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+title: "Participation inequality"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participation_inequality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:27.174307+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In social sciences, participation inequality consists of difference between levels of participation of various groups in certain activities. Common examples include:
+
+differing levels of participation in democratic, electoral politics, by social class, race, gender, etc.
+differing levels of participation in online communities as described by Jakob Nielsen.
+In politics, participation inequality typically affects "the kinds of individuals, such as the young, the poor and those with little formal education" who tend to not take the initiative to participate in electoral and related events. State enumeration, such as was done in Canada before the implementation of the National Register of Electors in 1996, "worked to augment voter turnout among all segments of society and thus mitigated a natural tendency toward participation inequality in electoral politics".
+
+
+== Political participation inequality ==
+Political participation inequality refers to how populations differ in political participation when sorted by various characteristics. Most often these groupings are by social class, race, gender, or ethnicity. Widespread political participation inequality often describes when various groups are left out of the political sphere or excluded from various political rights.
+Participation inequality usually helps political theorists determine where democracies fail or when political institutions are not democratically responsive. When political systems are too unequal in terms of political participation, it most generally means that there is a breakdown in the ability of all citizens to politically deliberate to distribute various scarce resources, implement comprehensive public policy, or enact needed social reforms. Nations with high amounts of participation inequality are generally characterized as undemocratic although there are certain nations, like India, where low participation inequality has not helped the democratic responsiveness of Indian institutions.
+
+
+=== Robert Dahl ===
+
+In his 1971 paper Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition, Robert Dahl provided a basic framework to evaluate democracies or polyarchies (nearly/almost full democracies) based on their participation inequality. He argued that there are two dimensions: public contestation – the various rights and procedures guaranteed to citizens – and inclusiveness – how accessible these rights are to all citizens. More fully, public contestation describes the necessary functions for a liberal democracy: a competitive political atmosphere, ability to run for office, right to vote, right to assembly, etc. Inclusiveness describes what portion of the population is able to enjoy these rights and procedures.
+Participation inequality is usually represented along the dimension of inclusiveness. So, if a nation were to allow only short people to vote, this political system would have a certain level of public contestation – the right to vote being available – and a certain dimension of inclusiveness – only short people being able to enjoy this right. This system of evaluating democracies enables comparisons of political regimes based on participation inequality by comparing inclusiveness between equally publicly contestable political systems.
+
+
+=== Causes of political participation ===
+
+
+==== Dahlian causes ====
+Using Dahl’s framework, the first cause of participation inequality can be rooted in a political system’s public policy or in the Dahlian dimension of inclusiveness. Policies that exclude groups based on ethnic identity such as old apartheid South Africa or Iranian exclusion of Sunni political parties best conveys systemic political exclusion that is rooted in a regime’s citizenship requirements or public policy.
+
+
+==== Expansion of Dahl ====
+
+The more insidious cause of participation inequality stems from a third dimension that has been recently added to Dahl’s two-dimensional evaluation of political systems: institutions. In this framework, institutions implement political rights and procedures guaranteed by the state. Institutional causes for participation inequality can include literacy tests, extensive citizenship requirements, sparse voting booths in rural or poor areas, and a lack of public transportation. These all affect the ability of citizens to properly exercise guaranteed rights like voting.
+Institutional causes of participation inequality can also be mitigated or exacerbated by cultural norms. Most often high voter turnout usually is hailed as a marker for a democratically responsive nation; however, in India “the turnout rate among the poor is almost as high as for those who are either middle class or rich. A detailed study of voter participation reported for the 2009 national elections shows that voter participation rates do not seem to vary by income status at all...Recent studies report similar findings from Africa and Latin America (Bratton 2008; Boot & Seligson 2008)”. Many of these studies conclude that in developing democracies voting acts as a reassurance of social status or worth in the eyes of the state. This cultural norm has not translated to more democratically responsive institutions in that “the governments created by these elections are known to neglect the interests of the poor and treat them disrespectfully compared to other income groups”. Nations like India are considered to be exceptions to the general rule that economic status has some bearing on voter participation.
+
+
+==== Economic and educational inequality ====
+Economic inequality and educational inequality have often been pointed to as common culprits for political participation inequality. In large part, these two types of inequality are often created and reiterated by political institutions, but most political theorists differentiate these causes for political participation as separate, largely because they are not fully solved by changes in political institutions. While the outcomes of political institutions highly vary from regime to regime, most of the literature finds that high amounts of economic inequality in developed countries depress voter turnout for poorer individuals and increase voter turnout for more affluent individuals (this depends on social cohesion of societies, correlating negatively with affluent political participation when economic inequality is high). Other literature finds that educational inequality depresses voter turnout depending on one’s income level and perceived relative educational status (how one perceives one’s social status and others’ education levels).
+
+
+== See also ==
+1% rule
+Pareto principle
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Passing (sociology)"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:28.378118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Passing is the ability of a person to be regarded as a member of an identity group or category, such as racial identity, ethnicity, caste, social class, sexual orientation, gender, religion, age or disability status, that is often different from their own. Passing may be used to increase social acceptance to cope with stigma by removing stigma from the presented self and could result in other social benefits as well. Thus, passing may serve as a form of self-preservation or self-protection if expressing one's true or prior identity may be dangerous.
+Passing may require acceptance into a community and may lead to temporary or permanent leave from another community to which an individual previously belonged. Thus, passing can result in separation from one's original self, family, friends, or previous living experiences. Successful passing may contribute to economic security, safety, and stigma avoidance, but it may take an emotional toll as a result of denial of one's previous identity and may lead to depression or self-loathing. When an individual deliberately attempts to "pass" as a member of an identity group, they may actively engage in performance of behaviors that they believe to be associated with membership of that group. Passing practices may also include information management of the passer in attempting to control or conceal any stigmatizing information that may reveal disparity from their presumed identity.
+Etymologically, the term is simply the nominalisation of the verb pass in its phrasal use with for or as, as in a counterfeit passing for the genuine article or an impostor passing as another person. It has been in popular use since at least the late 1920s.
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+title: "Passing (sociology)"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:28.378118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Academic framework ==
+Passing, as a sociological concept, was first coined by Erving Goffman as a term for one response to possessing some kind of stigma that is often less visible. Stigma, according to Goffman's framework in his work Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963), "refer[s] to an attribute that is deeply discrediting" or "an undesired differentness from what [was] anticipated".  According to Goffman, "This discrepancy, when known about or apparent, spoils his social identity; it has the effect of cutting him off from society and from himself so that he stands a discredited person facing an unaccepting world".
+Thus, inhabiting an identity associated with stigma may be particularly dangerous and harmful. According to Link and Phelan, Roschelle and Kaufman, and Marvasti, it may lead to loss of opportunities due to status loss and discrimination, alienation and marginalization, harassment and embarrassment, and social rejection. These can be a persistent source of psychological issues.
+To resist, manage, and avoid stigma and its associated consequences, individuals might choose to pass as a non-stigmatized identity. According to Nathan Shippee, "Passing communicates a seemingly "normal" self, one that does not apparently possess the stigma." According to Patrick Kermit, "To be suspected of being "not quite human" is the essence of stigmatisation, and passing is a desperate means to the end of appearing fully human in the sense of being like most other people."
+When making the decision of whether to pass or not, there are many factors stigmatized actors may consider. Firstly, there is the notion of visibility. How visible their stigma is may problematize how much ease or difficulty they may face in attempting to pass. However, how visible their stigma is may also determine the intensity and frequency of adversity they may face from others as a result of their stigma. Goffman explains, "Traditionally, the question of passing has raised the issue of the "visibility" of a particular stigma, that is, how well or how badly-the stigma is adapted to provide means of communicating that the individual possesses it." Other scholars further emphasize the cruciality of visibility and conclude that "whether a stigma is evident to the audience can mark the difference between being discredited or merely discreditable".
+Other factors may include risk, context, and intimacy. Different contexts and situations may make passing more easy or difficult and/or more safe or risky. How well others know the passer may impede their abilities as well. One scholar explains, "Individuals may pass in some situations but not others, effectively creating different arenas of life (depending on whether the stigma is known or not). Goffman claimed that actors develop theories about which situations are risky for disclosure, but risk is only one factor: intimacy with the audience can lead actors to disclose, or to feel guilty for not doing so." In addition to guilt, since passing can sometimes involve the fabrication of a false personal history to aid in concealment of their stigma, passing can complicate personal relationships and cause feelings of shame at having to be dishonest about their identity.
+According to Goffman, "It can be assumed that the possession of a discreditable secret failing takes on a deeper meaning when the persons to whom the individual has not yet revealed himself are not strangers to him but friends. Discovery prejudices not only the current social situation, but established relationships as well; not only the current image others present have of him, but also the one they will have in the future; not only appearances, but also reputation." Relating to this experience of passing, actors may have an ambivalent attachment to their stigma that can cause them to fluctuate between acceptance and rejection of their stigmatized identity. Thus, there may be times when the stigmatized individual will feel more inclined to pass and others when they feel less inclined.
+Despite the potentially-distressing and dangerous parts of passing, some passers have expressed a habituation with it. In one study, Shippee accounts that "participants often portrayed it as a normal or mundane event." For those whose stigma invites particularly hostile responses from most of society, passing may become a regular part of everyday life that is necessary to survive in that society.
+Regardless, the stigma that passers are subject to is not inherent. As Goffman explains, stigma exists not within the person but between an attribute and an audience. As a result, stigma is socially constructed and differs based on the cultural beliefs, social structures, and situational dynamics of various contexts. Thus, passing is also immersed in different contexts of the socially-structured meaning and behavior of daily life and passing implies familiarity with that knowledge.
+Passing has been interpreted in sociology and cultural studies through different analytical lenses such as that of information management by Goffman and that of as cultural performance by Bryant Keith Alexander.
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+title: "Passing (sociology)"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:28.378118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== As information management ===
+Goffman defines passing as 'the management of undisclosed discrediting information about self." Similarly, other scholars add that "Passing is mostly associated with strategies of information management that the discreditable use to pass for normal [in everyday life]". Whereas some individuals' stigma is immediately apparent, passers deal with different problems in that their stigma is not always so obvious. Goffman elaborates "The issue is not that of managing tension generated during social contacts, but rather that of managing information about his failing. To display or not to display; to tell or not to tell; to let on or not to let on; to lie or not to lie; and in each case, to whom, how, when, and where."
+In Goffman's understanding, individuals possess various symbols that convey social information about us. There are prestige symbols that convey creditable information and there are stigma symbols that convey discrediting information. By managing the visibility and apparentness of their stigma symbols, passers prevent others from learning of their discredited and stigmatized status and remain discreditable. Passing may also include the adoption of certain prestige symbols and personal history or biography of social information that aids to conceal and draw attention away from their actual stigmatized status.
+Goffman also briefly notes, "The concealment of creditable facts-reverse passing-of course occurs." Reverse passing, related to terms like "blackfishing", has emerged as a topic of discourse as critics raise concerns over cultural appropriation and accuse nonstigmatized individuals, such as prominent celebrities Kim Kardashian and Ariana Grande, of concealing creditable information about themselves for some social benefit. Notions of cultural appropriation, racial fetishization, and reverse passing entered public debate particularly in 2015, after a former college instructor and president of the Spokane, Washington, NAACP, Rachel Dolezal, was discovered to be white with no black racial heritage after she had presented herself as black for several years. As many point out, reverse passing crucially differs from passing in that individuals who reverse pass are not stigmatized and therefore are not subject to the harms of stigma that may force stigmatized individuals to pass.
+
+=== As cultural performance ===
+Bryant Keith Alexander, a professor of Communication, Performance and Cultural Studies at Loyola Marymount University, defines cultural performance as "a process of delineation using performative practices to mark membership and association." Using this definition, passing is reframed as a method to maintain cultural performance and choose both consciously and unconsciously to participate in other performances. Rather than through the management of symbols and the social information they convey, passers assume "the necessary and performative strategies that signal membership." Alexander reiterates, "Cultural membership is thus maintained primarily through recognizable performative practices." Hence, to successfully pass is to have your cultural performance assessed and validated by others.
+With that interpretation, avoiding stigma by passing necessitates intimate understanding and awareness of social constructions of meaning and expected behaviors that signal membership. Shippee explains that "far from merely appraising situations to determine when concealment is required, passing encompasses active interpretations of several aspects of social life. It requires an understanding of cultural conventions, namely: what is considered "normal" and what is required to maintain it; customs of everyday interaction; and the symbolic character of the stigma itself.... Passing, then, embodies a creative mobilization of situational and cultural awareness, structural considerations, self-appraisals, and sense-making". Alexander recognizes that and then asserts that "passing is a product (an assessed state), a process (an active engagement), performative (ritualized repetition of communicative acts), and a reflection of one's positionality (politicized location), knowing that its existential accomplishment always resides in liminality."
+
+== Ethnicity and race ==
+
+Historically and genealogically, the term passing has referred to mixed-race, or biracial Americans identifying as or being perceived as belonging to a different racial group.  In Passing and the Fictions of Identity, Elaine Ginsberg cites an ad for escaped slave Edmund Kenney as an example of racial passing; Edmund Kenney, a biracial person, was able to pass as white in the United States in the 1800s. In the entry "Passing" for the GLBTQ Encyclopedia Project, Tina Gianoulis states that "for light-skinned African Americans during the times of slavery and the intense periods of racial resegregation that followed, passing for white was a survival tool that allowed them to gain education and employment that would have been denied them had they been recognized as "colored" people." The term passing has since been expanded to include other ethnicities and identity categories. Discriminated groups in North America and Europe may modify their accents, word choices, manner of dress, grooming habits, and even names in an attempt to appear to be members of a majority group or of a privileged minority group.
+Nella Larsen's 1929 novella, Passing, helped to establish the term after several years of prior use. The writer and subject of the novella is a mixed African-American/Caucasian who passes for white. The novella was written during the Harlem Renaissance, when passing was commonly found in both reality and fiction. Since the 1960s Civil Rights Movement, racial pride has decreased the weight that is given to passing as an important issue for black Americans. Still, it is possible and common for biracial people to pass based on appearance or by hiding or omitting their backgrounds.
+In "Adjusting the Borders: Bisexual Passing and Queer Theory," Lingel discusses bell hooks' notion of racial passing in conjunction with discussion of bisexual engagement in passing.
+Romani people have a history of passing as well, particularly in the United States and often tell outsiders that they belong to other ethnicities such as Latino, Greek, Middle Eastern, or Native American.
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+title: "Passing (sociology)"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:28.378118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Social class and caste ==
+Class passing, similar to racial and gender passing, is the concealment or misrepresentation of one's social class. In Class-Passing: Social Mobility in Film and Popular Culture, Gwendolyn Audrey Foster suggests that racial and gender passing is often stigmatized but that class passing is generally accepted as normative behavior. Class passing is common in the United States and is linked to the notions of the American Dream and of upward class mobility.
+
+=== Popular culture ===
+English-language novels that feature class passing include The Talented Mr. Ripley, Anne of Green Gables, and Horatio Alger novels. Films featuring class-passing characters include Catch Me If You Can, My Fair Lady, Pinky, ATL, and Andy Hardy Meets Debutante. Class passing also figures into reality television programs such as Joe Millionaire in which contestants are often immersed in displays of great material wealth or may have to conceal their class status.
+
+== Sexuality and gender ==
+
+The perception of an individual's sexual orientation is often based on their visual identity. The term visual identity refers to the expression of personal, social, and cultural identities through dress and appearance. In Visible Lesbians and Invisible Bisexuals: Appearance and Visual Identities Among Bisexual Women it is proposed that through the expression of a visual identity, others "read" a person's appearance and make assumptions about their wider identity. Therefore, visual identity is a prominent tool of non-verbal communication. The concept of passing is showcased in research by Jennifer Taub in her Bisexual Women and Beauty Norms. Some participants in the study stated that they attempted to dress as what they perceived as heterosexual when they partnered with a man, and others stated that they tried to dress more like a "lesbian." That exemplifies how visual identities can greatly alter people's immediate assumptions of sexuality. Therefore, presenting oneself as "heterosexual" is effectively "passing."
+Passing by sexual orientation occurs when an individual's perceived sexual orientation or sexuality differs from the sexuality or sexual orientation with which they identify. In the entry "Passing" for the GLBTQ Encyclopedia Project, Tina Gianoulis notes "the presumption of heterosexuality in most modern cultures", which in some parts of the world, such as the United States, may be effectively compulsory, "most gay men and lesbians in fact spend a great deal of their lives passing as straight even when they do not do so intentionally." The phrase "in the closet" may be used to describe individual who hide or conceal their sexual orientation. In Passing: Identity and Interpretation in Sexuality, Race, and Religion, Maria Sanchez and Linda Schlossberg state that "the dominant social order often implores gay people to stay in the closet (to pass)." Individuals may choose to remain "in the closet" or to pass as heterosexual for a variety of reasons, including a desire to maintain positive relationships with family and policies or requirements associated with employment such as "Don't ask, don't tell", a policy that required passing as heterosexual within the military or armed forces.
+Bisexual erasure causes some bisexual individuals to feel the need to engage in passing within presumed predominantly-heterosexual circles and even within LGBTQ circles for fear of stigma. In Adjusting the Borders: Bisexual Passing and Queer Theory, Jessica Lingel notes, "The ramifications of being denied a public sphere in which to practice a sexual identity that isn't labeled licentious or opportunistic leads some women to resort to manufacturing profiles of gayness or straightness to pledge membership within a community."
+Gender passing refers to individuals who are perceived as belonging to a gender identity group that differs from the gender with which they were assigned at birth. In Passing and the Fictions of Identity, Elaine Ginsberg provides the story of Brandon Teena, who was assigned female at birth but lived as a man, as an example of gender passing in the United States. In 1993, Brandon moved to Falls City, Nebraska, where he initially passed as a man. However, community members discovered that Brandon had been assigned female at birth, and two men in it shot and murdered him. Ginsberg cites for another example of gender passing Billy Tipton, a jazz musician who was also assigned female at birth but lived and performed as a man until his death in 1989.
+Within the transgender community, passing refers to the perception or recognition of trans individuals as belonging to the gender identity to which they are transitioning rather than the sex or gender they were assigned at birth.
+
+== Religion ==
+
+Passing as a member of a different religion or as not religious at all is not uncommon among minority religious communities. In the entry "Passing" for the GLBTQ Encyclopedia Project, Tina Gianoulis states "at times of rabid anti-Semitism in Europe and the Americas, many Jewish families also either converted to Christianity or passed as Christian" for the sake of survival. Circumcised Jewish males in Germany during World War II attempted to restore their foreskins as part of passing as Gentile. The film Europa, Europa explores that theme.
+Shia Islam has the doctrine of taqiyya in which one is lawfully allowed to disavow Islam and profess another faith but secretly remain a Muslim if one's life is at risk. The concept has also been practised by various minority faiths in the Middle East such as the Alawites and Druze.
+
+== Ability or disability ==
+Disability passing may refer to the intentional concealment of impairment to avoid the stigma of disability, but it may also describe the exaggeration of an ailment or impairment to receive some benefit, which may take the form of attention or care. In Disability and Passing: Blurring the Lines of Identity, Jeffrey Brune and Daniel Wilson define passing by ability or disability as "the ways that others impose, intentionally or not, a specific disability or non-disability identity on a person." Similarly, in "Compulsory Able-Bodiedness and Queer/Disabled Existence," Robert McRuer argues that "the system of compulsory able-bodiedness...produces disability."
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+title: "Passing (sociology)"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:28.378118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Passing as disabled ===
+People with disabilities may exaggerate their disabilities when they are evaluated for medical care or accommodations often for fear of being denied support. "There are too many agencies out there with the ostensible purpose of helping us that still believe that as long as we technically can do something, like crab-walking our way into a subway station, we should have to do it," writes Gabe Moses, a wheelchair user who has a limited ability to walk. Those pressures may result in disabled people exaggerating symptoms or tiring out their body before an evaluation so that they are seen on a "bad day," instead of a "good day."
+In sports, some mobility impaired individuals have been observed strategically exaggerating the extent of their disability to pass as more disabled than they are and be placed in divisions in which they may be more competitive. In quadriplegic rugby, or wheelchair rugby, some players are described as having "incomplete" quadriplegia in which they may retain some sensation and function in their lower limbs that may allow them to stand and walk in limited capacities. Based on a rule from the United States Quad Rugby Association (USQRA) that states that players need only a combination of upper- and lower-extremity impairment that precludes them from playing able-bodied sports, the incomplete quads may play alongside other quadriplegics who have no sensation or function in their lower limbs. That is justified by classifications the USQRA has developed in which certified physical therapists compare arm and muscle flexibility, trunk and torso movement, and ease of chair operation between players and rank them by injury level.
+However, inconsistencies between medical diagnoses of injury and those classifications allows players to perform higher levels of impairment for the classifiers and pass for being more disabled than they are. As a result, their ranking may underestimate their capacity and they may attain a competitive advantage over teams with players whose capacity is not equivalent. That policy has raised questions from some about the ethics and fairness of comparing disabilities, as well as about how competition, inclusion, and ability should be defined in the world of sports.
+
+=== Passing as non-disabled ===
+Individuals with invisible disabilities such as people with mental illness; intellectual or cognitive disabilities; or physical disabilities that are not immediately obvious to others such as IBS, Crohn's disease, or ulcerative colitis may choose whether or not to reveal their identity or to pass as "normal". Passing as non-disabled may protect against discrimination but may also result in lack of support or accusations of faking.
+Autistic people may employ strategies known as "masking" or "camouflaging" to appear non-autistic. That can involve behavior like suppressing or redirecting repetitive movements (stimming), maintaining eye contact despite discomfort, mirroring the body language and tone of others, or scripting conversations. Masking may be done to reduce the risk of ostracism or abuse. Autistic masking is often exhausting and linked to adverse mental health outcomes such as burnout, depression, and suicide. However, that perspective has been challenged in a 2023 review of autistic masking by Valentina Petrolini, Ekaine Rodríguez-Armendariz, and Agustín Vicente who question whether all autistic people see "being autistic" as a central aspect of their identity and whether all autistic people are capable of truly hiding their autistic status. Both conditions, they argue, would have to be fulfilled for the analogy to hold and conclude that only a subgroup of autistic people experiences masking as passing.
+Individuals with visible physical impairments or disabilities, such as people with mobility impairment, including individuals who use wheelchairs or scooters, face greater challenges in concealing their disability.
+In a study on individuals' experience with prosthetics, the ability of users to be able to pass as if they were "like everybody else" with their prosthetic based on the realistic or unrealistic appearance of the prosthetic was one factor in predicting whether patients would accept or reject prosthetic use. Cosmetic prosthetics that were, for example, skin-colored or had the added appearance of veins, hair, and nails were often harder to adapt to and use, but many individuals expressed a preference for them over more functional and more conspicuous prosthetics to maintain their personal conceptions of social and bodily identity.
+One user of prosthetics characterized her device as one that could "maintain her humanness ('half way human'), which in turn prevented her, quite literally, from being seen to have an 'odd' body." Users also discussed wanting prosthetics that could help them maintain a walking gait, which would attract no stares and prosthetics that could be disguised or concealed under clothes in efforts to pass as non-disabled.
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+---
+title: "Passing (sociology)"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:28.378118+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Intersectional ==
+Though passing may occur on the basis of a single subordinate identity such as race, often people's intersectional locations involve multiple marginalized identities. Intersectionality provides a framework for seeing the interconnected nature of oppressive systems and how multiple identities interact within them. Gay Asian men possess two key subordinated identities; in combination, they create unique challenges for them when passing. Sometimes, those men must pass as straight to avoid stigma, but around other gay men, they may attempt to pass as a non-racialized person or white to avoid the disinterest or fetishization often encountered upon revealing their Asian identities. By recognizing the hidden intersection of the gendered aspects of gay and Asian male stereotypes, these two distinct experiences make even more sense. Gay men are often stereotyped as effeminate and thereby insufficiently masculine as men. Stereotypes characterizing Asian men as too sexual (overly masculine) or too feminine (hypo-masculine) or even both also exhibit the gendered nature of racial stereotypes. Thus, passing as the dominant racial or sexuality category also often means passing as gender correct.
+When Black transgender men transition in the workplace from identifying as female to passing as cisgender men, gendered racial stereotypes characterizing Black men as overly masculine and violent may affect how previously acceptable behaviors will be interpreted. One such Black trans man discovered that he had gone from "being an obnoxious Black woman to a scary Black man" and therefore had to adapt his behavior to gendered scripts to pass.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Beard (companion)
+Closeted
+Closet Jew
+Dramaturgy (sociology)
+Identity politics
+Masking (behavior)
+Minority stress
+Model minority
+"On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog"
+Stigma management
+Uncanny valley
+Undercover
+
+== Footnotes ==
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+---
+title: "Patchwork religion"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patchwork_religion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:29.561611+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the sociology of religion patchwork religion indicates situations when individual or religious movement forms its own worldview from heterogeneous elements, taken from different religions or individual religious experience. Collected from these elements, this religious world view reminds of a patchwork quilt with a unique pattern. Similar social concepts are syncretism, bricolage and sheilaism.
+
+
+== History ==
+Patchwork religion was first suggested by American sociologist Robert Wuthnow. Wuthnow studies aspects of American religiosity, believing that its patchwork and avoidance of keeping to strictly defined forms are its essential features. Thus he writes:  "Now, at the end of the twentieth century, growing numbers of Americans piece together their faith like a patchwork quilt. Spirituality has become a vastly complex quest in which each person seeks in his or her own way".  Patchworks of individual religiosity do not contradict loyalty to a church's official position. In his other book Wuthnow connects patchworks with a feature of American religiosity called shopping mentality. Bearers of such mentality mostly admit the existence of God or some kind of mystical force, but believe that no religion is able to explain this mystery. The framework of each religion offers good examples of penetration into mysterious spheres of the divine.  "When God is ultimately a mystery, it is easy to assume that all religions contain insights about God but no religion provides a complete understanding of God, and thus one way to increase one`s understanding of God is by gleaning ideas from many different religious traditions".Wuthnow writes about spiritual shoppers as about people, who  "Having learned to be open-minded and to patch together ideas from many different sources".
+
+
+== Collective consciousness ==
+Originally patchwork religion was applied to individual religiosity. It later became used in descriptions of public worldview features. Patchwork appears in religious traditions that include elements not found in original practice. This explains dual faith and superstitions that can be characterized as interpolations, brought during a historical process. Some scientists claim that each religious tradition has a people's interpretation (for example, people's Catholicism, people's Buddhism etc.).
+
+
+== Notes ==
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+---
+title: "Pay it forward"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_it_forward"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:30.753081+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Pay it forward is an expression for describing the beneficiary of a good deed repaying the kindness to others rather than paying it back to the original benefactor.  It is also called serial reciprocity.
+The concept is old, but the particular phrase may have been coined by Lily Hardy Hammond in her 1916 book In the Garden of Delight. Robert Heinlein's 1951 novel Between Planets helped popularize the phrase.
+"Pay it forward" is implemented in contract law of loans in the concept of third party beneficiaries. Specifically, the creditor offers the debtor the option of paying the debt forward by lending it to a third person instead of paying it back to the original creditor. This contract may include the provision that the debtor may repay the debt in kind, lending the same amount to a similarly disadvantaged party once they have the means, and under the same conditions. Debt and payments can be monetary or by good deeds. A related type of transaction, which starts with a gift instead of a loan, is alternative giving.
+
+== History ==
+Paying forward was used as a key plot element in the denouement of a New Comedy prizewinning play by Menander, Dyskolos (roughly translated as "The Grouch") that debuted in 317 BC in Athens.
+A basic pattern of this concept is the inter-generational devotion of parents to their children, re-enacting what their own parents did for them. In her 1916 book In the Garden of Delight, Lily Hardy Hammond reflects, "I never repaid Great-aunt Letitia's love to her, any more than she repaid her mother's. You don't pay love back; you pay it forward."
+The concept is featured in the short story "The Boy Scout" by American author and former war correspondent Richard Harding Davis, published in The Metropolitan Magazine (March 1914).  In it, a young boy scout performs a good deed that eventually reverberates worldwide.
