Scrape wikipedia-science: 48 new, 842 updated, 918 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Spring-0.md

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+---
+title: "Academic Spring"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Spring"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:22.386993+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Academic Spring was the designation, inspired by the Arab Spring, used for a short time in 2012 to indicate movements by academics, researchers, and scholars opposing the restrictive copyright and circulation of traditional academic journals and promoting free access online instead.
+
+
+== History ==
+There have been previous attempts to increase the availability of free and up-to-date scientific research. In 2004, there were reports in British media of a "revolution in academic publishing" which would make research freely available online but many scientists continued to publish their work in the traditional big name journals like Nature. The barriers to free access for recent scientific research became a hot topic in 2012, after a blog post by mathematician Timothy Gowers went viral in January. According to the Financial Times, the movement was named by Dennis Johnson of Melville House Publishing, though scientist Mike Taylor has suggested the name came from The Economist.
+
+
+=== Research Works Act ===
+
+In December 2011 the Research Works Act was proposed in the US Congress to restrict open access to research funded by the US federal government. This followed other similar proposed measures such as the Fair Copyright in Research Works Act. These attempts to limit free access to such material are controversial and have provoked lobbying for and against by numerous interested parties such as the Association of American Publishers and the American Library Association.
+
+
+=== The Cost of Knowledge ===
+
+In January 2012, Cambridge mathematician, Timothy Gowers, started a boycott of journals published by Elsevier. In part this was a reaction to their support for the Research Works Act. In response to an angry blog post by Gowers, the website The Cost of Knowledge was launched by a sympathetic reader. An online petition called The Cost of Knowledge was set up by fellow mathematician Tyler Neylon, to gather support for the boycott. By early April 2012, it had been signed by over eight thousand academics.
+
+As of mid-June 2012, the number of signatories exceeded 12,000.
+
+
+=== Access2Research ===
+
+In May 2012, a group of open-access activists formed the Access2Research initiative that went on to launch a petition to the White House to "require free access over the Internet to journal articles arising from taxpayer-funded research". The petition was signed by over 25,000 people within two weeks, which entitled it to an official response from the White House.
+
+
+== Open access ==
+
+Since about 2000, open access journals, which do not charge online readers, have been alternatives to the traditional journals. Successful publishers of these include BioMed Central which publishes over 200 journals, and the Public Library of Science, which publishes seven open access journals including PLoS ONE.
+As part of the Academic Spring, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Max Planck Society and Wellcome Trust  announced in April 2012 the establishment of eLife,
+
+which started publishing in October 2012.
+
+
+== Commentary and reactions ==
+Mike Taylor has argued that the Academic Spring may have some unexpected results beyond the obvious benefits. Referring to work by the biophysicist Cameron Neylon, he says that, because modern science is now more dependent on well-functioning networks than individuals, making information freely available may help computer-based analyses to provide opportunities for major scientific breakthroughs. Government and university officials have welcomed the prospect of saving on subscriptions which have been rising in cost, while universities' budgets have been shrinking. Mark Walport, the director of Wellcome Trust, has indicated that science sponsors do not mind having to fund publication in addition to the research. Not everyone has been supportive of the movement, with scientific publisher Kent Anderson calling it "shallow rhetoric aimed at the wrong target."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Sci-Hub
+Library Genesis
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Torrents-0.md

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+---
+title: "Academic Torrents"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Torrents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:23.601107+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Academic Torrents is a website which enables the sharing of research data using the BitTorrent protocol. The site was founded in November 2013, and is a project of the Institute for Reproducible Research (a 501(c)3 U.S. non-profit corporation). 
+The project is said to be similar to LOCKSS but with a focus on "offering researchers the opportunity to distribute the hosting of their papers and datasets to authors and readers, providing easy access to scholarly works and simultaneously backing them up on computers around the world."
+
+
+== Notable datasets ==
+
+
+=== Developing Human Connectome Project ===
+The developing Human Connectome Project related to the Human Connectome Project uses the platform. "Researchers from three leading British institutions are using BitTorrent to share over 150 GB of unique high-resolution brain scans of unborn babies with colleagues worldwide... The researchers opted to go for the Academic Torrents tracker, which specializes in sharing research data"
+
+
+=== CrossRef metadata ===
+The site hosts public metadata releases from Crossref which contain over 120+ million metadata records for scholarly work, each with a DOI. This was done so to allow the community to work with the entire database programmatically instead of using their API. "The sheer number of records means that, though anyone can use these records anytime, downloading them all via our APIs can be quite time-consuming. We hope this saves the research community valuable time during this crisis."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Digital library
+Digital preservation
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AfricArXiv-0.md

