to producing new products or processes or to improving existing products or processes.
+These involve novelty, creativity, uncertainty, systematic, and reproducibility and transferability.
+
+
+=== Research areas ===
+It also organizes the fields of scholarly research endeavors, from mathematics to literature, into main and sub-categories.  The 2002 Frascati Manual included a 'Field of Science' (FOS) classification.  After several reviews, a Revised Fields of Science and Technology (FOS) classification was published in February 2007 consisting of the following high-level groupings:
+
+Natural sciences
+Engineering and technology
+Medical and Health sciences
+Agricultural sciences
+Social sciences
+Humanities
+
+
+=== Industry sectors ===
+The Frascati Manual deals primarily with measuring the expenditure and personnel resources devoted to R&D in the industry sectors performing it: higher education, government, business, and private non-profit organisations.
+
+
+== History ==
+In June 1963, OECD experts met with the NESTI group (National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators) at the Villa Falconieri in Frascati, Italy. Based on a background document by Christopher Freeman they drafted the first version of Frascati Manual, which is officially known as The Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Experimental Development.  In 2002 the 6th edition was published.
+
+
+== Use ==
+The definitions provided in the Frascati Manual have been adopted by many governments and serve as a common language for discussions of science and technology policy and economic development policy. Originally an OECD standard, it has become an acknowledged standard in R&D studies all over the world and is widely used by various organisations associated with the United Nations and European Union.  As of 2000, approximately 75% of countries used this method to share information about their budgets.
+Over the past 40 years, the NESTI group has developed a series of documents, known as the "Frascati Family", that includes manuals on R&D (Frascati Manual), innovation (Oslo Manual), human resources (Canberra Manual), technology, balance of payments, and patents as indicators of science and technology.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Giorgio Sirilli
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Full version of the Frascati Manual, 2015;
+OECD Canberra Manual (human resources)
+OECD Science and Technology Policy
+OECD Science and Technology Indicators (report)
+OECD S&T Indicators
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1efd08178
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-0.md
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+---
+title: "Grounded theory"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:21.462775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists. The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the analysis of data and inductive reasoning. The methodology contrasts with the hypothetico-deductive model used in traditional scientific research.
+A study based on grounded theory is likely to begin with a question, or even just with the collection of qualitative data. As researchers review the data collected, ideas or concepts become apparent to the researchers. These ideas/concepts are said to "emerge" from the data. The researchers tag those ideas/concepts with codes that succinctly summarize the ideas/concepts. As more data are collected and re-reviewed, codes can be grouped into higher-level concepts and then into categories. These categories become the basis of a hypothesis or a new theory. Thus, grounded theory is quite different from the traditional scientific model of research, where the researcher chooses an existing theoretical framework, develops one or more hypotheses derived from that framework, and only then collects data for the purpose of assessing the validity of the hypotheses.
+
+== Background ==
+Grounded theory is a general research methodology, a way of thinking about and conceptualizing data. It is used in studies of diverse populations from areas like remarriage after divorce  and professional socialization. Grounded theory methods were developed by two sociologists, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss.
+While collaborating on research on dying hospital patients, Glaser and Strauss developed the constant comparative method which later became known as the grounded theory method. They summarized their research in the book Awareness of Dying, which was published in 1965. Glaser and Strauss went on to describe their method in more detail in their 1967 book, The Discovery of Grounded Theory. The three aims of the book were to: 
+
+Provide a rationale to justify the idea that the gap between a social science theory and empirical data should be narrowed by firmly grounding a theory in empirical research;
+Provide a logic for grounded theory;
+Legitimize careful qualitative research, the most important goal, because, by the 1960s, quantitative research methods had gained so much prestige that qualitative research had come to be seen as inadequate.
+A turning point in the acceptance of the theory came after the publication of Awareness of Dying. Their work on dying helped establish the influence of grounded theory in medical sociology, psychology, and psychiatry. From its beginnings, grounded theory methods have become more prominent in fields as diverse as drama, management, manufacturing, and education.
+
+== Philosophical underpinnings ==
+Grounded theory combines traditions in positivist philosophy, general sociology, and, particularly, the symbolic interactionist branch of sociology. According to Ralph, Birks and Chapman, grounded theory is "methodologically dynamic" in the sense that, rather than being a complete methodology, grounded theory provides a means of constructing methods to better understand situations humans find themselves in.
+Glaser had a background in positivism, which helped him develop a system of labeling for the purpose of coding study participants' qualitative responses. He recognized the importance of systematic analysis for qualitative research. He thus helped ensure that grounded theory require the generation of codes, categories, and properties.
+Strauss had a background in symbolic interactionism, a theory that aims to understand how people interact with each other in creating symbolic worlds and how an individual's symbolic world helps to shape a person's behavior. He viewed individuals as "active" participants in forming their own understanding of the world. Strauss underlined the richness of qualitative research in shedding light on social processes and the complexity of social life.
+According to Glaser, the strategy of grounded theory is to interpret personal meaning in the context of social interaction. The grounded theory system studies "the interrelationship between meaning in the perception of the subjects and their action".
+Grounded theory constructs symbolic codes based on categories emerging from recorded qualitative data. The idea is to allow grounded theory methods to help us better understand the phenomenal world of individuals. According to Milliken and Schreiber, another of the grounded theorist's tasks is to understand the socially-shared meanings that underlie individuals' behaviors and the reality of the participants being studied.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-1.md
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index 000000000..ca7c8b643
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Grounded theory"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:21.462775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Premise ==
+Grounded theory provides methods for generating hypotheses from qualitative data. After hypotheses are generated, it is up to other researchers to attempt to sustain or reject those hypotheses. Questions asked by the qualitative researcher employing grounded theory include "What is going on?" and "What is the main problem of the participants, and how are they trying to solve it?"
+Researchers using grounded theory methods do not aim for the "truth." Rather, those researchers try to conceptualize what has been taking place in the lives of study participants. When applying grounded theory methods, the researcher does not formulate hypotheses in advance of data collection as is often the case in traditional research, otherwise the hypotheses would be ungrounded in the data. Hypotheses are supposed to emerge from the data.
+A goal of the researcher employing grounded theory methods is that of generating concepts that explain the way people resolve their central concerns regardless of time and place. These concepts organize the ground-level data. The concepts become the building blocks of hypotheses. The hypotheses become the constituents of a theory.
+In most behavioral research endeavors, persons or patients are units of analysis, whereas in grounded theory the unit of analysis is the incident. Typically several hundred incidents are analyzed in a grounded theory study because every participant usually reports multiple incidents. When comparing multiple incidents in a certain area of study, the emerging concepts and their inter-relationships are paramount. Consequently, grounded theory is a general method that can use any kind of data although grounded theory is most commonly applied to qualitative data.
+Most researchers oriented toward grounded theory do not apply statistical methods to the qualitative data they collect. The results of grounded theory research are not reported in terms of statistically significant findings although there may be probability statements about the relationship between concepts. Internal validity in its traditional research sense is not an issue in grounded theory. Rather, questions of fit, relevance, workability, and modifiability are more important in grounded theory. In addition, adherents of grounded theory emphasize a theoretical validity rather than traditional ideas of internal validity or measurement-related validity. Grounded theory adherents are "less charitable when discussing [psychometric] reliability, calling a single method of observation continually yielding an unvarying measurement a quixotic reliability."
+A theory that is fitting has concepts that are closely connected to the incidents the theory purports to represent; fit depends on how thoroughly the constant comparison of incidents to concepts has been conducted. A qualitative study driven by grounded theory examines the genuine concerns of study participants; those concerns are not only of academic interest. Grounded theory works when it explains how study participants address the problem at hand and related problems. A theory is modifiable and can be altered when new relevant data are compared to existing data.
+
+== Methodology ==
+
+Once the data are collected, grounded theory analysis involves the following basic steps:
+
+Coding text and theorizing: In grounded theory research, the search for a theory starts with the first line of the first interview that one codes. Small chunks of the text are coded line-by-line. Useful concepts are identified where key phrases are marked. The concepts are named. Another chunk of text is then taken and the above-mentioned steps are continued. According to Strauss and Corbin, this process is called open coding. The process involves analyzing data such that conceptual components emerge. The next step involves theorizing, which partly includes pulling concepts together and thinking through how each concept can be related to a larger more inclusive concept. The constant comparative method plays an important role here.
+Memoing and theorizing: Memoing is the process by which a researcher writes running notes bearing on each of the concepts being identified. The running notes constitute an intermediate step between coding and the first draft of the completed analysis. Memos are field notes about the concepts and insights that emerge from the observations. Memoing starts with the first concept identified and continues right through the processing of all the concepts. Memoing contributes to theory building.
+Integrating, refining and writing up theories: Once coding categories emerge, the next step is to link them together in a theoretical model constructed around a central category that holds the concepts together. The constant comparative method comes into play, along with negative case analysis. Negative case analysis refers to the researcher looking for cases that are inconsistent with the theoretical model.
+Theorizing is involved in all these steps. One is required to build and test theory all the way through till the end of a project.
+The idea that all is data is a fundamental property of grounded theory. The idea means that everything that the researcher encounters when studying a certain area is data, including not only interviews or observations but anything that helps the researcher generate concepts for the emerging theory. According to Ralph, Birks, and Chapman field notes can come from informal interviews, lectures, seminars, expert group meetings, newspaper articles, Internet mail lists, even television shows, conversations with friends etc.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory-2.md
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+---
+title: "Grounded theory"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:21.462775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Coding ===
+Coding places incidents into categories and then creates one or more hierarchies out of these categories in terms of categories and subcategories or properties of a categories. A property might be on a continuum such as from low to high, this may be referred to as a dimension. Constant comparison where categories are continually compared to one another is used to create both subcategories and properties. There is some variation in the meanings of the terms code, concept and category with some authors viewing a code as identical to category while others consider a concept to be more abstract than a code, which a code being more like a substantive code. Different researchers have identified different types of codes and encourage different methods of coding, with Strauss and Glaser both going on to extend their work with different forms of coding.
+The core variable explains most of the participants' main concern with as much variation as possible. It has the most powerful properties to picture what's going on, but with as few properties as possible needed to do so. A popular type of core variable can be theoretically modeled as a basic social process that accounts for most of the variation in change over time, context, and behavior in the studied area.
+"grounded theory is multivariate. It happens sequentially, subsequently, simultaneously, serendipitously, and scheduled" (Glaser, 1998).
+Open coding or substantive coding is conceptualizing on the first level of abstraction. Written data from field notes or transcripts are conceptualized line by line. In the beginning of a study everything is coded in order to find out about the problem and how it is being resolved. The coding is often done in the margin of the field notes.
+This phase is often tedious since it involves conceptualizing all the incidents in the data, which yields a number of concepts. These are compared as more data is coded, merged into new concepts, and eventually renamed and modified.
+The grounded theory researcher goes back and forth while comparing data, constantly modifying, and sharpening the growing theory at the same time they follow the build-up schedule of grounded theory's different steps.
+Strauss and Corbin proposed axial coding and defined it in 1990 as "a set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between categories."  Glaser proposed a similar concept called theoretical coding. Theoretical codes help to develop an integrated theory by weaving fractured concepts into hypotheses that work together. The theory, of which the just-mentioned hypotheses are constituents, explains the main concern of the participants. It is, however, important that the theory is not forced on the data beforehand but is allowed to emerge during the comparative process of grounded theory. Theoretical codes, like substantive codes, should emerge from the process of constantly comparing the data in field notes and memos.
+Selective coding is conducted after the researcher has found the core variable or what is thought to be the tentative core. The core explains the behavior of the participants in addressing their main concern. It just more or less fits with the data.
+After the core variable is chosen, researchers selectively code data with the core guiding their coding, not bothering about concepts of little relevance to the core and its sub-cores. In addition, the researcher now selectively samples new data with the core in mind, a process that is called theoretical sampling – a deductive component of grounded theory.
+Selective coding delimits the scope of the study (Glaser, 1998). Grounded theory is less concerned with data accuracy than with generating concepts that are abstract and general. 
+Selective coding could be conducted by reviewing old field notes and/or memos that have already been coded once at an earlier stage or by coding newly gathered data.
+Strauss and Corbin proposed a "coding paradigm" that involved "conditions, context, action/interactional strategies and consequences."
+
+=== Memoing ===
+Theoretical memoing is "the core stage of grounded theory methodology" (Glaser 1998).
+"Memos are the theorizing write-up of ideas about substantive codes and their theoretically coded relationships as they emerge during coding, collecting and analyzing data, and during memoing" (Glaser 1998).
+Memoing is also important in the early phase of a grounded theory study (e.g., during open coding). In memoing, the researcher conceptualizes incidents, helping the process along. Theoretical memos can be anything written or drawn in the context of the constant comparative method, an important component of grounded theory. 
+Memos are important tools to both refine and keep track of ideas that develop when researchers compare incidents to incidents and then concepts to concepts in the evolving theory. In memos, investigators develop ideas about naming concepts and relating them to each other. They examine relationships between concepts with the help of fourfold tables, diagrams, figures, or other means generating comparative power.
+Without memoing, the theory is superficial and the concepts generated are not very original. Memoing works as an accumulation of written ideas into a bank of ideas about concepts and how they relate to each other. This bank contains rich parts of what will later be the written theory.
+Memoing is total creative freedom without rules of writing, grammar or style (Glaser 1998). The writing must be an instrument for outflow of ideas, and nothing else. When people write memos, the ideas become more realistic, being converted from thoughts into words, and thus ideas communicable to the afterworld.
+In grounded theory the preconscious processing that occurs when coding and comparing is recognized. The researcher is encouraged to register ideas about the ongoing study that eventually pop up in everyday situations, and awareness of the serendipity of the method is also necessary to achieve good results.
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+---
+title: "Grounded theory"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:21.462775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Serendipity pattern ===
+Building on the work of sociologist Robert K. Merton, his idea of serendipity patterns has come to be applied in grounded theory research. Serendipity patterns refer to fairly common experiences when observing the world. Serendipity patterns include unanticipated and anomalous events. These patterns can become the impetus for the development of a new theory or the extension of an existing theory. Merton also coauthored (with Elinor Barber) The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity, which traces the origins and uses of the word "serendipity" since it was coined. The book is "a study in sociological semantics and the sociology of science," as the subtitle declares. Merton and Barber further develop the idea of serendipity as scientific "method," as contrasted with purposeful discovery by experiment or retrospective prophecy.
+
+=== Sorting ===
+In the next step memos are sorted, which is the key to formulating a theory that could be clearly presented to others. Sorting puts fractured data back together. During sorting new ideas can emerge. The new ideas can, in turn, be recorded in new memos, giving rise to the memo-on-memos phenomenon. Sorting memos can help generate theory that explains the main action in the studied area. A theory written from unsorted memos may be rich in ideas but the connections among concepts are likely to be weak.
+
+=== Writing ===
+Writing up the sorted memos follows the sorting process. At this stage, a written theory takes shape. The different categories are now related to each other and the core variable. The theory should encompass the important emergent concepts and their careful description. The researcher may also construct tables and/or figures to optimize readability.
+In a later rewriting stage, the relevant scholarly literature is woven into the theory. Finally, the theory is edited for style and language. Eventually, the researcher submits the resulting scholarly paper for publication. Most books on grounded theory do not explain what methodological details should be included in a scholarly article; however, some guidelines have been suggested.
+
+=== No pre-research literature review and no talk ===
+Grounded theory gives the researcher freedom to generate new concepts in explaining human behavior. Research based on grounded theory, however, follows a number of rules. These rules make grounded theory different from most other methods employed in qualitative research.
+No pre-research literature review. Reviewing the literature of the area under study is thought to generate preconceptions about what to find. The researcher is said to become sensitized to concepts in the extant literature. According to grounded theory, theoretical concepts should emerge from the data unsullied by what has come before. The literature should only be read at the sorting stage and be treated as more data to code and compared with what has already been coded and generated.
+No talk. Talking about the theory before it is written up drains the researcher of motivational energy. Talking can either render praise or criticism. Both can diminish the motivational drive to write memos that develop and refine the concepts and the theory. Positive feedback, according to Glaser, can make researchers content with what they have and negative feedback hampers their self-confidence. Talking about the grounded theory should be restricted to persons capable of helping the researcher without influencing their final judgments.
+
+== Use of preexisting theory ==
+Different approaches to grounded theory reflect different views on how preexisting theory should be used in research. In The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Glaser and Strauss advanced the view that, prior to conducting research, investigators should come to an area of study without any preconceived ideas regarding relevant concepts and hypotheses. In this way, the investigator, according to Glaser and Strauss, avoids imposing preconceived categories upon the research endeavor.
+Glaser later attempted to address the tension between not reading and reading the literature before a qualitative study begins. Glaser raised the issue of the use of a literature review to enhance the researchers' "theoretical sensitivity," i.e., their ability to identify a grounded theory that is a good fit to the data. He suggested that novice researchers might delay reading the literature to avoid undue influence on their handling of the qualitative data they collect. Glaser believed that reading the relevant research literature (substantive literature) could lead investigators to apply preexisting concepts to the data, rather than interpret concepts emerging from the data. He, however, encouraged a broad reading of the literature to develop theoretical sensitivity. Strauss felt that reading relevant material could enhance the researcher's theoretical sensitivity.
+
+== Split in methodology and methods ==
+There has been some divergence in the methodology of grounded theory. Over time, Glaser and Strauss came to disagree about methodology and other qualitative researchers have also modified ideas linked to grounded theory. This divergence occurred most obviously after Strauss published Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (1987). In 1990, Strauss, together with Juliet Corbin, published Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. The publication of the book was followed by a rebuke by Glaser (1992), who set out, chapter by chapter, to highlight the differences in what he argued was the original grounded theory and why what Strauss and Corbin had written was not grounded theory in its "intended form." This divergence in methodology is a subject of much academic debate, which Glaser (1998) calls a "rhetorical wrestle". Glaser continues to write about and teach the original grounded theory method.
+Grounded theory methods, according to Glaser, emphasize induction or emergence, and the individual researcher's creativity within a clear stagelike framework. By contrast, Strauss has been more interested in validation criteria and a systematic approach. According to Kelle (2005), "the controversy between Glaser and Strauss boils down to the question of whether the researcher uses a well-defined "coding paradigm" and always looks systematically for "causal conditions," "phenomena/context, intervening conditions, action strategies," and "consequences" in the data (Straussian), or whether theoretical codes are employed as they emerge in the same way as substantive codes emerge, but drawing on a huge fund of "coding families" (Glaserian).
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+---
+title: "Grounded theory"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:21.462775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Constructivist grounded theory ===
+A later version of grounded theory called constructivist grounded theory, which is rooted in pragmatism and constructivist epistemology, assumes that neither data nor theories are discovered, but are constructed by researchers as a result of their interactions with the field and study participants. Proponents of this approach include Kathy Charmaz and Antony Bryant.
+In an interview, Charmaz justified her approach as follows: "Grounded theory methodology had been under attack. The postmodern critique of qualitative research had weakened its legitimacy and narrative analysts criticized grounded theory methodology for fragmenting participants' stories. Hence, grounded theory methodology was beginning to be seen as a dated methodology and some researchers advocated abandoning it. I agreed with much of the epistemological critique of the early versions of grounded theory methodology by people like Kenneth Gergen. However, I had long thought that the strategies of grounded theory methodology, including coding, memo writing, and theoretical sampling were excellent methodological tools. I saw no reason to discard these tools and every reason to shift the epistemological grounds on which researchers used them."
+Data are co-constructed by the researcher and study participants, and colored by the researcher's perspectives, values, privileges, positions, interactions, and geographical locations. This position takes a middle ground between the realist and postmodernist positions by assuming an "obdurate reality" at the same time as it assumes multiple perspectives on that reality. Within the framework of this approach, a literature review prior to data collection is used in a productive and data-sensitive way without forcing the conclusions contained in the review on the collected data.
+
+=== Critical realist ===
+More recently, a critical realist version of grounded theory has been developed and applied in research devoted to developing mechanism-based explanations for social phenomena. Critical realism (CR) is a philosophical approach associated with Roy Bhaskar, who argued for a structured and differentiated account of reality in which difference, stratification, and change are central. A critical realist grounded theory produces an explanation through an examination of the three domains of social reality: the "real," as the domain of structures and mechanisms; the "actual," as the domain of events; and the "empirical," as the domain of experiences and perceptions.
+
+== Use in various disciplines ==
+Grounded theory has been "shaped by the desire to discover social and psychological processes." Grounded theory, however, is not restricted to these two areas study. As Gibbs points out, the process of grounded theory can be and has been applied to a number of different disciplines, including medicine, law, and economics. The reach of grounded theory has extended to nursing, business, and education.
+Grounded theory focuses more on procedures than on the discipline to which grounded theory is applied. Rather than being limited to a particular discipline or form of data collection, grounded theory has been found useful across multiple research areas. Here are some examples: 
+
+In psychology, grounded theory is used to understand the role of therapeutic distance for adult clients with attachment anxiety.
+In sociology, grounded theory is used to discover the meaning of spirituality in cancer patients, and how their beliefs influence their attitude towards cancer treatments.
+Public health researchers have used grounded theory to examine nursing home preparedness needs in relation to Hurricane Katrina refugees sheltered in nursing homes.
+In business, grounded theory is used by managers to explain the ways in which organizational characteristics explain co-worker support.
+In software engineering, grounded theory has been used to study daily stand-up meetings.
+Grounded theory has also helped researchers in the field of information technology to study the use of computer technology in older adults.
+In nursing, grounded theory has been used to examine how change-of-shift reports can be used to keep patients safe. It was further developed in relation to students learning and working by Kath M. Melia.
+
+== Benefits ==
+The benefits of using grounded theory include ecological validity, the discovery of novel phenomena, and parsimony..
+Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research findings accurately represent real-world settings. Research based on grounded theories are often thought to be ecologically valid because the research is especially close to the real-world participants. Although the constructs in a grounded theory are appropriately abstract (since their goal is to explain other similar phenomenon), they are context-specific, detailed, and tightly connected to the data.
+Because grounded theories are not tied to any preexisting theory, grounded theories are often fresh and new and have the potential for novel discoveries in science and other areas.
+Parsimony refers to a heuristic often used in science that suggests that when there are competing hypotheses that make the same prediction, the hypothesis that relies on the fewest assumptions is preferable. Grounded theories aim to provide practical and simple explanations of complex phenomena by attempting to link those phenomena to abstract constructs and hypothesizing relationships among those constructs.
+Grounded theory has further significance because:
+
+It provides explicit, sequential guidelines for conducting qualitative research.
+It offers specific strategies for handling the analytic phases of inquiry.
+It provides ways to streamline and integrate data collection and analysis and
+It legitimizes qualitative research as scientific inquiry.
+Grounded theory methods have earned their place as a standard social research methodology and have influenced researchers from varied disciplines and professions.
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+---
+title: "Grounded theory"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:21.462775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Criticisms ==
+Grounded theory has been criticized based on the scientific idea of what a theory is. Thomas and James, for example, distinguish the ideas of generalization, overgeneralization, and theory, noting that some scientific theories explain a broad range of phenomena succinctly, which grounded theory does not. Thomas and James observed that "The problems come when too much is claimed for [for a theory], simply because it is empirical; problems come in distinguishing generalization from over-generalization, narrative from induction." They also write that grounded theory advocates sometimes claim to find causal implications when in truth they only find an association.
+There has been criticism of grounded theory on the grounds that it opens the door to letting too much researcher subjectivity enter. The authors just cited suggest that it is impossible to free oneself of preconceptions in the collection and analysis of data in the way that Glaser and Strauss assert is necessary. Popper also undermines grounded theory's idea that hypotheses arise from data unaffected by prior expectations. Popper wrote that "objects can be classified and can become similar or dissimilar, only in this way--by being related to needs and interests." Observation is always selective, based on past research and the investigators' goals and motives, and that preconceptionless research is impossible. Critics also note that grounded theory fails to mitigate participant reactivity and has the potential for an investigator steeped in grounded theory to over-identify with one or more study participants.