+Regarding money, the concept was described by Benjamin Franklin, in a letter to Benjamin Webb dated April 25, 1784:
+
+I do not pretend to give such a deed; I only lend it to you. When you [...] meet with another honest Man in similar Distress, you must pay me by lending this Sum to him; enjoining him to discharge the Debt by a like operation, when he shall be able, and shall meet with another opportunity. I hope it may thus go thro' many hands, before it meets with a Knave that will stop its Progress. This is a trick of mine for doing a deal of good with a little money.
+The Bible mentions a similar tenet. In Ecclesiastes 11:1 has one example: "Cast your bread upon the waters, for you will find it after many days." At
+Matthew 18:21–35, Jesus indicates that paying it forward is a requirement for those who have received God's forgiveness. He presents the parable of a man who had been forgiven a huge debt by the king, because the debtor had begged for mercy. However, after being freed from the debt, he found a fellow who owed him a very small debt, by comparison. Although he had been shown a great mercy, he refused the same consideration to his fellow who had pled for more time to pay. When the king learned this, he was angry and threw the original debtor into prison until he paid the entire debt. Jesus concluded the story: "So likewise shall my heavenly Father do also unto you, if ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their trespasses."
+Ralph Waldo Emerson, in his 1841 essay "Compensation", wrote: "In the order of nature we cannot render benefits to those from whom we receive them, or only seldom. But the benefit we receive must be rendered again, line for line, deed for deed, cent for cent, to somebody." Football coach Woody Hayes (1913–1987), whose Ohio State University teams won five national titles, misquoted Emerson as "You can pay back only seldom. You can always pay forward, and you must pay line for line, deed for deed, and cent for cent." He also shortened the (mis)quotation into "You can never pay back; but you can always pay forward" and variants.
+The 1929 novel, Magnificent Obsession, by Lloyd C. Douglas, also espoused this philosophy, in combination with the concept that good deeds should be performed in confidence.
+An anonymous spokesman for Alcoholics Anonymous said in The Christian Science Monitor in 1944, "You can't pay anyone back for what has happened to you, so you try to find someone you can pay forward."
+Also in 1944, the first steps were taken in the development of what became the Heifer Project, one of whose core strategies is "Passing on the Gift".
+In Robert Heinlein's 1951 novel Between Planets, the circumstances of war place the protagonist in a country where it is illegal to spend his foreign money. He is hungry and a stranger gives him enough to pay for lunch:
+
+The banker reached into the folds of his gown, pulled out a single credit note. "But eat first—a full belly steadies the judgment. Do me the honor of accepting this as our welcome to the newcomer."
+His pride said no; his stomach said YES! Don took it and said, "Uh, thanks! That's awfully kind of you. I'll pay it back, first chance."
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+---
+title: "Pay it forward"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_it_forward"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:30.753081+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Instead, pay it forward to some other brother who needs it."
+The mathematician Paul Erdős heard about a promising math student unable to enroll in Harvard University for financial reasons. Erdős contributed enough to allow the young man to register. Years later, the man offered to return the entire amount to Erdős, but Erdős insisted that the man rather find another student in his situation, and give the money to him.
+It is also possible for the original beneficiary to become part of the later chain of kindness. Some time in 1980, a sixteen-page supplemental Marvel comic appeared in the Chicago Tribune entitled “What Price a Life?” and was subsequently reprinted as the backup story in Marvel Team-Up #126 dated February 1983. This was a team-up between Spider-Man and The Incredible Hulk, in which Spider-Man helps the Hulk escape from police who mistakenly thought that he was attacking them. Afterwards, they meet in their secret identities, with Peter Parker warning Bruce Banner to leave town because of the Hulk's seeming attack on police. But Banner is flat broke, and cannot afford even bus fare. As a result, Parker gives Banner his last $5 bill, saying that someone had given him money when he was down on his luck, and this was how he was repaying that debt. Later, in Chicago, the Hulk confronts muggers who had just robbed an elderly retired man of his pension money, all the money he had. After corralling the muggers, the Hulk turns towards the victim. The retiree thinks that the Hulk is about to attack him as well, but instead, the Hulk gives him the $5 bill. It transpires that the very same old man had earlier given a down-on-his-luck Peter Parker a $5 bill.
+"Pay it Forward Chains" in fast food stores has become somewhat common, where people pay for the drink or food items in front of them. Starbucks, for example, frequently has long chains, including one of 378 customers at a Florida Starbucks. There has, however, been some controversy around them, as Baristas who experience them complain about mixed up orders  while other customers have found themselves stuck with significantly larger payments than the cost of their food and potential confrontations as a result. The concept of setting up a "Pay It Forward chain" in order to profit from a massive order was lampooned in an episode of the Netflix series, I Think You Should Leave with Tim Robinson. This resulted in an internet meme based on the order he placed, "55 Burgers, 55 Fries, 55 Tacos, 55 Pies, 55 Cokes, 100 Tater Tots, 100 Pizzas, 100 Chicken Tenders, 100 Meatballs, 100 Coffees, 55 Wings, 55 Shakes, 55 Pancakes, 55 Pastas, 55 Peppers, and 155 Taters, totaling $680" which was sold on its own t-shirt.
+
+== 1999 novel, film and subsequent projects ==
+In 1999, Catherine Ryan Hyde's novel Pay It Forward was published and then adapted in 2000 into a film of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. and starring Kevin Spacey, Helen Hunt and Haley Joel Osment. In Ryan Hyde's book and movie, it is described as an obligation to do three good deeds for others in response to a good deed that one receives. Such good deeds should accomplish things that the other person cannot accomplish on their own. In this way, the practice of helping one another can spread geometrically through society, at a ratio of three to one, creating a social movement with an impact of making the world a better place.
+The Pay it Forward Foundation was founded in the United States helping start a ripple effect of kindness acts around the world. The foundation had an idea for encouraging kindness acts by giving away Pay it Forward Bracelets that can be worn as a reminder. Since then, over a million Pay it Forward bracelets have been distributed in over 100 countries sparking acts of kindness. Few bracelets remain with their original recipients, however, as they circulate in the spirit of the reciprocal or generalized altruism.
+PIFster, a 501(c)(3) organization that democratizes the 'Pay It Forward' concept by combining micro-donations and community voting was founded in 2023 in the United States. PIFster allows users to contribute as little as $1 per month and nominate local causes they believe deserve support. The platform then facilitates community voting to determine which nominated charities receive the collected funds. This approach empowers individuals to participate in philanthropy and directly impact their communities, regardless of their financial capacity.
+In 2007, International Pay It Forward Day was founded in Australia by Blake Beattie. Pay it Forward day happens on 28 April, and has now spread to 70 countries with over 50 state and city proclamations. It is estimated that it has inspired over five million acts of kindness and has featured on 7, 9, 10, ABC, NBC, Fox 5, Fox 8 and Global News in Canada.
+On April 5, 2012, WBRZ-TV, the American Broadcasting Company affiliate for the city of Baton Rouge, Louisiana, did a story on The Newton Project, a 501(c)(3) outreach organization created to demonstrate that regardless of how big the problems of the world may seem, each person can make a difference simply by taking the time to show love, appreciation and kindness to the people around them. It is based on the classic pay-it-forward concept, but demonstrates the impact of each act on the world by tracking each wristband with a unique ID number and quantifying the lives each has touched. The Newton Project's attempt to quantify the benefits of a Pay It Forward type system can be viewed by the general public at their website.
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+---
+title: "Pay it forward"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_it_forward"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:30.753081+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Public health and medicine ==
+Pay it forward has also been used in medicine and public health. In this context, a person is offered a free health service (a test or vaccine), then asked if they would like to donate money or non-monetary support to spur subsequent uptake of services. Several clinical trials suggest that this approach can increase test uptake. More research is needed to understand how this could be scaled up.
+
+== Economic model ==
+
+Several firms have adopted the pay it forward approach as an economic model. These include Karma Kitchen, where patrons' meals have already been paid for by previous customers, and customers are then encouraged to contribute toward future patrons' meals. Heifer Project International pioneered the approach in sustainable development, and it has been utilized by microfinance lenders. Some authors advocate the pay it forward approach be utilized as the primary means of economic transaction.
+In 2024, Human Kind Cafe opened in Billericay, Essex. A charity 'kindness cafe' with a pay-it-forward model, they offer suggested donations to allow everyone that is able to, to support those in need.
+
+== Experiments and explanations ==
+Several experiments document that individuals pay forward in the sense that they pass on a behavior that they have experienced.
+Individuals who are given more money are, for example, more likely to donate to a stranger.
+Individuals who are assigned easy tasks are more likely to assign someone else to an easy tasks. Finally, drivers who experience that others are insisting on their right of way are more likely to insist on their right of way.
+Two explanations for the observed paying-it-forward have been considered. Evolutionary biologists and psychologists argue that being helped or harmed leads to an emotional reaction such as gratitude or anger, which in turn trigger the respective behavior. 
+ Being given an annoying task renders an individual angry and this is why she assigns an annoying task to the next person. Alternatively, individuals may learn from their experience what seems to be appropriate behavior (social learning theory). Being given an annoying task indicates to the individual that this assignment is 
+adequate in this context. This then leads the individual to assign the annoying task to the next person.
+Schnedler (2020) finds that individuals no longer pay forward if behavior cannot be directly imitated. This suggests that at least in the experiments so far paying forward is driven by social learning rather than emotions.
+
+== See also ==
+Charity (practice)
+Feed the Deed
+Free Money Day
+Gift economy
+Random act of kindness
+Reciprocity (social psychology)
+Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)
+Six degrees of separation
+Social business
+Social responsibility
+Suspended coffee
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Pay it Forward Day UK
+International Pay it Forward Day
+Pay It Forward Life
+Pay It Forward movie
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+---
+title: "Peer group"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:31.972301+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, a peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar interests (homophily), age, background, or social status. Members of peer groups are likely to influence each other's beliefs and behaviour.
+During adolescence, peer groups tend to face dramatic changes. Adolescents tend to spend more time with their peers and have less adult supervision. Peer groups give a sense of security and identity. A study found that during the adolescent phase as adolescents spend double time with their peers compared to the time youth spend with their parents. Adolescents' communication shifts during this time as well. They prefer to talk about school and their careers with their parents, and they enjoy talking about sex and other interpersonal relationships with their peers. Children look to join peer groups who accept them, even if the group is involved in negative activities. Children are less likely to accept those who are different from them. Friendship and support is important for people to have an active social life. Similarly, it is equally important to people with disability as it can help them to feel included, valued and happier. Social interaction among peers may influence development; quality of life outcomes. This interaction and positive relationship benefit subjective wellbeing and have a positive effect on mental and physical health.
+Cliques are small groups typically defined by common interests or by friendship. Cliques typically have 2–12 members and tend to be formed by age, gender, race, and social class. Clique members are usually the same in terms of academics and risk behaviors. Cliques can serve as an agent of socialization and social control. Being part of a clique can be advantageous since it may provide a sense of autonomy, a secure social environment, and overall well-being.
+Crowds are larger, more vaguely defined groups that may not have a friendship base. Crowds serve as peer groups, and they increase in importance during early adolescence, and decrease by late adolescence. The level of involvement in adult institutions and peer culture describes crowds.
+
+== Socialization ==
+At an early age, the peer group becomes an important part of socialization Unlike other agents of socialization, such as family and school, peer groups allow children to escape the direct supervision of adults. Among peers, children learn to form relationships on their own, and have the chance to discuss interests that adults may not share with children, such as clothing and popular music, or may not permit, such as drugs and sex. Peer groups can have great influence or peer pressure on each other's behavior, depending on the amount of pressure. However, currently more than 23 percent of children globally lack enough connections with their age group, and their cognitive, emotional and social development are delayed than other kids.
+
+== Developmental psychology ==
+Developmental psychologists, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and social learning theorists have all argued that peer relationships provide a unique context for cognitive, social, and emotional development. Modern research echoes these sentiments, showing that social and emotional gains are indeed provided by peer interaction.
+Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory focuses on the importance of a child's culture and notes that a child is continually acting in social interactions with others. He also focuses on language development and identifies the zone of proximal development. The Zone of Proximal development is defined as the gap between what a student can do alone and what the student can achieve through teacher assistance. The values and attitudes of the peer group are essential elements in learning. Those who surround themselves with academically focused peers will be more likely to internalize this type of behavior.
+Piaget's theory of cognitive development identifies four stages of cognitive development. He believes that children actively construct their understanding of the world based on their own experiences. In addition Piaget identified with aspects of development, occurring from middle childhood onwards, for which peer groups are essential. He suggested that children's speech to peers is less egocentric than their speech to adults. Egocentric speech is referring to the speech that is not adapted to what the listener just said.
+Erikson's stages of psychosocial development include eight stages ranging from birth to old age. He has emphasized the idea that the society, not just the family, influences one's ego and identity through developmental stages. Erikson went on to describe how peer pressure is a key event during the adolescences stage of psychosocial development. In his Latency stage, which includes children from 6–12 years old and this is when the adolescents begin to develop relationships among their peers.
+Harry Stack Sullivan has developed the Theory of Interpersonal Relations. Sullivan described friendships as providing the following functions: (a) offering consensual validation, (b) bolstering feelings of self-worth, (c) providing affection and a context for intimate disclosure, (d) promoting interpersonal sensitivity, and (e) setting the foundation for romantic and parental relationships. Sullivan believed these functions developed during childhood and that true friendships were formed around the age of 9 or 10.
+Social learning theorists such as John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura, all argue for the influences of the social group in learning and development. Behaviourism, Operant Learning Theory, and Cognitive Social Learning Theory all consider the role the social world plays on development.
+In The Nurture Assumption and No Two Alike, psychologist Judith Rich Harris suggests that an individual's peer group significantly influences their intellectual and personal development.  Several longitudinal studies support the conjecture that peer groups significantly affect scholastic achievement, particularly when adult involvement is low. Relatively few studies have examined the effect peer groups have on tests of cognitive ability. However, there is some evidence that peer groups influence tests of cognitive ability.
+
+== Positive attributes (advantages) ==
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+---
+title: "Peer group"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:31.972301+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Serve as a source of information ===
+Peer groups provide perspective outside of the individual's viewpoints. Members inside peer groups also learn to develop relationships with others in the social system. Peers, particularly group members, become important social referents for teaching other members customs, social norms, and different ideologies. Positive peer relationships improve social interaction and enhance positive engagement levels in adolescents with and without disabilities. Peers foster overall well-being by offering practical, emotional, and social support.
+
+=== Teach gender roles ===
+Peer groups can also serve as a venue for teaching members gender roles. Through gender-role socialization, group members learn about sex differences, and social and cultural expectations. While boys and girls differ greatly, there is not a one-to-one link between sex and gender roles with males always being masculine and females always being feminine. Both genders can contain different levels of masculinity and femininity. Peer groups can consist of all males, all females, or both males and females. Studies show that the majority of peer groups are unisex.
+
+=== Serve as a practicing venue to adulthood ===
+Adolescent peer groups provide support as teens assimilate into adulthood. Major changes include: decreasing dependence on parents, increasing feelings of self-sufficiency, and connecting with a much larger social network. Adolescents are expanding their perspective beyond the family and learning how to negotiate relationships with others in different parts of the social system. Peers, particularly group members, become important social referents.  Peer groups also influence individual members' attitudes and behaviours on many cultural and social issues, such as: drug use, violence, and academic achievement. and even the development and expression of prejudice.
+
+=== Teach unity and collective behaviour in life ===
+Peer groups provide an influential social setting in which group norms are developed and enforced through socialization processes that promote in-group similarity. Peer groups' cohesion is determined and maintained by such factors as group communication, group consensus, and group conformity concerning attitude and behavior. As members of peer groups interconnect and agree on what defines them as a group, a normative code arises. This normative code can become very rigid, such as when deciding on group behavior and clothing attire. Member deviation from the strict normative code can lead to rejection from the group.
+
+=== Identity formation ===
+Peer groups (friends group) can help individuals form their own identity. Identity formation is a developmental process where a person acquires a sense of self. One of the major factors that influence the formation of a person's identity is his or her peers. Studies have shown that peers provide normative regulation, and that they provide a staging ground for the practice of social behaviors. This allows individuals to experiment with roles and discover their identities. The identity formation process is an important role in an individual's development. Erik Erikson emphasized the importance of identity formation, and he illustrated the steps one takes in developing his or her sense of self. He believed this process occurs throughout one's entire life. Peer interactions have a significant impact on adolescents, developing empathy, conflict resolution, and interpersonal skills, these relationships also play a crucial role in shaping body image and satisfaction.
+
+== Negative attributes (disadvantages) ==
+
+=== Peer pressure ===
+The term peer pressure is often used to describe instances where an individual feels indirectly pressured into changing their behavior to match that of their peers. Taking up smoking and underage drinking are two of the best known examples.  In spite of the often negative connotations of the term, peer pressure can be used positively, for example, to encourage other peers to study, or not to engage in activities such as the ones discussed above. Although peer pressure is not isolated to one age group, it is usually most common during the adolescent stage. Adolescence is a period characterized by experimentation, and adolescents typically spend a lot of time with their peers in social contexts. Teenagers compel each other to go along with certain beliefs or behaviors, and studies have shown that boys are more likely to give in to it than girls. There has been much research done to gain a better understanding about the effects of peer pressure, and this research will allow parents to handle and understand their children's behaviors and obstacles they will face due to their peer groups. Learning how peer pressure impacts individuals is a step to minimizing the negative effects it leads to.
+
+=== Future problems ===
+Success of peer relationships is linked to later psychological development and to academic achievement. Therefore, if one does not have successful peer relationships it may lead to developmental delays and poor academic achievement—perhaps even in-completion of a high school degree. Children with poor peer relationships may also experience job related and marital problems later in life.
+
+=== Risk behaviors ===
+Several studies have shown that peer groups are powerful agents of risk behaviors in adolescence. Adolescents typically replace family with peers regarding social and leisure activities, and many problematic behaviors occur in the context of these groups. A study done in 2012 focused on adolescents' engagement in risk behaviors.  Participants completed a self-report measure of identity commitment, which explores values, beliefs, and aspirations, as well as a self-report that measures perceived peer group pressure and control. Both peer group pressure and control were positively related to risky behaviors. However, adolescents who were more committed to a personal identity had lower rates of risk behaviors. Overall, this study shows us that adolescent identity development may help prevent negative effects of peer pressure in high-risk adolescents.
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+---
+title: "Peer group"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:31.972301+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Aggression and prosocial behavior ===
+Social behaviors can be promoted or discouraged by social groups, and several studies have shown that aggression and prosociality are susceptible to peer influence. A longitudinal study done in 2011 focused on these two behaviors. A sample of adolescents was followed over a one-year period, and results showed that adolescents who joined an aggressive group were more likely to increase their aggression levels. Also, adolescents were likely to display prosocial behaviors that were similar to the consistent behaviors of the group they were in. An adolescent's peer group plays a role in shaping him or her into an adult, and the lack of positive behavior can lead to consequences in the future.
+
+=== Sexual promiscuity ===
+Adolescence is also characterized by physical changes, new emotions, and sexual urges, and teenagers are likely to participate in sexual activity. A longitudinal study done in 2012 followed a group of adolescents for thirteen years. Self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, counselor ratings, and parent reports were collected, and results showed a strong correlation between deviant peer groups and sexual promiscuity. Many teens claimed that the reasons for having sex at a young age include peer pressure or pressure from their partner. The effects of sexual activity at a young age are of great concern. Pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases are only a few of the consequences that can occur.
+
+=== Exclusion ===
+In peer-dominated contexts, functional diversity may lead to marginalization and exclusion. Socially excluded children may have unsatisfying peer relationships, low self-esteem, and lack of achievement motivation, which affect their social and academic aspects of life, mental health, and general well-being. Individuals with disabilities encounter challenges in peer relationships, including deficits in social skills such as emotion detection, conflict resolution, and conceptual understanding.
+
+== Adolescents and their peer groups ==
+
+=== Gavin's study ===
+In one cross-sectional, correlational study, four different developmental stages were examined: preadolescence (Grades 5 and 6), early adolescence (Grades 7 and 8), middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10) and late adolescence (Grades 11 and 12). Self-report measures were used in which adolescents completed questionnaires. First, the students rated the importance of being in a popular group. Next, positive and negative behaviour were assessed. The extent to which students were bothered by negative behaviour targeted at them by others in their groups was also assessed. Structural group properties were also examined, including: group leadership or status hierarchy, group permeability, and group conformity.
+Researchers found that middle adolescents reported placing more importance on being in a popular group and perceived more group conformity and leadership within their groups than pre- and late adolescents. Early and middle adolescents also reported more negative interactions and fewer positive interactions with group members and more negative interactions with those not part of their peer groups. Girls reported having more positive group interactions, being more bothered by negative interactions, and having more permeable group boundaries. Boys reported more negative interactions with those outside their groups and are more likely to have leaders in their peer groups. Researchers believe that the decrease in conformity throughout adolescence relates to the decrease in importance of leadership in late adolescence because having a group leader provides a person to model oneself after. They also note the relationship between the importance of being in a popular peer group and conformity. Both become less important in late adolescence, showing that it is less important to conform when the value of group membership decreases. It is believed that positive interactions outside of peer groups increase and negative interactions outside of peer groups decrease by late adolescence because older adolescents feel more comfortable and have less need to control the behaviours of others. Findings that boys have more leaders are consistent with research showing that boys partake in more dominance struggles.
+
+=== Tarrant's study ===
+A questionnaire was handed out to 58 males and 57 females, aged 14–15 in the Midlands region of the UK. The first section dealt with group structure and activities of participants' peer groups. Participants were asked how many people were in their group, the gender composition of the group, frequency of group meetings, and the group's usual meeting places. The second section addressed the participants' levels of identification with their peer groups. The next section of the questionnaire was an intergroup comparison task in which participants compared their peer group to an outgroup. The comparison referred to how sixteen different adjectives "fit" or "described" both their ingroup and outgroup. The final part of the questionnaire was designed to check the manipulation of the adjective valence. In this section, participants rated the desirability of the above sixteen adjectives in their own opinions.
+Findings supported social identity theory as participants consistently favoured the ingroup in two ways: the ingroup was always associated with a greater number of positive characteristics compared to the outgroup, and the more a participant identified with the ingroup, the higher their evaluations were for it.
+
+=== Same race peer groups ===
+Consistent with the dictionary definition of peer groups, youth tend to form groups based on similarities. It has been found that one of these similarities is by race. Preference for same race grows stronger as youth develop. When Latino and Caucasian youth were given surveys asking them to indicate who in their school they had the highest preference to spend time with, they both nominated peers of their same race over peers of different races. This is especially prevalent in classrooms and schools that have a clear cut majority and minority racial groups. Though benefits of homophily are met, preference for one's own racial group can lead to rejection of the racial out group, which can cause stress for both groups particularly in females.
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+---
+title: "Peer group"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:31.972301+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Cross race peer groups ===
+For classrooms and schools that have a more equal distribution of racial groups, there can be more socialization across peer groups. Cross racial peers groups can be very beneficial, lowering prejudice and increasing prosocial behaviors. Having a cross racial friend has also been shown to give youth a higher status and feel more socially satisfied. Diverse peer groups also lower the feelings of victimization felt by youth.
+
+=== Disability and peer group ===
+An effective approach to promoting peer relationships among adolescents with disabilities may require a comprehensive strategy that addresses the individual and social aspects of support, fostering understanding. This might involve imparting information and resources on disabilities to both peers and schools, organizing meaningful social activities with friends, and providing emotional support.
+
+== See also ==
+Group dynamics – System of behaviors within or between social groups
+Social relation – Any interpersonal relationship between two or more conspecifics between/within groups
+
+== References ==
+
+Dishion, T.; Veronneau, H. (2012). "An ecological analysis of the effects of deviant peer clustering on sexual promiscuity, problem behavior, and childbearing from early adolescence to adulthood: An enhancement of the life history framework". Developmental Psychology. 48 (3): 703–717. doi:10.1037/a0027304. PMC 3523735. PMID 22409765.
+
+== Further reading ==
+An evolutionary perspective on children's motivation in the peer group. International Journal of Behavioral Development 19(1): 53–73. Full text
+Insko (2009). "Reducing intergroup conflict through the consideration of future consequences". European Journal of Social Psychology. 39 (5): 831–841. doi:10.1002/ejsp.592.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative_interval-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative_interval-0.md
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+---
+title: "Performative interval"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative_interval"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:33.339415+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The performative interval in sociology refers to a unit of analysis in the interaction order defined by the disjunct between practice and the self, or between what an actor "does" and what an actor "is".
+The concept is developed by sociologist Adam Isaiah Green, University of Toronto, as a heuristic device to illustrate the irreducibility of the self to a social category in symbolic interactionist and queer theory renderings of the subject (Green 2007). In Green's reflection on these two latter literatures, the actor "acts toward" a given social category — be it a racial, ethnic, gender or sexual orientation classification — through aligning behavior, affect and the body with norms that define the category. Nevertheless, the category is never fully realized in the self, an insight that builds directly on Judith Butler's (1997) conception of "performative failure" (for more, see the concept of performativity), but also on the earlier sociological work of Mead and Goffman, among others. According to Green, whereas pragmatist and interactionist sociological approaches to the self typically focus on how a given actor shores up the gap between "doing" and "being" in the performative interval, queer theory focuses on the inability of the self to ever realize a social category as an ontological property of the self.  Rather, for queer theorists and within poststructuralism more generally, the self is an ever-dissolving iteration of a norm absent a knowable interior or a stable core.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Outline of sociology#General sociology concepts
+
+
+== References ==
+Butler, Judith 1997. Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative, London: Routledge
+Green, Adam Isaiah. 2007. “Queer Theory and Sociology: Locating the Subject and the Self in Sexuality Studies”, Sociological Theory, 25, 1:26-45.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_society-0.md
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+---
+title: "Permissive society"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_society"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:34.508908+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A permissive society, also referred to as permissive culture, is used to describe a society in which social norms become increasingly secular and liberal, especially with regard to violence, sexual freedom and profanity. The term is often used pejoratively by cultural conservatives to criticise what is seen as a breakdown in traditional values, such as greater acceptance of premarital sex, an increase in divorce rates, and acceptance of non-traditional relationships such as cohabitation and homosexuality. A. P. Herbert, an English humorist, novelist, playwright, law reformist, and Member of Parliament, has been described as the "Father of the Permissive Society," particularly for his championing of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1937, which extended the grounds for divorce. It was particularly used during the sexual revolution which peaked in the early 1970s in Western culture by opponents of the changes in attitudes of the era. During the 2000s, permissive parenting was criticized as a reason behind why some girls under the age of 16 wore thong underwear.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Cultural liberalism
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person_of_color-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person_of_color-0.md
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+---
+title: "Person of color"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person_of_color"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:35.766008+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Person of color (pl.: people of color or persons of color; abbreviated POC) is a term used to describe any person who is not considered "white". In its current meaning, the term originated in, and is associated with, the United States. From the 2010s, however, it has been adopted elsewhere in the Anglosphere (often as person of colour), including relatively limited usage in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, and South Africa.
+In the United States, the term is involved in the various definitions of non-whiteness, including African Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, Pacific Islander Americans, multiracial Americans, and some Latino Americans, though members of these communities may prefer to view themselves through their cultural identities rather than color-related terminology. The term, as used in the United States, emphasizes common experiences of systemic racism, which some communities have faced. The term may also be used with other collective categories of people such as "communities of color", "men of color" (MOC), "women of color" (WOC), or "librarians of color". The acronym "BIPOC" refers to "black, indigenous, and other people of color" and aims to emphasize the historic oppression of black and indigenous people. The term "colored" was originally equivalent in use to the term "person of color" in American English, but usage of the appellation "colored" in the Southern United States gradually came to be restricted to "Negroes", and it is now considered a racial pejorative. Elsewhere in the world, and in other dialects of English, the term may have entirely different connotations, however; for example, in South Africa, "Coloureds" refers to multiple multiracial ethnic groups and is sometimes applied to other groups in Southern Africa, such as the Basters of Namibia.