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+---
+title: "AfricArXiv"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AfricArXiv"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:24.880840+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+AfricArXiv is an open-access repository for preprints of academic publications which are either about Africa or by African scientists. The platform was established in 2018. It was established to make preprint servers more available in various fields and regions. Its establishment happen during trends to provide more digital services to support science in Africa.
+From its founding the platform welcomed publications in any African language. In July 2020 the platform began hosting audio and video files.
+The Center for Open Science hosts the platform. The cost of operating the servers is significant and that organization takes a fee to cover its costs.
+Preprints can be submitted to AfricArXiv via ScienceOpen. Users need to have a verified ORCID digital identifier and should include in their manuscripts a short summary translation in a traditional African language. After a member of the AfricArXiv team has checked the submission for formal criteria and approved the manuscript, it will be posted with a Crossref DOI and CC BY 4.0 attribution license.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of preprint repositories
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further consideration ==
+Ahinon, Justin Sègbédji; Arafat, Hisham; Ahmad, Umar; Achampong, Joyce; Aldirdiri, Osman; Ayodele, Obasegun Tekena; Okelo, Luke; Bezuidenhout, Louise; Cary, Michael; Fath, Nada; Ksibi, Nabil Aziz; Nasr, Fayza; Nguemeni, Carine; Maina, Mahmoud Bukar; Mensah, Priscilla; Obanda, Johanssen; Owango, Joy; Ogunlaja, Ahmed; Simpson, Gregory; Havemann, Johanna (25 September 2020). "AfricArXiv – the pan-African Open Scholarly Repository (Overview and Roadmap)". doi:10.31730/osf.io/56p3e. S2CID 242390278. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas-0.md

