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+---
+title: "ARDC-13"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARDC-13"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:14.720687+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The ARDC-13 was a 2800-ton auxiliary floating drydock used for testing during the Able and Baker nuclear weapon tests of Operation Crossroads in the Bikini Atoll. It was used to determine the effects of the atomic bomb phenomena on land-based concrete structures. The final report on ARDC-13 was part of a final supplementary report to the Commander Joint Task Force One. The ARDC-13 was built by the Haddock Company of Pasadena, California, in March 1946 under contract Noy-11999. It was 84 feet by 389 feet with a depth of 14 feet. Two wingwalls, both 26 feet high and 306 feet long, were mounted on top of the ARDC-13. Steel frames were built within the wingwalls for extra support. The wingwalls consisted of transverse frames and both water and non-watertight bulkheads. The ARDC-13 was important for confirming that water-front structures needed to be designed to withstand severe waves and flooding as ports are considered a good target for bombs.
+
+
+== Test A (Test Able) ==
+Test Able (or test A)was performed on July 1, 1946, as a part of Operation Crossroads. The test caused cracking and derangement of interior furnishing within the ARDC-13 at eight-hundred and forty yards away from the blast. However, the dock retained its structural shape. There was charring of the port side fenders and the outboard face of the port wall was lightly charred as well. All walkways and other timber on the dock was heavily charred or destroyed. The dock was cleared radiologically on July 4, 1946, and repaired to prepare for test B. The dock was re-positioned on July 13, 1946, using four twenty-four thousand pound anchors and readied for Test Baker.
+
+
+== Williams Day Rehearsal of Test Baker ==
+The Williams Day Rehearsal of Test Baker was conducted using four M-46 flash bombs mounted on top of the starboard wing wall.
+
+
+== Test B (Test Baker) ==
+Test B (or Test Baker) was conducted on July 24, 1946, as part of Operation Crossroads and the test resulted in no considerable damage to the concrete vessels, however, it was noted that the test worsened previous cracking from test A. The ARDC-13 showed radiation levels seventy times that of the allowed tolerance eight days after the test at twelve-hundred and fifty yards from the blast. The radiology contamination only allowed the personnel between sixteen and thirty minutes per day aboard the dry dock.
+The ARDC-13 capsized to port on August 4, 1946, due to excessive flooding. The Director of Ship Material recommended that the dry dock be sunk. The ARDC-13 was sunk using demolition charges at 1735 on August 6, 1946.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Busemann-0.md

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+---
+title: "Adolf Busemann"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Busemann"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:49.247999+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Adolf Busemann (20 April 1901 – 3 November 1986) was a German aerospace engineer and influential Nazi-era pioneer in aerodynamics, specialising in supersonic airflows. He introduced the concept of swept wings and, after emigrating in 1947 to the United States under Operation Paperclip, invented the shockwave-free supersonic Busemann biplane.
+
+
+== Education and early life ==
+Born in Lübeck, Germany, Busemann attended the Technical University of Braunschweig, receiving his Ph.D. in engineering in 1924.
+
+
+== Career and research ==
+The next year he was given the position of aeronautical research scientist at the Max-Planck Institute where he joined the famed team led by Ludwig Prandtl, including Theodore von Kármán, Max Munk and Jakob Ackeret. In 1930 he was promoted to professor at University of Göttingen. He held various positions within the German scientific community during this period, and during the war he was the director of the Braunschweig Laboratory, a famous research establishment.
+Busemann discovered the benefits of the swept wing for aircraft at high speeds, presenting a paper on the topic at the Fifth Volta Conference in Rome on October 3, 1935, the very day of Italian invasion of Ethiopia which caused a delay of his talk. The paper concerned only supersonic lift. At the time of his proposal, flight much beyond 300 miles per hour had not been achieved and it was considered an academic curiosity (in fact, Busemann was initially planning to present a talk on supersonic wind tunnels, but had to swap topics with Jakob Ackeret because of the "sensitive developments" for the Luftwaffe). Nevertheless, he continued working with the concept, and by the end of the year had demonstrated similar benefits in the transonic region as well, after which the research topic was classified. As director of the Braunschweig labs, he started an experimental wind tunnel test series of the concept, and by 1942 had amassed a considerable amount of useful technical data. As the need for higher speed aircraft became pressing in Germany, the Messerschmitt Me P.1101 was developed to flight test these designs.
+When World War II ended, a team of American aerodynamicists travelled to Germany as part of Operation Lusty. The team included  Theodore von Kármán, Tsien Hsue-shen, Hugh Dryden and George S. Schairer from Boeing. They reached the Braunschweig labs on 7 May, where they found a mass of data on the swept wing concept. When they asked Busemann about it, "his face lit up" and he said, "Oh, you remember, I read a paper on it at the Volta Conference in 1935". Several members of the team did remember the presentation, but had completely forgotten the details in terms of what the presentation was actually about. Realizing its importance, Schairer immediately wrote to Boeing and told them to investigate the concept, leading to a re-modeling of the B-47 Stratojet with a swept wing. Busemann's work, along with similar work by Robert T. Jones in the US, led to a revolution in aircraft design.
+Near the end of the war, Busemann started studying airflow around delta wings, leading to the development of his supersonic conical flow theory. This reduced the complexity of the airflow to a conformal mapping in the complex plane, and was used for some time in the industry.
+Busemann moved to the United States in 1947 and started work at NACA's Langley Research Center. In 1951 he gave a talk where he described the fact that air at near supersonic speeds no longer varied in diameter with speed according to Bernoulli's theorem but remained largely incompressible and acting as fixed diameter pipes, or as he put it, 'streampipes'. He jokingly referred to aerodynamicists as needing to become 'pipe fitters'. This talk led an attendee, Richard Whitcomb, to try and work out what these pipes were doing in a transonic test he was performing, inventing the Whitcomb area rule a few days later.
+At Langley, he worked primarily on the problems of sonic booms, and spent a considerable amount of effort looking at ways to characterize them, and potentially eliminate them. He later invented Busemann's Biplane, a supersonic design he originally proposed in 1936 that emits no shock waves and has no wave drag, at the cost of having no lift. Busemann also did early work on magneto-hydrodynamics in the 1920s, as well as on cylindrical focusing of shock waves and non-steady gas dynamics.
+Busemann held a professorship at the University of Colorado from 1963 and suggested the use of ceramic tiles on the Space Shuttle, which were adopted by NASA.
+
+
+=== Awards and honors ===
+He was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics) for "outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering" in 1966. He died at age 85 in Boulder, Colorado.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Oral history interview transcript with Adolf Busemann in summer 1979, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Stern-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alan Stern"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Stern"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:54.307085+00:00"
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+---
+
+Sol Alan Stern (born November 22, 1957) is an American engineer, planetary scientist and private astronaut. He is the principal investigator of the New Horizons mission to Pluto and the Chief Scientist at Moon Express.
+Stern has been involved in 24 suborbital, orbital, and planetary space missions, including eight for which he was the mission principal investigator. One of his projects was the Southwest Ultraviolet Imaging System, an instrument which flew on two space shuttle missions, STS-85 in 1997 and STS-93 in 1999.
+Stern has also developed eight scientific instruments for planetary and near-space research missions and has been a guest observer on numerous NASA satellite observatories, including the International Ultraviolet Explorer, the Hubble Space Telescope, the International Infrared Observer and the Extreme Ultraviolet Observer. Stern was executive director of the Southwest Research Institute's Space Science and Engineering Division until becoming Associate Administrator of NASA's Science Mission Directorate in 2007. He resigned from that position after nearly a year.
+His research has focused on studies of our solar system's Kuiper belt and Oort cloud, comets, the satellites of the outer planets, Pluto, and the search for evidence of planetary systems around other stars. He has also worked on spacecraft rendezvous theory, terrestrial polar mesospheric clouds, galactic astrophysics, and studies of tenuous satellite atmospheres, including the atmosphere of the Moon.
+
+== Life and career ==
+Stern was born in New Orleans, Louisiana to Jewish parents Joel and Leonard Stern. He graduated from St. Mark's School of Texas in 1975. He then attended the University of Texas, Austin, where he received his bachelor's degrees in physics & astronomy and his master's degrees in aerospace engineering and planetary atmospheres. He earned a doctorate in astrophysics and planetary science from the University of Colorado, Boulder.
+From 1983 to 1991, Stern held positions at the University of Colorado in the Center for Space and Geoscience Policy, the office of the vice president for Research, and the Center for Astrophysics and Space Astronomy. He received his doctorate in 1989. From 1991 to 1994 he was the leader of Southwest Research Institute's Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences group and was chair of NASA's Outer Planets Science Working Group. From 1994 to 1998 he was the leader of the Geophysical, Astrophysical, and Planetary Science section in Southwest Research Institute's Space Sciences Department, and from 1998 to 2005 he was the director of the Department of Space Studies at Southwest Research Institute. In 1995 he was selected to be a Space Shuttle mission specialist finalist, and in 1996 he was a candidate Space Shuttle payload specialist but did not have the opportunity to fly on the Space Shuttle.
+In 2007, Stern was listed among Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World.
+On August 27, 2008, Stern was elected to the board of directors of the Challenger Center for Space Science Education.
+In 2015, Stern was the recipient of Smithsonian Magazine's American Ingenuity Award in the Physical Sciences category.
+On October 7, 2016, Stern was inducted into the Colorado Space Hall of Fame.
+
+=== Inspiration for Pluto/Kuiper belt mission ===
+
+On June 14, 2007, in an address to the Smithsonian Institution for their "Exploring the Solar System Lecture Series", Stern commented on the New Horizons mission:
+
+I recall going to JPL, the Jet Propulsion Lab, the summer of 1989 when I was in graduate school to take a summer course in planetary exploration at Caltech and this was the summer of the Voyager fly-by of Neptune and Triton (which has turned out to be rather a twin of Pluto). It was amazing to get to be a part of some first-time exploration like that! Within a matter of months, a small group of us had formed a team, an advocacy group, Why don't we get a mission together for Pluto?
+
+=== Private sector experience ===
+After completing a master's degree in aerospace engineering Stern spent seven years as an aerospace systems engineer, concentrating on spacecraft and payload systems at the NASA Johnson Space Center, Martin Marietta Aerospace, and the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado.
+Stern is currently active as a consultant for private sector space efforts and has stated:
+
+I am a fan of public-private partnerships and building bridges to new markets, I believe we are on the verge of a whole new era of space exploration and that the private sector can provide reliable cost effective services that can increase the value and leverage government space budgets.
+On June 18, 2008, Stern joined Odyssey Moon Limited (Isle of Man), a private industry effort, as a part-time Science Mission Director/consultant in their efforts to launch a robotic mission to the Earth's Moon by participating in the $30 Million Google Lunar X-Prize competition.
+In December 2008, Stern joined Blue Origin, a company that was founded by Amazon.com's Jeff Bezos as an independent representative for research and education Missions. The company has stated that its objective is to develop a new vertical-take-off, vertical-landing vehicle known as New Shepard that is designed to take a small number of astronauts on a sub-orbital journey into space and reduce the cost of space transportation. The company is located in Kent, Washington and has flight tested some hardware.
+In 2012, Stern co-founded Uwingu.

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+---
+title: "Alan Stern"
+chunk: 2/3
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:54.307085+00:00"
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+---
+
+== Space science mission ==
+Stern has experience in instrument development, concentrating on ultraviolet technologies. Stern is a principal investigator (PI) in NASA's UV sounding rocket program, and was the project scientist on a Shuttle-deployable SPARTAN astronomical satellite. He was the PI of the advanced, miniaturized HIPPS Pluto breadboard camera/IR spectrometer/UV spectrometer payload for the NASA/Pluto-Kuiper Express mission, and he is the PI of the PERSI imager/spectrometer payload on NASA's New Horizons Pluto mission. Stern is also the PI of the ALI CE UV Spectrometer for the ESA/NASA Rosetta comet orbiter. He was a member of the New Millennium Deep Space 1 (DS1) mission science team, and is a Co-investigator on both the ESA SPICAM Mars UV spectrometer launched on Mars Express, and the Hubble Space Telescope Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) installed in 2009. He is the PI of the SWUIS ultraviolet imager, which has flown two Shuttle missions, and the SWUIS-A airborne astronomical facility. In this capacity, Stern has flown numerous WB-57 and F-18 airborne research astronomy missions. Stern and his colleague, Dr. Daniel Durda, have been flying on the modified F/A-18 Hornet with a sophisticated camera system called the Southwest Ultraviolet Imaging System (SWUIS). They use the camera to search for a hypothetical group of asteroids (Vulcanoids) between the orbit of Mercury and the Sun that are so elusive and hard to see that scientists are not sure they exist.
+
+== NASA experience ==
+Stern has served on various NASA committees, including the Lunar Exploration Science Working Group (LExSWG) and the Discovery Program Science Working Group (DPSWG), the Solar System Exploration Subcommittee (SSES), the New Millennium Science Working Group (NMSWG), and the Sounding Rocket Working Group (SRWG). He was Chair of NASA's Outer Planets Science Working Group (OPSWG) from 1991 to 1994 and served as a panel member for the National Research Council's 2003-2013 Decadal Survey on planetary science. Stern is a member of the AAAS, the AAS, and the AGU.
+
+== NASA Associate Administrator ==
+
+Stern was appointed NASA's Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate, essentially NASA's top-ranking official for science, in April 2007. In this position Stern directed a US$4.4 billion organization with 93 separate flight missions and a program of over 3,000 research grants. During his tenure a record 10 major new flight projects were started and deep reforms of the research and also the education and public outreach programs were put in place. Stern's style was characterised as "hard-charging" as he pursued a reform-minded agenda. He "made headlines for trying to keep agency missions on schedule and under budget" but faced "internal battles over funding". He was credited with making "significant changes that have helped restore the importance of science in NASA's mission".
+On March 26, 2008, it was announced that Stern had resigned his position the previous day, effective April 11. He was replaced by Ed Weiler, who was to serve his second stint in the position.  The resignation occurred on the same day that NASA Chief Michael D. Griffin overruled a decrease in funding for the Mars Exploration Rovers and Mars Odyssey missions that was intended to free up funds needed for the upcoming Mars Science Laboratory.  NASA officials would neither confirm nor deny a connection between the two events.
+Stern left to avoid cutting healthy programs and basic research in order to cover cost overruns. He believed that cost overruns in the Mars program should be accommodated from within the Mars program, and not taken from other NASA programs. Michael D. Griffin became upset with Stern for making major decisions without consulting him, while Stern was frustrated by Griffin's refusal to allow him to cut or delay politically sensitive projects.  Griffin favored cutting "less popular parts" of the budget, including basic research, and Stern's refusal to do so led to his resignation.
+Casting doubt on the theory that Stern resigned due to conflict with former Administrator Griffin is his statement of March 25, 2009 at spacepolitics.com:
+
+One more fact: I did not quit over MER; in fact, I wasn't the person who tried to cut MER... I quit when my boss effectively told me he was taking over SMD to fund MSL no matter how much damage it did to the rest of SMD. Now, a year later, you can see that damage as canceled SMEX missions, long delayed New Frontiers and Discovery AOs, the effective end of MSR, and an outer planets flagship that is 3+ years later now than when I left, just 12 months ago. I am quite comfortable with my decision to leave, rather than eviscerate innocent SMD missions that should have proceeded apace...
+On November 23, 2008, in an op-ed in The New York Times, Stern criticized NASA's inability to keep its spending under control. Stern said that, during his own time at NASA, "when I articulated this problem... and consistently curtailed cost increases, I found myself eventually admonished and then neutered by still higher ups, precipitating my resignation earlier this year." While complimenting NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin, Stern suggested that Griffin's decision to again bail out an over-budget mission was motivated by fear "that any move to cancel the Mars mission would be rebuffed by members of Congress protecting local jobs."
+Since leaving NASA, Stern has made criticisms of the budgetary process and has advocated for revamping its public appeal.

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+---
+title: "Alan Stern"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Stern"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:54.307085+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Planetary classification ==
+Stern has become involved in the debate surrounding the 2006 definition of planet by the IAU. After the IAU's decision was made he was quoted as saying "It's an awful definition; it's sloppy science and it would never pass peer review" and claimed that Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Neptune have not fully cleared their orbital zones and has stated in his capacity as PI of the New Horizons project that "The New Horizons project [...] will not recognize the IAU's planet definition resolution of August 24, 2006."
+A 2000 paper by Stern and Levison proposed a system of planet classification that included both the concepts of hydrostatic equilibrium and clearing the neighbourhood used in the new definition, with a proposed classification scheme labeling all sub-stellar objects in hydrostatic equilibrium as "planets" and subclassifying them into "überplanets" and "unterplanets" based on a mathematical analysis of the planet's ability to scatter other objects out of its orbit over a long period of time.  Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune were classified as neighborhood-clearing "überplanets" and Pluto was classified as an "unterplanet".
+
+=== Satellite planets and belt planets ===
+Some large satellites are of similar size or larger than the planet Mercury, e.g. Jupiter's Galilean moons and Titan. Stern has argued that location should not matter and only geophysical attributes should be taken into account in the definition of a planet, and proposes the term satellite planet for a planet-sized object orbiting another planet. Likewise planet-sized objects in the asteroid belt or Kuiper belt should also be planets according to Stern. Others have used the neologism planemo (planetary-mass object) for the broad concept of "planet" advocated by Stern.
+
+== Selected bibliography ==
+Stern, S. Alan (1987). The U.S. Space Program After Challenger. New York: Franklin-Watts. ISBN 0-531-10412-5.
+Stern, S. Alan, ed. (1998). Our Worlds: The Magnetism and Thrill of Planetary Exploration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63164-5.
+Stern, S. Alan, ed. (2000). Our Universe. Cambridge University Press.
+Stern, S. Alan, ed. (2003). Worlds Beyond: The Thrill of Planetary Exploration as told by Leading Experts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52001-0.
+Stern, S. Alan (April 2013). "The low-cost ticket to space". Space Exploration. Scientific American. 308 (4): 50–55. Bibcode:2013SciAm.308d..68S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0413-68. PMID 23539792.
+Stern, S. Alan; Mitton, Jacqueline (2005) [1997]. Pluto and Charon: Ice Worlds on the Ragged Edge of the Solar System. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 3-527-40556-9.
+Stern, Alan; Grinspoon, David (2018). Chasing New Horizons: Inside the Epic First Mission to Pluto. Picador. ISBN 978-1-2500-9896-2.
+Stern, S. Alan (August 10, 2021). The Pluto System After New Horizons. University of Arizona Press. p. 688. ISBN 978-0816540945.
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Lippisch-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alexander Lippisch"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Lippisch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:25.647466+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alexander Martin Lippisch (2 November 1894 – 11 February 1976) was a German aeronautical engineer, a pioneer of aerodynamics who made important contributions to the understanding of tailless aircraft, delta wings and the ground effect, and also worked in the U.S. Within the Opel-RAK program, he was the designer of the world's first rocket-powered glider.
+He developed and conceptualized delta wing designs which functioned practically in supersonic delta wing fighter aircraft as well as in hang gliders. People he worked with continued the development of the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts over the 20th century. His most famous designs are the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered interceptor and the Dornier Aerodyne.
+
+== Early life ==
+Lippisch was born in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria.  He later recalled that his interest in aviation began with a demonstration conducted by Orville Wright over Tempelhof Field in Berlin in September 1909.  Nonetheless, he planned to follow his father's footsteps into art school, until the outbreak of World War I intervened.  During his service with the German Army, between 1915 and 1918, Lippisch had the chance to fly being an aerial photographer and mapper.
+
+== Early aircraft designs ==
+Following the war, Lippisch worked with the Zeppelin Company, and it was at this time that he first became interested in tailless aircraft. In 1921, his first design to be  built, by his friend Gottlob Espenlaub, was the Espenlaub E-2 glider. This was the beginning of a research programme that would result in some fifty designs throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Lippisch's growing reputation saw him appointed in 1925 to director of the Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft (RRG), a glider organisation including research groups and construction facilities.
+Lippisch also designed conventional gliders at this time, including the Wien of 1927 and its successor the Fafnir of 1930. In 1928, partaking in the Opel-RAK program by Fritz von Opel and Max Valier, Lippisch's tail-first Ente (Duck) was equipped with powder rockets by Friedrich Wilhelm Sander's company and became the first aircraft to fly under rocket power. From 1927, he resumed his tailless work, leading to a series of designs named Storch I – Storch IX (Stork I-IX), mostly gliders. These designs attracted little interest from the government and private industry.
+
+== Delta wing designs ==
+Experience with the Storch series led Lippisch to develop what he called his Delta designs. Like the Storch series, these were mostly tailless aircraft. They included the earliest successful delta wing designs. In 1931 the Delta I glider became the first to fly. It was followed by the Delta II and III.
+The Delta IV design was powered, and built in two variants as the Fieseler F3 Wespe. Lippisch subsequently designated these the Delta IVa and b, with the c being built as the DFS 39. The development of this led directly to the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet (see next section), which Lippisch has also referred to as the Delta IVd.
+The Delta V, built as the DFS 40 was a blended wing body design for comparison with the DFS 39.
+In 1933, the RGG was reorganised into the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (German Institute for Sailplane Flight, DFS) and the Delta IVd and Delta V were designated as the DFS 39 and DFS 40 respectively. Lippisch thus saw five designs built, numbered Delta I to V, between 1931 and 1939.
+Subsequently, while at Messerschmitt, he began work on a Delta VI design. It became attached to various Messerschmitt projects, and a prototype was under construction when it was destroyed in a bombing raid.
+
+== World War II projects ==
+In early 1939, the Reichsluftfahrtsministerium (RLM, Reich Aviation Ministry) transferred Lippisch and his team to work at the Messerschmitt factory in Augsburg, in order to design a high-speed fighter aircraft around the rocket engines  then under development by Hellmuth Walter. The team quickly adapted their most recent design, the DFS 194, to rocket power, the first example successfully flying in early 1940. This successfully demonstrated the technology for what would become the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.
+Although technically novel, the Komet did not prove to be a successful weapon and friction between Lippisch and Messerschmitt was frequent. In 1943, Lippisch transferred to Vienna's Aeronautical Research Institute (Luftfahrtforschungsanstalt Wien, LFW) in Wiener Neustadt, in an own design bureau to concentrate on the problems of high-speed flight. That same year, he was awarded a doctoral degree in engineering by the University of Heidelberg. With him came the mathematician Hermann Behrbohm on half time (and continued half time for Messerschmitt in Oberammergau to where the development activities were moved into the underground facility after the 25 February 1944 air raids on Augsburg).
+Wind tunnel research in 1939 had suggested that the delta wing was a good choice for supersonic flight, and Lippisch set to work designing a supersonic, ramjet-powered fighter, the Lippisch P.13a. By the time the war ended, however, the project had only advanced as far as a development glider, the DM-1.
+
+=== Importance for the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts ===
+Even though the Lippisch P.13a never flew, it and Lippisch's research and development had a significant importance for the development of the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts and supersonic delta wing fighter aircraft. Lippisch's delta wing concept proved to be very steady and efficient in very high speed supersonic flight.
+This 1950s government-funded development (like that enabled by the Swedish Defence Act of 1958) was intended for swift attack of strategic nuclear weapons bombers such as the Tupolev Tu-16 before they reached their targets.
+The research of the Messerschmitt and Lippisch offices were continued by:

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+---
+title: "Alexander Lippisch"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Lippisch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:25.647466+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hermann Behrbohm worked for the BEE (French Aerodynamic Research and Development Institute) from 1946 on with operations in Emmendingen and Weil am Rhein in the French occupation zone in Germany. His research was used in the later French developedment of the Dassault Mirage.
+Hermann Behrbohm worked for Saab, Linköping, Sweden from 1951 on, where he made significant contributions to the Saab 35 Draken and Saab 37 Viggen supersonic-delta wing-fighter aircraft, developing the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts. Bertil Dillner worked on the concepts with Behrbohm at Saab.
+Bertil Dillner immigrated to the US in 1967 and started working for Boeing Commercial Airplanes in Seattle at the supersonic Boeing 2707 SST passenger jet in 1967-1972 and the aerodynamics of hypersonic aviation at the re-entry of the Space Shuttle. Dillner was chief aerodynamic engineer at Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1972 to 1981. Dillner became aerodynamic chief engineer 1981-1985 for Boeing Defense, Space & Security in Seattle and chief engineer 1985-1988 until his retirement.
+
+== Postwar work in the United States ==
+Like many German scientists, Lippisch was taken to the United States after the war under Operation Paperclip. He worked at the White Sands Missile Range.
+
+=== Ground effect aircraft ===
+From 1950 to 1964, Lippisch worked for the Collins Radio Company in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, which had an aeronautical division. It was during this time that his interest shifted toward ground effect craft. The result was an aerofoil boat research seaplane X-112, flown in 1963. However, Lippisch contracted cancer, and resigned from Collins.
+When he recovered in 1966, he formed his own research company, Lippisch Research Corporation, and attracted the interest of the West German government. Prototypes for both the aerodyne and the ground-effect craft RFB X-113 (1970) then RFB X-114 (1977) were built, but no further development was undertaken. The Kiekhaefer Mercury company was also interested in his ground-effect craft and successfully tested one of his designs as the Aeroskimmer, but also eventually lost interest.
+
+=== Aerodyne ===
+Lippisch conceived of a VTOL craft which he called an "aerodyne". Its fuselage comprised a large ducted rotor, and the thrust could be varied between downwards for vertical takeoff and landing, and backwards for forward flight. He worked principally with two companies in its development.
+The Collins Aerodyne, developed while he was there, had a horizontal-axis rotor with the efflux directed via large flaps located immediately behind it. The craft was stabilised by a long, high tail running back from above the flaps.
+The Dornier Aerodyne was a smaller drone which sat vertically for takeoff and landing, and the whole craft rotated horizontally for forward flight.
+Neither type got beyond the prototype stage.
+
+== Death and legacy ==
+Lippisch died in Cedar Rapids on 11 February 1976. In 1985, he was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.
+
+== Some Lippisch designs ==
+Lippisch SG-38 Zögling, 1926
+RRG Storch V, powered tailless glider, 1929
+DFS 39, tailless research aircraft
+DFS 40, tailless research aircraft
+DFS 193, experimental aircraft
+DFS 194, rocket-powered research aircraft, forerunner of Me 163
+Lippisch P.01-111, designed during 'Projekt X', which would eventually culminate in the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.
+Lippisch Li P.04, a tailless airplane designed as a competitor to the Messerschmitt Me 329
+Lippisch Li P.10, 1942 tailless bomber design
+Lippisch P.11, designed to compete with the Horten Ho 229
+Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet
+Lippisch P.13, 1943 push-pull bomber design
+Lippisch P.13a, a unique delta-winged, ramjet-powered interceptor.
+Lippisch P.13b, a unique airplane powered by a rotating fuel-table of lignite, owing to the fuel shortages late in World War 2 in Germany.
+Lippisch P.15, a development of the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.
+Lippisch P.20, a development of the P.15.
+Dornier Aerodyne, a 1972 wingless VTOL unmanned aircraft (UAV)
+
+== See also ==
+Delta wing
+Supersonic flight
+Hermann Behrbohm
+Willy Messerschmitt
+Bertil Dillner
+German inventors and discoverers
+John Carver Meadows Frost
+Space Shuttle
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Lecture on aerodynamics by Dr. Lippisch
+Alexander Lippisch Digital Collection Archived 2017-11-23 at the Wayback Machine
+Alexander Lippisch Papers (archives)

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+---
+title: "Ares I"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares_I"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:35.169580+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ares I was the crew launch vehicle that was being developed by NASA as part of the Constellation program. The name "Ares" refers to the Greek deity Ares, who is identified with the Roman god Mars. Ares I was originally known as the "Crew Launch Vehicle" (CLV).
+NASA planned to use Ares I to launch Orion, the spacecraft intended for NASA human spaceflight missions after the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011. Ares I was to complement the larger, uncrewed Ares V, which was the cargo launch vehicle for Constellation. NASA selected the Ares designs for their anticipated overall safety, reliability and cost-effectiveness. However, the Constellation program, including Ares I, was cancelled by U.S. president Barack Obama in October 2010 with the passage of his 2010 NASA authorization bill. In September 2011, NASA detailed the Space Launch System as its new vehicle for human exploration beyond Earth's orbit.
+
+== Development ==
+
+=== Advanced Transportation System Studies ===
+In 1995 Lockheed Martin produced an Advanced Transportation System Studies (ATSS) report for the Marshall Space Flight Center. A section of the ATSS report describes several possible vehicles much like the Ares I design, with liquid rocket second stages stacked above segmented solid rocket booster (SRB) first stages. The variants that were considered included both the J-2S engines and Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) for the second stage. The variants also assumed use of the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) as a first stage, but the ASRM was cancelled in 1993 due to significant cost overruns.
+
+=== Exploration Systems Architecture Study ===
+President George W. Bush had announced the Vision for Space Exploration in January 2004, and NASA under Sean O'Keefe had solicited plans for a Crew Exploration Vehicle from multiple bidders, with the plan for having two competing teams. These plans were discarded by incoming administrator Michael Griffin, and on April 29, 2005, NASA chartered the Exploration Systems Architecture Study to accomplish specific goals:
+
+determine the "top-level requirements and configurations for crew and cargo launch systems to support the lunar and Mars exploration programs"
+assess the "CEV requirements and plans to enable the CEV to provide crew transport to the ISS"
+"develop a reference lunar exploration architecture concept to support sustained human and robotic lunar exploration operations"
+"identify key technologies required to enable and significantly enhance these reference exploration systems"
+
+A Shuttle-derived launch architecture was selected by NASA for the Ares I. Originally, the crewed vehicle would have used a four-segment solid rocket booster (SRB) for the first stage, and a simplified Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) for the second stage. An uncrewed version was to use a five-segment booster with the same second stage. Shortly after the initial design was approved, additional tests revealed that the Orion spacecraft would be too heavy for the four-segment booster to lift, and in January 2006 NASA announced they would slightly reduce the size of the Orion spacecraft, add a fifth segment to the solid-rocket first stage, and replace the single SSME with the Apollo-derived J-2X motor. While the change from a four-segment first stage to a five-segment version would allow NASA to construct virtually identical motors, the main reason for the change to the five-segment booster was the move to the J-2X.
+The Exploration Systems Architecture Study concluded that the cost and safety of the Ares was superior to that of either of the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELVs). The cost estimates in the study were based on the assumption that new launch pads would be needed for human-rated EELVs. The facilities for the current EELVs (LC-37 for Delta IV, LC-41 for Atlas V) are in place and could be modified, but this may not have been the most cost effective solution as LC-37 is a contractor owned and operated (COGO) facility and modifications for the Delta IV H were determined to be similar to those required for Ares I. The ESAS launch safety estimates for the Ares were based on the Space Shuttle, despite the differences, and included only launches after the post-Challenger Space Shuttle redesign. The estimate counted each Shuttle launch as two safe launches of the Ares booster. The safety of the Atlas V and Delta IV was estimated from the failure rates of all Delta II, Atlas-Centaur, and Titan launches since 1992, although they are not similar designs.
+
+=== Role in Constellation program ===
+
+Ares I was the crew launch component of the Constellation program. Originally named the "Crew Launch Vehicle" or CLV, the Ares name was chosen from the Greek deity Ares. Unlike the Space Shuttle, where both crew and cargo were launched simultaneously on the same rocket, the plans for Project Constellation outlined having two separate launch vehicles, the Ares I and the Ares V, for crew and cargo, respectively. Having two separate launch vehicles allows for more specialized designs for the crew and heavy cargo launch rockets.
+The Ares I rocket was specifically being designed to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle. Orion was intended as a crew capsule, similar in design to the Apollo program capsule, to transport astronauts to the International Space Station, the Moon, and eventually Mars. Ares I might have also delivered some (limited) resources to orbit, including supplies for the International Space Station or subsequent delivery to the planned lunar base.
+
+=== Contractor selection ===
+NASA selected Alliant Techsystems, the builder of the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, as the prime contractor for the Ares I first stage. NASA announced that Rocketdyne would be the main subcontractor for the J-2X rocket engine on July 16, 2007. NASA selected Boeing to provide and install the avionics for the Ares I rocket on December 12, 2007.
+On August 28, 2007, NASA awarded the Ares I Upper Stage manufacturing contract to Boeing. The upper stage of Ares I was to have been built at Michoud Aerospace Factory, which was used for the Space Shuttle's External Tank and the Saturn V's S-IC first stage.
+
+=== J-2X engines ===

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+---
+title: "Ares I"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares_I"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:35.169580+00:00"
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+---
+
+At approximately US$20–25 million per engine, the Rocketdyne-designed and produced J-2X would have cost less than half as much as the more complex RS-25 engine (around $55 million). Unlike the Space Shuttle Main Engine, which was designed to start on the ground, the J-2X was designed from inception to be started in both mid-air and in near-vacuum. This air-start capability was critical, especially in the original J-2 engine used on the Saturn V's S-IVB stage, to propel the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. The Space Shuttle Main Engine, on the other hand, would have required extensive modifications to add an air-start capability
+
+=== System requirements review ===
+
+On January 4, 2007, NASA announced that the Ares I had completed its system requirements review, the first such review completed for any crewed spacecraft design since the Space Shuttle. This review was the first major milestone in the design process, and was intended to ensure that the Ares I launch system met all the requirements necessary for the Constellation Program. In addition to the release of the review, NASA also announced that a redesign in the tank hardware was made. Instead of separate LH2 and LO2 tanks, separated by an "intertank" like that of the Space Shuttle External Tank, the new LH2 and LOX tanks would have been separated by a common bulkhead like that employed on the Saturn V S-II and S-IVB stages. This would have provided a significant mass saving and eliminated the need to design a second stage interstage unit that would have had to carry the weight of the Orion spacecraft with it.
+
+=== Analysis and testing ===
+In January 2008, NASA Watch revealed that the first stage solid rocket of the Ares I could have created high vibrations during the first few minutes of ascent. The vibrations would have been caused by thrust oscillations inside the first stage. NASA officials had identified the potential problem at the Ares I system design review in late October 2007, stating in a press release that it wanted to solve it by March 2008. NASA admitted that this problem was very severe, rating it four out of five on a risk scale, but the agency was very confident in solving it. The mitigation approach developed by the Ares engineering team included active and passive vibration damping, adding an active tuned-mass absorber and a passive "compliance structure" – essentially a spring-loaded ring that would have detuned the Ares I stack. NASA also pointed out that, since this would have been a new launch system, like the Apollo or Space Shuttle systems, it was normal for such problems to arise during the development stage. According to NASA, analysis of the data and telemetry from the Ares I-X flight showed that vibrations from thrust oscillation were within the normal range for a Space Shuttle flight.
+A study released in July 2009 by the 45th Space Wing of the US Air Force concluded that an abort 30–60 seconds after launch would have a ≈100% chance of killing all crew, due to the capsule being engulfed until ground impact by a cloud of 4,000 °F (2,200 °C) solid propellant fragments, which would melt the capsule's nylon parachute material. NASA's study showed the crew capsule would have flown beyond the more severe danger.
+
+The Ares I igniter was an advanced version of the flight-proven igniter used on the Space Shuttle's solid rocket boosters. It was approximately 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter and 36 inches (91 cm) long, and took advantage of upgraded insulation materials that had improved thermal properties to protect the igniter's case from the burning solid propellant. NASA successfully completed test firing of the igniter for the Ares I engines on March 10, 2009, at ATK Launch Systems test facilities near Promontory, Utah. The igniter test generated a flame 200 feet (61 meters) in length, and preliminary data showed the igniter performed as planned.
+Development of the Ares I propulsion elements continued to make strong progress. On September 10, 2009, the first Ares I development motor (DM-1) was successfully tested in a full-scale, full-duration test firing. This test was followed by two more development motor tests, DM-2 on August 31, 2010, and DM-3 on September 8, 2011. For DM-2 the motor was cooled to a core temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius), and for DM-3 it was heated to above 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 degrees Celsius). In addition to other objectives, these two tests validated Ares motor performance at extreme temperatures. NASA conducted a successful 500-second test firing of the J-2X rocket engine at John C. Stennis Space Center in November 2011.
+The Ares I prototype, Ares I-X, successfully completed a test launch on October 28, 2009. Launch Pad 39B was damaged more than with a Space Shuttle launch. During descent, one of the three parachutes of the Ares I-X's first stage failed to open, and another opened only partially, causing the booster to splash down harder and suffer structural damage. The launch accomplished all primary test objectives.

