Scrape wikipedia-science: 810 new, 930 updated, 1787 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_Design_Science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Citizen Design Science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_Design_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:13:54.029506+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Citizen Design Science is the combination of Citizen Science and Design Science. Design Science is known since the early 1960s when Buckminster Fuller defined it as systematic designing, whereas half a decade later Herbert A. Simon saw it more as the study of the design process. The term Citizen Science emerged in the 1990s as work that citizens of all ages and backgrounds conduct under the guidance of scientists, collecting data or inventing processes or artefacts. A contemporary example is the Zooniverse platform that enables people to “contribute to real discoveries in fields ranging from astronomy to zoology”.
+Citizen Design Science is a combination of both concepts for urban systems: it adds the combination of human observation, cognition, experience and local knowledge into a scientific framework that improves the planning, design, management and transformation of buildings and cities. Design Science contributes the methods and instruments, Citizen Science adds data and inventions. Thus, Citizen Design Science bundles individual observations and inventions into a bottom up flow of data and information to improve the planning and functioning of a city. As such this concept is taught at ETH Zurich and online
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science_and_sustainable_agriculture-0.md

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+---
+title: "Citizen science and sustainable agriculture"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science_and_sustainable_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:13:55.360956+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Citizen science has been promoted as a strategy to further sustainable agriculture via public participation in research and case studies. Through public engagement, a variety of sustainable agriculture methods can be learned and practiced, in contrast to relying upon only professional-scientific studies to further research. Public participation is designed to allow those outside professional science to identify problems in sustainable agriculture that most directly affect them and help generate solutions through the collaboration between the broader public and researchers.
+As global patterns in the 21st century trend towards more extreme climate events, which can lead to disruptions in the food system and impact overall human health, citizen science and sustainable agriculture present a possible solution. Preliminary research indicates that there is opportunity for sustainable agriculture to be enhanced through citizen science, particularly in partnership with farmers, in advancing food justice and increasing understanding of diverse farming techniques and technologies.  
+
+== Citizen science ==
+Citizen science can be broadly defined as any type of research, data-collection, or knowledge-production that contributes to collective scientific understanding and fields, but is conducted by the public or non-professional scientists. There are multiple definitions and interpretations, indicating there is not one formal understanding. While the term "citizen science" was introduced by the United States and United Kingdom in the mid-1900s, it has been incorporated across many countries over generations. Perceived benefits include building connections between formal scientists and the general public, and generating projects and data that are more aligned with current societal or policy needs. Criticisms and limitations include varying priorities and values, the potential for bias to be introduced in the data, the public perception of data as being non-credible, challenges in data dissemination, maintaining privacy, and loss of global context when focusing at a hyper-local spatial scale.
+
+== Achieving goals ==
+Citizen science has been promoted for achieving major policy goals, such as the UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals, and as a way to monitor and evaluate global policy components and goals such as zero hunger and reducing inequalities among countries. Increasing participation and engagement across the population is one way to educate citizens about sustainable development goals and create a sense of shared responsibility.
+
+== Sustainable agriculture ==
+
+Sustainable agriculture can be broadly defined as farming via methods that satisfy food and production needs while remaining profitable and sustaining farmers, the environment, and natural resources. The definition of sustainable agriculture varies depending on whether it is being defined within political or scientific discourse. The global political discourse focuses on economic and social dimensions, such as food production to support the world's increasing population, with a focus on developing countries and human rights. The scientific discourse centralizes the agricultural sector and environmental management and protection within it.
+Sustainable agricultural practices and technologies can help mitigate extreme climate events by meeting increasing human needs and improving the resilience and sustainability of ecosystems and natural resources. Sustainable agricultural technologies generally do not have adverse environmental impacts, improve the natural environment, are affordable and effective, and improve food production.
+
+=== Fundamentals of sustainable agriculture ===
+The following are examples of standard practices and frameworks for sustainable agriculture:
+
+Integrated farm management is the combination of natural and human capital to solve agricultural and environmental issues. Natural-based solutions include methods such as soil regeneration, nutrient cycling, allelopathy, and nitrogen fixation. These solutions build resilience, contribute to biodiversity, and support ecosystem services. Human capital includes farmers' skills and knowledge of agricultural practices.
+Dynamic balance requires ongoing evaluation of agricultural methods to ensure that negative environmental and socio-economic impacts are mitigated, while the benefits are maximized. This includes minimizing the use of non-renewable resources.
+Regenerative design refers to designing systems with sustainable agricultural intensification, regenerative agriculture, and a circular economy in mind. This allows for the preservation of both food security and natural resources in the long-run.
+Social development includes increasing community engagement and reducing inequities in agricultural production processes. The focus is on developing social capital and enabling equal participation in agricultural development.
+
+== Applications ==
+Advocates for citizen science in sustainable agriculture propose that it helps increase the amount of available information and supports those who participate in the process. Citizens who participate are not academics but rather ordinary people, which offers a new view on the problems and questions being addressed. This allows researchers to identify which problems matter the most to farmers and what gaps exist in the research. The amount of data generated from these efforts expands the research pool as well.
+The process integrates the public into the problems being addressed in sustainable agriculture and allows for widespread communication across participants who can share new information and techniques for dealing with related problems. Access to researchers can provide supplemental  knowledge, support community members to tackle the problems they regularly face, and advises them on how to argue for changes in the political field.  
+
+== Examples of citizen science in sustainable agriculture ==
+Citizen science efforts can involve documentation, reporting, and sharing of observations for sustainable agriculture methods.
+
+=== Pest and pathogen monitoring ===
+
+In northern Italy, the brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys, is an agricultural pest. A pest monitoring system was developed to engage citizens in the documentation of the brown marmorated stink bug through an app called "BugMap." Researchers were then able to identify areas most threatened by the pest through the large number of submitted citizen reports. Although the "BugMap" was user-friendly, not all geographic areas had access to mobile apps and internet connectivity, posing a limitation for web-based approaches. In another example, the documentation of invasive plant species relies on photo recognition that can produce inaccurate results when there is a lack of internet connectivity.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science_and_sustainable_agriculture-1.md