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+---
+title: "Allen Brain Atlas"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:26.197389+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Allen Mouse and Human Brain Atlases are projects within the Allen Institute for Brain Science which seek to combine genomics with neuroanatomy by creating gene expression maps for the mouse and human brain. They were initiated in September 2003 with a $100 million donation from Paul G. Allen and the first atlas went public in September 2006. 
+As of May 2012, seven brain atlases have been published: Mouse Brain Atlas, Human Brain Atlas, Developing Mouse Brain Atlas, Developing Human Brain Atlas, Mouse Connectivity Atlas, Non-Human Primate Atlas, and Mouse Spinal Cord Atlas. There are also three related projects with data banks: Glioblastoma, Mouse Diversity, and Sleep. It is the hope of the Allen Institute that their findings will help advance various fields of science, especially those surrounding the understanding of neurobiological diseases. The atlases are free and available for public use online.
+
+== History ==
+In 2001, Paul Allen gathered a group of scientists, including James Watson and Steven Pinker, to discuss the future of neuroscience and what could be done to enhance neuroscience research (Jones 2009). During these meetings David Anderson from the California Institute of Technology proposed the idea that a three-dimensional atlas of gene expression in the mouse brain would be of great use to the neuroscience community. The project was set in motion in 2003 with a 100 million dollar donation by Allen through the Allen Institute for Brain Science. 
+The project used a technique for mapping gene expression developed by Gregor Eichele and colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Goettingen, Germany. The technique uses colorimetric in situ hybridization to map gene expression. The project set a 3-year goal of finishing the project and making it available to the public.
+An initial release of the first atlas, the mouse brain atlas, occurred in December 2004. Subsequently, more data for this atlas was released in stages. The final genome-wide data set was released in September 2006. However, the final release of the atlas was not the end of the project; the Atlas is still being improved upon. Also, other projects including the human brain atlas, developing mouse brain, developing human brain, mouse connectivity, non-human primate atlas, and the mouse spinal cord atlas are being developed through the Allen Institute for Brain Science in conjunction with the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas.
+
+== Goals for the project ==
+
+The overarching goal and motto for all Allen Institute projects is "fueling discovery". The project strives to fulfill this goal and advance science in a few ways. First, they create brain atlases to better understand the connections between genes and brain functioning. They aim to advance the research and knowledge about neurobiological conditions such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Autism with their mapping of gene expression throughout the brain. 
+The Brain Atlas projects also follow the "Allen Institute" motto with their open release of data and findings. This policy is also related to another goal of the Institute: collaborative and multidisciplinary research. Thus, any scientist from any discipline is able to look at the findings and take them into account while designing their own experiments. Also available to the public is the Brain Explorer application.
+
+== Research techniques ==
+The Allen Institute for Brain Science uses a project-based philosophy for their research. Each brain atlas focuses on its own project, made up of its own team of researchers. To complete an atlas, each research team collects and synthesizes brain scans, medical data, genetic information and psychological data. With this information, they are able to construct the 3-D biochemical architecture of the brain and figure out which proteins are expressed in certain parts of the brain. To gather the needed data, scientists at the Allen Institute use various techniques. One technique involves the use of postmortem brains and brain scanning technology to discover where in the brain genes are turned on and off. Another technique, called in situ hybridization, or ISH, is used to view gene expression patterns as in situ hybridization images.
+Within the Brain Atlases, these 3-D ISH digital images and graphs reveal, in color, the regions where a given gene is expressed. In the Brain Explorer, any gene can be searched for and selected resulting in the in situ image appearing as an easily manipulated and explored fashion. Part of the creation of this anatomy-centred database of gene expression, includes aligning ISH data for each gene with a three-dimensional coordinate space through registration with a reference atlas created for the project.
+
+== Contributions to neuroscience ==
+The different types of cells in the central nervous system originate from varying gene expression. A map of gene expression in the brain allows researchers to correlate forms and functions. The Allen Brain Atlas lets researchers view the areas of differing expression in the brain which enables the viewing of neural connections throughout the brain. Viewing these pathways through differing gene expression as well as functional imaging techniques permits researchers to correlate between gene expression, cell types, and pathway function in relation to behaviors or phenotypes.
+Even though the majority of research has been done in mice, 90% of genes in mice have a counterpart in humans. This makes the Atlas particularly useful for modeling neurological diseases. The gene expression patterns in normal individuals provide a standard for comparing and understanding altered phenotypes. Extending information learned from mouse diseases will help better the understanding of human neurological disorders. The atlas can show which genes and particular areas are effected in neurological disorders; the action of a gene in a disease can be evaluated in conjunction with general expression patterns and this data could shed light on the role of the particular gene in the disorder.