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+---
+title: "Ares I"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares_I"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:35.169580+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Schedule and cost ===
+NASA completed the Ares I system requirements review in January 2007. Project design was to have continued through the end of 2009, with development and qualification testing running concurrently through 2012. As of July 2009, flight articles were to have begun production towards the end of 2009 for a first launch in June 2011. Since 2006 the first launch of a human was planned for no later than 2014, which is four years after the planned retirement of the Space Shuttle.
+Delays in the Ares I development schedule due to budgetary pressures and unforeseen engineering and technical difficulties would have increased the gap between the end of the Space Shuttle program and the first operational flight of Ares I. Because the Constellation program was never allocated the funding originally projected, the total estimated cost to develop the Ares I through 2015 rose from $28 billion in 2006 to more than $40 billion in 2009. The Ares I-X project cost was $445 million.
+
+Originally scheduled for first test flights in 2011, the independent analysis by the Augustine Commission found in late 2009 that due to technical and financial problems Ares I was not likely to have had its first crewed launch until 2017–2019 under the current budget, or late 2016 with an unconstrained budget. The Augustine Commission also stated that Ares I and Orion would have an estimated recurring cost of almost $1 billion per flight. However, later financial analysis in March 2010 showed that the Ares I would have cost $1 billion or more to operate per flight had the Ares I flown just once a year. If the Ares I system were flown multiple times a year the marginal costs could have fallen to as low as $138 million per launch. In March 2010, NASA administrator Charlie Bolden testified to congress that the Ares I would cost $4–4.5 billion a year, and $1.6 billion per flight. The Ares I marginal cost was predicted to have been a fraction of the Shuttle's marginal costs even had it flown multiple times per year. By comparison, the cost of launching three astronauts on a crewed Russian Soyuz is $153 million. Representative Robert Aderholt stated in March 2010 that he had received a letter from NASA which claimed that it would have cost $1.1 billion to fly the Ares I rocket three times a year.
+On February 8, 2011, it was reported that Alliant Techsystems and Astrium proposed to use Ares I's first stage with a second stage derived from the Ariane 5 core stage to form a new rocket named Liberty.
+
+=== Cancellation ===
+On February 1, 2010, President Barack Obama announced a proposal to cancel the Constellation program effective with the U.S. 2011 fiscal year budget, but later announced changes to the proposal in a major space policy speech at Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010. In October 2010, the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 was signed into law which canceled Constellation. Previous legislation kept Constellation contracts in force until passage of a new funding bill for 2011.
+
+== Design ==
+
+Ares I had a payload capability in the 25-tonne (28-short-ton; 25-long-ton) class and was comparable to vehicles such as the Delta IV and the Atlas V. The NASA study group that selected what would become the Ares I rated the vehicle as almost twice as safe as an Atlas or Delta IV-derived design.
+
+=== First stage ===
+The first stage was to have been a more powerful and reusable solid fuel rocket derived from the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB). Compared with the Solid Rocket Booster, which had four segments, the most notable difference was the addition of a fifth segment. This fifth segment would have enabled the Ares I to produce more thrust. Other changes made to the Solid Rocket Booster were to have been the removal of the Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) attachment points and the replacement of the Solid Rocket Booster nosecone with a new forward adapter that would have interfaced with the liquid-fueled second stage. The adapter was to have been equipped with solid-fueled separation motors to facilitate the disconnection of the stages during ascent. The grain design was also changed, and so were the insulation and liner. By the Ares I first stage ground test, the case, grain design, number of segments, insulation, liner, throat diameter, thermal protection systems and nozzle had all changed.

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+title: "Ares I"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares_I"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:35.169580+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Upper stage ===
+The upper stage, derived from the Shuttle's External Tank (ET) and based on the S-IVB stage of the Saturn V, was to be propelled by a single J-2X rocket engine fueled by liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LOX). The J-2X was derived from the original J-2 engine used during the Apollo program, but with more thrust (≈294,000 lbf or 1.31 MN) and fewer parts than the original engine. On July 16, 2007, NASA awarded Rocketdyne a sole-source contract for the J-2X engines to be used for ground and flight tests. Rocketdyne was the prime contractor for the original J-2 engines used in the Apollo program.
+Although its J-2X engine was derived from an established design, the upper stage itself would have been wholly new. Originally to have been based on both the internal and external structure of the ET, the original design called for separate fuel and oxidizer tanks, joined by an "intertank" structure, and covered with the spray-on foam insulation to keep venting to a minimum. The only new hardware on the original ET-derived second stage would have been the thrust assembly for the J-2X engine, new fill/drain/vent disconnects for the fuel and oxidizer, and mounting interfaces for the solid-fueled first stage and the Orion spacecraft.
+Using a concept going back to the Apollo program, the "intertank" structure was dropped to decrease mass, and in its place, a common bulkhead, similar to that used on both the S-II and S-IVB stages of the Saturn V, would have been used between the tanks. The savings from these changes were used to increase propellant capacity, which was 297,900 pounds (135,100 kg).
+
+== See also ==
+Ares IV, a proposed heavy-lift variant of Ares I and V combined.
+DIRECT, shuttle-derived launcher proposed as alternative to Ares I and Ares V.
+Liberty (rocket), a proposed medium-lift rocket like the Ares I, a SDLV using an SRB-derivative first stage
+Omega, ATK's proposed new rocket based on SDLV SRB-derived first and second stages and Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10 third stage
+List of Constellation missions
+Boilerplate (spaceflight)
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+NASA Ares I page Archived January 25, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
+GAO-08-51, Ares I Report to Congress, GAO

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+title: "Camp Dustbin"
+chunk: 1/1
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:51.659464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Camp Dustbin was a British-American interrogation camp located first at Chesnay, near Versailles, France, and then moved to Kransberg Castle outside Frankfurt, Germany, during World War II. It served as a processing station and interrogation center for the German scientists, technicians, and administrators, captured during the war.
+Among them were leaders of V-2 missile project (including chief designer Wernher von Braun); leaders of the atomic and nerve-gas development projects; "members of the special research staff of the Reichsforschungsrat (Imperial Research Council)" (including its director, Werner Osenberg); members of German Ministry of Armaments and War Production (including the minister Albert Speer and his associates Karl-Otto Saur, Karl Maria Hettlage, Walter Dornberger and Theodor Hupfauer); Abraham Esau, leading German expert on radar; directors of Telefunken; professor Friedrich Gladenbeck; industrialists like "steel barons Fritz Thyssen and Hermann Röchling, and Volkswagen’s Professor Ferdinand Porsche"; leading figures of I. G. Farben, developer of nerve gases: Gerhard Schrader, inventor of nerve gases tabun and sarin; Richard Kuhn, "inventor of the most toxic of the gases", soman; and former Minister of Economics Hjalmar Schacht.
+The camp was open for the inmates, who "were free to wander around the castle grounds. The wrought-iron gates remained open. ... They passed the time by giving talks,  listening to Schacht’s poetry and by staging a weekly cabaret mounted by the inmates that made light of their fate".
+In 1946, interrogations in camp Dustbin "had the aim of finding out about Soviet development projects as well as German wartime achievements"; "scientific workers threatened with kidnapping by agents of other countries, chiefly the USSR, were held there".
+Similar interrogation camp, Ashcan, was created in Luxembourg for the 86 most prominent surviving Nazi leaders prior to their trial in Nuremberg.
+
+
+== References ==

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+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 1/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Castle Bravo was the first in a series of high-yield thermonuclear weapon design tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Castle. Detonated on 1 March 1954, the device remains the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated by the United States and the first lithium deuteride–fueled thermonuclear weapon tested using the Teller–Ulam design. Castle Bravo's yield was 15 megatons of TNT [Mt] (63 PJ), 2.5 times the predicted 6 Mt (25 PJ), due to unforeseen additional reactions involving lithium-7, which led to radioactive contamination in the surrounding area.
+Radioactive nuclear fallout, the heaviest of which was in the form of pulverized surface coral from the detonation, fell on residents of Rongelap and Utirik atolls, while the more particulate and gaseous fallout spread around the world. The inhabitants of the islands were evacuated three days later and suffered radiation sickness. Twenty-three crew members of the Japanese fishing vessel Daigo Fukuryū Maru ("Lucky Dragon No. 5") were also contaminated by the heavy fallout, experiencing acute radiation syndrome, including the death six months later of Kuboyama Aikichi, the boat's chief radioman. The blast incited a strong international reaction over atmospheric thermonuclear testing.
+The Bravo Crater is located at 11°41′50″N 165°16′19″E. The remains of the Castle Bravo causeway are at 11°42′6″N 165°17′7″E.
+
+== Bomb design ==
+
+=== Primary system ===
+The Castle Bravo device was housed in a cylinder that weighed 23,500 pounds (10,700 kg) and measured 179.5 inches (456 cm) in length and 53.9 inches (137 cm) in diameter.
+The primary device was a COBRA deuterium–tritium gas-boosted atomic bomb made by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, a very compact MK 7 device. This boosted fission device had been tested in the Upshot–Knothole Climax event and yielded 61 kilotons of TNT [kt] (260 TJ) (out of 50–70 kt expected yield range). It was considered successful enough that the planned operation series Domino, designed to explore the same question about a suitable primary for thermonuclear bombs, could be canceled. The implosion system was quite lightweight at 900 lb (410 kg), because it eliminated the aluminum pusher shell around the tamper and used the more compact ring lenses, a design feature shared with the Mark 5, 12, 13 and 18 designs. The explosive material of the inner charges in the MK 7 was changed to the more powerful Cyclotol 75/25, instead of the Composition B used in most stockpiled bombs at that time, as Cyclotol 75/25 was denser than Composition B and thus could generate the same amount of explosive force in a smaller volume (it provided 13 percent more compressive energy than Comp B). The composite uranium-plutonium COBRA core was levitated in a type-D pit. COBRA was Los Alamos' most recent product of design work on the "new principles" of the hollow core. A copper pit liner encased within the weapon-grade plutonium inner capsule prevented DT gas diffusion into the plutonium, a technique first tested in Greenhouse Item. The assembled module weighed 1,840 lb (830 kg), measuring 30.5 in (770 mm) across. It was located at the end of the device, which, as seen in the declassified film, shows a small cone projecting from the ballistic case. This cone is the part of the paraboloid that was used to focus the radiation emanating from the primary into the secondary.

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+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 2/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
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+---
+
+=== Deuterium and lithium ===
+The device was called SHRIMP, and had the same basic configuration (radiation implosion) as the Ivy Mike wet device, except with a different type of fusion fuel. SHRIMP used lithium deuteride (LiD), which is solid at room temperature; Ivy Mike used cryogenic liquid deuterium (D2), which required elaborate cooling equipment. Castle Bravo was the first test by the United States of a practical deliverable fusion bomb, even though the TX-21 as proof-tested in the Bravo event was not weaponized. The successful test rendered obsolete the cryogenic design used by Ivy Mike and its weaponized derivative, the JUGHEAD, which was slated to be tested as the initial Castle Yankee. It also used a 3.7 in (9.5 cm)-thick 7075 aluminum ballistic case. Aluminum was used to drastically reduce the bomb's weight and simultaneously provided sufficient radiation confinement time to raise yield, a departure from the heavy stainless steel casing (304L or MIM 316L) employed by other weapon projects at the time.
+The SHRIMP was at least in theory and in many critical aspects identical in geometry to the RUNT and RUNT II devices later proof-fired in the Romeo and Yankee shots. On paper it was a scaled-down version of these devices, and its origins can be traced back to 1953. The United States Air Force indicated the importance of lighter thermonuclear weapons for delivery by the B-47 Stratojet and B-58 Hustler. Los Alamos National Laboratory responded to this indication with a follow-up enriched version of the RUNT scaled down to a 3/4 scale radiation-implosion system called the SHRIMP. The proposed weight reduction from TX-17's 42,000 pounds (19,000 kg) to TX-21's 25,000 pounds (11,000 kg)) would provide the Air Force with a much more versatile deliverable gravity bomb. The final version tested in Castle used partially enriched lithium as its fusion fuel. Natural lithium is a mixture of lithium-6 and lithium-7 isotopes (with 7.5% of the former). The enriched lithium used in Bravo was nominally 40% lithium-6 (the remainder was the much more common lithium-7, which was incorrectly assumed to be inert). The fuel slugs varied in enrichment from 37 to 40% in 6Li, and the slugs with lower enrichment were positioned at the end of the fusion-fuel chamber, away from the primary. The lower levels of lithium enrichment in the fuel slugs, compared with the ALARM CLOCK and many later hydrogen weapons, were due to shortages in enriched lithium at that time, as the first of the Alloy Development Plants (ADP) started production in late 1953. The volume of LiD fuel used was approximately 60% the volume of the fusion fuel filling used in the wet SAUSAGE and dry RUNT I and II devices, or about 500 liters (110 imp gal; 130 U.S. gal), corresponding to about 390 kg of lithium deuteride (as LiD has a density of 0.78201 g/cm3). The mixture cost about 4.54 USD/g at that time. The fusion burn efficiency was close to 25.1%, the highest attained efficiency of the first thermonuclear weapon generation. This efficiency is well within the figures given in a November 1956 statement, when a DOD official disclosed that thermonuclear devices with efficiencies ranging from 15% to up about 40% had been tested. Hans Bethe reportedly stated independently that the first generation of thermonuclear weapons had (fusion) efficiencies varying from as low as 15% to up about 25%.
+The thermonuclear burn would produce (like the fission fuel in the primary) pulsations (generations) of high-energy neutrons with an average temperature of 14 MeV through Jetter's cycle.
+
+==== Jetter's cycle ====
+
+The Jetter cycle is a combination of reactions involving lithium, deuterium, and tritium. It consumes lithium-6 and deuterium, and in two reactions (with energies of 17.6 MeV and 4.8 MeV, mediated by a neutron and tritium) it produces two alpha particles.
+The reaction would produce high-energy neutrons with 14 MeV, and its neutronicity was estimated at ≈0.885 (for a Lawson criterion of ≈1.5).
+
+==== Possible additional tritium for high-yield ====
+As SHRIMP, along with the RUNT I and ALARM CLOCK, were to be high-yield shots required to assure the thermonuclear "emergency capability," their fusion fuel may have been spiked with additional tritium, in the form of 6LiT. All of the high-energy 14 MeV neutrons would cause fission in the uranium fusion tamper wrapped around the secondary and the spark plug's plutonium rod. The ratio of deuterium (and tritium) atoms burned by 14 MeV neutrons spawned by the burning was expected to vary from 5:1 to 3:1, a standardization derived from Mike, while for these estimations, the ratio of 3:1 was predominantly used in ISRINEX. The neutronicity of the fusion reactions harnessed by the fusion tamper would dramatically increase the yield of the device.
+
+=== SHRIMP's indirect drive ===

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+---
+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 3/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
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+---
+
+Attached to the cylindrical ballistic case was a natural-uranium liner, the radiation case, that was about 2.5 cm thick. Its internal surface was lined with about 240 μm-thick copper foil to increase the overall albedo of the hohlraum. Copper possesses excellent reflecting properties, and its low cost, compared to other reflecting materials like gold, made it useful for mass-produced hydrogen weapons. Hohlraum albedo is a very important design parameter for any inertial-confinement configuration. A relatively high albedo permits higher interstage coupling due to the more favorable azimuthal and latitudinal angles of reflected radiation. The limiting value of the albedo for high-Z materials is reached when the thickness is 5–10 g/cm2, or 0.5–1.0 free paths. Thus, a hohlraum made of uranium much thicker than a free path of uranium would be needlessly heavy and costly. At the same time, the angular anisotropy increases as the atomic number of the scatterer material is reduced. Therefore, hohlraum liners require the use of copper (or, as in other devices, gold or aluminium), as the absorption probability increases with the value of Zeff of the scatterer. There are two sources of X-rays in the hohlraum: the primary's irradiance, which is dominant at the beginning and during the pulse rise; and the wall, which is important during the required radiation temperature's (Tr) plateau. The primary emits radiation in a manner similar to a flash bulb, and the secondary needs constant Tr to properly implode. This constant wall temperature is dictated by the ablation pressure requirements to drive compression, which lie on average at about 0.4 keV (out of a range of 0.2 to 2 keV), corresponding to several million kelvins. Wall temperature depended on the temperature of the primary's core which peaked at about 5.4 keV during boosted-fission. The final wall-temperature, which corresponds to energy of the wall-reradiated X-rays to the secondary's pusher, also drops due to losses from the hohlraum material itself. Natural uranium nails, lined to the top of their head with copper, attached the radiation case to the ballistic case. The nails were bolted in vertical arrays in a double-shear configuration to better distribute the shear loads. This method of attaching the radiation case to the ballistic case was first used successfully in the Ivy Mike device. The radiation case had a parabolic end, which housed the COBRA primary that was employed to create the conditions needed to start the fusion reaction, and its other end was a cylinder, as also seen in Bravo's declassified film.
+The space between the uranium fusion tamper, and the case formed a radiation channel to conduct X-rays from the primary to the secondary assembly; the interstage. It is one of the most closely guarded secrets of a multistage thermonuclear weapon. Implosion of the secondary assembly is indirectly driven, and the techniques used in the interstage to smooth the spatial profile (i.e. reduce coherence and nonuniformities) of the primary's irradiance are of utmost importance. This was done with the introduction of the channel filler—an optical element used as a refractive medium, also encountered as random-phase plate in the ICF laser assemblies. This medium was a polystyrene plastic foam filling, extruded or impregnated with a low-molecular-weight hydrocarbon (possibly methane gas), which turned to a low-Z plasma from the X-rays, and along with channeling radiation it modulated the ablation front on the high-Z surfaces; it "tamped" the sputtering effect that would otherwise "choke" radiation from compressing the secondary. The reemitted X-rays from the radiation case must be deposited uniformly on the outer walls of the secondary's tamper and ablate it externally, driving the thermonuclear fuel capsule (increasing the density and temperature of the fusion fuel) to the point needed to sustain a thermonuclear reaction. (see Nuclear weapon design). This point is above the threshold where the fusion fuel would turn opaque to its emitting radiation, as determined from its Rosseland opacity, meaning that the generated energy balances the energy lost to fuel's vicinity (as radiation, particle losses). After all, for any hydrogen weapon system to work, this energy equilibrium must be maintained through the compression equilibrium between the fusion tamper and the spark plug (see below), hence their name equilibrium supers.
+
+Since the ablative process takes place on both walls of the radiation channel, a numerical estimate made with ISRINEX (a thermonuclear explosion simulation program) suggested that the uranium tamper also had a thickness of 2.5 cm, so that an equal pressure would be applied to both walls of the hohlraum. The rocket effect on the surface of tamper's wall created by the ablation of its several superficial layers would force an equal mass of uranium that rested in the remainder of the tamper to speed inwards, thus imploding the thermonuclear core. At the same time, the rocket effect on the surface of the hohlraum would force the radiation case to speed outwards. The ballistic case would confine the exploding radiation case for as long as necessary. The fact that the tamper material was uranium enriched in 235U is primarily based on the final fission reaction fragments detected in the radiochemical analysis, which conclusively showed the presence of 237U, found by the Japanese in the shot debris. The first-generation thermonuclear weapons (MK-14, 16, 17, 21, 22 and 24) all used uranium tampers enriched to 37.5% 235U. The exception to this was the MK-15 ZOMBIE that used a 93.5% enriched fission jacket.
+
+=== The secondary assembly ===

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+---
+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 4/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The secondary assembly was the actual SHRIMP component of the weapon. The weapon, like most contemporary thermonuclear weapons at that time, bore the same codename as the secondary component. The secondary was situated in the cylindrical end of the device, where its end was locked to the radiation case by a type of mortise and tenon joint. The hohlraum at its cylindrical end had an internal projection, which nested the secondary and had better structural strength to support the secondary's assembly, which had most of the device's mass. A visualization to this is that the joint looked much like a cap (the secondary) fitted in a cone (the projection of the radiation case). Any other major supporting structure would produce interference with radiation transfer from the primary to the secondary and complex vibrational behavior. With this form of joint bearing most of the structural loads of the secondary, the latter and the hohlraum-ballistic case ensemble behaved as a single mass sharing common eigenmodes. To reduce excessive loading of the joint, especially during deployment of the weapon, the forward section of the secondary (i.e. the thermal blast/heat shield) was anchored to the radiation case by a set of thin wires, which also aligned the center line of the secondary with the primary, as they diminished bending and torsional loads on the secondary, another technique adopted from the SAUSAGE. The secondary assembly was an elongated truncated cone. From its front part (excluding the blast-heat shield) to its aft section it was steeply tapered. Tapering was used for two reasons. First, radiation drops by the square of the distance, hence radiation coupling is relatively poor in the aftermost sections of the secondary. This made the use of a higher mass of fusion fuel in the rear end of the secondary assembly ineffective and the overall design wasteful. This was also the reason why the lower-enriched slugs of fusion fuel were placed far aft of the fuel capsule. Second, as the primary could not illuminate the whole surface of the hohlraum, in part due to the large axial length of the secondary, relatively small solid angles would be effective to compress the secondary, leading to poor radiation focusing. By tapering the secondary, the hohlraum could be shaped as a cylinder in its aft section obviating the need to machine the radiation case to a parabola at both ends. This optimized radiation focusing and enabled a streamlined production line, as it was cheaper, faster and easier to manufacture a radiation case with only one parabolic end. The tapering in this design was much steeper than its cousins, the RUNT, and the ALARM CLOCK devices. SHRIMP's tapering and its mounting to the hohlraum apparently made the whole secondary assembly resemble the body of a shrimp. The secondary's length is defined by the two pairs of dark-colored diagnostic hot spot pipes attached to the middle and left section of the device. These pipe sections were 8+5⁄8 inches (220 mm) in diameter and 40 feet (12 m) long and were butt-welded end-to-end to the ballistic case leading out to the top of the shot cab. They would carry the initial reaction's light up to the array of 12 mirror towers built in an arc on the artificial 1-acre (0.40 ha) shot island created for the event. From those pipes, mirrors would reflect early bomb light from the bomb casing to a series of remote high-speed cameras, and so that Los Alamos could determine both the simultaneity of the design (i.e. the time interval between primary's firing and secondary's ignition) and the thermonuclear burn rate in these two crucial areas of the secondary device.
+This secondary assembly device contained the lithium deuteride fusion fuel in a stainless-steel canister. Running down to the center of the secondary was a 1.3 cm thick hollow cylindrical rod of plutonium, nested in the steel canister. This was the spark plug, a tritium-boosted fission device. It was made from plutonium rings and had a hollow volume inside that measured about 0.5 cm in diameter. This central volume was lined with copper, which like the liner in the primary's fissile core prevented DT gas diffusion in plutonium. The spark plug's boosting charge contained about 4 grams of tritium and, imploding together with the secondary's compression, was timed to detonate by the first generations of neutrons that arrived from the primary. Timing was defined by the geometric characteristics of the sparkplug (its uncompressed annular radius), which detonated when its criticality, or keff, transcended 1. Its purpose was to compress the fusion material around it from its inside, equally applying pressure with the tamper. The compression factor of the fusion fuel and its adiabatic compression energy determined the minimal energy required for the spark plug to counteract the compression of the fusion fuel and the tamper's momentum. The spark plug weighed about 18 kg, and its initial firing yielded 0.6 kilotonnes of TNT (2.5 TJ). Then it would be completely fissioned by the fusion neutrons, contributing about 330 kilotonnes of TNT (1,400 TJ) to the total yield. The energy required by the spark plug to counteract the compression of the fusion fuel was lower than the primary's yield because coupling of the primary's energy in the hohlraum is accompanied by losses due to the difference between the X-ray fireball and the hohlraum temperatures. The neutrons entered the assembly by a small hole through the ≈28 cm thick 238U blast-heat shield. It was positioned in front of the secondary assembly facing the primary. Similar to the tamper-fusion capsule assembly, the shield was shaped as a circular frustum, with its small diameter facing the primary's side, and with its large diameter locked by a type of mortise and tenon joint to the rest of the secondary assembly. The shield-tamper ensemble can be visualized as a circular bifrustum. All parts of the tamper were similarly locked together to provide structural support and rigidity to the secondary assembly. Surrounding the fusion-fuel–spark-plug assembly was the uranium tamper with a standoff air-gap about 0.9 cm wide that was to increase the tamper's momentum, a levitation technique used as early as Operation Sandstone and described by physicist Ted Taylor as hammer-on-the-nail-impact. Since there were also technical concerns that high-Z tamper material would mix rapidly with the relatively low-density fusion fuel—leading to unacceptably large radiation losses—the stand-off gap also acted as a buffer to mitigate the unavoidable and undesirable Taylor mixing.

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+---
+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 5/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Use of boron ===
+Boron was used at many locations in this dry system; it has a high cross-section for the absorption of slow neutrons, which fission 235U and 239Pu, but a low cross-section for the absorption of fast neutrons, which fission 238U. Because of this characteristic, 10B deposited onto the surface of the secondary stage would prevent pre-detonation of the spark plug by stray neutrons from the primary without interfering with the subsequent fissioning of the 238U of the fusion tamper wrapping the secondary. Boron also played a role in increasing the compressive plasma pressure around the secondary by blocking the sputtering effect, leading to higher thermonuclear efficiency. Because the structural foam holding the secondary in place within the casing was doped with 10B, the secondary was compressed more highly, at a cost of some radiated neutrons. By contrast, the Castle Koon MORGENSTERN device did not use 10B in its design; as a result, the intense neutron flux from its RACER IV primary predetonated the spherical fission spark plug, which in turn "cooked" the fusion fuel, leading to an overall poor compression. The plastic's low molecular weight is unable to implode the secondary's mass. Its plasma-pressure is confined in the boiled-off sections of the tamper and the radiation case so that material from neither of these two walls can enter the radiation channel that has to be open for the radiation transit.
+
+== Detonation ==
+
+The device was mounted in a "shot cab" on an artificial island built on a reef off Namu Island, in Bikini Atoll. A sizable array of diagnostic instruments were trained on it, including high-speed cameras trained through an arc of mirror towers around the shot cab.
+The detonation took place at 06:45 on 1 March 1954, local time (18:45 on 28 February GMT).
+When Bravo was detonated, within one second it formed a fireball almost 4.5 miles (7.2 km) across. This fireball was visible on Kwajalein Atoll over 250 miles (400 km) away. The explosion left a crater 6,500 feet (2,000 m) in diameter and 250 feet (76 m) in depth. The mushroom cloud reached a height of 47,000 feet (14,000 m) and a diameter of 7 miles (11 km) in about a minute, a height of 130,000 feet (40 km) and 62 mi (100 km) in diameter in less than 10 minutes and was expanding at more than 160 meters per second (580 km/h; 360 mph). As a result of the blast, the cloud contaminated more than 7,000 square miles (18,000 km2) of the surrounding Pacific Ocean, including some of the surrounding small islands like Rongerik, Rongelap, and Utirik.
+
+In terms of energy released (usually measured in TNT equivalence), Castle Bravo was about 1,000 times more powerful than the atomic bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima during World War II. Castle Bravo is the sixth largest nuclear explosion in history, exceeded by the Soviet tests of Tsar Bomba at approximately 50 Mt, Test 219 at 24.2 Mt, and three other (Test 147, Test 173 and Test 174) ≈20 Mt Soviet tests in 1962 at Novaya Zemlya.
+
+=== High yield ===
+
+The yield of 15 (± 5) Mt was triple that of the 5 Mt predicted by its designers. The cause of the higher yield was an error made by designers of the device at Los Alamos National Laboratory. They considered only the lithium-6 isotope in the lithium deuteride secondary to be reactive; the lithium-7 isotope, accounting for 60% of the lithium content, was assumed to participate in reactions that were too slow to contribute to the yield. It was correctly expected that the lithium-6 isotope would absorb a neutron from the fissioning plutonium and emit an alpha particle and tritium in the process, of which the latter would then fuse with the deuterium and increase the yield in a predicted manner.
+It was assumed that the lithium-7 would absorb one neutron, producing lithium-8, which decays (through beta decay into beryllium-8) to a pair of alpha particles on a timescale of nearly a second, vastly longer than the timescale of nuclear detonation. However, when lithium-7 is bombarded with energetic neutrons with an energy greater than 2.47 MeV, rather than simply absorbing a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission into an alpha particle, a tritium nucleus, and another neutron. As a result, much more tritium was produced than expected, the extra tritium fusing with deuterium and producing an extra neutron. The extra neutron produced by fusion and the extra neutron released directly by lithium-7 decay produced a much larger neutron flux. The result was greatly increased fissioning of the uranium tamper and increased yield.
+Summarizing, the reactions involving lithium-6 result in some combination of the two following net reactions:
+
+1n + 6Li → 3H + 4He + 4.783 MeV
+6Li + 2H → 2 4He + 22.373 MeV
+But when lithium-7 is present, one also has some amounts of the following two net reactions:

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+---
+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 6/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+7Li + 1n → 3H + 4He + 1n
+7Li + 2H → 2 4He + 1n + 15.123 MeV
+This resultant extra fuel (both lithium-6 and lithium-7) contributed greatly to the fusion reactions and neutron production and in this manner greatly increased the device's explosive output. The test used lithium with a high percentage of lithium-7 only because lithium-6 was then scarce and expensive; the later Castle Union test used almost pure lithium-6. Had sufficient lithium-6 been available, the usability of the common lithium-7 might not have been discovered.
+The unexpectedly high yield of the device severely damaged many of the permanent buildings on the control site island on the far side of the atoll. Little of the desired diagnostic data on the shot was collected; many instruments designed to transmit their data back before being destroyed by the blast were instead vaporized instantly, while most of the instruments that were expected to be recovered for data retrieval were destroyed by the blast.
+In an additional unexpected event, albeit one of far less consequence, X-rays traveling through line-of-sight (LOS) pipes caused a small second fireball at Station 1200 with a yield of 1 kiloton of TNT (4.2 TJ).
+
+== High levels of fallout ==
+
+The fission reactions of the natural uranium tamper were quite dirty, producing a large amount of fallout. That, combined with the larger than expected yield and a major wind shift, produced some very serious consequences for those in the fallout range. In the declassified film Operation Castle, the task force commander Major General Percy Clarkson pointed to a diagram indicating that the wind shift was still in the range of "acceptable fallout", although just barely.
+The decision to carry out the Bravo test under the prevailing winds was made by Dr. Alvin C. Graves, the Scientific Director of Operation Castle. Graves had total authority over detonating the weapon, above that of the military commander of Operation Castle. Graves appears in the widely available film of the earlier 1952 test "Ivy Mike", which examines the last-minute fallout decisions. The narrator, the western actor Reed Hadley, is filmed aboard the control ship in that film, showing the final conference. Hadley points out that 20,000 people live in the potential area of the fallout. He asks the control panel scientist if the test can be aborted and is told "yes", but it would ruin all their preparations in setting up timed measuring instruments. In Mike, the fallout correctly landed north of the inhabited area but, in the 1954 Bravo test, there was a large amount of wind shear, and the wind that was blowing north the day before the test steadily veered towards the east.
+
+=== Inhabited islands affected ===
+Radioactive fallout was spread eastward onto the inhabited Rongelap and Rongerik atolls, which were evacuated 48 hours after the detonation. In 1957, the Atomic Energy Commission deemed Rongelap safe to return, and allowed 82 inhabitants to move back to the island. Upon their return, they discovered that their previous staple foods, including arrowroot, makmok, and fish, had either disappeared or gave residents various illnesses, and they were again removed. Ultimately, 15 islands and atolls were contaminated, and by 1963 Marshall Islands natives began to suffer from thyroid tumors, including 20 of 29 Rongelap children at the time of Bravo, and many birth defects were reported. The islanders received compensation from the U.S. government, relative to how much contamination they received, beginning in 1956; by 1995 the Nuclear Claims Tribunal reported that it had awarded $43.2 million, nearly its entire fund, to 1,196 claimants for 1,311 illnesses. A medical study, named Project 4.1, studied the effects of the fallout on the islanders.
+
+Although the atmospheric fallout plume drifted eastward, once fallout landed in the water it was carried in several directions by ocean currents, including northwest and southwest.
+
+=== Fishing boats ===
+A Japanese fishing boat, Daigo Fukuryū Maru (Lucky Dragon No. 5), came in direct contact with the fallout, which caused many of the crew to grow ill due to radiation sickness. One member died of a secondary infection six months later after acute radiation exposure, and another had a child that was stillborn and deformed. This resulted in an international incident and reignited Japanese concerns about radiation, especially as Japanese citizens were once more adversely affected by US nuclear weapons. The official US position had been that the growth in the strength of atomic bombs was not accompanied by an equivalent growth in radioactivity released, and they denied that the crew was affected by radioactive fallout, despite data from the Japanese fishing vessel and other international sources showing the contrary.
+Sir Joseph Rotblat, working at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London, demonstrated that the contamination caused by the fallout from the test was far greater than that stated officially. Rotblat deduced that the bomb had three stages and showed that the fission phase at the end of the explosion increased the amount of radioactivity a thousand-fold. Rotblat's paper was taken up by the media, and the outcry in Japan reached such a level that diplomatic relations became strained and the incident was even dubbed by some as a "second Hiroshima". Nevertheless, the Japanese and US governments quickly reached a political settlement, with the transfer to Japan of $15.3 million as compensation, with the surviving victims receiving about ¥2 million each ($5,550 in 1954, or about $66,500 in 2025). It was also agreed that the victims would not be given Hibakusha status.
+In 2016, 45 Japanese fishermen from other ships sued their government for not disclosing records about their exposure to Operation Castle fallout. Records released in 2014 acknowledge that the crews of 10 ships were exposed but under health-damaging levels. In 2018 the suit was rejected by the Kochi District Court, who acknowledged the fishermen's radiation exposure but could not "conclude that the state persistently gave up providing support and conducting health surveys to hide the radiation exposure".