+
+== History ==
+The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style cites usage of "people of colour" as far back as 1796. It was initially used to refer to light-skinned people of mixed African and European heritage. French colonists used the term gens de couleur ("people of color") to refer to people of mixed African and European ancestry in the Americas who were not enslaved. In South Carolina and other parts of the Deep South, this term was used to distinguish between slaves who were mostly "black" or "Negro" and free people who were primarily "mulatto" or "mixed race". After the American Civil War, "colored" was used as a label almost exclusively for black Americans, but the term eventually fell out of favor by the mid-20th century.
+Although American activist Martin Luther King Jr. used the term "citizens of color" in 1963, the phrase in its current meaning did not catch on until the late 1970s. In the late 20th century, the term "person of color" was introduced in the United States in order to counter the condescension implied by the terms "non-white" and "minority", and racial-justice activists in the U.S., influenced by radical theorists such as Frantz Fanon, popularized it at this time. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was in wide circulation. Both anti-racist activists and academics sought to move the understanding of race beyond the black–white dichotomy then prevalent.
+The phrase "women of color" was developed and introduced for wide use by a group of black women activists at the National Women's Conference in 1977. The phrase was used as a method of communicating solidarity between non-white women that was, according to Loretta Ross, not based on "biological destiny" but instead a political act of naming themselves.
+In the 21st century, use of the term and the categorization continued to proliferate: For example, the Joint Council of Librarians of Color (JCLC), a recurring conference of the American Library Association, which uses the "of color" designation for its five ethnic affiliate associations. They include: the Black Caucus of the American Library Association, the American Indian Library Association, the Asian Pacific American Librarians Association, the Chinese American Librarians Association, and REFORMA: The National Association to Promote Library & Information Services to Latinos and the Spanish Speaking.
+
+== Political significance ==
+According to Stephen Satris of Clemson University, there are two main racial divides in the United States. The first is the "black–white" delineation; the second racial delineation is the one "between whites and everyone else", with whites being "narrowly construed" and everyone else being called "people of color". Because the term "people of color" includes vastly different people with only the common distinction of not being white, it draws attention to the perceived fundamental role of racialization in the United States. Joseph Tuman of San Francisco State University argues that the term "people of color" is attractive because it unites disparate racial and ethnic groups into a larger collective in solidarity with one another.
+Use of the term "person of color", especially in the United States, is often associated with the social-justice movement. Style guides from the American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style, the Stanford Graduate School of Business, and Mount Holyoke College all recommend the term "person of color" over other alternatives. Unlike "colored", which historically referred primarily to black people and is often considered offensive, "person of color" and its variants refer inclusively to all non-European peoples—often with the notion that there is political solidarity among them—and, according to one style guide, "are virtually always considered terms of pride and respect".
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+---
+title: "Person of color"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person_of_color"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:35.766008+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Criticism ==
+Many critics of the term, both white and non-white, object to its lack of specificity and find the phrase racially offensive. It has been argued that the term lessens the focus on individual issues facing different racial and ethnic groups, particularly African Americans whom Michael Holzman argues ignores the specific legacy of historical disadvantage in the United States. Preserving "whiteness" as an intact category while lumping every other racial group into an indiscriminate category ("of color") replicates the marginalization that the term was intended to counter. Other commentators state that the term "people of color" is a misnomer and an arbitrary term in which people who are white are mislabeled as people of color. People of color also encompasses various heterogeneous groups that have little in common, with some arguing that American culture as a whole does not deliberate on economic inequality or issues of class.
+Political scientist Angelo Falcón argues that the use of broad terms like "person of color" is offensive because it aggregates diverse communities and projects "a false unity" that "obscure[s] the needs of Latinos and Asians". Citing the sensitivity of the issue, Falcón suggested that there should be "a national summit of Black, Latino and Asian community leaders" to discuss "how can the problem of the so-called 'black/white binary' be tackled in the way it respects the diversity it ignores and helps build the broader constituency for racial social justice that is needed in the country" and to "open the way for a perhaps much-needed resetting of relations between these historically-discriminated against communities that can lead to a more useful etymology of this relationship".
+Blogger Daniel Lim criticizes the term for centering whiteness, framing non-white identities in relation to it and implying that whiteness is the default, race-neutral category. This positioning suggests that race is only relevant for non-white people, thus reinforcing the idea that whiteness is the norm and other identities are deviations. Critics argue that this dynamic marginalizes non-white groups even as the term seeks to unite them, and some individuals express discomfort with having their identities defined in relation to whiteness rather than independently.
+Comedian George Carlin described "people of color" as "an awkward, bullshit, liberal-guilt phrase that obscures meaning rather than enhancing it", adding, "What should we call white people? 'People of no color'?"
+The use of the phrase person of color to describe white Hispanic and Latino Americans and Spaniards has been criticized as inaccurate. The United States census denotes the term "Latino" as a pan-ethnic label, rather than a racial category. Although many Latinos may qualify as being "people of color", the indiscriminate labeling of all Latinos as "people of color" obscures the racial diversity that exists within the Latino population itself, and, for this reason, some commentators have found the term misleading. 
+
+=== BIPOC ===
+The acronym BIPOC, referring to "black, indigenous, (and) people of color", first appeared around 2013. By June 2020, it was, according to Sandra Garcia of The New York Times, "ubiquitous in some corners of Twitter and Instagram", as racial justice awareness grew in the United States in the wake of the murder of George Floyd. The term aims to emphasize the historic oppression of black and indigenous people, which is argued to be superlative and distinctive in U.S. history at the collective level. The BIPOC Project promotes the term in order "to highlight the unique relationship to Whiteness that Indigenous and Black (African Americans) people have, which shapes the experiences of and relationship to white supremacy for all people of color within a U.S. context".
+The term BIPOC does not appear to have originated in the black and Indigenous American communities, as it had been adopted much more widely among white Democrats than among people of color in a 2021 national poll. Asian and Latino Americans have often been confused as to whether the term includes them. The centering of black and Indigenous people in the acronym has been criticized as an unnecessary, unfounded, and divisive ranking of the oppression faced by the communities of color. The acronym's purposeful and definitional assertion that the historical and present-day suffering experienced by black and Indigenous people is more significant in kind or degree than that of other non-white groups has been described as casting communities of color in an oppression Olympics that obscures intersectional characteristics, similarities, and opportunities for solidarity in the struggle against racism. Critics argue that the systems of oppression foundational to U.S. history were not limited to the slavery and genocide suffered by black and Indigenous Americans, but also included the Asian-American and Latino-American experiences of oppression under the Chinese Exclusion Act and the doctrine of manifest destiny. Noting that "Black and Indigenous people are not at the center of every contemporary racial issue", other commentators have found it problematic that the ascendancy of the term coincided with the pronounced rise in anti-Asian hate crimes during the COVID-19 pandemic. By rendering Asian Americans as an unnamed "remnant", critics argue that the acronym renders the racial discrimination they experience invisible, thereby perpetuating harmful model minority and perpetual foreigner stereotypes. Some critics advocate a return to "POC" for its emphasis on coalition-building, while others call for a contextual approach that names "the groups actually included and centered in the arguments themselves". The term has also been criticized for being redundant.
+
+== See also ==
+Anglo-Indian
+Black, Asian and minority ethnic
+Colorism
+Coloureds
+Discrimination based on skin color
+Global majority
+Identity politics
+Model minority
+Oppression Olympics
+Perpetual foreigner
+Political blackness
+Political correctness
+Race
+Race and ethnicity in the United States
+Racialized person
+Visible minority
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Websites ===
+
+Bland, Trinity (April 14, 2020). "Opinion: The term 'people of color' fails to be properly inclusive of the black community".
+Falcon, Angelo (April 3, 2018). "Latinos and the 'Of Color' Problem". AL DÍA News.
+Fowler, Yara Rodrigues (November 5, 2020). "Yara Rodrigues Fowler | White Latinos · LRB 5 November 2020". LRB Blog.
+"Readers React: The problem with 'people of color': It implies whiteness is the default". Opinion. Los Angeles Times. May 4, 2019.
+Lamuye, Adebola (July 31, 2017). "I am no 'person of colour', I am a black African woman". The Independent. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
+Lind, Michael (July 4, 2016). "How to Fix America's Identity Crisis". Politico. Retrieved April 26, 2025.
+Holzman, Michael (September 19, 2015). "The Misnomer Called 'People of Color'". dropoutnation. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2021.{{cite web}}:  CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
+Khan, Razib (September 17, 2020). "How Brahmins lead the fight against white privilege". Unherd. Retrieved February 3, 2021.
+Shoneye, Tolani (April 22, 2018). "As a black woman, I hate the term 'people of colour'".
+Young, Damon (2020). "The Phrase 'People of Color' Needs to Die". GQ.
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+---
+title: "Plural society"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural_society"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:38.146367+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A plural society is defined by Fredrik Barth as a society combining ethnic contrasts: the economic interdependence of those groups, and their ecological specialization (i.e., use of different environmental resources by each ethnic group). The ecological interdependence, or the lack of competition, between ethnic groups may be based on the different activities in the same region or on long–term occupation of different regions in the
+Defined by J S Furnivall as a medley of peoples - European, Chinese, Indian and native, who do mix but do not combine. Each group holds by its own religion, its own culture and language, its own ideas and ways. As individuals they meet, but only in the marketplace in buying and selling. There is a plural society, with different sections of the community living side by side, within the same political unit.
+
+
+== Democratic stability in plural societies ==
+Democracy in plural societies involves political affiliations that strongly correlate with social cleavages. For example, multiple ethnic groups may each largely vote for ethnonationalist political parties, like Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
+Plural democracies may be stable or unstable. According to Gabriel A. Almond, 'Continental European' plural democracies were inherently unstable due to the centrifugal forces of conflicting segmental interests, unlike homogeneous and majoritarian Anglo-American systems. This typification was challenged by Arend Lijphart's study of deviant cases in the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland, and Belgium, each representing a plural yet stable democracy.
+Duverger and Neumann argue that there is a close relationship between the number of parties and democratic stability, but a two party system not only seems to correspond to the nature of things because it can moderate better than multiparty systems. In other words, a two party system is the best aggregation. In Switzerland, there is a multiparty system, while in Austria, there is a two party system. 
+Arend Lijphart says that there are deep divisions between different segments of the population and absence of a unifying consensus in most of the Asian, African and South American countries like Guyana, Surinam and Trinidad. According to Cliffard Geertz, Communal attachment is called “primordial loyalties”, which may be based on language, religion, custom, region, race or assumed blood ties. Each communal group hold its assumed ties, therefore there is political instability and breakdown of democracy up until now. 
+He argues that due to political development, western countries have created homogeneity among their plural societies, as idealized British society. But Gabriel Almond says that, in the Continental European political system, there is no secularism and political homogeneity, but there is cultural homogeneity. He argues that non-western countries become more comprehensive and less remote when they use this continental type, which is based on a multi-racial (multi-national) society and lacks strong consensus. 
+Furnivall states that democracy is achieved by European countries with the help of Consociationalism, and that there is fulfillment of the requirements and demands of the divided societies through appropriate processes. On the other hand, in non-western countries, there is lack of strength in social will and social unity due to the divided society, and, it is dangerous for both the democracy and political unity. 
+
+
+== Consociational democracy and the segments of plural society ==
+The concept of a plural society is central to consociational theory. The utility of consociational democracy is premised on the existence of multiple communal segments with non-overlapping social cleavages, each led by segmental elites. Power-sharing between communities in a plural society is then predicted to benefit from consociational institutions, like segmental vetoes, proportional representation, segmental autonomy, and grand coalitions.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ethnic group
+Multiculturalism
+Polyethnicity
+Pluralism (disambiguation)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Rabushka, A. and K. Shepsle (1972) Politics in Plural Societies
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+---
+title: "Police legitimacy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_legitimacy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:39.329710+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Police legitimacy is the extent to which members of the public view the police as higher power authority figures, often measured in terms of the public's willingness to obey and cooperate with the police. Police legitimacy is linked to the degree of public support for, and cooperation with the police's efforts to fight crime. When a police officer's ability and authority to effectively complete their job are compromised, there is potential for a lack of police legitimacy. 
+People who experience more procedural justice in police encounters view the police as more legitimate. In contrast, order maintenance policing and widespread street stops appear to reduce police legitimacy among young men. An increase in public support and compliance can only be accomplished if fair procedures are implemented. Police legitimacy can be achieved by increasing the public involvement in police proceedings by informing and explaining to them the process of the decisions being made. The public make judgments regarding the activities of the police by evaluating their actions when conducting their duties, therefore, influencing their views about police legitimacy.
+
+
+== Procedural Justice ==
+
+Procedural justice refers to the idea that the police, courts, and other government institutions should enforce the law in an unbiased and impartial process. It consists of four main components that ensure that proper justice is administered to the public. Firstly, citizens should be allowed to participate and be informed about the proceedings before a governmental institution reaches a decision. Secondly, the procedure in question should make the public believe that the institution is reaching a decision in an unbiased manner. Thirdly, it shows that the institution in question has shown dignity and respect throughout the proceedings. Lastly, it should portray that the institution has motives in mind that benefit the citizens. Individuals who believe that they were dealt with in a procedurally just manner are more inclined to agree with the consequences they are facing for their actions. Procedural justice and police legitimacy are collectively linked meaning that a just procedure will promote the public's faith in law enforcement.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ferguson effect – Contested possibility of violent crime increasing with reduced proactive policing
+Legal cynicism – Negative perception of law enforcement
+Legitimation crisis – Decline of trust in authority
+Defund the police – Slogan supporting reallocation of public safety funds away from policing
+Peelian principles – Philosophy defining ethical police force
+Gendarmerie – Military force tasked with law enforcement
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Jackson, Jonathan, Bradford, Ben, Hough, Mike and Murray, K. H., ‘Compliance with the law and policing by consent: notes on police and legal legitimacy,’ in: Crawford, Adam, and Hucklesby, Anthea, (eds.) Legitimacy and Compliance in Criminal Justice (London, UK: Routledge, 2012) pp. 29-49. ISBN 9780415671569
+Jackson, Jonathan, Hough, Mike, Bradford, Ben, Hohl, Katrin and Kuha, Jouni (2012) Policing by consent: understanding the dynamics of police power and legitimacy. ESS country specific topline results series, 1. European Commission.
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+---
+title: "Policy sociology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_sociology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:40.569366+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Policy sociology is a term coined by Michael Burawoy referring to a way of providing solutions to social problems. Goals are usually defined by a client, which could be the government. Policy sociology provides instrumental knowledge, that is, knowledge that can be used to solve or help a specific case in the social world. According to Burawoy, the information gathered from policy sociology is open to an extra-academic audience. It is not confined to academic boundaries.  The findings of policy sociology research are likely to have an effect on the general public as they could influence government policy.
+In recent year, policy sociology has been a popular research methodology for analysing educational policies. Sometimes it is also called critical policy sociology.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Popularity"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popularity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:42.913586+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, popularity is how much a person, idea, place, item or other concept is either liked or accorded status by other people. Liking can be due to reciprocal liking, interpersonal attraction, and similar factors. Social status can be due to dominance, superiority, and similar factors. For example, a kind person may be considered likable and therefore more popular than another person, and a wealthy person may be considered superior and therefore more popular than another person.
+There are two primary types of interpersonal popularity: perceived and sociometric. Perceived popularity is measured by asking people who the most popular or socially important people in their social group are. Sociometric popularity is measured by objectively measuring the number of connections a person has to others in the group. A person can have high perceived popularity without having high sociometric popularity, and vice versa.
+According to psychologist Tessa Lansu at the Radboud University Nijmegen, "Popularity [has] to do with being the middle point of a group and having influence on it."
+
+== Introduction ==
+
+The term popularity is borrowed from the Latin term popularis, which originally meant "common." The current definition of the word popular, the "fact or condition of being well liked by the people", was first seen in 1601.
+While popularity is a trait often ascribed to an individual, it is an inherently social phenomenon and thus can only be understood in the context of groups of people. Popularity is a collective perception, and individuals report the consensus of a group's feelings towards an individual or object when rating popularity. It takes a group of people to like something, so the more that people advocate for something or claim that someone is best liked, the more attention it will get, and the more popular it will be deemed.
+Notwithstanding the above, popularity as a concept can be applied, assigned, or directed towards objects such as songs, movies, websites, activities, soaps, foods etc. Together, these objects collectively make up popular culture, or the consensus of mainstream preferences in society. In essence, anything, human or non-human, can be deemed popular.
+
+== Types of interpersonal popularity ==
+For many years, popularity research focused on a definition of popularity that was based on being "well liked." Eventually, it was discovered that those who are perceived as popular are not necessarily the most well liked as originally assumed. When students are given the opportunity to freely elect those they like most and those they perceive as popular, a discrepancy often emerges. This is evidence that there are two main forms of personal popularity that social psychology recognizes, sociometric popularity and perceived popularity. Prinstein distinguishes between the two types as likeability vs. social status.
+
+=== Sociometric popularity or likeability ===
+Sociometric popularity can be defined by how liked an individual is. This liking is correlated with prosocial behaviours. Those who act in prosocial ways are likely to be deemed sociometrically popular. Often they are known for their interpersonal abilities, their empathy for others, and their willingness to cooperate non-aggressively. This is a more private judgement, characterized by likability, that will not generally be shared in a group setting. Often, it is impossible to know whom individuals find popular on this scale unless confidentiality is ensured.
+
+=== Perceived popularity or social status ===
+Perceived popularity is used to describe those individuals who are known among their peers as being popular. Unlike sociometric popularity, perceived popularity is often associated with aggression and dominance and is not dependent on prosocial behaviors. This form of popularity is often explored by the popular media. Notable works dealing with perceived popularity include Mean Girls, Odd Girl Out, and Ferris Bueller's Day Off. Individuals who have perceived popularity are often highly socially visible and frequently emulated but rarely liked. Since perceived popularity is a measure of visible reputation and emulation, this form of popularity is most openly discussed, agreed upon within a group, and what most people refer to when they call someone popular.
+
+== Comprehensive theories ==
+To date, only one comprehensive theory of interpersonal popularity has been proposed: that of A. L. Freedman in the book Popularity Explained. The 3 Factor Model proposed attempts to reconcile the two concepts of sociometric and perceived popularity by combining them orthogonally and providing distinct definitions for each. In doing so, it reconciles the counter intuitive fact that liking does not guarantee perceived popularity nor does perceived popularity guarantee being well liked.
+
+=== "Popularity Explained" ===
+Popularity Explained was first published as a blog before being converted to a book and various versions have been available online since 2013.
+
+==== Conceptual foundations ====
+There are four primary concepts that Popularity Explained relies on.
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+---
+title: "Popularity"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popularity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:42.913586+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Liking and attraction are not the same. The interpersonal feeling of "liking" is not the same as "attraction" and that both are responsible for different human behaviours. The neurological evidence of this comes from the research of Kent C. Berridge and his incentive salience model. Popularity Explained extrapolates the conclusions of this research and applies it to human-human interpersonal interactions.
+A hierarchy of interpersonal attraction exists in all social groups. Popularity Explained develops a very broad definition of interpersonal attraction asserting that it is based on a multitude of different factors but primarily those of: socioeconomic status; interpersonal similarity; physical appearance; and efficacy. It proposes the concept of a "Hierarchy of Attraction" which, in simple terms, is just a stylized bell curve that illustrates how attractive people are relative to each other in terms of a percentile.
+Interpersonal attraction (in the broadest sense) results in Input of Energy. Input of Energy is the interpersonal actions that an individual takes, consciously and unconsciously, when they experience an interpersonal attraction. Examples of Input of Energy given in the book include: attempts at physical proximity; changes in verbal communications; changes to non-verbal communication; biased interpersonal judgments; cognitive intrusion; and helping behaviour.
+Sociometric and perceived popularity are correlated but not equivalent. By combining these two concepts, Popularity Explained defines eight prototypical student types that can be plotted on the single graph.
+
+==== Three-factor model ====
+According to Freedman, an individual's place in the social landscape is determined by a combination of three factors: what they are; who they are; and the situation.
+
+What refers to all those aspects of a person that are objective: participation in sports, physical appearance, etc. Perceived popularity is primarily the result of what a person is. It is mediated by Input of Energy combining with the Hierarchy of Attraction. This preferential receipt of Input of Energy by a select few is what propels them to the "popular" side of the graph that combines sociometric and perceived popularity.
+Who refers to the personality of the individual and how they treat other people. It is this factor that is responsible for determining where a student sits along the "liking" and "disliking" dimensions that characterize a student. The more pro-social an individual, the more they will be liked.
+The Situation refers to the circumstances that an individual finds themself in. Different circumstances may result in different social outcomes. For example, the same student may be perceived as popular when in the social context of their church youth group but unpopular within the social context of their school as a whole.
+
+== Interpersonal causes ==
+
+One of the most widely agreed upon theories about what leads to an increased level of popularity for an individual is the perceived value which that individual brings to the group. This seems to be true for members of all groups, but is especially demonstrable in groups that exist for a specific purpose. For example, sports teams exist with the goal of being successful in competitions against other sports teams. Study groups exist so that the members of the group can mutually benefit from one another's academic knowledge. In these situations, leaders often emerge because other members of the group perceive them as adding a lot of value to the group as a whole. On a sports team, this means that the best players are usually elected captain and in study groups people might be more inclined to like an individual who has a lot of knowledge to share. It has been argued that this may be a result of our evolutionary tendencies to favor individuals who are most likely to aid in our own survival.
+The actual value which an individual brings to a group is not of consequence in determining his or her popularity; the only thing that is important is his or her value as perceived by the other members of the group. While perceived value and actual value may often overlap, this is not a requisite and it has been shown that there are instances in which an individual's actual value is relatively low, but they are perceived as highly valuable nevertheless.
+
+=== Attractiveness ===
+Attractiveness, specifically physical attractiveness, has been shown to have very profound effects on popularity. People who are physically attractive are more likely to be thought of as possessing positive traits. People who are attractive are expected to perform better on tasks and are more likely to be trusted. Additionally, they are judged to possess many other positive traits such as mental health, intelligence, social awareness, and dominance.
+Additionally, people who are of above average attractiveness are assumed to also be of above average value to the group. Research shows that attractive people are often perceived to have many positive traits based on nothing other than their looks, regardless of how accurate these perceptions are. This phenomenon is known as the Halo effect This means that, in addition to being more well-liked, attractive people are more likely to be seen as bringing actual value to the group, even when they may be of little or no value at all. In essence, physically attractive people are given the benefit of the doubt while less attractive individuals must prove that they are bringing value to the group. It has been shown empirically that being physically attractive is correlated with both sociometric and perceived popularity. Some possible explanations for this include increased social visibility and an increased level of tolerance for aggressive, social interactions that may increase perceived popularity.
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+---
+title: "Popularity"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popularity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:42.913586+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Aggression ===
+The degree to which an individual is perceived as popular is often highly correlated with the level of aggression with which that individual interacts with his or her peers. There are two main categories of aggression, relational and overt, both of which have varying consequences for popularity depending on several factors, such as the gender and attractiveness of the aggressor.
+The relationship also depends on culture. Prinstein notes that studies have found that increased aggression tends to correlate with higher social status in the United States, but lower social status in China.
+
+==== Relational aggression ====
+Relational aggression is nonviolent aggression that is emotionally damaging to another individual. Examples of relationally aggressive activities include ignoring or excluding an individual from a group, delivering personal insults to another person, and the spreading of rumors. Relational aggression is more frequently used by females than males.
+It has been found that relational aggression almost always has a strongly negative relationship with sociometric popularity but can have a positive relationship with perceived popularity depending on the perceived level of attractiveness of the aggressor. For an aggressor who is perceived as unattractive, relational aggression, by both males and females, leads to less perceived popularity. For an attractive aggressor however, relational aggression has been found to actually have a positive relationship with perceived popularity.
+The relationship between attractiveness and aggression is further intertwined by the finding that increased levels of physical attractiveness actually further decreased the sociometric popularity of relationally aggressive individuals.
+In short, the more physically attractive an individual is, the more likely they are to experience decreased levels of sociometric popularity but increased levels of perceived popularity for engaging in relationally aggressive activities.
+
+==== Overt aggression ====
+Overt aggression is aggression that involves individuals physically interacting with each other in acts such as pushing, hitting, kicking or otherwise causing physical harm or submission in the other person. This includes threats of violence and physical intimidation as well.
+It has been shown that overt aggression directly leads to perceived popularity when the aggressor is attractive. Experiments that are controlled for levels of physical attractiveness show that individuals who are attractive and overtly aggressive have a higher degree of perceived popularity than attractive non-overtly aggressive individuals. This was found to be true to a small degree for females and a large degree for males.
+Attractive individuals who are overtly aggressive barely suffer any consequences in terms of sociometric popularity. This is a key difference between overt and relational aggression because relational aggression has a strongly negative relationship on sociometric popularity, especially for attractive individuals. For unattractive individuals, there is again a strongly negative relationship between overt aggression and sociometric popularity. This means that attractive individuals stand to gain a lot of perceived popularity at the cost of very little sociometric popularity by being overtly aggressive while unattractive individuals stand to gain very little perceived popularity from acts of overt aggression but will be heavily penalized with regards to sociometric popularity.
+
+=== Cultural factors ===
+According to Talcott Parsons, as rewritten by Fons Trompenaars, there are four main types of culture, marked by:
+
+love/hate (Middle East, Mediterranean, Latin America);
+approval/criticism (United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Germanic countries);
+esteem/contempt (Japan, Eastern Asia); and
+responsiveness/rejection (the United States).
+Only the responsiveness/rejection culture results in teenagers actively trying to become popular. There is no effort for popularity in Northern or Southern Europe, Latin America or Asia. This emotional bonding is specific for the high schools in the United States. In the love/hate cultures, the family and close friends are more important than popularity. In the approval/criticism cultures, actions are more important than persons, so no strong links develop during school.
+
+=== Demographic differences ===
+
+==== Maturity ====
+Popularity is gauged primarily through social status. Because of the importance of social status, peers play the primary role in social decision making so that individuals can increase the chances that others like them. However, as children, individuals tend to do this through friendship, academics, and interpersonal conduct. By adulthood, work and romantic relationships become much more important. This peer functioning and gaining popularity is a key player in increasing interest in social networks and groups in the workplace. To succeed in such a work environment, adults then place popularity as a higher priority than any other goal, even romance.
+
+==== Gender ====
+These two types of popularity, perceived popularity and sociometric popularity, are more correlated for girls than they are for boys. However, it is said that men can possess these qualities to a larger extent, making them more likely to be a leader, more powerful, and more central in a group, but also more likely than women to be socially excluded. Boys tend to become popular based on athletic ability, coolness, toughness, and interpersonal skills; however, the more popular a boy gets, the worse he tends to do on his academic work. On the other hand, this negative view of academics is not seen at all in popular girls, who gain popularity based on family background (primarily socioeconomic status), physical appearance, and social ability. Boys are also known to be more competitive and rule focused, whereas girls have more emotional intimacy.
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+---
+title: "Popularity"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popularity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:42.913586+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Race ====
+In some instances, it has been found that in predominantly white high schools, attractive non-white students are on average significantly more sociometrically popular than equally attractive white students. One theory that has been put forth to explain this phenomenon is a high degree of group cohesiveness among minority students compared with the relative lack of cohesion amongst members of the majority. Since there is more cohesion, there is more availability for one person to be liked by many since they are all in contact. This acts like Zipf's law, where the cohesion is a confounding factor that forces the greater links in the smaller minority, causing them to be more noticed and thus more popular. When considering race as a predictor for perceived popularity by asking a class how popular and important each other person is, African American students were rated most popular by their peers. Popularity in race was found to be correlated with athleticism, and because African Americans have a stereotype of being better at sports than individuals of other races, they are viewed as more popular. Additionally, White and Hispanic children were rated as more popular the better they succeeded in school and came from a higher socioeconomic background. No single factor can explain popularity, but instead the interaction between many factors such as race and athleticism vs. academics.
+
+== Effects of popularity in the workplace ==
+
+=== Importance ===
+More tasks in the workplace are being done in teams, leading to a greater need of people to seek and feel social approval. In academic settings, a high social standing among peers is associated with positive academic outcomes. Popularity also leads to students in academic environments to receive more help, have more positive relationships and stereotypes, and be more approached by peers. While this is the research found in schools, it is likely to be generalized to a workplace.