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+title: "Allen Brain Atlas"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Brain explorer ==
+The Allen Brain Atlas website contains a downloadable 3-D interactive Brain explorer. The explorer is essentially a search engine for locations of gene expression; this is particularly useful in finding regions that express similar genes. Users can delineate networks and pathways using this application by connecting regions that co-express a certain gene. The explorer uses a multicolor scale and contains multiple planes of the brain that let viewers see differences in density and expression level. The images are a composite of many averaged samples so it is useful when comparing to individuals with abnormally low gene expression.
+
+== Atlases ==
+
+=== Mouse Brain ===
+The Allen Mouse Brain Atlas is a comprehensive genome-wide map of the adult mouse brain that reveals where each gene is expressed. The mouse brain atlas was the original project of the Allen Brain Atlas and was finished in 2006. The purpose of the atlas is to aid in the development of neuroscience research. The hope of the project is that it will allow scientists to gain a better understanding of brain diseases and disorders such as autism and depression.
+
+=== Human Brain ===
+The Allen Human Brain Atlas was made public in May 2010. It was the first anatomically and genomically comprehensive three-dimensional human brain map. The atlas was created to enhance research in many neuroscience research fields including neuropharmacology, human brain imaging, human genetics, neuroanatomy, genomics and more. The atlas is also geared toward furthering research into mental health disorders and brain injuries such as Alzheimer's disease, autism, schizophrenia and drug addiction.
+
+=== Developing Mouse Brain ===
+The Allen Developing Mouse Brain Atlas is an atlas which tracks gene expression throughout the development of a C57BL/6 mouse brain. The project began in 2008 and is currently ongoing. The atlas is based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It traces the growth, white matter, connectivity, and development of the C57BL/6 mouse brain from embryonic day 12 to postnatal day 80.
+This atlas enhances the ability of neuroscientists to study how pollutants and genetic mutations effect the development of the brain. Thus, the atlas may be used to determine what toxins pose special threats to children and pregnant mothers.
+
+=== Mouse Brain Connectivity ===
+The Allen Mouse Brain Connectivity Atlas was launched in November 2011. Unlike other atlases from the Allen Institute, this atlas focuses on the identification of neural circuitry that govern behavior and brain function. This neural circuitry is responsible for functions like behavior and perception. This map will allow scientists to further understand how the brain works and what causes brain diseases and disorders, such as Parkinson's disease and depression.
+
+=== Mouse Spinal Cord ===
+Unveiled in July 2008, the Allen Mouse Spinal Cord Atlas was the first genome-wide map of the mouse spinal cord ever constructed. The spinal cord atlas is a map of genome wide gene expression in the spinal cord of adult and juvenile C57 black mice. The initial unveiling included data for 2,000 genes and an anatomical reference section. A plan for the future includes expanding the amount of data to about 20,000 genes spanning the full length of the spinal cord.
+The aim of the spinal cord atlas is to enhance research in the treatment of spinal cord injury, diseases, and disorders such as Lou Gehrig's diseases and spinal muscular atrophy. The project was funded by an array of donors including the Allen Research Institute, Paralyzed Veterans of America Research Foundation, the ALS Association, Wyeth Research, PEMCO Insurance, National Multiple Sclerosis Society, International Spinal Research Trust, and many other organizations, foundations, corporate and private donors.
+
+== See also ==
+List of neuroscience databases
+EMAGE, the e-Mouse Atlas of Gene Expression
+
+== References ==
+
+Pawel K. Olszewski, "Analysis of the network of feeding neuroregulators using the AllenBrain Atlas" Neuroscience of Behavior, 1 January 2009.
+Robert Lee Hotz, "Probing the Brain's Mysteries" The Wall Street Journal, 24 January 2012.
+Allan Jones, "The Allen Brain Atlas: 5 years and beyond", Nature, 2009. doi:10.1038/nrn2722.
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Virginia Gewin (2005). "A Golden Age of Brain Exploration". PLOS Biology. 3 (1): e24. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030024. PMC 544547. PMID 15660159. 
+"New Brain Atlas Unveils 3-D Gene Map". ABC News. 26 September 2006.

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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_attaché-0.md

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+---
+title: "Science attaché"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_attaché"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:14.539947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A science attaché (also known as a scientific attaché or a technical attaché) is a member of a diplomatic mission, usually an embassy. A science attaché traditionally had three primary functions: advise the ambassador on scientific and technical matters, report on scientific and technological events, and represent their country in scientific and technical matters to foreign scientific and technical academies; to industry; to intergovernmental organizations and agencies; and to international non-governmental organizations.
+In 1998, the National Academy of Sciences called for the appointment of more science-savvy diplomats to the State Department to improve the quality of the scientific advice available to foreign policymakers. The panel also emphasized the need to encourage general foreign service staff to acquire scientific skills. Science attachés could help scientists understand the host nation's science culture and practices.
+Formerly, being appointed science attaché was viewed as the "kiss of death" for advancement within the foreign service. Though the perception may change from scientific issues such as global warming, global infectious diseases, and bioterrorism to foreign policymaking and diplomacy.
+
+
+== Historical functions ==
+The role of science attachés of the United States was first outlined in 1950 in a report entitled Science and Foreign Relations, issued by the United States State Department. It listed the primary duties of science attachés as:
+
+Reporting on significant scientific and technological developments
+Assistance in the exchange of scientific information
+Assistance in the exchange of scientific persons
+Assistance in the procurement of scientific apparatus, chemicals, and biologicals
+Cooperation with all United States groups abroad having programs with scientific and technological aspects
+General representations of United States science
+Scientific and technical advice to the Embassy staff
+Arrangements for collaborative research projects between the United States and foreign scientists
+General promotion of better understanding between the United States and foreign science
+
+
+== Notes and references ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ambassador
+Attaché