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+---
+title: "Citizen science and sustainable agriculture"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_science_and_sustainable_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:13:55.360956+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Climate adaptation ===
+Extreme climate events have increased the need for crop variety in order to sustain current food systems. Crop variety testing, also known as the tricot approach, involves the observation of three different crop varieties, fertilizer types, or a combination of both to evaluate which options work best. The tricot approach recognizes that there are gender inequalities in agricultural production and attempts to involve more women in the process. This approach has shown to be successful as it engages both researchers and farmers to find solutions that are specific to various environmental areas and needs. The tricot approach was employed on multiple plots in Nicaragua, Ethiopia, and India with farmers as citizen scientists. Each country analyzed climate effects on different seed varieties allowing them to adjust in the next planting cycle. This iterative process documented the replacement of seed varieties for climate adaptation allowing results to be replicated and scalable.
+
+=== Pollination ===
+Pollinators are an important aspect of human survival as many fruits, vegetables, and plants require cross pollination for reproduction. In urban areas pollinators face habitat loss as their natural environments are disrupted by human populations. A citizen science project, called Native Bee Watch, began in urban Colorado as a way to collect data on bee morphospecies. Both citizen scientists and researchers collected comparable data that is being used as a conservation tool for bee habitats.
+
+== Limitations ==
+There are a few challenges in integrating citizen science with sustainable agriculture. Many agriculture and food-related topics, such as nutrition, have no notable citizen science participation or research. Citizen science also most often occurs at smaller scales and the local level, so its coverage varies significantly across disciplines, geographies, and socioeconomic groups.
+Farmers with smaller farms cannot contribute in the same way those with larger farms might be able to, as they may lack the resources or time to participate. There are also challenges in sustaining people's participation. Farmers have to consider the trade-offs between spending more time working versus participating in citizen science, weighing immediate needs against potential large-scale benefits. These disparities are further exacerbated by the fact that academics or researchers often need highly regulated large-scale studies for more accurate and structured data, which might only be possible in cooperation with larger farms.
+Citizen science often has unequal representation in terms of demographics. Those who participate are  more likely to identify as white, male, and of higher socioeconomic status. Few citizen science projects have been completed in the Global South. These are often farming-dependent countries that are more vulnerable to environmental, social, or economic issues and could benefit from these projects. Citizen science projects should evaluate whether the diversity of participants represents the broader population and if there are barriers to participation specific to different subpopulations.
+These limitations mean that the findings of citizen science work in sustainable agriculture may not be as easily aggregated to the regional or national level or applied to new or different contexts.
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_sourcing-0.md