+
+=== Benefits ===
+Popularity is positively linked to job satisfaction, individual job performance, and group performance. The popular worker, besides just feeling more satisfied with his job, feels more secure, believes he has better working conditions, trusts his supervisor, and possesses more positive opportunities for communication with both management and co-workers, causing a greater feeling of responsibility and belongingness at work. Others prefer to work with popular individuals, most notably in manual labor jobs because, although they might not be the most knowledgeable for the job, they are approachable, willing to help, cooperative in group work, and are more likely to treat their coworkers as an equal. If an employee feels good-natured, genial, but not overly independent, more people will say that they most prefer to work with that employee.
+
+=== Contributing factors ===
+According to the mere-exposure effect, employees in more central positions that must relate to many others throughout the day, such as a manager, are more likely to be considered popular.
+There are many characteristics that contribute to popularity:
+
+Expressing and acting in genuine ways – others will turn away if they can detect that someone is being fake to them
+Focusing on positive energy – others will feel too drained to be around someone if their interactions are not started on a positive note or they don't have empathy to share in someone else's positive news
+Treating others with respect – others do not like to be around someone if they aren't treated equally and acknowledged for their hard work
+Create connections – others are more likely to approach individuals they have strong relationships with; these can be built by talking about more personal issues, attending work gatherings, and communicating outside the office walls
+Patience – turning away too quickly ignores that relationships take time to grow, especially in the busy and stressful environments that work often induces
+Incorporating others – others feel a sense of trust and belongingness when they are asked for help on a project
+Hands-on or servant leader – is a person that will do the work before anyone else, be the first to do the less desirable jobs, and have a positive attitude about it.
+
+=== Leadership popularity ===
+With a greater focus on groups in the workplace, it is essential that leaders effectively deal with and mediate groups to avoid clashing. Sometimes a leader does not need to be popular to be effective, but there are a few characteristics that can help a leader be more accepted and better liked by his group. Without group or team cohesiveness, there is no correlation between leadership and popularity; however, when a group is cohesive, the higher up someone is in the leadership hierarchy, the more popular they are for two reasons. First, a cohesive group feels more personal responsibility for their work, thus placing more value on better performance. Cohesive members see leaders as taking a bulk of the work and investing a lot of personal time, so when they see a job's value they can ascribe its success to the leader. This greatest contribution principle is perceived as a great asset to the team, and members view the leader more favorably and he gains popularity. Secondly, cohesive groups have well established group values. Leaders can become more popular in these groups by realizing and acting on dominant group values. Supporting group morals and standards leads to high positive valuation from the group, leading to popularity.
+
+== The popularity of objects as a consequence of social influence ==
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+---
+title: "Popularity"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popularity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:42.913586+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Information cascades ===
+Popularity is a term widely applicable to the modern era thanks primarily to social networking technology. Being "liked" has been taken to a completely different level on ubiquitous sites such as Facebook.
+Popularity is a social phenomenon but it can also be ascribed to objects that people interact with. Collective attention is the only way to make something popular, and information cascades play a large role in rapid rises in something's popularity. Rankings for things in popular culture, like movies and music, often do not reflect the public's taste, but rather the taste of the first few buyers because social influence plays a large role in determining what is popular and what is not through an information cascade.
+Information cascades have strong influence causing individuals to imitate the actions of others, whether or not they are in agreement. For example, when downloading music, people don't decide 100% independently which songs to buy. Often they are influenced by charts depicting which songs are already trending. Since people rely on what those before them do, one can manipulate what becomes popular among the public by manipulating a website's download rankings. Experts paid to predict sales often fail but not because they are bad at their jobs; instead, it is because they cannot control the information cascade that ensues after first exposure by consumers. Music is again, an excellent example. Good songs rarely perform poorly on the charts and poor songs rarely perform very well, but there is tremendous variance that still makes predicting the popularity of any one song very difficult.
+Experts can determine if a product will sell in the top 50% of related products or not, but it is difficult to be more specific than that. Due to the strong impact that influence plays, this evidence emphasizes the need for marketers. They have a significant opportunity to show their products in the best light, with the most famous people, or being in the media most often. Such constant exposure is a way of gaining more product followers. Marketers can often make the difference between an average product and a popular product. However, since popularity is primarily constructed as a general consensus of a group's attitude towards something, word-of-mouth is a more effective way to attract new attention. Websites and blogs start by recommendations from one friend to another, as they move through social networking services. Eventually, when the fad is large enough, the media catches on to the craze. This spreading by word-of-mouth is the social information cascade that allows something to grow in usage and attention throughout a social group until everyone is telling everyone else about it, at which point it is deemed popular.
+Individuals also rely on what others say when they know that the information they are given could be completely incorrect. This is known as groupthink. Relying on others to influence one's own decisions is a very powerful social influence, but can have negative impacts.
+
+=== Zipf's law ===
+
+The popularity of many different things can be described by Zipf's powerlaw, which posits that there is a low frequency of very large quantities and a high frequency of low quantities. This illustrates popularity of many different objects.
+For example, there are few very popular websites, but many websites have small followings. This is the result of interest; as many people use e-mail, it is common for sites like Yahoo! to be accessed by large numbers of people; however, a small subset of people would be interested in a blog on a particular video game. In this situation, only Yahoo! would be deemed a popular site by the public. This can additionally be seen in social networking services such as Facebook. The average number of friends on Facebook is 130, while very few people have large social networks. However, some individuals have more than 5,000 friends. This reflects that very few people can be extremely well-connected, but many people are somewhat connected. The number of friends a person has, has been a way to determine how popular an individual is, so the small number of people who have a high number of friends on social networking services, like Facebook, illustrates how only a few people are deemed popular.
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+---
+title: "Popularity"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popularity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:42.913586+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Popular people may not be those who are best liked interpersonally by their peers, but they do receive most of the positive behavior from coworkers when compared to nonpopular workers. This is a result of the differences between sociometric and perceived popularity. When asked who is most popular, employees typically respond based on perceived popularity; however, they really prefer the social interactions with those who are more sociometrically popular. For each individual to ensure that they are consistent with the group's popularity consensus, those who are high in perceived popularity are treated with the same positive behaviors as those who are more interpersonally, but privately, liked by specific individuals. Well-liked workers are most likely to get salary increases and promotions, while disliked (unpopular) workers are the first to get their salary cut back or laid off during recessions.
+During interactions with others in the work environment, more popular individuals receive more organizational citizenship behavior (helping and courteousness from others) and less counter productive work behavior (rude reactions and withheld information) than those who are considered less popular in the workplace. Coworkers agree with each other on who is and who is not popular and, as a group, treat popular coworkers more favorably. While popularity has proven to be a big determiner of getting more positive feedback and interactions from coworkers, such a quality matters less in organizations where workloads and interdependence is high, such as the medical field.
+In many instances, physical appearance has been used as one indicator of popularity. Attractiveness plays a large role in the workplace and physical appearance influences hiring, whether or not the job might benefit from it. For example, some jobs, such as salesperson, benefit from attractiveness when it comes down to the bottom line, but there have been many studies which have shown that, in general, attractiveness is not at all a valid predictor of on-the-job performance. Many individuals have previously thought this was only a phenomenon in the more individualistic cultures of the Western world, but research has shown that attractiveness also plays a role in hiring in collectivist cultures as well. Because of the prevalence of this problem during the hiring process in all cultures, researchers have recommended training a group to ignore such influencers, just like legislation has worked to control for differences in sex, race, and disabilities.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Peer group
+School bullying
+Self-esteem
+Social influence
+Social status
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+Eder, Donna (1985). "The Cycle of Popularity: Interpersonal Relations Among Female Adolescents". Sociology of Education. 58 (3): 154–165. doi:10.2307/2112416. JSTOR 2112416.
+"How to be Popular" # Dr. A. L. Freedman; PopularityExplained.com, retrieved July 19, 2015.
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+---
+title: "Poverty penalty"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_penalty"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:44.127070+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The poverty penalty describes the phenomenon that poor people tend to pay more to eat, buy, and borrow than the rich. The term became widely known through a 2005 book by C. K. Prahalad, The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid.
+An earlier exploration of this was a 1960s sociology study published as The Poor Pay More which examined the ways in which retail patterns and a lack of consumer options allowed marginal retailers such as door-to-door salesmen, "easy credit" storefronts and the sale of installment credit agreements to extract profits from low-income buyers, with fewer options and less sophisticated consumer habits.
+The impact of the poverty penalty phenomenon has been observed across a range of products and services, including energy and insurance.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Cost of poverty
+Extreme poverty
+Poverty reduction
+Progress and Poverty
+ The factors causing poverty and suffering
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Brown, DeNeen L (18 May 2009). "The High Cost of Poverty: Why the Poor Pay More". Washington Post.
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+---
+title: "Power (social and political)"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:45.314583+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In political science, power is the ability to influence or direct the actions, beliefs, or conduct of actors, usually through law. Power does not exclusively refer to the threat or use of force (coercion) by one actor against another, but may also be exerted through diffuse means (such as institutions). 
+Power may also take structural forms, as it orders actors in relation to one another (such as distinguishing between a master and an enslaved person, a householder and their relatives, an employer and their employees, a parent and a child, a political representative and their voters, etc.), and discursive forms, as categories and language may lend legitimacy to some behaviors and groups over others. The term authority is often used for power that is perceived as legitimate or socially approved by the social structure. Scholars have distinguished between soft power and hard power.
+
+== Types ==
+
+One can classify such power types along three different dimensions:
+
+Soft and hard: Soft tactics take advantage of the relationship between the influencer and the target. They are more indirect and interpersonal (e.g., collaboration, socializing). Conversely, hard tactics are harsh, forceful, direct, and rely on concrete outcomes. However, they are not always more powerful than soft tactics. In many circumstances, fear of social exclusion can be a much stronger motivator than some kind of physical punishment.
+Rational and nonrational: Rational tactics of influence make use of reasoning, logic, and sound judgment, whereas nonrational tactics may rely on emotionality or misinformation. Examples of each include bargaining and persuasion, and evasion and put-downs, respectively.
+Unilateral and bilateral: Bilateral tactics, such as collaboration and negotiation, involve reciprocity on the part of both the person influencing and their target. Unilateral tactics, on the other hand, develop without any participation on the part of the target. These tactics include disengagement and the deployment of fait accomplis.
+People tend to vary in their use of power tactics, with different types of people opting for different tactics. For instance, interpersonally oriented people tend to use soft and rational tactics. Moreover, extroverts use a greater variety of power tactics than do introverts. People will also choose different tactics based on the group situation, and based on whom they wish to influence. People also tend to shift from soft to hard tactics when they face resistance.
+
+=== Balance of power ===
+Because power operates both relationally and reciprocally, sociologists speak of the "balance of power" between parties to a relationship:
+all parties to all relationships have some power: the sociological examination of power concerns itself with discovering and describing the relative strengths: equal or unequal, stable or subject to periodic change. Sociologists usually analyse relationships in which the parties have relatively equal or nearly equal power in terms of constraint rather than of power. In this context, "power" has a connotation of unilateralism. If this were not so, then all relationships could be described in terms of "power", and its meaning would be lost. Given that power is not innate and can be granted to others, to acquire power one must possess or control a form of power currency.
+
+=== Political power in authoritarian regimes ===
+
+In authoritarian regimes, political power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or a small group of leaders who exercise almost complete control over the government and its institutions. Because some authoritarian leaders are not elected by a majority, their main threat is that posed by the masses. They often maintain their power through political control tactics like:
+
+Repression: The state targets actors who challenge their beliefs. Can be done directly or indirectly.
+Autocrats repress actors they perceive as having irreconcilable interests, and cooperate with those they think have reconcilable ones.
+Because of preference falsification- distinguishing between an individual's private preference and public preference- sometimes repression in itself is not enough.
+Indoctrination: The state controls public education and uses propaganda to diffuse its views and values into society.
+A one standard deviation increase in pro-regime propaganda reduces the odds of protest the following day by 15%.
+Coercive distribution: The state distributes welfare and resources to keep people dependent while offering benefits to people they know they can manipulate.
+Infiltration: The state assigns people to go into grassroot level to sway the public in favor of the authoritarian regime.
+Although several regimes follow these general forms of control, different authoritarian sub-regime types rely on different political control tactics.
+
+== Power politics ==
+
+== Effects ==
+Power changes those in the position of power and those who are targets of that power.
+
+=== Approach/inhibition theory ===
+Developed by D. Keltner and colleagues, approach/inhibition theory assumes that having power and using power alters psychological states of individuals. The theory is based on the notion that most organisms react to environmental events in two common ways. The reaction of approach is associated with action, self-promotion, seeking rewards, increased energy and movement. Inhibition, on the contrary, is associated with self-protection, avoiding threats or danger, vigilance, loss of motivation and an overall reduction in activity.
+Overall, approach/inhibition theory holds that power promotes approach tendencies, while a reduction in power promotes inhibition tendencies.
+
+=== Positive ===
+
+Power prompts people to take action
+Makes individuals more responsive to changes within a group and its environment
+Powerful people are more proactive, more likely to speak up, make the first move, and lead negotiation
+Powerful people are more focused on the goals appropriate in a given situation and tend to plan more task-related activities in a work setting
+Powerful people tend to experience more positive emotions, such as happiness and satisfaction, and they smile more than low-power individuals
+Power is associated with optimism about the future because more powerful individuals focus their attention on more positive aspects of the environment
+People with more power tend to carry out executive cognitive functions more rapidly and successfully, including internal control mechanisms that coordinate attention, decision-making, planning, and goal-selection
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+---
+title: "Power (social and political)"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:45.314583+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Negative ===
+Powerful people are prone to take risky, inappropriate, or unethical decisions and often overstep their boundaries
+They tend to generate negative emotional reactions in their subordinates, particularly when there is a conflict in the group
+When individuals gain power, their self-evaluation become more positive, while their evaluations of others become more negative
+Power tends to weaken one's social attentiveness, which leads to difficulty understanding other people's point of view
+Powerful people also spend less time collecting and processing information about their subordinates and often perceive them in a stereotypical fashion
+People with power tend to use more coercive tactics, increase social distance between themselves and subordinates, believe that non-powerful individuals are untrustworthy, and devalue work and ability of less powerful individuals
+
+== Theories ==
+
+=== Five bases of power ===
+
+In a now-classic study (1959), social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven developed a schema of sources of power by which to analyse how power plays work (or fail to work) in a specific relationship.
+According to French and Raven, power must be distinguished from influence in the following way: power is that state of affairs that holds in a given relationship, A-B, such that a given influence attempt by A over B makes A's desired change in B more likely. Conceived this way, power is fundamentally relative; it depends on the specific understandings A and B each apply to their relationship and requires B's recognition of a quality in A that would motivate B to change in the way A intends. A must draw on the 'base' or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship to effect the desired outcome. Drawing on the wrong power base can have unintended effects, including a reduction in A's own power.
+French and Raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, while not excluding other minor categories. Further bases have since been proposed, in particular by Gareth Morgan in his 1986 book, Images of Organization.
+
+==== Expert power ====
+
+Expert power is an individual's power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the organization's needs for those skills and expertise. Unlike the others, this type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified. When they have knowledge and skills that enable them to understand a situation, suggest solutions, use solid judgment, and generally outperform others, then people tend to listen to them. When individuals demonstrate expertise, people tend to trust them and respect what they say. As subject-matter experts, their ideas will have more value, and others will look to them for leadership in that area.
+
+==== Reward power ====
+
+In terms of cancel culture, the mass ostracization used to reconcile unchecked injustice and abuse of power is an "upward power". Policies for policing the internet against these processes as a pathway for creating due process for handling conflicts, abuses, and harm that is done through established processes are known as "downward power".
+
+==== Coercive power ====
+
+Coercive power is the application of negative influences. It includes the ability to defer or withhold other rewards. This is a type of power commonly seen in the fashion industry by coupling with legitimate power; it is referred to in the industry-specific literature as "glamorization of structural domination and exploitation".
+
+=== Principles in interpersonal relationships ===
+According to Laura K. Guerrero and Peter A. Andersen in Close Encounters: Communication in Relationships, power in relationships is multifaceted. It can be perceived, relational, resource-based, and dependent on interest and commitment levels. While power often stems from controlling valued, scarce resources or having less dependence in a relationship, it is also shaped by behavior, social skills, and how others interpret one’s actions. Power can be enabling when used with confidence and skill, but disabling when it leads to manipulation, communication breakdowns, or relational dissatisfaction.
+
+=== Cultural hegemony ===
+In the Marxist tradition, the Italian writer Antonio Gramsci elaborated on the role of ideology in creating a cultural hegemony, which becomes a means of bolstering the power of capitalism and of the nation-state. Drawing on Niccolò Machiavelli in The Prince and trying to understand why there had been no Communist revolution in Western Europe while it was claimed there had been one in Russia, Gramsci conceptualised this hegemony as a centaur, consisting of two halves. The back end, the beast, represented the more classic material image of power: power through coercion, through brute force, be it physical or economic. But the capitalist hegemony, he argued, depended even more strongly on the front end, the human face, which projected power through 'consent'. In Russia, this power was lacking, allowing for a revolution. However, in Western Europe, specifically in Italy, capitalism had succeeded in exercising consensual power, convincing the working classes that their interests were the same as those of capitalists. In this way, a revolution had been avoided.
+While Gramsci stresses the significance of ideology in power structures, Marxist-feminist writers such as Michele Barrett stress the role of ideologies in extolling the virtues of family life. The classic argument to illustrate this point of view is the use of women as a 'reserve army of labour'. In wartime, it is accepted that women perform masculine tasks, while after the war, the roles are easily reversed. Therefore, according to Barrett, the destruction of capitalist economic relations is necessary but not sufficient for the liberation of women.
+
+=== Tarnow ===
+Eugen Tarnow considers what power hijackers have over air plane passengers and draws similarities with power in the military. He shows that power over an individual can be amplified by the presence of a group. If the group conforms to the leader's commands, the leader's power over an individual is greatly enhanced, while if the group does not conform, the leader's power over an individual is non-existent.
+
+=== Foucault ===
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+title: "Power (social and political)"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:45.314583+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+For Michel Foucault, the real power will always rely on the ignorance of its agents. No single human, group, or actor runs the dispositif (machine or apparatus), but power is dispersed through the apparatus as efficiently and silently as possible, ensuring its agents do whatever is necessary. It is because of this action that power is unlikely to be detected and remains elusive to 'rational' investigation. Foucault quotes a text reputedly written by political economist Jean Baptiste Antoine Auget de Montyon, entitled Recherches et considérations sur la population de la France (1778), but turns out to be written by his secretary Jean-Baptise Moheau (1745–1794), and by emphasizing biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who constantly refers to milieus as a plural adjective and sees into the milieu as an expression as nothing more than water, air, and light confirming the genus within the milieu, in this case the human species, relates to a function of the population and its social and political interaction in which both form an artificial and natural milieu. This milieu (both artificial and natural) appears as a target of intervention for power, according to Foucault, which is radically different from the previous notions on sovereignty, territory, and disciplinary space interwoven into social and political relations that function as a species (biological species). Foucault originated and developed the concept of "docile bodies" in his book Discipline and Punish. He writes, "A body is docile that may be subjected, used, transformed and improved.
+
+=== Clegg ===
+Stewart Clegg proposes another three-dimensional model with his "circuits of power" theory. This model likens the production and organization of power to an electric circuit board consisting of three distinct interacting circuits: episodic, dispositional, and facilitative. These circuits operate at three levels: two are macro and one is micro. The episodic circuit is at the micro level and is constituted of irregular exercise of power as agents address feelings, communication, conflict, and resistance in day-to-day interrelations. The outcomes of the episodic circuit are both positive and negative. The dispositional circuit is constituted of macro level rules of practice and socially constructed meanings that inform member relations and legitimate authority. The facilitative circuit is constituted of macro level technology, environmental contingencies, job design, and networks, which empower or disempower and thus punish or reward agency in the episodic circuit. All three independent circuits interact at "obligatory passage points", which are channels for empowerment or disempowerment.
+
+=== Galbraith ===
+John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006) in The Anatomy of Power (1983)
+summarizes the types of power as "condign" (based on force), "compensatory" (through the use of various resources) or "conditioned" (the result of persuasion), and the sources of power as "personality" (individuals), "property" (power-wielders' material resources), and/or "organizational" (from sitting higher in an organisational power structure).
+
+=== Gene Sharp ===
+Gene Sharp, an American professor of political science, believes that power ultimately depends on its bases. Thus, a political regime maintains power because people accept and obey its dictates, laws, and policies. Sharp cites the insight of Étienne de La Boétie.
+Sharp's key theme is that power is not monolithic; that is, it does not derive from some intrinsic quality of those who are in power. For Sharp, political power, the power of any state – regardless of its particular structural organization – ultimately derives from the subjects of the state. His fundamental belief is that any power structure relies upon the subjects' obedience to the orders of the ruler(s). If subjects do not obey, leaders have no power.
+His work is thought to have been influential in the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević, in the 2011 Arab Spring, and other nonviolent revolutions.
+
+=== Björn Kraus ===
+Björn Kraus deals with the epistemological perspective on power regarding the question of the possibilities of interpersonal influence by developing a special form of constructivism (named relational constructivism). Instead of focusing on the valuation and distribution of power, he asks first and foremost what the term can describe at all. Coming from Max Weber's definition of power, he realizes that the term power has to be split into "instructive power" and "destructive power". More precisely, instructive power means the chance to determine the actions and thoughts of another person, whereas destructive power means the chance to diminish the opportunities of another person. How significant this distinction really is, becomes evident by looking at the possibilities of rejecting power attempts: Rejecting instructive power is possible; rejecting destructive power is not. By using this distinction, proportions of power can be analyzed in a more sophisticated way, helping to sufficiently reflect on matters of responsibility. This perspective permits people to get over an "either-or-position" (either there is power or there is not), which is common, especially in epistemological discourses about power theories, and to introduce the possibility of an "as well as-position".
+
+=== Unmarked categories ===
+The idea of unmarked categories originated in feminism. As opposed to looking at social difference by focusing on what or whom is perceived to be different, theorists who use the idea of unmarked categories insist that one must also look at how whatever is "normal" comes to be perceived as unremarkable and what effects this has on social relations. Attending the unmarked category is thought to be a way to analyze linguistic and cultural practices to provide insight into how social differences, including power, are produced and articulated in everyday occurrences.
+Feminist linguist Deborah Cameron describes an "unmarked" identity as the default, which requires no explicit acknowledgment. Heterosexuality, for instance, is unmarked, assumed as the norm, unlike homosexuality, which is "marked" and requires clearer signaling as it differs from the majority. Similarly, masculinity is often unmarked, while femininity is marked, leading to studies that examine distinctive features in women's speech, whereas men's speech is treated as the neutral standard.
+Although the unmarked category is typically not explicitly noticed and often goes overlooked, it is still necessarily visible.
+
+=== Counterpower ===
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+title: "Power (social and political)"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:45.314583+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The term 'counter-power' (sometimes written 'counterpower') is used in a range of situations to describe the countervailing force that can be utilised by the oppressed to counterbalance or erode the power of elites. A general definition has been provided by the anthropologist David Graeber as 'a collection of social institutions set in opposition to the state and capital: from self-governing communities to radical labor unions to popular militias'. Graeber also notes that counter-power can also be referred to as 'anti-power' and 'when institutions [of counter-power] maintain themselves in the face of the state, this is usually referred to as a 'dual power' situation'. Tim Gee, in his 2011 book Counterpower: Making Change Happen, put forward the theory that those disempowered by governments' and elite groups' power can use counterpower to counter this. In Gee's model, counterpower is split into three categories: idea counterpower, economic counterpower, and physical counterpower.
+Although the term has come to prominence through its use by participants in the global justice/anti-globalization movement of the 1990s onwards, the word has been used for at least 60 years; for instance, Martin Buber's 1949 book 'Paths in Utopia' includes the line 'Power abdicates only under the stress of counter-power'.
+
+== Reactions ==
+
+=== Tactics ===
+A number of studies demonstrate that harsh power tactics (e.g. punishment (both personal and impersonal), rule-based sanctions, and non-personal rewards) are less effective than soft tactics (expert power, referent power, and personal rewards). It is probably because harsh tactics generate hostility, depression, fear, and anger, while soft tactics are often reciprocated with cooperation. Coercive and reward power can also lead group members to lose interest in their work, while instilling a feeling of autonomy in one's subordinates can sustain their interest in work and maintain high productivity even in the absence of monitoring.
+Coercive influence creates conflict that can disrupt entire group functioning. When disobedient group members are severely reprimanded, the rest of the group may become more disruptive and uninterested in their work, leading to negative and inappropriate activities spreading from one troubled member to the rest of the group. This effect is called Disruptive contagion or ripple effect and it is strongly manifested when reprimanded member has a high status within a group, and authority's requests are vague and ambiguous.
+
+=== Resistance to coercive influence ===
+Coercive influence can be tolerated when the group is successful, the leader is trusted, and the use of coercive tactics is justified by group norms. Furthermore, coercive methods are more effective when applied frequently and consistently to punish prohibited actions.
+However, in some cases, group members chose to resist the authority's influence. When low-power group members have a feeling of shared identity, they are more likely to form a Revolutionary Coalition, a subgroup formed within a larger group that seeks to disrupt and oppose the group's authority structure. Group members are more likely to form a revolutionary coalition and resist an authority when authority lacks referent power, uses coercive methods, and asks group members to carry out unpleasant assignments. It is because these conditions create reactance, individuals strive to reassert their sense of freedom by affirming their agency for their own choices and consequences.
+
+=== Kelman's compliance-identification-internalization theory of conversion ===
+Herbert Kelman identified three basic, step-like reactions that people display in response to coercive influence: compliance, identification, and internalization. This theory explains how groups convert hesitant recruits into zealous followers over time.
+At the stage of compliance, group members comply with authority's demands, but personally do not agree with them. If authority does not monitor the members, they will probably not obey.
+Identification occurs when the target of the influence admires and therefore imitates the authority, mimics authority's actions, values, characteristics, and takes on behaviours of the person with power. If prolonged and continuous, identification can lead to the final stage – internalization.
+When internalization occurs, individual adopts the induced behaviour because it is congruent with his/her value system. At this stage, group members no longer carry out authority orders but perform actions that are congruent with their personal beliefs and opinions. Extreme obedience often requires internalization.
+
+== Power literacy ==
+Power literacy refers to how one perceives power, how it is formed and accumulates, and the structures that support it and who is in control of it. Education can be helpful for heightening power literacy. In a 2014 TED talk Eric Liu notes that "we don't like to talk about power" as "we find it scary" and "somehow evil" with it having a "negative moral valence" and states that the pervasiveness of power illiteracy causes a concentration of knowledge, understanding and clout. Joe L. Kincheloe describes a "cyber-literacy of power" that is concerned with the forces that shape knowledge production and the construction and transmission of meaning, being more about engaging knowledge than "mastering" information, and a "cyber-power literacy" that is focused on transformative knowledge production and new modes of accountability.
+
+== See also ==
+Authority bias – Cognitive bias
+Authority distribution
+Causes of sexual violence – Theories that lend some explanation to the causes of sexual violence
+Discourse of power
+Economic power – Geopolitical concept
+Elite theory – Theory of the state
+Entitlement - Concept
+Pluralism (political theory) – View of politics as governmental but under heavy influence of non-governmental groups
+Power (international relations) – Concept in international relations
+Power sharing – Practice in conflict resolution
+Power vacuum – Term used in political science
+Separation of powers – Division of a state's government into branches
+Social control – Concept in the social and political sciences
+Speaking truth to power – Non-violent political tactic employed by dissidents
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Power (social and political)"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:45.314583+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Osnos, Evan, "Ruling-Class Rules: How to thrive in the power elite – while declaring it your enemy", The New Yorker, 29 January 2024, pp. 18–23. "In the nineteen-twenties... American elites, some of whom feared a Bolshevik revolution, consented to reform... Under Franklin D. Roosevelt... the U.S. raised taxes, took steps to protect unions, and established a minimum wage. The costs, [Peter] Turchin writes, 'were borne by the American ruling class.'... Between the nineteen-thirties and the nineteen-seventies, a period that scholars call the Great Compression, economic equality narrowed, except among Black Americans... But by the nineteen-eighties the Great Compression was over. As the rich grew richer than ever, they sought to turn their money into political power; spending on politics soared." (p. 22.) "[N]o democracy can function well if people are unwilling to lose power – if a generation of leaders... becomes so entrenched that it ages into gerontocracy; if one of two major parties denies the arithmetic of elections; if a cohort of the ruling class loses status that it once enjoyed and sets out to salvage it." (p. 23.)