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+---
+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 7/9
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Bomb test personnel take shelter ===
+Unanticipated fallout and the radiation emitted by it also affected many of the vessels and personnel involved in the test, in some cases forcing them into bunkers for several hours. In contrast to the crew of the Lucky Dragon No. 5, who did not anticipate the hazard and therefore did not take shelter in the hold of their ship, or refrain from inhaling the fallout dust, the firing crew that triggered the explosion safely sheltered in their firing station when they noticed the wind was carrying the fallout in the unanticipated direction towards the island of Enyu on the Bikini Atoll where they were located, with the fire crew sheltering in place ("buttoning up") for several hours until outside radiation decayed to safer levels. "25 roentgens per hour" was recorded above the bunker.
+
+=== US Navy ships affected ===
+The US Navy tanker USS Patapsco was at Enewetak Atoll in late February 1954. Patapsco lacked a decontamination washdown system, and was therefore ordered on 27 February, to return to Pearl Harbor at the highest possible speed. A breakdown in her engine systems, namely a cracked cylinder liner, slowed Patapsco to one-third of her full speed, and when the Castle Bravo detonation took place, she was still about 180 to 195 nautical miles east of Bikini. Patapsco was in the range of nuclear fallout, which began landing on the ship in the mid-afternoon of 2 March. By this time Patapsco was 565 to 586 nautical miles from ground zero. The fallout was at first thought to be harmless and there were no radiation detectors aboard, so no decontamination measures were taken. Measurements taken after Patapsco had returned to Pearl Harbor suggested an exposure range of 0.18 to 0.62 R/hr. Total exposure estimates range from 3.3 R to 18 R of whole-body radiation, taking into account the effects of natural washdown from rain, and variations between above- and below-deck exposure.
+
+=== International incident ===
+The fallout spread traces of radioactive material as far as Australia, India and Japan, and even the United States and parts of Europe. Though organized as a secret test, Castle Bravo quickly became an international incident, prompting calls for a ban on the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear devices.
+A worldwide network of gummed film stations was established to monitor fallout following Operation Castle. Although meteorological data was poor, a general connection of tropospheric flow patterns with observed fallout was evident. There was a tendency for fallout/debris to remain in tropical latitudes, with incursions into the temperate regions associated with meteorological disturbances of the predominantly zonal flow. Outside of the tropics, the Southwestern United States received the greatest total fallout, about five times that received in Japan.
+Stratospheric fallout particles of strontium-90 from the test were later captured with balloon-borne air filters used to sample the air at stratospheric altitudes; the research (Project Ashcan) was conducted to better understand the stratosphere and fallout times, and arrive at more accurate meteorological models after hindcasting.
+The fallout from Castle Bravo and other testing on the atoll also affected islanders who had previously inhabited the atoll, and who returned there some time after the tests. This was due to the presence of radioactive caesium-137 in locally grown coconut milk. Plants and trees absorb potassium as part of the normal biological process, but will also readily absorb caesium if present, being of the same group on the periodic table, and therefore very similar chemically. Islanders consuming contaminated coconut milk were found to have abnormally high concentrations of caesium in their bodies and so had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time.
+The American magazine Consumer Reports warned of the contamination of milk with strontium-90.
+
+== Impact on US policy ==
+The test caused a reassessment of US policies towards nuclear weapons and energy in order to contend with massive international backlash that declared the disaster "intolerable". The following year's Russell–Einstein Manifesto explicitly focused on the hydrogen bomb's threat to human existence demonstrated by the test:
+
+No doubt in an H-bomb war great cities would be obliterated ... If everybody in London, New York and Moscow were exterminated the world might, in the course of a few centuries, recover from the blow. But we now know, especially since the Bikini test, that nuclear bombs can gradually spread destruction over a very much wider area than had been supposed.
+It is stated on very good authority that a bomb can now be manufactured which will be 2,500 times as powerful (37.5 megatons) as that which destroyed Hiroshima (15 kilotons). Such a bomb, if exploded near the ground or under water, sends radio-active particles into the upper air. They sink gradually and reach the surface of the earth in the form of a deadly dust or rain. It was this dust which infected the Japanese fishermen and their catch of fish.
+In May 1954 National Security Council meeting, President Dwight D. Eisenhower said "everybody seems to think that we are skunks, saber-rattlers, and warmongers." Secretary of State John Foster Dulles said "comparisons are now being made between ours and Hitler's military machine."
+Attempts to repair this image included the yield and fallout limiting of all future tests, and an emphasis on peaceful nuclear energy production, from both nascent fission reactor plants and speculative fusion implosion facilities.
+
+=== Nuclear testing policies ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo-7.md

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+---
+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Total yield and fission yield energy budgets ====
+Following the higher-than-expected yields throughout Operation Castle (48.2 Mt total yield to the expected 23 Mt), US policy on thermonuclear testing in the Pacific changed. In 1956, Operation Redwing was conducted on an "energy budget", limiting the total testing yield to 20 Mt, and specifically limiting the fission yield, contentiously divided between Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and University of California Radiation Laboratory at Livermore. While some very "dirty" fission weapons were tested, this also began the usage of the "materials substitution method", where the fission product fallout-producing uranium-238 tamper was replaced with a "clean" lead tamper, at the cost of halving the yield.
+
+==== 15 megaton yield standard ====
+In 1958, during preparation for Operation Hardtack I, the second round of thermonuclear testing since Castle, President Eisenhower established an unwritten rule that no single American test could exceed the 15 Mt yield of Castle Bravo. His successor, John F. Kennedy, adhered to this standard, even following the 50 Mt Soviet Tsar Bomba test in 1961 and pressure from the Department of Defense, Atomic Energy Commission, and the Livermore laboratory. Following the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty against non-underground tests, American testing continued underground, with the largest yield in the 1971 Grommet Cannikin test at 5 Mt.
+
+=== Impact on scientific direction ===
+
+==== Fission energy ====
+
+The US government's attempts at public relations damage control focused around the existing language of the Atoms for Peace initiative launched four months prior, expanding to the concept of the "peaceful thermonuclear atom". Speaking at a conference six months later, Lewis Strauss, the chair of the Atomic Energy Commission and a primary influence in the crash program of hydrogen bomb development, famously promised a peaceful era of nuclear energy:
+
+It is not too much to expect that our children will enjoy in their homes electrical energy too cheap to meter, will know of great periodic regional famines in the world only as matter of history, will travel effortlessly over the seas and under them and through the air with a minimum of danger and at great speeds, and will experience a lifespan far longer than ours, as disease yields and man comes to understand what causes him to age. This is the forecast for an age of peace.
+The Soviet Union had already announced electrical grid connection of the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant on 27 June. The United States would achieve this briefly with the BORAX-III reactor in 1955 and permanently with the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in 1957.
+
+==== Fusion energy ====
+
+===== Energy from conventional yields =====
+
+In 1957, hydrogen bomb architect Edward Teller and other Livermore weapons scientists proposed a gigawatt-level electrical plant, based on steam generation from 1 megaton bombs dropped every 12 hours into a 1,000 ft cavity. American research on such plants continued throughout the Cold War.
+
+===== Energy from minimal yields =====
+
+Livermore scientist John Nuckolls began a "hectoton group" (100 tons) at the laboratory, investigating ways to remove the fission primary and inventing the concept of low-yield implosions of deuterium-tritium pellets i.e. inertial confinement fusion.
+
+== Weapon history ==
+
+The Soviet Union had previously used lithium deuteride in its Sloika design (known as the "Joe-4" in the U.S.), in 1953. It was not a true hydrogen bomb; fusion provided only 15–20% of its yield, most coming from boosted fission reactions. Its yield was 400 kilotons, and it could not be infinitely scaled, as with a true thermonuclear device.
+The Teller–Ulam-based "Ivy Mike" device had a much greater yield of 10.4 Mt, but most of this also came from fission: 77% of the total came from fast fission of its natural-uranium tamper.
+Castle Bravo had the greatest yield of any U.S. nuclear test, 15 Mt, though again, a substantial fraction came from fission. In the Teller–Ulam design, the fission and fusion stages were kept physically separate in a reflective cavity. The radiation from the exploding fission primary brought the fuel in the fusion secondary to critical density and pressure, setting off thermonuclear (fusion) chain reactions, which in turn set off a tertiary fissioning of the bomb's 238U fusion tamper and casing. Consequently, this type of bomb is also known as a "fission-fusion-fission" device. The Soviet researchers, led by Andrei Sakharov, developed and tested their first Teller–Ulam device in 1955.
+The publication of the Bravo fallout analysis was a militarily sensitive issue, with Joseph Rotblat possibly deducing the staging nature of the Castle Bravo device by studying the ratio and presence of tell-tale isotopes, namely uranium-237, present in the fallout. This information could potentially reveal the means by which megaton-yield nuclear devices achieve their yield. Soviet scientist Andrei Sakharov hit upon what the Soviet Union regarded as "Sakharov's third idea" during the month after the Castle Bravo test, the final piece of the puzzle being the idea that the compression of the secondary can be accomplished by the primary's X-rays before fusion began.
+The Shrimp device design later evolved into the Mark 21 nuclear bomb, of which 275 units were produced, weighing 17,600 pounds (8,000 kg) and measuring 12.5 feet (3.8 m) long and 58 inches (1.5 m) in diameter. This 18-megaton bomb was produced until July 1956. In 1957, it was converted into the Mark 36 nuclear bomb and entered into production again.
+
+== Health impacts ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo-8.md

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+---
+title: "Castle Bravo"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Bravo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:17.178423+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Following the test, the United States Department of Energy estimated that 253 inhabitants of the Marshall Islands were impacted by the radioactive fallout. This single test exposed the surrounding populations to varying levels of radiation. The fallout levels attributed to the Castle Bravo test are the highest in history. Populations neighboring the test site were exposed to high levels of radiation resulting in mild radiation sickness of many (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea). The unexpected strength of the detonation, combined with shifting wind patterns, sent some of the radioactive fallout over the inhabited atolls of Rongelap and Utrik. Within 52 hours, the 86 people on Rongelap and 167 on Utrik were evacuated to Kwajalein for medical care. Several weeks later, many people began suffering from alopecia (hair loss) and skin lesions.
+The exposure to fallout has been linked to increase the likelihood of several types of cancer such as leukemia and thyroid cancer. The relationship between iodine-131 levels and thyroid cancer is still being researched. There are also correlations between fallout exposure levels and diseases such as thyroid disease like hypothyroidism. Populations of the Marshall Islands that received significant exposure to radionuclides have a much greater risk of developing cancer.
+There is a presumed association between radiation levels and functioning of the female reproductive system.
+
+== In popular culture ==
+The Castle Bravo detonation and the subsequent poisoning of the crew aboard Daigo Fukuryū Maru led to an increase in antinuclear protests in Japan. It was compared to the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the Castle Bravo test was frequently part of the plots of numerous Japanese media, especially in relation to Japan's most widely recognized media icon, Godzilla. In the 2019 film Godzilla: King of the Monsters, Castle Bravo becomes the call sign for Monarch Outpost 54 located in the Atlantic Ocean, near Bermuda.
+The Donald Fagen song "Memorabilia" from his 2012 album Sunken Condos mentions both the Castle Bravo and Ivy King nuclear tests.
+In 2013, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency published Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore. The report is a guide to off-site radiation exposures, a narrative history, and a guide to primary historical references concerning the Castle Bravo test.  The report focuses on the circumstances that resulted in radioactive exposure of the uninhabited atolls, and makes no attempt to address in detail the effects on or around Bikini Atoll.
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+== See also ==
+
+History of nuclear weapons
+Operation Ivy – Series of 1950s US nuclear tests
+Tsar Bomba – Most powerful nuclear weapon ever tested
+Moruroa, nuclear weapons testing – Atoll in French Polynesia
+
+== References ==
+Notes
+
+Citations
+
+Bibliography
+
+== External links ==
+
+The short film Operation Castle Commanders Report (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Military Effects Studies Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Nuclear Test Film – Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+US tests hydrogen bomb in Bikini (BBC News)
+First-person article about conducting the test
+Strategic Air Command History – Development of Atomic Weapons 1956

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Koon-0.md

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+---
+title: "Castle Koon"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Koon"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:18.378761+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Koon shot of Operation Castle was a test of a thermonuclear device designed at the University of California Radiation Laboratory (UCRL), now Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
+The "dry" two-stage device was known as "Morgenstern" and had a highly innovative secondary stage. It was tested on 7 April 1954. The predicted yield was between 0.33 and 3.5 megatons, with an expected yield of 1 megaton. The actual yield was 0.11 megatons. Morgenstern was thus a fizzle.
+Post-shot analysis showed that the failure was caused by the premature heating of the secondary by the neutron flux of the primary. This was a simple design defect and not related to the unique geometry of the secondary. The UCRL's other shot, the "wet" (i.e., cryogenic) ramrod device, originally scheduled for the Echo shot, was cancelled because it shared the same design defect and because the "dry" design tested as the Bravo shot rendered "wet" designs obsolete.
+The name "Morgenstern" (German for morning star) was chosen because of the shape of the secondary. The secondary consisted of a central sphere from which spikes were radiating, resembling a morning star / mace. The spikes may have been an idea from physicist Edward Teller and colleagues to use implosive jets to compress the thermonuclear core. It was more than two decades before weapons were designed that utilized a secondary concept similar to that first tested in the Koon shot.
+
+
+== References ==
+Hansen, Chuck, "The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945" (CD-ROM). PDF, 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, CA, Chukelea Publications, 1995, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9791915-0-3 (2nd Ed.)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Romeo-0.md

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+---
+title: "Castle Romeo"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Romeo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:19.561826+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Castle Romeo was the code name given to one of the tests in the Operation Castle series of U.S. nuclear tests. It was the first test of the TX-17 thermonuclear weapon, the first deployed thermonuclear bomb.
+It was detonated on 26 March 1954, at Bikini Atoll of the Marshall Islands, on a barge moored in the middle of the crater from the Castle Bravo test. It was the first such barge-based test, a necessity that had come about because the powerful thermonuclear devices obliterated the small islands following detonation.
+
+
+== Deployment ==
+The tested design became the first air-droppable thermonuclear device, initially the "emergency capability" EC-17, of which only five were made. The first deployable staged radiation implosion Teller-Ulam thermonuclear weapon evolved into the Mark 17, of which 200 were made. Both of those were huge devices, weighing 39,000 pounds (18 t) and 42,000 pounds (19 t) respectively. As a result, only the B-36 was capable of carrying that first generation of thermonuclear bombs. They were also some of the largest yield devices deployed by Strategic Air Command — the EC-17 producing around 10 megatonnes (Mt), and the Mk 17 between 11 and 15 Mt. They were all out of service by August 1957.
+
+
+== Design ==
+
+The Runt TX-15 device was a weaponized dry fusion bomb, using lithium deuteride fuel for the fusion stage of a staged fusion bomb, unlike the cryogenic liquid deuterium of the first-generation Ivy Mike fusion device.
+Similar to the Shrimp TX-21 device tested before in the Castle Bravo test, it differed from that device in using lithium deuteride derived from natural lithium (a mixture of 7.5%  lithium-6 and 92.5% lithium-7 isotopes) as the source of the tritium and deuterium fusion fuels, as opposed to the relative high enrichment level of lithium (approximately 40% lithium-6) deuteride used in Bravo.
+
+
+== Yield ==
+Like the Bravo test, it produced far more than its predicted yield, and for the same reason — an unexpected participation of the common lithium-7 isotope in fusion reactions. Although it had been predicted to produce a yield of 4 megatons with a range of 1.5 to 7 megatons (before the results of the Bravo test caused an upgrade in the estimates, it had originally been estimated to produce 3–5 megatons), it actually produced a yield of 11 megatons, the third-largest test ever conducted by the U.S.
+Like the Ivy Mike and Castle Bravo tests, a large percentage of the yield was produced by fast fission of the natural uranium "tamper"; 7 megatons of the yield were from this source.
+
+
+== Fireball in popular culture ==
+
+One particular image of the Castle Romeo mushroom cloud has been one of the most highly reprinted images of a nuclear explosion. It often serves as a stand-in for nuclear weapons in general for news stories, book covers, magazine articles, etc., likely because of its threatening appearance and extreme red, orange, and yellow hues. The fact that the explosion is of a U.S. megaton-range weapon has not prevented it from being used to represent the arsenals of other states or weapons of far lower yields in many cases, which would have a very different appearance.
+One prominent usage is as the backdrop for American thrash metal band Megadeth's compilation album Greatest Hits: Back to the Start, released in 2005. The image of Castle Romeo was also used on the cover of the New York hardcore music pioneers Cro-Mags debut studio album The Age of Quarrel in 1986. It is also featured on the title screen of Team17's turn-based artillery game Worms Armageddon.
+The Castle Romeo photos are sometimes confused with that of Castle Bravo. The two nuclear blasts looked very similar, and they were both conducted in the same location, but much of Bravo's photographic record was destroyed because of its unexpectedly high yield.
+
+
+== References ==
+Chuck Hansen, U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (Arlington: AeroFax, 1988)
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+List of all tested U.S. weapons at The Nuclear Weapon Archive
+The short film Operation Castle Commanders Report (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Military Effects Studies Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Nuclear Test Film - Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+Operation Castle

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Union-0.md

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+---
+title: "Castle Union"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Union"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:20.770450+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Castle Union was the code name given to one of the tests in the Operation Castle series of United States nuclear tests. It was the first test of the TX-14 thermonuclear weapon (initially the "emergency capability" EC-14), one of the first deployed U.S. thermonuclear bombs.
+An "Alarm Clock" device is a "dry" fusion bomb, using lithium deuteride fuel for the fusion stage of a "staged" fusion bomb, unlike the cryogenic liquid deuterium of the first-generation Ivy Mike fusion device.
+It differed from the Castle Romeo "Runt" device, tested shortly before, in using highly enriched lithium (approximately 95% lithium-6; natural lithium is a mixture of lithium-6 and lithium-7 isotopes). The "Runt" device had 7.5% lithium-6 in the fusion fuel.
+The test took place on 26 April 1954 at Bikini Atoll of the Marshall Islands, on a barge moored in the lagoon, off Yurochi island. The yield of 6.9 megatons of TNT was roughly double the predicted 3-4 megatons. Although the barge had been moored in over 160 feet (49 m) of water, the test left a crater 3,000 feet (910 m) in diameter and 90 feet (27 m) deep in the bottom of the lagoon.
+Like the Ivy Mike, Castle Bravo, and Castle Romeo tests, a large percentage of the yield was produced by fast fission of the natural uranium tamper, which contributed to the extensive fallout caused by these tests.
+As the highly enriched lithium was both expensive and scarce at the time, it limited the number of these weapons that could be produced. The "Runt" design tested in Castle Romeo and Castle Yankee was preferred for deployment.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Wikimapia
+The short film Operation Castle Commanders Report (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Military Effects Studies Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Nuclear Test Film - Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+Operation Castle
+
+
+== References ==
+Chuck Hansen, U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (Arlington: AeroFax, 1988)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Yankee-0.md

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+---
+title: "Castle Yankee"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Yankee"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:21.940169+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Castle Yankee was the code name given to one of the tests in the Operation Castle series of American tests of thermonuclear bombs. It was originally intended as a test of a TX-16/EC-16 Jughead bomb, but the design became obsolete after the Castle Bravo test was successful. The test device was replaced with a TX-24/EC-24 Runt II bomb which was detonated on May 5, 1954, at Bikini Atoll.
+It released energy equivalent to 13.5 megatons of TNT, the second-largest yield ever in a U.S. fusion weapon test.
+
+
+== Jughead ==
+Yankee was originally intended to be a test of a TX-16/EC-16, a weaponized version of the large and complex Ivy Mike device. A small number of emergency capability EC-16s were produced, without being tested, to provide a stop-gap thermonuclear weapon capability in response to the Soviet nuclear weapons program.
+The test device, code-named Jughead, had been prepared as a backup in case the non-cryogenic Castle Bravo Shrimp device failed to work. 
+After the Bravo test, which had an unexpectedly high yield, the question of whether to proceed with Jughead was raised, despite being the device being "here, set up and ready[,] and valuable information relative to [Ivy] Mike would result [from the test]", as scientist Alvin C. Graves communicated to Los Alamos director Norris Bradbury. But, Graves continued, because high-yield shots were "dangerous" (as evidenced by the fallout contamination created by Bravo), and "the number of good shooting days were limited", "implies that the justification for them must be strong". As the success of Bravo meant that the cryogenic approach would not be necessary, and because of the aforementioned safety concerns, the Jughead shot was cancelled, and the existing EC-16s were subsequently withdrawn and dismantled.
+
+
+== Runt II ==
+Jughead was replaced by the Runt II device (a TX-24/EC-24), developed from the Castle Romeo Runt device (a TX-17/EC-17). Externally identical, the principal difference between them was in the fuel for the fusion stage. While Runt used natural lithium (with 7.5% of the Lithium-6 isotope), Runt II used the same partially enriched lithium (approximately 40% Lithium-6) as the Shrimp device of Castle Bravo.
+It was detonated on 5 May 1954, at Bikini Atoll of the Marshall Islands, on a barge moored in the middle of the crater from the Castle Union test.
+Although it had been predicted to produce a yield of 6 to 10 megatons, it actually produced a yield of 13.5 megatons, the second-largest ever yield in a U.S. fusion weapon test. Like the Mike, Bravo and Romeo tests, a large percentage of the yield was produced by fast fission of the natural uranium tamper. Of the total yield, 7 megatons were from fission; the other 6.5 megatons were from fusion reactions. The high fusion yield was due to the enriched fuel and set a U.S. record that stood until Hardtack Poplar in 1958.
+
+
+== External links ==
+The short film Operation Castle Commanders Report (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Military Effects Studies Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+The short film Nuclear Test Film - Operation Castle (1954) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
+Operation Castle
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Chuck Hansen, U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (Arlington: AeroFax, 1988)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathy_Olkin-0.md

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+---
+title: "Cathy Olkin"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathy_Olkin"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:41.955771+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cathy Olkin is a planetary scientist at the Southwest Research Institute, focusing on the outer Solar System. She is deputy principal investigator for NASA's Lucy mission examining the Trojan asteroids around Jupiter, which launched in 2021 and will fly past its targets between 2025 and 2033.
+
+
+== Early life and education ==
+Olkin was born and raised in Michigan. As a child, Olkin considered a variety of careers in science and academia, including geologist, paleontologist,  archaeologist, and doctor.
+In college, she was pre-med before switching to engineering, earning a B.S. in Aeronautics and Astronautics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1988, then an M.S., also in Aeronautics and Astronautics, from Stanford University in 1989. Olkin then returned to MIT where she earned a Ph.D. in Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Science in 1996. Her dissertation advisor was James L. Elliot.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Olkin was a deputy project scientist on NASA's New Horizons team responsible for the July 2015 flyby of Pluto and became co-principal investigator for New Horizons' Ralph instrument, a color camera and near-infrared imaging spectrometer.
+She is deputy principal investigator for NASA's Lucy mission examining the Trojan asteroids around Jupiter, which launched in 2021 and will fly past its targets between 2025 and 2033.
+Olkin's scientific research has earned an h-index of 24. She has published over 400 papers, with more than 2,000 citations.
+She is also the author of the title story "All These Wonders" in The Moth radio show's 20th anniversary collection, The Moth Presents: All These Wonders. True Stories About Facing the Unknown; reviewing the collection in The New York Times. Michiko Kakutani described Olkin's contribution as "a thrilling account...of last-minute emergency repairs made to the New Horizons spacecraft as it traveled three billion miles to get a close-up of Pluto."
+Olkin also engages in public outreach. In 2015, Olkin shared discoveries from her work with NASA's New Horizons mission at a TEDxDetroit talk.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champollion_(spacecraft)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Champollion (spacecraft)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champollion_(spacecraft)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:03.329840+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Champollion was a planned cometary rendezvous and landing spacecraft. It was named after Jean-François Champollion, a French Egyptologist known for translating the Rosetta Stone.
+
+
+== Rosetta surface science package ==
+As originally envisaged, the joint NASA/CNES Champollion was to be one of two surface science packages for the Rosetta mission to comet Wirtanen, alongside the German-led RoLand. Champollion was to provide for return of cometary samples to Earth.
+This part of the Rosetta mission was withdrawn in late 1996 due to lack of funding from JPL.
+
+
+== Deep Space 4 / Space Technology 4 ==
+
+Champollion was revived under NASA's New Millennium Program as Deep Space 4 / Space Technology 4, again as a joint project of NASA and CNES. In this version, Champollion would be a stand-alone project consisting of an orbiter and a lander, with the focus shifted somewhat to engineering validation of new technologies rather than pure science.
+As of March 1999, the baseline mission was to launch in April 2003, reaching comet Tempel 1 in 2006. The sample return element of the mission was at this point contingent on sufficient funding/resources, possibly being replaced with a demonstration of related capabilities.
+The lander was approximately 1.5m high weighing 160 kg; it was to autonomously navigate to the comet from 50 km altitude and anchor itself with a spike. The planned payload included:
+
+CHARGE, a gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer
+CIRCLE, cameras/microscope/IR spectrometer
+CIVA, panoramic cameras
+CPPP, "physical properties probes" to be driven into the cometary surface
+SATM drill mechanism
+gamma ray/neutron spectrometer
+The orbiter was to carry cameras and a dust monitor.
+Later in 1999, Space Technology 4 was scaled back to a single spacecraft with no sample return; it was cancelled entirely on July 1, 1999, due to budgetary constraints.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Deep Impact (spacecraft) (Comet impactor mission)
+Stardust (spacecraft) (Comet coma sample-return)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Champollion (spacecraft) at Wikimedia Commons

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Exploration_Vehicle-0.md

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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:37.741533+00:00"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daigo_Fukuryū_Maru-0.md

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+---
+title: "Daigo Fukuryū Maru"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daigo_Fukuryū_Maru"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:23.159082+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Daigo Fukuryū Maru (第五福龍丸; F/V Lucky Dragon 5) was a Japanese tuna fishing boat with a crew of 23 men which was contaminated by nuclear fallout from the United States Castle Bravo thermonuclear weapon test at Bikini Atoll on March 1, 1954.
+The crew suffered acute radiation syndrome (ARS) for a number of weeks after the Bravo test in March. All recovered from the immediate effects of the American test detonation except for Kuboyama Aikichi, the boat's chief radioman, who died on September 23, 1954, from complications of radiation sickness. Kuboyama is considered the first victim of the hydrogen bomb and of test shot Castle Bravo.
+
+== Early days and final voyage ==
+Built in March 1947 and launched from Koza, Wakayama, the boat was originally named Dainana Kotoshiro Maru (第七事代丸; Kotoshiro Maru No. 7). It was a bonito boat and moored in Misaki Fishing Harbor, Kanagawa Prefecture. It was later remodeled into a tuna fishing boat. In 1953, it moved to Yaizu Port, Shizuoka Prefecture, with a new name, Daigo Fukuryū Maru, translated as Lucky Dragon No. 5 or the Fifth Lucky Dragon.
+The Lucky Dragon No. 5 took five ocean voyages, the last of which began on January 22, 1954, and ended on March 14 of that year. The crew set off to go fishing in the Midway Sea near Midway Atoll, but when they lost most of their trawl nets to the sea, they altered their course southward near the Marshall Islands and encountered fallout from the Castle Bravo nuclear test at Bikini Atoll on March 1.
+A map of the varying location of the boat in the days leading up to and after the day of the explosion is available. On March 1, the map depicts the vessel very near to the border of the US Navy issued "danger zone notice" dated October 10, 1953. Following March 1, the vessel charted a practically straight geodesic course back to its home port of Yaizu, passing the same latitude as Wake Island between March 4 and 6 and arriving at Yaizu on March 14.
+The source of the map does not state how the map was created, that is, it does not state that the ship's log was consulted in the creation of the map, nor does it provide the navigator's measurements with the compass and sextant of the period. The exact position of the ship on the day of the explosion is therefore uncertain. Contemporary references give a figure of "80 miles (130 km) east of Bikini Atoll" without stating the method by which the distance was computed.  According to a 1997 paper by Martha Smith-Norris, the ship was operating "14 miles" outside the 57,000 square mile "Danger Area", and it was not detected by radar or visual spotter planes.
+
+== Events surrounding March 1, 1954 ==
+
+The Daigo Fukuryū Maru (Lucky Dragon No. 5) encountered the fallout from the U.S. Castle Bravo nuclear test at Bikini Atoll, near the Marshall Islands, on March 1, 1954. When the test was held, the Daigo Fukuryū Maru was catching fish outside the danger zone that the U.S. government had declared in advance. However, the test was more than twice as powerful as predicted, and changes in weather patterns blew nuclear fallout, in the form of a fine ash, outside the danger zone. On that day, the sky in the west lit up like a sunset. The Daigo Fukuryū Maru was not damaged by the shock wave from the blast. However, several hours later white, radioactive dust made up of radioactive particles of coral and sand fell upon the ship. The fishermen attempted to escape from the area, but they took almost six hours to retrieve fishing gear from the sea and process fish (mainly shark and tuna) caught on the lines, exposing themselves to the radioactive fallout. The fishermen scooped the highly radioactive dust into bags with their bare hands. One fisherman, Oishi Matashichi, reported that he "took a lick" of the dust that fell on his ship, likening the falling material to 粉雪 ("powdered snow") and describing it as gritty but with no taste. The dust stuck to their bodies and the ship,  entering their nasal passages and ears, irritating their eyes and collecting inside their underwear. Radiation sickness symptoms appeared later that day. Due to this, the fishermen called the white ash shi no hai (死の灰, death ash). The ash that fell upon the ship carried strontium-90, cesium-137, and uranium-237.
+
+=== Events between March 2 and 14 ===
+
+During their return, the crew began showing symptoms of radiation poisoning as early as the evening after exposure. They experienced pain, headaches, nausea, dizziness, and diarrhea. Their eyes began to turn red and developed an itchy mucus. One crewman decided to keep some of the ash in order to have it analysed on their arrival home, but it was kept in a pouch hung from one of the bunks and was therefore in close proximity to the sleeping men for the duration of their return. Later analysis of the sample by, among others, Tokyo University determined that the ash was caused by a hydrogen bomb. The announcement of this news came as a large surprise to the Americans as they had persistently kept their nuclear experimentation secret.
+By the third day, the men began to develop small blisters on their bodies where they had been touched by the radioactive ash. Their faces also began to turn dark. A week into their return journey, their hair began to fall out. On March 11, the ship encountered rough seas causing them to dock late on March 14. This late arrival fortunately caused the contaminated fish to stay within the ship until the next morning. Thus, they were able to throw away much of the tuna once they discovered the radiation.
+
+=== Events after return to Yaizu port ===

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+---
+title: "Daigo Fukuryū Maru"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daigo_Fukuryū_Maru"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:23.159082+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+After their arrival, the men went to the Yaizu Public Hospital, where the surgeon, Oi Toshiaki, applied a zinc ointment to their faces and sent them home. On March 15, 1954, engineer Yamamoto, deckhand Masuda, and 5 others who were said to make up the "elderly" crew members were sent to the Tokyo University Hospital for treatment. There, they tested Masuda's bone marrow and found his white blood cell count at half the normal level. Japanese biophysicist Nishiwaki Yasushi immediately traveled from Osaka to Yaizu to examine the crew and their boat. He quickly concluded that they had been exposed to radioactive fallout and wrote a letter to the chief of the US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) asking for more information on how to treat the crew. The crew members, suffering from nausea, headaches, burns, pain in the eyes, bleeding from the gums, and other symptoms, were diagnosed with acute radiation syndrome. The US did not respond to Nishiwaki's letter or letters from other Japanese scientists requesting information and help. However, the United States did dispatch two medical scientists to Japan to study the effects of fallout on the ship's crew and to assist their doctors. The remaining crew members were quarantined in Yaizu North Hospital with all of their clothes and belongings buried on the property. High levels of radiation were found in the men's hair and nails, and so the hospital was forced to cut off the rest of their hair.
+There is a hint of criticism from one of the crewmembers, Oishi Matashichi, aimed at the then Japanese Foreign Minister Katsuo Okazaki in his book, citing the fact that despite the lingering resentment towards the US over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, and the suspicion that US officials were only interested in research rather than attempting to cure anyone of their subsequent bombing-related ailments, Foreign Minister Okazaki is said to have spoken frequently to the crew about the need for the Americans to be present during treatment. Indeed, Oishi goes as far as to say "The Foreign Minister usually stood on the American side, and it appeared that he was the American Foreign Minister (rather than our own)."
+The men were all transferred to the Tokyo University Hospital. There, they would remain for 14 months or more in some cases. They were subjected to daily examinations and multiple blood samples. Bone marrow was also drawn from different areas in the men. Their red and white blood cells had dropped significantly, causing internal bleeding and bloody stools. They had constant high fevers, bled from their noses and gums, and had persistent diarrhea. Their sperm counts also fell to low numbers or, in some cases, to none. For their treatment, the men were prescribed bed rest and given large quantities of antibiotics and blood transfusions. Dr. Morita Hisao reported that the men had developed acute panmyelosis, a disease that attacked their bone marrow destroying its ability to generate blood.
+
+Around August 20, Kuboyama Aikichi's condition deteriorated. By August 29, he fell into critical condition after developing meningitis. He became delirious and violent, having to be tied to a bed on the floor. Kuboyama soon fell into a coma and developed pneumonia. On September 23, he became the first member of the crew to die from complications of radiation sickness. The remaining 22 crew members were released from the hospital on May 20, 1955, after 14 months. They received yearly checkups to monitor the toll of long-term radiation sickness complications.
+
+== Health history of the surviving crew ==
+Like the hibakusha, survivors of atomic bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, the Daigo Fukuryū Maru crew were stigmatized because of the Japanese public's fear of those exposed to radiation (it was commonly believed to be contagious). The crew tried to stay quiet about their exposure for decades, beginning with their discharge from the hospital. Some crew members moved away from their homes to make a fresh start. However, unlike the hibakusha, the Lucky Dragon No. 5 crew did not qualify for the medical care benefits that the survivors of the atomic bomb were given.
+
+After being released from the hospital, Oishi Matashichi left his hometown to open a dry cleaning business. Beginning in the 1980s, he frequently gave talks advocating nuclear disarmament. His first child was stillborn, which Oishi attributed to his exposure to radiation. In 1992, Oishi developed cirrhosis of the liver but recovered after successful surgery. In 2011, he published a book titled, The Day the Sun Rose in the West: Bikini, the Lucky Dragon and I in English. The book combines his personal story, the story of the Daigo Fukuryū Maru, and declassified documents between the Japanese and American governments about the fallout's damage.
+Former crew member Susumu Misaki opened a tofu shop after the incident. He died of lung cancer in Shizuoka Prefecture at the age of 92.
+Another crew member, Masayoshi Kawashima (川島正義), tried to earn a living making pouches after his release from the hospital, but it failed. Issues in his personal life led to a divorce. Kawashima returned to fishing but died soon after aged 47.