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+---
+title: "Citizen sourcing"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_sourcing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:13:56.582799+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Citizen sourcing is the government adoption of crowdsourcing techniques for the purposes of (1) enlisting citizens in the design and execution of government services and (2) tapping into the citizenry's collective intelligence for solutions and situational awareness. 
+Applications of citizen sourcing include:
+
+The use of ideation tools by government agencies to collect ideas and suggestions from the public
+The use of problem-solving tools that allow citizens to identify and evaluate solutions to problems proposed
+The adoption of citizen reporting platforms, such as for crime or emergency response information
+The government monitoring of social media, such as Twitter, for situational awareness, such as with regard to natural disasters
+Citizen sourcing has gained prominence as part of the Obama administration's Open Government Initiative and is seen, in the words of Vivek Kundra, as a way of driving "innovation by tapping into the ingenuity of the American people" to solve those problems that are too big for government to solve on its own. Similarly, David Cameron of the British Conservatives believes that citizen sourcing mechanisms and the advent of Web 2.0 technologies will help usher in "the next age of government" by truly enabling citizens to act on John Kennedy's historic call to "ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country."
+
+
+== History ==
+Citizen sourcing is a derivative of the term crowdsourcing. "Citizen" is used instead of "crowd" to emphasise its governmental application and civic purpose. Citizen sourcing is a new take on the concept of the coproduction of public services by service users and communities enabled by the maturation of Web 2.0 participatory technologies.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+
+
+=== Citizen advocacy ===
+For part of the Obama and Trump Administrations, the We the People system collected signatures on petitions, which were entitled to an official response from the White House once a certain number had been reached.
+
+
+=== Online ideation platforms for government ===
+Taiwan uses a system called vTaiwan to crowdsource deliberations over important issues, and to draft proposed legislation for the country's government. It was created in 2015 by the g0v community as part of the Sunflower Student Movement. Output from the platform was influential in the regulation of Uber, allowing fintech experimentation, and dozens of other issues, though not all (such as the legalization of online alcohol sales) were permanently adopted. vTaiwan inspired an in-house government system called Join, which is being used with some local governments who are committing to respond to petitions that have reached a certain threshold of support.
+Granicus is an example of another solution that has been implemented in a number of cities like Austin, Texas that allows the public to submit ideas for government services, improve upon these ideas with the help of government employees that moderate the discussions online, and ultimately design solutions in a crowdsourcing fashion that can be implemented by the city. HunchBuzz is another example which has been implemented by New Zealand's central government and is being rolled out to local city councils. Govocal is a more European-oriented ideation platform on which the citizens co-create their city through ideation and citizen-sourcing challenges. Their approach to civic engagement is through gamification, in order to incentivise citizens to share their input. Citizens.is is a similar solution from Iceland used by governments in several countries.
+
+
+=== Citizen reporting ===
+The City of Boston provides a Citizens Connect iPhone App that allows constituents to report various services requests, including for removing graffiti, filling potholes, and fixing traffic lights. A similar system, SeeClickFix, has been adopted in a number of cities across the United States.
+
+
+=== Disaster response ===
+Online communities of citizens such as the Crisis Commons (see Crisis camp) and the International Network of Crisis Mappers provide assistance to professional responders on the ground by performing data-driven tasks, such as locating missing persons (see, for instance, Person finder), converting satellite imagery into street maps (see, for instance, OpenStreetMap), and reporting and processing actionable citizen reports of needs and damage (see, for instance, the Ushahidi platform).
+During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries including Singapore, Australia, Canada, China, Germany and France, developed apps that relied upon citizens to provide personal details which could be used to track and manage the spread of the virus.
+
+
+=== Patent examination ===
+The Peer-to-Patent system enables citizens to assist the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in evaluating the validity of patent applications. Following the implementation of Peer-to-Patent, the USPTO started exploring how to further integrate citizens into the patent application review process.  They invited experts to present at two roundtables on using citizen submissions in prior art.  Presenters at the roundtables included experienced representatives from Peer-to-Patent,  Ask Patents, Patexia, and Article One Partners. The USPTO also opened the process up to citizens by requesting public comments and suggestions on how to proceed following each of the two roundtables.
+
+
+=== Citizen problem solving ===
+Several U.S. federal agencies run inducement prize contests, including NASA and the Environmental Protection Agency.
+NASA uses crowdsourcing for analyzing some large sets of images, and as part of the Open Government Initiative of the Obama Administration, the General Services Administration collected and amalgamated suggestions for improving federal websites.
+The City of Medellin, Colombia uses the power of the citizens' collective intelligence to identify potential solutions for important problems the city faces. The platform structures problems as open challenges; citizens can ideate, propose, identify, filter and vote on solutions, and the Mayor's office reviews and implements solutions of its choosing.
+
+
+=== Participatory budgeting ===
+Some jurisdictions delegate responsibility for allocating a certain portion of their budget to an assembly of interested citizens. This process is known as participatory budgeting; originating in Brazil, it is now used by thousands of cities around the world.
+
+
+== Research ==
+The first conference focusing on Crowdsourcing for Politics and Policy took place at Oxford University, under the auspices of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2014. Research has emerged since 2012 that focuses on the use of crowdsourcing for policy purposes. These include the experimental investigation of the use of Virtual Labor Markets for policy assessment, and an assessment of the potential for citizen involvement in process innovation for public administration.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+CrowdLaw Catalog - a list of projects worldwide
+CrowdLaw - case studies and articles