+
+== External links ==
+
+Vatiero M. (2009), Understanding Power. A 'Law and Economics' Approach Archived 30 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, VDM Verlag. ISBN 978-3639202656
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+---
+title: "Practice theory"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:46.478480+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Practice theory (or praxeology, theory of social practices) is a body of social theory within anthropology and sociology that explains society and culture as the result of structure and individual agency. Practice theory emerged in the late 20th century and was first outlined in the work of the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu.
+Practice theory developed in reaction to the Structuralist school of thought, developed by social scientists including Claude Lévi-Strauss, who saw human behavior and organization systems as products of innate universal structures that reflect the mental structures of humans. Structuralist theory asserted that these structures governed all human societies.
+Practice theory is also built on the concept of agency. For practice theorists, the individual agent is an active participant in the formation and reproduction of their social world.
+
+== History ==
+In 1972, French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu published Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique (published in English as Outline of a Theory of Practice in 1977), which emerged from his ethnographic field work in French-occupied Algeria among the Kabyle at the outbreak of the Algerian War of Independence. The original goal of this work was to understand Algerian culture and its internal rules and laws in an effort to understand the conflict. Bourdieu later rejected the idea that culture and social life can be reduced to the acting-out of rules and the primacy of social structures over the individual. Instead, Bourdieu argues, culture and society are better understood as the product of dynamic interactions between social actors and structure. Anthony Giddens and Michel de Certeau were also foundational to the theory in the late 1970s and 1980s.
+
+== Premise ==
+Practices are conceptualized as "what people do," or an individual's performance carried out in everyday life. Bourdieu's theory of practice sets up a relationship between structure and the habitus and practice of the individual agent, dealing with the "relationship between the objective structures and the cognitive and motivating structures which they produce and which tend to reproduce them". What is perceived and experienced as culture is the result of dynamic interaction of internal and external structures, individual performance (practice), and strategy (strategy is based on existing structures, but it exists from the actions of individuals seeking to pursue their own interests). Bourdieu describes structure as the "products of historical practices and are constantly reproduced and transformed by historical practices whose productive principle is itself the product of the structures which it consequently tends to reproduce." According to practice theory, social actors are not just shaped by their social world, they shape it as well. Since Bourdieu's formulation, practice theory has been expanded by sociologists, anthropologists, international relation scholars, and feminist scholars, among others.
+
+=== Habitus ===
+
+Along with practices, habitus is a key concept in practice theory. Bourdieu defined habitus as "a structuring structure, which organizes practices and the perception of practices" (1984: 170). First proposed by philosopher Marcel Mauss, Bourdieu uses the term habitus to refer to patterns of thought and behavior which are deeply internalized structures. Habitus is composed of social conventions, rules, values, etc., that guide our everyday practices. These mental structures are representations of the external social structures people interact with on a daily basis. They inform our practice and give meaning to the world and are what drives us to behave in accordance with social and cultural conventions. Habitus is also influenced by external individual forces, such as confronting a new social norm, or a new way of doing things. Like structure, habitus is also the product of historical events. Practice theory is also widely usdd to analyze sicial behavior in modern societies.
+The embodied component of the habitus is the hexis. It is manifested as an individual's gait, gesture, postures, accent etc. A closely related notion to Bourdieu's habitus is Michel Foucault's concept of 'discipline'. Like habitus, discipline 'is structure and power that have been impressed on the body forming permanent dispositions'. In contrast to Bourdieu, though, Foucault laid particular emphasis on the violence through which modern regimes (e.g. prisons and asylums) are used as a form of social control. 
+Practice theory is also widely used to analyze social behavior in modern societies.
+
+=== Doxa ===
+
+Another important concept to practice theory are doxa, which are the internalized societal or field-specific presuppositions that 'go without saying' and are not up for negotiation. The doxa is a constructed vision of reality so naturalized that it appears to be the only vision of reality. It is the learned, fundamental, deep-founded, unconscious beliefs and values that are taken as self-evident universals and inform an agent's actions and thoughts within a particular field. An example is the belief that a year must have 365 days or that days must be 24 hours long. The field represents a structured social space with its own rules, schemes of domination, legitimate opinions. Bourdieu uses the concept of field instead of analyzing societies solely in terms of classes. For example, fields in modern societies include arts, education, politics, law and economy. Cultural capital is also part of practice theory and is directly related to strategy. It is the intangible assets that enable actors to mobilize cultural authority/power as part of strategy e.g., e.g., competencies, education, intellect, style of speech, dress, social networks,. This is important in terms of an individual's strategy. A later addition to practice theory is structuration, coined by Anthony Giddens.
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+title: "Practice theory"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice_theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:46.478480+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== In anthropology and sociology ==
+Cultural anthropologist Sherry Ortner defines practice theory as "a theory of history. It is a theory of how social beings, with their diverse motives and their diverse intentions, make and transform in which they live." Ortner developed what she terms "cultural schemas" to explain society's structural contradictions and agency. Her engagement with practice theory focuses on how agents "react to, cope with, or actively appropriate" external structures. These responses of agents are bound or enabled by the cultural schemas which are often rooted in the contradictions of society's structure and habitus of the agent. Agents create broader social narratives practices unique to their specific culture from multiple schemas. The many available to agents schemas woven to a social narrative help to "give society its distinctiveness and coherence" Ortner's agent is "loosely structured", their practice is constituted of how they respond to the schemas.
+British sociologist Anthony Giddens extended practice theory with his concept of structuration. Structuration is based on his previous work on the Duality of structure, the idea that the agency of social actors and structure are inseparable and co-create one another. Agency, according to Giddens, is neither free will or the intentionality of actions, but the capacity of the agent to act. The agency of individuals is constrained and enabled by structure. In turn, structure is created, transformed, and reproduced through the actions of agents. Giddens identified two forms of consciousness that inform the knowledgeable agent's actions: practical consciousness and discursive consciousness.
+
+== Influenced ==
+
+=== Gender theory ===
+Judith Butler's work on gender and sex is based on performance and practice theory. In Gender Trouble (1990) and "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution" (1988), Butler advances their concept of gender performativity. They argue that all gender and sexual identities are constructs. These identities are not real or innately natural and they do not express any inner reality. Instead, gender and sexuality are constituted by performance, meaning the everyday repetition of acts that reaffirm these identities. The individual performs gender and then that identity is validated by society.
+
+=== Communities of practice and learning as practice ===
+Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger draw from practice theory to conceptualize communities of practice as a place of learning. Roddick and Ann B. Stahl summarize communities of practice as involving "embodied action and continuously renewed relations between understanding and experience, more and less skilled practitioners, and the objects and communities with which practitioners interact."
+Communities of practice center the relationship of the agent, the activity engaged in, and community, which are co-created and relational to one another. Learning and apprenticeship within practice communities are processes that place individual experience and everyday practice in active discourse with the broader context of their society. According to Wenger and Lave, learning is "situated" through practice of novices and expert practitioners. More recent approaches extend the scope to issues such as agency, material, and interaction.
+
+== Other theories of practice ==
+
+=== Schatzki's theory of practice ===
+In the 1990s, Theodore Schatzki developed an alternative theory of practice in Social Practices (1996) and The Site of the Social (2002). His basic premise is that people do what makes sense for them to do and derives from the work of Martin Heidegger and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Practices make up people's 'horizon of intelligibility.' Schatzki defines practices as 'open-ended spatial-temporal manifolds of actions' (Schatzki, 2005, p. 471) and also as 'sets of hierarchically organized doings/sayings, tasks and projects'. Such practices consist of four main elements: (1) practical understanding – "knowing how to X, knowing how to identify X-ings, and knowing how to prompt as well as respond to X-ings" (idem, p. 77); (2) rules – "explicit formulations, principles, precepts, and instructions that enjoin, direct or remonstrate people to perform specific actions" (idem, p. 79); (3) teleo-affective structure – "a range of normativized and hierarchically ordered ends, projects and tasks, to varying degrees allied with normativized emotions and even mood" (idem, p. 80); and (4) general understanding.
+
+=== Jaeggi’s theory of social practice ===
+Another alternative theory is from philosopher Rahel Jaeggi, in A broad concept of economy - Economy as a social practice and the critique of capitalism (2018). In her theory of social practice, practices take on a comprehensive and broad meaning, being a set of individual recurrent actions that make part of the socio-cultural fabric of society. There are four primary characteristics: (1) social practices aren't just intentional actions that can be informed by explicit or implicit knowledge; (2) social practices are not given facts i.e. it must be interpreted within a specific context, for example “To see someone hiding behind a tree and understand it as part of the game ‘hide and seek’ (and not as hiding from the police) it’s implicit its connection to the set of other practices and their interpretations as other games and the interpretative concept of ‘game’” (3) social practices are regulated by norms which dictate how to carry on a practice and (4) social practices have immanent telos.
+Jaeggi seeks to propose a critique of the capitalist economic system that focuses on the economic practices of individuals, making it possible to understand the economic field in the broad sense, since it allows establishing connections between capitalist practices and the practices in other social spheres. Thus, economic practices are conceived as a subcategory of social practices, and are interconnected in various ways with other practices, forming the sociocultural fabric of society. This theoretical conception allows for a critique of the capitalist system based on the judgment of the inherent normative content of economic practices, understanding them as part of the sociocultural fabric and, therefore, flawed in themselves.
+
+== Other important theorists ==
+William Hanks
+Sherry Ortner
+Marshall Sahlins
+Andreas Reckwitz
+Jean Lave
+Davide Nicolini
+Elizabeth Shove
+Silvia Gherardi
+Michel Foucault
+Bruno Latour
+Michel Callon
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Practice theory"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:46.478480+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Ahearn, Laura M. (2001). "Language and Agency". Annual Review of Anthropology. 30 (1). Annual Reviews: 109–137. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.109. ISSN 0084-6570.
+Archer, Margaret S. (2003). Structure, agency and the internal conversation. Cambridge University Press.
+Bourdieu, Pierre [1972] 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Trans. Richard Nice. Cambridge University Press.
+Bourdieu, Pierre ( 1990). The Logic of Practice. Trans. Richard Nice. Polity Press.
+Calhoun, Craig, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone (1993). Bourdieu: critical perspectives. University of Chicago Press.
+de Certeau, Michel (1984). "Foucault and Bourdieu". In The practice of everyday life. Trans. Rendall S. F.University of California Press.
+Gherardi, S. (2014). How to Conduct a Practice-Based Study: Problems and Methods. Edward Elgar Pub.
+Gherardi, S. (2006). Organizational Knowledge: The Texture of Workplace Learning. Wiley.Giddens, Anthony (1979). Central problems in social theory: Action, structure, and contradiction in social analysis. University of California Press.s
+Jaeggi, Rahel (2018). Economy as social practice. Journal For Cultural Research, 22 (2). https://doi.org/10.1080/14797585.2018.1461355
+Giddens, Anthony (1984). The Constitution Of Society: Outline Of A Theory Of Structuration. Polity Press.
+Moore, Jerry D.(2000). Visions of culture: An introduction to anthropological theories and theorists. Rowman Altamira.
+Morris, Rosalind C. (1995). "All made up: Performance theory and the new anthropology of sex and gender". Annual review of anthropology. 24 (1): 567–592.
+Nicolini, Davide. Practice theory, work, and organization: An introduction. OUP Oxford, 2012
+Ortner, Sherry B. (2006). Anthropology and social theory : culture, power, and the acting subject. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-8845-6. OCLC 262341007.
+Ortner, Sherry B. (2006). "Introduction: Updating Practice Theory". Anthropology and social theory : culture, power, and the acting subject. Durham: Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11hppcg.4. ISBN 978-0-8223-8845-6. OCLC 262341007.
+Roddick, Andrew P.; Stahl, Anne B. "Introduction: Knowledge in Motion".(2016). Knowledge in motion : constellations of learning across time and place. Ed.Andrew Roddick and Anne P. Stahl. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.
+Turner, Stephen (1994). The Social Theory of Practices: Tradition, Tacit Knowledge, and Presuppositions. University of Chicago Press.
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+title: "Pre-industrial society"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-industrial_society"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:47.686486+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Pre-industrial society refers to social attributes and forms of political and cultural organization that were prevalent before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, which occurred from 1750 to 1850. Pre-industrial refers to a time before there were machines and tools to help perform tasks en masse. Pre-industrial civilization dates back to centuries ago, but the main era known as the pre-industrial society occurred right before the industrial society. Pre-Industrial societies vary from region to region depending on the culture of a given area or history of social and political life. Europe was known for its feudal system and the Italian Renaissance.
+The term "pre-industrial" is also used as a benchmark for environmental conditions before the development of industrial society: for example, the
+Paris Agreement, adopted in Paris on 12 December, 2015 and in force from 4 November, 2016, "aims to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels." The date for the end of the "pre-industrial era" is not defined.
+
+
+== Common attributes ==
+Limited production
+Extreme agricultural economy
+Limited division of labor. In pre-industrial societies, production was relatively simple and the number of specialized crafts was limited.
+Limited variation of social classes
+Parochialism—Communications were limited between communities in pre-industrial societies. Few had the opportunity to see or hear beyond their own village. Industrial societies grew with the help of faster means of communication, having more information at hand about the world, allowing knowledge transfer and cultural diffusion between them.
+Populations grew at substantial rates
+Social classes: peasants and lords
+Subsistence level of living
+Population dependent on peasants for food
+People were located in villages rather than in cities
+A large amount of the population is peasants (usually around 98%)
+
+
+== Economic systems ==
+
+Hunter gather society
+Traditional economy
+Mercantilism
+Subsistence agriculture
+Subsistence
+Planned economy
+
+
+=== Labor conditions ===
+Harsh working conditions had been prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static, and child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were not as equally prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Agrarian society
+Industrialisation
+Modernization theory
+Traditional society
+Dependency Theory
+Imperialism
+Hunter gatherers
+Low technology
+Transhumance
+Nomads
+Pastoral nomads
+Post-industrial society
+Proto-industrialization
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Grinin, L. 2007. Periodization of History: A theoretic-mathematical analysis. In: History & Mathematics. Ed. by Leonid Grinin, Victor de Munck, and Andrey Korotayev. Moscow: KomKniga/URSS. P.10-38. ISBN 978-5-484-01001-1.
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+title: "Predecessor culture"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Predecessor culture is a sociological phrase originating in Alasdair MacIntyre's book, After Virtue, in which he considers society before the Enlightenment's project of rationalizing all things as having an internal consistency and meaning which has been lost to us. It can be considered as having to do with the set of heroes and stories that were re-iterated in former cultures; these are called commonplaces in English literature. 
+Another use of the phrase is to refer to society before the 1960s. Not only is this considered in opposition to the sexual revolution, and various political movements and the manner in which power is expressed, such as the ways in which society is intended to accommodate feminism, but with the philosophical changes such as structuralism and post-structuralism.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+
+Prestige in sociolinguistics is the level of regard normally accorded a specific language or dialect within a speech community, relative to other languages or dialects. Prestige varieties are language or dialect families which are generally considered by a society to be the most "correct" or otherwise superior. In many cases, they are the standard form of the language, though there are exceptions, particularly in situations of covert prestige (where a non-standard dialect is highly valued). In addition to dialects and languages, prestige is also applied to smaller linguistic features, such as the pronunciation or usage of words or grammatical constructs, which may not be distinctive enough to constitute a separate dialect. The concept of prestige provides one explanation for the phenomenon of variation in form among speakers of a language or languages.
+The presence of prestige dialects is a result of the relationship between the prestige of a group of people and the language that they use. Generally, the language or variety that is regarded as more prestigious in that community is the one used by the more prestigious group. The level of prestige a group has can also influence whether the language that they speak is considered its own language or a dialect (implying that it does not have enough prestige to be considered its own language).
+Social class has a correlation with the language that is considered more prestigious, and studies in different communities have shown that sometimes members of a lower social class attempt to emulate the language of individuals in higher social classes to avoid how their distinct language would otherwise construct their identity. The relationship between language and identity construction as a result of prestige influences the language used by different individuals, depending on to which groups they belong or want to belong.
+Sociolinguistic prestige is especially visible in situations where two or more distinct languages are used, and in diverse, socially stratified urban areas, in which there are likely to be speakers of different languages and/or dialects interacting often. The result of language contact depends on the power relationship between the languages of the groups that are in contact.
+The prevailing view among contemporary linguists is that, regardless of perceptions that a dialect or language is "better" or "worse" than its counterparts, when dialects and languages are assessed "on purely linguistic grounds, all languages—and all dialects—have equal merit".
+Additionally, which varieties, registers or features will be considered more prestigious depends on audience and context. There are thus the concepts of overt and covert prestige. Overt prestige is related to standard and "formal" language features, and expresses power and status; covert prestige is related more to vernacular and often patois, and expresses solidarity, community and group identity more than authority.
+
+== Standard varieties and covert prestige ==
+
+Prestige varieties are those that are regarded mostly highly within a society. As such, the standard language, the form promoted by authorities—usually governmental or from those in power—and considered "correct" or otherwise superior, is often the prestige variety. However, there are many exceptions to this rule, such as Arabic, in which Egyptian Arabic is widely used in mass media aimed at international audiences, while Literary Arabic (also known as Standard Arabic) is a more prestigious form. Prestige varieties do not exhibit features, grammatically speaking, which prove them superior in terms of logic, efficacy or aesthetics. With certain exceptions, they are the language varieties of the prestigious social classes. Therefore, the prestige variety of a given language community or nation-state has symbolic significance and may act as an instrument of political power.
+The notion of a standard language in a speech community is related to the prestige of the languages spoken in the community. In general, "greater prestige tends to be attached to the notion of the standard, since it can function in higher domains, and has a written form." While there are some counterexamples, such as Arabic, "prestigious and standard varieties [tend to] coincide to the extent that the two terms can be used interchangeably."
+In countries like the United States, where citizens speak many different languages and come from a variety of national and ethnic groups, there is a "folk linguistic" belief that the most prestigious dialect is the single standard dialect of English that all people should speak. Linguist Rosina Lippi-Green argues that this belief in a standard language defends and rationalizes the preservation of the social order. Linguists believe that no variety of language is inherently better than any other, for every language serves its purpose of allowing its users to communicate. This is because every variety of a language is systematic and rule governed. These rules do not contain a hierarchy, thus certain varieties—linguistically—are not placed above another.
+The terms and conditions of prestige assigned to a language variety are subject to change depending on speaker, situation and context. A dialect or variety which is considered prestigious in one context will not carry the same status in another. The relative status of language varies according to audience, situation and other contextual elements such as geographic location. Covert prestige refers to relatively high value placed on a non-standard form of language.
+
+== Causes ==
+Different languages and dialects are accorded prestige based upon factors, including "rich literary heritage, high degree of language modernization, considerable international standing, or the prestige of its speakers". These, and other attributes and factors contribute to how the language is viewed as being of high prestige, leaving a language or dialect with few or none of these attributes to be considered to be of low prestige.
+"Language is intertwined with culture," therefore there is often a strong correlation between the prestige of a group of people and the prestige accorded to the language they speak, as linguist Laurie Bauer's description of Latin's prestige exemplifies this phenomenon:
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The prestige accorded to the churchmen, lawyers and scholars who used Latin was transferred to the language itself. Latin was held to be noble and beautiful, not just the thoughts expressed in it or the people who used it. What is called 'beauty' in a language is more accurately seen as a reflection of the prestige of its speakers.
+This phenomenon is not limited to English-speaking populations. In Western Europe, multiple languages were considered to be of high prestige at some time or another, including "Italian as the Mediterranean lingua franca and as the language of the Renaissance; and the 17th-18th century French of the court culture".
+Similarly, when British philologist William Jones published:
+
+The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit.
+It started a moment in time in which Sanskrit was considered the oldest language in the world, followed by other languages increasing their prestige by claiming to be as close to a presumed Proto-Indo-European language or linked to other Proto-Indo-European mythology, both in Europe and South Asia.
+Walt Wolfram, a professor of linguistics at North Carolina State University, notes that he "can't think of any situations in the United States where low-prestige groups have high-prestige language systems". Wolfram further emphasizes this in his PBS documentary "Do You Speak American?", and explains how there is a very clear hierarchy in which "modern American English" is at the top, and African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is at the bottom, because AAVE is seldom considered "standard" English in academic settings.
+The education system is one of the primary agents in emphasizing a "standard" way of speaking. For example, Wolfram's documentary also shows how speakers of AAVE are often corrected by teachers, since it has linguistic features that are different from what has been deemed the "standard." Criticism of AAVE in schools by teachers not only insults the students that speak AAVE, but those insults also put the individuals who taught these students how to speak, such as their family members, in a subordinate position. In turn, this further reinforces stratification of social groups in a linguistic and social context. In schools around the world that teach English, speaking "proper" English is emphasized, even if other varieties are equally valid and able to communicate the same ideas. In a school in Mumbai, India, there is a large emphasis placed on speaking "good English." Thus, proficiency is not determined by ability to convey ideas, but rather the grammatical adherence of the speaker to the rules used in the "standard" English variety, and speaking English that way. This not only perpetuates the idea of a "correct" way of speaking in the classroom, but this subordination extends well outside of the classroom.
+Many films and TV shows (especially children's TV shows) use different language varieties for different characters, which constructs their identity in particular ways. For example, the protagonists of Disney animated films tend to speak Standard American English, while minor characters or antagonists are more likely to speak with other accents. This is true even when characters would not logically speak English, as in the film Aladdin, where the title character Aladdin, his love interest Jasmine, and Jasmine's father have American accents, but several other characters do not. Associating the American accent with sympathetic or prestigious characters in children's TV shows/movies can have negative implications, contributing to the formation of stereotypes and biases.
+One of the primary examples of the debate of prestige within the media is the Oakland ebonics controversy of 1996. Illustrating the pervasiveness of public views on socio-educational issues in relation to language diversity, the Oakland, California school board came to a resolution recognizing Ebonics within public education. This proposition recognized Ebonics as a language system in attempts for the city to receive public funding for bilingual situations. Heavy debate arose amongst members of Congress, newscasters, and other commentators with relatively little linguistics knowledge.
+The debate was extremely controversial, with beliefs stemming from the same beliefs that govern morality, religion, and ethics. Similar to the beliefs that govern these areas, the debate on Ebonics was believed to be inflexible. The discussion "surfaced foundational beliefs about language and language diversity and exposed an alternative, non-mainstream set of beliefs about language and language variation."
+
+== Language attitudes ==
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+
+Prestige influences whether a language variety is considered a language or a dialect. In discussing definitions of language, Dell Hymes wrote that "sometimes two communities are said to have the same, or different, languages on the grounds of mutual intelligibility, or lack thereof", but alone, this definition is often insufficient.
+Different language varieties in an area exist along a dialect continuum, and moving geographically often means a change in the local variety.
+This continuum means that despite the fact that standard German and standard Dutch are not mutually intelligible, the speech of people living near the border between Germany and the Netherlands will more closely resemble that of their neighbors across the border than the standard languages of their respective home countries. Even so, speakers near the border would describe themselves as speaking a variety of their respective standard languages, and the evolution of these dialects tends to mirror that of the standard languages as well.
+That they are classified as such reflects the fact that "language differences are not only marks of differential group membership, but also powerful triggers of group attitudes". Such fuzziness has resulted in the aphorism "A language is a dialect with an army and navy." That is, speakers of some language variety with political and social power are viewed as having a distinct language, while "'dialect' is [...] a term that suggests lower-class or rural speech".
+A canonical example of this is the Scandinavian languages, including Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, where language differences "constitute barriers to but do not wholly block communication", but are considered distinct languages because they are spoken in different countries.
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:50.201752+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Social class ===
+While some differences between dialects are regional in nature, there are also social causes for differences in dialects. Very often, the "public prestige dialect of the elite in a stratified community differs from the dialect(s) of the non-elite strata (working class and other)". In fact, in an article which in part tried to motivate the study of sociolinguistics, Raven McDavid wrote that "the importance of language as a mirror of culture can be demonstrated by dialect differences in American English". Thus the relation between the way speakers use a language and their social status is a long recognized tool in sociolinguistics.
+In 1958, one of the earliest studies of the relationship between social differences and dialect differences was published by John Gumperz, who studied the speech patterns in Khalapur, a small, highly stratified village in India. In all, the village has 31 castes, ranging from Brahmins and Rajputs at the top, to Chamars and Bhangis at the bottom, and 90% of the overall population was Hindu, with the remaining 10% Muslim.
+Gumperz observed that the different castes were distinguished both phonologically and lexically, with each caste having a vocabulary specific to their subculture. Remarkably, the speech differences between Hindus and Muslims "are of the same order as those between individual touchable castes and certainly much less important than the variation between touchables and untouchables".
+Gumperz also observed that the lower prestige groups sought to imitate the higher prestige speech patterns and that over time, it had caused the evolution of the prestige away from the regional standard, as higher prestige groups sought to differentiate themselves from lower prestige groups. He concluded that in determining speech patterns in this community, "the determining factor seems to be informal friendship contacts" rather than work contacts.
+An example of this was also observed in a study in Madrid, Spain, where Latin American Spanish-speakers noticed that certain features of their Spanish were evaluated negatively by local speakers. Spanish varieties spoken in Latin American countries have linguistic differences from the way many locals in Madrid speak. Their use of Latin American Spanish is associated with "symbolic and monetary capital (such as social class and ethnicity)." The study asserted that "To be accepted, therefore, the speakers have to "correct" these "errors" and "adapt" to the local variety of Spanish, which is considered the model to follow. In other words, to be acknowledged as full participants in their respective communities, these participants have to sound like locals." Thus, social class plays a role in determining prestige, impacting the way that Latin American Spanish is acknowledged.
+One notable example of the relationship between dialect and social stratification in English is William Labov's 1966 study of the variable pronunciation of r in New York City. Labov went to three New York City department stores that catered to three clearly delineated socioeconomic groups—Saks (high), Macy's (middle), and S. Klein (low)—and studied how their employees pronounced the phrase "fourth floor". His results demonstrated that the employees at Saks pronounced r most often, Macy's employees pronounced r less often, and at S. Klein, seventy-nine percent of the respondents said no r at all. Another trend Labov noticed was that at all three of the stores, but Macy's in particular, when prompted to say "fourth floor" a second time, employees were much more likely to pronounce the r.
+Labov attributed his findings to the perceived prestige of each dialect. He noted that New York City's "dropped 'r' has its origins in posh British speech", but after World War II, "with the loss of Britain's imperial status 'r'-less British speech ceased to be regarded as 'prestige speech'". In 1966, when Labov performed his study, pronouncing words like car and guard with r was then considered an element of prestige speech. This resulted in middle-class employees, once made conscious of having to pronounce "fourth floor", altering their pronunciation in order to match that of the high prestige dialect. The prestige given to r was also evident in the hypercorrection observed in lower-class speech. Knowing that r-pronunciation was a prestigious trait, many of the lower-class speakers in another Labov study—in which speakers were asked to read from word lists—added -r to words that did not have an r at all. The difference between this study and the "fourth floor" study was the fact that speakers were closely monitoring their speech, not speaking spontaneously, and were thus careful to add r in an attempt to mimic a higher social class.
+Another prime example of covert prestige is within popular culture. The pervasiveness of hip hop music and its usage of AAVE has coined many widely used terms. Usage of AAVE has created a certain social capital, or clout, in certain social contexts. Contrastingly, in educational or hierarchical settings, usage of this variety can result in negative connotations. Due to this, practitioners are often perceived as having minimal academic prowess or being lowly educated. They can also be associated with poverty or low economic means. These inherent stigmas and biases impede the AAVE speaker from academic, social, and economic success.