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+---
+title: "Daigo Fukuryū Maru"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daigo_Fukuryū_Maru"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:23.159082+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Crew member Sanjirō Masuda (増田三次郎) died aged 54 after contracting various illnesses and diseases, including cirrhosis of the liver, sepsis, stomach ulcers and diabetes.
+Crew member Yūichi Masuda (増田祐一) died aged 55 after collapsing suddenly in the field in which he was working and died less than 10 days later. Again, cirrhosis of the liver was cited as a cause.
+Crew member Shinzō Suzuki (鈴木慎三) died on 18 June 1982, aged 57, on the Meishin Expressway (名神高速公路) after the truck he was driving was involved in a rear-end collision, and burned to death in the wreckage. When Oishi Matashichi contacted his widow (the accident happened 4 years before he discovered the fact because they had lost contact), she told him that her husband had suffered from general weakness. Cirrhosis of the liver was once again mentioned.
+Crew member Hiroshi Kozuka (小塚博) was diagnosed with stomach cancer in March 1986. He, like some of the other crew, had been regularly attending annual check-ups, which began in 1957 at the National Institute of Radiological Science (放射線医学総合研究所) in Chiba (千葉市). Despite having his regular check-up just a couple of weeks before, the cancer was diagnosed by a local doctor shortly after stomach pains began and didn't subside. He underwent surgery and had two-thirds of his stomach removed. Recovering well, he was diagnosed with pneumonia just 1 week later.
+In 1987, chief engineer Chūji Yamamoto (山本忠司) was admitted to a hospital in Gamagori (蒲郡) the day before he was due to undergo his latest annual check-up. He was diagnosed with liver, colon, and lung cancer. Oishi Matashichi visited Yamamoto in the hospital along with another crew member, Tsutsui (筒井), on 21 February 1987, only for Yamamoto to succumb to his cancer 13 days later on 6 March 1987, aged 60.
+Crew member Kaneshige Takagi (高木兼重) succumbed to liver cancer aged 66; the news filtered through from Hoto Island (保戸島, part of Kyūshū) to Oishi Matashichi in December 1989. During the phone call received from the wife of Takagi, she mentioned that an employee at the crematorium told her that the bones of Takagi after cremation were the most thin and fragile that they'd ever seen.
+
+== Responsibility and remembrance ==
+The US government refused to disclose the fallout's composition due to "national security", as the fallout's isotopic ratios — namely a percentage of uranium-237 — could reveal the design of the Castle Bravo device through radio-chemical analysis. For instance, Joseph Rotblat may have deduced the staging nature of the device by studying the ratio and presence of tell-tale isotopes present in the fallout. As of 1954, the Soviet Union had not yet been successful with thermonuclear staging and such information could have assisted in their development of a thermonuclear weapon. Lewis Strauss, the head of the AEC, issued several denials that claimed the United States were not to blame. He also hypothesized that the lesions on the fishermen's bodies were not caused by radiation but by the chemical action of the caustic burnt lime that is produced when coral is calcined, and that they were inside the danger zone. He told President Eisenhower's press secretary that the Daigo Fukuryū Maru may have been a "red spy outfit", commanded by a Soviet agent intentionally exposing the ship's crew and catch in order to embarrass the US and gain intelligence on the test's device.
+Later, the United States expanded the danger zone and it was revealed that in addition to the Daigo Fukuryū Maru, many other fishing boats were in the expanded zone at the time. It is estimated that about one hundred fishing boats were contaminated to some degree by fallout from the test. Despite denials by Lewis Strauss concerning the extent of the claimed contamination of the fish caught by Daigo Fukuryu Maru and other ships, the FDA later imposed rigid restrictions on tuna imports.
+At first, the US claimed that the extent of the Lucky Dragon incident contamination was trivial. Later, the United States paid Kuboyama's widow and children the equivalent in yen of about $2,800 ($26,700 in 2020). The tragedy of the Daigo Fukuryū Maru gave rise to a fierce anti-nuclear movement in Japan, rising especially from the fear that the contaminated fish had entered the market. The Japanese and U.S. governments negotiated a compensation settlement, with the transfer to Japan of a compensation of $15,300,000, of which the fishery received a compensation of $2 million, with the surviving crew receiving about ¥ 2 million each, ($5,550 in 1954, $52,800 in 2020). It was also agreed that the victims would not be given hibakusha status. The Japanese government pledged that it would not pursue further reparations from the U.S. government.
+In 1965, Richard Hudson published a chronicle of the events illustrated by Ben Shahn and titled Kuboyama and the saga of the 'Lucky Dragon'. It reads like an anti-nuclear pamphlet.
+In the 1990s, Oishi Matashichi worked to erect a memorial for the tuna impacted by the fallout. He gathered small donations and raised enough to erect a stone memorial called "The Tuna Epitaph" at the Tsukiji fish market. While the stone was being moved they erected a metal plaque within the market.
+
+== Post-contamination ==

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+---
+title: "Daigo Fukuryū Maru"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daigo_Fukuryū_Maru"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:23.159082+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+When it was first docked at the fish market in Yaizu, the ship gave off radiation that could be detected 100 feet from the ship. A Geiger counter detected 120 milliroentgens on the deck of the ship. These high numbers caused Dr. Shiokawa to order the ship moved to Yaizu's north pier and guarded by police. The various items aboard the ship, from cabbage leaves to dead cockroaches, were tested and showed high levels of radiation.
+On March 22, the future of the ship became a debate between the U.S. military, the Japanese government and scientists. The United States military proposed moving the ship to their base at Yokosuka to be disposed of. Minister without portfolio Ando Masazumi argued that the ship should be kept for three months, parts saved for scientific research, and the rest of the ship scuttled. Professor Nakaizumi of Tokyo University argued that the Japanese government should purchase the ship for residual radiation research. On August 22, the ship was purchased by the Japanese government and towed to the Tokyo University of Fisheries. In 1956, the ship was refitted and renamed as Hayabusa Maru and put to use as a training vessel.
+The public outcry against the government's handling of the Daigo Fukuryū Maru, its crew, and the lack of information about fallout kindled an anti-nuclear and anti-American movement. After the ship docked and received national attention, municipal, prefecture and national assemblies passed resolutions in support of limiting or banning nuclear testing. After the death of Kuboyama, the movement expanded. In Tokyo, the National Council for a Petition Movement to Ban Atomic and Hydrogen bombs was founded. This group began an annual ban-the-bomb convention in 1955. At the first World Conference, a new organization called the Japan Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs formed to expand the movement and moved to include the hibakusha. The anti-nuclear movement eventually culminated in demonstrations against the United States-Japan Security Treaty in 1960.
+On June 11, 1970, the Daigo Fukuryū Maru received media attention as it still sat in garbage within the canal. The area was cleaned up and made into a park. The ship was pulled from the water and put on public display as a symbol of opposition to nuclear weapons in an exhibit hall in Tokyo.
+The Daigo Fukuryū Maru was deemed safe for public viewing and was preserved in 1976. It is now on display in Tokyo at the Tokyo Metropolitan Daigo Fukuryū Maru Exhibition Hall.
+
+== Media ==
+The 1954  Toho film Godzilla was inspired in part by this event. The ship itself appears on a poster in the 2001 film Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack, which also features Godzilla coming ashore and wreaking havoc in the Yaizu area.
+The book and anime  Tobiuo no Boya wa Byoki desu was based on this event.
+A poem, Japon Balıkçısı (The Japanese Fishermen), was written in 1956 by Turkish poet Nâzım Hikmet Ran about the events.
+A short novel, Ash of Bikini by Lev Petrov and Arkady Strugatsky, closely following the incident, was published in 1956 in Russian. Part of it was republished in a tutorial for schoolchildren nine years later.
+Ralph Lapp wrote The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon, which was published in 1958. It was reviewed on the front page of The New York Times Book Review.
+A film version of the events, Daigo Fukuryū Maru (1959), was directed and screenwritten by Kaneto Shindo, and produced by Kindai Eiga Kyokai and Shin Seiki Eiga.
+The 1955 radio play Die japanischen Fischer by the West German Wolfgang Weyrauch was inspired by these events.
+Artist Tarō Okamoto created the painting Moeru hito (Burning People) in response to the Lucky Dragon No. 5. The painting was displayed in the Fifth World Conference Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs in 1959. He also included the ship in his mural Myth of Tomorrow in Shibuya railway station.
+West German composer Herbert Eimert composed Epitaph für Aikichi Kuboyama (für Sprecher und Sprachklänge) from 1957 to 1962 at the Studio for Electronic Music (WDR), in which the grave inscription of the fisherman is first narrated by Richard Münch and then repeated and manipulated in an electroacoustic manner.
+
+== See also ==
+History of nuclear weapons
+Katsuko Saruhashi – studied the transport of fallout in the ocean, and thus determined the ocean's circulation patterns, after the 1954 Castle Bravo explosion
+USS Patapsco, US Navy tanker also contaminated by fallout from Castle Bravo while at sea
+Project 4.1 — study of other victims of Bravo contamination
+Anti-nuclear movement
+History of the anti-nuclear movement
+The Plutonium Files
+Japanese oceanographic research ship Shunkotsu Maru – sent in 1954 to measure radiation levels in the atmosphere and water near Bikini Atoll
+
+=== Nuclear incidents involving Japan ===
+Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945)
+Mutsu (nuclear ship) (1974)
+Tokaimura nuclear accident (1997, 1999)
+Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (Okuma, 2011)
+
+== Notes and references ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Oishi, Matashichi (2011). The Day the Sun Rose in the West: The Lucky Dragon, and I. University of Hawaii Press.
+Clarfield, Gerard H.; Wiecek, William M. (1984). Nuclear America: military and civilian nuclear power in the United States, 1940-1980 (1984 ed.). Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-015336-6. - Total pages: 518 
+United States. Congress. Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (1967). Hearings and reports on atomic energy, Volume 20 Hearings and Reports on Atomic Energy, United States. Congress. Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. Compiled by Melvin Price, Publisher U.S. G.P.O., 1957, Original from University of Chicago, Digitized Dec 16, 2010.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website of the Tokyo Metropolitan Daigo Fukuryū Maru Exhibition Hall (in Japanese)
+Daigo Fukuryū Maru Exhibit at the Official Homepage of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum  Archived here
+Daigo Fukuryū Maru at IMDb 
+LIFE Magazine article  (March 29, 1954)
+Daigo Fukuryu-Maru Exhibition Hall website: http://d5f.org/en/ (in English)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Sarokon-0.md

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+---
+title: "Daniel Sarokon"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Sarokon"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:49.454302+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Daniel Sarokon (January 27, 1927 - January 1, 2006) was a NASA Launch Conductor, described as 'one of the most influential people in the history of space travel. His first launch was that of the Moon probe Surveyor 1 and in his career he supervised 30 lunar and planetary missions.
+The launch of the New Horizons Pluto mission in January 2006 was dedicated in his honour.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of New Horizons topics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Article about the New Horizons launch and Sarokon

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_1-0.md

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+---
+title: "Deep Space 1"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_1"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:04.519966+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Deep Space 1 (DS1) was a NASA technology demonstration spacecraft which flew by an asteroid and a comet. It was part of the New Millennium Program, dedicated to testing advanced technologies.
+Launched on 24 October 1998, the Deep Space 1 spacecraft carried out a flyby of asteroid 9969 Braille, which was its primary science target. The mission was extended twice to include an encounter with comet 19P/Borrelly and further engineering testing. Problems during its initial stages and with its star tracker led to repeated changes in mission configuration. While the flyby of the asteroid was only a partial success, the encounter with the comet retrieved valuable information.
+The Deep Space series was continued by the Deep Space 2 probes, which were launched in January 1999 piggybacked on the Mars Polar Lander and were intended to strike the surface of Mars (though contact was lost and the mission failed). Deep Space 1 was the first NASA spacecraft to use ion propulsion rather than the traditional chemical-powered rockets.
+
+== Technologies ==
+The purpose of Deep Space 1 was technology development and validation for future missions; 12 technologies were tested:
+
+Solar Electric Propulsion
+Solar Concentrator Arrays
+Multi-functional Structure
+Miniature Integrated Camera and Imaging Spectrometer
+Ion and Electron Spectrometer
+Small Deep Space Transponder
+Ka-Band Solid State Power Amplifier
+Beacon Monitor Operations
+Autonomous Remote Agent
+Low Power Electronics
+Power Actuation and Switching Module
+Autonomous Navigation
+
+=== Autonav ===
+The Autonav system, developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, takes images of known bright asteroids. The asteroids in the inner Solar System move in relation to other bodies at a noticeable, predictable speed. Thus a spacecraft can determine its relative position by tracking such asteroids across the star background, which appears fixed over such timescales. Two or more asteroids let the spacecraft triangulate its position; two or more positions in time let the spacecraft determine its trajectory. Existing spacecraft are tracked by their interactions with the transmitters of the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN), in effect an inverse GPS. However, DSN tracking requires many skilled operators, and the DSN is overburdened by its use as a communications network. The use of Autonav reduces mission cost and DSN demands.
+The Autonav system can also be used in reverse, tracking the position of bodies relative to the spacecraft. This is used to acquire targets for the scientific instruments. The spacecraft is programmed with the target's coarse location. After initial acquisition, Autonav keeps the subject in frame, even commandeering the spacecraft's attitude control. The next spacecraft to use Autonav was Deep Impact.
+
+=== SCARLET concentrating solar array ===
+Primary power for the mission was produced by a new solar array technology, the Solar Concentrator Array with Refractive Linear Element Technology (SCARLET), which uses linear Fresnel lenses made of silicone to concentrate sunlight onto solar cells. ABLE Engineering developed the concentrator technology and built the solar array for DS1, with Entech Inc, who supplied the Fresnel optics, and the NASA Glenn Research Center. The activity was sponsored by the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, developed originally for the SSI - Conestoga 1620 payload, METEOR. The concentrating lens technology was combined with dual-junction solar cells, which had considerably better performance than the GaAs solar cells that were the state of the art at the time of the mission launch.
+The SCARLET arrays generated 2.5 kilowatts at 1 AU, with less size and weight than conventional arrays.
+
+=== NSTAR ion engine ===
+
+Although ion engines had been developed at NASA since the late 1950s, with the exception of the SERT missions in the 1960s, the technology had not been demonstrated in flight on United States spacecraft, though hundreds of Hall-effect engines had been used on Soviet and Russian spacecraft.  This lack of a performance history in space meant that despite the potential savings in propellant mass, the technology was considered too experimental to be used for high-cost missions. Furthermore, unforeseen side effects of ion propulsion might in some way interfere with typical scientific experiments, such as fields and particle measurements.  Therefore, it was a primary mission of the Deep Space 1 demonstration to show long-duration use of an ion thruster on a scientific mission.
+The NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) electrostatic ion thruster, developed at NASA Glenn, achieves a specific impulse of 1000–3000 seconds. This is an order of magnitude higher than traditional space propulsion methods, resulting in a mass savings of approximately half. This leads to much cheaper launch vehicles. Although the engine produces just 92 millinewtons (0.33 ozf) thrust at maximal power (2,100 W on DS1), the craft achieved high speeds because ion engines thrust continuously for long periods.
+The next spacecraft to use NSTAR engines was Dawn, with three redundant units.
+
+=== Remote Agent ===
+Remote Agent (RAX), remote intelligent self-repair software developed at NASA's Ames Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was the first artificial-intelligence control system to control a spacecraft without human supervision. Remote Agent successfully demonstrated the ability to plan onboard activities and correctly diagnose and respond to simulated faults in spacecraft components through its built-in REPL environment. Autonomous control will enable future spacecraft to operate at greater distances from Earth and to carry out more sophisticated science-gathering activities in deep space. Components of the Remote Agent software have been used to support other NASA missions. Major components of Remote Agent were a robust planner (EUROPA), a plan-execution system (EXEC) and a model-based diagnostic system (Livingstone). EUROPA was used as a ground-based planner for the Mars Exploration Rovers. EUROPA II was used to support the Phoenix Mars lander and the Mars Science Laboratory. Livingstone2 was flown as an experiment aboard Earth Observing-1 and on an F/A-18 Hornet at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center.

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+---
+title: "Deep Space 1"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_1"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:04.519966+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Beacon Monitor ===
+Another method for reducing DSN burdens is the Beacon Monitor experiment. During the long cruise periods of the mission, spacecraft operations are essentially suspended. Instead of data, Deep Space 1 transmitted a carrier signal on a predetermined frequency. Without data decoding, the carrier could be detected by much simpler ground antennas and receivers. If DS1 detected an anomaly, it changed the carrier between four tones, based on urgency. Ground receivers then signal operators to divert DSN resources. This prevented skilled operators and expensive hardware from babysitting an unburdened mission operating nominally. A similar system was used on the New Horizons Pluto probe to keep costs down during its ten-year cruise from Jupiter to Pluto.
+
+=== SDST ===
+
+The Small Deep Space Transponder (SDST) is a compact and lightweight radio-communications system. Aside from using miniaturized components, the SDST is capable of communicating over the Ka band. Because this band is higher in frequency than bands currently in use by deep-space missions, the same amount of data can be sent by smaller equipment in space and on the ground. Conversely, existing DSN antennas can split time among more missions. At the time of launch, the DSN had a small number of Ka receivers installed on an experimental basis; Ka operations and missions are increasing.
+The SDST has since been used on many other space missions such as the Mars Science Laboratory (the Mars rover Curiosity).
+
+=== PEPE ===
+Once at a target, DS1 senses the particle environment with the PEPE (Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration) instrument. This instrument measured the flux of ions and electrons as a function of their energy and direction. The composition of the ions was determined by using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer.
+
+=== MICAS ===
+The MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera And Spectrometer) instrument combined visible light imaging with infrared and ultraviolet spectroscopy to determine chemical composition. All channels share a 10 cm (3.9 in) telescope, which uses a silicon carbide mirror.
+Both PEPE and MICAS were similar in capabilities to larger instruments or suites of instruments on other spacecraft. They were designed to be smaller and require lower power than those used on previous missions.
+
+== Mission overview ==
+
+Prior to launch, Deep Space 1 was intended to visit comet 76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura and asteroid 3352 McAuliffe. Because of the delayed launch, the targets were changed to asteroid 9969 Braille (at the time called 1992 KD) and comet 19P/Borrelly, with comet 107P/Wilson–Harrington being added following the early success of the mission. It achieved an impaired flyby of Braille and, due to problems with the star tracker, abandoned targeting Wilson–Harrington in order to maintain its flyby of comet 19P/Borrelly, which was successful. An August 2002 flyby of asteroid 1999 KK1 as another extended mission was considered, but ultimately was not advanced on the basis that the scientific justification was not sufficiently strong when considering risk and cost. During the mission, high quality infrared spectra of Mars were also taken.
+
+=== Results and achievements ===
+
+The ion propulsion engine initially failed after 4.5 minutes of operation. However, it was later restored to action and performed excellently. Early in the mission, material ejected during launch vehicle separation caused the closely spaced ion extraction grids to short-circuit. The contamination was eventually cleared, as the material was eroded by electrical arcing, sublimed by outgassing, or simply allowed to drift out. This was achieved by repeatedly restarting the engine in an engine repair mode, arcing across trapped material.
+It was thought that the ion engine exhaust might interfere with other spacecraft systems, such as radio communications or the science instruments. The PEPE detectors had a secondary function to monitor such effects from the engine. No interference was found although the flux of ions from the thruster prevented PEPE from observing ions below approximately 20 eV.
+Another failure was the loss of the star tracker. The star tracker determines spacecraft orientation by comparing the star field to its internal charts. The mission was saved when the MICAS camera was reprogrammed to substitute for the star tracker. Although MICAS is more sensitive, its field-of-view is an order of magnitude smaller, creating a greater information processing burden. Ironically, the star tracker was an off-the-shelf component, expected to be highly reliable.
+Without a working star tracker, ion thrusting was temporarily suspended. The loss of thrust time forced the cancellation of a flyby past comet 107P/Wilson–Harrington.
+The Autonav system required occasional manual corrections. Most problems were in identifying objects that were too dim, or were difficult to identify because of brighter objects causing diffraction spikes and reflections in the camera, causing Autonav to misidentify targets.
+The Remote Agent system was presented with three simulated failures on the spacecraft and correctly handled each event.
+
+a failed electronics unit, which Remote Agent fixed by reactivating the unit.
+a failed sensor providing false information, which Remote Agent recognized as unreliable and therefore correctly ignored.
+an attitude control thruster (a small engine for controlling the spacecraft's orientation) stuck in the "off" position, which Remote Agent detected and compensated for by switching to a mode that did not rely on that thruster.
+Overall this constituted a successful demonstration of fully autonomous planning, diagnosis, and recovery.
+The MICAS instrument was a design success, but the ultraviolet channel failed due to an electrical fault.  Later in the mission, after the star tracker failure, MICAS assumed this duty as well.  This caused continual interruptions in its scientific use during the remaining mission, including the Comet Borrelly encounter.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_1-2.md

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+---
+title: "Deep Space 1"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_1"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:04.519966+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The flyby of the asteroid 9969 Braille was only a partial success. Deep Space 1 was intended to perform the flyby at 56,000 km/h (35,000 mph) at only 240 m (790 ft) from the asteroid. Due to technical difficulties, including a software crash shortly before approach, the craft instead passed Braille at a distance of 26 km (16 mi). This, plus Braille's lower albedo, meant that the asteroid was not bright enough for the Autonav to focus the camera in the right direction, and the picture shoot was delayed by almost an hour.  The resulting pictures were disappointingly indistinct.
+However, the flyby of Comet Borrelly was a great success and returned extremely detailed images of the comet's surface. Such images were of higher resolution than the only previous pictures of a comet -- Halley's Comet, taken by the Giotto spacecraft. The PEPE instrument reported that the comet's solar wind interaction was offset from the nucleus. This is believed to be due to emission of jets, which were not distributed evenly across the comet's surface.
+Despite having no debris shields, the spacecraft survived the comet passage intact. Once again, the sparse comet jets did not appear to point towards the spacecraft. Deep Space 1 then entered its second extended mission phase, focused on retesting the spacecraft's hardware technologies. The focus of this mission phase was on the ion engine systems. The spacecraft eventually ran out of hydrazine fuel for its attitude control thrusters. The highly efficient ion thruster had a sufficient amount of propellant left to perform attitude control in addition to main propulsion, thus allowing the mission to continue.
+During late October and early November 1999, during the spacecraft's post-Braille encounter coast phase, Deep Space 1 observed Mars with its MICAS instrument. Although this was a very distant flyby, the instrument did succeed in taking multiple infrared spectra of the planet.
+
+=== Current status ===
+Deep Space 1 succeeded in its primary and secondary objectives, returning valuable science data and images. DS1's ion engines were shut down on 18 December 2001 at approximately 20:00:00 UTC, signaling the end of the mission. On-board communications were set to remain in active mode in case the craft should be needed in the future. However, attempts to resume contact in March 2002 were unsuccessful. It remains within the Solar System, in orbit around the Sun.
+
+== Statistics ==
+Launch mass: 486 kg (1,071 lb)
+Dry mass: 373 kg (822 lb)
+Fuel: 31 kg (68 lb) of hydrazine for attitude control thrusters; 82 kg (181 lb) of xenon for the NSTAR ion engine
+Power: 2,500 watts, of which 2,100 watts powers the ion engine
+Prime contractor: Spectrum Astro, later acquired by General Dynamics, and later sold to Orbital Sciences Corporation
+Launch vehicle: Boeing Delta II 7326
+Launch site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17A
+Total cost: US$149.7 million
+Development cost: US$94.8 million
+Personnel:
+Project manager: David Lehman
+Mission manager: Philip Varghese
+Chief mission engineer and deputy mission manager: Marc Rayman
+Project scientist: Robert Nelson
+
+== See also ==
+
+Solar panels on spacecraft
+List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Deep Space 1 website by NASA / Jet Propulsion Laboratory
+Deep Space 1 website by NASA / New Millennium Program
+Deep Space 1 by Encyclopedia Astronautica
+Deep Space 1 Mission Archive at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_2-0.md

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+---
+title: "Deep Space 2"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_2"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:05.798867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Deep Space 2 was a NASA space probe, part of the New Millennium Program. It included two highly advanced miniature space probes that were sent to Mars aboard the Mars Polar Lander in January 1999. The probes were named "Scott" and "Amundsen", in honor of Robert Falcon Scott and Roald Amundsen, the first explorers to reach the Earth's South Pole. Intended to be the first spacecraft to penetrate below the surface of another planet, after entering the Mars atmosphere DS2 was to detach from the Mars Polar Lander mother ship and plummet to the surface using only an aeroshell impactor, with no parachute. The mission was declared a failure on March 13, 2000, after all attempts to reestablish communications following the descent went unanswered.
+The Deep Space 2 development costs were US$28 million.
+
+== Overview ==
+
+Deep Space 2, also known as "Mars Microprobe," was the second spacecraft developed under the NASA New Millennium Program to flight-test advanced technologies concepts for space missions. The purpose of the program was to do high-risk technology demonstration, with a motto "Taking risks to reduce future danger." The project was led and operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, with contributions from The University of Arizona, New Mexico State, Northern Arizona University, the Air Force Research Laboratory, and others.
+The Deep Space 2 mission was intended to do an engineering validation of the concept of a penetrator probe, impacting the planet at high velocity, instead of slowing down for a soft landing as done by the probes conventionally used for planetary exploration. The penetrator concept is potentially a lower-cost approach, and has a proposed advantage of giving access to the subsurface of the planet being studied (in this case, Mars.)
+Though the primary objective was to validate the technology, the probes also had goals for science analysis at Mars. These goals were “1) to derive the atmospheric density, pressure, and temperature throughout the entire atmospheric column, 2) to characterize the hardness of the soil and possibly the presence of layers at a scale of tens of centimeters, 3) to determine if ice is present in the subsurface soil, and, 4) to estimate the thermal conductivity of the soil at depth.” The eventual goal for such probes was to deploy networks “around a planet using no more resources than a single landing under conventional assumptions.”
+The probes were launched with the Mars Polar Lander on January 3, 1999, on a Delta II 7425 Launch Vehicle.
+
+=== Spacecraft ===
+Each probe weighed 2.4 kg (5.3 lb) and was encased in a protective aeroshell. They rode to Mars aboard another spacecraft, the Mars Polar Lander.
+Upon arrival near the south polar region of Mars on December 3, 1999, the basketball-sized shells were released from the main spacecraft, plummeting through the atmosphere and hitting the planet's surface at over 179 m/s (590 ft/s). On impact, each shell was designed to shatter, and its grapefruit-sized probe was to punch through the soil and separate into two parts. The lower part, called the forebody, was designed to penetrate as far as 0.6 meters (2 ft 0 in) into the soil. It contained the primary science instrument on board, the Evolved Water Experiment. The upper part of the probe, or aftbody, was designed to remain on the surface in order to transmit data through its UHF antenna to the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft in orbit around Mars. The Mars Global Surveyor would act as a relay in order to send the data collected back to Earth. The two sections of the probe were designed to remain connected via a data cable.
+
+== Science Instruments ==
+The probes were each equipped with five instruments to enable analysis of the atmosphere, surface, and subsurface.
+• Descent accelerometer: The descent accelerometer was a commercially available sensor meant to measure accelerations from drag during descent. Its readings could “be used to derive a density profile of the Martian atmosphere” based on the acceleration data combined with knowledge of the probe's speed and ballistic coefficient.
+• Impact accelerometer: The impact accelerometer was built with a range of ±120,000 g for the large expected acceleration on impact with Mars's surface.
+• Meteorological sensor: provides atmospheric pressure and temperature data at the landing site. This sensor was located on the back of the probe so that it would stay above the surface after impact. It was sampled and recorded by the telecommunications “which enables the acquisition of meteorological data in the event that the microcontroller failed during the impact.”
+• Soil Thermal Conductivity Temperature Sensors: Twin platinum resistor temperature sensors would determine rates of cooling in the forebody once submerged in the surface.
+• Evolved Water Experiment: A small sample collection system in the forebody would bring Martian regolith into a heating chamber. The sample would then be heated to allow spectroscopy measurements on the resulting vapor using a miniaturized tunable diode laser. The Evolved Water Experiment was the primary instrument on board the probe.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_2-1.md

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+---
+title: "Deep Space 2"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_2"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:05.798867+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== New Technologies: High Impact and Low Temperature Electronics ==
+Custom electronics and batteries were designed for the Deep Space 2 probes to survive extremely high accelerations on impact with the surface of Mars and the cold temperatures that it would experience once in operation. Both the electronics and the custom cells were required to survive an impact on the order of 80,000 g and operational temperatures as low at -80 °C. Additionally, as much as a 30,000 g difference in acceleration was possible between the forebody and aftbody.
+Batteries
+Together with Yardney Technical Products, JPL designed a battery with two non-rechargeable 6-14V cells using lithium-thionyl chloride (LI-SOCl2) chemistry to survive the expected conditions. The batteries were impact tested and also thermally cycled during development.
+Electronics Packaging
+Due to the probe's form factor and the harsh survivability conditions, JPL used novel techniques to secure the onboard electronics. The techniques included chip-on-board (COB) technology to improve packing density. It also used a 1-meter flexible umbilical cable to connect the forebody penetrator that would be displaced upon impact. Mechanical (non-functioning) models were impact tested before launch to determine if the structures would survive.
+
+== Mission failure ==
+The probes reached Mars along with the Mars Polar Lander mission, apparently without incident, but communication was never established after impact. It is not known what the cause of failure was.
+A failure review board was commissioned to report on the failures of the Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 probes. The review board was unable to identify a probable cause of failure, but suggested several possible causes:
+
+The probe radio equipment had a low chance of surviving the impact.
+The batteries may have failed on impact.
+The probes may have bounced on impact.
+The probes may have landed on their sides, resulting in bad antenna performance or radio link geometry.
+The probes may simply have hit ground that was too rocky for survival.
+The board concluded that the probes and their components were not tested adequately before launch.
+
+== Aftermath ==
+Despite the failures of Mars Polar Lander and the two Deep Space 2 probes, Planum Australe, which served as their exploration target, would in later years be explored by European Space Agency's MARSIS radar, which examined and analyzed the site from Mars's orbit and even determined that the area had water beneath its vast area of ice. Images which were obtained from MARSIS also determined that the water discovered beneath Planum Australe was in fact saltwater.
+
+== See also ==
+Exploration of Mars
+Deep Space 1
+InSight – successful Mars lander carrying similar burrowing probe with temperature sensor
+List of missions to Mars
+List of spacecraft powered by non-rechargeable batteries
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+JPL, Deep Space 2 Fact Sheet
+NSSDC Data Archive, Deep Space 2
+"Press Kit: 1998 Mars Missions" (.PDF) (Press release). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. December 8, 1998. Retrieved April 22, 2009.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Archived JPL Deep Space 2 website (original website no longer exists)
+Report of the Loss of the Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 Missions
+(Part 1) (see page 10 of report (page 22 of this PDF) for the findings of the Deep Space 2 investigation)
+(Part 2)
+(Part 3)
+(Part 4)
+(Part 5) (see page 124 of report (page 1 of this PDF) for Deep Space 2 possible failure modes)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieter_Grau-0.md

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+---
+title: "Dieter Grau"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieter_Grau"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:04.234587+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Dieter Grau (April 24, 1913 – December 17, 2014) was a German-born American aerospace engineer and member of the "von Braun rocket group", at Peenemünde (1939–1945) working on the V-2 rockets in World War II.  He was among the engineers who surrendered to the United States and traveled there, providing rocketry expertise via Operation Paperclip, which took them first to Fort Bliss, Texas. Grau was sent by the U.S. Army to White Sands in 1946 to work on the assemblage (with parts shipped from Germany) and testing of the V-2. His wife joined him there in 1947 (Grau's son was born in Texas in 1949). While von Braun was on standby at Fort Bliss, Grau and other German aerospace engineers busily launched V-2s for U.S. scientists to analyze. A total of 67 V-2s were launched at White Sands.
+He continued his work with the team when they moved to the Redstone Arsenal (Alabama), and then joined the Marshall Space Flight Center to work for NASA in 1950. Grau served as the director of quality in all of those assignments, including the Saturn V program which took mankind to the moon.
+Grau said that von Braun worked closely with then-Colonel Holger Toftoy to develop the kind of team he wanted in the U.S.
+"One of my main jobs at that time was to get information to the scientists and see what kind of projects they would like to have and then, of course, we had to accommodate them," Grau recalled. "Even though we were busy, we were more used to much overtime. But that was not the case (at White Sands). There we had a normal workday."
+
+Things changed with their arrival in Huntsville. In many ways the Germans felt like they were coming home. Gone were the dry, desert conditions of Fort Bliss and White Sands, replaced with a green, mountainous agricultural area reminiscent of Germany. Grau noted:
+
+"Coming to Huntsville was our coming back to the green country. We were used to green country and out there at Fort Bliss and White Sands there was just desert. We liked this so much better. This was more the landscape we were used to. For us, it was kind of a relief to come to the green country."
+"The new Redstone rocket  had to go somewhat further. It had to be bigger and it had to be made with American parts," Grau said.
+
+"Industry came in and worked with us to build and develop new stuff. The engine had to be redesigned. It had to be bigger. At that time, industry came really onboard."
+Grau, along with von Braun's team, moved from the Army to NASA to develop the first rockets designed expressly for exploration.  Grau oversaw quality assurance for the development of the Saturn I and Saturn V rockets. Ed Buckbee, formerly of MSFC public affairs, said of this time, "When Dieter spoke, everybody in the room listened."
+"We had wonderful experiences going into space. We had wonderful cooperation to accomplish something never done before," Grau said.
+
+"See how well it all worked out? We had no idea how things would work out. We took a tremendous risk to come here. We never thought we would be able to stay so long. I have real good fortune that I have had a fulfilled life and I remember so much."
+Grau died in Huntsville, Alabama, at the age of 101 on December 17, 2014.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Dieter Grau at Wikimedia Commons

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+---
+title: "Earth Observing-1"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Observing-1"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:07.009882+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) was a NASA Earth observation satellite created to develop and validate a number of instrument and spacecraft bus breakthrough technologies. It was intended to enable the development of future Earth imaging observatories that will have a significant increase in performance while also having reduced cost and mass. The spacecraft was part of the New Millennium Program. It was the first satellite to map active lava flows from space; the first to measure a facility's methane leak from space; and the first to track re-growth in a partially logged Amazon forest from space. EO-1 captured scenes such as the ash after the World Trade Center attacks, the flooding in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, volcanic eruptions and a large methane leak in southern California.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Its Advanced Land Imager (ALI) measured nine different wavelengths simultaneously, instead of the seven measured by the imager in Landsat 7.  This permitted a greater flexibility in false-color imagery.  Another improvement was that instead of having an imaging spectrometer that sweeps from side to side, the ALI had a linear array of spectrometers that each scanned a strip of ground parallel to that of adjacent spectrometers.  In order to compare the two imagers, EO-1 followed Landsat 7 in its orbit by exactly one minute.  The ALI's instrument design and onboard technology directly shaped the design of the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8.
+Other new technologies included:
+
+Hyperion imaging spectrometer recording more than 200 wavelengths;
+phased array communications antenna;
+optical fiber cables connected the data logger with the two IBM RAD6000s;
+teflon-fueled pulsed plasma thruster;
+lightweight, flexible solar panel;
+carbon-coated radiators for thermal control;
+Linear Etalon Imaging Spectrometer Array equipped with a new atmospheric correction device.
+EO-1 was also used to test new software, like the Autonomous Sciencecraft Experiment.  This allowed the spacecraft to decide for itself how best to create a desired image.  It was only limited by a priority list of different types of images, and by forecasts of cloud cover provided by the NOAA.
+The knowledge acquired and technology developed from Hyperion is being incorporated into a NASA concept for a potential future hyperspectral satellite, the Hyperspectral Infrared Imager.
+It was expected to function for twelve months and was designed to function for eighteen months. Those expectations were greatly exceeded, though its hydrazine fuel was mostly depleted by February 2011.  Small maneuvers were successful for debris avoidance but long duration burns for orbit maintenance could not be performed due to insufficient fuel.
+The 2013 Senior Review Panel recommended that EO-1 be decommissioned in 2015, when the Mean Local Time (MLT) equatorial crossing would "have degraded to the point where many products will lose their usefulness." The EO-1 team proposed that the mission continue as a "lunar lab". They proposed that by turning the instruments toward the moon and spectrally characterizing selected lunar features at a variety of lunar phase angles, they could facilitate cross-calibration among imaging satellites. For example: if EO-1 Lunar Lab were to be in operation to overlap CLARREO Pathfinder in 2019, the coincident lunar measurements would allow the entire EO-1 ALI and Hyperion archive to be put on the CLARREO radiometric scale, along with the other sensors that have and will image the moon. In 2015, the Senior Review Panel stated that they could not support this justification for the extended mission beyond 2016 and recommended that it be decommissioned on 30 September 2016, when an analysis indicated that a MLT crossing of 08:00 would occur. NASA Headquarters Earth Science Division then decided to terminate the EO-1 mission starting October 2016 with spacecraft passivation occurring November 2016 through February 2017 and full operations shut down to occur by March 2017. The reasons for the decommissioning were:
+
+The early MLT would greatly limit the usefulness of the data for science research and application support.
+There was only limited utility of extending EO-1 mission for high latitude observations.
+There was limited potential scientific benefit and users of the proposed Lunar Lab.
+EO-1 was deactivated on 30 March 2017. At the time of deactivation, it was estimated that the satellite would remain in orbit until 2056, when it will burn up in Earth's atmosphere.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Earth Observing-1 website by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center
+Earth Observing-1 website by the United States Geological Survey

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Observing-3-0.md

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+---
+title: "Earth Observing-3"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Observing-3"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:08.224242+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Earth Observing 3 (EO3) was a proposed joint mission between NASA New Millennium Program and the US Navy's Office of Naval Research. Geosynchronous Imaging Fourier Transform Spectrometer — Indian Ocean METOC Imager (GIFTS-IOMI) was the instrument selected by NASA to perform as EO3's latest weather satellite observing instrument. The EO3 project ended with the cancellation of NMP in 2008.
+
+
+== References ==
+"Earth Observer 3 - GIFTS". NASA / JPL. 19 November 2003. Archived from the original on 10 January 2004. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
+"NASA's Earth Observing Technology Satellite Proves a Success" (Press release). Goddard Space Flight Center. 24 June 2002. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Earth Observing-3 at the NASA

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+---
+title: "Ernst Geissler"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Geissler"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:02.856779+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ernst Geissler (3 August 1915 in Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany – 3 June 1989 in Huntsville, Alabama, United States) was a German-American aerospace engineer. After World War II, he went to the United States on 16 November 1945 as part of the Argentina group, Operation Paperclip.
+Geissler became director of the Aeroballistics Division at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960.
+Geissler was the recipient of the NASA Certificate of Appreciation in 1973.
+He was awarded the 1973 NASA Distinguished Service Medal.
+He was elected a Fellow of the American Astronautical Society.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Ernst Geissler Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_R._G._Eckert-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ernst R. G. Eckert"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_R._G._Eckert"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:58.912400+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ernst Rudolph Georg Eckert (September 13, 1904 – July 8, 2004) was an Austrian American engineer and scientist who advanced the film cooling technique for aeronautical engines. He earned his Diplom Ingenieur and doctorate in 1927 and 1931, respectively, and habilitated in 1938. Eckert worked as a jet engine scientist at the Hermann Göring Aviation Research Institute near Braunschweig, Germany, then via Operation Paperclip, began jet propulsion research in 1945 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. In 1951, Eckert joined the University of Minnesota in the department of mechanical engineering. Eckert published over 550 scientific papers and books. The Eckert number in fluid dynamics was named after him.
+In 1995 the National Academy of Engineering honored Eckert with its thirteenth Founders Award.
+Eckert's son-in-law Horst Henning Winter, a specialist in rheology, is professor at UMass Amherst.
+
+
+== References and notes ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Short biography of Ernst R. G. Eckert