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Nature_Challenge-0.md

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+---
+title: "City Nature Challenge"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Nature_Challenge"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:13:57.909834+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The City Nature Challenge is an annual, global, community science competition to document urban biodiversity. The challenge is a bioblitz that engages residents and visitors to find and document plants, animals, and other organisms living in urban areas. The goals are to engage the public in the collection of biodiversity data, with three awards each year for the cities that make the most observations, find the most species, and engage the most people.
+Participants primarily use the iNaturalist app and website to document their observations. The observation period is followed by several days of identification and the final announcement of results. Participants need not know how to identify the species; help is provided through iNaturalist's automated species identification feature as well as the community of users on iNaturalist, including professional scientists and expert naturalists.
+
+
+== History ==
+The City Nature Challenge was founded by Alison Young and Rebecca Johnson of the California Academy of Sciences and Lila Higgins of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. The first event took place in 2016, in which Los Angeles competed against San Francisco and won in all three categories (most observations, most species, most participants). In 2017 the challenge expanded to 16 cities across the United States, with a different city winning in each category. In 2018 it expanded to 68 cities across the world, but US participation still dominated and San Francisco won in all categories. The 2019 challenge was more than doubled in scale and took the competition beyond its US roots, with Cape Town, winning two of the three categories.
+In 2020, the organizers removed the competition aspect due to the COVID-19 pandemic, stating, "To ensure the safety and health of all participants, this year’s CNC is no longer a competition. Instead, we want to embrace the collaborative aspect of sharing observations online with a digital community, and celebrate the healing power of nature as people document their local biodiversity to the best of their ability." This change remained in effect for following years. 
+City Nature Challenge has helped inspire regional yearly bioblitzes such as the Asia Nature Challenge and Great Southern Bioblitz that can help fill global participation and biodiversity data gaps that are not just focused on cities. These bioblitzes allow parts of the world with different seasons to observe life at times of the year they have more biodiversity on display. Asia Nature Challenge also has helped focus and fill taxonomic data gaps through coordinating with projects like the Big Butterfly Count in Nepal.
+
+
+== Results ==
+
+Reference:
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clickworkers-0.md