+
+=== Gender and covert prestige ===
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+title: "Prestige (sociolinguistics)"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:50.201752+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Non-standard dialects are usually considered low-prestige, but in some situations dialects "stigmatized by the education system still enjoy a covert prestige among working-class men for the very reason that they are considered incorrect". These situations occur when the speaker wants to gain recognition, acceptance, or solidarity with a specific—and non-prestigious—group of people, or to signal to other speakers their identification with that group. The idea of covert prestige was first introduced by William Labov, who noticed that even speakers who used non-standard dialects often believed that their own dialect was "bad" or "inferior". Labov realized that there must be some underlying reason for their use of the dialect, which he identified as a signal of group identity. One example is a 1998 study on the use of word-final -ing versus -in among college fraternity men in the United States. The fraternity men used "-in" rather than "-ing," from which the author concluded that the men used -in to demonstrate what they saw as working-class behavioral traits, such as 'hard-working' and 'casual,' thus creating a specific identity for themselves.
+In a study by Elaine Chun, it was noted that even though the use of African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is not viewed as the standard in many American schools, and thus is often corrected by teachers, there are some instances where non-African Americans use AAVE to construct their identity in a particular way and enjoy covert prestige in the African American speech community. The study pointed out that "mainstream uses of AAVE 'slang' are especially prevalent in social circles that desire to create and project a heterosexual masculinity," and included examples of a Korean-American student using AAVE to gain recognition/acceptance in the African American speech community. This underscores that the relative status of language varies according to audience.
+Likewise, in studies of the speech patterns in British English, Peter Trudgill observed that more working-class women spoke the standard dialect than men. Farida Abu-Haidar performed a similar study in Baghdad of prestige in the Arabic language, after which she concluded that in Baghdadi Arabic, women are more conscious of prestige than are men. Other areas in which this has been observed include New Zealand and Guangdong in China. As explanation, Trudgill suggests that for men, there is covert prestige associated with speaking the working-class dialect. In fact, he observed men claiming to speak a less prestigious dialect than that which they actually spoke. According to this interpretation then, "women's use of prestige features simply conforms to the ordinary sociolinguistic order, while men deviate from what is expected." Elizabeth Gordon, in her study of New Zealand, suggested instead that women used higher prestige forms because of the association of sexual immorality with lower-class women. Whatever the cause, women across many cultures seem more likely than men to modify their speech towards the prestige dialect.
+Though women use prestige dialects more than men, the same gender preference for prestige languages does not seem to exist. A study of diglossic societies by John Angle and Sharlene Hesse-Biber showed that the poorer men were more likely to speak the prestige language than were poorer women, even though women were more particularly "drawn to the language of the rich." One explanation put forth for this is that poorer men are more likely to have the means of acquiring a second language than poorer women as a result of having "greater exposure" and "greater economic motivation."
+
+== Language contact ==
+When different language varieties come into contact, a variety of relationships can form between the two, all typically influenced by prestige. When they have equal power or prestige, they form adstratum, as exemplified by Old English and Old Norse, which shared elements with each other more or less equally.
+Far more common is for the two languages to have an unequal power relationship, as is the case of many colonial language contact situations. Languages that have a higher status in relation to a certain group often manifest themselves in word borrowing. One example is in English, which features many French words, as a result of the historical prestige of French. Another potential result of such contact relationships includes the creation of a pidgin or eventually creole through nativization. In the case of pidgins and creoles, it is usually noted that the low prestige language provides the phonology while the high prestige language provides the lexicon and grammatical structure.
+In addition to forming a new language, known as a creole, language contact can result in changes, such as language convergence, language shift or language death. Language convergence is when two languages have been exposed for a long period of time and they begin to have more properties in common. Language shift is when a speaker shifts from speaking a lower prestige dialect to a higher prestige dialect. Language death can happen in many ways, one of which is when speakers of a language die off, and there are no new generations learning to speak this language. The intensity of the contact between the two languages and their relative prestige levels influence the degree to which a language experiences lexical borrowing and changes to the morphology, phonology, syntax, and overall structure of the language.
+
+== Language structure ==
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+title: "Prestige (sociolinguistics)"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:50.201752+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+When two languages with an asymmetrical power relationship come into contact, such as through colonization or in a refugee situation, the creole that results is typically largely based on the prestige language; as noted above, linguists have observed that the low-prestige language usually provides the phonology while the high-prestige language provides the lexicon and grammatical structure. Over time, continued contact between the creole and the prestige language may result in decreolization, in which the creole begins to more closely resemble the prestige language. Decreolization thus creates a creole continuum, ranging from an acrolect (a version of the creole that is very similar to the prestige language), to mesolects (decreasingly similar versions), to the basilect (the most "conservative" creole). An example of decreolization described by Hock and Joseph is African American Vernacular English (AAVE), in which older, more conservative versions preserve features such as the completive marker done while newer, less conservative versions do not.
+Some instances of contact between languages with different prestige levels have resulted in diglossia, a phenomenon in which a community uses a high prestige language or dialect in certain situations, usually for newspapers, in literature, on university campuses, for religious ceremonies, and on television and the radio, but uses a low prestige language or dialect for other situations, often in conversation in the home or in letters, comic strips, and in popular culture. Linguist Charles A. Ferguson's 1959 article "Diglossia" listed the following examples of diglossic societies: in the Middle East and North Africa, Standard Arabic and vernacular Arabics; in Greece, Katharevousa and Dhimotiki; in Switzerland, Swiss Standard German and Swiss German; and in Haiti, Standard French and Haitian Creole. In most African countries, a European language serves as the official, prestige language (Standard French, English, Portuguese), while local languages (Wolof, Bambara, Yoruba) or creoles (Ivorian French, Nigerian English) serve as everyday languages of communication.
+In diglossic societies, the prestigious language tends to conservatively resist change over time while the low-prestige language, the local vernacular, undergoes normal language change. For instance, Latin, the high prestige language of Europe for many centuries, underwent minimal change while the everyday low prestige spoken languages evolved significantly. If, however, the two languages are spoken freely, the prestige language may undergo vernacularization and begin to incorporate vernacular features. An example is Sanskrit, an ancient prestige language that has incorporated the vernacular pronunciations of [tʃ] and [b] for word-initial y- and v-.
+The prestige language may also change under the influence of specific regional dialects in a process known as regionalization. For example, in medieval times, Ecclesiastical Latin developed different forms in countries such as Italy, France, Portugal, Spain, Catalonia, as well as other Roman Catholic nations, notably in pronunciation – see Latin regional pronunciation. Some of these differences were minor, such as c before i and e being pronounced [tʃ] in Italy but [s] in France, but after English underwent the Great Vowel Shift between 1200 and 1600, the vowel system in England became nearly unrecognizable to its European ecclesiastic counterparts.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Cultural cringe
+Dialect levelling
+Language attrition
+Language planning and policy in Singapore
+Linguistic imperialism
+List of prestige dialects
+Raciolinguistics
+Vergonha
+
+== References ==
+
+== General and cited references ==
+
+== External links ==
+ The dictionary definition of prestige at Wiktionary
+Do You Speak American?
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+title: "Primary socialization"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_socialization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:51.368906+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Primary socialization in sociology is the period early in a person's life during which they initially learn and develop themselves through experiences and interactions. This process starts at home through the family, in which one learns what is or is not accepted in society, social norms, and cultural practices that eventually one is likely to take up. Primary socialization through the family teaches children how to bond, create relationships, and understand important concepts including love, trust, and togetherness. Agents of primary socialization include institutions such as the family, childhood friends, the educational system, and social media. All these agents influence the socialization process of a child that they build on for the rest their life. These agents are limited to people who immediately surround a person such as friends and family—but other agents, such as social media and the educational system have a big influence on people as well. The media is an influential agent of socialization because it can provide vast amounts of knowledge about different cultures and society. It is through these processes that children learn how to behave in public versus at home, and eventually learn how they should behave as people under different circumstances; this is known as secondary socialization. A vast variety of people have contributed to the theory of primary socialization, of those include Sigmund Freud, George Herbert Mead, Charles Cooley, Jean Piaget and Talcott Parsons. However, Parsons' theories are the earliest and most significant contributions to socialization and cognitive development.
+
+== Theories ==
+
+=== Talcott Parsons ===
+Talcott Parsons believed that the family is one of the most important institutions during primary socialization and that aside from providing basic essentials such as shelter, food and safety, it teaches a child a set of cultural and social standards that guide the child through life as they mature. However, it is just as important that the child be able to internalize these standards and norms rather than just learn them, otherwise they will not be able to successfully participate in their culture or society later on. According to Parsons' theory, primary socialization prepares children for the various roles they take up as adults, and also has a big influence on the child's personality and emotional state of being. If we skip or try not to focus on primary socialization, norms of the society will not be known by the child.
+
+=== Sigmund Freud ===
+The physician and creator of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, devised a theory of personality development which states that biological instincts and societal influences shape the way a person becomes as an adult. Freud stated that the mind is composed of three components: the id, the superego and the ego. All of these three parts must cohesively work together in balance so that an individual may be able to successfully interact with and be a part of society. If any of these parts of the mind exceeds the others or becomes more dominant, the individual will face social and personal problems. Of the three components, Freud claims that the id forms first; the id makes a person act strictly for their pleasure. A newborn's mind only contains the id since all they ask for are physical desires. The superego develops as an individual moves into childhood and is described as the development of a conscience. The individual becomes aware that there are societal norms to follow and conforms to them. Lastly, the ego develops into late adolescence and adulthood and is the part of the mind that resolves conflicts between the id and the superego. The ego helps a person make rational decisions that comply with the rules of society.
+
+=== George Herbert Mead ===
+George Herbert Mead created the theory of social behaviorism, which states that the self is created by social experiences. The self is the portion of the being consisting of self-image and self-consciousness. As individuals interact with others, they build up this self. Unlike Freud, Mead believes that the self is not created by biological instincts, but rather solely by societal influences. He also stated that the use of language and exchanging of symbols to convey meaning is what societal experiences are made up of. Furthermore, one must place themselves in the other person's position to be able to understand them; they must take up the other person's role, and only by understanding the other person's role can self-awareness be achieved.
+
+=== Charles Horton Cooley ===
+
+Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley developed the theory of the looking-glass self, which is similar to Mead's theory in that it states that our societal interactions form our self-image. Cooley discussed how significant others are people whose opinions are of importance to us, and thus they have strong influences over the way we think about things and ourselves. In this case, a significant other can be any person: a friend, family member, or spouse. The theory of the looking-glass self proposes three steps for the formation of the self. In the first step, an individual thinks about how a significant other perceives them. In the second step, they imagine that a judgement about them is made by the significant other based on the perception they have of the individual. Lastly, in the third step, the individual creates a self-image based on how they believe the significant other sees them.
+
+=== Jean Piaget ===
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+---
+title: "Primary socialization"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_socialization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:51.368906+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Psychologist Jean Piaget created the theory of cognitive development, which talks about how the mentality of children develops and matures as they grow older and further interact with society. Piaget defined four main periods of development: the sensorimotor period, the pre-operational period, the concrete operational period and the formal operational period. The sensorimotor period takes place from birth to about two years of age and is defined as the stage when infants learn by using their senses and motor skills. In this stage, the main goal is for an infant to learn that an object still exists even when it is not directly in sight; this is known as object permanence. During the pre-operational period, from roughly two to seven years of age, a child is much more capable of conceiving symbolic thought, but is not capable of reasoning yet. Also, children during this period cannot comprehend conservation, which is the ability to understand that different-looking objects can have the same measurable features, such as area, volume, and length. The next period, the concrete operational period, takes place from ages seven to eleven. In this stage, children are able to solve problems or mental operations, only in regards to real events or tangible objects, in their minds. The final stage is the formal operational period, taking place from age eleven through adulthood, and is the period in which individuals learn to solve problems based on hypothetical situations. During this stage, the individual can think logically, symbolically and abstractly.
+
+== Means of socialization ==
+
+=== The family ===
+
+Family, the closest set of people to an individual, are the ones that have the greatest impact on the socialization process. Many people, from birth to early adulthood, rely heavily on their family for support, basic necessities such as shelter and food, nurturing, and guidance. Due to this, many of the influences from the family become a part of the growing individual. The family imposes on the child their language, culture, race, religion, and class, and as a result all of these concepts contribute to the child's self. Failure of the family to be continuously present as a strong influence can lead to deviant behaviors later on in life. Various theories of primary socialization state that the degree of bonding during this process and the norms acquired during childhood may lead to deviant behavior and even drug abuse as an adult. Also, the ego levels of the adults surrounding the person during primary socialization, as well their behaviors towards others, affect the primary socialization process of the individual.
+
+=== Education and peer groups ===
+Educational systems introduce new knowledge to children as well as order and bureaucracy. In school a child learns about other cultures, races and religions different from their own. Education influences individuals to think and act certain ways that pertain to the norms and values of their current society. One example of this is gender roles; from a young age, schools teach children to act in particular manners based on their gender.
+A peer group can be identified as a group of individuals who are similar in age and social class. By joining peer groups, children begin to detach from the authority the family has imposed in them, and start making choices of their own. Negative influences from peer groups can also lead to deviant behavior, due to peer pressure. These groups in an individual's life have significant effects on the primary socialization process as they can influence an individual to think or act differently.
+
+=== Social and mass media ===
+Social and mass media are some of the most influential agents of socialization. Magazines, television, social networks, newspapers, internet, films, and radio are all forms of mass media that entertain and send messages to large audiences. As a result, all of these messages sent out by social media have an effect on the way children see themselves and the world around them. Some examples of influential messages that are constantly seen from mass media include unrealistic or even unhealthy beauty standards, racial and sexual stereotypes, and violence around the world. These messages can all impact how a child creates their self and how they act as individuals in society.
+
+== Boundaries ==
+Primary socialization takes place during infancy, childhood and early adolescence, in which an individual builds their basic core identity and personality. During this process a person forms their self-image and self-awareness through social experience. In primary socialization the family has a grand influence on the individual, as well as peer groups, educational institutions, and mass media. Overlapped with this is the process of secondary socialization, which occurs from childhood through adulthood, wherein an individual encounters new groups, and must take up new roles to successfully participate in society. However, this process involves smaller changes than those of primary socialization and is more so associated with teenagers and adults. During secondary socialization an individual begins to partake in smaller groups of larger societies, and as a result must learn to behave appropriately. The behavioral patterns that were created by the socialization agents during primary socialization are put into action in secondary socialization.
+
+== See also ==
+Developmental psychology
+Hidden curriculum
+Institutional theory
+Social constructionism
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest-0.md
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+---
+title: "Principle of least interest"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:52.587182+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The principle of least interest is the idea in sociology that the person or group that has the least amount of interest in continuing a relationship has the most power over it. In the context of relationship dynamics, it suggests towards which party the balance of power tilts. The principle applies to personal, business, and other types of relationships where more than one party is involved.
+
+
+== History ==
+The term originated in 1938 by the sociologist Willard Waller in his book The Family: A Dynamic Interpretation. Throughout his research Waller found that power in a dating couple is almost never equally distributed between the two participants. One person for any variety of possible reasons will have more power in the relationship. One of the ways Waller proposed for this uneven balance was the Principle of Least Interest. In a relationship with uneven power distribution, one of the partners gets more out of a relationship, be it emotionally, physically, or monetarily than the other. The partner who receives less has less incentive to continue the relationship and therefore at the most extreme can threaten to end the relationship so that the other person bends to their demands. For the person making the demands this is of little consequence to them. For the other party however, it might be a much larger issue. This is the basis for the ideas behind principle of least interest.
+The first major study to test the principle came in 1972 in a paper by Kenneth Eslinger, Alfred D Clarke and Russell R Dynes. In the paper the researchers interviewed 113 randomly selected college students that were enrolled in sociology courses to find out if a difference in emotional involvement existed in relationships and whether or not the level of involvement was affected by how the person was raised.  The methods of raising children that were considered by the study were: bureaucratically or entrepreneurially. The study confirmed that there was a difference in involvement between how you were raised and how involved in a relationship you were. Furthermore, the study showed a large gap in involvement between males and females, with the lowest female mean score four points higher than the highest male mean score. This showed that males as a group were significantly less interested in maintaining their relationship and could use the principle of least interest for their own benefit.
+These studies were further reinforced in 1984 by a study that focused on the balance of power in lesbian relationships. Nearly 40% of those taking part reported an unequal balance of power. Furthermore, those who reported an unequal balance of power reported that they felt the person who was less dependent on the relationship had more power.
+In 1994 a study of 413 heterosexual American adults found correlations between the power balance between the partners and the emotional involvement of them to be both negative and significant. The researchers also noted that the perception of being powerless in a relationship grew as the emotional involvements in the relationship grew. 39% of the respondents reported that the woman was more emotionally involved compared to only 21% reporting the man to be more emotionally involved. Building on this study in 2006 a study by Susan Sprecher and Diane Felmlee of 101 heterosexual American dating couples found that the partners who perceived themselves as more emotionally involved also perceived themselves as having less power.
+The most recent study on the principle of least interest took place in 2012. In it 30 in-depth interviews with 15 unmarried African-American couples were performed. The study found that the partner less emotionally involved typically made the decisions about how to handle the couple's birth control.
+
+
+== Sociological perspective ==
+The principle of least interest falls primarily in the Conflict viewpoint of sociology. The principle of least interest dictates how power is distributed in a relationship and how it is almost always unequally balanced. This unequal balance of power can lead the weaker person to struggle to get a grasp on some of the power. This struggle leads to a conflict between the one with the power and the one without.
+
+
+== Outside of relationships ==
+While typically the principle of least interest is used in sociology to describe relationships, it has also been used to explain business deals. It can explain why in marketing an excessively aggressive pitch can be less likely to be accepted. Another example is in negotiations, when one party leaves the negotiation in order to make the other party improve their offer.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Brinkmanship
+Principle of least effort
+Moral hazard
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Private sphere"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:53.830680+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The private sphere is the complement or opposite to the public sphere. The private sphere is a certain sector of societal life in which an individual enjoys a degree of authority and tradition, unhampered by interventions from governmental, economic or other institutions. Examples of the private sphere are high society, religion, sex, family and home.
+In public-sphere theory, on the bourgeois model, the private sphere is that domain of one's life in which one works for oneself. In that domain, people work, exchange goods, and maintain their families; it is therefore, in that sense, separate from the rest of society.
+
+
+== Shifting boundaries ==
+The parameters separating public and private spheres are not fixed but vary both in (cultural) space and in time.
+In the classical world, economic life was the prerogative of the household, only matters which could not be dealt with by the household alone entered the public realm of the polis. In the modern world, the public economy permeates the home, providing the main access to the public sphere for the citizen become consumer.
+In classical times, crime and punishment was the concern of the kinship group, a concept only slowly challenged by ideas of public justice. Similarly in medieval Europe the blood feud only slowly gave way to legal control, whereas in modern Europe only the vendetta would still attempt to keep the avenging of violent crime within the private sphere.
+Conversely, in early modern Europe, religion was a central public concern, essential to the maintenance of the state, so that details of private worship were hotly debated and controverted in the public sphere. Similarly, sexual behavior was subject to a generally agreed code publicly enforced by both formal and informal social control. In postmodern society, both religion and sex are now generally seen as matters of private choice.
+
+
+=== Gender politics ===
+Throughout many decades, the public and private sphere have incorporated traditional gender roles. Women were mostly kept to the private sphere by staying at home, taking care of their children and attending to house chores. They were not able to participate in the public sphere, which was dominated by men. 
+The private sphere was long regarded as women's "proper place" whereas men were supposed to inhabit the public sphere.  Although feminist researchers such as V. Spike Peterson have discovered roots of the exclusion of women from the public sphere in ancient Athenian times, a distinct ideology that prescribed separate spheres for women and men emerged during the Industrial Revolution because of the severance of the workplace from places of residence that occurred with the build up of urban centres of work. Even writing was traditionally considered forbidden, as "In the anxious comments provoked by the 'female pen' it [was] easy enough to detect fear of the writing woman as a kind of castrating female whose grasp upon that instrument seems an arrogation of its generative power".
+Feminists have challenged the ascription in a number of (not always commensurate) ways. In the first place, the slogan "the personal is political" attempted to open up the 'private' sphere of home and child-rearing to public scrutiny as well as call to attention how the exclusion of women from the public sphere makes the private sphere political. At the same time, there was a new valorisation of the personal – of experiential knowledge and the world of the body – as against the (traditional) male preserves of public speech and theory.
+All the while, due to the activism of feminists, the public sphere of work, business, politics and ideas were increasingly opened up to female participation.
+
+
+== Critical theory ==
+Martin Heidegger argued that it is only in the private sphere that one can be one's authentic self, as opposed to the impersonal and identikit They of the public realm.
+Contrary to Heidegger, Hannah Arendt argued that (public) action is the only way to manifest "who" somebody is, as opposed to describing "what" they are. She argued that only in public realm it is possible to fully express oneself. 
+Richard Sennett opposed what he saw as the Romantic idealization of the private realm of intimate relations, as opposed to the public sphere of action at a distance.
+Deleuze and Guattari saw postmodernism as challenging the traditional split between private and public spheres, producing instead the supersaturated space of immediate presence and media-scrutiny of late capitalism.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Bertold Brecht
+Dasein
+Gender studies
+Glass ceiling
+Lana Rakow
+Privacy
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Hannah Arendt,  The Human Condition (1958)
+Zizi A. Papacharissi, A Private Sphere (2013)
+Alan F. Westin, Privacy and Freedom (1967)
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+title: "Professional responsibility"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_responsibility"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:55.127277+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Professional responsibility is a set of duties within the concept of professional ethics for those who exercise a unique set of knowledge and skill as professionals.
+Professional responsibility applies to those professionals making judgments, applying their unique skills, and reaching informed decisions for, or on behalf, of others, as professionals. Professionals must be seen to exercise due care and responsibility in their areas of specialisation – known as professions.
+What makes professionals unique, is that the general public would not ordinarily be expected to know in detail the skills and knowledge of a profession independently.
+In a  modern context, professional responsibility encompasses an array of the personal, corporate, and humanitarian standards of behaviour, as expected by clients, fellow professionals, and professional bodies.
+
+== Origins and history ==
+Professional responsibility historically applied to secularly-taught professions including medicine, law, and divinity or religion. The origins of this phrase date back to 1695, with the aforementioned split of the concept into three areas. The term continued to evolve alongside generally accepted responsibilities for professionals to become all-encompassing as it accommodated new emerging professions in  modern societies.
+
+In the earlier history of the phrase 'professional responsibility', Thomas Percival (1740-1804) published one of the most notable professional codes for medical ethics, specifically for practising physicians in the United States governing their professional responsibilities as practitioners. Percival was also accomplished in founding one of the first known professional responsibility codes to be adopted by a professional body: The American Medical Association (AMA).
+More recently, modern professionals and their networks continue to adopt the various codes of professional responsibility to suit their evolving modern professions. Research has shown that through implementation of common behavioural standards, the likelihood of interpersonal conflict decreases where honour and respect is encouraged. Professional responsibility acts as an organisational framework permitting professionals to assert practical independence in their fields, away from nominal employers, by way of service to their clients.
+
+== Implementation ==
+Professional responsibility is typically implemented by an organisation or institution's management, through what is commonly referred to as a code of ethics or similar guiding document of standards.  A code of ethics sets out principles and rules to assist professionals and organisations to govern their implementation of the ideals of professional responsibility. A code of ethics also establishes a general idea of the ethical standards for businesses or other organizations.
+Because professionals are persons conducting unique skills in their career of choice, ethics, responsibility guidelines and professional responsibility principles, should be applied simultaneously through organisations professionals work within, but also implemented in the individual's character, demeanour, and personal life. Professional responsibility is implemented to assess the moral dimension of human activity in occupations that have professional status, concerned with the moral conduct and standards governing the profession and its members.
+Professional responsibility is defined by professional accepted standards of personal behaviour, moral values, and personal guiding principles. Codes for professional responsibility may be established by professional bodies or organizations to guide members in performing functions to a consistent ethical set of principles. In the rapidly globalised world, developments in technology for many occupations in different fields, mean that professionals must pay particular attention to this rapid growth.
+Professional responsibility helps professionals to choose how to react to problems, by making choices and other approaches, drawing on perspectives through professional ethics. These perspectives can be reached through virtues, values, rules, other ethical theories, moral stances, moral decisions and moral compasses.
+
+=== Common competencies of professional responsibility ===
+Professional responsibility should be implemented through several components as general guidance for members of professional bodies. These competencies include:
+
+Honesty - being trustworthy, loyal, sincere, and fair
+Integrity - consistency between actions, values, expectations, and outcomes
+Transparency - operating where others can see what actions are performed
+Accountability - taking responsibility for actions and their outcomes wherever due
+Objectivity - having a well-informed unbiased view on practical matters
+Respectfulness - treating colleagues and clients with care and compassion
+Obedience to the law – adhering to regulatory and governmental guidelines
+
+== Examples ==
+
+=== The legal profession ===
+Legal professionals and associates of the legal profession are bound by general codes of ethics, with governing principals of client privilege, confidentiality, completeness, and professional courtesy. This profession's responsibilities vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but generally form a similar perspective internationally.
+
+=== The medical profession ===
+The American Medical Association imposes its code of ethics on practising medical professionals in the USA, which discusses issues ranging from workplace interpersonal relationships with staff, to the handling of critical information regarding patient care. Internationally, medical professionals often take the Hippocratic Oath, an oath of Greek origins, which encompasses the 'first do not harm' responsibility.
+
+=== The business world ===
+Businesses have codes of ethics to assist workers deducing whether behaviours would be considered appropriate or acceptable wherever dealing with clients and stakeholders. Some businesses will require their staff to attend recurring monthly or yearly training on business ethics. In some cases, employees may be required to sign declarations that they will adhere to the organisations ethical guidelines as laid out by the employer.
+
+=== Teachers and education ===
+Teachers and education professionals – such as those in tertiary institutions – often act as role models to students. Their code of ethics usually protects their students against mistreatment and protects the value of sharing knowledge through responsible communication.
+
+=== Social protection ===
+Welfare agencies and their professional staff have a duty to enquire about circumstances and not to take initial appearances and answers to questions at face value. Certain agencies in England were criticised in 2013 for "a woeful lack of professional curiosity" which should have informed their child protection work.
+
+=== Table on common professional responsibilities ===
+
+== Examples of common violations in one field ==
+Common violations in the legal field include:
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+title: "Professional responsibility"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_responsibility"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:55.127277+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Conflicts of interest. This occurs where the same lawyer or firm is representing both sides in a lawsuit, or previously represented one side. In countries with the adversarial system of justice, a conflict of interest violates the right of each client to the undivided, zealous loyalty of his lawyer. Conflicts may also occur if the lawyer's ability to represent a client is materially limited by the lawyer's loyalty to another client, a personal relationship, or other reasons.
+Incompetent representation. Attorneys have a duty to provide competent representation, and the failure to observe deadlines or conduct thorough research is considered a breach of ethics.
+Mishandling of client money. Clients often advance money to lawyers for a variety of reasons. The money must be kept in special client trust accounts until it is actually earned by the lawyer or spent on court fees or other expenses.
+Fee-splitting arrangements. Attorneys may not split fees with non-attorneys, or with other attorneys who have not worked on the matter for which the client is represented.
+Disclosure of confidential information. Lawyers are under a strict duty of confidentiality to keep information received in the course of their representations secret. Absent law to the contrary, lawyers may not reveal or use this information to the detriment of their clients.
+Communication with represented parties. An attorney may not communicate directly with a person who they know to be represented by counsel with respect to a matter for which the attorney is seeking to communicate. For example, in a civil suit, the plaintiff's attorney may not speak to the defendant directly if the attorney knows that the defendant is represented by counsel without their attorney's express consent.
+Proper solicitation and advertising. Attorneys generally may solicit business by personally offering their services to potential clients who are not already close friends or family members. Advertising by attorneys is also strictly regulated, to prevent puffery and other misleading assertions regarding potential results.
+Reports of violations will activate that profession's regulator to investigate and perhaps discipline the professional concerned.