+Although they suggest that one element of grounded theory worth keeping is the constant comparative method, Thomas and James point to the formulaic nature of grounded theory methods and the lack of congruence of those methods with open and creative interpretation, which ought to be the hallmark of qualitative inquiry.
+The grounded theory approach can be criticized as being too empiricist, i.e., that it relies too heavily on the empirical data. Grounded theory considers fieldwork data as the source of theory. Thus the theories that emerge from a new fieldwork are set against the theories that preceded the fieldwork.
+Strauss's version of grounded theory has been criticized in several other ways:
+
+Grounded theory researchers sometimes have a quasi-objective focus, emphasizing hypotheses, variables, reliability, and replicability. This multi-faceted focus leads to contradictory findings.
+It is inappropriate to ignore the existing theories by not paying attention to the literature.
+Grounded theory offers a complex methodology and confusing terminology rather than providing a practical orientation to research and data analysis. Also see Tolhurst.
+Some grounded theory researchers have produced poorly explained theories; concept generation rather than the generation of formal theory may be a more practical goal for grounded theory researchers.
+Grounded theory was developed during an era when qualitative methods were often considered unscientific. But as the academic rigor of qualitative research became known, this type of research approach achieved wide acceptance. In American academia, qualitative research is often equated with grounded theory methods. Such equating of most qualitative methods with grounded theory has sometimes been criticized by qualitative researchers who take different approaches to methodology (for example, in traditional ethnography, narratology, and storytelling).
+One alternative to grounded theory is engaged theory. Engaged theory equally emphasizes the conducting of on-the-ground empirical research but linking that research to analytical processes of empirical generalization. Unlike grounded theory, engaged theory derives from the tradition of critical theory. Engaged theory locates analytical processes within a larger theoretical framework that specifies different levels of abstraction, allowing investigators to make claims about the wider world.
+Braun and Clarke regard thematic analysis as having fewer theoretical assumptions than grounded theory, and can be used within several theoretical frameworks. They write that in comparison to grounded theory, thematic analysis is freer because it is not linked to any preexisting framework for making sense of qualitative data. Braun and Clarke, however, concede that there is a degree of similarity between grounded theory and thematic analysis but prefer thematic analysis.
+
+== See also ==
+Antipositivism
+Engaged theory
+Formal concept analysis
+Grounded practical theory
+Qualitative research
+Postpositivism
+Social research
+Content analysis
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+Aldmouz, R. s. (2009). Grounded theory as a methodology for theory generation in information systems research. European journal of economics, finance and administrative sciences (15).
+Grbich, C. (2007). Qualitative data analysis and introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
+Charmaz K. (2000) 'Grounded Theory: Objectivist and Constructivist Methods', in Denzin N.K. and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research, second edition, London, Sage Publications.
+Strauss A. and J. Corbin (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research – Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory, second edition, London, Sage Publications
+Groves, P. S., Manges, K. A., & Scott-Cawiezell, J. (2016). Handing Off Safety at the Bedside. Clinical nursing research, 1054773816630535.
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:21.462775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bryant, A. & Charmaz, K. (Eds.) (2007) The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory. Los Angeles: Sage.
+Birks, M. & Mills, J. (2015) Grounded Theory: A practical Guide. London: SAGE Publications.
+Charmaz, K. (2000). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
+Chun Tie, Ylona, Birks, Melanie, and Francis, Karen (2019) Grounded theory research: a design framework for novice researchers. SAGE Open Medicine, 7. pp. 1–8.
+Clarke, A. (2005). Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory After the Postmodern Turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
+Glaser, B. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.
+Goulding, C. (2002). Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide for Management, Business and Market Researchers. London: Sage.
+Kelle, Udo (2005). "Emergence" vs. "Forcing" of Empirical Data? A Crucial Problem of "Grounded Theory" Reconsidered. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research [On-line Journal], 6(2), Art. 27, paragraphs 49 & 50. [2]
+Morse, J. M., Stern, P. N., Corbin, J., Bowers, B., Charmaz, K. & Clarke, A. E. (Eds.) (2009). Developing Grounded Theory: The Second Generation. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
+Mey, G. & Mruck, K. (Eds.) (2007). Grounded Theory Reader. Historical Social Research, Suppl. 19. 337 pages.
+Oktay, J. S. (2012) Grounded Theory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
+Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
+Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
+Thomas, G.; James, D. (2006). "Re-inventing grounded theory: some questions about theory, ground and discovery" (PDF). British Educational Research Journal. 32 (6): 767–795. doi:10.1080/01411920600989412. S2CID 44250223.
+Glaser
+Glaser BG, The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 445, 1965.
+Glaser BG, Strauss A. Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research. Sociology Press, 1967
+Glaser BG. Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of Grounded Theory. Sociology Press, 1978.
+Glaser BG (ed). More Grounded Theory Methodology: A Reader. Sociology Press, 1994.
+Glaser BG (ed). Grounded Theory 1984–1994. A Reader (two volumes). Sociology Press, 1995.
+Glaser BG (ed). Gerund Grounded Theory: The Basic Social Process Dissertation. Sociology Press, 1996.
+Glaser BG. Doing Grounded Theory – Issues and Discussions. Sociology Press, 1998.
+Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective I: Conceptualization Contrasted with Description. Sociology Press, 2001.
+Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective II: Description's Remodeling of Grounded Theory. Sociology Press, 2003.
+Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective III: Theoretical coding. Sociology Press, 2005.
+Strauss and Corbin
+Anselm L. Strauss; Leonard Schatzman; Rue Bucher; Danuta Ehrlich & Melvin Sabshin: Psychiatric ideologies and institutions (1964)
+Barney G. Glaser; Anselm L. Strauss: The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research (1967)
+Anselm L. Strauss: Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (1987)
+Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, Sage (1990)
+Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria", in: Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 19. Jg, S. 418 ff. (1990)
+Anselm L. Strauss: Continual Permutations of Action (1993)
+Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Grounded Theory in Practice", Sage (1997)
+Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques". 2nd edition. Sage, 1998.
+Juliet Corbin; Anselm L. Strauss: "Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques". 3rd edition. Sage, 2008.
+Constructivist grounded theory
+Bryant, Antony (2002) 'Re-grounding grounded theory', Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application, 4(1): 25–42.
+Bryant, Antony and Charmaz, Kathy (2007) 'Grounded theory in historical perspective: An epistemological account', in Bryant, A. and Charmaz, K. (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory. Los Angeles: Sage. pp. 31–57.
+Charmaz, Kathy (2000) 'Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods', in Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research. 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 509–535.
+Charmaz, Kathy (2003) 'Grounded theory', in Smith, J.A. (ed.), Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods. London: Sage. pp. 81–110.
+Charmaz, Kathy (2006) Constructing Grounded Theory. London: Sage.
+Charmaz, Kathy (2008) 'Constructionism and the grounded theory method', in Holstein, J.A. and Gubrium, J.F. (eds.), Handbook of Constructionist Research. New York: The Guilford Press. pp. 397–412.
+Charmaz, Kathy (2009) 'Shifting the grounds: Constructivist grounded theory methods', in J. M. Morse, P. N. Stern, J. Corbin, B. Bowers, K. Charmaz and A. E. Clarke (eds.), Developing Grounded Theory: The Second Generation. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press. pp. 127–154.
+Charmaz, Kathy (forthcoming) Constructing Grounded Theory 2nd ed. London: Sage.
+Mills, Jane, Bonner, Ann, & Francis, Karen (2006) 'Adopting a constructivist approach to grounded theory: Implications for research design' International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12(1): 8–13.
+Mills, Jane, Bonner, Ann, & Francis, Karen (2006) 'The development of constructivist grounded theory', International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5 (1): 25–35.
+Thornberg, Robert (2012) 'Informed grounded theory', Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56: 243–259.
+Thornberg, Robert and Charmaz, Kathy (2011) 'Grounded theory', in Lapan, S.D., Quartaroli M.T. and Reimer F.J. (eds.), Qualitative Research: An Introduction to Methods and Designs. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley/Jossey–Bass. pp. 41–67.
+Thornberg, Robert & Charmaz, K. (forthcoming) 'Grounded theory and theoretical coding', in Flick, U. (ed.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative analysis. London: Sage.
+
+== External links ==
+The Grounded Theory Institute Archived 2004-12-02 at the Wayback Machine (Glaser tradition)
+Grounded Theory Online (Supporting grounded theory researchers)
+Grounded Theory Review
+Sociology Press
+Grounded Theory Research Tutorial
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+---
+title: "Health risk assessment"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_risk_assessment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:22.671106+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A health risk assessment (also referred to as a health risk appraisal and health & well-being assessment) is a questionnaire about a person's medical history, demographic characteristics and lifestyle. It is one of the most widely used screening tools in the field of health promotion and is often the first step in multi-component health promotion programs.
+
+== Definition ==
+A health risk assessment (HRA) is a health questionnaire, used to provide individuals with an evaluation of their health risks and quality of life. Commonly a HRA incorporates three key elements – an extended questionnaire, a risk calculation or score, and some form of feedback, i.e. face-to-face with a health advisor or an automatic online report.
+The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention define a HRA as: "a systematic approach to collecting information from individuals that identifies risk factors, provides individualised feedback, and links the person with at least one intervention to promote health, sustain function and/or prevent disease".
+There is a range of different HRAs available for adults and children. Some target specific populations. For example, in the US, Medicare HRAs ask seniors about their ability to perform daily activities. Medicaid assessments ask questions about health-care access, availability of food, and living conditions. Most HRAs capture information relating to:
+
+Demographic characteristics – age, sex
+Lifestyle – exercise, smoking, alcohol intake, diet
+Personal and family medical history (in the US, due to the current interpretation of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, questions regarding family medical history are not permitted if there is any incentive attached to taking a HRA)
+Physiological data – weight, height, blood pressure, cholesterol
+Attitudes and willingness to change behaviour in order to improve health
+The main objectives of a HRA are to:
+
+Assess health status
+Estimate the level of health risk
+Inform and provide feedback to participants to motivate behaviour change to reduce health risks
+In the US, HRAs used as part of the Medicare Annual Wellness Visit help identify issues important to a senior's health and well-being. HRAs used as part of Medicaid enrollment help identify individuals with health problems that need immediate attention. The Community Preventive Services Task Force (CPSTF) recommends the use of HRAs in workplace settings when used in combination with health education, having found there is strong or satisfactory evidence that they help improve the following behaviors among employees:
+
+Tobacco
+Consuming too much alcohol
+Seat belts
+Fat consumption
+Blood pressure
+Absenteeism
+Healthcare services use
+Summary health risk estimates
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+---
+title: "Health risk assessment"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_risk_assessment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:22.671106+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== History ==
+The original concept of the HRA can be traced back to the decision by the assistant Surgeon General of the United States to conduct a study to determine the probable 10-year lifespan of individuals based on lifestyles and predisposed conditions. The project, led by Lewis C. Robbins, MD, of the Public Health Service, was the Framingham study. The study was based on in-depth longitudinal studies of 5,000 families in Framingham, Massachusetts, that continues to this day under funding from the National Institutes of Health.
+Dr. Robbins left the Public Health Service and joined Methodist Hospital in Indianapolis where, working with Jack Hall, M.D., he developed the first set of health hazard tables. This culminated in the publication of How to Practice Prospective Medicine in 1970 – a guide for practising physicians, which outlined the health risk assessment questionnaire, risk computations and patient feedback strategies. During the 1960s, some researchers in California formed the Human Population Laboratory (HPL) to investigate factors contributing to quality of life. Inspired by a research article reporting on the HPL's Alameda County Study on the best lifestyle practices for good health, Don R. Hall, DrPH, developed a Health Age Assessment algorithm on a calculator while a masters student at Loma Linda University in 1972. In 1977, Hall coded his longevity calculations on a TRS-80, creating the first computerized health risk assessment. Within a year, he had programmed 12 health assessments on single topics such as nutrition, fitness, weight, and stress. In 1979, when personal desktop computers became readily available, he packaged all 12 assessments together on a floppy disk and marketed it as a comprehensive health risk assessment.
+It was not until 1980, when the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention released a publicly available version, that the HRA became widely used, particularly in workplace settings. Health and Welfare Canada reviewed How to Practice Prospective Medicine and created a mainframe version of the book. The Centers for Disease Control became aware of this product and adapted it to the newly available personal computer.  When Prudential Life Insurance also took an interest and asked to fund an update of the program, the CDC, which could not accept private project funding at the time, transferred ownership to the Carter Center at Emory University where it was updated from 1986 to 1987. The transfer and subsequent program were managed by Dr. Ed Hutchins, who had worked on the HRA in positions at the University of Pennsylvania and Charlotte-Mecklenburg Hospital. At Charlotte Mecklenburg, he secured a contract with the World Health Organization to create a mainframe product that could be used on an international basis. The HRA was managed as a not-for-profit product. Copies were distributed to every state health department, and liaisons were assigned to each to work with their staffs to evaluate related data.  Over 2,000 copies of the software were distributed to users who requested it, and approximately 70 copies of the code were provided to for-profit companies that were interested in developing proprietary products. This proliferation coincided with the rapid growth in interest in corporate health promotion programs as awareness developed on health risks and for-profit vendors monetized the programs.
+The Carter Center's interest shifted to Africa and Dr. Hutchins founded the Healthier People Network (HPN) in 1991 to continue the work. HPN raised funds to support the HRA, but additional funding was not forthcoming from government sources. As a result, the Carter Center and HPN could not underwrite basic supporting activities such as annual conferences and, over time, the State-based liaison network and associated intellectual capital atrophied as programs lost funding and liaisons moved on.
+The use of HRAs and corporate wellness programs has been most prevalent in the United States, with comparatively slower growth elsewhere. However, there has been recent strong growth in corporate wellness outside the US, particularly in Europe and Asia.
+
+== Usage ==
+Once an individual completes a HRA, they usually receive a report, detailing their health rating or score, often broken down into specific sub scores and areas such as stress, nutrition and fitness. The report can also provide recommendations on how individuals can reduce their health risks by changing their lifestyle.
+In addition to individual feedback, HRAs are also used to provide aggregated data reporting for employers and organizations. These reports include demographic data of participants, highlight health risk areas and often include cost projections and savings in terms of increased healthcare, absence and productivity. Organization-level reports can then be used to provide a first step by which organizations can target and monitor appropriate health interventions within their workforce.
+
+== HRA delivery ==
+The delivery of HRAs has changed over the years in conjunction with advances in technology. Initially distributed as paper-based, self-scoring questionnaires through on-site workplace health promotion sessions, HRAs are now most commonly implemented online. Other delivery methods include telephone, mail and face-to-face.
+The advantages of online HRAs include:
+
+Tailoring – online HRAs can adapt content based on an individual's answers to the HRA questionnaire to provide a personalised, relevant and interactive user experience.
+Improved data management
+Reduced administrative costs
+Instant feedback
+
+== Efficacy ==
+Extensive research has shown that HRAs can be used effectively to:
+
+Identify health risk factors
+Predict health-related costs
+Measure absenteeism and presenteeism
+Evaluate the efficacy and return on investment of health promotion strategies
+There is also recent evidence to suggest that taking a HRA alone can have a positive effect on health behavior change and health status. However, it is generally accepted that HRAs are most effective at promoting behavior change when they form part of an integrated, multi-component health promotion program. Applied in this way, the HRA is used primarily as a tool to identify health risks within a population and then target health interventions and behavior change programs to address these areas.
+
+== Limitations ==
+The limitations of a HRA are largely related to its usage and it is important to recognise that a HRA highlights health risks but does not diagnose disease and should not replace consultation with a medical or health practitioner.
+
+== Providers ==
+There are reportedly over 50 different HRA providers in the market, offering a variety of versions and formats. Major vendors generally have National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) Wellness and Health Promotion (WHP) Certification or Health Information Products (HIP) Certification.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Health risk at Wikimedia Commons
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementation_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementation_research-0.md
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+---
+title: "Implementation research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementation_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:23.878384+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Implementation research is the systematic study of methods that support the application of research findings and other evidence-based knowledge into policy and practice. It aims to understand the most effective pathways from research to practical application, particularly in areas such as health, education, psychology and management. Intervention research, also known as intervention science, evaluates how various interventions or approaches are adopted and applied in "real world" settings in order to establish an understanding of their effectiveness in different contexts.
+
+
+== Public health ==
+In the context of public health, the World Health Organization (WHO) describes implementation research as a form of research which "addresses implementation bottlenecks, identifies optimal approaches for a particular setting, and promotes the uptake of research findings: ultimately, it leads to improved health care and its delivery." The WHO identifies four notable characteristics of implementation research: it is systematic, multidisciplinary, contextual, and complex. More broadly, implementation research has been defined as "the scientific inquiry into questions concerning implementation – the act of carrying an intention into effect, which in health research can be policies, programmes, or individual practices (collectively called interventions)." To guide, understand, and evaluate the implementation of these interventions in a systematic way, public health researchers often draw on theoretical frameworks.
+A range of qualitative and quantitative research methods are used in implementation research in health. Some methods have been developed specifically for the purpose of implementation research. These are pragmatic trials, participatory action research, effectiveness-implementation hybrid trials and quality improvement studies. A 2018 review of study designs in implementation research found that randomized designs, like cluster RCTs, were used 77% of the time, and 61% of studies included both quantitative and qualitative methods.
+A working group of researchers in public health has proposed a standard for reporting implementation studies (StaRI) in public health.
+
+
+== Education ==
+As with wider social and human science-related fields, education and learning, involve many personal, social and environmental factors that could influence the outcomes of educational processes and student learning. As a consequence, controlled experiments widely used in educational research at times are hard to reproduce and it is difficult to disseminate their results in real-life setting. As a way to address such problems, in the 20th century a range of methodologies that study real-life learning processes were developed. Among these can be counted lesson study, action research (when applied to education and learning) and phenomenography. More recently more structured methodologies that apply iterative changes to a learning process have been developed, notably design-based research.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"Society for Implementation Research Collaboration". Retrieved 14 March 2017.
+"European Implementation Collaborative". Retrieved 14 March 2017.
+"The Society for Implementation Science in Nutrition". Archived from the original on October 13, 2015. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
+"Implementation Science". Biomed Central. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md
index 10d43e340..87711c21b 100644
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:35:23.126111+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:25.084785+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_(statistics)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_(statistics)-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b59025e6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_(statistics)-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+---
+title: "Indicator (statistics)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_(statistics)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:26.271833+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In statistics and research design, an indicator is an observed value of a variable, or in other words "a sign of a presence or absence of the concept being studied". Just like each color indicates in a traffic lights the change in the movement.
+For example, if a variable is religiosity, and a unit of analysis is an individual, then that one of potentially more numerous indicators of that individual's religiosity would be whether they attend religious services; others - how often, or whether they donate money to religious organizations.
+Numerous indicators can be aggregated into an index.
+The complexity of biological systems makes evaluating them a challenge. Bioindicators, such as indicator bacteria,  are ecological indicators, sometimes requiring further consideration of environmental indicators. In public health study, one relies on health indicators. In a given locality, community indicators inform planners, while the design quality indicator can be the basis of building permits. Assessment of social conditions relies on sustainability indicators or the genuine progress indicator. Standard measurements are given in the OECD Main Economic Indicators. A famous popular science individual psychological assessment is the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoQ-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoQ-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c36c51066
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoQ-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "InfoQ"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoQ"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:27.431143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Information quality (InfoQ) is the extent to which a data set can help achieve a specific scientific or practical goal when it is used with a particular empirical analysis method.
+
+
+== Definition ==
+InfoQ is often expressed as InfoQ = U(X,f|g), where X is the data, f is the analysis method, g is the goal, and U is the utility function. In simpler terms, it describes how useful a given set of data is for answering a particular question with a particular method. InfoQ is related to both data quality and analysis quality, but it is not the same as either one; it depends on the quality of the data, the suitability of the analysis, and how well the data, method, and goal fit together.
+InfoQ has been applied in fields including healthcare, customer surveys, data science programmes, advanced manufacturing, and Bayesian network applications.
+Kenett and Shmueli (2014) proposed eight dimensions to help assess InfoQ and various methods for increasing InfoQ: data resolution, data structure, data integration, temporal relevance, chronology of data and goal, generalization, operationalization, and communication.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediated_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediated_research-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e5ceffd3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediated_research-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Intermediated research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediated_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:28.622602+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In finance, intermediated research is a type of fundamental analysis or investment analysis of a business to establish its value for investors that attempts to avoid commercial pressure or influence.
+Many banks and brokers provide research to the investment community, however this form of research suffers from a real or perceived lack of objectivity. For example, this research may be subject to influence from within a bank from, say, investment bankers keen to win company’s IPO mandate.
+An alternative form is known as independent research or alternative research, this is research that is not provided by a bank or broker. However, someone has to fund the costs of conducting the research, and when the funder is the company being researched, this form of independent research is termed “sponsored” or “company-paid” research. Unfortunately, with the subject company paying directly for these services, this form of research suffers from a real or perceived lack of objectivity, which reduces its value to investors and hence to the companies themselves.
+Intermediated research improves significantly upon the sponsored research model, by introducing important safeguards into the commercial and research process framework. The key structure is that the company has no choice in its allocation to a research provider; once matched with the research provider, the company is under a long-term contract in order to minimize commercial pressure or influence; and the fees paid to the research provider are not sufficiently material for the company to be able to exert any influence over the content or conclusions of the research report. Collectively, these measures enhance the value of the report to investors and consequently, to the company itself.
+The intermediated research framework includes the further protections; ensuring that the independent research firms involved have no investment banking or brokerage operations in their business models; conduct no traditional company-paid research; deliver a standard template for analysis of every company so that all standard topics are covered; and avoiding ratings and target prices in the reports, since these can risk becoming a focus of pressure exerted on the research provider by the subject company.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..07eb9ce61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+---
+title: "Literature review"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:29.835558+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A literature review is an overview of previously published works on a particular topic. The term can refer to a full scholarly paper or a section of a scholarly work such as books or articles. Either way, a literature review provides the researcher/author and the audiences with general information of an existing knowledge of a particular topic. A good literature review has a proper research question, a proper theoretical framework, and/or a chosen research method. It serves to situate the current study within the body of the relevant literature and provides context for the reader. In such cases, the review usually precedes the methodology and results sections of the work.
+Producing a literature review is often part of a graduate and post-graduate requirement, included in the preparation of a thesis, dissertation, or a journal article. Literature reviews are also common in a research proposal or prospectus (the document approved before a student formally begins a dissertation or thesis).
+A literature review can be a type of a review article. In this sense, it is a scholarly paper that presents the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources and do not report new or original experimental work. Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such reviews are found in academic journals and are not to be confused with book reviews, which may also appear in the same publication. Literature reviews are a basis for research in nearly every academic field.
+
+
+== Types ==
+Since the concept of a systematic review was formalized in the 1970s, a basic division among types of reviews is the dichotomy of narrative reviews versus systematic reviews. The main types of narrative reviews are evaluative, exploratory, and instrumental. 
+A fourth type of review of literature (the scientific literature) is the systematic review but it is not called a literature review, which absent further specification, conventionally refers to narrative reviews. A systematic review focuses on a specific research question to identify, appraise, select, and synthesize all high-quality research evidence and arguments relevant to that question. A meta-analysis is typically a systematic review using statistical methods to effectively combine the data used on all selected studies to produce a more reliable result.
+Torraco (2016) describes an integrative literature review. The purpose of an integrative literature review is to generate new knowledge on a topic through the process of review, critique, and synthesis of the literature under investigation.
+George et al (2023) offer an extensive overview of review approaches. They also propose a model for selecting an approach by looking at the purpose, object, subject, community, and practices of the review. They describe six different types of review, each with their own unique purposes:
+
+Exploratory or scoping reviews focus on breadth as opposed to depth
+Systematic or integrative reviews integrate empirical studies on a topic
+Meta-narrative reviews are qualitative and use literature to compare research or practice communities
+Problematizing or critical reviews propose new perspectives on a concept by association with other literature
+Meta-analyses and meta-regressions integrate quantitative studies and identify moderators
+Mixed research syntheses combine other review approaches in the same paper
+
+
+== Process and product ==
+Shields and Rangarajan (2013) distinguish between the process of reviewing the literature and a finished work or product known as a literature review. The process of reviewing the literature is often ongoing and informs many aspects of the empirical research project.