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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Karl_Preikschat-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fritz Karl Preikschat"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Karl_Preikschat"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:39.111247+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fritz Karl Preikschat (September 11, 1910 – September 2, 1994) was a German, later American, electrical and telecommunications engineer and inventor. He had more than three German patents and more than 23 U.S. patents, including a dot matrix teletypewriter (Germany, 1957), a blind-landing system for airports (1965), a phased array system for satellite communications (1971), a hybrid car system (1982), and a scanning laser diode microscope for particle analysis (1989). He was the only engineer to work on both sides of the Space Race: a lab manager for NII-88 (TsNIIMash) in Soviet Union (1946–1952) and a lead engineer for the Space division of Boeing (1960s).
+
+
+== Early career in Germany ==
+In 1934, he graduated from Hindenburg Polytechnic in Oldenburg, Germany with a degree in "Elektrotechnik" (electrical engineering). He then served in a minesweeper unit of Kriegsmarine (German Navy).
+From 1940 to 1945 (during WW2), he worked as an engineer and lab manager in the radar group of GEMA (see Radar in World War II). At the end of WW2, his family fled to Dresden and survived (except for one relative) the Bombing of Dresden in World War II. His family then resettled as refugees in the Bavarian town of Amberg.
+
+
+== Contributor to the Soviet Union's rocket and satellite programs (1946–1952) ==
+In 1946, he was one of the more than two thousand German specialists forcibly brought to the Soviet Union under Operation Osoaviakhim. He was then one of the more than 170 German specialists – headed by Helmut Gröttrup –  brought to Branch 1 of NII-88 on Gorodomlya Island in Lake Seliger. From 1946 to 1952, he was an engineer and head of the high frequency lab, working on a guidance system, among other things, for the early Soviet rocket program.  He also worked on a design for a 6-dish (array) deep-space tracking station for the early Soviet space program. In 1960, the Soviet Union implemented the full 8-dish (with 52-foot diameter dishes) deep-space tracking station called Pluton in the Crimea.
+
+
+== Debriefing by U.S. Army (1952–1954) ==
+In June 1952, he was released from the Soviet Union and returned to East Germany. The Berlin Wall had not yet been constructed, so he was able to cross the border via the Berlin U-Bahn from East Berlin, East Germany, to West Berlin (Western Zone). He quickly met an American MP, who put him in a safe house where he spent two months getting debriefed by the U.S. Army on the Soviet Union's rocket program. He was also interviewed over several months by Reinhard Gehlen. Later, he published a 114-page report (in German; he finalized the report in April 1954) for the Army on the Soviet Union's "Microwave-based Control System for Long-Distance Rockets". In September 1952, he was flown from West Berlin (Western Zone) to Frankfurt, West Germany, where he was reunited with his family (his wife, daughter and son), finally ending a difficult, six-year separation.
+
+
+== Dot matrix teletypewriter (Germany, 1957) ==
+In 1952–1954, he filed five patent applications for a dot matrix teletypewriter (aka "teletype writer 7 stylus 35 dot matrix"), later granted in 1957 (see German patent #1,006,007). In April 1953, he was hired by Telefonbau und Normalzeit GmbH (TuN, later called Tenovis). In 1956, TuN introduced the device to the Deutsche Bundespost (German Post Office), which did not show interest. In his final contract with TuN (dated May 31, 1957), he sold the five patent applications to TuN for 12,000 Deutsche Marks and 50% of the device's net future profits (while retaining rights for the U.S. market). Photos and working papers of the dot matrix teletypewriter prototype were submitted to his first U.S. employer, General Mills, in 1957. A set of working papers for the dot matrix teletypewriter were published in 1961. At Boeing in 1966–1967, the dot matrix teletypewriter design was the basis for a portable facsimile machine (using dot matrix), which was prototyped and evaluated for military use by teams at Boeing, including sales.
+
+
+== Emigration to the United States (1957) ==
+On June 28, 1957, he emigrated to the United States via Operation Paperclip, sponsored by an Army contract with General Mills. The contract was cancelled shortly afterwards, so he hired on as principal scientist at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, where he worked on satellite transponder communications. He became a U.S. citizen in 1962.
+From 1959 to 1970, he mostly worked as lead engineer in the Space Division of Boeing (near Seattle). He also had a stint in the Military Products Group at Honeywell (in Seattle).
+
+
+== Boeing: Blind-landing system for airports (1965) ==
+In 1965, while at Boeing, he invented a blind-landing system for airports. It was an automated blind-landing system and featured a 3D-display showing the virtual landing strip overlaid on the actual visual display. The system was not implemented.
+
+
+== Boeing: Phased array system for satellites (1971) ==
+In 1971, while lead engineer in the telecommunications group of the space division of Boeing in Kent, Washington, he, along with Orral Ritchey and John Nitardy, invented a phased array system for satellite communications. The patent was assigned to Boeing and a technical paper was written. The invention won Boeing's Technical Paper Award for 1970.
+
+
+== F.P. Research Lab: new moisture meter (1972–1979) ==
+In 1968–1974 (several patents granted), he invented a new moisture meter for pulp and paper mills. He co-founded F.P. Research Lab to commercialize the moisture meter. In 1979, F.P. Research Lab was acquired by BTG AB (Sweden), a technology company serving the global pulp and paper industry.
+
+
+== Hybrid car system (1982) ==
+In 1982, he invented an electric propulsion and braking system for cars. The system allows for significant improvement of fuel efficiency by recycling energy from the car's braking system (regenerative braking). While clearly not the only patent relating to the hybrid electric vehicle, the patent was important based on more than 120 subsequent patents directly citing it.  The system was only patented in the U.S. and not prototyped or commercialized. In 1997, with the introduction of the Prius in Japan, Toyota was one of the first companies to commercialize a hybrid electric vehicle (i.e. using regenerative braking technology). In July 2000 – the same month the patent expired – Toyota introduced the Prius globally (see Toyota press releases). The Prius became America's best selling hybrid electric car.
+
+
+== Lasentec: Particle-size analyzer (1987–1994) ==
+In 1989, he, with son Ekhard Preikschat, invented a scanning laser diode microscope for particle-size analysis. He and Ekhard Preikschat co-founded Lasentec to commercialize it. In 2001, Lasentec was acquired by Mettler Toledo (NYSE: MTD). About ten thousand systems have been installed globally – over $1 Billion in cumulative sales – mostly in the pharmaceutical industry to provide in-situ control of the crystallization process in large purification systems.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Laves-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fritz Laves"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Laves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:22.090499+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fritz Henning Emil Paul Berndt Laves (27 February 1906 – 12 August 1978) was a German crystallographer who served as the president of the German Mineralogical Society from 1956 to 1958. He is the namesake of Laves phases and the Laves tilings; the Laves graph, a highly-symmetrical three-dimensional crystal structure that he studied, was named after him by H. S. M. Coxeter.
+
+
+== Education and career ==
+Laves was born in Hanover, the son of a judge and the great-grandson of architect Georg Ludwig Friedrich Laves. He grew up in Göttingen, where his interests included piano music as well as collecting rocks and minerals. He began his university studies in geology in 1924 at the University of Innsbruck, and continued at the University of Göttingen before moving to ETH Zurich for doctoral studies under Paul Niggli.
+In 1929 he took a faculty position under Victor Goldschmidt at Göttingen. He tried unsuccessfully to prevent Goldschmidt from being dismissed in 1933, and later had difficulty advancing through the German academic system under the Nazis because he was known as a protector of the Jews. His research at this time largely concerned metals and intermetallic materials. He was drafted into the German army in 1939, but returned to academia after the intervention of Paul Rosbaud, and instead worked on metallurgy for Hermann Göring during the war. On that position
+
+an alchemist was assigned to look over his shoulder, and contributed to the success of his experiments by oscillating a small crystal sphere on a chain over the crucible. He also insisted on adding powdered crocodile bones to the batch, but because of Rommel's difficulties in the land of the Nile, settled for the tail-bones of a lesser lizard.
+In 1944 he moved to the University of Halle as director of the Mineralogical Department, and then after World War II he became an ordinary professor at the University of Marburg, where he worked on disordered materials and two-dimensional structures.
+By 1948 he had agreed to be taken to America by the U. S. Navy during Operation Paperclip, and began working with Julian Goldsmith at the University of Chicago. At this time, his interests shifted again, to the study of feldspar, one of the minerals he had collected in his youth. Despite having become highly Americanized, he found himself unable to resist an offer to return to ETH Zurich, in 1954, to fill the chair that had been left vacant by the death of his advisor Paul Niggli. He remained in Zurich until his retirement in 1976.
+Laves was the editor of the journal Zeitschrift für Kristallographie between 1955 and 1978, which honoured him with a special issue in May 2006 commemorating the hundredth anniversary of his birth.  The issue was devoted to the crystal chemistry of intermetallic compounds and included two articles on Laves' contributions to crystallography.
+
+
+== Personal life ==
+Laves was married to architect Melitta Druckenmüller (1907 – 1990), who assisted him with many of the illustrations in his publications. They had three daughters together, Gracia, Charlotte, and Katharina.
+
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+Laves was awarded the Roebling Medal, the highest honor of the Mineralogical Society of America, in 1969. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, and a corresponding member of the Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur and the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. He was also the recipient of an honorary doctorate from the University of Bochum.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Mueller-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fritz Mueller"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Mueller"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:30.557037+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Dr. Fritz K. Mueller (1907 – 2001 Huntsville, Alabama, USA) was a German engineer.
+Mueller was hired by Kreiselgeräte Company in 1930. He developed the PIGA accelerometer. and worked on gyroscopes for Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine. Later on, he worked on the guidance and control system for the A3 test rocket, the A5, and the A4 (V2) ballistic missile.
+Under Project Paperclip, Mueller emigrated to the United States on 16 November 1945 with the Argentina group. There, he worked on developing guidance systems for the PGM-11 Redstone, PGM-19 Jupiter, MGM-31 Pershing, and the Saturn I missiles.
+In 1960 Mueller left NASA for private industry.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_B._Heller-0.md

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+---
+title: "Gerhard B. Heller"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_B._Heller"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:07.771345+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Gerhard B. Heller (January 24, 1914 - October 1, 1972) was a German-American rocket scientist and member of the "von Braun rocket team." He worked at Peenemünde Army Research Center during World War II and later, through Operation Paperclip, moved to develop rockets for the U.S., eventually becoming employed at the Marshall Space Flight Center.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Heller was born in Eschwege in 1914. He attended university at the Technische Universität Darmstadt, where he majored in physical chemistry, earning his BS in 1938 and his MS in 1940. After graduating, Heller worked in the rocket team at Peenemünde  from 1940 until the end of World War II in 1945.
+In 1945, Heller was scouted through Operation Paperclip as part of a team to restore a V-2 rocket. He and his family traveled to the U.S. aboard an army ship, likely the Argentina, and arrived in New York. From there they took a train to Texas, where Heller was initially stationed at Fort Bliss. In 1950, he and his family traveled to Huntsville, Alabama to continue his work.
+After arriving in Huntsville, Heller began work with the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. Beginning in 1951, he taught at the Redstone Arsenal Institute of Graduate Studies as a lecturer in thermodynamics. After the founding of the Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960, Heller made the move to the new organization, becoming deputy director of the Research Projects Division. By 1969 he had become Chief of the Space Thermodynamics Division of the MSFC's Space Sciences Laboratory.
+Heller died in 1972 after an automobile accident. After his death, his widow, Ms. Hertha Heller, created the Gerhard B. Heller Memorial Scholarship at the University of Alabama in Huntsville, where she was faculty.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Gerhard B. Heller Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections
+Stages to Saturn History Project oral interview with Heller, part 1 and part 2, from The University of Alabama in Huntsville Oral History Collections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunter_d'Alquen-0.md

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+---
+title: "Gunter d'Alquen"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunter_d'Alquen"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:44.258168+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Gunter d'Alquen (24 October 1910 – 15 May 1998) was chief editor of the weekly Das Schwarze Korps ("The Black Corps"), the official newspaper of the Schutzstaffel (SS), and commander of the SS-Standarte Kurt Eggers.
+
+
+== Early life ==
+Gunter d'Alquen was born to a Catholic-Freemason wool merchant and reserve officer named Carl d'Alquen of Spanish and Flemish descent, born in Essen on 24 October 1910. He attended grammar school in Essen and joined the Hitler Youth in 1925. In 1927, d'Alquen became a member of the SA and as a 16-year-old joined the NSDAP.
+D'Alquen was active in the National Socialist German Student Union. He became a member of the SS on 10 April 1931. He did not complete his studies in history and philology and instead turned to a journalistic career. From 1932, he was a political correspondent to the editorial board of the Völkischer Beobachter ("Völkisch Observer"). It was here he aroused the attention of Heinrich Himmler, who appointed him chief editor of Das Schwarze Korps in March 1935.
+
+
+== As chief editor ==
+D'Alquen's newspaper often attacked intellectuals, students, Freemasons, certain scientists, rebellious businessmen, traffickers, clerics and other representatives of German society that had aroused Himmler's anger. With its notorious anti-Semitism, Das Schwarze Korps established itself as a moral spokesperson of Nazi beliefs.
+From September 1939, d'Alquen became a prominent SS war correspondent. He was appointed head of the propaganda formation SS-Standarte Kurt Eggers named after Kurt Eggers, a friend of d'Alquen, an SS war correspondent and editor of Das Schwarze Korps who was killed in action in 1943.
+
+
+== As a prisoner of war ==
+In May 1945, d'Alquen was taken as a prisoner of war by the British Army. He was held at Camp 18, a prisoner-of-war camp on the grounds of Featherstone Castle in Northumberland, England. D'Alquen was released from custody in 1948.
+
+
+== Later life ==
+After the war, d'Alquen denied any knowledge of Nazi extermination camps. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison.
+According to de-classified Central Intelligence Agency documents, as part of Operation Paperclip; d'Alquen was employed by the Counterintelligence Corps and was widely believed to have later been on a CIA payroll during the Cold War.
+In July 1955, d'Alquen was sentenced by a Berlin Denazification court to pay a fine of 60,000 DM, followed by a loss of pension rights for three years. He was then found guilty of having played a significant role in wartime propaganda and incitement against churches, Jews, and foreigners in the Nazi state. After further investigation of d'Alquen's income from this activity, he was sentenced to pay another fine of 28,000 DM in January 1958.
+According to British intelligence, he was a member of the Naumann Circle, headed by former State Secretary Werner Naumann, which attempted to infiltrate the Free Democratic Party. In the late 1950s, d'Alquen became a shareholder of a weaving mill in Mönchengladbach.
+He died on 15 May 1998 in Mönchengladbach.
+
+
+== Dates of rank ==
+SS-Anwärter - 10 April 1931
+SS-Mann - 10 April 1931
+SS-Sturmführer - 1 October 1932
+SS-Obersturmführer - 9 November 1933
+SS-Hauptsturmführer - 1 June 1934
+SS-Sturmbannführer - 30 January 1935
+SS-Obersturmbannführer - 16 October 1935
+SS-Standartenführer - 1 January 1937
+SS-Untersturmführer der Reserve - 1 March 1940
+SS-Obersturmbannführer der Reserve - 30 April 1940
+SS-Hauptsturmführer der Reserve - 1 August 1940
+SS-Sturmbannführer der Reserve - 9 November 1941
+SS-Obersturmbannführer der Reserve - 10 August 1943
+SS-Standartenführer der Reserve - 1943
+
+
+== Awards ==
+Iron Cross, 2nd class
+War Merit Cross, 2nd class
+General Assault Badge
+Golden Party Badge of the NSDAP
+SS-Ehrenring and SS-Ehrendegen
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Das Schwarze Korps
+SS-Standarte Kurt Eggers
+Kurt Eggers
+List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Books by Gunter d’Alquen (in German)
+Gunter d'Alquen auf der Familien (in German)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_A._Weaver-0.md

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+---
+title: "Hal A. Weaver"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_A._Weaver"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:59.328345+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Harold Anthony "Hal" Weaver, Jr. (born 1953) is an American astronomer, known for his research into the composition of solar system bodies including comets and Kuiper belt objects.
+Weaver attended Duke University as an undergraduate, and obtained his PhD from Johns Hopkins, where he researched the spectra of comets using data from the International Ultraviolet Explorer space telescope.
+Since 2002 Weaver has worked at the Applied Physics Laboratory. He is co-investigator on the Alice ultraviolet imaging spectrometer on board the Rosetta mission to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, In the 1990s and 2000s he worked on the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer space telescope, conducted research into comets using the Hubble Space Telescope, and co-led the Pluto Companion Search Team that in 2005 discovered the second and third moons of Pluto (Nix and Hydra) using the Hubble Space Telescope.
+His involvement in the New Horizons mission to Pluto and beyond meant that Weaver was also co-discoverer of Kerberos and Styx in 2011 and 2012 respectively. Weaver has frequently appeared with New Horizons principal investigator Alan Stern at press briefings announcing the mission's findings following the fly-bys of Pluto and 486958 Arrokoth, and has made media appearances to discuss the mission. 
+The Mars-crossing asteroid 5720 Halweaver is named after him.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+"NASA Reveals Pluto Close-Up Images from New Horizons". C-SPAN.org. July 15, 2015.
+"Harold, Weaver". Science Research Portal. Archived from the original on August 21, 2019. Retrieved August 21, 2019.
+"Harold A Weaver's Publons profile". Publons.com. Retrieved August 21, 2019.
+"Library of Congress". Id.loc.gov. Retrieved August 21, 2019.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Recent bibliography

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Amtmann-0.md

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+---
+title: "Hans Amtmann"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Amtmann"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:45.456213+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hans Henry Amtmann (October 15, 1906 – February 20, 2007) was a German aircraft designer. He was best known for his work at Blohm & Voss, where he worked as Head of New Projects under Chief Designer Richard Vogt during the World War II era. After the war, he moved the United States as part of Operation Paperclip, where he worked on a variety of projects.
+
+
+== Early years ==
+Hans Amtmann was born in Sande, on the outskirts of Bergedorf, near Hamburg in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, in October 1906. He was the second of two brothers. From the age of nine he was educated at the Hansa School. During this time he learned to play the violin, before moving on to study naval architecture at the State Technical College in Hamburg. In his final term he took a course in aeronautics.
+
+
+== German aeroplane designer ==
+After only one month working as a naval architect, Amtmann was offered a position as an aircraft designer at Junkers in Dessau. He worked on the wings of the G 38 and Ju 52 all-metal transports, and on in-flight refuelling, rocket-assisted take-off and preliminary design work. There he also met Hermann Pohlmann, who would go on to design the famous Ju 87 Stuka or dive-bomber before eventually becoming Amtmann's superior in another company.
+In 1933, Amtmann moved to Heinkel at Warnemünde on the shores of the Baltic Sea, where he worked on the fuselage of the He 70 transport before becoming involved once again on new project work.
+Wanting to return to Hamburg, Amtmann obtained a position as an aircraft designer at the newly established Hamburger Flugzeugbau, under the design leadership of Richard Vogt. He started work there as one of Vogt's first recruits, early in 1934, and was soon appointed Head of Preliminary Design. He would remain there, working on Vogt's great range of unconventional and ingenious ideas, throughout its official renaming as a subsidiary of Blohm & Voss shipbuilders, until it was shut down at the end of World War II in 1945. Due to the workload on Vogt, Amtmann's old colleague Pohlmann would later also join B&V as Deputy Chief Designer, so becoming his immediate superior.
+Hans and Margret Amtmann married on 10 October 1934. He had known her since his days as a naval architect. The couple had four children: three boys and a girl. In 1941, he was awarded the War Merit Cross for his outstanding aircraft work.
+Amtmann was subsequently appointed project engineer for the proposed Blohm & Voss BV 237 stuka or dive-bomber attack aircraft, which had been personally approved by Hitler, but the order was obstructed by others and the work delayed until the war ended. He also took over and led the design of the P 200 transatlantic passenger flying boat project for Deutsche Luft Hansa, with the intention of building it when the war was over. The BV 40 interceptor glider, flown in prototype form, gave him experience of the prone pilot position, which would help his later career. Immediately after the factory was shut down at the end of hostilities, B&V kept a core design team together in rented rooms at a museum. But money soon ran out and Amtmann took a teaching job.
+
+
+== American "paperclip" ==
+
+In October 1946, he left his teaching job, having been recruited under the American Operation Paperclip to work in the US. Vogt would also be recruited, but Pohlmann would stay behind and later help to resurrect the Hamburger Flugzeugbau. Amtmann was sent to Wright Field, where he resumed work on a prone pilot bed, working for the biomedical facility under H. T. E. "Ed" Hertzberg.
+Amtmann developed a patent control system for the pilot and the bed was test flown in a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bomber and later in a Lockheed F-80E Shooting Star jet fighter. During this work he also developed a protective shield for the pilot's helmet during emergency ejection which was widely adopted. Another invention was a flying fuel tank system in which the fuel tank glider was attached to the wing tips in parasite configuration. By a coincidence his erstwhile Chief, Richard Vogt, was also at Wright Field and came up with the same idea, beating Amtmann to the patent office.
+His family were eventually allowed to come over from Germany and join him early in 1948, but he did not become a legal immigrant until 1 January 1949. The filing of immigration paperwork had to be carried out at a border crossing, so the "Operation Paperclip" migrants were taken in batches, under military escort, across the Canadian border at Niagara Falls and then walked back over the bridge into the US, where they signed their immigration papers. He signed US citizenship papers in March. He escorted the rest of his family on the same exercise several months later and they received their papers in 1950.
+Amtmann left US Government employment in 1951, to work for Consolidated Vultee in San Diego, California, in his old role of preliminary design. He worked on the Atlas ICBM system. Following a company separation of aero and missile divisions, under the new company name of Convair he developed the P6Y flying boat for the US Navy, but they withdrew the requirement. He was also involved in the Convair series of supersonic delta-winged jets, proposing his own design for a four-engined seaplane similar to, but larger than, the Convair F2Y Sea Dart.
+Made redundant in 1961, he joined General Atomic and worked on the Orion space propulsion system, which proposed using a controlled sequence of nuclear explosions to propel the spacecraft. He also worked on atomic-powered gas turbines.
+He moved to a small company working on nuclear fusion power in 1980, until the company closed in 1984.
+
+
+== Retirement and death ==
+Amtmann retired in 1984, following closure of the nuclear fusion company. During his time in California he had joined a small orchestra in which he once again played the violin. He wrote up his memoirs which were published in 1988 as The Vanishing Paperclips: America's Aerospace Secret – a Personal Account. He appeared in the 1995 TV film documentary The Last Days of World War II.
+Hans Amtmann died at the age of 100, on 20 February 2007.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+=== Notes ===
+
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+Hans Amtmann; The Vanishing Paperclips, Monogram, 1988.
+Hans Amtmann; "Blohm und Voss Remembered", Aeroplane Monthly, February 1998 pp. 22–27 (Part 1) and March 1998 pp. 12–15 (Part 2).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Fichtner-0.md

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+---
+title: "Hans Fichtner"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Fichtner"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:01.673081+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hans Joachim Oskar Fichtner (September 8, 1917 – October 21, 2012) was a rocket scientist who worked on V-2 rockets for Wernher von Braun at Peenemünde from 1939 to 1945.  He was among the scientists to surrender and travel to the United States to provide rocketry expertise via Operation Paperclip which took them first to Fort Bliss, Texas (1945–1949).  He continued his work with the team when they moved to Redstone Arsenal, and he joined Marshall Space Flight Center to work for NASA.
+In a personal letter to a space aficionado, Fichtner wrote, "I worked at Peenemünde to design the control system of the A4. Later I laid out the electrical system for the V-2 ground and airborne. Arrived at the States with the 55 specialists Nov 17, 45, designed the electrical system for all White Sands V-2 launches in the first 11⁄2 years. Did all the electrical systems design for Redstone, Mercury-Redstone, Jupiter, Pershing missile. Was totally responsible for the entire ground and airborne electrical systems for the Apollo 100, 200 series, all Saturn V firings and Skylab after Apollo project. Was Chief engineer for the satellite series high energy astronomy observatory (HEAO). Worked as a consultant for the layout of the Spacelab. Electrical system with ESA in the Netherlands 1975/76. Introduced the automated, computerized checkout and firing sequence during the Saturn/Apollo program".
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Hollmann-0.md

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+---
+title: "Hans Hollmann"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Hollmann"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:12.523543+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hans Erich (Eric) Hollmann (4 November 1899 – 19 November 1960) was a German electronic specialist who made several breakthroughs in the development of radar.
+Hollmann was born in Solingen, Germany. He became interested in radio and even as a teenager subscribed to the technical magazines of the day. Late in World War I he became a prisoner of war of the French and did not return to Germany until 1920. He then studied at the Technische Hochschule in Darmstadt (now Technische Universität Darmstadt) until he received his doctorate in 1928.
+Hollmann's doctoral research included the development of an ultra-short-wave transmitter and receiver for centimetre and decimetre waves. This gained the attention of Telefunken, and ultimately led to their development of the first microwave telecommunication system.
+In 1930 Hollmann moved to the Heinrich-Hertz Institute for Oscillatory Research in Berlin. There he continued studies in microwaves and cathode ray tubes and also worked on the ionosphere research and radio astronomy. In 1933 Hollmann became a lecturer at the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin).
+In January 1934, Hans-Karl von Willisen and Paul-Günther Erbslöh started a company called Gesellschaft für elektroakustische und mechanische Apparate (GEMA). With Hollmann as a consultant, GEMA built a system using interference detection in the autumn of 1934. It operated at 50 cm wavelength and could detect ships up to 10 km distance. By 1935, they used pulse-modulation, allowing measurement of range (distance to the target), and developed the technology into two applications. For naval use, the Seetakt system used a wavelength of 80 cm. A land based version at 120 cm wavelength was also developed as Freya.
+Telefunken set up a radar business in 1933 based on Hollmann's work and developed a much shorter-range gun-laying system called Würzburg. During World War II, Freya and Würzburg worked in pairs. Freya would spot the incoming aircraft while the Würzburg calculated the distance and height.
+He invented and patented a prototype of the cavity magnetron in 1935, but the German military considered the frequency drift of Hollman's device to be undesirable, and based their radar systems on the klystron instead.
+In the same year, Hollmann wrote two books on microwaves, Physics and Technique of Ultra-short Waves and Seeing with Electromagnetic Waves, which were the inspiration for the development of centimetre radar in other countries despite some censorship of their contents.
+During the war he supervised many research institutes in occupied countries and saved many scientists from being deported to Germany. He established the  Laboratory for High-Frequency Engineering and Ultrasound in Lichterfelde, Berlin. Part of their work involved making transmitters for the Navy. Here he brought in Max Bense. At this time there was speculation about a future possibility of teleporting human beings from Germany to California.  His home and his laboratory were destroyed during the war. After the war he was not allowed to work on microwaves but he turned his attention to a wide range of other fields in electronics.
+In 1947 he accepted an offer from the US Government to work for NASA in California. In 1949 he sent Bense a copy of Norbert Wiener's Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (1948), stimulating the latter's interest in cybernetics.
+He was married to Gisela Schimmelbusch and had three children. He died in Los Angeles in 1960.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Biography on his sixtieth birthday

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+---
+title: "Hans von Ohain"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:31.733588+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain (14 December 1911 – 13 March 1998) was a German physicist, engineer, and the designer of the first aircraft to use a turbojet engine. 
+Together with Frank Whittle and Anselm Franz, he has been described as the co-inventor of the turbojet engine. Additionally, prior to building his engine and filing his own patent in 1935, von Ohain had read and critiqued Whittle's patents. Von Ohain stated in his biography that "My interest in jet propulsion began in the fall of 1933 when I was in my seventh semester at Göttingen University. I didn't know that many people before me had the same thought." Unlike Whittle, von Ohain had the significant advantage of being supported by an aircraft manufacturer, Heinkel, who funded his work.
+When in 1935 von Ohain designed his overall engine layout, he based it for compactness on a centrifugal impeller (centrifugal or radial compressor) and a radial inflow turbine.
+Ultimately, this configuration had too many shortcomings to be put into production; however, aided by the enormous resources of the Heinkel Aircraft Company, a developed version was sufficient to power the He 178, and on 27 August 1939 von Ohain entered history as the designer of the world's first gas turbine to power an aircraft.
+Von Ohain stayed with centrifugal designs, contributing his research to Heinkel's other projects such as the combined centrifugal/axial HeS8 and 011, but ultimately none of his designs was put into production. Other competing German designers at Junkers and BMW, following the axial design layout, saw their engines brought into production, although they never solved some of the basic power and durability problems. Von Ohain nevertheless started the world's first jet engine industry in his homeland of Germany, with many prototypes and series productions built until 1945.
+Von Ohain, having entered turbojet design some time later than Whittle, began working on his first turbojet engine designs during the same period that Whittle was building his WU engine in Britain. Their turbojet designs have been said by some to be an example of simultaneous invention. However, von Ohain explains in his biography that, in 1935, while his own patent was being prepared (and before he had begun construction of an engine), his lawyer gave him a copy of Whittle's patent, which he read and critiqued. As a result, he was forced to modify his own application so as not to infringe on Whittle's design.
+The core of Ohain's first jet engine, the Heinkel HeS 1, which he described as his "hydrogen test engine," was run "in March or early April" according to Ohain (although Ernst Heinkel's diaries record it as September 1937). 
+Work on the hydrogen test engine continued, but the engine required modifications to fix overtemperature problems and to fit a fuel system to enable it to run self-contained on liquid fuel, which was achieved in September 1937. With the heavy backing of Heinkel, Ohain's jet engine was the first to power an aircraft, the Heinkel He 178 aircraft in 1939, which was followed by Whittle's engine within the Gloster E.28/39 in 1941. 
+Turbojet powered fighter aircraft from both Germany and Britain entered operational use virtually simultaneously in July 1944: the Me 262 on July 26 and the Gloster Meteor on July 27 of 1944. The Me 262 was the first operational fighter jet and saw flight combat with hundreds of machines, while the few dozen Meteors saw limited action.
+Although Von Ohain and Whittle both knew about axial flow compressors, they remained dedicated to improving centrifugal compressor engines to power respectively the Heinkel He 178 and the Gloster E.28/39 until the end of the Second World War. Axial flow compressor jet engines were instead developed in parallel by Anselm Franz (Junkers) and Hermann Oestrich (BMW) to design the similar Jumo 004 and BMW 003 engines, designs that were eventually adopted by most manufacturers by the 1950s.
+After the war the two men met, became friends and received the Charles Stark Draper Prize for Engineering "for their independent development of the turbojet engine."
+
+== Early life and jet development ==
+Born in Dessau, Germany, Ohain finished high school in 1930 at the Arndt-Gymnasium in Dahlem and earned a PhD in physics in 1935 at the University of Göttingen, with his thesis entitled An Interference Light Relay for White Light on an optical microphone to record sound directly to film, which led to his first patent. The University of Göttingen was then one of the major centers for aeronautical research, with Ohain having attended lectures by Ludwig Prandtl. In 1933, while still a student, he conceived what he called "an engine that did not require a propeller".
+After receiving his PhD in 1935, Ohain became the junior assistant of Robert Wichard Pohl, then director of the Physical Institute of the university. In 1936, while working for Pohl, Ohain registered a patent on his version of a jet engine, Process and Apparatus for Producing Airstreams for Propelling Airplanes. Unlike Frank Whittle's Power Jets WU design with its axial flow turbine, Ohain used a radial in-flow turbine to go with a centrifugal compressor, placing them back-to-back with an annular combustion space wrapped around the rotor.
+While working at the university, Ohain used to take his sports car to be serviced at a local garage, Bartles and Becker. There he met an automotive mechanic, Max Hahn, and eventually arranged for him to build a demonstration model of his engine for 500 ℛ︁ℳ︁. The completed model was larger in diameter than Whittle's fully working engine of 1937, although much shorter. Ohain took the model to the university for testing but ran into problems with combustion of the petrol fuel, which took place mostly after the turbine, sending flames shooting out from the exhaust duct. The lack of combustion before the turbine contributed to the engine being unable to run without the assistance of the electric motor which subsequently overheated.

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+---
+title: "Hans von Ohain"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:31.733588+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+According to von Ohain, "My interest in jet engines began in about 1933. I found that the elegance of flying was spoiled by the enormous vibrations and noise from the piston engine/propeller combination. I came to the conclusion that a constant work process, i.e. constant compression, combustion, expansion, would have great advantages. Thus I chose a quite simple engine, a radial compressor with a radial turbine."
+However, the model he and Max Hahn built and tested in the courtyard of the Institute showed the combustion chamber needed further development.  As a consequence, Pohl and von Ohain decided to approach Heinkel as someone who "doesn't back away from new ideas".
+
+== Heinkel ==
+In February 1936, Pohl wrote to Ernst Heinkel, telling him about Ohain's design and its possibilities. Heinkel arranged a meeting between his engineers and Ohain, during which he argued that the current "garage engine" would never work, but that the concept upon which it was based was sound.  The engineers were convinced, and in April Ohain and Hahn began working for Heinkel at the Marienehe airfield outside Rostock, in Warnemuende.
+Working with Engineer Gundermann and Hahn in Special Development, von Ohain states: "Under pressure of aiming to bring a combustion chamber of unknown endurance to flight readiness, I came upon the idea of separating the turbine problem from the combustion chamber problem by using hydrogen fuel. As a physicist, I knew of course that the diffusion and combustion speed of gaseous hydrogen was substantially greater than that of petrol."
+A study of the model's airflow resulted in several improvements over a two-month period. Encouraged by these findings, Ohain produced a new prototype that would run on hydrogen gas supplied by an external pressurised source. The resulting Heinkel-Strahltriebwerk 1 (HeS 1), German for Heinkel Jet Engine 1, was built by hand-picking some of the best machinists in the company, much to the chagrin of the shop-floor supervisors. Hahn, meanwhile, worked on the combustion problem, an area in which he had some experience.
+The engine was extremely simple, made largely of sheet metal. Construction, by the blacksmith in his village, started late in the summer of 1936 and was completed in March 1937. Two weeks later the engine was running on hydrogen, but the high temperature exhaust led to considerable "burning" of the metal. The tests were otherwise successful, and in September the combustor was replaced and the engine was run on gasoline for the first time. Running on gasoline caused the combustor to clog up. Although the engine was never intended to be a flight-quality design, it proved beyond a doubt that the basic concept was workable, and Ohain had at last caught up with Whittle. With vastly more funding and industry support, Ohain would soon overtake Whittle and forge ahead.
+
+=== Unaware of Whittle? ===
+
+It has often been claimed that Ohain was unaware of Whittle's work. While in a very strict sense this may be true (in that he was unaware of Whittle's experiments at Lutterworth where the RAF engineer ran the world's first jet engine on the 12th of April 1937), nevertheless Ohain had been given a copy of Whittle's patents by his lawyer, while his own patent application being prepared and before he had begun construction of an engine.
+In his biography, Ohain frankly critiqued Whittle's design:
+
+"When I saw Whittle's patent I was almost convinced that it had something to do with boundary layer suction combinations. It had a two-flow, dual entrance flow radial flow compressor that looked monstrous from an engine point of view. Its flow reversal looked to us to be an undesirable thing, but it turned out that it wasn't so bad after although it gave some minor instability problems ... Our patent claims had to be narrowed in comparison to Whittle's because Whittle showed certain things." He then somewhat understandably justified their knowledge of Whittle's work by saying: "We felt that it looked like a patent of an idea ... We thought that it was not seriously being worked on."
+
+=== Developing the engine ===
+In February 1937, the turbine section was running on a test stand. According to von Ohain, "We were now working on a machine capable of powering an aircraft, the forerunner of the He-S3B. I had intended to put the combustion chamber between the compressor and the turbine, as we had done with the hydrogen unit, but Hahn suggested putting it ahead of them, which was an excellent idea."  The He-S3 turbine was test flown by Erich Warsitz and Walter Künzel in a Heinkel He 118, providing additional throttled thrust to the conventional engine.
+While work on the HeS 1 continued, the Pohl-Ohain team had already moved on to the design of a flight-quality engine, the HeS 3. The major differences were the use of machined compressor and turbine stages, replacing the bent and folded sheet metal, and a re-arrangement of the layout to reduce the cross-sectional area of the engine by placing the annular combustor in an extended gap between the compressor and turbine. The original turbine was too small to work efficiently.
+In the beginning of 1939, the He-S3A was fitted into the He 178 airframe for a standing display at Roggentin on 3 July 1939. Yet this turbine was still not powerful enough for flight. According to von Ohain, "We experimented with various combinations to modify the compressor diffuser and turbine nozzle vanes to increase thrust sufficiently to qualify the aircraft for the first flight demonstration.  We found that a small diffuser behind the engine with a collar and splitter to divert flows functioned better than a high speed flow through the entire tube.  The final result of the changes was the He-S3B."