+
+== In the United States ==
+
+=== In U.S. law schools ===
+Following the Watergate scandal, which involved questionable behavior by a number of lawyers, the American Bar Association ("ABA") mandated that all American law schools incorporate a required course on this topic. This is typically offered as an upper-level course, most often taken in the second year. Professional responsibility courses include matters pertaining to basic legal ethics, as well as bar admissions, legal advertising, disbarment proceedings, ineffective assistance of counsel, and judicial misconduct.
+Maynard Pirsig, published one of the first course books on legal ethics, Cases and Materials on Legal Ethics, 1949, later Cases and Materials on the Standards of the Legal Profession, 1957, and Cases and Materials on Professional Responsibility, 1965.
+Maynard Pirsig also published the definition of legal ethics in Encyclopedia Britannica, 1974.
+
+=== Examinations ===
+Every state in the United States tests prospective attorneys on their knowledge of professional responsibility. Forty-seven states and the District of Columbia require bar applicants to pass an exam called the Multistate Professional Responsibility Exam (MPRE). The remaining three states test professional responsibility on their local bar examinations. Furthermore, the ABA promulgated the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct. in 1983; when Maine adopted the model rules in August 2009, California became the only remaining U.S. jurisdiction not to have adopted the model rules in whole or in part. Most states have only minor variations from the model rules, if any. Attorneys who violate professional responsibility rules may be subject to sanctions ranging from reprimands to temporary suspension to permanent disbarment.
+
+== See also ==
+Legal malpractice
+Professional
+Professional abuse
+Professional ethics
+Professional negligence in English Law
+Category:United States professional responsibility case law
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Professionalization"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:56.331947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Professionalization or professionalisation is a social process by which any trade or occupation transforms itself into a true "profession of the highest integrity and competence." The definition of what constitutes a profession is often contested. Professionalization tends to result in establishing acceptable qualifications, one or more professional associations to recommend best practice and to oversee the conduct of members of the profession, and some degree of demarcation of the qualified from unqualified amateurs (that is, professional certification). It is also likely to create "occupational closure", closing the profession and activities it encompasses to entry from outsiders, amateurs and the unqualified.
+Occupations not fully professionalized are sometimes called semiprofessions. Critique of professionalization views overzealous versions driven by perverse incentives (essentially, a modern analogue of the negative aspects of guilds) as a form of credentialism.
+
+== Process ==
+The process of professionalization creates "a hierarchical divide between the knowledge-authorities in the professions and a deferential citizenry." This demarcation is often termed "occupational closure", as it means that the profession then becomes closed to entry from outsiders, amateurs and the unqualified: a stratified occupation "defined by professional demarcation and grade." The origin of this process is said to have been with guilds during the Middle Ages, when they fought for exclusive rights to practice their trades as journeymen, and to engage unpaid apprentices. It has also been called credentialism, a reliance on formal qualifications or certifications to determine whether someone is permitted to undertake a task or to speak as an expert. It has also been defined as "excessive reliance on credentials, especially academic degrees, in determining hiring or promotion policies.". It has been further defined as where the credentials for a job or a position are upgraded, even though, there is no skill change that makes this increase necessary.
+Professions also possess power, prestige, high income, high social status and privileges; their members soon come to comprise an elite class of people, cut off to some extent from the common people, and occupying an elevated station in society: "a narrow elite ... a hierarchical social system: a system of ranked orders and classes."
+The professionalization process tends to establish the group norms of conduct and qualification of members of a profession and tends also to insist that members of the profession achieve "conformity to the norm." and abide more or less strictly with the established procedures and any agreed code of conduct, which is policed by professional bodies, for "accreditation assures conformity to general expectations of the profession." Different professions are organized differently. For example, doctors desire autonomy over entrepreneurship. Professions want authority because of their expertise. Professionals are encouraged to have a lifetime commitment to their field of work.
+Eliot Freidson (1923–2005) is considered one of the founders of the sociology of professions
+
+== History ==
+Very few professions existed before the 19th century, although most of the societies always valued someone who was competent and skilled in a particular discipline. The government was especially in need of skilled people to complete various duties. Professionalism as an ideology only started in the early 19th century in North America and Western Europe.
+Professions began to emerge rapidly. However, a person who wanted to become a professional had to gain the approval of members of the existing profession beforehand and only they could judge whether he or she had reached the level of expertise needed to be a professional. Official associations and credentialing boards were created by the end of the 19th century, but initially membership was informal. A person was a professional if enough people said they were a professional.
+Adam Smith expressed support for professionalization, as he believed that professionals made a worthwhile contribution to society. They deserved power and high salaries due to the difficulties inherent in gaining entry to professional fields and living up to the rigorous demands of professionalism.
+State licensure insured that experience could not be substituted for certification, and decreased outside competition. A code of ethics for professionals ensured that the public receiving the service was well served and set guidelines for their behavior in their professions. This code also ensured that penalties were put in place for those who failed to meet up to the standards stated.  This could include termination of their license to practice. After the Second World War, professions were state controlled.
+The degree of legislation and autonomy of self-regulated and regular professions varied across Canada. Possible causes include societal infrastructure, population density, social ideologies, and political mandates. Physicians and engineers were among the most successful at professionalization of their work.  Medicine was consistently regulated before the confederation. Medicine and engineering became self-regulated and had their regulatory legislation altered five decades after the confederation even though some other occupations were not able to. This meant these professions could oversee entry to practice, education, and the behavior of those practicing.
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+title: "Professionalization"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:56.331947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Physicians ==
+Physicians are a profession that became autonomous or self-regulating. Physicians started as a division of labor in health care. The social status of physicians made them feel like they merit deference. Physicians' authority was based on persuasion. Autonomy and independence of the organization of physicians caused a division of labor that is professionally dominated. Licensing caused monopolies on rights. Eliot Friedson had commented that the profession had "the authority to direct and evaluate the work of others without in turn being subject to formal direction and evaluation by them”. Doctors retained their dominance because hospitals were administered rather than managed. The medical field enjoyed more power than some other profession, for example engineering. In the United States physicians from other countries could not practice unless they satisfied US regulation requirements. To ensure social order and establish British institutions, Ontario established medicine as a self-regulating profession in the late 1860s. In many US states however, medicine remained unregulated until several decades later. A publication in the 1840 British Medical Journal revealed an increase in professional consciousness from medical practitioners in England. Physicians in the 19th century came to have the features of modern professions. A major one was autonomy. This was further emphasized with the establishment of a controlling body of the profession. Competition and overcrowding (two or three decades after 1930) also put pressure on governments to establish a system of registration and requirements for those who wished to practice. This led to the Medical Act 1840. In fact, this council consisted mostly of doctors. Therefore, they were in control of regulating their own profession. The act required their members to oversee medical education, keep track of the numbers of qualified practitioners, and regulate it for the government. It gave the qualified more power and set limitations on the unqualified. The exclusion from government service of the unqualified practitioners was the most influential policy. Along with the act, the qualified practitioners came to be known as the “officially recognized” healers, and as such had a competitive advantage in the job market. To reduce competition, the Medical Act 1858 also raised the standards for qualifications. A modern code of medical ethics was also implemented in the 19th century. Again, this proves the high degree of power that the profession had. As a result, many medical practitioners came to experience ethical problems. Unlike today, it was more the concern of the behavior of doctors towards each other, than towards their patients. It is suggested to be due by the changes of the medical world in the first half of the 19th century. Unlike the pre-industrial age, distinctions between say surgeons and physicians were greatly reduced, to replace a division of mostly consultants and general practitioners. This new division caused disorder in establishing the roles of different types of practitioners and their status. It led to more competition as their various field of expertise was not made clear and thus resulted in accusations of unprofessional conduct among each other to protect their own interests. Issues, around management of medical practitioners and their practice stemming from this change, had to be attended to. In the second half of the 19th century, ethics were more severely monitored and disciplinary action against violators was put in effect. This was allowed as by the Medical Act 1858. Even the allowance to remove from practice any practitioner violating the code of ethics put in place. A more elaborated code of professional ethics emerged. A practitioner had no other choice but to adhere to minimum standards if he wanted to keep his job and keep practicing. The 19th-century education to become a physician encountered some changes from the 18th century. The 18th century was an apprenticeship program. The apprentice and master worked together and so the level of training received varied from person to person varied. In the 19th century, hospital medical schools and universities gained popularity for teaching. Apprenticeships were reducing rapidly. Training became more standardized. It was standardized more all over the world too because medical students that attended these schools came from all over the world. With this came a sense of professional identity and community made possible this modern profession seen today. With the professionalization of medicine came the emergence of the movement of physical diagnoses of physicians' patients in the 19th century. It was believed to help treat patients better. Before the emergence of this movement, physicians based their diagnoses on the interpretation of their patients’ symptoms. Physical diagnoses became part of the modern professional practice of medicine. It was one of the major accomplishments of Parisian hospitals and with the rise of Parisian pathological-anatomy, it became a very important clinical practice. Disease was believed to be an anatomical lesion inside the body. Physical examination was necessary to properly qualify them. This new approach caused the problem of the growing diagnostic competence but smaller treatment capacities. As well, this caused a pressure on the physician to find and classify the illness but also to treat and cure the disease. Skepticism grew in the profession as fellow physicians watched each other for proper treatment of patients. The invention of the stethoscope in 1816 made auscultation and percussion regularly employed to help in the physical diagnosis process. Diagnose and treatment now had to be based on science. The rise of hospitals facilitated physical diagnoses. That being said, patients were often reluctant to undergo physical diagnosis, especially with the rise of new medical instruments being used. In fact, manuals were written to help physicians gain knowledge on proper “patient etiquette” and gain their consent to perform certain procedures. Society had a hard time accepting the procedures required for the routine physical examination and its necessity. It was more interested in the cure and treatment effectiveness of the diagnosis. The industrialization in the late 19th century resulted in a demand for physicians. In Canada, the industrializing towns and cities of the Maritimes gave plenty of opportunities for their physicians to show their skills as emerging professionals. For example, medical doctors were needed to inspect tenement housing, and sanitary conditions of factories and schools. Doctors were needed to promote public and personal hygiene to reduce disease transmission. Medical failures often hampered the reputation of these physicians which made their status as professionals harder to implement and make the general population accept them as this. Not to mention over-crowding eventually became a problem. the profession called on the government for help especially in the last quarter of the 19th century. Restriction on who could get in medical schools, and higher demands on their education were put in place. As well, greater attentions to their professional ethics were among the strategies employed to distinguish themselves as high status professionals. Physicians also pressured the government for better attention to the health of its citizens. For example, the recollection of data of the births and deaths which it had stopped doing in the Maritimes in 1877. Provincial medical boards, allowance of registration for practice across all provinces, better schools, protection against the unlicensed physicians and unskilled persons, were some other actions taken.
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+title: "Professionalization"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:56.331947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Although medical techniques did approve in the nineteenth century, attempts to deny rights for the other competing professions in the health field made it seem like medical doctors wanted to monopolize medical care and seek their own interests rather the public welfare.
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+title: "Professionalization"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:56.331947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Engineers ==
+Engineering, as it became a profession, had fewer restrictions in the 19th century. As it did not have mandatory licensing for entrants, competition was bigger. Unlike physicians, engineers could not enjoy protection from competition. For instance, a person without a college degree could still become an engineer. Engineers could be independent. It was a semi-autonomous profession because it could still require extended training and it formed body of specialized knowledge. The nature of their work meant that they were always influenced by business and industry. In many cases they did want to be independent. Oftentimes, they sought power through their connection with an organization. The engineer profession was much more collaborative.
+In Canada, Interprofessional conflict, differences in organization, and state lobby caused the differences in timing and legislature of occupations such as engineering.
+In engineering,  the profession was initially just organized on a national or cross-provincial basis. For example, the Canadian Society of Civil Engineers was formed in 1887 before it was regulated in each province. Even then, legislation from province to province varied. This was due to the resistance and oppositions of the people in all provinces. For example, in Ontario, the act on engineering did not pass until 1922, and it had to be altered to exempt all mining operations from the bill. This was because the mining industry was afraid the act would alert business and the ability to hire whoever they wanted During times of rapid growth, regulations were added or altered to starve off over crowding.
+In the 19th century, an engineer qualified to practice in England would not have trouble practicing in Canada. To obtain an engineer's certificate from them these countries, many demands which had to be met. For example, in Ontario Canada, for each different class of engineer certificate obtained, certain math skills must be met first. To practice as a water supply engineer in Victoria, Australia, a person had to obtain a certificate. This certificate was only granted if the provisions under the state's Water Act 1890 (No. 1156) were met.
+In England, because production was controlled by craftsmen, creativity and quality of the product was seen as dominant factors in the emerging engineering profession. During the Industrial revolution, whereas the United States focused its attention to standardization for mass production, England focused on methods of small-scale manufacturing. English engineers still emphasized quality in their work. Learning by practical experience was also strongly encouraged and training new engineers became like an apprenticeship.
+In France, they were more concern with the theoretical aspect of engineering, specifically understanding the mathematical aspect of it. They built “grandes écoles" of engineering and state employment was the most predominant work for engineering. Engineering practices and education depended upon cultural values and preferences. Oftentimes in the US, business and engineer managers influenced engineer work.
+In the United States, engineering was more focused on experience and achieving material and commercial success. Manual labor was seen as something positive. It was influenced by France to build schools for engineering training rather than on the site training, in the late 19th century. Professional status was gained through corporate training. Unlike the other emerging professions mentioned earlier, engineering as a profession did not reply on the approval of their peers but rather of corporate and government hierarchies (private industry).
+The number of engineers increased by 2000 percent in the period between 1880 and 1920 in the United States. The Industrial revolution created a demand for them. Their main competition was Germany. Industries encouraged engineering to change from a craft to a profession. The standardization of practices during this time helped established their professional image as expertise. That being said, many factory and business and factory owners did not particularly like this standardization because they felt threaten that engineers would increase their authority and territory. This was also desired by engineers themselves to end labor troubles. It was believed that it would increase production and predictability.
+Civil engineers were overtaken by mechanical engineers. In fact, the numbers of professional mechanical engineers increased by 600 percent and college enrollment in this specialization outnumbered civil engineering. Now, they were more needed. Engineers were okay being classified "professionals of a corporation", because they were still mostly industry workers anyway and valued the ideology of no government intervention in the economy.
+Shortly before, and during the Progressive Era, better organization of various fields of work including engineering took place because it encouraged professionalism, equality, and progress. Systematization was a big part of it. For example, The American Society of Mechanical Engineer was founded in 1880, and met twice a year. Professional codes of ethics were also established for this profession.  However, the growing profession of engineering had still difficulty in organizing itself.
+Making a professional image of engineers was difficult because of its prominent association with manual labor. It struggles to this day to gain similar status as members of autonomous, self-regulating professions such as lawyers and physicians.
+
+== See also ==
+Grade inflation
+Occupational licensing
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Professionalization"
+chunk: 5/5
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:56.331947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Andrew Delano Abbott, The System of Professions: Essay on the Division of Expert Labour, University of Chicago Press, 1988
+Adams, Tracey L. (August 2009). "Regulating Professions in Canada: Interprovincial Differences across Five Provinces". Journal of Canadian Studies. 43 (3): 194–221. doi:10.3138/jcs.43.3.194. S2CID 141980888. Project MUSE 390309.
+Jeffrey L. Berlant, Profession and Monopoly: A Study of Medicine in the United States and Great Britain, University of California Press, 1975. (ISBN 0-520-02734-5)
+Charlotte G. Borst, Catching Babies: Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870–1920, Harvard University Press, 1995
+Darity, William A., ed. (2008). "Professionalization". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 6. pp. 515–517. Gale CX3045302074.
+Robert Dingwall, Essays on Professions. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2008.
+Eyre and Spottiswoode, Professional handbook, dealing with professions in the colonies / issued by the Emigrants Information Office Early Canadiana Online., 1892.
+Eliot Freidson, Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge, University of Chicago Press, 1970
+Howell, Colin D. (1981). "Reform and the Monopolistic Impulse: The Professionalization of Medicine in the Maritimes". Acadiensis. 11 (1): 3–22. JSTOR 30302689. PMID 11620109.
+Hall, Richard H. (1968). "Professionalization and Bureaucratization". American Sociological Review. 33 (1): 92–104.
+Merle Jacobs and Stephen, E Bosanac, The Professionalization of Work, Whitby, ON: de Sitter Publications, 2006
+Montagna, Paul D. (1968). "Professionalization and Bureaucratization in Large Professional Organizations". American Journal of Sociology. 74 (2): 138–145.
+Johnson, Terence James (1972). Professions and Power. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-13430-6.
+Benton, John F. (1985). "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 59 (1): 30–53. JSTOR 44452036. PMID 3886049. ProQuest 1296295309.
+Alice Beck Kehoe, Mary Beth Emmerichs, and Alfred Bendiner, Assembling the Past: Studies in the Professionalization of Archaeology, University of New Mexico Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-8263-1939-5.
+Lori Kenschaft, Professions and Professionalization.,  Oxford University Press, 2008
+Lachmund, Jens (November 1998). "Between Scrutiny and Treatment: Physical Diagnosis and the Restructuring of 19th Century Medical Practice". Sociology of Health & Illness. 20 (6): 779–801. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.00129.
+Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism: a Sociological Analysis, Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1978
+Gary R. Lowe and P. Nelson Reid, The Professionalization of Poverty: Social Work and the Poor in the Twentieth Century (Modern Applications of Social Work), Aldine de Gruyter, 1999
+Downey, Gary Lee; Lucena, Juan C. (December 2004). "Knowledge and professional identity in engineering: code-switching and the metrics of progress". History and Technology. 20 (4): 393–420. doi:10.1080/0734151042000304358. S2CID 110549230.
+Keith M. Macdonald, The Sociology of the Professions, Sage, 1995
+Linda Reeser, Linda Cherrey, and Irwin Epstein, Professionalization and Activism in Social Work, Columbia University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-231-06788-7
+Patricia M. Schwirian, Professionalization of Nursing: Current Issues and Trends, Philadelphia: Lippencott, 1998, ISBN 0-7817-1045-6
+Shenhav, Yehouda (1995). "From Chaos to Systems: The Engineering Foundations of Organization Theory, 1879-1932". Administrative Science Quarterly. 40 (4): 557–585. doi:10.2307/2393754. JSTOR 2393754. Gale A18194328 ProQuest 203973104.
+Howard M Vollmer, and D L Mills, Professionalization, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1966
+Waddington, I (3 October 1990). "The movement towards the professionalization of medicine". BMJ. 301 (6754): 688–690. doi:10.1136/bmj.301.6754.688. JSTOR 29709099. PMC 1664090. PMID 2224238.
+Anne Witz, Professions and Patriarchy, London: Routledge, 1992
+Donald Wright, The Professionalization of History in English, University of Toronto Press, 2005
+
+== External links ==
+Article abstracts on this theme
+ESA research network on sociology of professions
+University of Aberdeen reading list: Sociology of Professions
+An issue of Current Sociology devoted to this topic
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+---
+title: "Prosopographical network"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopographical_network"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:57.557274+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A prosopographical network is a system which represents a historical group made up by individual actors and their interactions within a delimited spatial and temporal range. The network science methodology offers an alternative way of analyzing the patterns of relationships, composition and activities of people studied in their own historical context. Since prosopography examines the whole of a past society, its individuals who made it up, and its structure, this independent science of social history uses a collective study of biographies of a well-defined group, in a multiple career analysis, for collecting and interpreting relevant quantities of data, these same set of data can be employed for constructing a network of the studied group. Prosopographical network studies have emerged as a young and dynamic field in historical research; nevertheless, the category of prosopographical network is in its formative, initial phase and as a consequence it is hard to view as a stable and defined notion in history and beyond social network analysis. See also narrative network.
+
+== Overview ==
+With the advent of the study of complex systems, graph theory provides analysts of historical groups and collective lives with relatively simple tools for answering questions such as: how many degrees of separation on average separate all members of the prosopographical group? Which historical character is connected to the most other members of the studied range? How densely or loosely connected was the group as a whole? Such questions hold a natural interest for prosopographers, who can then begin to look for certain characteristics –class, office, occupation, gender, faction, ethnic background – and identify patterns of connectivity that they might have otherwise missed when confronted with a mass of data too large for normal synthetic approaches. The concepts and methods of social network analysis in historical research are recently being used not only as a mere metaphor but are increasingly applied in practice
+
+== Background ==
+The analysis and interpretation of prosopographical networks is an interdisciplinary field of study in social studies and humanities. This field emerged from philology, history, genealogical studies, and sociology and social network analysis. The term "prosopography" comes from the word prosopoeia, a figure in classical rhetoric in which an imagined person is figured and represented as if present. Claude Nicolet defined the main of prosopography as the history of groups as elements in political and social history, achieved by isolating series of persons having certain political or social characteristics in common and then analyzing each series in terms of multiple criteria, in order both to obtain information specific to individuals and to identify the constants and the variables among the data for whole groups.
+According to British historian Lawrence Stone, prosopography had become a two-fold tool for historical research: 1) it helps to unveil interests and connections hidden or unclear in the narrative (i.e. rhetoric, historiography, etc.), and 2) it allows analysing the shifting roles in a community and the changing composition of society though genealogy, legal-institutional position, and inter-personal relations. For both uses, understanding connections and studying the evolution of a group, network analysis presents a helpful and feasible methodological framework for measuring quantities and interpreting data. By applying the methods of social network analysis, the approaches of prosopography can be quantified, graphed, and assessed. Together with other complex systems studies, prosopographical networks form part of the field of network science.
+In the field of historical studies, the term network has been used in a metaphorical sense alone for a long time. The sociological focus, despite the vast spectrum of tools and methods at its disposal, does not deal with limited extraction of relational data from fragmentary and even contradictory sources. Along with the paucity of sources, this hampers the comprehensive, valid and meaningful application of methods drawn from social network analysis. Despite these obstacles, the relational perspective of network analysis has helped historical research and prosopography to gain an entirely new methodological vantage point. Social network theory may be able to overcome conceptual and epistemological difficulties presented by historical objects of study and historical sources. Constructing a prosopographical network can offer an alternative, more fluid interpretation of communities in the past, which allows us to take account of coexisting, sometimes overlapping, networks of different sources and geographical delimitations.
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+---
+title: "Prosopographical network"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopographical_network"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:57.557274+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Pioneer works ==
+Ruffini, Giovanni, and Shawn Graham. “Network Analysis and Greco-Roman Prosopography.” In Prosopography approaches and applications: A handbook. Edited by K. S. B. Keats-Rohan, 325–36. Oxford: Unit for Prosopographical Research, Linacre College, University of Oxford, 2007.
+Josie M. Abbott used prosopography to construct a group biography of women secretarial workers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in The Angel in the Office (2009).
+Sociologist Michael Erben explored the use of prosopography to investigate what might be called a street biography in "A Preliminary Prosopography of the Victorian Street", (1996). Sourced mainly from census records, the data used included not only the demography but also the spatial classifications, occupations, and domestic arrangements of a street in Victorian Oxford. This material forms what Erben describes as an Unaffiliated or Disinterested Group, i.e.  spatial locale may be all inhabitants had in common, unlike Intentional Groups, with explicit shared interests, found in more traditional prosopography.  The work shows that such Unaffiliated Groups can yield much information on subjects such as social mobility in a given place and time.
+Debra Nails compiled a prosopography of Plato and other Socratics by exploring the biographies of each person mentioned in the Socratic literature in an attempt to explore how Socrates interacted with others. Plato mentions many contemporaries of Socrates, from political figures to sophists, often using them as characters in the dialogs and foils for his criticism.
+Building on Robert M. Hartwell's initial work, Peter Bol (Harvard), Michael Fuller (UC Irvine), Deng Xiaonan (Peking University), and Lau Nap-yin (academia Sinica) launched the China Biographical Database project in 2005 as an online and stand-alone relational database of the careers, kinship, associations, writings, and other data of Chinese men and women, mainly from the 7th century into the early 20th. CBDB exports query results in formats for statistical, network analysis and GIS.
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Citations ===
+
+=== Further reading ===
+Abbott, Josie M., The Angel in the Office. British Sociological Association, 2009.
+Bearman, Peter S., James Moody, and Robert Faris. “Networks and History.” Complexity, no. 8 (2012): 61–71.
+Bernád, Ágoston, Christine Gruber and Maximilian Kaiser (eds.), Europa baut auf Biographien. Aspekte, Bausteine, Normen und Standards für eine europäische Biographik, Wien 2017. https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/Institute/INZ/Europa_baut_auf_Biographien.pdf.
+Bernád, Ágoston and Maximilian Kaiser, The Biographical Formula: Types and Dimensions of biographical networks, in: A. Fokkens et al., Proceedings of the Second Conference on Biographical Data in a Digital World 2017, Linz Ars Electronica Centre 6.-7.2017. http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2119/paper8.pdf.
+Carney, T. F. "Prosopography: Payoffs and Pitfalls" Phoenix 27.2 (Summer, 1973), pp. 156–179. Assessing results of prosopography applied to Roman Republican history.
+Düring, Marten, and Martin Stark. “Historical Network Analysis.” In Encyclopedia of Social Networks. Edited by George A. Barnett. 2 vols. London: Sage Publishing, 2011.
+Erben, Michael, "A Preliminary Prosopography of the Victorian Street", Auto/Biography Vol 4, 2/3, 1996.
+Erickson, Bonnie H. “Social Networks and History: A Review Essay.” Historical Methods 30, no. 3 (1997): 149–157.
+Beech, George, "Prosopography" in Medieval studies: an introduction, ed. James M. Powell, Syracuse University Press, 1992.
+Eidinow, Esther. CNetworks and Narratives: A Model for Ancient Greek Religion.” Kernos [Online] 24 (2011). http://kernos.revues.org/1925; DOI : 10.4000/kernos.1925.
+Fangerau, Heiner. "Evolution of knowledge from a network perspective: recognition as a selective factor in the history of science". In Classification and Evolution in Biology, Linguistics and the History of Science. Concepts, Methods, Visualization, eds. Heiner Fangerau, Hans Geisler, Thorsten Halling, William Martin, Stuttgart: Steiner, 2013, p. 11-32. http://www.steiner-verlag.de/fileadmin/Dateien/Steiner/EBook/9783515105897_eb.pdf.
+Ferreira-Lopes, P. and Pinto Puerto, F. 2018. “GIS and Graph Models for Social, Temporal and Spatial Digital Analysis in Heritage: The Case-Study of Ancient Kingdom of Seville Late Gothic Production.” Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2018.e00074.
+Gould, Roger V. “Uses of Network Tools in Comparative Historical Research.” In Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. Edited by James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer. 1st ed., 241–69. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
+Keats-Rohan, Katherine S. B. (ed)., Prosopography Approaches and Applications: A Handbook. Oxford : Prosopographica et Genealogica, 2007.
+Lemercier, Claire. “Analyse de réseaux et histoire.” Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 52, no. 2 (2005): 88–112. http://www.cairn.info/load_pdf.php?ID_ARTICLE=RHMC_522_0088.
+Lemercier, Claire, Claire Guzzi-Heeb, and Michel Bertrand. “Introduction à l’analyse des réseaux et l’histoire: outils, approches problèmes.” Redes. Revista hispana para el análisis de redes sociales 21, no. 1 (2011). http://revista-redes.rediris.es/pdf-vol21/vol21_1f.pdf.
+Lindgren, M., 'People of Pylos: Prosopographical and Methodological Studies in the Pylos Archives (Boreas). Uppsala (1973)
+Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge: University Press, 1971–92.
+Radner, K. (ed.), The Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Helsinki, 1998–2002. [1]
+Stark, David, and Balazs Vedres. “Social Times of Network Spaces: Network Sequences and Foreign Investment in Hungary.” American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 5 (2006): 1367–1411. http://www.thesenseofdissonance.com/media/paper_social_times_of_network_spaces.pdf.
+Stark, Martin. “Netzwerke in der Geschichtswissenschaft.” In Gläubiger, Schuldner, Arme. Netzwerke und die Rolle des Vertrauens. Edited by Curt W. Hergenröder, 187–90. Wiesbaden: VS, 2010.
+Wellman, Barry and Steven Berkowitz, eds. Social Structures: A Network Approach. Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
+
+== External links ==
+Guide to the Principles and Practice of Prosopography – A prosopography portal from Oxford's Modern History Research Unit that includes a short guide, a lengthy bibliography, an interactive tutorial, and an international directory of current projects and researchers.