+The process of reviewing the literature requires different kinds of activities and ways of thinking. Shields and Rangarajan (2013) and Granello (2001) link the activities of doing a literature review with Benjamin Bloom's revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain (ways of thinking: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating).
+
+
+=== Use of artificial intelligence in a literature review ===
+Artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping traditional literature reviews across various disciplines. Generative pre-trained transformers, such as ChatGPT, are often used by students and academics for review purposes. 
+Since 2023, an increasing number of tools powered by large language models and other artificial intelligence technologies have been developed to assist, automate, or generate literature reviews.
+Nevertheless, the employment of ChatGPT in academic reviews is problematic due to ChatGPT's propensity to "hallucinate". In response, efforts are being made to mitigate these hallucinations through the integration of plugins. For instance, Rad et al. (2023) used ScholarAI for review in cardiothoracic surgery.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Empirical study of literature
+Living review
+Media monitoring
+Review journal
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Cooper, Harris M. (1998). Synthesizing Research: A Guide for Literature Reviews. Applied Social Research Methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0-7619-1348-1.
+Creswell, John W. (2013). "Review of the Literature". Research Design. Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-2610-1.
+Dellinger, Amy B. (2005). "Validity and the Review of Literature". Research in the Schools. 12 (2): 41–54.
+Dellinger, Amy B.; Leech, Nancy L. (2007). "Toward a Unified Validation Framework in Mixed Methods Research". Journal of Mixed Methods Research. 1 (4): 309–332. doi:10.1177/1558689807306147. S2CID 145367484.
+Galvan, José L. (2015). Writing Literature Reviews: A Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (6th ed.). Pyrczak Publishing. ISBN 978-1-936523-37-5.
+Green, Bart N.; Johnson, Claire D.; Adams, Alan (2006). "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews for Peer-Reviewed Journals: Secrets of the Trade". Journal of Chiropractic Medicine. 5 (3): 101–114. doi:10.1016/S0899-3467(07)60142-6. PMC 2647067. PMID 19674681.
+Phelps, Richard P. (2018). "To save the research literature, get rid of the literature review". LSE Impact Blog, London School of Economics.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study-0.md
index 5635f2b26..1e5a4c1cc 100644
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study-0.md
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:50:39.930701+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:31.046324+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_online_open_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_online_open_research-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..6f9f7b09f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_online_open_research-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+---
+title: "Massive online open research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_online_open_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:32.161019+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Massive online open research (MOOR) is an online research and development (R&D) open access platform or higher education study program aiming at unlimited participation via the internet.
+It may be used to create, on a very large participative scale, a new discovery, development or creation which will be allegedly accompanied by a peer-review publication.
+
+
+== As a higher education online research program ==
+In September 2013, The University of California in San Diego bioinformatics department, proposed a massive online open course which would feature "an opportunity (for students) to work on specific research projects under the leadership of prominent bioinformatics scientists".
+
+
+== As an online internet platform ==
+Several internet platforms have shown their interest in bridging prominent science, technology, engineering and mathematics (i.e., STEM fields) researchers with students, as means to accelerate STEM discoveries and education.  The internet social network Research Gate has unveiled that multiple discoveries and advancements in science have been made collaboratively in an open access scheme since its creation, essentially serving as a MOOR platform.
+The University of Amsterdam has been developing an online tool for massive online open research since February 2014. This tool will primarily focus on collaborative (qualitative) data analysis.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+=== General topics ===
+Massive online open course
+Open science
+Open access
+Open education
+Open research
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+USCD Bioinformatics Algorithms (Part 1)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastudy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastudy-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1eed02eec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastudy-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Megastudy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastudy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:33.313578+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A megastudy or mega-study is a research study in which a large number of different treatments or interventions are tested at the same time, on the same sample or similar samples, using a common outcome measure, and using the same experimental protocol.
+
+
+== Megastudy examples ==
+Exercise encouragement
+Vaccination nudges
+Strengthening of democratic attitudes
+Interventions against climate change
+
+
+== Many-lab studies ==
+The megastudy technique can be combined with the many-labs approach, so that teams of researchers from across the planet conduct the same experiment locally.
+
+
+== Megastudy criticisms ==
+Statistical power: While the overall megastudy sample size may be large, the sample size per intervention may be relatively small, leading to underpowered designs with wide confidence intervals. As a result, while interventions may be comparable, their relative ranking by outcome measure may be noisy. Increased sample size can help address this issue.
+Lack of theory: The megastudy technique may be considered a form of "fishing expedition" for what interventions have strongest effect on the outcome measure, without much theory building.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_in_Molecular_Biology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_in_Molecular_Biology-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..14e852b4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_in_Molecular_Biology-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Methods in Molecular Biology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_in_Molecular_Biology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:34.484979+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Methods in Molecular Biology is a book series published by Humana Press (an imprint of Springer Science+Business Media) that covers molecular biology research methods and protocols. The book series was introduced by series editor John M. Walker in 1983 and provides step-by-step instructions for carrying out experiments in a research lab. As of January 2020, more than 2000 volumes (2737 as of 15-August-2023) had been published in the series. The protocols are also available online in SpringerLink, and were previously in Springer Protocols.
+Each protocol opens with an introductory overview and a list of the materials and reagents needed to complete the experiment. Every protocol is followed by a detailed procedure that is supported with a notes section offering tips and "tricks of the trade" as well as troubleshooting advice.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Biological Procedures Online
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphysiometry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphysiometry-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..fc8a5b05e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphysiometry-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Microphysiometry"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphysiometry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:35.668394+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Microphysiometry is the in vitro micro-measurement of the functions and activities of life or of living matter (as organs, tissues, or cells) and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved on a very small micrometer (μm) scale. The term microphysiometry emerged in the scientific literature at the end of the 1980s.
+The primary parameters assessed in microphysiometry comprise pH and the concentration of dissolved oxygen, glucose, and lactic acid, with an emphasis on the first two. Measuring these parameters experimentally in combination with a fluidic system for cell culture maintenance and a defined application of drugs or toxins provides three quantitative output parameters: extracellular acidification rates (EAR), oxygen uptake rates (OUR), and rates of glucose consumption or lactate release that characterize the metabolic situation.
+Due to the label-free nature of sensor-based measurements, dynamic monitoring of cells or tissues for several days or even longer is feasible. On an extended timescale, a dynamic analysis of a cell's metabolic response to an experimental treatment can distinguish acute effects (e.g., one hour after a treatment), early effects (e.g., at 24 hours), and delayed, chronic responses (e.g., at 96 hours). As stated by Alajoki et al., "The concept is that it is possible to detect receptor activation and other physiological changes in living cells by monitoring the activity of energy metabolism".
+
+
+== See also ==
+Organ-on-a-chip
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Motion analysis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_analysis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Motion analysis is used in computer vision, image processing, high-speed photography and machine vision that studies methods and applications in which two or more consecutive images from an image sequences, e.g., produced by a video camera or high-speed camera, are processed to produce information based on the apparent motion in the images.  In some applications, the camera is fixed relative to the scene and objects are moving around in the scene, in some applications the scene is more or less fixed and the camera is moving, and in some cases both the camera and the scene are moving.
+The motion analysis processing can in the simplest case be to detect motion, i.e., find the points in the image where something is moving.  More complex types of processing can be to track a specific object in the image over time, to group points that belong to the same rigid object that is moving in the scene, or to determine the magnitude and direction of the motion of every point in the image.  The information that is produced is often related to a specific image in the sequence, corresponding to a specific time-point, but then depends also on the neighboring images.  This means that motion analysis can produce time-dependent information about motion.
+Applications of motion analysis can be found in rather diverse areas, such as surveillance, medicine, film industry, automotive crash safety, ballistic firearm studies, biological science, flame propagation,  and navigation of autonomous vehicles to name a few examples.
+
+== Background ==
+
+A video camera can be seen as an approximation of a pinhole camera, which means that each point in the image is illuminated by some (normally one) point in the scene in front of the camera, usually by means of light that the scene point reflects from a light source.  Each visible point in the scene is projected along a straight line that passes through the camera aperture and intersects the image plane.  This means that at a specific point in time, each point in the image refers to a specific point in the scene.  This scene point has a position relative to the camera, and if this relative position changes, it corresponds to a relative motion in 3D.  It is a relative motion since it does not matter if it is the scene point, or the camera, or both, that are moving.  It is only when there is a change in the relative position that the camera is able to detect that some motion has happened.  By projecting the relative 3D motion of all visible points back into the image, the result is the motion field, describing the apparent motion of each image point in terms of a magnitude and direction of velocity of that point in the image plane.  A consequence of this observation is that if the relative 3D motion of some scene points are along their projection lines, the corresponding apparent motion is zero.
+The camera measures the intensity of light at each image point, a light field.  In practice, a digital camera measures this light field at discrete points, pixels, but given that the pixels are sufficiently dense, the pixel intensities can be used to represent most characteristics of the light field that falls onto the image plane.  A common assumption of motion analysis is that the light reflected from the scene points does not vary over time. As a consequence, if an intensity I has been observed at some point in the image, at some point in time, the same intensity I will be observed at a position that is displaced relative to the first one as a consequence of the apparent motion.  Another common assumption is that there is a fair amount of variation in the detected intensity over the pixels in an image.  A consequence of this assumption is that if the scene point that corresponds to a certain pixel in the image has a relative 3D motion, then the pixel intensity is likely to change over time.
+
+== Methods ==
+
+=== Motion detection ===
+One of the simplest type of motion analysis is to detect image points that refer to moving points in the scene.  The typical result of this processing is a binary image where all image points (pixels) that relate to moving points in the scene are set to 1 and all other points are set to 0.  This binary image is then further processed, e.g., to remove noise, group neighboring pixels, and label objects.  Motion detection can be done using several methods; the two main groups are differential methods and methods based on background segmentation.
+
+== Applications ==
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+title: "Motion analysis"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Human motion analysis ===
+In the areas of medicine, sports, video surveillance, physical therapy, and kinesiology, human motion analysis has become an investigative and diagnostic tool.  See the section on motion capture for more detail on the technologies.  Human motion analysis can be divided into three categories: human activity recognition, human motion tracking, and analysis of body and body part movement.
+Human activity recognition is most commonly used for video surveillance, specifically automatic motion monitoring for security purposes.  Most efforts in this area rely on state-space approaches, in which sequences of static postures are statistically analyzed and compared to modeled movements.  Template-matching is an alternative method whereby static shape patterns are compared to pre-existing prototypes.
+Human motion tracking can be performed in two or three dimensions.  Depending on the complexity of analysis, representations of the human body range from basic stick figures to volumetric models.  Tracking relies on the correspondence of image features between consecutive frames of video, taking into consideration information such as position, color, shape, and texture.  Edge detection can be performed by comparing the color and/or contrast of adjacent pixels, looking specifically for discontinuities or rapid changes. Three-dimensional tracking is fundamentally identical to two-dimensional tracking, with the added factor of spatial calibration.
+Motion analysis of body parts is critical in the medical field.  In postural and gait analysis, joint angles are used to track the location and orientation of body parts. Gait analysis is also used in sports to optimize athletic performance or to identify motions that may cause injury or strain.  Tracking software that does not require the use of optical markers is especially important in these fields, where the use of markers may impede natural movement. 
+
+=== Motion analysis in manufacturing ===
+Motion analysis is also applicable in the manufacturing process.   Using high speed video cameras and motion analysis software, one can monitor and analyze assembly lines and production machines to detect inefficiencies or malfunctions.  Manufacturers of sports equipment, such as baseball bats and hockey sticks, also use high speed video analysis to study the impact of projectiles.  An experimental setup for this type of study typically uses a triggering device, external sensors (e.g., accelerometers, strain gauges), data acquisition modules, a high-speed camera, and a computer for storing the synchronized video and data. Motion analysis software calculates parameters such as distance, velocity, acceleration, and deformation angles as functions of time.  This data is then used to design equipment for optimal performance.
+
+=== Additional applications for motion analysis ===
+The object and feature detecting capabilities of motion analysis software can be applied to count and track particles, such as bacteria, viruses, "ionic polymer-metal composites", micron-sized polystyrene beads, aphids, and projectiles.
+
+== See also ==
+Mechanography
+Structure from motion
+Video motion analysis
+X-ray motion analysis
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Multimethodology"
+chunk: 1/3
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:39.234877+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Multimethodology or multimethod research includes the use of more than one method of data collection or research in a research study or set of related studies. Mixed methods research is more specific in that it includes the mixing of qualitative and quantitative data, methods, methodologies, and/or paradigms in a research study or set of related studies. One could argue that mixed methods research is a special case of multimethod research. Another applicable, but less often used label, for multi or mixed research is methodological pluralism. All of these approaches to professional and academic research emphasize that monomethod research can be improved through the use of multiple data sources, methods, research methodologies, perspectives, standpoints, and paradigms.
+The term multimethodology was used starting in the 1980s and in the 1989 book Multimethod Research: A Synthesis of Styles by John Brewer and Albert Hunter. During the 1990s and currently, the term mixed methods research has become more popular for this research movement in the behavioral, social, business, and health sciences. This pluralistic research approach has been gaining in popularity since the 1980s.
+
+== Multi and mixed methods research designs ==
+There are four broad classes of research studies that are currently being labeled "mixed methods research":
+
+Quantitatively driven approaches/designs in which the research study is, at its core, a quantitative study with qualitative data/method added to supplement and improve the quantitative study by providing an added value and deeper, wider, and fuller or more complex answers to research questions; quantitative quality criteria are emphasized but high quality qualitative data also must be collected and analyzed;
+Qualitatively driven approaches/designs in which the research study is, at its core, a qualitative study with quantitative data/method added to supplement and improve the qualitative study by providing an added value and deeper, wider, and fuller or more complex answers to research questions; qualitative quality criteria are emphasized but high quality quantitative data also must be collected and analyzed;
+Interactive or equal status designs in which the research study equally emphasizes (interactively and through integration) quantitative and qualitative data, methods, methodologies, and paradigms. This third design is often done through the use of a team composed of an expert in quantitative research, an expert in qualitative research, and an expert in mixed methods research to help with dialogue and continual integration. In this type of mixed study, quantitative and qualitative and mixed methods quality criteria are emphasized. This use of multiple quality criteria is seen in the concept of multiple validities legitimation. Here is a definition of this important type of validity or legitimation: Multiple validities legitimation "refers to the extent to which the mixed methods researcher successfully addresses and resolves all relevant validity types, including the quantitative and qualitative validity types discussed earlier in this chapter as well as the mixed validity dimensions. In other words, the researcher must identify and address all of the relevant validity issues facing a particular research study. Successfully addressing the pertinent validity issues will help researchers produce the kinds of inferences and meta-inferences that should be made in mixed research"(Johnson & Johnson, 2014; page 311).
+Mixed priority designs in which the principal study results derive from the integration of qualitative and quantitative data during analysis.
+
+== Desirability ==
+The case for multimethodology or mixed methods research as a strategy for intervention and/or research is based on four observations:
+
+Narrow views of the world are often misleading, so approaching a subject from different perspectives or paradigms may help to gain a holistic or more truthful worldview.
+There are different levels of social research (i.e.: biological, cognitive, social, etc.), and different methodologies may have particular strengths with respect to one of these levels. Using more than one should help to get a clearer picture of the social world and make for more adequate explanations.
+Many existing practices already combine methodologies to solve particular problems, yet they have not been theorised sufficiently.
+Multimethodology fits well with pragmatism.
+
+== Feasibility ==
+There are also some hazards to multimethodological or mixed methods research approaches. Some of these problems include:
+
+Many paradigms are at odds with each other. However, once the understanding of the difference is present, it can be an advantage to see many sides, and possible solutions may present themselves.
+Multimethod and mixed method research can be undertaken from many paradigmatic perspectives, including pragmatism, dialectical pluralism, critical realism, and constructivism.
+Cultural issues affect world views and analyzability. Knowledge of a new paradigm is not enough to overcome potential biases; it must be learned through practice and experience.
+People have cognitive abilities that predispose them to particular paradigms. Quantitative research requires skills of data-analysis and several techniques of statistic reasoning, while qualitative research is rooted in in-depth observation, comparative thinking, interpretative skills and interpersonal ability. None of the approaches is easier to master than the other, and both require specific expertise, ability and skills.
+
+== Pragmatism and mixed methods ==
+Pragmatism allows for the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods as loosely coupled systems to support mixed methods research. On the one hand, quantitative research is characterized by randomized controlled trials, research questions inspired by literature review gap, generalizability, validity, and reliability. On the other, qualitative research is characterized by socially constructed realities and lived experiences. Pragmatism reconciles these differences an integrates quantitative and qualitative research as loosely coupled systems, where "open systems interact with each other at the point of their boundaries."
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== History of Pragmatism in Multi/Mixed Methods Research ===
+Developed as a philosophical method to solve problems towards the end of the nineteenth century, pragmatism is attributed to the work of philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce. For Peirce, research is conducted and interpreted from the eye of the beholder, as a practical approach to investigating social affairs. He sees science as a communal affair leading to single truths that are arrived at from multiple perspectives. For Peirce, the research conclusions are not as important as how these conclusions are reached. Focus is on answering the research question while allowing the methods to emerge in the process. Peirce pragmatism and its approach to research support qualitatively driven mixed methods studies.
+John Dewey extends both, "Peirce pragmatic method and (William) James' radical empiricism (and approach to experience) by application to social and political problems."  His philosophical pragmatism takes an interdisciplinary approach, where the divide between quantitative and qualitative research represents an obstacle to solving a problem. In Dewey's pragmatism, success is measured by the outcome, where the outcome is the reason to engage in research. Live experiences constitute reality, were individual lived experiences form a continuum by the interaction of subjective (internal) and objective (external) conditions. In Dewey's continuum of experiences, no experience lives on its own, it is influenced by the experiences that preceded it, and influences those that will follow it. His approach to knowledge is open-minded, and inquire is central to his epistemology.
+Following Dewey, quantitatively driven research methods dominated until 1979, when Richard Rorty revived pragmatism. Rorty introduces his own ideas into pragmatism which includes the importance of culture, beliefs, and context. He shifts from understanding how things are to how they could be, and introduces the idea that "justification is audience dependent, and pretty much any justification finds a receptive audience"  As Rorty explains, research success is peer dependent, not peer group neutral. From his perspective, MMR is not simply the merging of quantitative and qualitative research, but a third camp with its own peers and supporters.
+
+=== Pragmatic philosophical positions ===
+Multiple pragmatic philosophical stands may be used to justify pragmatism as a paradigm when conducting mixed methods research (MMR). A research paradigm provides a framework based on what constitutes and how knowledge is formed. Pragmatism as a philosophy may aid researchers in positioning themselves somewhere in the spectrum between qualitatively driven and quantitatively driven methods. The following philosophical stands can help address the debate between the use of qualitative and quantitative methods, and to ground quantitatively, qualitatively, or equal-status driven MMR.
+
+==== Radical empiricism ====
+ 
+Radical empiricism, as articulated by William James, takes reality as a function of our ongoing experiences, constantly changing at the individual level. James emphasizes that reality is not predetermined, and individual free will and chance matter. These ideas fit well with qualitative research emphasizing lived experiences. James also finds the truth in empirical and objectives facts, merging the divide between qualitative and quantitative research. However, James points out that no truth is independent of the thinker. James' brand of pragmatism may be used by researchers conducting qualitatively and equal-status driven MMR.
+
+==== Dialectical Pluralism ====
+Dialectical pluralism is a form of pragmatism that emphasizes intentionally drawing from multiple approaches to conducting research and developing knowledge. The multiple approaches being taken need not agree or converge with one another. Instead, the researcher using dialectical pluralism in the conduct of a mixed-method study may tack back and forth between models and perspectives in order to develop insight.
+
+==== Realism and Critical Realism ====
+
+Realists and critical realists take the perspective that the world exists independently of our observation and interpretation of it; critical realism goes beyond this to assert that multiple interpretations of the world are likely. Like dialectical pluralism, realist paradigms in the context of pragmatic multi/mixed-methods research emphasize the idea that multiple approaches to knowledge are expected and can be treated as complementary. In contrast to a more strict positivist approach, critical realism sees causality as embedded in the details of a situation and social processes that surround an event.
+
+==== Transformative-Emancipatory ====
+Transformative and emancipatory paradigms emphasize a commitment on the part of the researcher to social justice, as in critical race theory. Researchers conducting multi-method or mixed-methods research within this paradigm tend to orient to issues of "power, privilege, and inequity."
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+title: "Multimethodology"
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:39.234877+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== In contrast to quantitative and qualitative methodologies ==
+One major similarity between mixed methodologies and qualitative and quantitative taken separately is that researchers need to maintain focus on the original purpose behind their methodological choices. A major difference between the two, however, is the way some authors differentiate the two, proposing that there is logic inherent in one that is different from the other. Creswell (2009) points out that in a quantitative study the researcher starts with a problem statement, moving on to the hypothesis and null hypothesis, through the instrumentation into a discussion of data collection, population, and data analysis. Creswell proposes that for a qualitative study the flow of logic begins with the purpose for the study, moves through the research questions discussed as data collected from a smaller group and then voices how they will be analysed.
+A research strategy is a procedure for achieving a particular intermediary research objective — such as sampling, data collection, or data analysis. We may therefore speak of sampling strategies or data analysis strategies. The use of multiple strategies to enhance construct validity (a form of methodological triangulation) is now routinely advocated by  methodologists. In short, mixing or integrating research strategies (qualitative and/or quantitative) in any and all research undertaking is now considered a common feature of good research.
+A research approach refers to an integrated set of research principles and general procedural guidelines. Approaches are broad, holistic (but general) methodological guides or roadmaps that are associated with particular research motives or analytic interests. Two examples of analytic interests are population frequency distributions and prediction. Examples of research approaches include experiments, surveys, correlational studies, ethnographic research, and phenomenological inquiry. Each approach is ideally suited to addressing a particular analytic interest. For instance, experiments are ideally suited to addressing nomothetic explanations or probable cause; surveys — population frequency descriptions, correlations studies — predictions; ethnography — descriptions and interpretations of cultural processes; and phenomenology — descriptions of the essence of phenomena or lived experiences.
+In a single approach design (SAD)(also called a "monomethod design") only one analytic interest is pursued. In a mixed or multiple approach design (MAD) two or more analytic interests are pursued. Note: a multiple approach design may include entirely "quantitative" approaches such as combining a survey and an experiment; or entirely "qualitative" approaches such as combining an ethnographic and a phenomenological inquiry, and a mixed approach design includes a mixture of the above (e.g., a mixture of quantitative and qualitative data, methods, methodologies, and/or paradigms).
+A word of caution about the term "multimethodology". It has become quite common place to use the terms "method" and "methodology" as synonyms (as is the case with the above entry). However, there are convincing philosophical reasons for distinguishing the two. "Method" connotes a way of doing something — a procedure (such as a method of data collection). "Methodology" connotes a discourse about methods — i.e., a discourse about the adequacy and appropriateness of particular combination of research principles and procedures. The terms methodology and biology share a common suffix "logy." Just as bio-logy is a discourse about life — all kinds of life; so too, methodo-logy is a discourse about methods — all kinds of methods. It seems unproductive, therefore, to speak of multi-biologies or of multi-methodologies. It is very productive, however, to speak of multiple biological perspectives or of multiple methodological perspectives.