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+---
+title: "Hans von Ohain"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:31.733588+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A new design, the HeS 3b was proposed, which lengthened the combustor by placing the forward part of it in front of the compressor outer rim. While not as small as the original HeS 3 design, the 3b was nevertheless fairly compact. The 3b first ran in July 1939 (some references say in May), and was air-tested under the Heinkel He 118 dive bomber prototype. The original 3b engine soon burned out, but a second one was nearing completion at about the same time as a new test airframe, the Heinkel He 178, which first flew on 27 August 1939, the first jet-powered aircraft to fly by test pilot Erich Warsitz. Heinkel had applied, May 31, 1939, for a patent: US2256198 Espacenet - Original document, an 'Aircraft power plant', inventor Max Hahn. First application for this patent in Germany was May, 1938.
+
+Work started immediately on larger versions, first the HeS 6 which was simply a larger HeS 3b, and then on a new design known as the HeS 8 which once again re-arranged the overall layout. The compressor and turbine were connected with a large-diameter drum long-enough to fit an annular combustion chamber between them. It was intended to install the engine on the Heinkel He 280 fighter, but the airframe development progressed much more smoothly than the engine, and had to be used in gliding tests while work on the engine continued. A flight-quality HeS 8 was installed in late March 1941, followed by the first flight on 2 April. Three days later the aircraft was demonstrated for a party of Nazi and RLM officials, all of whom were impressed. Full development funds soon followed.
+By this point there were a number of turbojet developments taking place in Germany. Heinkel was so impressed by the concept that he arranged the transfer to the project of Adolph Müller from Junkers, who was developing an axial compressor-powered design, renamed as the Heinkel HeS 30. Müller left Junkers after they purchased the Junkers Motoren company, who had their own project under way, which by this time was known as the Junkers Jumo 004. Meanwhile, BMW was making good progress with its own design, the BMW 003.
+By early 1942 the HeS 8, officially the 109-001 (HeS 001), was still not progressing well. Meanwhile, Müller's HeS 30, officially the 109-006 (HeS 006), was developing much more quickly. Both engines were still some time from being ready for production, however, while the 003 and 004 appeared to be ready to go. In early 1942 the director of jet development at the RLM, Helmut Schelp, refused further funding for both designs, and ordered Heinkel to work on a new "pet project" of his own, eventually becoming the Heinkel HeS 011. Although this was the first of Schelp's "Class II" engines to start working well, production had still not started when the war ended. Work continued on the HeS 8 for some time, but it was eventually abandoned in the spring of 1943.
+
+=== Ultimate outcome ===
+Part of the challenge for von Ohain was his approach to designing a practical turbojet that could be developed. His primary design comprised a centrifugal compressor with a radial inflow turbine, a design that proved to be impractical and as a result, despite much effort, was never put into production.
+By comparison, Whittle's centrifugal flow engines, in both straight-through and reverse flow configuration (developed further by Rolls Royce), powered all Allied World War II jets and the majority of immediate post-war fighters. They were built under licence in numerous countries including Australia, France and the US and were copied by the Soviets and Chinese to power the MiG-15 and MiG-17. Whittle's basic reverse flow design remains the most common gas turbine configuration in production today with over 80,000 built in the form of the Allison (RR) 250/300 and Pratt & Whitney PT6 series of engines.
+However, in his invention of HE S011, von Ohain introduced a standard concept which combined axial and radial designs for most business jets today, along with turboprops and helicopters.

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+---
+title: "Hans von Ohain"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:31.733588+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Post-World War II ==
+In 1947, Ohain was brought to the United States by Operation Paperclip and went to work for the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. In 1956 he was made the Director of the Air Force Aeronautical Research Laboratory and by 1975 he was the Chief Scientist of the Aero Propulsion Laboratory there.
+During his work at Wright-Patterson, Ohain continued his own personal work on various topics. In the early 1960s he did a fair amount of work on the design of gas core reactor rockets which would retain the nuclear fuel while allowing the working mass to be used as exhaust. The engineering needed for this role was also used for a variety of other "down to earth" purposes, including centrifuges and pumps. Ohain would later use the basic mass-flow techniques of these designs to create a fascinating jet engine with no moving parts, in which the airflow through the engine created a stable vortex that acted as the compressor and turbine.
+This interest in mass-flow led Ohain to research magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) for power generation, noting that the hot gases from a coal-fired plant could be used to extract power from their speed when exiting the combustion chamber, remaining hot enough to then power a conventional steam turbine. Thus an MHD generator could extract further power from the coal, and lead to greater efficiencies. Unfortunately this design has proven difficult to build due to a lack of proper materials, namely high-temperature non-magnetic materials that are also able to withstand the chemically active exhaust. Ohain also investigated other power related concepts.
+He also invented the idea of the "jet wing", in which air from the compressor of a jet engine is bled off to large "augmented" vents in the wings to provide lift for VTOL aircraft. A small amount of high-pressure air is blown into a venturi, which in turn sucks a much larger volume of air along with it, thus leading to "thrust augmentation". The concept was used in the Rockwell XFV-12 experimental aircraft, although the market interest in VTOL aircraft was short-lived. He participated in several other patents.
+Ohain was the influence in shifting the mind of Paul Bevilaqua, one of his students at WP-AFB, from math to engineering, which later enabled Bevilaqua to invent the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem for the JSF F35B STOVL: "in school I learned how to move the pieces, and Hans taught me how to play chess". Ohain also showed Bevilaqua "what those TS-diagrams actually mean".
+Ohain retired from Wright-Patterson in 1979 and took up an associate professor position teaching propulsion and thermodynamics at the nearby University of Dayton, spending winter sessions from 1981 to 1983 teaching the same subjects at the University of Florida. Ohain continued at the University of Dayton until 1992, when concerns about his health prompted a move with his wife, Hanny, to Melbourne, Florida.
+
+== Awards ==
+During his career, Ohain won many engineering and management awards, including (among others) the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Goddard Astronautics Award, the United States Air Force Exceptional Civilian Service Award, Systems Command Award for Exceptional Civilian Service, the Eugene M. Zuckert Management Award, the Air Force Special Achievement Award, and just before he retired, the Citation of Honor. In 1984–85, Ohain served as the Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History, a competitive senior fellowship at the National Air and Space Museum. In 1991 Ohain and Whittle were jointly awarded the Charles Stark Draper Prize for their work on turbojet engines. Ohain was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering (NAE).
+Ohain was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics) for "outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering" in 1992.
+In 1982, Ohain was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.
+In 1990, Ohain was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame.
+
+== Death ==
+Ohain died in Melbourne, Florida, in 1998, aged 86. He was survived by his wife and four children. One of his sons, Christopher von Ohain, joined the United States Marine Corps (USMC). Christopher’s son, Hans Christopher von Ohain, also joined the USMC; he was killed in a car accident in 2022.
+
+== See also ==
+List of German inventors and discoverers
+Nathan C. Price
+Frank Whittle
+Arkhip Lyulka
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+Dorr, Robert F. (2013). Fighting Hitler's Jets. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-4398-2.
+Listemann, Phil H. (2016). The Gloster Meteor F.I & F.III. Philedition. ISBN 978-2-918590-95-8.
+Neufeld, Jacob (1997). Technology and the Air Force: A Retrospective Assessment. DIANE Publishing. pp. 7–8. ISBN 1-4289-1358-0.
+
+== External links ==
+Hans von Ohain, U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission.
+entry of Hans von Ohain in Rostock Matrikelportal
+Hans von Ohain at Find a Grave

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Hilten-0.md

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+---
+title: "Heinz Hilten"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Hilten"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:08.968528+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Heinz Hilten (April 29, 1909 – March 3, 2013) was a German-American architect and member of the "von Braun rocket team." He was a later Operation Paperclip hire and was involved in the design of numerous buildings in Space Age-era Huntsville, Alabama, both for NASA and for general use.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Hilten was born in Berlin on April 29, 1909. Towards the beginning of World War II, he was drafted into the German Army, which eventually assigned him to the Peenemünde Army Research Center. Hilten worked there from June 1944 to April 1945 as part of Wernher von Braun's team, designing buildings for the V-2 rocket program.
+After the end of World War II, Hilten did not immediately move to the U.S. with Operation Paperclip, instead remaining in Germany to aid in post-war reconstruction. Hilten served as Architect and Planner for Augsburg until 1954; his notable design projects in this capacity included the Frauenfachschule, a women's trade school, and the Rosenaustadion, a sports stadium built from the rubble of aerial bombings during the war. Hilten reportedly considered the Rosenaustadion his greatest design achievement.
+In 1954, Hilten traveled to Huntsville to rejoin von Braun and his team. Hilten was named Architect and Master Planner for Redstone Arsenal, where he designed buildings to accommodate the facility's rapid expansion. In 1960 he moved to the newly created Marshall Space Flight Center, taking up the same title. Hilten's designs at the MSFC included numerous test stands and launch facilities for NASA's rocket program, including the Propulsion and Structural Test Facility and the Saturn V Dynamic Test Stand. "I always said that I was not a space scientist that designed the rockets, but that I designed the space those scientists worked with," Hilten is quoted on this era of his career. He continued to work at the MSFC until his retirement in 1978.
+Outside of Hilten's aerospace architecture, he also designed or was involved in the design of many buildings and projects, public and private, in the Huntsville area. Among others, he worked on Huntsville's Memorial Parkway, Point Mallard Park, and the Von Braun Center concert hall; Hilten played at the latter location with the Huntsville Symphony Orchestra during its first full season. He also did architectural work for the private homes of several other Operation Paperclip hires, including swimming pool designs for Wernher von Braun and Ernst Stuhlinger.
+
+
+== References and notes ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Heinz Hilten Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Horn-0.md

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+---
+title: "Helmut Horn"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Horn"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:14.921287+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Helmut Justus Karl Horn (June 24, 1912 - January 20, 1994) was a German-American engineer and applied physicist who was employed at the early Marshall Space Flight Center. Horn worked first at the Peenemünde Army Research Center and later, after the end of World War II, was hired by the U.S. through Operation Paperclip.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Horn was born on June 24, 1912, in Frankfurt. He attended college at the Technische Universität Darmstadt, graduating in 1939 with an M.S. in engineering, specifically applied physics. After graduation, he went to work with the German rocket team at Peenemünde under Wernher von Braun. He continued there from 1939 until the war's end in 1945.
+As a member of von Braun's rocket team, Horn was one of the engineers scouted by Operation Paperclip. He traveled to the U.S. aboard the Argentina, arriving on November 16, 1945.  After arriving Horn worked within the U.S. rocket program, first at Fort Bliss and then at White Sands. His wife Leni followed him, immigrating to the U.S. to join him in 1951. By 1952, Horn had moved to Redstone Arsenal, where he taught at the Redstone Arsenal Institute of Graduate Studies as a lecturer in Applied Mathematics.
+By 1960, Horn had joined the rocket team at the newly created Marshall Space Flight Center, where he first served as head of the Dynamics Analysis Branch of the center's Aeroballistics Division. In 1960 or 1961, Horn was involved with development on the Saturn program. He adapted the bilinear tangent steering law developed by mathematician Derek Frank Lawden, creating an algorithm that would improve upon existing software to calculate optimal in-flight trajectories. Horn's algorithm eventually led to the Iterative Guidance Mode used by the guidance systems of numerous Saturn projects including the Saturn V rocket. In 1962, Horn took part in investigating the viability of lunar orbit rendezvous for Project Apollo. By February 1969, he was the assistant director of MSFC's Aero-Astrodynamics Laboratory; he was later promoted to deputy director.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Helmut Horn Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Hölzer-0.md

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+---
+title: "Helmut Hölzer"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Hölzer"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:13.733405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Helmut Hoelzer was a Nazi Germany V-2 rocket engineer who was brought to the United States under Operation Paperclip. Hoelzer was the inventor and constructor of the world's first electronic analog computer.
+
+
+== Life ==
+In October 1939, while working for the Telefunken electronics firm in Berlin, Hoelzer met with Ernst Steinhoff, Hermann Steuding, and Wernher von Braun regarding guide beams for a flying body. In late 1940 at Peenemünde, Hoelzer was head of the guide beam division (assistant Henry Otto Hirschler), which developed a guide-plane system which alternates a transmitted signal from two antennas a short distance apart, as well as a vacuum tube mixing device (German: Mischgerät) which corrected for momentum that would perturb an object that had been moved back on-track. By the fall of 1941, Hoelzer's "mixing device" was used to provide V-2 rocket rate measurement instead of rate gyros.
+Then at the beginning of 1942, Hoelzer built an analog computer to calculate and simulate V-2 rocket trajectories Hoelzer's team also developed the Messina telemetry system. After evacuating Peenemünde for the Alpenfestung (Alpine Fortress), Hoelzer returned to Peenemünde via motorcycle to look for portions of his PhD dissertation prior to surrendering to United States forces at the end of World War II.
+Hoelzer was a student of Alwin Walther.
+
+
+== Family ==
+One of his grandchildren is Olympic swimmer Margaret Hoelzer.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Neufeld, Michael J (1995). The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era. New York: The Free Press. pp. 104, 106, 107, 140.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Helmut Hoelzer Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Stellar_Compass-0.md

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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:09.499487+00:00"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Plendl-0.md

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+---
+title: "Johannes Plendl"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Plendl"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:37.895708+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Johannes "Hans" Plendl (6 December 1900 – 10 May 1991), German radar pioneer, was the scientist whose airplane navigation inventions made possible the early German bombing successes in World War II.
+
+
+== Early life ==
+Plendl was born in 1900 in Munich, German Empire to parents from Northern Bavaria. His surname is most likely a truncated Bavarian dialect form of "Plendlein."
+Plendl served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I, in the Torpedo Division stationed at Wilhelmshaven, and won the Iron Cross for bravery.  Shortly thereafter, Plendl began his career as a radio and beam engineer for Telefunken corporation.
+His early research into meter-wave propagation and radar beams necessitated additional names for newly discovered levels of the Earth's atmosphere, and Plendl is generally credited with coining the term ionosphere. In the early 1930s, he worked on developing the radio communications used in flights by civilian aircraft and the Hindenburg Zeppelin. His research and developments with the Lorenz beam landing system gave birth to what is now known as ILS, Instrument Landing System.
+
+
+== Flight Navigation Pioneer ==
+As Nazi Germany rearmed, Plendl and others saw the possibilities of using radio beams to guide bombers to their target, and they began to develop a system under the code name "X-System" (X-Verfahren). Using technology previously used for his Lorenz beam landing system, Plendl developed a system that would guide planes to their target, and which improved the accuracy of bombing at night or in poor weather conditions. This work was conducted for the German Airforce (Luftwaffe) at the Airforce Experimental Station (Erprobungstelle der Luftwaffe) at Rechlin, Germany, and also at Peenemünde. At the same time the system code named "Knickebein" was coined by the Telefunken electronics firm. Although it could use the Lorenz landing system for guidance, it was less accurate and more prone to jamming. Both systems employed transmitter towers on the English Channel and the North Sea to transmit radar beams over targets in England. German bombers carried basic radar detectors and complex timing devices, also invented by Dr. Plendl, to lead them on the correct path and to guide the timing of the release of their bombs. These were the forerunners of Radial (radio), still used today. 
+When Germany invaded Poland, the X-System was used effectively against military targets, but on a limited basis, due to the few planes equipped with the X-Device (X-Gerät, the electronic component of the system carried in the plane.) and the short duration of the campaign. During the air war over the England and Scotland known as The Battle of Britain the Knickebein, X-System and Y-System were all used extensively, but their effectiveness was diminished by countermeasures developed by Reginald Victor Jones and other British scientists, who were able use electronic countermeasures to redirect or jam the radio signals of the navigation systems in what has become known as the Battle of the Beams.
+Dr. Plendl was given the title of state plenipotentiary and privy councillor (Staatsrat) by Hermann Göring for his work. He was named National Director of High Frequency Research (Bevollmächtigten der Hochfrequenzforschung).
+Plendl was dismissed by the German High Command after holding the post for about a year and was replaced by Abraham Esau in December 1943. Sources differ as to why he was dismissed, including that it was after a heavy raid upon Hamburg where the British used a special counterradar technique called Window or chaff, or was due to his saving several people from death in concentration camps, by claiming he needed their (non-existent) "expertise" to help his beam program. Plendl's own account was that it was after he had a heated argument with Generaloberst Weise, the Chief of Flak over areas of responsibility after Plendl developed a new type of Flak shell.
+The significance and relevance of Plendl's inventions continues to this day.  The Lorenz, Knickebein, X-Gerät, and Y-Gerät systems were precursors to the VHF omnidirectional range and Tactical air navigation system, both still in use today.
+
+
+== Move to America ==
+At the end of the war, Plendl surrendered to the Americans. Like other German scientists, he was invited to come to the United States to aid in American weapons development, as part of "Operation Paperclip." U.S. government records noted that he had regularly voiced opposition to the Nazi regime.
+Particularly noteworthy was that Plendl had saved a number of people, including many Jews, from the Dachau concentration camp, under the guise of needing them to work on his projects Many of these individuals had no scientific background. In this manner, Plendl differed from other German scientists, who voiced no opposition to the regime.
+The most notable figure who Plendl saved was Hans Mayer, the author of the Oslo Report. In sending this report to the British Government in November 1939 just after the beginning of the war, Mayer performed perhaps the most serious breach of German security in World War II, although this was not known to his colleagues (or the Gestapo) at that time. Mayer had been the Director of the Siemens Research Laboratory in Berlin, up to his arrest in 1943 for listening to the BBC and criticising the Nazi regime. Plendl appointed Mayer to head a radio laboratory even though Mayer's expertise was in telephony, and not in radio.
+Plendl finished his military career in the United States Air Force, at their Cambridge Research Laboratory. He specialized in the field of solid-state physics.
+
+
+== Later life ==
+Plendl helped Karl-Otto Kiepenheuer establish a Europe-wide network of stations observing the solar activity in order to predict disturbances of the Ionosphere that interrupted the military radio connections. Plendl and Kiepenheuer may so be seen as the fathers of the science now called space weather, A considerable part of their network prevailed after the war in one or another organisation.
+In 1970, Plendl retired to Europe, taking residence in Italy. R.V. Jones, the British scientist who had worked on the other end of the channel to jam Plendl's beams, became a good friend, and the two corresponded regularly and collaborated on several books.
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Brown, Louis. A Radar History of World War II. ISBN 0-7503-0659-9
+Jones, R.V. Most Secret War. ISBN 1-85326-699-X
+Niehaus, Werner. Die Radarschlacht. William Kimber and Co.
+Maier, Helmut Forschung als Waffe. Rüstungsforschung in der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft und das Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Metallforschung 1900–1945/48. Bd. 2. Wallstein-Verlag, 2007, p. 776 p. 1012.
+Price, Alfred. Instruments of Darkness. William Kimber and Co.
+Ray, John The Night Blitz. ISBN 0-7858-1601-1
+Seiler, Michael P. 2006; Kommandosache "Sonnengott". Geschichte der deutschen Sonnenforschung im Dritten Reich und unter alliierter Besatzung. Frankfurt: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Harri Deutsch
+Trenkle, Fritz. Zum 90. Geburtstag von Hans Plendl, Funkgeschichte, 78: 3–5, 1991.
+Wakefield, Ken. Pfadfinder: Luftwaffe Pathfinder Operations Over Britain, 1940–44. ISBN 0-7524-1692-8
+
+
+== Notes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Heimburg-0.md

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+---
+title: "Karl Heimburg"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Heimburg"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:06.568065+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Karl Ludwig Heimburg (January 29, 1910 - January 26, 1997) was a German-American engineer and Operation Paperclip hire. Heimburg was a member of the "von Braun rocket team" and served as the initial director of the Test Division at the Marshall Space Flight Center.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Heimburg was born January 29, 1910, in Lindenfels, Germany. In the fall of 1928, after seven months of required practical work at a steel plant in Krefeld, he entered the Technische Universität Darmstadt, where he graduated in 1935 with an engineering degree. Heimburg worked briefly that year at a coal mine, but in 1936, while intoxicated, he made comments in public on his critical regard for Adolf Hitler. Facing investigation by the German police, he traveled through the Soviet Union in 1937 to reach Japan and began work in Tokyo.
+Heimburg returned to Germany in 1941, where he was promptly drafted by the army and assigned to the Peenemünde Army Research Center. There he worked under Ludwig Roth on the A7 rocket; after the project's cancellation, he worked on a series of test stands including Test Stand VII, the main test facility for the V-2 rocket. Following bombings on Peenemünde in 1943, he moved to Lehesten, where he worked on testing production V-2 engines.
+After World War II, Heimburg was scouted through Operation Paperclip. He joined the initial group of scientists and engineers to travel to the U.S., arriving December 6, 1945. After first working with the rocket team at Fort Bliss and White Sands, in 1960 he became one of the charter members of the new Marshall Space Flight Center. Wernher von Braun selected Heimburg as the director of the center's Test Division. In January 1969, Heimburg was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal for his work on the Apollo 8 mission.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Karl Heimburg Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelsi_Singer-0.md

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+---
+title: "Kelsi Singer"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelsi_Singer"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:51.840420+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kelsi N. Singer (born 1984) is an American planetary scientist who is a principal research scientist at the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI)  in Boulder, CO. She is Deputy Principal Investigator of NASA's New Horizons mission studying the geomorphology and geophysics of the Pluto system and of 486958 Arrokoth (2014 MU69).
+
+
+== Education ==
+Singer received a Bachelor's degree in Astronomy and Anthropology from the University of Colorado Boulder. While there, she decided to pursue research in the fields of astrobiology and planetary science. She studied abroad at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia, during her undergrad, where she worked at the Australian Centre for Astrobiology studying clouds in Venus' atmosphere (with Dr. Jeremy Bailey), tidal sediments on Earth (with Dr. Malcom Walter), and also continued with her interest in archaeoastronomy. Upon returning to Boulder, she worked with Steve Mojzsis on her honors thesis project about using sediments called cyclic rhythmites to trace the length of a day over millions of years, and a research project on "blueberries" (hematite spherules) and thermal inertia on Mars. 
+Singer received a Ph.D. in Earth and Planetary Science from Washington University in St. Louis in 2013 working with Dr. Bill McKinnon and Dr. Slava Solomatov; her dissertation was titled Icy Satellite Tectonic, Geodynamic, and Mass Wasting Surface Features: Constraints on Interior Processes and Evolution.
+
+
+== Research ==
+Singer continued as a postdoctoral researcher at Washington University with the Dr. Brad Jolliff and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera team after receiving her Ph.D. In 2014, she joined the New Horizons team at SwRI as a postdoctoral researcher, where she studied the geophysics of Kuiper Belt Objects, particularly cratering physics. At SwRI, she is currently a principal research scientist and Deputy Principal Investigator for the New Horizons Extended Mission.
+In 2019, Singer and her team demonstrated from images of craters taken by New Horizons' Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LoRRI) that small Kuiper Belt Objects (less than one mile in diameter) are rare. The results place constraints on formation and evolution models of the Solar System, suggesting that objects in the Kuiper Belt formed from rapidly collapsing dust clouds rather than incremental collisions of larger debris.
+Singer has coordinated and contributed to the 'Women in Planetary Science' blog site since 2009. 
+Dr. Singer has worked on many planetary bodies throughout the solar system, but primarily: Mercury, the Earth's Moon, Mars, the icy moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune, Pluto, and other small bodies such as Kuiper belt objects and asteroids. 
+Her areas of expertise include: 
+
+Geology and geophysics of icy worlds (icy satellites, Pluto, Charon, Europa),
+New Horizons mission operations,
+Impact cratering physics (scaling laws),
+Secondary craters across the solar system,
+Lunar cratering,
+Crater size-frequency distributions,
+Chaotic terrains,
+Landslides,
+Geographic Information Systems,
+Spacecraft mission proposals,
+Spacecraft extended mission proposals,
+Multi-flyby mission design (scientific input),
+Spacecraft flyby conops,
+and Astrobiology.
+
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+Singer received the American Astronomical Society (AAS) Division of Planetary Science (DPS) Harold C. Urey Prize in 2019, which recognizes outstanding achievements in planetary science by early career researchers. Asteroid 10698 Singer was named in her honor. The naming was published by the Minor Planet Center on 13 April 2017 (M.P.C.103977). Singer also received the Geological Society of America (GSA) Stephen E Dwornik Award for Best Graduate Poster Presentation in 2010, and the GSA Greeley award for Distinguished Service to Planetary Science.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Dannenberg-0.md

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+---
+title: "Konrad Dannenberg"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Dannenberg"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:55.285970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Konrad Dannenberg (August 5, 1912 – February 16, 2009) was a German-American rocket pioneer and member of the German rocket team brought to the United States after World War II.
+
+
+== Early years ==
+Dannenberg was born in Weißenfels, Province of Saxony (current Saxony-Anhalt). At the age of two, he and his family moved to Hannover, where he spent his youth. He became interested in space technology while attending a lecture by Max Valier, a German pioneer in that field. He witnessed two tests with a rocket-driven railroad car in Burgwedel near Hannover and then joined Albert Püllenberg's group of amateur rocketeers. Dannenberg studied mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule Hannover (current University of Hannover) with emphasis in diesel fuel injection, because he recognized that injectors would also be part of the process of moving propellants into a high-pressure rocket engine.
+Dannenberg was a member of the Nazi Party since 1932. When World War II began, he was drafted into the German Army in 1939, serving first with a horse-artillery unit acquired by the German Army in Czechoslovakia. He took part in the initial stages of the Battle of France.
+
+
+== Career ==
+In the spring of 1940, through the influence of Püllenberg, Dannenberg was discharged from the army and became a civilian employee at the Heeresversuchsanstalt Peenemünde (Peenemünde Army Research Center). Under Walter Thiel's guidance, he became a rocket propulsion specialist. His main assignment was developing a rocket engine for the V-2 ballistic missile. He was at Peenemünde on 3 October 1942 to witness the launch of the first man-made object to reach outer space, a V-2 rocket. This was the first man-made vehicle to reach space based on a then-current definition of 50 miles in altitude (see Kármán line for relevant background). Many improvements on which he worked could not be completed in time for production. After Thiel's death in an August 1943 bombing raid, a design freeze stopped all development efforts. Dannenberg then became Walter Riedel's deputy and headed the crash effort to finalize production drawings of the V-2, the world's first ballistic missile, used by the Nazis to bomb London.
+He was interviewed for the documentary "The Hunt for Hitler's Scientists."
+After the end of World War II, Dannenberg was brought to the United States with 117 other German specialists under Operation Paperclip to Fort Bliss, Texas. Most members of the group performed calculations and designs of future advanced launch vehicles with longer ranges and greater payloads. About 30 members trained the U.S. Army and the support contractor General Electric to launch V-2s at the White Sands Proving Ground. Due to range limitations, all rockets were launched vertically, to limit their range. Robert H. Goddard's idea of upper atmosphere research could now be conducted on a large scale. When the Korean War started, the group was required to leave their quarters in an Annex to the Wm. Beaumont Hospital, and were eventually transferred to the Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama, where development of the PGM-11 Redstone Missile was their first assignment. At that time, rocket pioneer and former  SS major Wernher von Braun decided not to start their own rocket engine development, but to purchase an engine from North American Aviation (NAA) that was being developed by Dannenberg's former boss, Riedel, who had previously left the team to join NAA. Due to these circumstances, Dannenberg became Liaison Engineer at NAA's Rocketdyne Division and procured rocket engines for the Redstone and the Jupiter IRBM for the U.S. Army. He also became responsible for production of the Redstone and Jupiter missile systems for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency at the Chrysler plant in Detroit, Michigan.
+
+In 1960, Dannenberg joined NASA's newly established Marshall Space Flight Center as Deputy Manager of the Saturn program. He received the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 1973 for successfully initiating development of the largest rocket ever built, the Saturn V, which took the first human beings to the moon.
+When Arthur Rudolph came back from the Army's development of the Pershing missile system, von Braun assigned the management of the Saturn system to him. Dannenberg then started to work on Saturn-based space stations, which were eventually replaced by the Space Shuttle-based ISS.
+
+
+== Post-retirement ==
+Dannenberg retired from the Marshall Space Flight Center in 1973 and became an associate professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Tennessee Space Institute (UTSI) in Tullahoma, Tennessee.
+Dannenberg was a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and past president of the Alabama/Mississippi Chapter of this organization. In 1990, he received the prestigious DURAND Lectureship, and in 1996, the Hermann Oberth Award.
+He lectured on basic rocketry at the United States Space Camp.
+He was a member of the NASA/MSFC Retirees Association, an honorary member of the Hermann Oberth Society of Germany and a charter member of the L5 Society, which is now the National Space Society (NSS). In 1992, the Alabama Space and Rocket Center established "The Konrad Dannenberg Scholarship" in his honor, which grants the winning youngster free admittance to a Space Academy session. He attended many meetings of the International Astronautical Federation and presented a number of historical papers in their sessions.
+
+
+== Personal life ==
+He was married to Ingeborg M. Kamke, and had a son, Klaus Dieter, who has two married children. From them Dannenberg had four great grandchildren. He had remarried to Jacquelyn E. Staiger of Kingston, Massachusetts. Dannenberg died in Huntsville on the morning of Monday, February 16, 2009, at the age of 96. He is buried at Maple Hill Cemetery (Huntsville, Alabama).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"Reach for the Stars". TIME Magazine. February 17, 1958. Archived from the original on December 21, 2007.
+Dunn, Marcia (July 19, 1999). "Old and overlooked, but still passionate about space". The Topeka Capital-Journal.
+Bryan, Dave (August 13, 2002). "Remembering Wernher von Braun's German Rocket Team". Space.com.
+Rincon, Paul (September 7, 2004). "V-2: Hitler's last weapon of terror". BBC News. (includes Dannenberg interview)
+Marconi, Elaine M. (December 19, 2006). "Legendary Rocket Pioneer Visits Kennedy". NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center. Archived from the original on June 24, 2009. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
+Wade, Mark. "Biography of Albert Püllenberg". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 2007-12-30.
+Wade, Mark. "Biography of Konrad Dannenberg". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 2007-04-10.
+"Dannenberg, Konrad D., November 7, 1989; Peenemünde Interviews Project". National Air and Space Museum, Archives Division. Archived from the original on April 8, 2010. Retrieved August 31, 2010.
+Konrad Dannenberg Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Johannes_Karl_Büttner-0.md

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+---
+title: "Konrad Johannes Karl Büttner"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Johannes_Karl_Büttner"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:50.479110+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Konrad Johannes Karl Büttner, or Buettner (6 October 1903 – 14 November 1970) was a German-American meteorologist, bioclimatologist and university professor.
+
+== Life and times ==
+Büttner was born in Westendorf, in the province of Hannover, Germany and died in New Haven, Connecticut. He was a Protestant, married and had one child. His father was John Samuel Julius Büttner and his mother was Emilie Henriette Elisabeth Büttner née Kreuser.
+
+== Education ==
+From 1917 to 1922, he attended the Gymnasium high school at Schulpforte. From 1922 to 1926, Büttner studied geophysics, physics and mathematics in Erlangen, Hanover and Göttingen. In 1927, he completed a doctorate degree at the University of Göttingen and published his thesis: "Experiments on the penetrating radiation" and was awarded the Dr. Phil.
+In 1934, he completed the habilitation treatise titled: "The heat transfer by conduction and convection, evaporation and radiation in Bioklimatologie and Meteorology", at the University of Kiel. He became head of the Bioclimatic Research Centre at the University of Kiel.
+
+== Academic appointments ==
+From 1927 to 1931, Büttner had a scholarship for Meteorology in Potsdam and was a fellow of the Emergency Association of German Science. From 1931 until 1934, he was scientific assistant for Meteorology as Assistant Professor and Head of the Bioclimatic Research Centre in Kiel. While at Kiel, from 1939 to 1947, he was lecturer for Meteorology and Geophysics. In January 1947, Büttner received an extraordinary professorship of Meteorology at the University of Kiel.
+
+== Nazi Party ==
+1933 - 1945, Sturmabteilung (SA), member
+1933 - 1945, National Socialist German Workers' Party, member
+During World War II, Büttner was attached to the Medical Department of the Medical Research Institute for Graf Zeppelins active in Stuttgart-Ruit, previously the Luftwaffe main testing ground at the Rechlin–Lärz Airfield. Büttner lectured as government medical officer at the sessions on medical issues in distress and death in winter on 26 and 27 October 1942.
+
+== Operation Paperclip ==
+In 1947, Büttner was recruited for Operation Paperclip and was first granted a leave of absence from teaching in Kiel and resigned in December 1950 from the University. Büttner went to the United States at Randolph Air Force Base, School of Aviation Medicine. From 1947 until 1953, he was research scientist for meteorology at the School of Medicine Aviation at Randolph Air Force Base in Texas.
+
+== University of Washington in Seattle ==
+From 1953 until his death in 1970, Büttner was professor for Meteorology and Physiology in the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington in Seattle in Seattle, Washington. Chairman of the department was Philemon Edwards Church and graduate program advisor was Robert Guthrie Fleagle. At Seattle in the Graduate School, Department of Atmospheric Sciences (formerly Meteorology and Climatology), for the school year 1963-1965, the catalog listed the courses taught by Buettner as: microclimatology, applied meteorology and bioclimatology, the upper atmosphere, atmospheric electricity, atmospheric radiation.
+As per the graduate school catalog, Graduate course descriptions are as follows:
+
+Applied meteorology and bioclimatology - interrelationship of meteorology and climatology to: human health and heat balance, aviation medicine and space medicine, air pollution, agriculture, forestry, transportation, etc.
+The upper atmosphere - structure, composition, and dominant physical and photochemical processes. Sound propagation, aurora, air glow, ionosphere, and Van Allen belts. Role of the sun. Exosphere and planetary atmospheres.
+Atmospheric electricity - formation and disappearance of atmospheric ions. Normal air electrical field. Lightning and its causes. Earth magnetic field.
+Atmospheric radiation - solar spectrum. Atmospheric scattering, spectra of water vapor and other gases. Albedo of earth and atmosphere. Radiative heat balance.
+
+== Publications ==
+Buettner, Konrad. (1931). Radiation effects on man in space. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Society. 3:, 183.
+Büttner, K. (1932). Physical considerations regarding conservation of heat in man, especially loss of heat by conduction. Klinische Wochenschrift. 11: 1508-1509.
+Büttner, Konrad Johannes Karl. (1934). Die Wärmeübertragung durch Leitung und Konvektion, Verdunstung und Strahlung in Bioklimatologie und Meteorologie. Springer.
+
+=== 1950s ===
+Buettner, K. J., & Haber, H. (1952). The aeropause. Science. 115: 656-657.
+Buettner, K. J. (1953). Tolerance Time. In Proceedings of a symposium on frontiers of man-controlled flight: presented at Los Angeles, California, April 3, 1953, by the Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering and University Extension, University of California, in collaboration with the Aero-Medical Engineering Association and the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences, Los Angeles Section (p. 7).
+Buettner, K. J. (1954). Thermal stresses in the modern aircraft. Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 5(3-4), 377-387.
+Hubley, R. C., & Buettner, K. J. (1955). Juneau Ice Field Research Project. Alaska. 1954. American Geographical Society. New York.
+Hubley, R. C. (1957). An analysis of surface energy during the ablation season on Lemon Creek Glacier, Alaska. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 38(1), 68-85.
+Büttner, K. J. (1958). Die Aufnahme von Wasserdampf durch menschliche Haut, Pflanze und Erdboden. Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 9(1), 80-85.
+Buettner, K. J. (1958). Sorption by the earth surface and a new classification of kata-hydrometeoric processes. Journal of Meteorology, 15(2), 155-163.
+Buettner, K. J. (1959). Diffusion of liquid water through human skin. Journal of Applied Physiology, 14(2), 261-268.
+Buettner, K. J. (1959). Diffusion of water vapor through small areas of human skin in normal environment. Journal of Applied Physiology, 14(2), 269-275.
+Buettner, K. J., & Holmes, Frederick F. (1959). Diffusion of water vapor through human skin in hot environment and with application of atropine. Journal of Applied Physiology, 14(2), 276-278.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Johannes_Karl_Büttner-1.md