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+---
+title: "Clickworkers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clickworkers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:13:59.214495+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ClickWorkers was a small NASA experimental project that uses public volunteers (nicknamed "clickworkers" on the site) for scientific tasks. Clickworkers are able to work when, and for however long they choose, doing routine analysis that would normally require months of work by scientists or graduate students. The web site and database were created and maintained by one engineer, Bob Kanefsky, and advised by two scientists, Nadine Barlow and Virginia Gulick. The pilot study was sponsored by the NASA Ames Director's Discretionary Fund.
+As of March 31, 2020, the Clickworkers volunteer program appears to be defunct. None of the links to the program are functional, as of that date.
+
+
+== Identifying Martian craters ==
+The original phase ran from November 2000 to September 2001, identifying and classifying the age of craters on Mars images from Viking Orbiter that had already been analyzed by NASA. The goal was to answer two meta-science questions:
+
+Is the public ready, willing, and able to help science?
+Does this new way of powering science analysis produce results that are just as good as the traditional way?
+In February 2001 clickworkers started processing new images from Mars Global Surveyor, surveying small craters never before cataloged. Clickworkers also searched Mars images for "honeycomb" terrain, although no further images were discovered and it is suspected that this is an illusory feature type. Their analysis might potentially be useful for scientists, although there are no specific plans for using it yet.
+As of 2007, new beta tasks were up on the Clickworker site. This time workers were being asked to help catalog Mars landforms in one of two ways. In the first task, high resolution images from the HiRISE camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter are displayed and the volunteers are to stamp areas on the image with appropriate landform types. The second task took a different approach and displayed wider field views from the older MOC camera on Mars Global Surveyor. The landforms on these wider views were then marked, and interesting features could be tagged for possible future hi-res imaging with HiRISE.
+
+
+== New site ==
+In November 2009 it was announced that NASA has developed a new website to allow volunteer users to help in Martian mapping. The site "Be a Martian" went live on November 17, 2009, and allows users to either map features or count craters on Mars. As of March 2020, the "Be a Martian" website appears to be defunct.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Virtual volunteering
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ClickWorkers (original site), now defunct

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_Observation_and_Seabird_Survey_Team-0.md

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+---
+title: "Coastal Observation and Seabird Survey Team"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_Observation_and_Seabird_Survey_Team"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:14:00.455245+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Coastal Observation and Seabird Survey Team (COASST) is a citizen science project of the University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, US, with a goal of monitoring marine ecosystem health with the support of citizens within coastal communities. With the help of hundreds of volunteers, COASST assesses beach conditions and identifies and tracks any carcasses of dead seabirds found. Data on the carcass of a seabird contributes to the creation of a baseline record for the death rates of various species of seabirds, including which beaches birds are found at and in what density. Any irregularities can be identified and evaluated, so the cause of any increased mortality can be identified. COASST works with state, tribal, and federal agencies, environmental organizations, and community groups to help achieve their goals of monitoring and successfully establishing marine conservation solutions.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+COASST was founded in 1998 by Julia Parrish with the goal of expanding long-term data collection on seabirds, including baseline data for discovering patterns of seabird mortality, natural or human-induced, through the program. Due to the increasing human use of coastal waters, Parish envisioned a program that could provide data on both resident and migrant species of birds; mortality rates after oil spills; levels of chronic oiling, information regarding some incidents of entanglement with fishing gear; and causes of death for seabird populations. Since a live bird monitoring program would be difficult, Parish opted to monitor carcasses from beached birds, which could be tracked and identified by anyone.
+In July 1998, Parrish obtained a grant from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to fund her vision of creating a seabird monitoring program that would generate baseline data to help assess patterns of seabird mortality due to natural and human-induced events. The first director of the program, Todd Hass, co-developed COASST with Parrish. Ten years later, COASST has expanded from monitoring five beaches along the outer coast of Washington state, to almost 300 beaches spread across northern California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. As of 2018, COASST has more than 1000 participants, which makes COASST the largest beached bird monitoring network in the world today.
+
+
+== Project recognition ==
+The observations of COASST volunteers on jellyfish have been published in both the scientific literature and the popular press. Stories about COASST observations have presented the stories of citizen scientists, common murre die-offs, Cassin's auklets, and puffins In 2013, the White House honored Parrish for her work in establishing and leading the COASST program.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_Collaborative_Rain,_Hail_and_Snow_Network-0.md