+
+== See also ==
+Perestroika Movement (political science)
+Post-autistic economics
+Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+Mixed Methods Network for Behavioral, Social, and Health Sciences
+Official website of Mixed Methods International Research Association
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+title: "Multimodal anthropology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimodal_anthropology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:40.406904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Multimodal anthropology is an emerging subfield of social cultural anthropology that encompasses anthropological research and knowledge production across multiple traditional and new media platforms and practices including film, video, photography, theatre, design, podcast, mobile apps, interactive games, web-based social networking, immersive 360 video and augmented reality. As characterized in American Anthropologist, multimodal anthropology is an "anthropology that works across multiple media, but one that also engages in public anthropology and collaborative anthropology through a field of differentially linked media platforms" (Collins, Durington & Gill). A multimodal approach also encourages anthropologists to reconsider the ways in which they conduct their research, to pay close attention to the role various media technologies and digital devices plays in the lives of their interlocutors, and how they these technologies redefine what fieldwork looks like. Scholars Collins, Durington, and Gill call it "anthropology that works across multiple media." It's not just about doing research alone; it's also about working with others and looking at how we do research in new ways, as well as an 'embodied practice', according to Varvantakis and Nolas. Multimodal anthropology has been growing since the early days of anthropology, changing along with new technology. It's not just about pictures anymore; now it includes things like podcasts, interactive designs, and even storytelling. Collins, Durington, and Gill say that multimodal anthropology adds to visual anthropology instead of replacing it, recognizing how media keeps evolving. Journals like "entanglements: experiments in multimodal ethnography," led by Nolas and Varvantakis, show a strong dedication to exploring all the different sides of multimodal research, encouraging scholars to think differently and embrace the rich experiences of studying people and cultures.
+
+
+== History and background ==
+Multimodal anthropology is not a new concept. It has been a fundamental part of anthropological research and fieldwork from the early days of the discipline. Anthropologists have been experimenting with different forms media technologies throughout the twentieth century whenever confronted with the limitation of text-based ethnography. Multimodal is a term that has readily been used since the 1970s in varied disciplines as psychotherapy, phonetics, genetics, literature and medicine to characterize different approaches to carrying out scientific research that involves to a certain degree, thinking outside of the box. In the early 1990s, semioticians used the terms to discuss different forms of communication across different media, eventually including digital media.
+Technological advances in the later part of the twentieth century, the accessibility to photography, film cameras and audio recorders led to the emergence of visual anthropology as a sub discipline dedicated to the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and media. Building in this legacy, multimodal anthropology seeks to expand the boundaries of visual anthropology to incorporate emerging technologies of twenty-first century including mobile networking, social media, geo-mapping, virtual reality, podcasting, interactive design, along with other traditional forms of learning and knowledge production like art and drawing that were often sidelined within visual anthropology, such as interactive gaming, theatre, performance, graphic novels, ethnofiction and experimental ethnography. As Samuel Collins, Matthew Durington and Harjant Gill note in their introductory essay "Multimodality: An Invitation", published in American Anthropologist, "multimodal anthropologies does not attempt – or desire – to supplant visual anthropology. Rather it seeks to include traditional forms of visual anthropology while simultaneously broadening the purview of the discipline to engage in variety of media forms that exist today."
+In 2018 the journal entanglements: experiments in multimodal ethnography was first published, aiming to explore and advance the subfield. The journal is online and open access and is co-edited by Melissa Nolas and Christos Varvantakis. In the inaugural editorial the editors stated that "we aim to engage with some of the challenges and questions that contemporary multimodal ethnographic practice throws up: What knowledge do multimodal and multimedia encounters generate? What languages are available to researchers to describe the coming together of different modes and media? What are the everyday practices involved in such convergences and divergences? How might these encounters themselves be described?" Furthermore, "research is often an attempt to disentangle everyday experiences, those of our interlocutors as well as our encounters with them, and multimodality is no exception here. The analytical approaches of the social sciences tend towards the creation of order out of complexity asking us to categorise and organise our experiences and data in issues, themes, narratives and discourses. The messy actuality of practice, with its sensory dimensions and emotional hues, is often lost in this process (Ingold 2011). What if a different logic guided our analytical and practice endeavours?"
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Pink, Sarah (2011-06-01). "Multimodality, multisensoriality and ethnographic knowing: social semiotics and the phenomenology of perception". Qualitative Research. 11 (3): 261–276. doi:10.1177/1468794111399835. ISSN 1468-7941. S2CID 144833201.
+Nolas, S-M., and Varvantakis, C. (2018). "Entanglements that matter", entanglements, 1(1):1-4.
+"Minecraft Multimodal". Retrieved 2018-08-31.
+Favero, Paolo S. H.; Theunissen, Eva (2018-02-19). "With the Smartphone as Field Assistant: Designing, Making, and Testing EthnoAlly, a Multimodal Tool for Conducting Serendipitous Ethnography in a Multisensory World". American Anthropologist. 120 (1): 163–167. doi:10.1111/aman.12999. hdl:10067/1494690151162165141. ISSN 0002-7294.
+Genovese, Taylor R. (2019). "Going Gonzo: Toward a Performative Practice in Multimodal Ethnography". entanglements 2 (1): 97-110.
+Varvantakis, C. and Nolas, S-M. (2019). "Metaphors we Experiment with in Multimodal Ethnography". International Journal of Social Research Methodology.  22 (4): 365-378. Metaphors we experiment with in multimodal ethnography.
+"Repurpose, Remix, Bend: Piloting A Locally Defined Technology Curriculum". Retrieved 2018-08-31.
+Chin, Elizabeth (2017-08-14). "On Multimodal Anthropologies from the Space of Design: Toward Participant Making". American Anthropologist. 119 (3): 541–543. doi:10.1111/aman.12908. ISSN 0002-7294.
+"The Knot in the Wood: The Call to Multimodal Anthropology". Retrieved 2018-08-31.
+"Introduction: Understanding Multimodalities in Arts and Social Sciences" Retrieved 2019-03-30
+"Multimodality and the Future of Anthropological Research and Scholarship" Retrieved 2019-03-30
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+---
+title: "Multiplex (assay)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplex_(assay)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:41.610505+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the biological sciences, a multiplex assay is a type of immunoassay that uses magnetic beads to simultaneously measure multiple analytes in a single experiment. A multiplex assay is a derivative of an ELISA using beads for binding the capture antibody. Multiplex assays are still more common in research than in clinical settings.
+In a multiplex assay, microspheres of designated colors are coated with antibodies of defined binding specificities. The results can be read by flow cytometry because the beads are distinguishable by fluorescent signature. The number of analytes measured is determined by the number of different bead colors.
+Multiplex assays within a given application area or class of technology can be further stratified based on how many analytes can be measured per assay, where "multiplex" refers to those with the highest number of analyte measurements per assay (up to millions) and "low-plex" or "mid-plex" refers to procedures that process fewer (10s to 1000s), though there are no formal guidelines for calling a procedure multi-, mid-, or low-plex based on number of analytes measured. Single-analyte assays or low-to-mid-plex procedures typically predate the rise of their multiplex versions, which often require specialized technologies or miniaturization to achieve a higher degree of parallelization.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-based_diffusion_analysis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-based_diffusion_analysis-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-based_diffusion_analysis-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+---
+title: "Network-based diffusion analysis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-based_diffusion_analysis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:42.840541+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Network-based diffusion analysis (NBDA) is a statistical tool to detect and quantify social transmission of information or a behaviour in social networks (SNA, etc.). NBDA assumes that social transmission of a behavior follows the social network of associations or interactions among individuals, since individuals who spend a lot of time together, or who interact more have more opportunity to learn from each other. Therefore, NBDA infers social transmission if the spread of a novel behavior follows the social network of a population. NBDA thus allows the study of social learning to be linked to animal behavior research that uses social network analysis. NBDA was introduced by Franz & Nunn and further developed by Hoppitt, Boogert, & Laland. An R package for performing Bayesian NBDA, STbayes, was published by Chimento & Hoppitt in 2025.
+
+
+== Implementation ==
+NBDA requires prior knowledge about the underlying social network of a population. In an observational study, the order (or timing) at which individuals in the population acquire a behaviour or information is recorded. NBDA then tests whether the spread of information or behaviour is explained by the previously determined network or not. Because more closely associated individuals are more likely to interact with each other, information is assumed to travel along social ties. If there is a good match between the diffusion of information and the underlying network social transmission is assumed. Otherwise, it is assumed that information was asocially acquired (e.g. trial and error, mistakes, etc.).
+
+
+== Application ==
+NBDA does not only serve as a tool for the detection of social learning, but also allows the estimation of the strength of the social transmission effect. In addition, several individual-level variables can be included in the analysis, which have potential influence on an individual's learning rate (e.g. gender, rank or age), and can also be used to model the effect of, and statistically control for potential ecological and genetic influences. NBDA has been successfully used in a number of studies to identify and quantify the effects of social transmission on the spread of behaviors in both wild and captive animal populations such as starlings, chimpanzees or humpback whales.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Lobtail-feeding in humpback whales
+Foraging strategies in tits
+Moss-sponging in chimpanzees
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Franz, M.; Nunn, C. L. (25 February 2009). "Network-based diffusion analysis: a new method for detecting social learning". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 276 (1663): 1829–1836. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.1824. PMC 2674490. PMID 19324789.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Brown_(social_scientist)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Brown_(social_scientist)-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Brown_(social_scientist)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Nicole Brown (social scientist)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Brown_(social_scientist)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:03.633185+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Nicole Brown  (born 1976) is an Austrian and British writer and academic whose expertise lies with social research practice. She focuses on the development and pragmatics of research methods and approaches for data analysis as well as dissemination.
+
+
+== Education ==
+Brown has a teaching qualification (2001), a Magister degree from the University of Vienna (2001), a master's degree in teaching from the UCL Institute of Education (2006), a diploma in translation from the University of London (2008). She has a 2018 postgraduate certificate in higher education, a 2020 masters degree in higher education, and a PhD in sociology, all from the University of Kent.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Associate Professor and IOE Head of Research Ethics and Integrity at University College London, and Director of Social Research & Practice and Education Ltd.
+Brown researches physical and material representations of experiences, the generation of knowledge and use of metaphors to express what is difficult to express, and more generally, research methods and approaches to explore identity and body work.
+Brown is an editor for the Journal of Participatory Research Methods, Disability and Society, and The Qualitative Report. She is a long-standing member of methodologically-orientated organisations, such as the Pedagogy Network of the National Centre for Research Methods and the Centre for Imaginative Ethnography.
+Brown is regularly invited as a keynote presenter and workshop leader, as for example for the National Centre for Research Methods, the Social Research Association, the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Photovoice Worldwide, as well as symposia and network conferences. On 26 June 2023 Brown delivered the keynote for the European Educational Research Association's Summer School in Porto.
+Her exploration of research paradigms, data collection methods, and data analysis recognises the researchers' interactions with the field of study, the research participants, the research contexts, and settings, as well as the variety of practices involved in developing understanding and generating knowledge through thinking-doing-being. In that sense, her creative practices as a fiction writer and poet as well as her activist work in response to, on the back of and as research represent an extension of her conceptualisation of research practice that interweaves practice/teaching/research.
+In 2025 Brown was named one of the world’s top 2% most-cited scientists in education in the Stanford University ranking.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+
+
+=== Books ===
+Brown, N., Ince, A. & Ramlackhan, K. (eds.). (2024). Creativity in Education: International Perspectives. UCL Press.
+Brown, N. (November 2023). Photovoice, Reimagined. Policy Press. ISBN 9781447369387.
+Brown, N. (2021). Making the Most of Your Research Journal. Bristol: Policy Press. ISBN 9781447360049.
+Leigh, J. S. & Brown, N. (2021). Embodied Inquiry: Research Methods. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781350118799.
+Brown, N. (ed.) (2021). Lived Experiences of Ableism in Academia: Strategies for Inclusion in Higher Education. Bristol: Policy Press. ISBN 9781447354116
+Brown, N. & Leigh, J. S. (eds.) (2020). Ableism in Academia: Theorising Experiences of Disabilities and Chronic Illnesses in Higher Education. London: UCL Press. ISBN 9781787354999
+
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+A 2016 winner of the Turnitin Global innovation Awards
+A 2018 Postgraduate Festival Prize Winner from the University of Kent
+In 2022, admitted as Fellow to the Royal Society of Arts
+UCL Education Awards 2023: recipient of the Faculty Education Award in Arts and Humanities and shortlisted for the UCL Provost Education Award in the category "Assessment and Feedback"
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Nicole Brown's website
+Practice As Research website
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-label_trial-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-label_trial-0.md
index 4788a8938..9140cc8de 100644
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-label_trial-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-label_trial-0.md
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-label_trial"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:51:05.190257+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:44.071326+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PERISCOP-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PERISCOP-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "PERISCOP"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PERISCOP"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:51.163872+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The PERISCOP is a pressurized recovery device designed for retrieving deep-sea marine life at depths exceeding 2,000 metres. The device was designed by Bruce Shillito and Gerard Hamel at the Universite Pierre et Marie Curie. The name is an acronym for the French phrase Projet d’Enceinte de Remontée Isobare Servant la Capture d’Organismes Profonds ("Enclosure project for isobaric ascent serving to capture deep organisms").
+
+
+== History ==
+The PERISCOP is a unique pressurized recovery device that contains three chambers – one for capture, one for recovery under exterior pressure, and one for transfer to the laboratory while maintaining pressure. Previous recovery devices used one chamber for all purposes. An arm designed to capture samples by force of suction is attached to the device. During ascent, pressure is maintained within the chamber by use of pressurized water. Upon surfacing, samples can be observed, filmed, and/or photographed through transparent view ports in the device. Due to fluctuations in atmospheric pressure and temperature recorded pressures during ascent and at the surface may ranged from 74%-111% of the natural pressure at sea depth.  The device set a record for the deepest live-fish capture under pressure when it captured a Pachycara at 2,300 m. The previous record was 1,400 m. The capture was the first to be performed at a hydrothermal vent. The device has also recovered several shrimp species (Mirocaris fortunata, Chorocaris chacei, and Rimicaris exoculata) at vent fields Lucky Strike and Rainbow.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_study-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_study-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..19b4030d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_study-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+---
+title: "Parallel study"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_study"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:45.211284+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A parallel study is a type of clinical study where two groups of treatments, A and B, are given so that one group receives only A while another group receives only B. Other names for this type of study include "between patient" and "non-crossover". This is unlike a crossover study where at first one group receives treatment A and later followed by treatment B while the other group receives treatment B followed by treatment A. There are, however, certain characteristics that allow for differentiation between these two types of trials. For example, a parallel study would be more appropriate if any concerns about carryover effects were present. This type of study might also be more beneficial if the disease or disorder being studied has a likely chance of progression during the time in which the study takes place.  One significant issue with parallel studies, though, is the concept of intra subject variability, which is defined as variability in response occurring within the same patient.
+The two treatment groups in a parallel study can either consist of two completely separate treatments (i.e. different drugs), or simply different doses of a common drug. One major aspect of a parallel study is randomization – this ensures that the results are accurate and have a lower risk of being biased. Control groups utilizing a placebo, or active control, are often used in this type of study.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+http://hedwig.mgh.harvard.edu/sample_size/size.html
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parataxonomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parataxonomy-0.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..dd8328116
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parataxonomy-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Parataxonomy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parataxonomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:46.406435+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Parataxonomy is a system of labor division for use in biodiversity research, in which the rough sorting tasks of specimen collection, field identification, documentation and preservation are conducted by primarily local, less specialized individuals, thereby alleviating the workload for the "alpha" or "master" taxonomist. Parataxonomy may be used to improve taxonomic efficiency by enabling more expert taxonomists to restrict their activity to the tasks that require their specialist knowledge and skills, which has the potential to expedite the rate at which new taxa may be described and existing taxa may be sorted and discussed. Parataxonomists generally work in the field, sorting collected samples into recognizable taxonomic units (RTUs) based on easily recognized features. The process can be used alone for rapid assessment of biodiversity.
+Some researchers consider reliance on parataxonomist-generated data to be prone to error depending on the sample, the sorter and the group of organisms in question. Therefore, quantitative studies based on parataxonomic processes may be unreliable and is therefore controversial. The concepts of citizen science and parataxonomy are somewhat overlapping, with unclear distinctions between those employed to provide supplemental services to taxonomists and those who do so voluntarily, whether for personal enrichment or the altruistic desire to make substantive scientific contributions. These terms are occasionally used interchangeably, but some taxonomists maintain that each possess unique differences.
+
+
+== History of concept ==
+A "parataxonomist" is a term coined by Dr. Daniel Janzen and Dr. Winnie Hallwachs in the late 1980s who used it to describe the role of assistants working at INBio in Costa Rica. It describes a person who collects specimens for ecological studies as well as the basic information for a specimen as it is being collected in the field. Information they collect includes date, location (lat/long), collector's name, the species of plant and caterpillar if known, and each specimen is assigned a unique voucher code. The term was a play on the word "paramedic", someone who can operate independently, may not have a specialized university degree, but has some taxonomic training.
+Hallwachs and Janzen created and implemented an intensive six-month course that taught everything from taxonomy to how to operate a chainsaw. Dr. Janzen trained the first cohort in January 1989, additional cohorts receiving training up until 1992. From 1992 onward, all other training was conducted by parataxonomists. As of 2017, some 10,000 new species in the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste have been identified thanks to the efforts of parataxonomists.
+During the time period that Janzen's parataxonomic model was in place, INBio became the second largest biological collection in Latin America with over 3.5 million collections, all of which were digitized. As of 2015, the institute had produced over 2,500 scientific articles, 250 books and 316 conventions. Its website logged an average of 25,000 unique visitors daily from 125 countries, and its park had received upwards of 15 million visitors.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Folk taxonomy
+Citizen science
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"Introduction & Parataxonomy". Field Entomology : EEB 252. University of Connecticut. Archived from the original on 17 July 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-0.md
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+---
+title: "Participatory action research"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:47.553680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Participatory action research (PAR) is an approach to action research emphasizing participation and action by members of communities affected by that research. It seeks to understand the world by trying to change it, collaboratively and following reflection. PAR emphasizes collective inquiry and experimentation grounded in experience and social history. Within a PAR process, "communities of inquiry and action evolve and address questions and issues that are significant for those who participate as co-researchers". PAR contrasts with mainstream research methods, which emphasize controlled experimentaction, statistical analysis, and reproducibility of findings.
+PAR practitioners make a concerted effort to integrate three basic aspects of their work: participation (life in society and democracy), action (engagement with experience and history), and research (soundness in thought and the growth of knowledge). "Action unites, organically, with research" and collective processes of self-investigation. The way each component is actually understood and the relative emphasis it receives varies nonetheless from one PAR theory and practice to another. This means that PAR is not a monolithic body of ideas and methods but rather a pluralistic orientation to knowledge making and social change.
+
+== Overview ==
+In the UK and North America the work of Kurt Lewin and the Tavistock Institute in the 1940s has been influential. However, alternative traditions of PAR begin with processes that include more bottom-up organising and popular education than were envisaged by Lewin.
+PAR has multiple progenitors and resists definition. It is a broad tradition of collective self-experimentation backed up by evidential reasoning, fact-finding and learning. All formulations of PAR have in common the idea that research and action must be done 'with' people and not 'on' or 'for' people. It counters scientism by promoting the grounding of knowledge in human agency and social history (as in much of political economy). Inquiry based on PAR principles makes sense of the world through collective efforts to transform it, as opposed to simply observing and studying human behaviour and people's views about reality, in the hope that meaningful change will eventually emerge.
+PAR draws on a wide range of influences, both among those with professional training and those who draw on their life experience and those of their ancestors. Many draw on the work of Paulo Freire, new thinking on adult education research, the Civil Rights Movement, South Asian social movements such as the Bhumi Sena, and key initiatives such as the Participatory Research Network created in 1978 and based in New Delhi. "It has benefited from an interdisciplinary development drawing its theoretical strength from adult education, sociology, political economy, community psychology, community development, feminist studies, critical psychology, organizational development and more". The Colombian sociologist Orlando Fals Borda and others organized the first explicitly PAR conference in Cartagena, Colombia in 1977. Based on his research with peasant groups in rural Boyaca and with other underserved groups, Fals Borda called for the 'community action' component to be incorporated into the research plans of traditionally trained researchers. His recommendations to researchers committed to the struggle for justice and greater democracy in all spheres, including the business of science, are useful for all researchers and echo the teaching from many schools of research:
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-1.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-1.md
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Participatory action research"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:47.553680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Do not monopolise your knowledge nor impose arrogantly your techniques, but respect and combine your skills with the knowledge of the researched or grassroots communities, taking them as full partners and co-researchers. Do not trust elitist versions of history and science which respond to dominant interests, but be receptive to counter-narratives and try to recapture them. Do not depend solely on your culture to interpret facts, but recover local values, traits, beliefs, and arts for action by and with the research organisations. Do not impose your own ponderous scientific style for communicating results, but diffuse and share what you have learned together with the people, in a manner that is wholly understandable and even literary and pleasant, for science should not be necessarily a mystery nor a monopoly of experts and intellectuals."
+PAR can be thought of as a guiding paradigm to influence and democratize the creation of knowledge making, and ground it in real community needs and learning. Knowledge production controlled by elites can sometimes further oppress marginalized populations. PAR can be a way of overcoming the ineffectiveness and elitism of conventional schooling and science, and the negative effects of market forces and industry on the workplace, community life and sustainable livelihoods.
+Fundamentally, PAR pushes against the notion that experiential distance is required for objectivity in scientific and sociological research. Instead, PAR values embodied knowledge beyond "gated communities" of scholarship, bridging academia and social movements such that research and advocacy — often thought to be mutually exclusive — become intertwined. Rather than be confined by academia, participatory settings are believed to have "social value," confronting epistemological gaps that may deepen ruts of inequality and injustice.
+These principles and the ongoing evolution of PAR have had a lasting legacy in fields ranging from problem solving in the workplace to community development and sustainable livelihoods, education, public health, feminist research, civic engagement and criminal justice. It is important to note that these contributions are subject to many tensions and debates on key issues such as the role of clinical psychology, critical social thinking and the pragmatic concerns of organizational learning in PAR theory and practice. Labels used to define each approach (PAR, critical PAR, action research, psychosociology, sociotechnical analysis, etc.) reflect these tensions and point to major differences that may outweigh the similarities. While a common denominator, the combination of participation, action and research reflects the fragile unity of traditions whose diverse ideological and organizational contexts kept them separate and largely ignorant of one another for several decades.
+The following review focuses on traditions that incorporate the three pillars of PAR. Closely related approaches that overlap but do not bring the three components together are left out. Applied research, for instance, is not necessarily committed to participatory principles and may be initiated and controlled mostly by experts, with the implication that 'human subjects' are not invited to play a key role in science building and the framing of the research questions. As in mainstream science, this process "regards people as sources of information, as having bits of isolated knowledge, but they are neither expected nor apparently assumed able to analyze a given social reality". PAR also differs from participatory inquiry or collaborative research, contributions to knowledge that may not involve direct engagement with transformative action and social history. PAR, in contrast, has evolved from the work of activists more concerned with empowering marginalized peoples than with generating academic knowledge for its own sake. Lastly, given its commitment to the research process, PAR overlaps but is not synonymous with action learning, action reflection learning (ARL), participatory development and community development—recognized forms of problem solving and capacity building that may be carried out with no immediate concern for research and the advancement of knowledge.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-2.md
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index 000000000..b1f725ab7
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research-2.md
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Participatory action research"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:47.553680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Organizational life ===
+Action research in the workplace took its initial inspiration from Lewin's work on organizational development (and Dewey's emphasis on learning from experience). Lewin's seminal contribution involves a flexible, scientific approach to planned change that proceeds through a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of 'a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action', towards an organizational 'climate' of democratic leadership and responsible participation that promotes critical self-inquiry and collaborative work. These steps inform Lewin's work with basic skill training groups, T-groups where community leaders and group facilitators use feedback, problem solving, role play and cognitive aids (lectures, handouts, film) to gain insights into themselves, others and groups with a view to 'unfreezing' and changing their mindsets, attitudes and behaviours.
+Lewin's understanding of action-research coincides with key ideas and practices developed at the influential Tavistock Institute (created in 1947)) in the UK and National Training Laboratories (NTL) in the US. An important offshoot of Tavistock thinking and practise is the sociotechnical systems perspective on workplace dynamics, guided by the idea that greater productivity or efficiency does not hinge on improved technology alone. Improvements in organizational life call instead for the interaction and 'joint optimization' of the social and technical components of workplace activity. In this perspective, the best match between the social and technical factors of organized work lies in principles of 'responsible group autonomy' and industrial democracy, as opposed to deskilling and top-down bureaucracy guided by Taylor's scientific management and linear chain of command.