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+---
+title: "Konrad Johannes Karl Büttner"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Johannes_Karl_Büttner"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:50.479110+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== 1960s ===
+Thyer, Norman, & Buettner, K. J. (1961). On valley and mountain winds II. University of Washington, Department of Meteorology and Climatology.
+Buettner, K. J. (1962). Human aspects of bioclimatological classification. Biometeorology. SW Tromp (ed.), Pergamon Press, 0xford, 128-1.
+Buettner, K. J., & Thyer, N. (1962). Valley Winds in Mt. Rainier National Park. Weatherwise, 15(2), 63-67.
+Thyer, N., & Buettner, K. J. (1962). On Valley and Mountain Winds III. Valley Wind Theory/by Norman Thyer; Prepared for Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Laboratories. University of Washington.
+Buettner, K. J. (1963). The Moon's first decimeter. Planetary and Space Science, 11(2), 135-148.
+Büttner, K. J. (1963). Regenortung vom wettersatelliten mit hilfe von zentimeterwellen. Naturwissenschaften, 50(18), 591-592.
+Buettner, K. J., & Kern, Clifford D. (1963). Infrared emissivity of the Sahara from TIROS data. Science, 142(3593), 671-672.
+Charlson, Robert J., & Buettner, K. J. (1963). The investigation of some techniques for measurement of humidity at high altitudes (No. SR-1). University of Washington Seattle.
+Charlson, Robert J., & Büttner, K. J. (1964). Liquid Film Hygrometry: Contract No. AF19 (628)-303, Project No. 6020, Task. Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington.
+Buettner, K. J., Maykut, G., Turner, J., & Zimmerman, J. (1964). OROGRAPHIC DEFORMATION OF WIND FLOW. University of Washington Seattle
+Buettner, K. J. (1964). Skin Exposure Studies (water Transfer Through Human Skin). University of Washington Seattle
+Buettner, K. J. (1965). Affected by Water Transfer. J. Soc. Cosmetic Chemists, 16, 133-143.
+Buettner, K. J. (1965). On the transfer function of human skin. University of Washington Seattle
+Buettner, K. J., & Thyer, N. (1965). Valley winds in the Mount Rainier area. Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 14(2), 125-147.
+Buettner, K. J., & Kern, C. D. (1965). The determination of infrared emissivities of terrestrial surfaces. Journal of Geophysical Research, 70(6), 1329-1337.
+Buettner, K. J., Robbins, Eyelyne, Crichlow, Jean, Pitts, Margaret, & Jones, David. (1966). WATER TRANSFER THROUGH HUMAN SKIN. University of Washington Seattle DEPT OF ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES.
+Buettner, K. J., & Kreiss, William T. (1968). Discussion of paper by S.F. Singer and GF Williams Jr., Microwave detection of precipitation over the surface of the ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research. 73(22): 7145.
+Katsaros, Kristina & Buettner, K. J. (1969). Influence of rainfall on temperature and salinity of the ocean surface. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 8(1), 15-18.
+
+== Patents ==
+Humidity Sensing Devices. U.S. Patent No. 3,315,518.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Ernst Holzlöhner @ German Wikipedia

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krafft_Arnold_Ehricke-0.md

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+---
+title: "Krafft Arnold Ehricke"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krafft_Arnold_Ehricke"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:00.090421+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Krafft Arnold Ehricke (March 24, 1917 – December 11, 1984) was a German rocket-propulsion engineer and advocate for space colonization. Ehricke is a co-designer of the first Centaur liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen upper stage.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Born in Berlin, Ehricke believed in the feasibility of space travel from a very young age, influenced by his viewing of the 1929 Fritz Lang film Woman in the Moon. At the age of 12, he formed his own rocket society.  He attended the Technische Hochschule in Berlin (today Technische Universität Berlin) and studied celestial mechanics and nuclear physics under physicists including Hans Geiger and Werner Heisenberg, attaining his degree in Aeronautical Engineering.
+He worked at Peenemünde as a propulsion engineer from 1942 to 1945 with Walter Thiel, then went to the United States with other German rocket scientists and technicians under "Operation Paperclip" in 1947. He worked for a short time with the Von Braun Rocket Team at Huntsville.
+In 1948, while working for the U.S. Army, Ehricke wrote a story about a crewed mission to Mars called "Expedition Ares".  It anticipated the many challenges that still face explorers who will make the journey in the future. In the same year he wrote a book with Wernher von Braun, The Mars Project, which detailed how man could travel to Mars using a ferry system.
+Upon leaving government service in 1952, Ehricke worked at Bell Aircraft, and then moved to Convair in 1954. While at Convair, he designed the D-1 Centaur, the world's first upper-stage-booster that used liquid hydrogen and oxygen. He also created an early space station design, based on launch by Convair's Atlas rocket. The NEXUS reusable rocket was a 1960s concept designed by a group at General Dynamics led by Ehricke. Also, during his stay at General Dynamics, he participated in Project Orion (nuclear propulsion).
+
+In 1966, Ehricke was inducted into the International Aerospace Hall of Fame for his engineering achievements and his influential ideas on the purpose of space exploration.
+Ehricke undertook a major, multi-decade study of the industrial development of the Moon, which he described as Earth's "seventh continent." His lunar industrialization concept was based on the most advanced technologies, such as nuclear-powered freight transporters, and using fusion energy to power his city, Selenopolis, on the Moon. Ehricke famously stated in 1984, "If God wanted man to become a spacefaring species, He would have given man a Moon."
+He married Ingeborg Ehricke (born 12 September 1922).
+Ehricke received a space burial on April 21, 1997, when a rocket sent a small amount of his cremated remains into Earth orbit.
+
+
+== Contributions to space flight dynamics ==
+Ehricke was well known in the field of astrodynamics and its applications; he published two-volume textbook Space Flight in 1959. It focuses on methods for exploration of the Solar System. Although he was not the first, he clearly demonstrated the so-called "gravity assist" method for using hyperbolic encounters with an intermediate planet to increase (or decrease) the velocity and orbital elements of a space vehicle. This technique was essential for the exploration of the Solar System.  Examples include the Voyager missions to the outer planets and the recent New Horizons mission to Pluto. His contribution to this important field of exploration has been neglected for many decades and incorrect claims of the "invention" of gravity assist were made by Michael Minovitch.
+
+
+== Extraterrestrial Imperative ==
+Ehricke promoted a philosophical concept called the "Extraterrestrial Imperative." This idea refers to Ehricke's belief that it was the responsibility of humanity to explore space and exploit the resources of the Solar System, in order to sustain the development of the species. There are no external "limits to growth," Ehricke insisted, because while the Earth is a "closed system," the exploration of space opens the universe to humanity.  For Ehricke, human creativity has no limits.
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Freeman, Marsha (2009). Krafft Ehricke's extraterrestrial imperative. Burlington Ontario: Apogee Books. ISBN 978-1-894959-91-9.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+www.hq.nasa.gov Archived 2006-08-23 at the Wayback Machine
+www.daviddarling.info
+www.tdf.it Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
+Ehricke, Krafft@ Astrophysics Data System
+Krafft Arnold Ehricke (in German) from the archive of the Österreichische Mediathek

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Debus-0.md

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+---
+title: "Kurt Debus"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Debus"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:56.526164+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kurt Heinrich Debus (November 29, 1908 – October 10, 1983) was a German-American rocket engineer and NASA director. Born in Germany, he was a member of the Schutzstaffel (SS) during World War II, where he served as a V-weapons flight test director. Following the war, he was brought to the United States via Operation Paperclip, and directed the design, development, construction and operation of NASA's Saturn launch facilities. He became the first director of NASA's Launch Operations Center (later renamed as the Kennedy Space Center), and, under him, NASA conducted 150 launches of military missiles and space vehicles, including 13 launches of the Saturn V rocket as part of the Apollo Moon landing program.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+
+
+=== Germany ===
+Born to Melly F. (née Grauchlich) and Heinrich P. J. Debus in Frankfurt, German Empire, in 1908, 
+Debus received all his academic education and credentials in Germany during the interwar period. He attended Technische Hochschule Darmstadt where he earned his initial and advanced degrees in electrical engineering. He served as a graduate assistant on the faculty for electrical engineering and high-voltage engineering while studying for his master's degree.
+In 1939, he obtained his engineering doctorate with a thesis on surge voltages, and was appointed assistant professor at the university. During World War II, Debus was a member of the Nazi Party, and joined the SA in 1933 and the SS in 1940 [No 426.559].
+Debus was appointed by Hitler as the V-weapons flight test director and was actively engaged in the rocket research program at Peenemünde and the development of the V-2 rocket, Debus led the Test Stand Group personnel at Peenemünde and was the engineer in charge at Test Stand VII.
+At the end of the war, Debus and a small group of the V-2 engineers led by Wernher von Braun's brother sought out the advancing American 44th Infantry Division near Schattwald on May 2, 1945. Debus was detained by the U.S. Army with the rest of the Peenemünde scientists at Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Debus served as both a technical and diplomatic liaison between German rocket engineers and the British during Operation Backfire, a series of V-2 test launches from an abandoned German naval gun range near Cuxhaven, Germany, in October 1945.
+
+
+=== United States ===
+In late 1945, Debus was transferred to Fort Bliss, Texas, under contract as a "special employee" of the U.S. Army, as were the other German rocket specialists. He was brought to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip, a secret United States intelligence program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians were brought from former Nazi Germany to the U.S. for government employment after the end of World War II in Europe.  
+
+He was deputy director at the Guidance and Control Branch through December 1948, when he was promoted to assistant technical director to von Braun at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.
+The arsenal became the focal point of the Army's rocket and space projects; larger rockets were launched first from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, and later from Cape Canaveral. The Army assigned von Braun as chairman of a Development Board, and Debus supervised the development program of the Guided Missile Branch until November 1951. The Army Ordnance Department reorganized the team and called it the Ordnance Guided Missile Center.  By November 1951, the pace had picked up and a new missile program, the Redstone, was taking shape. Von Braun named Debus to lead a new Experimental Missiles Firing Branch. Debus' organization also launched the first U.S. missiles carrying atomic warheads in the Pacific Ocean area during a series of tests.
+Starting in 1952, Debus supervised the development and construction of rocket launch facilities at Cape Canaveral for the Redstone, Jupiter, Jupiter-C, Juno and Pershing military configurations continuing through 1960. The organization he directed was transferred from the Army to NASA.
+
+Beginning in 1961, Debus directed the design, development and construction of NASA's Saturn launch facilities at the north end of Cape Canaveral and adjacent Merritt Island.
+On July 1, 1962, the Florida launch facility at Cape Canaveral was officially designated as NASA's Launch Operations Center (renamed to honor President John Kennedy after his assassination in 1963) and Debus was officially named its first director. In October 1965, he became responsible for NASA uncrewed launch operations at the Eastern and Western Ranges, assuming the additional title of Kennedy Space Center (KSC) director of launch operations until Rocco Petrone took the post in 1966.
+Under Debus' leadership, NASA and its team of contractors built what was hailed as the Free World's Moonport — KSC's Launch Complex 39 — as well as tested and launched the Saturn family of rockets for the Apollo and Skylab programs. Debus retired as KSC director in November 1974.
+
+
+=== Family ===
+Debus married Irmgard Brueckmann on June 30, 1937; they had two daughters while still in Germany: Siegrid and Ute (1940–2011).
+
+
+== Recognition ==
+A small lunar crater on the far side of the Moon to the east-southeast of the crater Ganskiy, past the eastern limb, is named for Debus; as is The Kurt Debus Conference Center at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex. Debus was inducted into the National Space Hall of Fame in 1969. He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Law and Doctor of Engineering Science degrees by Rollins College in 1967 and Florida Technological University in 1969, respectively.
+Since 1990, the National Space Club of Florida has presented its annual Debus Award to recognize significant aerospace achievements in Florida, including individuals associated with launch vehicles, spacecraft operations, ground support services, range activities, space education and spaceport research and development. The award was conceived as an adjunct to the Goddard Award given each year by the National Space Club in Washington, D.C. to an individual in the aerospace field on a national level.
+
+
+== Awards ==
+1965: Pioneer of Wind Rose Award, order of the Diamond (International Committee of Aerospace Activities)
+1967: Space Flight Award (AAS)
+1968: Outstanding Achievement Award (U.S. Treasury)
+1969: National Space Hall of Fame
+1969: NASA Distinguished Service Medal (twice: Apollo 8, 11)
+1969: Patriotic Service Award (U.S. Treasury)
+1969: Outstanding Leadership Award (NASA)
+1969: Exceptional Civilian Medal (U.S. Army)
+1969: Career Service Award (National Civil Service Reform League)
+1969: Americanism Medal (DAR)
+1971: AIAA fellow
+1971: Commander's Cross of the order of merit (FRG)
+1971: Hermann-Oberth Gesellschaft Honor Ring
+1971: Scott Gold Medal
+1974: Louis W. Hill Space Transportation Award (AIAA)
+
+
+=== Memberships ===
+Schutzstaffel (SS)
+Instrument Society of America (honorary)
+Hermann-Raketentechnik and Raumfahrt, e.V. (honorary)
+Marquis Biographical Library Society (advisory)
+Member of the Florida Council of 100 (ex officio)
+British Interplanetary Society (Advisory Board)
+American Ordnance Association (life)
+
+
+== Publications ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Debus, Kurt (June 25, 1964). Some Design Problems Encountered in Construction of Launch Complex 39. Darmstadt. Archived from the original on September 11, 2008. Retrieved October 18, 2008.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Kurt Debus at Wikimedia Commons
+Dr. Kurt H. Debus: The Father of Kennedy Space Center Archived 2017-11-10 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Lehovec-0.md

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+---
+title: "Kurt Lehovec"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Lehovec"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:23.283390+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kurt Lehovec (12 June 1918 – 17 February 2012) was a Czech-American physicist. He one of the pioneers of the integrated circuit. While also pioneering the photo-voltaic effect, light-emitting diodes and lithium batteries, he innovated the concept of p-n junction isolation used in every circuit element with a guard ring: a reverse-biased p-n junction surrounding the planar periphery of that element. This patent was assigned to Sprague Electric.
+Because Lehovec was under salary with Sprague, he was paid only one dollar for this invention.
+Lehovec is also credited with discovering fast ion conductivity, and the invention of colored LEDs.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Lehovec was born 12 June 1918, in Ledvice in northern Bohemia in Austria-Hungary (now part of the Czech Republic). He was educated there and went to the United States in 1947 under the auspices of Operation Paperclip which allowed scientists and engineers to emigrate.
+With Carl Accardo and Edward Jamgochian, he explained the first light-emitting diodes citing previous work by Oleg Losev.
+The important case of fast ionic conduction in solid states is one in a surface space-charge layer of ionic crystals. Such conduction was first predicted by K. Lehovec in the paper "Space-charge layer and distribution of lattice defects at the surface of ionic crystals" ( J. Chem. Phys. 1953. V.21. P.1123 -1128). As a space-charge layer has nanometer thickness, the effect is directly related to nanoionics (nanoionics-I). The Lehovec effect forms a basis for a creation of multitude nanostructured fast ion conductors as used in modern portable lithium batteries and fuel cells.
+Lehovec was a Professor Emeritus at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, California, and after retirement from USC Lehovec took to writing poetry. He lived in Southern California until his death in 2012 at the age of 93.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+(unconfirmed)
+
+
+== See also ==
+Invention of the integrated circuit
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Americanisation Of Kurt Lehovec, Electronics Weekly, retrieved 18 July 2014

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Hardaway-0.md

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+---
+title: "Lisa Hardaway"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Hardaway"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:37.163710+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lisa Hardaway (1966–2017) was an American aerospace engineer and program manager for an instrument on the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto and Beyond. Among her awards, she was named Engineer of the Year for 2015–2016 by the Colorado American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
+
+
+== Life ==
+Hardaway graduated from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and University of Colorado Boulder. She worked for Ball Aerospace. She was program manager for RALPH, on the New Horizons mission. She is survived by her husband, James, and two children.
+In the summer of 2017, NASA renamed the LEISA spectrometer on New Horizons to be the Lisa Hardaway Infrared Mapping Spectrometer in her honor.
+
+Lisa made incredible contributions to New Horizons and our success in exploring Pluto, and we wanted to celebrate those contributions in a special way by dedicating the LEISA spectrometer in her honor
+
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+Lisa Hardaway was named "Engineer of the Year" for 2015–2016 by Colorado American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
+Asteroid 161699 Lisahardaway was named in her memory. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 25 September 2018 (M.P.C. 111801).
+A crater on Pluto, Hardaway Crater, was also named in her honor in 2021.
+
+
+== References ==
+ 
+
+
+== External links ==
+https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/gone-in-2017-12-trailblazing-women-in-stem/
+https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/07/the-camera-behind-the-new-horizons-pluto-photos-ralph/398549/
+https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ball-aerospaces-lisa-hardaway-honored-for-exceptional-leadership-by-women-in-aerospace-300163309.html
+https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-new-horizons-mission-honors-memory-of-engineer-lisa-hardaway Archived 2020-09-28 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Germans_relocated_to_the_US_via_Operation_Paperclip-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of Germans relocated to the US via Operation Paperclip"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Germans_relocated_to_the_US_via_Operation_Paperclip"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:26.928830+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Operation Paperclip was a secret United States intelligence program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians were taken from the former Nazi Germany to the U.S. for government employment after the end of World War II in Europe, between 1945 and 1959. Conducted by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), it was largely carried out by special agents of the U.S. Army's Counterintelligence Corps (CIC). Many of these Germans were former Nazi members and some worked with the leaders of the Nazi Party.
+
+
+== Key recruits ==
+Aeronautics and rocketry
+Many engineers had been involved with the V-2 in Peenemünde, and 127 of them eventually entered the U.S. through Operation Paperclip. They were also known as the Von Braun Group.
+
+Architecture
+Heinz Hilten
+Hannes Luehrsen
+Electronics – including guidance systems, radar and satellites
+
+Material Science (high temperature)
+Werner Osenberg
+Klaus Scheufelen
+Rudolf Schlidt
+Medicine – including biological weapons, chemical weapons, and space medicine
+
+Physics
+
+Chemistry and Chemical engineering
+
+
+== See also ==
+Allied plans for German industry after World War II
+German influence on the Soviet space program
+Operation Osoaviakhim, USSR operation on German specialists
+List of Germans transported to the USSR via the Operation Osoaviakhim
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Lundquist, Charles A. (March 2015). Transplanted Rocket Pioneers (PDF). University of Alabama - Huntsville. ISBN 978-0-9861343-0-2. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Horizons_topics-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of New Horizons topics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Horizons_topics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:38.371761+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+List of New Horizons topics is a list of topics related to the New Horizons spacecraft, an unmanned space probe launched 2006 to Pluto and beyond.
+On  January 19, 2006, it was launched directly into a solar-escape trajectory at 16.26 kilometers per second (58,536 km/h; 36,373 mph) from Cape Canaveral using an Atlas V version with 5 SRBs and Star 48B thirdstage . New Horizons passed the Moon's orbit in just nine hours.
+
+132524 APL, Distant observation target
+15810 Arawn (1994 JR1), Distant observation target
+2011 HM102, Neptune Trojan considered as an observation target
+2011 KW48, distant observation target
+2014 MT69, former candidate for New Horizons flyby.
+2014 OS393, former potential flyby target
+2014 PN70, former potential flyby target
+486958 Arrokoth, flyby on New Year's Day 2019
+Alice (spacecraft instrument), one of seven major instruments on New Horizons
+Alice Bowman, New Horizons staff
+AJ-60A, solid rocket booster of which five were used in the New Horizons launch.
+Atlas V, New Horizons launch vehicle
+Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41, launch site
+Centaur (rocket stage), New Horizons upper stage
+Charon (moon), Pluto's big moon
+Common Core Booster, part of New Horizons first stage launcher
+Clyde Tombaugh, discovered Pluto in 1930 from Lowell Observatory
+Kirk (crater)
+Kuiper belt, region from about 30-60 AU New Horizons explores
+Lisa Hardaway, New Horizons staff
+Long Range Reconnaissance Imager,  one of seven major instruments on New Horizons
+GPHS-RTG, electrical and thermal heat source of New Horizons
+Interplanetary dust cloud
+Interplanetary medium, studied during Hibernation
+Mongoose-V, CPU in New Horizons
+NASA Deep Space Network, for New Horizons Earth radio communications
+Nasreddin (crater)
+New Frontiers program, NASA parent program of New Horizons
+New Horizons 2, design study for twin
+Organa (crater)
+Pluto, primary target of New Horizons
+Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation, one of seven major instruments on New Horizons
+Ralph, one of seven major instruments on New Horizons 
+REX, one of seven major instruments on New Horizons
+Daniel Sarokon, NASA employee honored at New Horizons launch
+Star 48B, New Horizons 3rd stage
+Alan Stern, New Horizons staff
+SWAP,  one of seven major instruments on New Horizons
+Tvashtar Paterae
+Vader (crater), crater observed by New Horizons
+Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter,  one of seven major instruments on New Horizons
+Venetia Burney, New Horizons instrument honorific, Burney proposed Pluto's name in 1930
+
+
+== See also ==
+Exploration of Pluto
+List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System
+List of trans-Neptunian objects
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Range_Reconnaissance_Imager-0.md

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+---
+title: "Long Range Reconnaissance Imager"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Range_Reconnaissance_Imager"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:39.640976+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) is a telescope aboard the New Horizons spacecraft for imaging. LORRI has been used to image Jupiter, its moons, Pluto and its moons, and Arrokoth since its launch in 2006. LORRI is a reflecting telescope of Ritchey-Chrétien design, and it has a main mirror diameter of 208 mm (8.2 inches) across. LORRI has a narrow field of view, less than a third of a degree. Images are taken with a CCD capturing data with 1024 × 1024 pixels. LORRI is a telescopic panchromatic camera integrated with the New Horizons spacecraft, and it is one of seven major science instruments on the probe. LORRI does not have any moving parts and is pointed by moving the entire New Horizons spacecraft.
+
+
+== Operations ==
+
+LORRI was used to calculate albedos for Pluto and Charon. LORRI is also used for navigation, especially to more precisely determine the location of a flyby target. In 2018, New Horizons spacecraft used navigation data from LORRI for its planned flyby of Arrokoth in a couple months.
+During the cruise to Jupiter, LORRI data was also used to determine a value for the cosmic optical background as an alternative to other methods. At Jupiter, LORRI was used for an extensive observation campaign of Jupiter's atmosphere, rings, and moons.
+On August 29, 2006, the cover on LORRI was opened and it took an image in space of Messier 7 (aka Ptolemy's Cluster) for its first light image. The following year, in 2007 when it flew by Jupiter for its gravity assist, it was used to image Jupiter and its moons. LORRI also imaged the Jovian system in 2010 as part of an annual checkout confirming the operation of LORRI, taking pictures from a distance of about 16 AU.
+In 2015, LORRI was used to image Pluto before and during the flyby.
+In December 2017,  LORRI took an image at a greater distance from Earth than Pale Blue Dot by Voyager 1, in this case of the Wishing Well Cluster.  This cluster was also the first light image for the Wide Field and Planetary Camera of the Hubble Space Telescope, taken in May 1990.
+
+In August 2018, LORRI was able to detect Arrokoth at distance of around 161 million kilometres (100 million miles).
+A large stack of images of Arrokoth from August to December 2018 was used to confirm a closer flyby, rather than more distant by ruling out moons and rings systems to a certain level of detection.
+On the night of December 24, 2018 LORRI was used to take images of Arrokoth at a distance of 10 million kilometres (6.2 million miles). Three images were taken each with a half second long exposure, at a 1024x1024 pixel resolution.
+
+
+== Specifications ==
+
+LORRI is a reflective telescope integrated with the New Horizons spacecraft. It can take greyscale images of astronomical targets.
+Specifications:
+
+Telescope style: Ritchey-Chrétien
+Aperture: 208 mm (8.2 inches)
+f/12.6
+Effective focal length 2630 mm (103.5 inches)
+Mirror substance: Silicon Carbide
+Mass: 8.8 kilograms (19.4 pounds)
+Average electrical power use:  5.8 watts
+Field of View: 0.29 degrees
+Resolution: 4.95 μrad pixels
+Bandpass: from about 350 nm to 850 nm
+Operating temperature: 148K to 313K
+Sensor: E2V Technologies CCD47-20 and Analog Devices AD9807 ADC
+Frame-Transfer Back-Illuminated CCD
+Size: 13.3×13.3 mm
+Pixel size: 13×13 μm native size with 4×4 pixel on-chip binning possible
+1024×1024 active pixels
+12 bits ADC
+The mirror is made of silicon carbide which helped support meeting the thermal requirements of the design.
+The instrument is a thinned backside-illuminated charge-coupled device, and captures images at a resolution of 1024 by 1024 pixels, with a variety of exposure settings. LORRI can take one picture per second and store the picture digitally as a 12-bit image, with either lossless or lossy compression. (See also Data compression)
+LORRI incorporates a field-flattening lens with three elements.
+The design can take images at very low light levels required for the mission, including light levels 1/900 those of Earth when it is at Pluto. For the Arrokoth encounter the longest exposure time (up to ten seconds for the Pluto flyby) was increased. This was accomplished after the Pluto flyby by the team, to support taking images in even lower light levels.
+After the Pluto flyby, exposure times of at least 30 seconds were made possible, which was also useful for taking reconnaissance images and enabling imaging down to a magnitude of 21.
+LORRI is pointed by moving the entire spacecraft, which limits the exposure time. The spacecraft does not have reaction wheels and is stabilized by thrusters.
+
+
+== Jovian system ==
+While passing by Jupiter in February 2007, the Jovian system was observed using LORRI and other instruments.
+LORRI views of the Galilean moons:
+
+
+== Pluto ==
+Due to its telescope power, LORRI was able to capture images of Pluto and its moons, offering the closer views as the spacecraft flew by the dwarf planet.
+
+
+== Charon ==
+
+
+== 15810 Arawn ==
+In 2016 New Horizons observed the Kuiper belt object, 15810 Arawn. It is the object that is pointed with an arrow.
+
+
+== 486958 Arrokoth ==
+
+
+=== Long-distance views ===
+
+
+=== Approach views ===
+
+
+== Closest views of Pluto flyby ==
+Since LORRI had the highest magnification of the instruments, it captured the closest views of Pluto's terrain during the flyby. Its smaller field of view was panned across Pluto, capturing a stripe of the dwarf planet's terrain.
+
+
+== See also ==
+HiRISE
+Mars Orbiter Camera
+List of New Horizons topics
+DART Spacecraft, using Didymos Reconnaissance and Asteroid Camera for Optical navigation (DRACO) Imager, based on LORRI
+Lucy, using L'LORRI, based on LORRI
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+ Media related to Photos of Jupiter system by New Horizons at Wikimedia Commons
+NASA LORRI gallery
+Compares the fields of view of various New Horizons instruments including LORRI
+LORRI images Archived 2019-01-02 at the Wayback Machine
+NASA page showing Arrokoth picture comparing MVIC (lower resolution but color) and LORRI (greyscale but sharper), and a third image product combining the data (January 2, 2019)

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+---
+title: "Magnus von Braun"
+chunk: 1/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_von_Braun"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:46.729129+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Magnus "Mac" Freiherr von Braun (10 May 1919 – 21 June 2003) was a German chemical engineer, Luftwaffe aviator, rocket scientist and business executive. A highly-regarded member of the Nazi Party, in his 20s he worked on Germany’s guided missile development and production at the Peenemünde Army Research Center and the Mittelwerk from 1943-1945.
+At age 26, he emigrated to the United States via Operation Paperclip, where he worked for some years at Fort Bliss. In 1955 he began a new career as a senior executive with Chrysler's missile division, later moving to automotive products. He retired to Arizona in 1975, where he died in 2003. He was the younger brother of Sigismund and Wernher von Braun.
+
+== Early life ==
+von Braun was born in Greifswald, Pomerania, to Magnus Freiherr von Braun and Emmy von Quistorp. His politician father moved the family to Berlin in 1920, where the three boys "lived in a bubble of upper-class privilege, with a butler, servants, and a grand piano." Magnus attended primary school at Berlin's prestigious French Gymnasium prior to finishing his secondary education at the Hermann Lietz-Schule boarding school in Spiekeroog. He joined the Nazi party upon graduation and subsequently served as a Spiekeroog Hitler Youth leader. Magnus moved to Munich in 1937 to attend the Technische Universität München. He studied chemistry and posted excellent grades, receiving his master's degree in 1940 in organic chemistry, and subsequently became an assistant to Nobel laureate Hans Fischer.
+Unlike his older siblings, Magnus experienced a National Socialist adolescence. His brothers can be seen as having joined the Nazis for reasons of professional advancement; Magnus signed on for the ideology. His politicized early years naturally influenced his character. Even well after the war, Magnus stood apart from his friendly and gregarious brother Wernher by his displays of arrogance and aristocratic pretension. This was duly noted by Army officers who kept files on both von Brauns after their 1945 arrival in the United States. One Fort Bliss Counterintelligence Corps agent took such a dislike to Magnus that sometime in 1948 or 1949, he wrote in his file that the youngest von Braun was a "dangerous German Nazi", adding that "his type is a worse threat to security than a half a dozen discredited SS Generals."
+The two younger von Braun brothers shared an enthusiasm for aviation, and like Wernher, Magnus also took up sailplane flying as a teenager. In October 1940, as the war entered its second year, the newly minted chemist and glider pilot was promptly drafted into the Luftwaffe. There he learned to fly multi-engine aircraft, and became proficient enough at instrument and night flying to be assigned as an instructor, temporarily avoiding frontline service. In mid-1943, as the Allied bombing campaign intensified and German aviator losses soared, Magnus received orders to train on fighter planes. At this point, Wernher stepped in and used his influence to get his younger sibling discharged from the air service and hired as a civilian chemical engineer at the Nazi rocket research center near Peenemünde. This move likely spared the younger von Braun's life, as German fighter pilots suffered staggering losses during the last two years of the war.

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+---
+title: "Magnus von Braun"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_von_Braun"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:46.729129+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Peenemünde ==
+Once he checked in at the secret base on the Baltic, Magnus was initially assigned to the propellant development section of the Wasserfall antiaircraft missile, due to his chemical expertise. His brother Wernher was then the wunderkind 31 year-old technical director of the entire facility, orchestrating hundreds of engineers and thousands of workers to produce the world's first liquid-fueled rocket able to reach outer space. Magnus arrived just in time to be present at Peenemünde for Operation Hydra, the first air raid against the installation carried out by British bombers during the night of August 17–18. He and his brother survived unhurt. After the Peenemünde raid, and in light of other devastating 1943 attacks against German war factories, it became obvious to the Nazi leadership that serial production of their new rocket weapon, which the scientists called the A-4 but soon better known as the V-2, needed a location safe from enemy bombs. Addressing these concerns, Wernher von Braun chaired a meeting at Peenemünde on August 25, 1943, where underground tunnels were first considered to mass-produce the A-4/V-2.
+The meeting notes still exist, and they also mention using concentration camp prisoners, thus providing the first documentary link of slave labor and the von Braun brothers. At this meeting, Wernher, his deputy Eberhard Rees, and five others debated the merits of using "caves" near Saarbrücken, Germany for missile production: "The workers for the middle and center section manufacture previously planned for VW [the pilot production plant in Peenemünde] can be drawn from the prisoner camp F1. The German supervisory personnel will go along with them."  That same day, Magnus flew his brother and the rest of this group to Berlin in a Ju-52 to discuss the initiative further at the Reich Chancellery on August 26, with top Nazi industrial officials Albert Speer and Hans Kammler in attendance. (Wernher served as co-pilot on the big three-motored transport plane, but he could not command it himself as he lacked a multi-engine rating.)
+Immediately following this Berlin conclave, Magnus flew his brother to have a look at the Saarbrücken caves on August 29, and then on to the town of Nordhausen in the Harz highlands of Thuringia the following day for a personal inspection of the future site of underground missile production.  The brothers spent three full days at Nordhausen, returning to Peenemünde on September 2. Although exactly what they did and whom they met with there is unknown, Wernher certainly must have entered the former gypsum mines located just three kilometers away for the first time. There, two enormous galleries had been bored into a large densely wooded hill that locals called the Kohnstein. Germans had been digging into the Kohnstein's limestone   for gypsum since 1917, but in the 1930s these small mining affairs were connected into one big cavity, which the Nazis used to store strategic reserves of fuel, fats and oils. The barrels had now been removed, and the subterranean space stood temporarily empty.
+The director of Peenemünde was there to plan how to refit this massive underground space for rocket production. The first shipment of 107 concentration camp workers from Buchenwald arrived inside the Kohnstein on August 28, before the von Braun brothers reached Nordhausen. The laborers were there to expand the tunnel system for missile manufacture. Wearing black-on-gray striped uniforms and guarded by grim Nazi SS overseers.
+Initially, prisoners inside the Kohnstein slept underground on stacked bunks as they excavated, and never saw daylight. There they endured filth, poor food, damp cave walls, cold temperatures, and choking airborne dust constantly replenished by round-the-clock blasting. This last also made sleep for off-shift enslaved workers very difficult. Later, an above-ground concentration camp was established called Dora, initially a subcamp of Buchenwald. As the makeshift Dora facility rapidly grew—it would eventually top out at 40,000 inmates–the prison was administratively detached from Buchenwald in October 1944 to become the independent "Konzentrationslager Mittelbau-Dora."  Magnus did not then realize it, but in about a year's time he would be assigned to this subterranean factory space, where he would spend the final nine months of the war managing enslaved Mittelbau-Dora laborers.
+As the A-4/V-2 rocket weapon transitioned from development to production in the latter part of 1943, key personnel from Peenemünde began migrating to the Mittelwerk, starting with Magnus's future supervisor Arthur Rudolph in September. Rudolph's initial title at the underground works was Director of Manufacturing and Assembly. In the spring of 1944, he would be promoted to the management board, and given additional responsibility for the rocket's control system sub-assemblies. Back at Peenemünde, Magnus was detached from his chemical work on the Wasserfall project in October 1943 to permanently become his brother's personal assistant and pilot. There were many manufacturing problems at the Mittelwerk over the winter of 1943-1944 due to rushing cutting-edge technology into mass production, and Wernher needed to make frequent visits to the trouble-plagued assembly line. Magnus flew his brother to Nordhausen again in October, November, January, and February. By this time the facility had been incorporated and given the bland name of Mittelwerk GmbH (Central Work Ltd).

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+---
+title: "Magnus von Braun"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_von_Braun"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:46.729129+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Gestapo arrest ==
+Right on the heels of the February trip, a dramatic and important event for the brothers took place. When Magnus flew the Ju-52 from Nordhausen back to Peenemünde on February 21, there was an order awaiting Wernher to meet with SS leader Heinrich Himmler at Himmler's field headquarters near the Wolfsschanze in East Prussia. At this meeting, Wernher politely declined Himmler's proposal to inject additional funding into the missile program if the young professor would agree to a control transfer from the army to the SS. von Braun's bold rejection of the deal set in motion a power play by the Reichsführer-SS, who was not often refused something he wanted. One month later, Himmler ordered the arrest of Magnus, Wernher, and fellow rocket specialists Klaus Riedel and Helmut Gröttrup, and also Hannes Lüersen, owner of a Zinnowitz home near Peenemünde. The Stettin Gestapo carried out the arrest, probably on March 22, 1944. Charges included defeatism, sabotage, and a treasonous scheme-in-the-making by Wernher to fly off to England with the rocket plans!
+The only evidence for these ostensible offenses against the regime was a secret report from an informer who had been watching Wernher for the SS security division, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), since October 1943. Notes from informer's report were made by General Alfred Jodl, operations chief of the army's high command. During Jodl's briefing by SD agents, he learned that the scientists had made unwise statements during an alcohol-saturated late night party at Hannes Lüersen's Zinnowitz home. Jodl kept notes during the briefing, which still survive in the documentary record. He recorded the SD informant's claims about what the tipsy scientists blurted out during incautious party talk. "Assertions[:] that the war will turn out badly, and regarding their weapon the main task is to create a spaceship. S.D. has assembled material. RF SS [Himmler] has been informed… S.D. wants to know what will happen when all three [Wernher, Riedel, and Gröttrup] are snapped up.  The men were treated well, being held in Stettin’s police station holding cells rather than sent off to a harsh Gestapo prison. They were allowed to receive food parcels from Peenemünde engineers who drove over with packages.
+Though disconcerting at the time, this arrest and brief imprisonment by the Gestapo would prove to be a boon for the brothers after the war. It became the basis for a widespread postwar mythology promoted by former "Peenemünders" that they were never really interested in helping Germany fight, but instead just played along with the Nazis to get the necessary money to perfect their space rocket. This story would be told many times to many people, and became canon among true believers. There is no doubt that dozens of the rocket specialists were genuinely interested in probing space, and Wernher showed courage by refusing to do what Himmler obviously wanted him to do. However, the actual rationale behind the arrest was typical hard-nosed Nazi bureaucratic infighting. Wernher himself admitted this more than once when relating his most honest versions of the tale.  Himmler's intent all along was to use their detention to pressure the German army to turn over control of the rocket program to the SS. This endeavor was ultimately successful later that year.
+Himmler had made his point with this maneuver, and when the von Braun brothers’ army boss, General Walter Dornberger, pleaded with Albert Speer to seek Adolf Hitler’s personal intervention in the matter, the Nazi leader soon assented to the scientists’ provisional release after two weeks, with Magnus getting out a few days before the rest. The men immediately went back to work. Wernher promptly had Magnus fly him to Nordhausen in April to discuss quality control with Mittlewerk factory director Georg Rickhey. Thus, the von Braun brothers’ Faustian bargain with the Nazi state continued, yet after their sudden arrest, they must have had felt considerably less sanguine about the strength of their position in the waning days of the Third Reich.