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_technician-0.md

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+---
+title: "Science technician"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_technician"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:15.716321+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Science technician is a profession involving working as a member of support staff in any science disciplines. The Science Council defines a technician as “a person who is skilled in the use of particular techniques and procedures to solve practical problems, often in ways that require considerable ingenuity and creativity. Technicians typically work with complex instruments and equipment, and require specialised training, as well as considerable practical experience, in order to do their job effectively”.
+Science technicians are frequently based in laboratories, but they also perform roles in workshops, studios, the field, or in any location where scientific work is being carried out. As a group, science technicians have been referred to as "Invisible"; members of the scientific workforce whose role in the process for forming new scientific knowledge has been poorly acknowledged and insufficiently studied. However, more recently their role has been studied in some detail.
+
+
+== Profession ==
+
+Professional training for science technicians varies between countries. In Germany, where science technicians are a subset of the "technical assistant" class of professions, state-certified technician training is a vocational training that lasts between two and three years. It allows specializations in, for instance, physics, chemistry, pharmacy, medicine and computer science, among others.
+In the UK, historically, Science technicians have been able to either join the professional body relating to the scientific field in which they work (for example, the Royal Society of Chemistry or the Institute of Physics) or the Institute of Science and Technology which is a professional organisation specifically for technical and specialist staff. Via a professional body or the Science Council Science technicians have been able to gain professional registration as a chartered scientist (CSci) or Registered Scientist (RSci). Since 2011, Science technicians have also been able to gain status as Registered Science Technicians (RSciTech).
+There are various awards that can be awarded for science technicians including the Gratnells Science Technician of the Year award.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_glassblowing-0.md

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+---
+title: "Scientific glassblowing"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_glassblowing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:16.954825+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientific glassblowing is a specialty field of lampworking used in industry, science, art and design used in research and production. Scientific glassblowing has been used in chemical, pharmaceutical, electronic and physics research including Galileo's thermometer, Thomas Edison's light bulb, and vacuum tubes used in early radio, TV and computers. More recently, the field has helped advance fiber optics, lasers, atomic and subatomic particle research, advanced communications development and semiconductors. The field combined hand skills using lathes and torches with modern computer assisted furnaces, diamond grinding and lapping machines, lasers and ultra-sonic mills.
+
+
+== Scientific glassblowing schools ==
+
+
+=== Degree programs ===
+Salem Community College in Carney's Point, New Jersey offers the only degree program in the United States, an Associate in Applied Science, with a focus on the construction of scientific glass apparatus. Students come from throughout the United States and from around the world to develop this specialized skill at Salem Community College.
+Alfred University offers a masters program in glass science and a PhD with a blend of theoretical and applied studies similar to degree programs in materials science and engineering.
+
+
+=== Universities offering courses ===
+The following is the list of recognized universities that provide courses in scientific glassblowing:
+
+University of Alabama
+Arizona State University
+Australian National University
+Grinnell College
+University of Pittsburgh
+Salem Community College
+University of Utah
+Yale University
+University of Oklahoma
+Purdue University
+University of Georgia
+
+
+== Notable scientific glassblowers ==
+John Calley (engineer)
+Clarence Madison Dally (killed by X-ray exposure in the course of his work)
+Heinrich Geißler (invented the Geissler tube)
+Jorg Meyer
+Mitsugi Ohno
+Joseph Patrick Slattery (radiography pioneer blew much of his own lab glassware)
+Arthur Compton
+
+
+== American Scientific Glassblowers Society ==
+The American Scientific Glassblowers Society (ASGS) is an association for scientific glassblowers and provides continuing education programs. The community is relatively small, with approximately 650 members.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+American Scientific Glassblowers Society
+British Society of Scientific Glassblowers
+Scientific Glassblowers Society of Australia and New Zealand
+Video of scientific glassblowing at Arizona State University