+NTL played a central role in the evolution of experiential learning and the application of behavioral science to improving organizations. Process consultation, team building, conflict management, and workplace group democracy and autonomy have become recurrent themes in the prolific body of literature and practice known as organizational development (OD). As with 'action science', OD is a response to calls for planned change and 'rational social management' involving a normative human relations movement and approach to worklife in capital-dominated economies. Its principal goal is to enhance an organization's performance and the worklife experience, with the assistance of a consultant, a change agent or catalyst that helps the sponsoring organization define and solve its own problems, introduce new forms of leadership and change organizational culture and learning. Diagnostic and capacity-building activities are informed, to varying degrees, by psychology, the behavioural sciences, organizational studies, or theories of leadership and social innovation. Appreciative Inquiry (AI), for instance, is an offshoot of PAR based on positive psychology. Rigorous data gathering or fact-finding methods may be used to support the inquiry process and group thinking and planning. On the whole, however, science tends to be a means, not an end. Workplace and organizational learning interventions are first and foremost problem-based, action-oriented and client-centred.
+
+=== Psychosociology ===
+Tavistock broke new ground in other ways, by meshing general medicine and psychiatry with Freudian and Jungian psychology and the social sciences to help the British army face various human resource problems. This gave rise to a field of scholarly research and professional intervention loosely known as psychosociology, particularly influential in France (CIRFIP). Several schools of thought and 'social clinical' practise belong to this tradition, all of which are critical of the experimental and expert mindset of social psychology. Most formulations of psychosociology share with OD a commitment to the relative autonomy and active participation of individuals and groups coping with problems of self-realization and goal effectiveness within larger organizations and institutions. In addition to this humanistic and democratic agenda, psychosociology uses concepts of psychoanalytic inspiration to address interpersonal relations and the interplay between self and group. It acknowledges the role of the unconscious in social behaviour and collective representations and the inevitable expression of transference and countertransference—language and behaviour that redirect unspoken feelings and anxieties to other people or physical objects taking part in the action inquiry.
+The works of Balint, Jaques, and Bion are turning points in the formative years of psychosociology. Commonly cited authors in France include Amado, Barus-Michel, Dubost, Enriquez, Lévy, Gaujelac, and Giust-Desprairies. Different schools of thought and practice include Mendel's action research framed in a 'sociopsychoanalytic' perspective and Dejours's psychodynamics of work, with its emphasis on work-induced suffering and defence mechanisms. Lapassade and Lourau's 'socianalytic' interventions focus rather on institutions viewed as systems that dismantle and recompose norms and rules of social interaction over time, a perspective that builds on the principles of institutional analysis and psychotherapy. Anzieu and Martin's work on group psychoanalysis and theory of the collective 'skin-ego' is generally considered as the most faithful to the Freudian tradition. Key differences between these schools and the methods they use stem from the weight they assign to the analyst's expertise in making sense of group behaviour and views and also the social aspects of group behaviour and affect. Another issue is the extent to which the intervention is critical of broader institutional and social systems. The use of psychoanalytic concepts and the relative weight of effort dedicated to research, training and action also vary.
+
+== Applications ==
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+title: "Participatory action research"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:47.553680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Community development and sustainable livelihoods ===
+PAR emerged in the postwar years as an important contribution to intervention and self-transformation within groups, organizations and communities. It has left a singular mark on the field of rural and community development, especially in the Global South. Tools and concepts for doing research with people, including "barefoot scientists" and grassroots "organic intellectuals" (see Gramsci), are now promoted and implemented by many international development agencies, researchers, consultants, civil society and local community organizations around the world. This has resulted in countless experiments in diagnostic assessment, scenario planning and project evaluation in areas ranging from fisheries and mining to forestry, plant breeding, agriculture, farming systems research and extension, watershed management, resource mapping, environmental conflict and natural resource management, land rights, appropriate technology, local economic development, communication, tourism, leadership for sustainability, biodiversity and climate change. This prolific literature includes the many insights and methodological creativity of participatory monitoring, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and participatory learning and action (PLA) and all action-oriented studies of local, indigenous or traditional knowledge.
+On the whole, PAR applications in these fields are committed to problem solving and adaptation to nature at the household or community level, using friendly methods of scientific thinking and experimentation adapted to support rural participation and sustainable livelihoods.
+
+=== Literacy, education and youth ===
+In education, PAR practitioners inspired by the ideas of critical pedagogy and adult education are firmly committed to the politics of emancipatory action formulated by Freire, with a focus on dialogical reflection and action as means to overcome relations of domination and subordination between oppressors and the oppressed, colonizers and the colonized. The approach implies that "the silenced are not just incidental to the curiosity of the researcher but are the masters of inquiry into the underlying causes of the events in their world". Although a researcher and a sociologist, Fals Borda also has a profound distrust of conventional academia and great confidence in popular knowledge, sentiments that have had a lasting impact on the history of PAR, particularly in the fields of development, literacy, counterhegemonic education as well as youth engagement on issues ranging from violence to criminality, racial or sexual discrimination, educational justice, healthcare and the environment. When youth are included as research partners in the PAR process, it is referred to as Youth Participatory Action Research, or YPAR.
+Community-based participatory research and service-learning are a more recent attempts to reconnect academic interests with education and community development. The Global Alliance on Community-Engaged Research is a promising effort to "use knowledge and community-university partnership strategies for democratic social and environmental change and justice, particularly among the most vulnerable people and places of the world." It calls for the active involvement of community members and researchers in all phases of the action inquiry process, from defining relevant research questions and topics to designing and implementing the investigation, sharing the available resources, acknowledging community-based expertise, and making the results accessible and understandable to community members and the broader public. Service learning or education is a closely related endeavour designed to encourage students to actively apply knowledge and skills to local situations, in response to local needs and with the active involvement of community members. Many online or printed guides now show how students and faculty can engage in community-based participatory research and meet academic standards at the same time.
+Collaborative research in education is community-based research where pre-university teachers are the community and scientific knowledge is built on top of teachers' own interpretation of their experience and reality, with or without immediate engagement in transformative action.
+
+=== Public health ===
+PAR has made important inroads in the field of public health, in areas such as disaster relief, community-based rehabilitation, public health genomics, accident prevention, hospital care and drug prevention.
+Because of its link to radical democratic struggles of the Civil Rights Movement and other social movements in South Asia and Latin America (see above), PAR is seen as a threat to their authority by some established elites. An international alliance university-based participatory researchers, ICPHR, omit the word "Action", preferring the less controversial term "participatory research".
+Photovoice is one of the strategies used in PAR and is especially useful in the public health domain. Keeping in mind the purpose of PAR, which is to benefit communities, Photovoice allows the same to happen through the media of photography. Photovoice considers helping community issues and problems reach policy makers as its primary goal.
+
+=== Occupational health and safety ===
+Participatory programs within the workplace involve employees within all levels of a workplace organization, from management to front-line staff, in the design and implementation of health and safety interventions. Some research has shown that interventions are most successful when front-line employees have a fundamental role in designing workplace interventions. Success through participatory programs may be due to a number of factors. Such factors include a better identification of potential barriers and facilitators, a greater willingness to accept interventions than those imposed strictly from
+upper management, and enhanced buy-in to intervention design, resulting in greater sustainability though promotion and acceptance.  When designing an intervention, employees are able to consider lifestyle and other behavioral influences into solution activities that go beyond the immediate workplace.
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+title: "Participatory action research"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:47.553680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Feminism and gender ===
+Feminist research and women's development theory also contributed to rethinking the role of scholarship in challenging existing regimes of power, using qualitative and interpretive methods that emphasize subjectivity and self-inquiry rather than the quantitative approach of mainstream science. As did most research in the 1970s and 1980s, PAR remained androcentric. In 1987, Patricia Maguire critiqued this male-centered participatory research, arguing that "rarely have feminist and participatory action researchers acknowledged each other with mutually important contributions to the journey." Given that PAR aims to give equitable opportunity for diverse and marginalized voices to be heard, engaging gender minorities is an integral pillar in PAR's tenants. In addition to gender minorities, PAR must consider points of intersecting oppressions individuals may experience. After Maguire published Traveling Companions: Feminism, Teaching, And Action Research, PAR began to extend toward not only feminism, but also Intersectionality through Black Feminist Thought and Critical Race Theory (CRT). Today, applying an intersectional feminist lens to PAR is crucial to recognize the social categories, such as race, class, ability, gender, and sexuality, that construct individuals' power relations and lived experiences. PAR seeks to recognize the deeply complex condition of human living. Therefore, framing PAR's qualitative study methodologies through an intersectional feminist lens mobilizes all experiences – regardless of various social categories and oppressions – as legitimate sources of knowledge.
+
+=== Civic engagement and ICT ===
+Novel approaches to PAR in the public sphere help scale up the engaged inquiry process beyond small group dynamics. Touraine and others thus propose a 'sociology of intervention' involving the creation of artificial spaces for movement activists and non-activists to debate issues of public concern. Citizen science is another recent move to expand the scope of PAR, to include broader 'communities of interest' and citizens committed to enhancing knowledge in particular fields. In this approach to collaborative inquiry, research is actively assisted by volunteers who form an active public or network of contributing individuals. Efforts to promote public participation in the works of science owe a lot to the revolution in information and communications technology (ICT). Web 2.0 applications support virtual community interactivity and the development of user-driven content and social media, without restricted access or controlled implementation. They extend principles of open-source governance to democratic institutions, allowing citizens to actively engage in wiki-based processes of virtual journalism, public debate and policy development. Although few and far between, experiments in open politics can thus make use of ICT and the mechanics of e-democracy to facilitate communications on a large scale, towards achieving decisions that best serve the public interest.
+In the same spirit, discursive or deliberative democracy calls for public discussion, transparency and pluralism in political decision-making, lawmaking and institutional life. Fact-finding and the outputs of science are made accessible to participants and may be subject to extensive media coverage, scientific peer review, deliberative opinion polling and adversarial presentations of competing arguments and predictive claims. The methodology of Citizens' jury is interesting in this regard. It involves people selected at random from a local or national population who are provided opportunities to question 'witnesses' and collectively form a 'judgment' on the issue at hand.
+ICTs, open politics and deliberative democracy usher in new strategies to engage governments, scientists, civil society organizations and interested citizens in policy-related discussions of science and technology. These trends represent an invitation to explore novel ways of doing PAR on a broader scale.
+
+=== Criminal justice ===
+Compared to other fields, PAR frameworks in criminal justice are relatively new. But growing support for community-based alternatives to the criminal justice system has sparked interest in PAR in criminological settings. Participatory action research in criminal justice includes system-impacted people themselves in research and advocacy conducted by academics or other experts. Because system-impacted people hold experiential knowledge of the conditions and practices of the justice system, they may be able to more effectively expose and articulate problems with that system. Many people who have been incarcerated are also able to share with researchers facets of the justice system that are invisible to the outside world or are difficult to understand without first-hand experience. Proponents of PAR in criminal justice believe that including those most impacted by the justice system in research is crucial because the presence of these individuals precludes the possibility of misunderstanding or compounding harms of the justice system in that research.
+Participants in PAR may also hold knowledge or education in more traditional academic fields, like law, policy or government that can inform criminological research. But PAR in criminology bridges the epistemological gap between knowledge gained through academia and through lived experience, connecting research to justice reform.
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+title: "Participatory action research"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:47.553680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Ethics ==
+Given the often delicate power balances between researchers and participants in PAR, there have been calls for a code of ethics to guide the relationship between researchers and participants in a variety of PAR fields. Norms in research ethics involving humans include respect for the autonomy of individuals and groups to deliberate about a decision and act on it. This principle is usually expressed through the free, informed and ongoing consent of those participating in research (or those representing them in the case of persons lacking the capacity to decide). Another mainstream principle is the welfare of participants who should not be exposed to any unfavourable balance of benefits and risks with participation in research aimed at the advancement of knowledge, especially those that are serious and probable. Since privacy is a factor that contributes to people's welfare, confidentiality obtained through the collection and use of data that are anonymous (e.g. survey data) or anonymized tends to be the norm. Finally, the principle of justice—equal treatment and concern for fairness and equity—calls for measures of appropriate inclusion and mechanisms to address conflicts of interests.
+While the choice of appropriate norms of ethical conduct is rarely an either/or question, PAR implies a different understanding of what consent, welfare and justice entail. For one thing the people involved are not mere 'subjects' or 'participants'. They act instead as key partners in an inquiry process that may take place outside the walls of academic or corporate science. As Canada's Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans suggests, PAR requires that the terms and conditions of the collaborative process be set out in a research agreement or protocol based on mutual understanding of the project goals and objectives between the parties, subject to preliminary discussions and negotiations. Unlike individual consent forms, these terms of reference (ToR) may acknowledge collective rights, interests and mutual obligations.  While they are legalistic in their genesis, they are usually based on interpersonal relationships and a history of trust rather than the language of legal forms and contracts.
+Another implication of PAR ethics is that partners must protect themselves and each other against potential risks, by mitigating the negative consequences of their collaborative work and pursuing the welfare of all parties concerned. This does not preclude battles against dominant interests. Given their commitment to social justice and transformative action, some PAR projects may be critical of existing social structures and struggle against the policies and interests of individuals, groups and institutions accountable for their actions, creating circumstances of danger. Public-facing action can also be dangerous for some marginalized populations, such as survivors of domestic violence.
+In some fields of PAR it is believed that an ethics of participation should go beyond avoidance of harm. For participatory settings that engage with marginalized or oppressed populations, including criminal justice, PAR can be mobilized to actively support individuals. An "ethic of empowerment" encourages researchers to consider participants as standing on equal epistemological footing, with equal say in research decisions. Within this ethical framework, PAR doesn't just affect change in the world but also directly improves the lives of the research participants. An "ethic of empowerment" may require a systemic shift in the way researchers view and talk about oppressed communities — often as degenerate or helpless. If not practiced in a way that actively considers the knowledge of participants, PAR can become manipulative. Participatory settings in which participants are tokenized or serve only as sources of information without joint power in decision-making processes can exploit rather than empower.
+By definition, PAR is always a step into the unknown, raising new questions and creating new risks over time. Given its emergent properties and responsiveness to social context and needs, PAR cannot limit discussions and decisions about ethics to the design and proposal phase. Norms of ethical conduct and their implications may have to be revisited as the project unfolds.  This has implications, both in resources and practice, for the ability to subject the research to true ethical oversight in the way that traditional research has come to be regulated.
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+---
+title: "Participatory action research"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:47.553680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Challenges ==
+PAR offers a long history of experimentation with evidence-based and people-based inquiry, a groundbreaking alternative to mainstream positive science. As with positivism, the approach creates many challenges as well as debates on what counts as participation, action and research. Differences in theoretical commitments (Lewinian, Habermasian, Freirean, psychoanalytic, feminist, etc.) and methodological inclinations (quantitative, qualitative, mixed) are numerous and profound. This is not necessarily a problem, given the pluralistic value system built into PAR. Ways to better answer questions pertaining to PAR's relationship with science and social history are nonetheless key to its future.
+One critical question concerns the problem-solving orientation of engaged inquiry—the rational means-ends focus of most PAR experiments as they affect organizational performance or material livelihoods, for instance. In the clinical perspective of French psychosociology, a pragmatic orientation to inquiry neglects forms of understanding and consciousness that are not strictly instrumental and rational. PAR must pay equal attention to the interconnections of self-awareness, the unconscious and life in society.
+Another issue, more widely debated, is scale—how to address broad-based systems of power and issues of complexity, especially those of another development on a global scale. How can PAR develop a macro-orientation to democratic dialogue and meet challenges of the 21st Century, by joining movements to support justice and solidarity on both local and global scales? By keeping things closely tied to local group dynamics, PAR runs the risk of substituting small-scale participation for genuine democracy and fails to develop strategies for social transformation on all levels. Given its political implications, community-based action research and its consensus ethos have been known to fall prey to powerful stakeholders and serve as Trojan horses to bring global and environmental restructuring processes directly to local settings, bypassing legitimate institutional buffers and obscuring diverging interests and the exercise of power during the process. Cooptation can lead to highly manipulated outcomes. Against this criticism, others argue that, given the right circumstances, it is possible to build institutional arrangements for joint learning and action across regional and national borders that can have impacts on citizen action, national policies and global discourses.
+The role of science and scholarship in PAR is another source of difference. In the Lewinian tradition, "there is nothing so practical as a good theory". Accordingly, the scientific logic of developing theory, forming and testing hypotheses, gathering measurable data and interpreting the results plays a central role. While more clinically oriented, psychosociology in France also emphasizes the distinctive role of formal research and academic work, beyond problem solving in specific contexts. Many PAR practitioners critical of mainstream science and its overemphasis on quantitative data also point out that research based on qualitative methods may be theoretically-informed and rigorous in its own way. In other traditions, however, PAR keeps great distance from both academic and corporate science. Given their emphasis on pluralism and living knowledge, many practitioners of grassroots inquiry are critical of grand theory and advanced methods for collaborative inquiry, to the point of abandoning the word "research" altogether, as in participatory action learning. Others equate research with any involvement in reflexive practice aimed at assessing problems and evaluating project or program results against group expectations. As a result, inquiry methods tend to be soft and theory remains absent or underdeveloped. Practical and theoretical efforts to overcome this ambivalence towards scholarly activity are nonetheless emerging.
+
+== See also ==
+Community organizing
+Cooperative inquiry
+Participatory design
+Participatory monitoring
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Action Research Archived 29 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Sage, ISSN 1741-2617
+Organizational Development Series Archived 6 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Addison-Wesley Business & Economics
+Educational Action Research, ISSN 1747-5074
+International Journal of Action Research, Rainer Hampp Verlag, ISSN 1861-9916
+Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Archived 8 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Sage, ISSN 1552-6879
+Journal of Organizational Change Management Archived 30 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine
+Management Learning Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Sage, ISSN 1461-7307
+Participatory Learning and Action, IIED, ISSN 1357-938X
+Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action Archived 16 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISSN 1557-055X
+Systems Practice and Action Research, Springer, ISSN 1094-429X (Print) 1573-9295 (Online)
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+title: "Participatory design"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:48.714500+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Participatory design (originally co-operative design or design participation, now often co-design and also co-creation) is an approach to design that attempts to involve a variety of stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable. Participatory design is an approach which is focused on processes and procedures of design and is not a design style. The term is used in a variety of fields, e.g. software design, urban design, architecture, landscape architecture, product design, sustainability, graphic design, industrial design, planning, and health services development, as a way of creating environments that are more satisfactory and appropriate to their inhabitants' and users' practical, cultural, emotional and spiritual needs. It is also one approach to placemaking.
+Participatory design has been used in many settings and at various scales. For some, this approach has a political dimension of user empowerment and democratization. This inclusion of external parties in the design process does not excuse designers of their responsibilities. In their article "Participatory Design and Prototyping", Wendy Mackay and Michel Beaudouin-Lafon support this point by stating that "[a] common misconception about participatory design is that designers are expected to abdicate their responsibilities as designers and leave the design to users. This is never the case: designers must always consider what users can and cannot contribute."
+
+== Definition ==
+In participatory design, participants (putative, potential or future) are invited to cooperate with designers, researchers and developers during certain parts of a design process. The broader definition of co-design requires the end user's participation not only in evaluating proposals but also in idea generation. Potentially, they participate during several stages of an innovation process: during the initial exploration and problem definition both to help define the problem and to focus ideas for solution, and, during development, they help evaluate proposed solutions.
+In the broader discourse on collaborative processes, terminology such as co-design, co-creation, and urban co-creation is often debated and differentiated. For example, In "Co-designing for Society", Deborah Szebeko and Lauren Tan list various precursors of co-design, and differentiate co-design from participatory design because co-design "includes all stakeholders of an issue not just the users, throughout the entire process from research to implementation."
+Similarly, Maria Gabriela Sanchez and Lois Frankel proposed that "Co-design may be considered . . . as an interdisciplinary process that involves designers and non-designers in the development of design solutions" and that "the success of the interdisciplinary process depends on the participation of all the stakeholders in the project".
+According to Elizabeth Sanders and Pieter Stappers "Co-creation is a very broad term with applications ranging from the physical to the metaphysical and from the material to the spiritual", with co-design being a specific instance of co-creation.
+Within urban studies, urban co-creation has been proposed to describe participatory processes that are genuinely inclusive, emphasizing the active, bottom-up involvement of residents, communities, and grassroots organizations in shaping urban environments. Seve et al. (2022) argue that urban co-creation encompasses a wide range of practices—including appropriation of space, self-construction, guerrilla gardening, and tactical urbanism—that challenge traditional top-down models. They contend that the term participation alone is ambiguous and insufficient to describe the diversity of collaborative practices and dynamics in urban transformation.
+As described by Sanders and Stappers, one could position co-design as a form of human-centered design across two different dimensions. One dimension is the emphasis on research or design, another dimension is how much people are involved. Therefore, there are many forms of co-design, with different degrees of emphasis on research or design and different degrees of stakeholder involvement. For instance, one of the forms of co-design which involves stakeholders strongly early at the front end design process in the creative activities is generative co-design. Generative co-design is increasingly being used to involve different stakeholders, such as patients, care professionals and designers actively in the creative making process to develop health services.
+
+== History ==
+From the 1960s onward there was a growing demand for greater consideration of community opinions in major decision-making. In Australia many people believed that they were not being planned 'for' but planned 'at' (Nichols 2009). A lack of consultation made the planning system seem paternalistic and without proper consideration of how changes to the built environment affected its primary users. In Britain "the idea that the public should participate was first raised in 1965." In 1968 the UK Government set up a Committee to consider Public Participation in Planning, which reported in 1969, recommending little more than that the public should be able to comment on planning proposals. In 1971 the first international conference of the Design Research Society, in Manchester UK, was on 'Design Participation', which took a broad view of emerging practices of participation in design, from radical technology and computer aids in architectural design to inclusive design for disabled users.
+The level of participation is an important issue. One of the most influential works on citizen participation is the article "A Ladder of Citizen Participation", published by Sherry Arnstein in 1969. In this paper, Arnstein outlines a model consisting of eight levels of participation, ranging from manipulation to citizen control, the latter representing full and genuine participation. At a minimum public workshops and hearings have now been included in almost every planning endeavour. Yet this level of consultation can simply mean information about change without detailed participation. Involvement that 'recognises an active part in plan making' has not always been straightforward to achieve. Participatory design has attempted to create a platform for active participation in the design process, for end users.
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+---
+title: "Participatory design"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:48.714500+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== History in Scandinavia ===
+In several Scandinavian countries, during the 1960s and 1970s, participatory design was rooted in work with trade unions; its ancestry also includes action research and sociotechnical design. Research projects on user participation in systems development date back to the 1970s. The so-called "collective resource approach" developed strategies and techniques for workers to influence the design and use of computer applications at the workplace: The Norwegian Iron and Metal Workers Union (NJMF) project took a first move from traditional research to working with people, directly changing the role of the union clubs in the project.
+The Scandinavian projects developed an action research approach, emphasizing active co-operation between researchers and workers of the organization to help improve the latter's work situation.  While researchers got their results, the people whom they worked with were equally entitled to get something out of the project. The approach built on people's own experiences, providing for them resources to be able to act in their current situation. The view of organizations as fundamentally harmonious—according to which conflicts in an organization are regarded as pseudo-conflicts or "problems" dissolved by good analysis and increased communication—was rejected in favor of a view of organizations recognizing fundamental "un-dissolvable" conflicts in organizations (Ehn & Sandberg, 1979).
+In the Utopia project (Bødker et al., 1987, Ehn, 1988), the major achievements were the experience-based design methods, developed through the focus on hands-on experiences, emphasizing the need for technical and organizational alternatives (Bødker et al., 1987).
+The parallel Florence project (Gro Bjerkness & Tone Bratteteig) started a long line of Scandinavian research projects in the health sector. In particular, it worked with nurses and developed approaches for nurses to get a voice in the development of work and IT in hospitals. The Florence project put gender on the agenda with its starting point in a highly gendered work environment.