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+---
+title: "Magnus von Braun"
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:46.729129+00:00"
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+---
+
+== The Mittelwerk ==
+In September 1944, Magnus von Braun saw his life take another dramatic turn when his brother sent him to join the exodus from Peenemünde to the Mittelwerk. As noted previously, this was an underground munitions factory created by drilling two enormous tunnels through the Kohnstein. Each was 1.8 kilometers long, and they were connected by dozens of evenly spaced cross tunnels, like rungs on a ladder. Each cross tunnel had a length of about 160 meters. Full-sized railways had been laid down along the main tunnels; these brought raw materials in and finished rockets out. This colossal chamber provided some 35 million cubic feet of space.
+Rudolph made Magnus his engineer in charge of the rocket's center section and tail assembly, where he served for his first three months in the Mittelwerk. By then, serial production had entered a predictable routine. Prisoners from Dora and its smaller satellite subcamps were marched by the SS into the tunnels each dawn to provide slave labor for this huge endeavor. They were mostly Polish, French and Russian, with smaller numbers of Belgians, Czechs, Roma people, and a smattering of other nationalities thrown in. Many were captured resistance fighters and their supporters; others were simply swept up in labor drafts and enslaved inside Dora. The SS handled overall security, assisted in this by German civilian workers who served as foreman on the shop floor. The SS guards of course employed their usual horrific methods. The death toll most frequently cited in the historical literature for Mittelbau-Dora and the Mittlewerk is 20,000, obviously an estimate.  However, French historian André Sellier has recalculated this number by adding the devastating prisoner mortality incurred near war's end during forced "death marches" as the SS hastily evacuated the camps. Sellier concluded that "[f]or the whole [Mittelbau-Dora] concentration camp complex, which finally reached about 40,000 prisoners, the loss of human life during a period of about twenty months amounted to some 26,500 victims-—15,500 in the camp and the ‘transports’ and 11,000 at the time of the evacuations."
+Magnus's time inside the sub-terrestrial manufactury matches its peak months of production. Prior to his arrival, there had been numerous problems with the still-experimental liquid-fueled rocket which required constant adjustments; many of these had been ironed out, although the troublesome servomotors and occasional air bursts of tested rockets continued. These matters aside, the factory was hitting its production stride as Magnus settled in. Between October 1, 1944, and March 18, 1945, more than 20 completed missiles daily moved out of the tunnels on special flatcars pulled by locomotives. They were then immediately sent west for action. Manufacture peaked during these five months before terminating entirely at the beginning of April, as the Nazi state entered final meltdown.
+The same month that Magnus reported to the Mittelwerk, the rocket weapon became operational. At 8:40 AM on September 8, 1944, specialized German missile troops launched a Mittelwerk A-4/V-2 tipped with a one-ton high-explosive warhead from the Belgian village of Sterpigny toward Paris. The first rocket they fired exploded at high altitude after two minutes, a failure. Two hours later they launched a second one, and after a five-minute supersonic flight, it came down southeast of Paris at Charentonneau à Maisons-Alford, where it killed six people and injured 36 more. At 6:36 PM that evening, a different rocket troop operating in the exclusive Hague suburb of Wassener in Holland fired two missiles at the same time, with their gyroscopes set toward London. One was another air-burst, but the other made a quick trip across the Channel at three times the speed of sound and slammed into the West London suburb of Chiswick at 6:41 PM. The resulting explosion ended three lives instantly and seriously injured 17 more. The world had entered the age of ballistic missile warfare.
+This revolutionary weapon that Magnus was helping his country deploy was truly terrifying for those on the receiving end. T. D. Dungan wrote a 2005 combat history of the missile, and in it he described what the arrival of a Mittelwerk product on target was like. "[F]irst a ‘whip cracking’ sound of the blast wave was heard, created by the rocket moving faster than the speed of sound, which bounces off the point of impact split seconds before the flash of impact; this was followed by the chaos of the explosion with debris and earth churned skyward. Immediately afterward, as if in reverse order, the whine and rush of whistling air was heard as the sound of the rocket descending through the heavens caught up with the rocket, followed by the roar of the incoming rocket, which tapered off to silence. There could be no warning."

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+---
+title: "Magnus von Braun"
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:46.729129+00:00"
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+---
+
+== Accusations of abuse ==
+Rudolph shifted Magnus to a new job in November 1944, chief of servomotor production. In the late 1970s, accusations emerged in France soon after Wernher’s 1977 death asserting that he had perpetrated dramatic acts of violence at the Mittelwerk. They accelerated yet further in the 1990s, when prominent Dutch-American astronomer Tom Gehrels published an influential 1994 article in the British journal Nature. Gehrels, who had been a teenager in the Dutch resistance during the war, used notarized statements from former Dora prisoners to assert that Wernher had personally slapped inmates, informed on them to the SS to get them hanged, and walked into the tunnels each morning with his female secretary, side-stepping around piles of dead bodies to reach their offices.
+Michael Neufeld, a Smithsonian historian and author of a 2007 biography of Wernher, has tried to evaluate claims by Dora prisoners that they personally witnessed brutality administered by the most famous von Braun. In a 2002 article about Wernher's potential culpability in Nazi slave labor, Neufeld dismissed most claims that Wernher von Braun carried out direct sadistic behavior inside the Mittelwerk as spurious, easily disproven by tracking his known locations during the war. However, Neufeld felt that there were two accusations in particular that merited further study, the second of which might have involved Magnus. "[R]eports that [Wernher] von Braun attended hangings, ordered hangings, attended hangings in SS uniform, etc., have scarcely been discussed in the literature because such testimonies lack credibility," Neufeld wrote. "But in recent years I have received two reports from French Dora survivors that deserve more consideration."
+In the first incident, survivor Georges Jouanin, whose job was to climb into upright tail sections of the missiles to install cables to the servomotor, placed a wooden-soled shoe on one of the units. He later recorded that "someone has noticed my wooden-heeled clog atop such a fragile organ, and I feel a hand pulling insistently on the end of my striped pants, thus forcing me out of the tail unit. 'You, out of here, man, you're committing sabotage. You shouldn't step with your foot on this.' I get slapped in the face twice and my head bounces against the metal panels of the tail unit. Cap in hand, I find myself in front of a man in his 30s, rather well dressed, angry, to who I am not allowed to give an explanation. The seven or eight engineers or technicians in the group of which he came out seem disconcerted, astonished... I went back to my work space and the incident seemed over, without consequences. My civilian foreman, MANGER is his name, returns from break and tells me ... 'Our big boss boxed your ears! That was V. Braun.' I answer him: ‘I do not know him, Master! I have only seen him once.’ I never saw him again."
+In the second case, an inmate named Guy Morand testified that while testing rocket servomotors, he tried to cover for another prisoner who had mislaid a chronometer, which brought the wrath of an enraged German civilian foreman down upon him. "Like the good Nazi he was," Morand remembered, "he immediately started shouting it was sabotage, when just at that point von Braun arrived accompanied by his usual group of people. Without even listening to my explanations, he ordered the Meister to have me given 25 strokes in his presence by an SS [man] who was there. Then, judging that the strokes weren't sufficiently hard, he ordered that I be flogged more vigorously, and this order was then diligently carried out." Morand went on to say that "following the floggings, von Braun made me translate that I deserved much more, that in fact I deserved to be hanged, which certainly would be the fate of the 'Mensch' (good-for-nothing) I was." Morand adds that the man was "one of the inventors of the V-2" and frequently made "rapid inspections" of his work area.
+This description of "von Braun" is closer to Magnus in his role at the rocket factory than that of Wernher, who visited only occasionally. Neufeld raises the possibility of an identity error in Morand's recollections: "In September 1944, Wernher assigned his younger brother Magnus, a chemical engineer and Luftwaffe pilot, as his special liaison to the Mittelwerk, particularly for servomotor production, which was afflicted with serious technical problems. Magnus von Braun stayed in the Nordhausen area full-time until the evacuation of April, 1945. In contrast, his older brother visited the Mittelwerk, by his estimates, twelve or fifteen times in total. Morand gives the time of the incident as the 'second half of 1944,' which corresponds to Magnus von Braun's assignment to the factory, and the testimonial never actually gives 'von Braun' a last name."
+In a footnote to this same 2002 article, Neufeld refers to another incident on the record. A Dora survivor named Robert Cazabonne reported "that a fellow prisoner witnessing a hanging in the tunnel pointed out one of the German onlookers and said, 'That's VON BRAUN!'"  Neufeld concludes, "We know with near certainty that Wernher von Braun was not there; however, it might have been his brother Magnus, as civilian employees were expected to attend."  Magnus was indeed there, as his son Curt confirmed in a March 2020 Los Angeles Times article.
+Neufeld continues, "Morand's story necessarily brings Jouanin's identification into question, as both deal with servomotors. Although Jouanin's first instinct on timing was early May 1944, when I wrote him about it, he was less than certain. The description of a man in his thirties he saw only once fits Wernher von Braun better than Magnus, however. In the end, it is impossible to say with certainty that Georges Jouanin's identification of Wernher von Braun can be accepted as meeting a reasonable standard of certainty, as believable as I find it personally. Nor can we conclude with assurance that Magnus von Braun was responsible."

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+title: "Magnus von Braun"
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+---
+
+== A mass hanging ==
+In November, Rudolph switched Magnus to chief of rocket fin servomotor production.  The servomotors were the most troublesome A-4/V-2 component at that time. During this period, concerns over sabotage were at their height, and accusations of deliberate damage became the engineering scapegoat for the servomotors’ technical difficulties. Summary execution was the prescribed punishment for anyone who got caught purposely or accidentally harming missiles. Nearly all resulting executions took place at the Dora camp, and out of view of non-prisoner Mittelwerk employees. However, Magnus witnessed a notorious exception in March 1945. The nine monstrous strangulations that he watched were precipitated when twenty to thirty Soviet prisoners at Dora assaulted an SS guard, briefly escaped, and then were all quickly recaptured by soldiers using tracking dogs. Every one was hanged within a week, but nine were chosen for a special show. They were to be gruesomely executed in Tunnel B near Hall 41, where the rockets were stacked vertically. This location was very close to where Rudolph and Magnus kept office.
+The unfortunate men were placed down in the shallow subfloor of the vertical assembly area, while all enslaved laborers, engineers, managers, German civilian workers, and a few curious secretaries were gathered in formation around the pit to watch. French prisoner Charles Sadron described witnessing the impassive Soviets with "their hands tied behind their backs and heads uncovered. A piece of rough wood, like a bit, was shoved between their jaws and kept in place by an iron wire quickly twisted behind their necks. That day there were nine of them, lined up slightly below us, because the precaution was taken to have them go down into the excavation—a foot deep—where a rail switch was located. Hanging above their heads were nine steel ropes, carefully parallel, ending in slipknots while the upper ends were attached to a long horizontal rod used to handle the torpedos [rockets]. The rod was held up in the center by a cable that would—high up beneath the vault—coil around the drum of an electric winch." Sadron continued his grim and detailed remembrance: "Next, the executioner went to his post and grasped the motor’s control gears. Busta [the presiding SS guard] motioned. The motor droned. Gently the strangled men rose as they spun slowly around. The motor stopped when they were a foot off the ground. So that their feet were at the same level as ours. A few spasms barely shook their bodies in which we could imagine the terrible rigidity. but that was not the end: it required more than a minute to die in that way. The young German secretaries who came to watch got their money’s worth. We, on the other hand, had to parade past the skewer looking straight into the faces with their eyes rolled back—at the same height as our own. A fellow prisoner, who took his hat off in respect—received a serious thrashing."  After their long death struggle ended, the corpses were left dangling for a full 24 hours, as an example to all shifts of what they could expect if they tried to deliberately damage missiles.
+André Sellier has made an interesting observation about this late-war choice to hang Soviet prisoners down inside the tunnel. After all, hundreds of inmate executions by hanging were carried out at the Dora camp during 1943–45, with over 150 in March 1945 alone. Why do this particular one at the factory? The capital crime being punished was not even a sabotage offense. Sellier asserts that "[t]his choice was not necessary if the point was to make an impression on the prisoners. The gallows at the roll call [inside Dora] were more appropriate." Roll call at the concentration camp would obviously maximize the number of inmates who would be present for the grisly object lesson, and that is how it had always been done previously. However, Sellier holds that in the intended audience in March 1945 was different. "It seems that the desire was also to make an impression on the German civilians, whose loyalty to the regime was no longer assured."  In Magnus's case, the deterrent had its intended effect. "He witnessed hangings," his son Curt von Braun told an interviewer in 2020. "He felt nauseated but he couldn’t back down or he would have been shot."  Certainly, by March 1945, as the Nazi nightmare came crashing down in chaos and blood, such a fate for open refusal was entirely plausible.
+
+== Surrender at Reutte ==

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+title: "Magnus von Braun"
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+---
+
+In the spring of 1945, Allied "big arrow" offensives drove into Germany from all sides, and everything fell apart. The raw materials flowing into the Kohnstein tunnels dwindled to a trickle, then stopped altogether. 617 completed missiles had left the Mittelwerk in February, roughly matching the peak rate of the previous four months; in March, production fell to 362, although no records past March 18 survive, so it is unclear how many missiles were actually put together that month.  By April 1, the assembly line had stopped entirely. That day, German civilians undertook a records-sanitizing effort inside their workplace before fleeing from the advancing American army. Prisoner Charles Sadron went into the tunnels on April 1; he later wrote, "The civilians busied themselves with mysterious work. We were made to rip down notices and signs. We had to hand over written material we had on our persons." It was kindling for a bonfire. When André Ribault descended on April 2 to the office where he drafted technical drawings for the engineers, he saw that "all documents have been burned. Looks completely destroyed. Not a single ‘cigar’ left on the assembly line."  This paperwork purge had some success; for example, we know from a wealth of testimony that hundreds of sabotage reports were written, but none has ever been found.
+Unfortunately, the nightmare for the inmates was not yet over. Many German civilians employees began fleeing the area by April 2, perhaps due to an attack by Allied fighter-bombers on Nordhausen the previous day that lasted an hour. Some feared that worse was yet to come. They were correct; Nordhausen was about to be incinerated. On the nights of April 3 and 4, the British sent massive waves of four-engine heavy bombers to destroy the town. These experienced airman knew how to drop the perfect blend of marking flares, incendiary firebombs and high explosive to create a wind-driven self-sustaining firestorm.  For two nights, they deployed their pyrotechnic art over Nordhausen to perfection, burning three-quarters of the town to cinders and killing 8,800 people, of which 1,500 were enslaved laborers at Dora. A few surviving prisoners were able to escape during the second raid, which partially smashed the camp's infrastructure and left a momentary absence of authority.
+By the time Bomber Command heavies set Nordhausen afire, Magnus was already gone. On April 1, Hans Kammler, the fanatical SS general who had taken over the rocket program, ordered an immediate evacuation of 500 key technicians from both Peenemünde and the Mittelwerk to the Bavarian Alps. His purported intent was that the scientists would continue their secret work further away from the front lines. However, the more logical conclusion, as the brothers’ army boss Walter Dornberger realized at the time, was to consolidate the engineers in one location as a bargaining chip, for Kammler to strike a deal that would grease his own final escape. The chosen rocket specialists left both places on the night of April 2, with Wernher leading the Peenemünde group, and Kammler (plus 200 SD men) escorting his Mittelwerk employees, including Magnus. Their destination was Oberammergau, near the lovely Alpine resort town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, where Germany had staged the 1936 Winter Olympics.
+Traveling at war's end through the rump of Nazi Germany awash in regime dead-enders was not for the faint-hearted, but both groups merged sometime after April 6, and then headed for the Bavarian ski resort at Oberjoch. SS General Kammler played out his role as crazed zealot until the end. Dornberger later wrote about Kammler's endless supply of energy and enthusiasm for new schemes, which suggests mania or amphetamines, neither of which Nazi fanatics lacked. Kammler "was on the move day and night. Conferences were called for 1 o’clock in the morning somewhere in the Harz Mountains, or we would meet at midnight somewhere on the Autobahn," Dornberger recalled. "[I]f he got impatient and wanted to drive on, [he] would wake the slumbering officers of his suite with a burst from his tommy-gun. ‘No need for them to sleep! I can’t either!"
+After hearing the radio report of Hitler's death, Wernher von Braun announced to his group early in the morning of 3 May 1945 that "Magnus, who speaks English, has just left by bicycle to establish contact with the American forces at Reutte.  We cannot wait here forever." Dieter Hutzel recalled, "It was quite courageous for Magnus to come down on his bicycle and find the American troops," said Dr. Ernst Stuhlinger,  member of the V-2 team. "He had a white handkerchief tied to the handlebars of the bicycle and that was all he had to protect him."
+About two in the afternoon, Magnus returned, "I think it went well, I have safe conduct passes and they want us for further interrogation." The Mission Accomplished: The Battle History of the 44th Infantry Division claim that there was a "hectic night of interrogation, plans and counter-proposals" after Magnus von Braun rode his bike downhill in the morning and met members of the "Anti-tank Company, 324th Infantry" "before he went out and in a short time returned with his brother" is inaccurate: Huzel, McGovern, & Ordway, in their researched works, distinctly state Magnus returned about 2 in the afternoon the same day.
+Dieter Huzel described the surrender of the group: "Thus, in the dull, rainy, late afternoon of Wednesday, May 2, 1945, seven men [Magnus & Wernher, Walter Dornberger, Axster, Huzel, Lindenberg, & Tessman] ... began their lonely descent from Adolf Hitler Pass toward ... Schattwald. ... Suddenly, around a curve, an American soldier ... waved us to a stop.  Magnus got out and showed a piece of paper to the guard ... After about a half an hour, ... we were flanked by two ..."jeeps,"... We reached Reutte after dark.  ... The next morning ... we emerged from the mess hall ... several Army photographers were on hand and spent some time taking pictures." During a photo shoot the next day, Magnus von Braun commented "We're celebrating now, but I'll bet they will throw telephone books at us if we ever reach New York.  By noon, Magnus von Braun (along with Axster, Huzel, Lindenberg, & Tessman) arrived in Peiting where forty other Peenemünde personnel already had arrived, and the Germans departed for Garmisch-Partenkirchen on 8 May.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_von_Braun-7.md

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+---
+title: "Magnus von Braun"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_von_Braun"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:10:46.729129+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Operation Paperclip and Fort Bliss ==
+von Braun arrived in New York on 16 November 1945 aboard the SS Argentina and was soon at work at Fort Bliss, Texas and later at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.  Von Braun was interrogated as a witness for the Andrae war crimes trial in which Mittelwerk general manager Georg Rickhey was acquitted.  Soon after his arrival, he was caught trying to sell a brick of platinum he'd stolen from the base to a jeweler in El Paso. The incident was quickly hushed up, though he was informally punished by means of a terrible beating given by his brother Wernher.
+
+== Career with Chrysler ==
+In 1955, von Braun began a career with Chrysler—first in the missile division and then in the automotive division. He also resided in Huntsville, Alabama, for a while before moving to Michigan.  After living in Michigan, he relocated to the UK, working in London and Coventry as Chrysler UK export director. von Braun retired from Chrysler in 1975 and returned to the States, where he settled in Arizona and resided until his death.
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_R._Showalter-0.md

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+---
+title: "Mark R. Showalter"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_R._Showalter"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:50.652768+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mark Robert Showalter (born December 5, 1957) is an American senior research scientist at the SETI Institute. He is the discoverer of six moons and three planetary rings. He is the Principal Investigator of NASA's Planetary Data System Rings Node, a co-investigator on the Cassini–Huygens mission to Saturn, and works closely with the New Horizons mission to Pluto.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Showalter was born in Abington, Pennsylvania. He enjoyed playing with science-themed toys while a child, and later mowed lawns as a teenager so that he might purchase a telescope in high school. He received a Bachelor of Arts in physics and mathematics from Oberlin College in 1979. He was initially undecided about pursuing a career in astronomy after his undergraduate education, but made up his mind after seeing the images of Jupiter sent back to Earth by Voyager 2.
+Showalter received his MS in astronomy from Cornell University in 1982, and his PhD from Cornell in 1985. His thesis was on Jupiter's ring system, in which he discovered the gossamer ring of Jupiter.
+In 1990, using ten-year-old Voyager data, Showalter discovered Pan, the eighteenth and innermost moon of Saturn. It orbits within and keeps open the Encke Gap in Saturn's rings via shepherding.
+In 2003, Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer discovered two new moons of Uranus (Mab and Cupid) in Hubble Space Telescope images. In 2006, they announced the discovery of two very faint rings, the μ and ν rings, within the same data.
+In 2010, Showalter discovered that spiral vertical corrugations in Jupiter's rings were caused by the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 in July 1994. A second smaller set of corrugations appear to be consistent with an unknown impact in early 1990. He and co-researchers also found similar spiral patterns in Saturn's D Ring.
+Showalter has assisted the New Horizons team in determining what hazards the spacecraft would encounter as it flew close to Pluto. A search for faint dust rings of Pluto using the Hubble Space Telescope in 2011 led to the discovery of the fourth moon Kerberos. Working with the New Horizons team, Showalter found the fifth moon Styx in July 2012.
+On July 15, 2013, a team of astronomers led by Showalter discovered a previously unknown fourteenth moon of Neptune in images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope from 2004 to 2009. Unnamed at that time, Hippocamp is thought to measure around 34.8 km in diameter.
+Showalter was the 2021 recipient of the Harold Masursky Award for Meritorious Service to Planetary Science.
+The Mars-crossing asteroid 18499 Showalter is named after Dr. Showalter.
+
+
+== Personal life ==
+Showalter is an avid scuba diver and photographer. He is married to Frank Yellin; they live in California.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Mark Showalter's SETI Institute home page
+Planetary Data System rings node home page
+Silicon Valley Astronomy Lectures, November 12, 2008 on YouTube Saturn's Restless Rings: Results from the Cassini Mission
+Silicon Valley Astronomy Lectures, Jan. 28, 2015 on YouTube Pluto on the Horizon: Anticipating our First Encounter with the Double Planet

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Kramer-0.md

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+---
+title: "Max Kramer"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Kramer"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:19.693957+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Max Otto Kramer (8 September 1903 – June 1986) was a German scientist who worked for the Ruhrstahl AG steel and armaments corporation. He was responsible for the construction of the Fritz X and the Ruhrstahl X-4 missiles (1943-1945), among others.
+
+
+== Personal background ==
+Max Otto Kramer was born on 8 September 1903 in Cologne, Germany, earned a degree in electronic engineering at the Technical College of Munich in 1926 and received his doctorate in aeronautics from the Technical College of Aachen in 1931.  Already by the late 1930s he was an authority on aerodynamics, working at the German Institute of Aeronautics in Berlin, and holding patents for important innovations related to aircraft, such as landing flaps. His specialty was in the modeling of complex airflows, especially those related to laminar-flow dynamics.
+
+
+== Early research in Germany ==
+Kramer had a wide range of interests and his work encompassed automobiles, gliders, propeller noise, acoustic missile and wake tracking, and underwater coatings. However, he is best known for the development of the Ruhrstahl X-1 "Fritz-X" glide bomb, a radio-controlled bomb whose descent could be adjusted.  This bomb was deployed a number of times in late 1943 and early 1944, achieving several successes before Allied air superiority and electronic countermeasures rendered it ineffective.  Notable amongst its successes were the sinking of the Italian battleship Roma and the infliction of severe damage upon the British battleship HMS Warspite, the American light cruiser USS Savannah and the British light cruiser HMS Uganda.
+Kramer continued to evolve the basic Ruhrstahl X-1 design during the war.  One direction of research was to improve the ability of this weapon to penetrate the heavy armor of modern battleships of the British King George V and the American North Carolina classes.  The X-2 and X-3 variants of the weapon did so by achieving even higher descent speeds into the transonic range without losing directional stability.  The X-5 and substituted greater explosive power for descent speed, with a total weight approaching 2,250 kg.  The X-6 attempted to overcome heavy deck armor with a very heavy steel tip and an enhanced explosive charge.  None of the variants ever made it into large-scale production or operational use.
+One of Kramer's most renowned development efforts involved the Ruhrstahl X-4, also known as the Kramer X-4.  This was a highly innovative air-to-air missile, designed to be guided by airborne operators into the midst of Allied bomber formations.  As such it was a precursor to the air-to-air guided missiles developed in the post-war period.  Developed late in the war, X-4 does not appear to have been used in combat.
+
+
+== Post-war activities in the United States ==
+Kramer relocated to the United States after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip. From 1947 to 1952 he worked for the Pilotless Aircraft Laboratory at the Naval Air Development Station in Johnsville, Pennsylvania conducting research on autonomous air vehicles and missiles and building upon his research on the X-4.
+Kramer left government employment in 1952 to take a position as Technical Director with Coleman Engineering Company where his work focused on the highly efficient movement of structures through fluids via creation of laminar flows. He often reported that on crossing the Atlantic he noticed dolphins have a shape implying laminar flow and that this was the inspiration for his research. However, he had been researching laminar-flow issues long before he came to the U.S. After ten years of effort he discovered that a compliant coating, such as the skin of a dolphin would dampen any turbulent tendencies resulting from movement through water.  He claimed that a 30% reduction in drag was possible, but subsequent researchers were unable to duplicate these results, leading to what has been called "The Kramer Controversy." Over time, as more research on the topic has been conducted, scientists have gradually confirmed Dr. Kramer's pioneering views.
+In 1956, in order to monetize Kramer's research on “Boundary Layer Stabilization by Distributed Damping,” Coleman Engineering and Kramer founded a jointly owned company, Coleman-Kramer, Inc. The result of this combined effort was a new material designed to reduce drag in underwater vehicles emulating the compliant skin of porpoises. In 1957 the technology was licensed to US Rubber Co. for manufacturing, under the trademark Lamiflo. The U.S. Navy wasn't interested in this material, so Kramer patented it. Later the Federal Bureau of Investigation claimed he sold it to the Russians.
+Kramer died in June 1986 in Pacific Palisades, California.
+
+
+== References ==
+http://www.ausairpower.net/WW2-PGMs.html
+IEEE
+https://web.archive.org/web/20060821133954/http://www.spawar.navy.mil/sti/publications/pubs/tr/1801/tr1801.pdf
+Article title

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelwerk-0.md

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+---
+title: "Mittelwerk"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelwerk"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:28.133196+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mittelwerk ([ˈmɪtl̩.vɛʁk]; German for "Central Works") was a German World War II factory built underground in the Kohnstein to avoid Allied bombing. It used slave labor from the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp to produce V-2 ballistic missiles, V-1 flying bombs, and other weapons.
+
+== Mittelwerk GmbH ==
+On the night of 17/18 August 1943, RAF bombers carried out Operation Hydra against the Peenemünde Army Research Center where V-2 development and production was being carried out.
+On 19 October 1943, the German limited company Mittelwerk GmbH was issued War Contract No. 0011-5565/43 by General Emil Leeb, head of the Army Weapons Office, for 12,000 A-4 missiles at 40,000 Reichsmarks each.
+Mittelwerk GmbH also headed sites for V-2 rocket development and testing at Schlier (Project Zement) and Lehesten. Beginning in May 1944, Georg Rickhey was the Mittelwerk general manager, Albin Sawatzki was the Mittelwerk technical director over both Arthur Rudolph's Technical Division (with deputy Karl Seidenstuecker) and Hans Lindenberg's 50 engineers of the quality control group located at Ilfeld. Other Mittelwerk/Ilfield engineers included Magnus von Braun in turbopump production, Guenther Haukohl who supervised V-2 production after helping design the assembly line, Eric Ball (assembly line), Hans Fridrich, Hans Palaoro and Rudolf Schlidt. The facility had a communications staff under Captain Dr Kühle, an Administrative Division run by Börner under Mittelwerk board member Otto Karl Bersch, and a Prisoner Labor Supply office (Brozsat). Hannelore Bannasch was Sawatzki's secretary. Wernher von Braun, who was involved in the planning of the facility, initially remained in Peenemünde but was in charge of quality control at the Mittelwerk. He worked closely with both Sawatzki and Rudolph, and by his own admission visited the Mittelwerk "10 or 15 times" including an extended stay during the hellish construction period in the fall of 1943.
+
+== Other projects ==
+
+In July 1944, Hans Kammler ordered the North Works (Nordwerke) to use cross-tunnels 1–20 for a Junkers jet and piston engine factory, leaving cross-tunnels 21–46 for Mittelwerk GmbH. During February–April 1945, the Nordhausen plant built Taifun anti-aircraft missiles and Heinkel He 162 jet fighters and put into operation a liquid oxygen plant. The plant was the Eber project and used equipment evacuated from the Watten bunker and elsewhere to build Heylandt liquid oxygen generators; the 15 generators were nearly complete when the site was captured.  The Mittelwerk also contained equipment for producing jet fuel, and in an emergency 1944 decentralization program (named Geilenbergprogramm after Edmund Geilenberg) started the "Cuckoo" project, an underground oil plant to be "carved out of the Himmelsburg" North of the Mittelwerk. In early February 1945, Wernher von Braun and his team moved from Peenemünde to Bleicherode where, under Hans Kammler's orders, he was responsible for weapons production at multiple underground sites, some operational and others still on the drawing board. Most were never completed. For example, plans for V-2 rocket plants (the Southern Works near Friedrichshafen and the Eastern Works near Riga) were never fulfilled.
+V-1 flying bomb assembly began during October/November 1944 in the South end of tunnel A. At the end of January 1945, 51 V-1s were shipped from a dispersed Fieseler factory in Upper Bavaria (code name Cham) to the Nordhausen plant for completion.  After a second V-1 factory at Burg was closed, the Mittelwerk Werk II in February 1945 was the only factory producing V-1 flying bombs, and a total of 2,275 V-1s were built by Werk II from September 1944 until April 1945.
+Although there has long been speculation about other "exotic" weaponry being constructed or stored at Mittelwerk, evidence of this is scarce. For example, Richard Overy notes in The Bombing War - Europe 1939-1945 (2013): "There is some evidence that small spherical bombs containing radioactive waste were stored in the Mittelbau-Dora works [...], but it is not conclusive."
+
+== Evacuation ==
+In late February 1945, the Allied Chiefs of Staff discussed a proposed attack on the Nordhausen plant with a highly flammable petroleum-soap mixture that had been used in the Pacific theatre to deeply penetrate buried strongpoints and scourge them with intense heat.
+The area was attacked with conventional bombs by RAF Bomber Command on 3 & 4 April. What were believed to be barracks were attacked on 3 April but they actually contained forced labour workers. The attack of 4 April hit the barracks and the town of Nordhausen. The Mittelbau-Dora forced labor camp was evacuated on 4 April, and scientists evacuated to the Alpenfestung (English: Alpine Fortress).  Hitler had made an order, the "Demolitions on Reich Territory Decree", which ordered the destruction of any infrastructure that might be of use to the Allies but it was deliberately ignored by Albert Speer and the Nordhausen plant was evacuated without damage.
+
+== Aftermath ==
+
+Having been warned to "expect something a little unusual in the Nordhausen area", and after previously entering the Nordhausen plant from the North through the Junkers Nordwerke, U.S. 3rd Armored Division and 104th Infantry Divisions reached the city of Nordhausen on 11 April 1945 and discovered the dead and sick of the Boelcke Kaserne barracks.
+Casualties of the V-2 rocket are estimated at 2,541 killed and 5,923 injured. By contrast, of the roughly 60,000 people who passed through Mittelbau-Dora and its subcamps, an estimated 20,000 died either at the camp or at places they were subsequently transported to: 350 were hanged (including 200 for sabotage), many others died from exhaustion, cold, malnutrition or disease. Some were murdered by guards. The total also includes 1,300 to 1,500 prisoners killed by British bombs in early April.
+
+=== Special Mission V-2 ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelwerk-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "Mittelwerk"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelwerk"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:11:28.133196+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+On 22 May 1945, US Army Special Mission V-2 shipped the first trainload of rocket parts for use in projects such as Operation Sandy, Operation Blossom and, at the White Sands Proving Grounds, the Hermes project.
+The Nordhausen area was to become part of the Soviet zone of occupation, and Soviet Army officers arrived to tour the Nordhausen plant on 26 May 1945. In June 1945, the US Army left the Nordhausen plant as required by JCS Directive 1067/14, with parts, documents (including blueprints for the projected A-9/A-10 intercontinental missile) left for the Soviets. The Red Army occupied the Mittelwerk on 5 July 1945 and demolished both of the entrances of the tunnel system in mid-1948.
+
+=== The Dora War Crimes Trial ===
+
+The 1947 Dora Trial convicted SS Officers and concentration camp kapos, while 3 scientists of the V-2 rocket program were implicated (2 after the trial) and exonerated of Nazi war crimes at the Mittelwerk.  On 19 May 1947, the former head of the Mittelwerk facility, Georg Rickhey, was extradited to Germany from Wright Field in the U.S. and acquitted of war crimes at the Dora Trial.  Arthur Rudolph, after immigrating to the U.S. and playing key roles in the Pershing missile and Apollo programs, was forced to renounce his U.S. citizenship and return to Germany; the West German government, citing the statute of limitations, never charged him and eventually granted him citizenship. Wernher von Braun, the Technical Director of a separate facility at Peenemünde Army Research Center, visited the Mittelwerk on 25 January 1944, and a 1991 author alleged he witnessed Mittelwerk and Buchenwald war crimes.
+
+=== Ruins ===
+After a new entrance tunnel had been dug to former rail Tunnel A in 1995, 710 meters of the tunnel system were opened for visitors.  Large parts of the system are flooded by ground water, while other parts have collapsed.  After the reunification of Germany the tunnels were frequently looted by treasure seekers who gained access via the private mine in the north of the Kohnstein.
+Willi Kramer, a German archaeologist and scientist who dived in the tunnel system in 1992 and 1998, estimated that 70 tons of material was stolen. Access through these entrances was not secured until 2004, when the mine went into insolvency.
+
+== See also ==
+Kőbánya cellar system – a former underground quarry and tunnel complex in Hungary which was used as an aircraft assembly factory during World War II
+Project Riese
+V-2 rocket facilities of World War II
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoose-V-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+---
+title: "Mongoose-V"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoose-V"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:09:40.771615+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Mongoose-V 32-bit microprocessor for spacecraft onboard computer applications is a radiation-hardened and expanded 10–15 MHz version of the MIPS R3000 CPU. Mongoose-V was developed by Synova of Melbourne, Florida, USA, with support from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
+The Mongoose-V processor first flew on NASA's Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) satellite launched in November 2000 where it functioned as the main flight computer. A second Mongoose-V controlled the satellite's solid-state data recorder.
+The Mongoose-V requires 5 volts and is packaged into a 256-pin ceramic quad flatpack (CQFP).
+Examples of spacecraft that use the Mongoose-V include:
+
+Earth Observing-1 (EO-1)
+NASA's Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), launched in June 2001, carried a Mongoose-V flight computer similar to that on EO-1.
+NASA's Space Technology 5 series of microsatellites
+CONTOUR
+TIMED
+Pluto probe New Horizons
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+RAD750 Power PC
+LEON
+ERC32
+Radiation hardening
+Communications survivability
+Faraday cage
+Institute for Space and Defense Electronics, Vanderbilt University
+Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
+MESSENGER Mercury probe
+Mars rovers
+TEMPEST
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Mongoose-V product page at Synova's website