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+---
+title: "Technician"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technician"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:18.281630+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A technician is a worker in a field of technology who is proficient in the relevant skill and technique, with a relatively practical understanding of the theoretical principles.
+
+
+== Specialisation ==
+The term technician covers many different specialisations. These include:
+
+Work safety technician
+Systems technician
+Sciences technician
+Data systems technician
+Data processing technician
+Information systems technician
+Cryptologic technician
+Sonar technician
+Engineering technician
+Laboratory technician
+Digital imaging technician
+Machinery Technician
+Machines technician
+Electricity technician
+Electronics technician
+Computer repair technician
+Automation technician
+Pharmacy technician
+Nail technician
+Theatrical technician
+Emergency Medical Technician
+
+
+== Campaigns ==
+In the UK, a shortage of skilled technicians in the science, engineering and technology sectors has led to various campaigns to encourage more people to become technicians and to promote the role of technician.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Career and Technical Education
+History of technology
+Technical education
+Grey-collar worker
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+ Media related to Technicians at Wikimedia Commons

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologist-0.md

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+---
+title: "Volcanologist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:48:19.502138+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A volcanologist, or volcano scientist, is a geologist who focuses on understanding the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, sometimes active ones, to observe and monitor volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of inquiry in recent times is the prediction of eruptions to alleviate the impact on surrounding populations and monitor natural hazards associated with volcanic activity. Geologists who research volcanic materials that make up the solid Earth are referred to as igneous petrologists.
+
+
+== Etymology ==
+The word volcanologist (or vulcanologist) is derived from the English volcanology (volcano + -logy), which was derived from the French volcanologie (or vulcanologie), which was further derived from the French word volcan (volcano), which was even further derived from Vulcanus, the Latin name of the Roman god of fire and metalworking. The Latin word is of Etruscan origin, but unknown meaning.
+
+
+== Job overview ==
+
+
+=== Job Description ===
+Volcanologists research many aspects of volcanic processes to better understand planetary formation or to monitor current and future volcanic eruptions in order to protect citizens living in volcanic hazard zones. Volcanologists work at universities, museums or other national research institutes (often including volcano observatories), or in industry. Volcanologists working in academia will be usually involved in teaching geology classes if based at a university (lecturer or professor), running of laboratory experiments, data collection, and writing of scientific peer-reviewed papers for the scientific community to critique and advance knowledge and discovery. Volcanologists working for volcano observatories and museums work in close collaboration with academic researchers, but day-to-day tasks may also include the collection and curation of volcanic samples, writing of reports from monitoring stations, and public outreach relating to volcanic hazards and climate  change
+
+
+=== Sub-disciplines of volcanology ===
+Igneous petrologist
+Physical volcanogist - someone who typically studies the physical characteristics of volcanic ash deposits and rocks.
+Experimental petrologist - someone who simulates volcanic and magmatic processes in a laboratory (are often specialists in thermodynamics applied to Earth processes).
+Geochemist - those who study the chemical composition of volcanic rocks and gases (see also isotope geochemistry). Geochemists often use mass spectrometry and electron microprobe analysis to understand the pre-eruption history of volcanic rocks and how fast eruptions occur.
+Volcano geophysicist (or volcano seismologist)
+Planetary volcanologist - someone who studies volcanic processes on other planetary bodies.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+
+== Notable volcanologists (currently active) ==