+The 1990s led to a number of projects including the AT project (Bødker et al., 1993) and the EureCoop/EuroCode projects (Grønbæk, Kyng & Mogensen, 1995).
+Later, it became a major challenge to participatory design to embrace the fact that much technology development no longer happens as design of isolated systems in well-defined communities of work (Beck, 2002).
+
+== Co-design ==
+Co-design refers to designated designers working together with the intended product/system users and other stakeholders throughout the process of designing new or improved products and systems. It is especially focused on including the insights, experiences and input from end-users of a product, system or service, with the aim to develop more appropriate, acceptable and satisfactory outcomes. It is often used by designers who recognize the difficulty in properly understanding the usage, societal or cultural scenarios of those for whom the new design is intended. 
+Research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own. Companies also increasingly rely on their user communities to generate new product ideas, marketing them as "user-designed" products to the wider consumer market; consumers who are not actively participating but observe this user-driven approach show a preference for products from such firms over those driven by designers. This preference is attributed to an enhanced identification with firms adopting a user-driven outlook, with consumers feeling empowerment even if being only indirectly involved in the design process, leading to a preference for the firm's products.
+
+== Areas of application ==
+
+=== In the built environment ===
+Participatory design has many applications in development and changes to the built environment. It has particular currency to planners and architects, in relation to placemaking and community regeneration projects. It potentially offers a more democratic approach to the design process as it involves more than one stakeholder. By incorporating a variety of views there is greater opportunity for successful outcomes.
+Many local governments require community consultation in any major changes to the built environment. Community involvement in the planning process is almost a standard requirement in most strategic changes. Community involvement in local decision making creates a sense of empowerment. The City of Melbourne Swanston Street redevelopment project received over 5000 responses from the public allowing them to participate in the design process by commenting on seven different design options.  While the City of Yarra recently held a "Stories in the Street" consultation, to record peoples ideas about the future of Smith Street. It offered participants a variety of mediums to explore their opinions such as mapping, photo surveys and storytelling. Although local councils are taking positive steps towards participatory design as opposed to traditional top down approaches to planning, many communities are moving to take design into their own hands.
+
+==== Public interest design ====
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+---
+title: "Participatory design"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:48.714500+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Public interest design is a design movement, extending to architecture, with the main aim of structuring design around the needs of the community. At the core of its application is participatory design. Through allowing individuals to have a say in the process of design of their own surrounding built environment, design can become proactive and tailored towards addressing wider social issues facing that community. Public interest design is meant to reshape conventional modern architectural practice. Instead of having each construction project solely meet the needs of the individual, public interest design addresses wider social issues at their core. This shift in architectural practice is a structural and systemic one, allowing design to serve communities responsibly. Solutions to social issues can be addressed in a long-term manner through such design, serving the public, and involving it directly in the process through participatory design. The built environment can become the very reason for social and community issues to arise if not executed properly and responsibly. Conventional architectural practice often does cause such problems since only the paying client has a say in the design process.
+Portland, Oregon City Repair Project was a form of participatory design involving the community co-designing problem areas together to make positive changes to their environment. It involved collaborative decision-making and design without traditional involvement from local government or professionals but instead run on volunteers from the community. The process has created successful projects such as intersection repair, which saw a misused intersection develop into a successful community square.
+In Malawi, a UNICEF WASH programme trialled participatory design development for latrines in order to ensure that users participate in creating and selecting sanitation technologies that are appropriate and affordable for them. The process provided an opportunity for community members to share their traditional knowledge and skills in partnership with designers and researchers.
+
+=== In software development ===
+In the English-speaking world, the term has a particular currency in the world of software development, especially in circles connected to Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR), who have put on a series of Participatory Design Conferences. It overlaps with the approach extreme programming takes to user involvement in design, but (possibly because of its European trade union origins) the Participatory Design tradition puts more emphasis on the involvement of a broad population of users rather than a small number of user representatives.
+Participatory design can be seen as a move of end-users into the world of researchers and developers, whereas empathic design can be seen as a move of researchers and developers into the world of end-users. There is a very significant differentiation between user-design and user-centered design in that there is an emancipatory theoretical foundation, and a systems theory bedrock (Ivanov, 1972, 1995), on which user-design is founded.
+Participatory work in software development has historically tended toward two distinct trajectories, one in Scandinavia and northern Europe, and the other in North America.  The Scandinavian and northern European tradition has remained closer to its roots in the labor movement (e.g., Beck, 2002; Bjerknes, Ehn, and Kyng, 1987).  The North American and Pacific Rim tradition has tended to be both broader (e.g., including managers and executives as "stakeholders" in design) and more circumscribed (e.g., design of individual features as contrasted with the Scandinavian approach to the design of entire systems and design of the work that the system is supposed to support) (e.g., Beyer and Holtzblatt, 1998; Noro and Imada, 1991).  However, some other has tended to combine the two approaches (Bødker et al., 2004; Muller, 2007).
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+---
+title: "Participatory design"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:48.714500+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Research methodology ==
+Increasingly researchers are focusing on co-design as a way of doing research, and therefore are developing parts of its research methodology. For instance, in the field of generative co-design Vandekerckhove et al. have proposed a methodology to assemble a group of stakeholders to participate in generative co-design activities in the early innovation process. They propose first to sample a group of potential stakeholders through snowball sampling, afterwards interview these people and assess their knowledge and inference experience, lastly they propose to assemble a diverse group of stakeholders according to their knowledge and inference experience.
+Though not completely synonymous, research methods of Participatory Design can be defined under Participatory Research (PR): a term for research designs and frameworks using direct collaboration with those affected by the studied issue. More specifically, Participatory Design has evolved from Community-Based Research and Participatory Action Research (PAR). PAR is a qualitative research methodology involving: "three types of change, including critical consciousness development of researchers and participants, improvement of lives of those participating in research, and transformation of societal 'decolonizing' research methods with the power of healing and social justice". Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a subset of Community-Based Research aimed explicitly at including participants and empowering people to create measurable action. PAR practices across various disciplines, with research in Participatory Design being an application of its different qualitative methodologies. Just as PAR is often used in social sciences, for example, to investigate a person's lived experience concerning systemic structures and social power relations, Participatory Design seeks to deeply understand stakeholders' experiences by directly engaging them in the problem-defining and solving processes. Therefore, in Participatory Design, research methods extend beyond simple qualitative and quantitative data collection. Rather than being concentrated within data collection, research methods of Participatory Design are tools and techniques used throughout co-designing research questions, collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, knowledge dissemination, and enacting change.
+When facilitating research in Participatory Design, decisions are made in all research phases to assess what will produce genuine stakeholder participation. By doing so, one of Participatory Design's goals is to dismantle the power imbalance existing between 'designers' and 'users.' Applying PR and PAR research methods seeks to engage communities and question power hierarchies, which "makes us aware of the always contingent character of our presumptions and truths... truths are logical, contingent and intersubjective... not directed toward some specific and predetermined end goal... committed to denying us the (seeming) firmness of our commonsensical assumptions". Participatory design offers this denial of our "commonsensical assumptions" because it forces designers to consider knowledge beyond their craft and education. Therefore, a designer conducting research for Participatory Design assumes the role of facilitator and co-creator.
+Other researchers suggest that participation in urban contexts is not merely a technical procedure initiated by experts or institutions, but rather a multifaceted and dynamic practice embedded in the transformation of cities. It encompasses not only planned participatory processes led by professionals—such as community planning or design workshops—but also grassroots and collective actions including self-building, urban gardening, occupation of vacant lots, street markets, protests, and dissident urban interventions. These practices are often rooted in ecological awareness, care, and a shared claim to the urban commons, as exemplified by initiatives like guerrilla gardening, tactical urbanism, and community-run spaces. Far from being marginal, these actions express citizens' direct engagement in shaping the city and reflect diverse motivations, ranging from ecological justice to cultural identity and social solidarity. Understood in this expanded sense, urban co-creation encompasses the full spectrum of participatory practices—whether formal, informal, or insurgent—that contribute to the collective making of urban space.
+
+== Difficulties of adoption and involvement ==
+Participatory Design is a growing practice within the field of design yet has not yet been widely implemented. Some barriers to the adoption of participatory design are listed below.
+
+=== Doubt of universal creativity ===
+A belief that creativity is a restricted skill would invalidate the proposal of participatory design to allow a wider reach of affected people to participate in the creative process of designing. However, this belief is based on a limited view of creativity which does not recognize that creativity can manifest in a wide range of activities and experiences. This doubt can be damaging not only to individuals but also to society as a whole. By assuming that only a select few possess creative talent, we may overlook the unique perspectives, ideas, and solutions.
+
+=== Self-serving hierarchies ===
+In a profit-motivated system, the commercial field of design may feel fearful of relinquishing some control in order to empower those who are typically not involved in the process of design. Commercial organizational structures often prioritize profit, individual gain, or status over the well-being of the community or other externalities. However, participatory practices are not impossible to implement in commercial settings. It may be difficult for those who have acquired success in a hierarchical structure to imagine alternative systems of open collaboration.
+
+=== Lack of investment ===
+Although participatory design has been of interest in design academia, applied uses require funding and dedication from many individuals. The high time and financial costs make research and development of participatory design less appealing for speculative investors. It also may be difficult to find or convince enough shareholders or community members to commit their time and effort to a project. However, widespread and involved participation is critical to the process.
+Successful examples of participatory design are critical because they demonstrate the benefits of this approach and inspire others to adopt it. A lack of funding or interest can cause participatory projects to revert to practices where the designer initiates and dominates rather than facilitating design by the community.
+
+=== Differing priorities between designers and participants ===
+Participatory design projects which involve a professional designer as a facilitator to a larger group can have difficulty with competing objectives. Designers may prioritize aesthetics while end-users may prioritize functionality and affordability.  Addressing these differing priorities may involve finding creative solutions that balance the needs of all stakeholders, such as using low-cost materials that meet functional requirements while also being aesthetically pleasing. Despite any potential predetermined assumptions, "the users' knowledge has to be considered as important as the knowledge of the other professionals in the team, [as this] can be an obstacle to the co-design practice." "[The future of] co-designing will be a close collaboration between all the stakeholders in the design development process together with a variety of professionals having hybrid design/research skills."
+
+== See also ==
+Co-creation
+Computer-supported cooperative work
+Design thinking
+Participatory action research
+Permaculture
+Public participation
+Service design
+User innovation
+User participation in architecture (N.J. Habraken, Giancarlo De Carlo, and Structuralists such as Aldo van Eyck)
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Other sources ==
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+---
+title: "Patient and public involvement"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_and_public_involvement"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:49.972651+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Public involvement (or public and patient involvement, PPI) in medical research refers to the practice where people with health conditions (patients), carers and members of the public work together with researchers and influence what is researched and how. Involvement is not the same as participation which means taking part in research, for example taking a drug in a clinical trial.
+
+== Definition ==
+Public involvement in medical research can be defined as research being carried out "with" or "by" members of the public rather than "to", "about" or "for" them. Through PPI patients, carers and people with lived experience work alongside researchers to influence and contribute to how research is designed and conducted. Members of the public involved in research are frequently referred to as public members or public contributors.
+
+=== Terminology ===
+Researchers and others use different terms to describe how they interact with the public, and this can vary across organisations and countries. The terms involvement, engagement and participation are sometimes used interchangeably.
+The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) uses the term public partnerships to encompass the components of involvement, engagement and participation. It can be summarised as "a term to collectively describe ways in which patients, service users, carers and members of the public work with researchers, and health and care professionals, in the creation and use of health and care research". The NIHR's terminology differentiates involvement from  participation where people take part in a research study and engagement which is sharing information and knowledge about research with the public.
+
+== Benefits and impact ==
+There are a variety reasons and benefits why researchers involve the public in research. Besides the added value it is also often a requirement for receiving funding for research.
+Involving members of the public can improve the quality of research and make it more relevant and accessible. People with current or past experience of illness can provide a different perspective than professionals and compliment their knowledge. Through their personal knowledge they can identify research topics that are relevant and important to those living with an illness or using a service. They can also help to make the research more grounded in the needs of the specific communities they are part of. Public contributors can also ensure that the research is presented in plain language that is clear to the wider society and the specific groups it is most relevant for.
+Involving the public in research is considered a way of serving broader democratic principles because people affected by research have the right to have a say in it. This also makes research more transparent and accountable for society. Public involvement can also make research more ethical. For example public members can help participants of a clinical trial understand what the research is about so they can make informed consent have an overall better experience.
+Public members and patients have a range of reasons why they decide to get involved in research. These can include altruistic motivations, such as wanting to make a difference by contributing to a better healthcare or helping others with a shared condition get better care and treatments. Reasons for involvement can also stem from interest in a health topic or in research in general. It can also be a form of volunteering, working to ensure the representation of a community or a way to gain new skills.
+Despite PPI becoming a more widely accepted part of the research process, the term PPI is sometimes perceived to be vague as a concept and there are questions around what counts as good public involvement. 
+One of the initiatives aiming to improve the quality and consistency of public involvement in research is the UK Standards for Public Involvement. These were developed through a collaboration of organisations, researchers and practitioners, research funders and public partners across the United Kingdom. The standards provide a description of what good public involvement looks like and can be used as a tool to help people and organisations improve their PPI. The six UK Standards for Public Involvement are summarised as:
+
+inclusive opportunities,
+working together,
+support and learning,
+governance,
+communications,
+impact.
+Further tools for supporting meaningful patient involvement include the Patient Engagement Quality Guidance developed by the global coalition Patient Focused Medicines Development. The document lists seven quality criteria including shared purpose, respect and accessibility, transparency, and sustainability.
+
+== Types of involvement ==
+There are different approaches to involving the public in research which correspond to different levels of influence that public members have in a research project:
+
+Consultation. Asking members of the public for their views about a specific part of research and using these to make decisions.
+Collaboration. An ongoing partnership between researchers and the involved members of the public. Decisions about the research are shared.
+Co-production. Working together from the start to the end of the research project. Co-production requires efforts to make sure that participants share power and responsibility.
+User controlled research. Research that is actively directed and managed by service users and their organisations. They make decisions about the issues and questions looked at by the research.
+Initiatives such as co-production or user controlled research in which decision-making and agenda setting power is shared with or held by patients are considered examples of lived experience leadership. Academic journals continue to develop ways to ensure patient involvement is reported transparently and meaningfully. Researchers have called for patients to lead this reporting, to ensure their expertise is not co-opted.
+There are wide range of ways how the public can be involved in different stages of research. These include:
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+---
+title: "Patient and public involvement"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_and_public_involvement"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:49.972651+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Identifying and prioritising research. People with lived experience help to identify the right topics to ensure that the research is looking at what matters to them.
+Commissioning research. Involving members of the public in deciding  which research proposals should get funding. Public members can also continue monitoring the research projects that get funded.
+Designing research. Public members help designing the research to make sure it is feasible, ethical and relevant. This happens usually before applying for funding.
+Managing research. Public involvement in the steering group or managing committee that oversees the research.
+Undertaking research. Members of the public help carrying out the research. This can include, for example, gathering evidence, reviewing literature, conducting interviews and focus groups, and analysing the results.
+Disseminating (sharing) research. Public members help sharing the findings of research. They can be consulted on the ways of dissemination, help summarising the research in plain language, work on accessibility issues.
+Implementing research. Public members influencing how the result is taken into practice and making sure it leads to action.
+Public involvement can be short-term and task-based or long-term across a research project or an institutional programme.
+
+== Barriers and issues ==
+There are a wide range of challenges and issues that can block the involvement of patients or hinder the process from being effective.
+Systematic issues can include a lack of adequate funding for implementing PPI.
+From the perspective of public members, many individual factors can influence if they can be involved in a meaningful way. Potential difficulties for patients might arise from health status, accessibility of locations, self-confidence, language proficiency and available free time. Issues might include public members not feeling that their contributions matter or that they gain anything by being involved. A vague definition of the role and uncertainty about the goal can also be a barrier for public members.
+Health professionals' lack of knowledge and understanding of public involvement theory and techniques can also be a barrier to public involvement. Involving patients simply as tokens or being dismissive about their contributions can lead to ineffective PPI and a negative impact on those involved. Power imbalances between people, hierarchical or elitist attitudes by medical professionals can also impair the experience and quality of patient involvement.
+
+== Reporting ==
+Despite evidence that public involvement can have a positive influence on health research, evaluation of its impact has been reported to be anecdotal and weak. This has led to the creation of multiple measuring tools to assess the impact of public involvement in research. Examples include:
+
+GRIPP2 reporting checklists: tools to improve reporting of patient and public involvement in research
+Public Involvement in Research Impact Toolkit (PIRIT)
+Public Involvement Impact Assessment Framework (PiiAF)
+The 'cube' framework
+
+== Around the world ==
+
+=== International initiatives ===
+The International Patient and Public Involvement (PPI) Network was established in 2017. It brings together organisations and individuals from across the globe with the aim to share expertise and evidence-based good practice.
+
+=== European Union ===
+In 2012 the Innovative Medicines Initiative launched the European Patients' Academy on Therapeutic Innovation (EUPATI) which provides education for patients to enable them to meaningfully contribute to medical research and medicine development. Besides its international activity, EUPATI also has national platforms in more than 20 countries. EUPATI's publications include guidance documents on patient involvement in medical product regulation, ethical reviews of trials, research and development, and health technology assessment.
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+In the UK, patient and public involvement is acknowledged in key pieces of legislation on healthcare such as the Health and Social Care Act and the NHS Constitution.
+The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR), a research funder in England, is considered a pioneer in the development and implementation of PPI. The NIHR requires public involvement to be included in its funding programmes. They produce various resources such as the Learning for Involvement website which hosts training materials and best practices to support researchers with public involvement. The NIHR also funds the James Lind Alliance, an organisation that brings together patients, carers and clinicians to identify unanswered questions or uncertainties for future research to look at.
+The Shared Learning Group on Involvement aims to encourage shared learning about the involvement of people with lived experience (also called service users, patients, carers and other terms) between charities working in the UK.
+
+=== Canada ===
+
+In Canada the term patient engagement is used by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR). Their Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research (SPOR) sets out the framework for patient engagement, stating that patients need to be involved in all aspects of research. SPOR is also the name of the scheme that provides funding for patient-oriented research. The Canadian Cancer Society, a non-profit cancer research funder also developed a patient engagement strategy and involves patient partners in research funding decisions.
+
+=== United States ===
+In the US, the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI) engages patients and funds research based on matters relevant to them.  The Clinical Trials Transformation Initiative (CTTI), a partnership between the Food and Drug Administration, the National Institutes of Health, and others, also runs a project exploring the best practices for patient engagement and incorporating patient perspectives in clinical trials.
+
+== Global health ==
+In global health research the equivalent of PPI is called community engagement and involvement (CEI) or community and public engagement (CPE). Similarly to PPI, community engagement is the practice of actively involving local communities in the countries where the research takes place. Global health research often takes place in low and middle income countries (LMICs) and concerns marginalised communities. Involving these groups in research can reduce the potential for exploitation, address ethical concerns and bridge cultural differences.
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+---
+title: "Patient and public involvement"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_and_public_involvement"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:49.972651+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Diversity and inclusion ==
+In order for research to be relevant for all, the PPI process needs to include members of the public from diverse and inclusive groups.
+A 2021 survey highlights that the majority of public contributors to NIHR research were predominantly female (57%), 61 years of age and over, white and heterosexual. The Health Research Authority found that people from ethnic and lower socioeconomic groups felt less confident about being treated in a dignified and respectful way in research in comparison to white and higher socioeconomic individuals.
+Black and minority ethnic (BME) involvement in research has widespread support, however it tends to be limited to certain phases of the research cycle and particular ethnicities.
+
+=== Frameworks for diversity ===
+The Race Equality Framework (REF) was produced as a self assessment tool aiming to help organisations improve racial equity in health and care research. It was co-produced by the Race Equality Public Action Group (REPAG).
+Similar frameworks exist for research participants, for example, the INCLUDE ethnicity framework and the National Health Service (NHS) guidance for increasing diversity in research participation.
+
+== History ==
+The development of patient and public involvement in research was influenced by grassroots social movements, national politics and wider societal contexts.
+Emancipatory disability research in the UK in the 1970s can be seen as a forerunner of PPI. This research model was initiated by people with disabilities who were dissatisfied with their treatment and discrimination in society. They were also suspicious of conventional research for serving service providers instead of patients. The model proposed by the movement sought to equilise relationship between researchers and disabled people and make them empowered participants instead of research subjects.
+Another early drive for PPI came during the HIV pandemic in the 1980s. HIV activists lobbied for  faster regulatory processes in public health that would serve the interests of patients. As a result to HIV activists work, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started a working with patients in 1988. In the 1990s HIV activism also influenced the European Medicines Agency (EMA) to start involving patients in its decision-making.
+In 1996 the UK's National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) established the advisory body INVOLVE to support public involvement in the NHS and health and care research. INVOLVE produced a large library of guides, training materials and other resources relating to PPI. NIHR set up the Centre for Engagement and Dissemination in 2020 as a successor of INVOLVE. The UK government also set out their direction for public involvement in research in the 2006 health research strategy, Best Research for Best Health. It stated: 'Patients and the public must be involved in all stages of the research process: priority setting; defining research outcomes; selecting research methodology; patient recruitment; interpretation of findings and dissemination of results.'
+In the early 2000s, patient leadership was proposed as a way to redress the variability in involvement initiatives. Despite decades of advocacy, power differentials between patients and others working in the health system continue to exclude patients from setting the agenda in health systems, services, education and research. This has led to calls to look beyond mere involvement or engagement and to lived experience leadership in which decision-making power sits with patients.
+In 2022, a large number of funders, regulators and research organisations in the United Kingdom signed up to a shared commitment to improve public involvement in research across the sector and to enable it to be consistently excellent. The signatories of the Shared Commitment to Public Involvement agreed to:
+
+listen to and learn from the people and communities we involve and apply and share that learning;
+build and share the evidence of how to involve the public and the impact this has;
+support improvements in equality, diversity, and inclusion in public involvement;
+promote the UK Standards for Public Involvement.
+
+== See also ==
+Clinical research
+Lived experience leadership
+Participatory action research
+Community-based participatory research
+Citizen science
+Co-production
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+What is patient and public involvement (PPI) in research? Why does it matter? on Healthtalk
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+---
+title: "Pooled analysis"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pooled_analysis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:52.330665+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A pooled analysis is a statistical technique for combining the results of multiple epidemiological studies. It is one of three types of literature reviews frequently used in epidemiology, along with meta-analysis and traditional narrative reviews. Pooled analyses may be either retrospective or prospective. It is often used when the results of individual studies do not allow for a firm conclusion to be drawn. Unlike meta-analyses, pooled analyses can only be conducted if the included studies used the same study design and statistical models, and if their respective populations were homogeneous. If individual-level data from the included studies is available, the result of a pooled analysis can be considered more reliable.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Postmortem studies"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmortem_studies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:53.502702+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Postmortem studies are a type of neurobiological research, which provides information to researchers and individuals who will have to make medical decisions in the future. Postmortem researchers conduct a longitudinal study of the brain of an individual, who has some sort of phenomenological condition (i.e. cannot speak, trouble moving left side of body, Alzheimer's, etc.) that is examined after death. Researchers look at certain lesions in the brain that could have an influence on cognitive or motor functions. These irregularities, damage, or other cerebral anomalies observed in the brain are attributed to an individual's pathophysiology and their environmental surroundings. Postmortem studies provide a unique opportunity for researchers to study different brain attributes that would be unable to be studied on a living person.
+Postmortem studies allow researchers to determine causes and cure for certain diseases and functions. It is critical for researchers to develop hypotheses, in order to discover the characteristics that are meaningful to a particular disorder. The results that the researcher discovers from the study will help the researcher trace the location in the brain to specific behaviors.
+When tissue from a postmortem study is obtained it is imperative that the researcher ensures the quality is adequate to study. This is specifically important when an individual is researching gene expression (i.e. DNA, RNA, and proteins). Some key ways researchers monitor the quality are by determining the pain level/time of death of the individual, pH of the tissue, refrigeration time and temperature of storage, time until the brain tissue is frozen, and the thawing conditions. As well as finding out specific information about the individual's life such as: age, sex, legal or illegal substance use, and a treatment analysis of the individual.