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+---
+title: "Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_Collaborative_Rain,_Hail_and_Snow_Network"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:14:01.634955+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network, or CoCoRaHS, is a network of volunteer weather observers in the United States, Canada, and the Bahamas that take daily readings of precipitation and report them to a central data store over the Internet. The program is an example of citizen science.
+
+
+== History ==
+In 1997, the network was started in Larimer County, Colorado, after a flash flood in Spring Creek killed five people and damaged structures in the city of Fort Collins, Colorado, including hundreds of millions of US dollars in damage to the Colorado State University campus.
+
+The severity of the flood and its widespread spatial variability surprised meteorologists, and Nolan Doesken, a former assistant state climatologist for the state of Colorado, asked for precipitation measurements from private citizens in the area. About 300 responded to his emergency request for data. Said Doesken later: "The results of the data showed that more than 14 in. (36 cm) of rain fell over southwest Fort Collins, the area where the flood waters originated, while less than 2 in. (5 cm) of rain fell only 3–4 mi (5–6 km) east. The enthusiastic interest shown by volunteers and the great value of the data verified the need for such a service, and CoCoRaHS was born."
+
+
+== Expansion to other U.S. States/territories and other countries ==
+The program was originally confined to Colorado (the first "Co" in "CoCoRaHS" stood for "Colorado" instead of "Community"), but began expanding to other states, first expanding to Wyoming in 2003, with the last expansion into Nebraska in March 2013.
+
+
+== Users ==
+
+CoCoRaHS is used by a wide variety of organizations and individuals. The National Weather Service (NWS), other meteorologists, hydrologists, emergency managers, city utilities (water supply, water conservation, storm water), transportation departments, insurance adjusters, the USDA, engineers, mosquito control, ranchers and farmers, outdoor and recreation interests, teachers, students, and neighbors in the community are examples of people who use CoCoRaHS data.
+
+
+=== Other programs ===
+In or around 2000, the National Weather Service Lincoln, Illinois independently began a similar program, the Significant Weather Observing Program (SWOP). CoCoRaHS data supplements the more rigorous data from the national program with increased spatial and temporal resolution. Real-time data is also provided by the Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP), whose users operate weather stations that automatically report over the Internet, and which supplements the more rigorous data reported by formal surface weather observation stations. The earliest and thus critically important for its long-term historical record from respective locations is the Cooperative Observer program of manually recorded daily summaries.
+
+
+== Sponsors ==
+The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) are major sponsors of CoCoRaHS and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is also a partner. Other organizations have contributed either financially or with supplies and equipment. Many other organizations and individuals have also pitched in time and resources to help keep the network up and running.
+
+
+== Forms ==
+Gregory Syroney with the Scioto County Storm Chaser Center, in Portsmouth, Ohio created the Significant Weather Report Form PDF File for CoCoRaHS Headquarters in Fort Collins.
+
+
+== Status ==
+As of 2015, all fifty states, the District of Columbia, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico participate in CoCoRaHS.
+
+
+=== Canada ===
+In December 2011, the CoCoRaHS Canada network began in Manitoba following a massive flood in that province.
+As of 2014, the network had expanded to the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan, with over 20,000 participants as of March 2015.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Skywarn
+Safecast (organization)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+ This article incorporates text available under the CC BY 3.0 license.
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+CoCoRaHS website and blog
+Twitter profile
+Facebook page
+NOAA Cooperative Weather Observer Program

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md

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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:38:51.782607+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:14:02.882997+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_Observer_Program-0.md

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+---
+title: "Cooperative Observer Program"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_Observer_Program"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:14:04.182634+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The NOAA Cooperative Observer Program (COOP) is a citizen weather observer network run by the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) and National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). Over 8,700 volunteers from the fifty states and all territories report at least daily a variety of weather conditions such as daily maximum and minimum temperatures, 24-hour precipitation totals, including snowfall, and significant weather occurrences throughout a day that are recorded via remarks in observer logs. Some stations also report stream stage or tidal levels. 
+
+Daily observations are reported electronically or over the phone, and monthly logs are submitted electronically or via the mail. Many stations are located in rural areas but the network also includes long-term stations in most urban centers. Observation locations include farms, in urban and suburban areas, National Parks, seashores, and mountaintops. Volunteers are trained by local NWS offices who provide rain gauges, snowsticks, thermometers, or other instruments. Data is initially received and analyzed by local NWS offices then ultimately stored and analyzed by NCEI, which also does final data quality checks. The program began with act of Congress in 1890 and grew out a network of observers developed by the Smithsonian Institution. It was a backbone of the U.S. climatological observation network and remains an important network in providing long-term observations of particular locations.
+The Cooperative Weather Observer network consists of manual observations of only a few variables and consists of daily summaries rather than being continuous (i.e. real-time). Because of these limitations and other sensor limitations, as well as to attain a denser network of observations, there has been a move to supplement the coop program using automated weather stations since the 1990s. NWS sponsored programs include the Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) and Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network (CoCoRaHS). The coop network predates but grew to supplement significant surface weather observation sites typically located around major airports. Mesonets also supplement these major weather stations and may be official or unofficial, possess varying degrees of rigor, may be temporary or used for specific research project goals, and some (typically for temporary research projects) are even mobile.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Significant Weather Observing Program (SWOP)
+Skywarn
+Spotter Network
+Safecast (organization)
+Snow gauge
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+NWS National Cooperative Observer Program (NWS)
+Cooperative Observer Network (NCEI)
+Cooperative Observer's Network Observation Forms (Climate.gov)
+Cooperative Observer Program (COOP) Training Materials (NWS Chief Learning Office)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic-Ray_Extremely_Distributed_Observatory-0.md