+Haraldur Sigurdsson (1939-), Icelandic volcanologist and geochemist
+Bill McGuire (born 1954)
+Keith Rowley (born 1949; Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago since 2015)
+Robert Stephen John Sparks (born 1949), Chaning Wills Professor of Geology in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol.
+Donald B. Dingwell (born 1958 in Corner Brook, Newfoundland, Canada) is a geoscientist, the director of the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Ordinarius for Mineralogy and Petrology of LMU Munich
+Katharine Cashman is an American volcanologist, professor of volcanology at the University of Bristol
+Terry Plank an American geochemist, volcanologist and professor of Earth science at Columbia College, Columbia University, and the Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory
+Richard Arculus is an Australian petrologist and volcanologist, formerly a professor of the School of Earth Sciences at the Australian National University.
+Rosaly Lopes (born 8 January 1957 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) is a Senior Scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory specializing in planetary geology and volcanology
+Clive Oppenheimer (born 1964) is a British volcanologist, and Professor of Volcanology in the Department of Geography of the University of Cambridge
+Jonathan Fink (born 1951) is Professor of Geology at Portland State University known for studies of physical processes in volcanology
+Tamsin Mather British Professor of Earth Sciences at the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford. She studies volcanic processes and their impacts on the Earth's environment and has appeared on the television and radio
+Marie Edmonds (born 14 September 1975) is a Professor of volcanology and geology at the University of Cambridge whose research focuses on the physics and chemistry of volcanic eruptions and magmatism and understanding volatile cycling in the solid Earth as mediated by plate tectonics
+Jani Radebaugh American planetary scientist and professor of geology at Brigham Young University
+Lindy Elkins-Tanton, planetary scientist and professor with expertise in planet formation and evolution.  She is the Director of the School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University (ASU) in Tempe, Arizona, Principal Investigator of NASA's Psyche mission, and former director of the Carnegie Institution for Science's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.
+Jenni Barclay, professor of volcanology at the University of East Anglia. She works on ways to mitigate volcanic risks, the interactions between rainfall and volcanic activity and the communication of volcanic hazards in the Caribbean
+Claire Horwell, professor of Geohealth in the Department of Earth Sciences and Institute of Hazard, Risk and Resilience at Durham University and the founding Director of the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN). She studies the health hazards of natural and industrial mineral dusts
+
+
+== Notable volcanologists ==
+Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD)
+Pliny the Younger (61 – c. 113 AD)
+George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788)
+James Hutton (1726–1797)
+Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801)
+George Julius Poulett Scrope (1797–1876)
+Giuseppe Mercalli (1850–1914)
+Pope Pius XI (1857–1939), Catholic pope who, in his early life as Achille Ratti, wrote a chapter on earthquakes in an authoritative book "Vulcani e fenomeni vulcanici in Italia" ("Volcanoes and volcanic phenomena in Italy") co-authored with Giuseppe Mercalli, published in 1883
+Alfred Lacroix  (1863–1948)
+Frank A. Perret (1867–1943)
+Thomas Jaggar (1871–1953), founder of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
+Alfred Rittmann (1893–1980)
+Howel Williams (1898–1980)
+Gordon A. Macdonald (1911–1978)
+Sigurður Þórarinsson (1912–1983)
+Haroun Tazieff (1914–1998), advisor to the French Government and Jacques Cousteau
+George P. L. Walker (1926–2005), pioneering volcanologist who transformed the subject into a quantitative science
+Katia and Maurice Krafft (1942–1991 and 1946–1991, respectively), died at Mount Unzen in Japan, 1991
+Peter Francis (1944–1999)
+David A. Johnston (1949–1980), killed during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens
+Harry Glicken (1958–1991), died at Mount Unzen in Japan by pyroclastic flow, 1991
+Bruce Houghton (1950-)
+
+
+== See also ==
+Volcanology
+Volcanism
+Igneous Petrology
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Volcano Live- What is a volcanologist?
+Environmental Science- How to Become a Volcanologist