+
+
+== Background ==
+Postmortem studies have been used to further the understanding of the brain for centuries. Before the time of the MRI, CAT Scan, or X-ray it was one of the few ways to study the relation between behavior and the brain.
+
+
+=== Broca ===
+Paul Broca used postmortem studies to link a specific area of the brain with speech production.
+His research began when he noticed that a patient with an aphasic stroke had lesions in the left hemisphere of his brain.  His research and theory continued over time.
+The most notable of his research subjects was Tan (named for the only syllable he could utter). Tan had lesions in his brain caused by syphilis. These lesions were determined to cover the area of his brain that was important for speech production.
+The area of the brain that Broca identified is now known as Broca's area; damage to this section of the brain can lead to Expressive aphasia.
+
+
+=== Wernicke ===
+Karl Wernicke also used postmortem studies to link specific areas of the brain with speech production. However his research focused more on patients who could speak, however their speech made little sense and/or had trouble understanding spoken words or sentences.
+His research in language comprehension and the brain also found it to be localized in the left hemisphere, but in a different section. This area is known as Wernicke's area; damage to this section can lead to Receptive aphasia.
+
+
+== Benefits ==
+Postmortem studies allows for researchers to give information that is relevant to individuals by explaining the causes of particular diseases and behaviors. This is in hopes that others can avoid some of these experiences in the future. Postmortem studies also improve medical knowledge and help to determine whether changes happen in the brain itself or in the actual disorder. By doing this researchers are then able to help prioritize experimental studies and integrate the studies into animal and cell research.  Another benefit to postmortem studies is that researchers have the ability to make a wide range of discoveries, because of the many different techniques used to obtain tissue samples. Postmortem studies are extremely important and unique despite their limitations.
+
+
+== Limitations ==
+Postmortem brain samples are limited resources, because it is extremely difficult for a researcher to get a hold of an individual's brain. The researchers ask their participants or the families to consent to allowing them to study the loved one's brain, however there has been a falling rates of consent in the last few years. Subsequently, researchers have to use indirect methods to study the locations and processes of the brain. Another limitation to postmortem studies is the continuous funding and the time it takes to conduct a longitudinal study. Postmortem longitudinal studies usually take place at the time of assessment until the time of death about 20–30 years.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Pragmatic validity"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_validity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:54.708020+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Pragmatic validity in research looks to a different paradigms from more traditional, (post)positivistic research approaches. It tries to ameliorate problems associated with the rigour-relevance debate, and is applicable in all kinds of research streams. Simply put, pragmatic validity looks at research from a prescriptive-driven perspective. Solutions to problems that actually occur in the complex and highly multivariate field of practice are developed in a way that, while valid for a specific situation, need to be adjusted according to the context in which they are to be applied.
+The term "validity" is often seen as a sort catch-all for the question whether the knowledge claims resulting from research are warranted. The confusion might arise from the mingling of the terms 'internal validity' and 'external validity', where the former refers to proof of a causal link between a treatment and effect, and the latter is concerned with generalizability. (In this discussion I maintain the term 'generalizability' rather than external validity mainly to avoid any possible confusion between the two terms.) During this discussion  I consider that validity is reflected in the question, "did we measure the right thing?", or, in other words, can the researcher prove that the effect he observed was actually a result of the cause? Positivistic research approaches this question in a different way than pragmatic research, which is based in a different paradigm. Design Science Research is one example of research firmly situated in a pragmatic perspective.
+
+== Validity in (post)positivist research ==
+Postpositivist research typically strives to numerically report upon empirical observations made within a controlled environment in order to arrive at a universal truth about a causal effect between a limited number of variables. This statement relates what much of the epistemology of Positivistic science is based on: isolating singular variables in order to come to a conclusion that is free of context. Laboratory experiments and quantitative models are the preferred methods for observing and reporting. These are considered to rule out any rival plausible explanations and thus help to guarantee validity.
+
+== Validity in pragmatic research ==
+Validity in prescription-driven research is approached in different ways than descriptive research. The first difference deals with what some researchers call 'messy situations' (Brown 1992; Collins, Joseph, and Bielaczuc 2004). A messy situation is a real-life, a highly multivariate one is where independent variables cannot be minimized nor completely accounted for. In explanatory science, experiments are in controlled laboratories, where variables can be minimalized. The complex nature of a real-life intervention means that the success or failure (effect) of the intervention may be difficult to conclusively link to the intervention itself (cause). This aspect of knowledge claims from  science is seen as extremely problematic for positivist scientists looking for explanations. However, scientists using a pragmatic paradigm respond to this concept in two ways; first by questioning the value of research carried out in a controlled situation (Brown 1992; Hodkinson 2004; Kelly and Lesh 2000; Perrin 2000; Susman and Evered 1978; Walker and Evers 1999; Zaritsky et al. 2003) and secondly, by looking at causal effects through a different perspective.
+The use of the phrase of Pragmatic Validity was first discussed in Worren, Moore & Elliott (2002), who contrasted it with Scientific Validity.  This ideas has been taken up in the management literature to a considerable degree.
+Many social science researchers assert that testing interventions in controlled laboratory settings is hardly feasible and not a reflection of the real world. For them, real-life settings are needed in order to produce worthwhile research artifacts. These artifacts are validated by the adoption rate of the practitioners within the community of practice associated with the field. Nowotny (2000) calls knowledge that has been validated by the multidisciplinary community of practice 'socially robust', meaning that it has been developed in (and for) contexts outside the laboratory and can be used by practitioners.
+In the following statement, Cook (1983) refers to the well-known educational researcher Cronbach about multivariate causal interdependency and validity, and the need for understanding the complexity of the situation being researched.
+
+Lawful statements of causation require full knowledge of this system of variables so that total prediction of the outcome can be achieved. From his belief in the systemic organization of causal connections and the utility of causal explanations of this type, Cronbach questions whether the experimentalists' isolation and manipulation of a small set of specific causal agents is sensitive to the real nature of causal agency, which depends on complex patterns of influence between multiple events and also involves characteristics of respondents, settings and times (p.78). 
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+title: "Pragmatic validity"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:54.708020+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Thus, Cook (1983) actually questions the validity of causal explanations  generated in a context-free setting (the goal of positivistic, explanatory research). Causal relationships in pragmatic research are looked at somewhat differently, which is apparent in the wording alone.
+A statement about a causal relationship in positivistic research is something like the following; if you perform action x to subject y, then z happens. This assumes that the confounding variables have been ruled out, and the statement is always true, regardless of the situation (internally and externally valid). What I want to do now is use the concept of 'technological rules' in order to illustrate how causality is shown in prescriptive.
+In pragmatic science, the goal is to develop knowledge that can be used to improve a situation. This we can call prescriptive knowledge. Prescriptive knowledge, according to van Aken (2004, 2004b, 2005) can take the form of a technological rule. A technological rule is "... a chunk of general knowledge linking an intervention or artifact with an expected outcome or performance in a certain field of application" (van Aken, 2005: p23). This rule can be formulated much the same way as my earlier example of a causal statement; 'if you perform action X to subject Y, then Z happens' (Note the cause and effect formulation). This type of algorithmic formulation is called a design solution (vanAken and Romme 2005). A design solution is usually a statistically proven quantitative model that can be taken as specific instruction (van Aken & Romme, 2005). On the other hand, there are more abstract technological rules that are used for designing solutions. These are heuristics that guide, but do not determine, the design process  and are called design solutions (van Aken 2005; van Aken and Romme 2005). Design solutions are formulated in the following way; " If you want to achieve Y in situation Z, then you perform something like X" (van Aken & Romme, 2005; p. 6). In short, the resulting artifacts of pragmatic research can also be causal relationships, just typically not as specific or reductionist as those resulting from positivist research. The words 'something like' in the statement implicitly refer to the complexity in which the causal relationship is enacted. The causal agent (X, in the statement above) can also be seen as complex and multivariate (Cook, 1983). Testing these causal agents is done in context, much the same way as evaluation research tests social or economic programs (van Aken 2003) .
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+Brown, A. 1992. "Design Experiments: Theoretical and Methodological Challenges in Creating Complex Interventions in Classroom Settings." The Journal of the Learning Sciences 2 (2):141-178.
+Collins, A., Joseph, D. and Bielaczuc. K.; 2004. "Design Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues." The Journal of the Learning Sciences 13 (1):15-42.
+Cook, T.D. 1983. "Quasi-Experimentation: Its Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology." In Beyond Method: Strategies for Social Research, edited by G. Morgon. London: Sage.
+Hodkinson, P. 2004. "Research as a form of work: expertise, community and methodological objectivity." British Educational Research Journal 30 (1):9-26.
+Husen, T. 1999. Research Paradigms in Education. In Issues in Education, edited by J. P. Keeves and G. Lakomski. Amsterdam: Pergamon.
+Kelly, A. E. and Lesh. R.A.; 2000. "Trends and Shifts in Research Methods." In Handbook of Research Design in Mathematics and Science Education, edited by A. E. Kelly and R. A. Lesh. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
+Perrin, B. 2000. Donald T. Campbell and the Art od Practical " In-the-Trenches" Program Evaluation. In Validity & Social Experimentation, edited by L. Bickman. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
+Susman, G.I. and Evered. R.D., 1978. "An Assessment of the Scientific Merits of Action Research." Administrative Science Quarterly 23:528-603.
+van Aken, J. E. 2005. "Management Research as a Design Science: Articulating the Research Products of Mode 2 Knowledge Production in Management." British Journal of Management 16 (1):19-36.
+van Aken, J.E., and A.G.L. Romme. 2005. Reinventing the Future: Design Science Research in the Field of Organization Studies (unpublished work): Eindhoven University of Technology/ Tilburg University.
+vanAken, J.E., and A.G.L. Romme. 2005. Reinventing the Future: Design Science Research in the Field of Organization Studies (unpublished work): Eindhoven University of Technology/ Tilburg University.
+Walker, J.C., and C.W. Evers. 1999. "Research in Education: Epistemological Issues." In Issues in Educational Research, edited by J. P. Keeves and G. Lakomski. Amsterdam: Permamon.
+Worren, Nicolay, Karl Moore and Richard Elliot. 2002. "When Theories become Tools: Toward a Framework for Pragmatic Validity," Human Relations, 55 (10): 1227-1250.
+Zaritsky, R., A.E. Kelly, W. Flowers, E. and Rogers, and P. O'Neill. 2003. Clinical Design Sciences: A View From Sister Design Efforts. Educational Researcher 32 (1):32-34.
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+---
+title: "Qualitative research"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:55.894451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivation. This type of research typically involves in-depth interviews, focus groups, or field observations in order to collect data that is rich in detail and context. Qualitative research is often used to explore complex phenomena or to gain insight into people's experiences and perspectives on a particular topic.  It is particularly useful when researchers want to understand the meaning that people attach to their experiences or when they want to uncover the underlying reasons for people's behavior. Qualitative methods include ethnography, grounded theory, discourse analysis, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative research methods have been used in sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, communication studies, social work, folklore, educational research, information science and software engineering research.
+
+== Background ==
+Qualitative research has been informed by several strands of philosophical thought and examines aspects of human life, including culture, expression, beliefs, morality, life stress, and imagination. Contemporary qualitative research has been influenced by a number of branches of philosophy, for example, positivism, postpositivism, critical theory, and constructivism. 
+The historical transitions or 'moments' in qualitative research, together with the notion of 'paradigms' (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), have received widespread popularity over the past decades. However, some scholars have argued that the adoptions of paradigms may be counterproductive and lead to less philosophically engaged communities.
+
+== Approaches to inquiry ==
+The use of nonquantitative material as empirical data has been growing in many areas of the social sciences, including pedagogy, development psychology and cultural psychology. Several philosophical and psychological traditions have influenced investigators' approaches to qualitative research, including phenomenology, social constructionism, symbolic interactionism, and positivism.
+
+=== Philosophical traditions ===
+Phenomenology refers to the philosophical study of the structure of an individual's consciousness and general subjective experience. Approaches to qualitative research based on constructionism, such as grounded theory, pay attention to how the subjectivity of both the researcher and the study participants can affect the theory that develops out of the research. The symbolic interactionist approach to qualitative research examines how individuals and groups develop an understanding of the world. Traditional positivist approaches to qualitative research seek a more objective understanding of the social world. Qualitative researchers have also been influenced by the sociology of knowledge and the work of Alfred Schütz, Peter L. Berger, Thomas Luckmann, and Harold Garfinkel.
+
+=== Sources of data ===
+Qualitative researchers use different sources of data to understand the topic they are studying. These data sources include interview transcripts, videos of social interactions, notes, verbal reports and artifacts such as books or works of art. The case study method exemplifies qualitative researchers' preference for depth, detail, and context. Data triangulation is also a strategy used in qualitative research. Autoethnography, the study of self, is a qualitative research method in which the researcher uses his or her personal experience to understand an issue.
+Grounded theory is an inductive type of research, based on ("grounded" in) a very close look at the empirical observations a study yields. Thematic analysis involves analyzing patterns of meaning. Conversation analysis is primarily used to analyze spoken conversations. Biographical research is concerned with the reconstruction of life histories, based on biographical narratives and documents. Narrative inquiry studies the narratives that people use to describe their experience.
+
+== Data collection ==
+Qualitative researchers may gather information through observations, note-taking, interviews, focus groups (group interviews), documents, images and artifacts.
+
+=== Interviews ===
+
+Research interviews are an important method of data collection in qualitative research. An interviewer is usually a professional or paid researcher, sometimes trained, who poses questions to the interviewee, in an alternating series of usually brief questions and answers, to elicit information. Compared to something like a written survey, qualitative interviews allow for a significantly higher degree of intimacy, with participants often revealing personal information to their interviewers in a real-time, face-to-face setting. As such, this technique can evoke an array of significant feelings and experiences within those being interviewed. Sociologists Bredal, Stefansen and Bjørnholt identified three "participant orientations", that they described as "telling for oneself", "telling for others" and "telling for the researcher". They also proposed that these orientations implied "different ethical contracts between the participant and researcher".
+
+=== Participant observation ===
+In participant observation ethnographers get to understand a culture by directly participating in the activities of the culture they study. Participant observation extends further than ethnography and into other fields, including psychology. For example, by training to be an EMT and becoming a participant observer in the lives of EMTs, Palmer studied how EMTs cope with the stress associated with some of the gruesome emergencies they deal with.
+
+=== Recursivity ===
+In qualitative research, the idea of recursivity refers to the emergent nature of research design. In contrast to standardized research methods, recursivity embodies the idea that the qualitative researcher can change a study's design during the data collection phase.
+Recursivity in qualitative research procedures contrasts to the methods used by scientists who conduct experiments. From the  perspective of the scientist, data collection, data analysis, discussion of the data in the context of the research literature, and drawing conclusions should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times). In qualitative research however, data are collected repeatedly until one or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of research activities. An example of this dynamism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly changes their research focus or design midway through a study, based on their first interim data analysis. The researcher can even make further unplanned changes based on another interim data analysis. Such an approach would not be permitted in an experiment. Qualitative researchers would argue that recursivity in developing the relevant evidence enables the researcher to be more open to unexpected results and emerging new constructs.
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+title: "Qualitative research"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:55.894451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Data analysis ==
+Qualitative researchers have a number of analytic strategies available to them.
+
+=== Coding ===
+
+In general, coding refers to the act of associating meaningful ideas with the data of interest. In the context of qualitative research, interpretative aspects of the coding process are often explicitly recognized and articulated; coding helps to produce specific words or short phrases believed to be useful abstractions from the data.
+
+=== Pattern thematic analysis ===
+Data may be sorted into patterns for thematic analyses as the primary basis for organizing and reporting the study findings.
+
+=== Content analysis ===
+
+According to Krippendorf, "Content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inference from data to their context" (p. 21). It is applied to documents and written and oral communication. Content analysis is an important building block in the conceptual analysis of qualitative data. It is frequently used in sociology. For example, content analysis has been applied to research on such diverse aspects of human life as changes in perceptions of race over time, the lifestyles of contractors, and even reviews of automobiles.
+
+== Multi-method qualitative analysis ==
+
+=== Benefits ===
+This is, for example, illustrated by studies on classroom interactions where thematic analysis identifies learners' behaviors and Critical Classroom Discourse Analysis is then used as a framework to analyze their impact on identity construction; another example is the analysis of online parenting forums, where thematic discourse analysis identifies attitudes towards a practice like placentophagy and then examines how those themes function within broader social discourses on birth and medicalization.
+
+=== Challenges ===
+What might be useful is a form of "active reflexivity", which conceptualizes the practice as an ongoing interrogation of the researcher's assumptions and their influence on the methodological choice and production of knowledge.
+
+=== Coordinating qualitative and quantitative methods in the same study ===
+It is possible to coordinate quantitative and qualitative methods in the same study. The idea behind such a research approach would be that the strengths of one type of method would compensate for the weaknesses of the other type of method. For example, in a study of stress in the lives of graduate assistants, stressors, which can be extremely varied, were better ascertained using qualitative methods and the impact of those stressors, measured by a physical symptoms scale, were better assessed with quantitative methods. The Journal of Mixed Methods Research is devoted to studies that coordinate different research methodologies.
+
+== Issues ==
+
+=== Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) ===
+Contemporary qualitative data analyses can be supported by computer programs (termed computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software). These programs have been employed with or without detailed hand coding or labeling. Such programs do not supplant the interpretive nature of coding. The programs are aimed at enhancing analysts' efficiency at applying, retrieving, and storing the codes generated from reading the data. Many programs enhance efficiency in editing and revising codes, which allow for more effective work sharing, peer review, data examination, and analysis of large datasets.
+Common qualitative data analysis software includes:
+
+ATLAS.ti
+Dedoose (mixed methods)
+MAXQDA (mixed methods)
+NVivo
+QDA MINER
+A criticism of quantitative coding approaches is that such coding sorts qualitative data into predefined (nomothetic) categories that are reflective of the categories found in objective science. The variety, richness, and individual characteristics of the qualitative data are reduced or, even, lost.
+To defend against the criticism that qualitative approaches to data are too subjective, qualitative researchers assert that by clearly articulating their definitions of the codes they use and linking those codes to the underlying data, they preserve some of the richness that might be lost if the results of their research boiled down to a list of predefined categories. Qualitative researchers also assert that their procedures are repeatable, which is an idea that is valued by quantitatively oriented researchers.
+Sometimes researchers rely on computers and their software to scan and reduce large amounts of qualitative data. At their most basic level, numerical coding schemes rely on counting words and phrases within a dataset; other techniques involve the analysis of phrases and exchanges in analyses of conversations. A computerized approach to data analysis can be used to aid content analysis, especially when there is a large corpus to unpack.
+
+=== Trustworthiness ===
+A central issue in qualitative research is trustworthiness (also known as credibility or, in quantitative studies, validity). There are many ways of establishing trustworthiness, including member check, interviewer corroboration, peer debriefing, prolonged engagement, negative case analysis, auditability, confirmability, bracketing, and balance. Data triangulation and eliciting examples of interviewee accounts are two of the most commonly used methods of establishing the trustworthiness of qualitative studies.
+Transferability of results has also been considered as an indicator of validity.
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+title: "Qualitative research"
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:55.894451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Limitations of qualitative research ===
+Qualitative research is not without limitations. These limitations include participant reactivity, the potential for a qualitative investigator to over-identify with one or more study participants, "the impracticality of the Glaser-Strauss idea that hypotheses arise from data unsullied by prior expectations," the inadequacy of qualitative research for testing cause-effect hypotheses, and the Baconian character of qualitative research. Participant reactivity refers to the fact that people often behave differently when they know they are being observed. Over-identifying with participants refers to a sympathetic investigator studying a group of people and ascribing, more than is  warranted,  a virtue or some other characteristic to one or more participants. Compared to qualitative research, experimental research and certain types of nonexperimental research (e.g., prospective studies), although not perfect, are better means for drawing cause-effect conclusions.
+Glaser and Strauss, influential members of the qualitative research community, pioneered the idea that theoretically important categories and hypotheses can emerge "naturally" from the observations a qualitative researcher collects, provided that the researcher is not guided by preconceptions. The ethologist David Katz wrote "a hungry animal divides the environment into edible and inedible things....Generally speaking, objects change...according to the needs of the animal." Karl Popper carrying forward Katz's point wrote that "objects can be classified and can become similar or dissimilar, only in this way—by being related to needs and interests. This rule applied not only to animals but also to scientists." Popper made clear that observation is always selective, based on past research and the investigators' goals and motives and that preconceptionless research is impossible.
+The Baconian character of qualitative research refers to the idea that a qualitative researcher can collect enough observations such that categories and hypotheses will emerge from the data. Glaser and Strauss developed the idea of theoretical sampling by way of collecting observations until theoretical saturation is obtained and no additional observations are required to understand the character of the individuals under study. Bertrand Russell suggested that there can be no orderly arrangement of observations such that a hypothesis will jump out of those ordered observations; some provisional hypothesis usually guides the collection of observations.
+
+== In psychology ==
+
+=== Community psychology ===
+Autobiographical narrative research has been conducted in the field of community psychology. A selection of autobiographical narratives of community psychologists can be found in the book Six Community Psychologists Tell Their Stories: History, Contexts, and Narrative.
+
+=== Educational psychology ===
+Edwin Farrell used qualitative methods to understand the social reality of at-risk high school students. Later he used similar methods to understand the reality of successful high school students who came from the same neighborhoods as the at-risk students he wrote about in his previously mentioned book.
+
+=== Health psychology ===
+In the field of health psychology, qualitative methods have become increasingly employed in research on understanding health and illness and the extent to which health and illness are features of everyday life that are socially constructed. An early collection of works on the application of qualitative methods to research in health psychology was published in 1999. Since then, a broad range of qualitative methods have been adopted by health psychologists, including discourse analysis, thematic analysis, Narrative psychology, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative research in health psychology became popular in Europe, New Zealand, and Australia. In 1999, the Journal of Health Psychology published a special issue on qualitative research followed by a special issue in Health Psychology Review. In the United States, qualitative methods were more slowly adopted and in 2015, the journal Health Psychology published a special issue on qualitative research.
+
+=== Industrial and organizational psychology ===
+According to Doldor and colleagues organizational psychologists extensively use qualitative research "during the design and implementation of activities like organizational change, training needs analyses, strategic reviews, and employee development plans." The idea that there is a dichotomy between quantitative and qualitative research methods is a false one and that many industrial–organizational researchers consider themselves allied to both types of methods.
+
+=== Occupational health psychology ===
+Although research in the field of occupational health psychology (OHP) has predominantly been quantitatively oriented, some OHP researchers have employed qualitative methods. Qualitative research efforts, if directed properly, can provide advantages for quantitatively oriented OHP researchers. These advantages include help with (1) theory and hypothesis development, (2) item creation for surveys and interviews, (3) the discovery of stressors and coping strategies not previously identified, (4) interpreting difficult-to-interpret quantitative findings, (5) understanding why some stress-reduction interventions fail and others succeed, and (6) providing rich descriptions of the lived lives of people at work. Some OHP investigators have united qualitative and quantitative methods within a single study (e.g., Elfering et al., [2005]); these investigators have used qualitative methods to assess job stressors that are difficult to ascertain using standard measures and well validated standardized instruments to assess coping behaviors and dependent variables such as mood. Schonfeld and Mazzola advanced the view that in OHP (and I–O psychology) the idea that there is a dichotomy between quantitative and qualitative research methods is a false one and that OHP researchers can be  allied to both types of methods.
+
+=== Social media psychology ===
+Since the advent of social media in the early 2000s, formerly private accounts of personal experiences have become widely shared with the public by millions of people around the world. Disclosures are often made openly, which has contributed to social media's key role in movements like the #metoo movement.
+The abundance of self-disclosure on social media has presented an unprecedented opportunity for qualitative and mixed methods researchers; mental health problems can now be investigated qualitatively more widely, at a lower cost, and with no intervention by the researchers. To take advantage of these data, researchers need to have mastered the tools for conducting qualitative research.