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+---
+title: "Cosmic-Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic-Ray_Extremely_Distributed_Observatory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:14:05.384354+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cosmic-Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory (CREDO) is a scientific project initiated at the end of August 2016 by Polish scientists from the Institute of Nuclear Physics in Kraków (researchers from the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary also joined the project) whose purpose is the detection of cosmic rays and the search for dark matter. Its aim is to involve as many people as possible in the construction of a global system of cosmic ray detectors, from which it will be possible to examine the essence of dark matter. Having a camera and a GPS module, a smartphone works well as a detector of particles from space.
+
+
+== Objective ==
+The main objective of CREDO is the detection and analysis of extended cosmic ray phenomena, so-called super-preshowers (SPS), using existing as well as new infrastructure (cosmic-ray observatories, educational detectors, single detectors etc.). The search for ensembles of cosmic ray events initiated by SPS is yet an untouched topic, in contrast to the current state-of-the-art analysis, which is focused on the detection of single cosmic ray events. Theoretical explanation of SPS could be given either within classical (e.g., photon-photon interaction) or exotic (e.g., Super Heavy Dark Matter decay or annihilation) scenarios, thus detection of SPS would provide a better understanding of particle physics, high energy astrophysics and cosmology. The ensembles of cosmic rays can be classified based on the spatial and temporal extent of particles constituting the ensemble. Some classes of SPS are predicted to have huge spatial distribution, a unique signature detectable only with a facility of global size. Since development and commissioning of a completely new facility with such requirements is economically unwarranted and time-consuming, the global analysis goals are achievable when all types of existing detectors are merged into a worldwide network.  The idea to use the instruments in operation is based on a novel trigger algorithm: in parallel to looking for neighbour surface detectors receiving the signal simultaneously, one should also look for spatially isolated stations clustered in a small time window. On the other hand, CREDO's strategy is also aimed at an active engagement of a large number of participants, who will contribute to the project by using common electronic devices (e.g. smartphones), capable of detecting cosmic rays. It will help not only in expanding the geographical spread of CREDO, but also in managing a large manpower necessary for a more efficient crowd-sourced pattern recognition scheme to identify and classify SPS. A worldwide network of cosmic-ray detectors could not only become a unique tool to study fundamental physics, it will also provide a number of other opportunities, including space weather or geophysics studies. Among the latter, one can list the potential to predict earthquakes by monitoring the rate of low energy cosmic-ray events. This diversity of potential applications has motivated the researchers to advertise the concept across the astroparticle physics community.
+
+
+== Implementation ==
+The user must install an application that turns their phone into a cosmic ray detector, connect it to the charger and arrange it horizontally; for example, put it on a table or bedside cabinet. It is also important that the cameras of the device are well covered, for example with a piece of black adhesive tape, and notifications indicated by the blinking of lights are turned off. If a radiation particle passes through a photosensitive matrix in the phone, it will stimulate several pixels, which will be noticed by the program that sends information to the server. Thanks to the GPS module, the time and place of the event is also known.
+All data from smartphones will then be analyzed together in the Academic Computer Center Cyfronet AGH, which will keep participants informed about the progress of the search for signs of high-energy particles.
+By 2020 the application is still under testing and may not produce the expected results on some mobile devices.
+
+
+== Preview of collected data ==
+All traces of particles registered by smartphones can be viewed on a dedicated website. Their size and shape depends on the type and energy of the captured particle and the direction from which it came.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Project page
+Detected events
+Polish board Archived 2018-03-17 at the Wayback Machine
+English board Archived 2018-03-17 at the Wayback Machine
+Video about CREDO
+CREDO Scientific publications
+
+
+== References ==