+
+== Academic journals ==
+Consumption Markets & Culture
+Journal of Consumer Research
+Journal of Health Psychology
+Qualitative Inquiry
+Qualitative Market Research
+Qualitative Research
+Qualitative Research in Psychology
+The Qualitative Report
+
+== See also ==
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+title: "Qualitative research"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:02:55.894451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Adler, P. A. & Adler, P. (1987). : context and meaning in social inquiry / edited by Richard Jessor, Anne Colby, and Richard A. Shweder  OCLC 46597302
+Baškarada, S. (2014) "Qualitative Case Study Guidelines", in The Qualitative Report, 19(40): 1-25. Available from [1] Archived 2015-03-26 at the Wayback Machine
+Boas, Franz (1943). "Recent anthropology". Science. 98 (2546): 311–314, 334–337. Bibcode:1943Sci....98..334B. doi:10.1126/science.98.2546.334. PMID 17794461.
+Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
+Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research ( 2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
+Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The SAGE Handbook of qualitative research ( 4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
+DeWalt, K. M. & DeWalt, B. R. (2002). Participant observation. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
+Fischer, C.T. (Ed.) (2005). Qualitative research methods for psychologists: Introduction through empirical studies. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-088470-4.
+Franklin, M. I. (2012), "Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide". London/New York. Routledge
+Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
+Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein. (2000). "The New Language of Qualitative Method." New York: Oxford University Press.
+Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein (2009). "Analyzing Narrative Reality." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
+Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein, eds. (2000).  "Institutional Selves: Troubled Identities in a Postmodern World." New York: Oxford University Press.
+Hammersley, M. (2008) Questioning Qualitative Inquiry, London, Sage.
+Hammersley, M. (2013) What is qualitative research?, London, Bloomsbury.
+Holliday, A. R. (2007). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition. London: Sage Publications
+Holstein, J. A. and J. F. Gubrium, eds. (2012).  "Varieties of Narrative Analysis." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
+Kaminski, Marek M. (2004). Games Prisoners Play. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11721-7.
+Mahoney, J; Goertz, G (2006). "A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research". Political Analysis. 14 (3): 227–249. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.135.3256. doi:10.1093/pan/mpj017.
+Malinowski, B. (1922/1961). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. New York: E. P. Dutton.
+Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
+Pamela Maykut, Richard Morehouse. 1994 Beginning Qualitative Research.  Falmer Press.
+Pernecky, T. (2016). Epistemology and Metaphysics for Qualitative Research. London, UK: Sage Publications.
+Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods ( 3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
+Pawluch D. & Shaffir W. & Miall C. (2005). Doing Ethnography: Studying Everyday Life. Toronto, ON Canada: Canadian Scholars' Press.
+Racino, J. (1999). Policy, Program Evaluation and Research in Disability: Community Support for All." New York, NY: Haworth Press (now Routledge imprint, Francis and Taylor, 2015).
+Ragin, C. C. (1994). Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method, Pine Forge Press, ISBN 0-8039-9021-9
+Riessman, Catherine K. (1993). "Narrative Analysis." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
+Rosenthal, Gabriele (2018). Interpretive Social Research. An Introduction. Göttingen, Germany: Universitätsverlag Göttingen.
+Savin-Baden, M. and Major, C. (2013). "Qualitative research: The essential guide to theory and practice." London, Rutledge.
+Silverman, David, (ed), (2011), "Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice". Third Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Sage Publications
+Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
+Taylor, Steven J., Bogdan, Robert, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, Wiley, 1998, ISBN 0-471-16868-8
+Van Maanen, J. (1988) Tales of the field: on writing ethnography, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
+Wolcott, H. F. (1995). The art of fieldwork. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
+Wolcott, H. F. (1999). Ethnography: A way of seeing. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
+Ziman, John (2000). Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge University Press.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Qualitative Philosophy
+C.Wright Mills, On intellectual Craftsmanship, The Sociological Imagination,1959
+Participant Observation, Qualitative research methods: a Data collector's field guide
+Analyzing and Reporting Qualitative Market Research
+Overview of available QDA Software
+
+=== Videos ===
+Qualitative analysis, with a focus on interview data on YouTube
+Living Theory Approach to Qualitative Action Research on YouTube
+Yale University series by Leslie Curry on YouTube
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporting_bias-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporting_bias-0.md
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+---
+title: "Reporting bias"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporting_bias"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:03:00.766807+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In epidemiology, reporting bias is defined as "selective revealing or suppression of information" by subjects (for example about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences).  In artificial intelligence research, the term reporting bias is used to refer to people's tendency to under-report all the information available.
+In empirical research, authors may be under-reporting unexpected or undesirable experimental results, attributing the results to sampling or measurement error, while being more trusting of expected or desirable results, though these may be subject to the same sources of error. In this context, reporting bias can eventually lead to a status quo where multiple investigators discover and discard the same results, and later experimenters justify their own reporting bias by observing that previous experimenters reported different results. Thus, each incident of reporting bias can make future incidents more likely.
+
+== Reporting biases in research ==
+Research can only contribute to knowledge if it is communicated from investigators to the community. The generally accepted primary means of communication is "full" publication of the study methods and results in an article published in a scientific journal. Sometimes, investigators choose to present their findings at a scientific meeting as well, either through an oral or poster presentation. These presentations are included as part of the scientific record as brief "abstracts" which may or may not be recorded in publicly accessible documents typically found in libraries or the World Wide Web.
+Sometimes, investigators fail to publish the results of entire studies. The Declaration of Helsinki and other consensus documents have outlined the ethical obligation to make results from clinical research publicly available.
+Reporting bias occurs when the dissemination of research findings is influenced by the nature and direction of the results, for instance in systematic reviews. Positive results is a commonly used term to describe a study finding that one intervention is better than another.
+Various attempts have been made to overcome the effects of the reporting biases, including statistical adjustments to the results of published studies. None of these approaches has proved satisfactory, however, and there is increasing acceptance that reporting biases must be tackled by establishing registers of controlled trials and by promoting good publication practice.  Until these problems have been addressed, estimates of the effects of treatments based on published evidence may be biased.
+
+== Case study ==
+Litigation brought upon by consumers and health insurers against Pfizer for the fraudulent sales practices in marketing of the drug gabapentin in 2004 revealed a comprehensive publication strategy that employed elements of reporting bias. Spin was used to put emphasis on favorable findings that favored gabapentin, and also to explain away unfavorable findings towards the drug. In this case, favorable secondary outcomes became the focus over the original primary outcome, which was unfavorable. Other changes found in outcome reporting include the introduction of a new primary outcome, failure to distinguish between primary and secondary outcomes, and failure to report one or more protocol-defined primary outcomes.
+The decision to publish certain findings in certain journals is another strategy. Trials with statistically significant findings were generally published in academic journals with higher circulation more often than trials with nonsignificant findings. Timing of publication results of trials was influenced, in that the company tried to optimize the timing between the release of two studies.  Trials with nonsignificant findings were found to be published in a staggered fashion, as to not have two consecutive trials published without salient findings. Ghost authorship was also an issue, where professional medical writers who drafted the published reports were not properly acknowledged.
+Fallout from this case is still being settled by Pfizer in 2014, 10 years after the initial litigation.
+
+== Types of reporting bias ==
+
+=== Publication bias ===
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+---
+title: "Reporting bias"
+chunk: 2/3
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The publication or nonpublication of research findings, depend on the nature and direction of the results. Although medical writers have acknowledged the problem of reporting biases for over a century, it was not until the second half of the 20th century that researchers began to investigate the sources and size of the problem of reporting biases.
+Over the past two decades, evidence has accumulated that failure to publish research studies, including clinical trials testing intervention effectiveness, is pervasive. Almost all failure to publish is due to failure of the investigator to submit; only a small proportion of studies are not published because of rejection by journals. Some reviews have reported that only half or all trials are published.
+The most direct evidence of publication bias in the medical field comes from follow-up studies of research projects identified at the time of funding or ethics approval.  These studies have shown that "positive findings" is the principal factor associated with subsequent publication: researchers say that the reason they do not write up and submit reports of their research for publication is usually because they are "not interested" in the results (editorial rejection by journals is a rare cause of failure to publish).
+Even those investigators who have initially published their results as conference abstracts are less likely to publish their findings in full unless the results are "significant". This is a problem because data presented in abstracts are frequently preliminary or interim results and thus may not be reliable representations of what was found once all data were collected and analyzed.  In addition, abstracts are often not accessible to the public through journals, MEDLINE, or easily accessed databases. Many are published in conference programs, conference proceedings, or on CD-ROM, and are made available only to meeting registrants. 
+The main factor associated with failure to publish is negative or null findings. Controlled trials that are eventually reported in full are published more rapidly if their results are positive.  
+Publication bias leads to overestimates of treatment effect in meta-analyses, which in turn can lead doctors and decision makers to believe a treatment is more useful than it is.  
+It is now well-established that publication bias with more favorable efficacy results is associated with the source of funding for studies that would not otherwise be explained through usual risk of bias assessments.
+
+=== Time lag bias ===
+The rapid or delayed publication of research findings, depending on the nature and direction of the results. In a systematic review of the literature, Hopewell and her colleagues found that overall, trials with "positive results" (statistically significant in favor of the experimental arm) were published about a year sooner than trials with "null or negative results" (not statistically significant or statistically significant in favor of the control arm).
+
+=== Multiple (duplicate) publication bias ===
+The multiple or singular publication of research findings, depending on the nature and direction of the results. Investigators may also publish the same findings multiple times using a variety of patterns of "duplicate" publication. Many duplicates are published in journal supplements, potentially difficult to access literature. Positive results appear to be published more often in duplicate, which can lead to overestimates of a treatment effect.
+
+=== Location bias ===
+The publication of research findings in journals with different ease of access or levels of indexing in standard databases, depending on the nature and direction of results. There is also evidence that, compared to negative or null results, statistically significant results are on average published in journals with greater impact factors, and that publication in the mainstream (non grey) literature is associated with an overall greater treatment effect compared to the grey literature.
+
+=== Citation bias ===
+
+The citation or non-citation of research findings, depending on the nature and direction of the results. Authors tend to cite positive results over negative or null results, and this has been established over a broad cross section of topics. Differential citation may lead to a perception in the community that an intervention is effective when it is not, and it may lead to over-representation of positive findings in systematic reviews if those left uncited are difficult to locate.
+Selective pooling of results in a meta-analysis is a form of citation bias that is particularly insidious in its potential to influence knowledge. To minimize bias, pooling of results from similar but separate studies requires an exhaustive search for all relevant studies. That is, a meta-analysis (or pooling of data from multiple studies) must always have emerged from a systematic review (not a selective review of the literature), even though a systematic review does not always have an associated meta-analysis.
+
+=== Language bias ===
+The publication of research findings in a particular language, depending on the nature and direction of the results. There is longstanding question about whether there is a language bias such that investigators choose to publish their negative findings in non-English language journals and reserve their positive findings for English language journals. Some research has shown that  language restrictions in systematic reviews can change the results of the review and in other cases, authors have not found that such a bias exists.
+
+=== Knowledge reporting bias ===
+The frequency with which people write about actions, outcomes, or properties is not a reflection of real-world frequencies or the degree to which a property is characteristic of a class of individuals.  People write about only some parts of the world around them; much of the information is left unsaid.
+
+=== Outcome reporting bias ===
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+title: "Reporting bias"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporting_bias"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:03:00.766807+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bias –also known as spin- in research reporting interventional medical studies could arise from, misleading reporting, misleading interpretation and inadequate extrapolation of the results or conclusions. Research reporting bias can take various forms. Misleading reporting could be attributed to failure to report adverse effects of a certain medical or surgical intervention, selective reporting of results, or inappropriate use of language in the conclusions as overstated conclusions or undue generalizations that are not supported by study's results. Misleading interpretation of research results could be attributed to misinterpretation of both statistically significant and statistically non-significant etcetera. Inadequate extrapolation of research results could be caused by extending the positive outcomes of research to include a broader or different patient population that was not originally investigated. 
+The selective reporting of some outcomes but not others, depending on the nature and direction of the results. A study may be published in full, but pre-specified outcomes omitted or misrepresented. Efficacy outcomes that are statistically significant have a higher chance of being fully published compared to those that are not statistically significant. Research interpretation bias or spin is prevalent across medical publications irrespective of discipline i.e. surgical versus medical and irrespective of journal ranking or study's level-of-evidence hierarchy. Notable bias (spin) has been reported in the interpretation of results of randomized control trials, although these study designs rank top in the level-of-evidence hierarchy. Contrastingly, a study found low prevalence of bias in the conclusions of non-randomized control trials published in high-ranking orthopedic publications. Control for bias in research reporting can increase trust in the published medical literature and better inform evidence-based clinical practice.    
+Selective reporting of suspected or confirmed adverse treatment effects is an area for particular concern because of the potential for patient harm.  In a study of adverse drug events submitted to Scandinavian drug licensing authorities, reports for published studies were less likely than unpublished studies to record adverse events (for example, 56 vs 77% respectively for Finnish trials involving psychotropic drugs). Recent attention in the lay and scientific media on failure to accurately report adverse events for drugs (e.g., selective serotonin uptake inhibitors, rosiglitazone, rofecoxib) has resulted in additional publications, too numerous to review, indicating substantial selective outcome reporting (mainly suppression) of known or suspected adverse events.
+
+== See also ==
+Confirmation bias
+Funding bias
+Information bias (epidemiology)
+Meta-analysis
+Metascience
+Peer review
+Recall bias
+Selection bias
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_correlation_technique-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_correlation_technique-0.md
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+---
+title: "Reverse correlation technique"
+chunk: 1/4
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:03:03.129594+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The reverse correlation technique is a data driven study method used primarily in psychological and neurophysiological research. This method earned its name from its origins in neurophysiology, where cross-correlations between white noise stimuli and sparsely occurring neuronal spikes could be computed quicker when only computing it for segments preceding the spikes. 
+The term has since been adopted in psychological experiments that usually do not analyze the temporal dimension, but also present noise to human participants. In contrast to the original meaning, the term is here thought to reflect that the standard psychological practice of presenting stimuli of defined categories to the participants is "reversed": Instead, the participant's mental representations of categories are estimated from interactions of the presented noise and the behavioral responses. 
+It is used to create composite pictures of individual and/or group mental representations of various items (e.g. faces, bodies, and the self) that depict characteristics of said items (e.g. trustworthiness and self-body image). This technique is helpful when evaluating the mental representations of those with and without mental illnesses.
+
+== Terms ==
+This technique utilizes spike-triggered average to explain what areas of signal and noise in an image are valuable for the given research question. Signal is information used to produce objects of value that help explain and connect the world around us. Noise is commonly referred to as unwanted signal that obscures the information that the signal is trying to present. Most importantly for reverse correlation studies, noise is randomly varying information. To determine the areas of importance using reverse correlation, noise is applied to a base image and then evaluated by observers. 
+A base image is any image void of noise that relates to the research question. A base image that has noise superimposed on top is the stimuli that is presented to and evaluated by participants. Each time a new set of stimuli is presented to a participant, this is known as a trial. After a participant has responded to hundreds to thousands of trials, a researcher is ready to create a classification image. 
+A classification image (abbreviated as "CI" in some studies) is a single image that represents the average noise patterns in the images selected by participants. A classification image can also be computed for groups by averaging the individuals’ classification images. These classification images are what researchers use to interpret the data and draw conclusions. As a whole, the reverse correlation method is a process that results in a composite image (from an individual or group) that can be used to estimate and interpret mental representations.
+
+== Basic study layout ==
+The reverse correlation method is typically executed as an in-lab computer experiment. This method follows four broad steps. Each of the following steps are described in greater detail below.
+After creating a research question and determining that the reverse correlation method is the most suitable technique to answer the question, a researcher must (1) design randomly varying stimuli. After the stimuli have been prepared, a researcher should (2) collect data from participants who will see and respond to approximately 300 -1,000 trials. Each trial will either consist of one or two images (side by side) derived from the same base image with noise superimposed on top. Participant responses will depend on the chosen study design; if a researcher presents only one image at a time, participants rate the image on a 4pt scale, but when two images are shown, the participant is asked to choose which best aligns with the given category (e.g. choose the image that looks the most aggressive). 
+Once all of the data is collected, the researcher will (3) compute classification images for each participant and using those images compute group classification images. Finally, with the classification images available, the researcher will (4) evaluate the images and draw conclusions about their results.
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+---
+title: "Reverse correlation technique"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_correlation_technique"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:03:03.129594+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Step 1: making stimuli ===
+When designing the stimuli for a reverse correlation study, the two primary factors that one should consider are (1) the base image and (2) the noise that will be used. While not all bases are images per se, the majority are and for this reason the base is typically referred to as a base image. The base image should represent whatever the research question is addressing. For example, if you are interested in peoples’ mental representations of Chinese people, it would not make sense to use a base image of a Spanish or Caucasian person. Again, if you are interested in the mental representations of male vocal patterns, it would make the most sense to use a base vocal pattern that has been produced by a male.
+Having a base is important because it provides a kind of anchor for participants to work from. When there is no base image, the number of trials that are required increases dramatically, thus making it harder to collect data. While there are studies that have excluded a base image, (e.g. the S study), for more elaborate and nuanced research questions, it is important to have a base image that is a fair representation of what participants are being asked to categorize. Photographs of faces are generally the most popular base image.
+Although the reverse correlation method is capable of investigating a wide variety of research questions, the most common application of the method is for evaluating faces on a single trait. Reverse correlation studies that address evaluations of the face are sometimes referred to as being a face space reverse correlation model (FSRCM). Thankfully, there are existing databases for face images of varying demographics and emotion that work well as base images.
+The reverse correlation method can also be used to help researchers identify what areas of an image (e.g. the areas on the face) have diagnostic value. In order to identify these areas of value, researchers start by minimizing the space a participant can pull information from. By imposing a “mask” on an image (e.g. blur an image while leaving random areas un-blurred), this reduces the information individuals might see, and forces them to focus on certain areas. Then, if/when participants are able to correctly identify an image with a trait repeatedly, we can draw conclusions about what areas have diagnostic value.
+While faces and visual stimuli are the most popular, this is not the only stimuli that can be used in a reverse correlation study. This method was originally designed for auditory stimuli which allows researchers to investigate how perceivers interpret auditory information and create trait based attributions to different sound patterns. For example, by segmenting a vocal recording of a single word (total sound time 426 ms) into six segments (71 ms each), and varying each segment's pitch using Gaussian distributions, researchers were able to uncover what vocal patterns people associated with certain traits. Specifically, this study investigated how listeners rated sound clips of the word “really” as sounding more interrogative (i.e. like the more common reverse correlation studies this study had participants listen to two sound clips per trial, choose which fit the category the best, and then created an average of the pitch contours). Beyond face and auditory perception, research utilizing the reverse correlation method has expanded to investigate how individuals see three-dimensional objects in images with noise (but no signal).
+After selecting your base image, regardless of what the image is, it is helpful to apply a Gaussian blur to smooth noise in the image. While noise will be applied later, it is helpful to reduce existing noise in the photo before applying your chosen noise. There are three primary choices when it comes to noise: white noise, sine-wave noise, and Gabor noise. The latter two of these constrain the configurations that the noise can have, and because of this white noise is usually the most commonly used. Regardless of the type of noise that is chosen, it is crucial that the noise randomly varies.
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+---
+title: "Reverse correlation technique"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_correlation_technique"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:03:03.129594+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Step 2: data collection ===
+Once the stimuli for the study has been developed, the researcher must make a few decisions before actually collecting the data. The researcher must come to a conclusion on how many stimuli will be presented at a time and how many trials the participants will see.
+In terms of stimuli presentation, a researcher can choose from either a 2-Image Forced Choice (2IFC) or a 4-Alternative Forced Choice (4AFC). The 2IFC presents two images at once (side by side) and requires participants to choose between the two on a specified category (e.g. which image looks the most like a male). Typically the noise from the left image is the mathematical inverse of the noise from the right image. This method was developed to better answer questions that could not be fully answered by the 4AFC method. As compared to the 2IFC, the 4AFC only shows participants one image per trial and requires them to rate the image on a 4-point scale ((1) Probably X, (2) Possibly X, (3) Possibly Y, (4) Probably Y). For example, here X might represent male and Y might represent female. Typically, during data analysis, only images that are chosen as a “probably” category are included.
+As mentioned previously, the 2IFC was designed to address questions that could not be easily answered by the 4AFC. In the 4AFC, there is the possibility that participants may not choose a “probably” category, and if this happens, no classification image can be computed. For example, if the base image does not look like the mental representation participants are asked to report on, then participants may never make a confident choice and classify the image under a “probably” category. While this is a flaw in the 4AFC, one advantage to this method and scale structure is that researchers can see participants’ certainty judgements on their classification decisions (e.g. a probably X label would suggest greater confidence in their decision than a possibly X label).
+As for choosing the number of trials, generally researchers conducting a reverse correlation study present participants with 300 - 1,000 trials.
+
+=== Step 3: computing a classification image (CI) ===
+Again, a classification image is the calculated average noise of all selected images (stimuli). Classification images can be generated for individuals or the group. Computing a classification image for individuals and groups are slightly different. To compute a classification image for an individual, the researcher will start by creating an average of the all selected images’ noise and then overlay that pattern onto the base image. Before the noise is superimposed, it is scaled to fit the base image (i.e. the smallest and largest pixel intensities are matched to the base image pixels). To generate a classification image for a group, the researcher will either handle each individual classification image separately (making sure to scale the pixels independently) or apply a dependent scaling. A dependent scaling is called such because the scaling that is applied to all classification images depends on the image with the greatest range of pixels. Using this single image and its pixel range, the researcher will match the pixels of the classification image to the pixels of the base image. The scaling factor used for this image is then applied to the remaining classification images. When choosing between these two approaches, keep in mind that in classification images with little signal, independent scaling amplifies signal and noise more than dependent scaling. If the researcher is interested in the strength of signal, it is suggested that they use dependent scaling.
+When calculating a classification image, it is critical to consider how your external noise will impact your signal to noise ratio (SNR). The SNR is the ratio of desired input (e.g. signal) to undesired information (e.g. noise). One way to produce a high SNR (when observers are unbiased) is to use this formula C=(NAA+NBA)-(NAB+NBB). These researchers have found the optimal experimental parameters for different study designs that will result in high SNR.
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+---
+title: "Reverse correlation technique"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_correlation_technique"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:03:03.129594+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Step 4: evaluating classification images and drawing conclusions ===
+After computing classification images for individual participants and/or for the group, the researcher will use these images to draw conclusions about their research questions. However, while not always the case, occasionally after the first set of classification images have been generated, researchers will then take these images and present them to a new sample of participants and ask them to rate the images on a subsequent factor of interest. This process is referred to as a two-phase reverse correlation. For example, if a classification image was computed after participants were asked to choose the image that looked the most like a police officer, the generated classification images could then be presented to a new sample who would evaluate the images on how aggressive the faces look. This process makes it easier to draw conclusions on the data. While this step can ease in drawing conclusions, one must use caution to not collect too many participants in the second phase, because high numbers of participants will make the tiniest of differences appear significant, therefore resulting in a Type 1 Error.
+While reverse correlation is typically used to create a visual representation of a single trait, this method does have the capability to create a visual representation of more than one trait in one image. By using the same base image and noise, one can create a classification image of trait 1 and a classification image of trait 2, and then create an aggregate photo of the two classification images (thus creating a new classification image incorporating two social traits).
+Additionally, researchers have investigated how the decision-making process impacts and is reflected in the reverse correlation method and have found there is a significant relationship between them. Therefore, when interpreting results using the reverse correlation method, researchers must use caution to not ignore how the decision-making process may influence the data.
+Reading signal in a classification image can be difficult. When attempting to interpret signal, researchers suggest that the best practice is to use a recently developed metric referred to as “infoVal”. “InfoVal” compares informational value in the computed classification image to a random distribution. Interpreting an “infoVal” measure is similar to interpreting a z-score.
+
+== See also ==
+Spike-triggered average
+Gaussian blur
+White noise
+Gabor noise
+
+== References ==
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:03:05.523833+00:00"
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