+Historical Network Research, a website that aims to be a platform for scholars to present their work, enable collaboration and provide those new to network analysis with some helpful first information.
+Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England – a project designed to provide a comprehensive biographical register of recorded inhabitants of Anglo-Saxon England (c. 450–1066), to be accessible in the form of a searchable on-line database, and intended to facilitate further research in many different aspects of Anglo-Saxon studies.
+Prosopography of the Byzantine World, an online database compiled from Byzantine sources from 1025–1150.
+http://www.biographynet.nl/ BiographyNet is a multidisciplinary project that combines expertise from history, computer science and computational linguistics.
+https://apis.acdh.oeaw.ac.at/, The research project APIS deals with the semantic enrichment of the Austrian Biographical Dictionary. 1815–1950 with digital humanities methods.
+https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/cbdb China Biographical Database. Biographical data on over 420,000 historical figures in China's history. Ongoing project.
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+---
+title: "Pseudospeciation"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudospeciation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:58.763535+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Pseudospeciation is a form of othering, the treatment of different human groups as if they were different biological species. It begins with the fact that cultural differences cause humans to separate into different social groups, with different language, dress, customs, etc. These cultural differences are claimed to be analogous to the formation of different biological species (speciation). In the extreme, pseudospeciation leads to dehumanization of other cultural groups (out-groups).
+Pseudospeciation, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, refers to the tendency of members of in-groups to consider members of out-groups to have evolved genetically into different, separate, and inferior species to their own. The term was first used by Erik Erikson in 1966, according to his biographer, Lawrence J. Friedman. Dehumanization is one possible outcome of pseudospeciation, as is ethnic discrimination or genocide.
+Francisco Gil-White proposed in 2001 that humans evolved in such a way that the brain perceives different ethnic groups to be equivalent to different biological 'species', thus suggesting that pseudospeciation is innate. His hypothesis has yet to receive widespread empirical support. His theory and data are found in Current Anthropology, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 515–554.
+Pseudospeciation is an especially virulent form of ethnocentrism. Karl Marlantes, in his book What It Is Like to Go to War (Grove Press, 2011), referred to pseudospeciation by American soldiers in World War II and in the Vietnam War as a coping mechanism for dealing with Japanese and Vietnamese soldiers differently from European (Germans and Italians for instance) soldiers in those wars. Since an underlying precept of pseudospeciation is the dehumanization of the enemy, it helps the soldiers rationalize barbaric or socially unacceptable behavior visited upon soldiers of a race and culture visually and contextually different from their own. One example Marlantes posits is the treatment of prisoners, or what might be characterized as the murder of soldiers attempting to surrender.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Public"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:59.948122+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individual people, and the public (a.k.a. the general public) is the totality of such groupings. This is a different concept to the sociological concept of the Öffentlichkeit or public sphere. 
+The concept of a public has also been defined in political science, psychology, marketing, and advertising.  In public relations and communication science, it is one of the more ambiguous concepts in the field.
+Although it has definitions in the theory of the field that have been formulated from the early 20th century onward, in more recent years it has suffered from being blurred, as a result of conflation of the idea of a public with the notions of audience, market segment, community, constituency, and stakeholder.
+
+
+== Etymology and definitions ==
+The name "public" originates with the Latin publicus (also poplicus), from populus,  to the English word 'populace', and in general denotes some mass population ("the people") in association with some matter of common interest. So in political science and history, a public is a population of individuals in association with civic affairs, or affairs of office or state.  In social psychology, marketing, and public relations, a public has a more situational definition. John Dewey defined (Dewey 1927) public as a group of people who, in facing a similar problem, recognize it and organize themselves to address it. Dewey's definition of a public is thus situational: people organized about a situation. Built upon this situational definition of a public is the situational theory of publics by James E. Grunig (Grunig 1983), which talks of nonpublics (who have no problem), latent publics (who have a problem), aware publics (who recognize that they have a problem), and active publics (who do something about their problem).
+In public relations and communication theory, a public is distinct from a stakeholder or a market. A public is a subset of the set of stakeholders for an organization, that comprises those people concerned with a specific issue. Whilst a market has an exchange relationship with an organization, and is usually a passive entity that is created by the organization, public does not necessarily have an exchange relationship, and is both self-creating and self-organizing. Publics are targeted by public relations efforts. In this, target publics are those publics whose involvement is necessary for achieving organization goals; intervening publics are opinion formers and mediators, who pass information to the target publics; and influentials are publics that the target publics turn to for consultation, whose value judgements are influential upon how a target public will judge any public relations material. The public is often targeted especially in regard to political agendas as their vote is necessary in order to further the progression of the cause. As seen in Massachusetts between 2003 and 2004, it was necessary to "win a critical mass of states and a critical mass of public support" in order to get same-sex marriage passed in the commonwealth.
+Public relations theory perspectives on publics are situational, per Dewey and Grunig; mass, where a public is simply viewed as a population of individuals; agenda-building, where a public is viewed as a condition of political involvement that is not transitory; and "homo narrans", where a public is (in the words of Gabriel M. Vasquez, assistant professor in the School of Communication at the University of Houston) a collection of "individuals that develop a group consciousness around a problematic situation and act to solve the problematic situations" (Vasquez 1993, pp. 209). Public schools are often under controversy for their "agenda-building," especially in debates over whether to teach a religious or secular curriculum.  The promotion of an agenda is commonplace whenever one is in a public environment, but schools have exceptional power in that regard.
+One non-situational concept of a public is that of Kirk Hallahan, professor at Colorado State University, who defines a public as "a group of people who relate to an organization, who demonstrate varying degrees of activity—passivity, and who might (or might not) interact with others concerning their relationship with the organization".
+Samuel Mateus's 2011 paper "Public as Social Experience" considered to view the concept by an alternative point of view: the public "is neither a simple audience constituted by media consumers nor just a rational-critical agency of a Public Sphere". He argued "the concept should also be seen in the light of a publicness principle, beyond a critic and manipulative publicity (...). In accordance, the public may be regarded as the result of the social activities made by individuals sharing symbolic representations and common emotions in publicness. Seen with lower-case, the concept is a set of subjectivities who look publicly for a feeling of belonging. So, in this perspective, the public is still a fundamental notion to social life although in a different manner in comparison to 18th century Public Sphere's Public. He means above all the social textures and configurations where successive layers of social experience are built up."
+
+
+== Social publics ==
+Social publics are groups of people united by common ideas, ideology, or hobbies. Networked publics are social publics which have been socially restructured by the networking of technologies. As such, they are simultaneously both (1) the space constructed through networked technologies and (2) the imagined collective which consequently emerges as a result of the intersection of human persons, shared technologies, and their practices.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Community
+Nation
+People
+Public sphere
+Res publica
+Volk
+
+
+== Citations ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
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+---
+title: "Public morality"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_morality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:01.218055+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Public morality refers to moral and ethical standards enforced in a society, by law or police work or social pressure, and applied to public life, to the content of the media, and to conduct in public places. 
+Public morality often means regulation of sexual matters, including prostitution and homosexuality, but also matters of dress and nudity, pornography, acceptability in social terms of cohabitation before marriage, and the protection of children. It is a main justification for censorship; it can lead to campaigns against profanity, and so be at odds with freedom of speech. Gambling is generally controlled: casinos have been considered much more of a threat than large-scale lotteries or football pools. Public drunkenness is quite unacceptable in some societies, and legal control of consumption of alcohol is often justified in terms of public morality, just as much as for medical reasons or to limit alcohol-related crime. Drug legislation, historically speaking, has sometimes followed on similar reasoning. Abortion is sometimes treated as an aspect of public morality, even if it is legally defined, regulated by medical professionals, and almost entirely hidden from public view. AIDS as a health policy issue is linked to public morality in a complicated manner. A famous remark on male homosexuality of Mrs Patrick Campbell, that she did not care what people did as long as they "didn't frighten the horses", shows that in some sense even high tolerance expects a public limitation on behaviour. At the opposite extreme a theocracy may equate public morality with religious instruction, and give both the equal force of law.
+Views on public morality do change over time. Public views on which things are acceptable often move towards wider tolerance. Rapid shifts the other way are often characterised by moral panics, as in the shutting down of theatres a generation after Shakespeare's death by the English Puritans.
+It may also be applied to the morals of public life. Political corruption, or the telling of lies in public statements, tarnish not only individual politicians, but the entire conduct of political life, whether at local or national level. These are fairly universally regarded as blots on reputations, though in some cases there is a grey area between corruption and legitimate fund-raising. Whether the private lives of politicians are a public morals issue is not a matter of agreement, internationally speaking; the existence of an extramarital relationship of a prime minister or even a president would in some countries be considered a revelation well within the sphere of the public interest, while in other countries it would be considered quite irrelevant.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Family values
+Islamic religious police
+Moral panic
+Morality
+Public-order crime
+Social conservatism
+Victorian morality
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Public participation (decision making)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:25.922289+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Citizen participation or public participation in social science refers to different mechanisms for the public to express opinions—and ideally exert influence—regarding political, economic, managerial, or other social decisions. Participatory decision-making can take place along any realm of human social activity, including economic (i.e. participatory economics), political (i.e. participatory democracy or parpolity), management (i.e. participatory management), cultural (i.e. polyculturalism) or familial (i.e. feminism).
+For well-informed participation to occur, some scholars argue that a degree of transparency, such as radical transparency, is necessary but not sufficient. It has also been argued that those most affected by a decision should have the most say, while those least affected should have the least say.
+
+== Classifying participation ==
+
+Sherry Arnstein discusses eight types of participation in A Ladder of Citizen Participation (1969). Often termed as "Arnstein's ladder of citizen participation ", these are broadly categorized as:
+
+Citizen Power: Citizen Control, Delegated Power, Partnership.
+Tokenism: Placation, Consultation, Informing.
+Non-participation: Therapy, Manipulation.
+She defines citizen participation as the redistribution of power that enables the have-not citizens, presently excluded from the political and economic processes, to be deliberately included in the future.
+Robert Silverman expanded on Arnstein's ladder of citizen participation with the introduction of his "citizen participation continuum." In this extension to Arnstein's work he takes the groups that drive participation into consideration and the forms of participation they pursue. Consequently, Silverman's continuum distinguishes between grassroots participation and instrumental participation.
+Archon Fung presents another classification of participation based on three key questions: Who is allowed to participate, and are they representative of the population? What is the method of communication or decision-making? And how much influence or authority is granted to the participation?
+Other "ladders" of participation have been presented by D.M. Connor,
+Wiedemann and Femers,
+A. Dorcey et al., Jules N. Pretty
+and E.M. Rocha.
+The International Association for Public Participation (IAP2) has developed a 'spectrum of public participation' based on five levels: information, consultation, involvement, collaboration and empowerment.
+
+== Specific participation activities ==
+Town hall meeting
+Advisory committee
+Citizens' assembly
+Opinion poll
+Participatory design
+Participatory budgeting
+Referendum
+Protest
+Vote
+
+== Corporate participation ==
+Participation in the corporate sector has been studied as a way to improve business related processes starting from productivity to employee satisfaction.
+
+== Cross-cultural participation ==
+A cultural variation of participation can be seen through the actions of Indigenous American Cultures. Participation draws from two aspects: respect and commitment to their community and family. The respect is seen through their participation in non-obligated participation in various aspects of their lives, ranging from housework to fieldwork.
+Often the participation in these communities is a social interaction occurring as a progression for the community, rather than that of the individual. Participation in these communities can serve as a "learning service". This learning ranges from everyday activities, in which community members gain a new skill to complete a task or participate through social events to keep their cultural practices alive. These social participation events allow newer generations to see the events and learn from this ongoing participation to continue these practices. Although there are different domains and objectives of participation in these communities, the bottom line to this participation is that it is non obligated and often community oriented.
+One social interaction that continues to thrive because of this high level of non-obligation is the everyday act of translating.
+
+== Objectives of participation ==
+Participation activities may be motivated from an administrative perspective or a citizen perspective on a governmental, corporate or social level. From the administrative viewpoint, participation can build public support for activities. It can educate the public about an agency's activities. It can also facilitate useful information exchange regarding local conditions. Furthermore, participation is often legally mandated. From the citizen viewpoint, participation enables individuals and groups to influence agency decisions in a representational manner. The different types of political participation depend on motivation. When a group is determined to work to solve a community problem, this may include organizing marches or campaigning for candidates. Most immigrant racial groups have higher motivation since there is an increase in geographical dispersion and are faster growing racial groups. How well participation can influence the relation between citizen and their local government, how it increases trust and boosts peoples willingness to participate Giovanni Allegretti explains in an interview using the example of participatory budgeting.
+
+== Participatory decision-making in science ==
+Public participation in decision-making has been studied as a way to align value judgements and risk trade-offs with public values and attitudes about acceptable risk. This research is of interest for emerging areas of science, including controversial technologies and new applications.
+In the United States, studies have demonstrated public support for increased participation in science. While public trust in scientists remains generally high in the United States, the public may rate scientists' ability to make decisions on behalf of society less highly. For example, a 2016–2017 survey of public opinion on CRISPR gene editing technology showed a "relatively broad consensus among all groups in support of the idea that the scientific community 'should consult with the public before applying gene editing to humans,'" providing a "broad mandate for public engagement."
+The scientific community has struggled to involve the public in scientific decision-making. Abuses of scientific research participants, including well-known examples like the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, may continue to erode trust in scientists among vulnerable populations.
+Additionally, past efforts to come to scientific consensus on controversial issues have excluded the public, and as a result narrowed the scope of technological risks considered. For example, at the 1975 Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA, scientists addressed the risks of biological contamination during laboratory experiments, but failed to consider the more varied public concerns that would surface with commercial adoption of genetically modified crops.
+Researchers acknowledge that further infrastructure and investment is needed to facilitate effective participatory decision-making in science. A five-part approach has been suggested:
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+---
+title: "Public participation (decision making)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:25.922289+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Support effective science communication and engagement
+Capitalize on the strength of diverse coalitions
+Build capacity to deal with moving targets
+Focus on shared values
+Build trusting relationships through applied research and feedback loops
+
+== Participation in heritage ==
+Communities can be involved in local, regional and national cultural heritage initiatives, in the processes of creation, organisation, access, use and preservation. The internet has facilitated this, particularly via crowdsourcing, where the general public is asked to help contribute to shared goals, creating content, but also as a form of mutually beneficial engagement particularly with the collections and research of Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums (GLAM). An example of this is the Transcribe Bentham project, where volunteers are asked to transcribe the manuscripts of the philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Challenges include: how to manage copyright, ownership, orphan works, access to open data from heritage organisations, how to build relationships with cultural heritage amateurs, sustainable preservation, and attitudes towards openness.
+
+== Critiques of participation ==
+Efforts to promote public participation have been widely critiqued. There is particular concern regarding the potential capture of the public into the sphere of influence of governance stakeholders, leaving communities frustrated by public participation initiatives, marginalized and ignored.
+
+== Civic opportunity gap ==
+Youth participation in civic activities has been found to be linked to a student's race, academic track, and their school's socioeconomic status. The American Political Science Task Force on Inequality and American Democracy has found that those with higher socioeconomic status participate at higher rates than those with lower status. A collection of surveys on student participation in 2008 found that "Students who are more academically successful or white and those with parents of higher socioeconomic status receive more classroom-based civic learning opportunities." Youth from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to report participation in school-based service or service-learning than other students. Students with more highly educated parents and higher household incomes are more likely to have the opportunity to participate in student government, give a speech, or develop debating skills in school.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+p-Government: Online participatory government
+Reed, Mark S. (2008). "Stakeholder participation for environmental management: a literature review" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 141 (10): 2417–2431. Bibcode:2008BCons.141.2417R. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.07.014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-09. (for final published version see: https://web.archive.org/web/20110608090645/http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0888-8892)
+Participatory Economics Book Page (Participatory Decision Making)
+"Future in the Alps" Database with best practice examples of new forms of decision-making in the Alps
+"Participatory Learning and Action series" A leading informal journal on participatory learning and action approaches and methods, providing a forum for those engaged in participatory work - community workers, activists and researchers - to share their experiences, conceptual reflections and methodological innovations with others.
+"Participation and the FAO" The Participation Website was established in 1999 by the Informal Working Group on Participatory Approaches and Methods to Support Sustainable Livelihoods and Food Security (IWG-PA) from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The objective of the Participation Website is to bring together under one virtual roof, a broad cross-section of stakeholders interested in participatory approaches and methods in support of sustainable rural livelihoods and food security.
+"p-Government" The author proposes a new model of electronic governance based on the shared vision and collaboration of all the stakeholders. This new governance model shall be known as p-government or participatory government.
+Accountability and Participation Research with the focus on political participation by the GIGA - German Institute of Global and Area Studies]
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+title: "Public sphere"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:02.428103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The public sphere (German: Öffentlichkeit) is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion, influence political action. A "Public" is "of or concerning the people as a whole." Such a discussion is called public debate and is defined as the expression of views on matters that are of concern to the public—often, but not always, with opposing or diverging views being expressed by participants in the discussion. Public debate takes place mostly through the mass media, but also at meetings or through social media, academic publications, and government policy documents.
+The term was originally coined by German philosopher Jürgen Habermas who defined the public sphere as "made up of private people gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state". Communication scholar Gerard A. Hauser defines it as "a discursive space in which individuals and groups associate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment about them". The public sphere can be seen as "a theater in modern societies in which political participation is enacted through the medium of talk"  and "a realm of social life in which public opinion can be formed".
+
+== History ==
+Describing the emergence of the public sphere in the 18th century, Habermas noted that the public realm, or sphere, originally was "coextensive with public authority", while "the private sphere comprised civil society in the narrower sense, that is to say, the realm of commodity exchange and of social labor". Whereas the "sphere of public authority" dealt with the state, or realm of the police, and the ruling class, or the feudal authorities (church, princes and nobility) the "authentic 'public sphere'", in a political sense, arose at that time from within the private realm, specifically, in connection with literary activities, the world of letters. This new public sphere spanned the public and the private realms, and "through the vehicle of public opinion it put the state in touch with the needs of society". "This area is conceptually distinct from the state: it [is] a site for the production and circulation of discourses that can in principle be critical of the state." The public sphere "is also distinct from the official economy; it is not an arena of market relations but rather one of the discursive relations, a theater for debating and deliberating rather than for buying and selling". These distinctions between "state apparatuses, economic markets, and democratic associations... are essential to democratic theory". The people themselves came to see the public sphere as a regulatory institution against the authority of the state. The study of the public sphere centers on the idea of participatory democracy, and how public opinion becomes political action. 
+The ideology of the public sphere theory is that the government's laws and policies should be steered by the public sphere and that the only legitimate governments are those that listen to the public sphere. "Democratic governance rests on the capacity of and opportunity for citizens to engage in enlightened debate". Much of the debate over the public sphere involves what is the basic theoretical structure of the public sphere, how information is deliberated in the public sphere, and what influence the public sphere has over society.
+
+== Definitions ==
+Jürgen Habermas claims "We call events and occasions 'public' when they are open to all, in contrast to closed or exclusive affairs".
+This 'public sphere' is a "realm of our social life in which something approaching public opinion can be formed. Access is guaranteed to all citizens".
+This notion of the public becomes evident in terms such as public health, public education, public opinion, or public ownership. They are opposed to the notions of private health, private education, private opinion, and private ownership. The notion of the public is intrinsically connected to the notion of the private.
+Habermas stresses that the notion of the public is related to the notion of the common. For Hannah Arendt, the public sphere is therefore "the common world" that "gathers us together and yet prevents our falling over each other".
+Habermas defines the public sphere as a "society engaged in critical public debate".
+Conditions of the public sphere are according to Habermas:
+
+The formation of public opinion
+All citizens have access
+Conference in unrestricted fashion (based on the freedom of assembly, the freedom of association, the freedom to expression and publication of opinions) about matters of general interest, which implies freedom from economic and political control.
+Debate over the general rules governing relations.
+
+== Jürgen Habermas: bourgeois public sphere ==
+
+Most contemporary conceptualizations of the public sphere are based on the ideas expressed in Jürgen Habermas' book The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere – An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, which is a translation of his Habilitationsschrift, Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit:Untersuchungen zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft. The German term Öffentlichkeit (public sphere) encompasses a variety of meanings and it implies a spatial concept, the social sites or arenas where meanings are articulated, distributed, and negotiated, as well as the collective body constituted by, and in this process, "the public". The work is still considered the foundation of contemporary public sphere theories, and most theorists cite it when discussing their own theories.
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+title: "Public sphere"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:02.428103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The bourgeois public sphere may be conceived above all as the sphere of private people come together as a public; they soon claimed the public sphere regulated from above against the public authorities themselves, to engage them in a debate over the general rules governing relations in the basically privatized but publicly relevant sphere of commodity exchange and social labor.
+Through this work, he gave a historical-sociological account of the creation, brief flourishing, and demise of a "bourgeois" public sphere based on rational-critical debate and discussion: Habermas stipulates that, due to specific historical circumstances, a new civic society emerged in the eighteenth century. Driven by a need for open commercial arenas where news and matters of common concern could be freely exchanged and discussed—accompanied by growing rates of literacy, accessibility to literature, and a new kind of critical journalism—a separate domain from ruling authorities started to evolve across Europe. "In its clash with the arcane and bureaucratic practices of the absolutist state, the emergent bourgeoisie gradually replaced a public sphere in which the ruler's power was merely represented before the people with a sphere in which state authority was publicly monitored through informed and critical discourse by the people".
+In his historical analysis, Habermas points out three so-called "'institutional criteria" as preconditions for the emergence of the new public sphere. The discursive arenas, such as Britain's coffee houses, France's salons, and Germany's Tischgesellschaften "may have differed in the size and compositions of their publics, the style of their proceedings, the climate of their debates, and their topical orientations", but "they all organized discussion among people that tended to be ongoing; hence they had a number of institutional criteria in common":
+
+Disregard of status: Preservation of "a kind of social intercourse that, far from presupposing the equality of status, disregarded status altogether. ... Not that this idea of the public was actually realized in earnest in the coffee houses, salons, and the societies; but as an idea, it had become institutionalized and thereby stated as an objective claim. If not realized, it was at least consequential." (loc.  cit.)
+Domain of common concern: "... discussion within such a public presupposed the problematization of areas that until then had not been questioned. The domain of 'common concern' which was the object of public critical attention remained a preserve in which church and state authorities had the monopoly of interpretation. ... The private people for whom the cultural product became available as a commodity profaned it inasmuch as they had to determine its meaning on their own (by way of rational communication with one another), verbalize it, and thus state explicitly what precisely in its implicitness for so long could assert its authority." (loc. cit.)
+Inclusivity: However exclusive the public might be in any given instance, it could never close itself off entirely and become consolidated as a clique; for it always understood and found itself immersed within a more inclusive public of all private people, persons who – insofar as they were propertied and educated – as readers, listeners, and spectators could avail themselves via the market of the objects that were subject to discussion. The issues discussed became 'general' not merely in their significance, but also in their accessibility: everyone had to be able to participate. ... Wherever the public established itself institutionally as a stable group of discussants, it did not equate itself with the public but at most claimed to act as its mouthpiece, in its name, perhaps even as its educator – the new form of bourgeois representation" (loc. cit.).
+Habermas argued that the bourgeois society cultivated and upheld these criteria. The public sphere was well established in various locations including coffee shops and salons, areas of society where various people could gather and discuss matters that concerned them. The coffee houses in London society at this time became the centers of art and literary criticism, which gradually widened to include even the economic and the political disputes as matters of discussion. In French salons, as Habermas says, "opinion became emancipated from the bonds of economic dependence". Any new work, or a book or a musical composition had to get its legitimacy in these places. It not only paved a forum for self-expression but in fact had become a platform for airing one's opinions and agendas for public discussion.
+
+The emergence of a bourgeois public sphere was particularly supported by the 18th-century liberal democracy making resources available to this new political class to establish a network of institutions like publishing enterprises, newspapers and discussion forums, and the democratic press was the main tool to execute this. The key feature of this public sphere was its separation from the power of both the church and the government due to its access to a variety of resources, both economic and social.
+As Habermas argues, in due course, this sphere of rational and universalistic politics, free from both the economy and the State, was destroyed by the same forces that initially established it. This collapse was due to the consumeristic drive that infiltrated society, so citizens became more concerned about consumption than political actions. Furthermore, the growth of capitalistic economy led to an uneven distribution of wealth, thus widening economic polarity. Suddenly the media became a tool of political forces and a medium for advertising rather than the medium from which the public got their information on political matters. This resulted in limiting access to the public sphere and the political control of the public sphere was inevitable for the modern capitalistic forces to operate and thrive in the competitive economy.
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+title: "Public sphere"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:02.428103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Therewith emerged a new sort of influence, i.e., media power, which, used for purposes of manipulation, once and for all took care of the innocence of the principle of publicity. The public sphere, simultaneously restructured and dominated by the mass media, developed into an arena infiltrated by power in which, by means of topic selection and topical contributions, a battle is fought not only over influence but over the control of communication flows that affect behavior while their strategic intentions are kept hidden as much as possible.
+
+== Counterpublics, feminist critiques and expansions ==
+Although Structural Transformation was (and is) one of the most influential works in contemporary German philosophy and political science, it took 27 years until an English version appeared on the market in 1989. Based on a conference on the occasion of the English translation, at which Habermas himself attended, Craig Calhoun (1992) edited Habermas and the Public Sphere – a thorough dissection of Habermas' bourgeois public sphere by scholars from various academic disciplines. The core criticism at the conference was directed towards the above stated "institutional criteria":
+
+Hegemonic dominance and exclusion: In "Rethinking the Public Sphere," Nancy Fraser offers a feminist revision of Habermas' historical description of the public sphere, and confronts it with "recent revisionist historiography". She refers to other scholars, like Joan Landes, Mary P. Ryan and Geoff Eley, when she argues that the bourgeois public sphere was in fact constituted by a "number of significant exclusions." In contrast to Habermas' assertions on disregard of status and inclusivity, Fraser claims that the bourgeois public sphere discriminated against women and other historically marginalized groups: "... this network of clubs and associations – philanthropic, civic, professional, and cultural – was anything but accessible to everyone. On the contrary, it was the arena, the training ground and eventually the power base of a stratum of bourgeois men who were coming to see themselves as a "universal class" and preparing to assert their fitness to govern." Thus, she stipulates a hegemonic tendency of the male bourgeois public sphere, which dominated at the cost of alternative publics (for example by gender, social status, ethnicity and property ownership), thereby averting other groups from articulating their particular concerns.
+Bracketing of inequalities: Fraser makes us recall that "the bourgeois conception of the public sphere requires bracketing inequalities of status". The "public sphere was to be an arena in which interlocutors would set aside such characteristics as a difference in birth and fortune and speak to one another as if they were social and economic peers". Fraser refers to feminist research by Jane Mansbridge, which notes several relevant "ways in which deliberation can serve as a mask for domination". Consequently, she argues that "such bracketing usually works to the advantage of dominant groups in society and to the disadvantage of subordinates." Thus, she concludes: "In most cases, it would be more appropriate to unbracket inequalities in the sense of explicitly thematizing them – a point that accords with the spirit of Habermas' later communicative ethics".
+The problematic definition of "common concern": Nancy Fraser points out that "there are no naturally given, a priori boundaries" between matters that are generally conceived as private, and ones we typically label as public (i.e. of "common concern"). As an example, she refers to the historic shift in the general conception of domestic violence, from previously being a matter of primarily private concern, to now generally being accepted as a common one: "Eventually, after sustained discursive contestation we succeeded in making it a common concern".
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+---
+title: "Public sphere"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:02.428103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Nancy Fraser identified the fact that marginalized groups are excluded from a universal public sphere, and thus it was impossible to claim that one group would, in fact, be inclusive. However, she claimed that marginalized groups formed their own public spheres, and termed this concept a subaltern counter public or counter-public.
+Fraser worked from Habermas' basic theory because she saw it to be "an indispensable resource" but questioned the actual structure and attempted to address her concerns. She made the observation that "Habermas stops short of developing a new, post-bourgeois model of the public sphere". Fraser attempted to evaluate Habermas' bourgeois public sphere, discuss some assumptions within his model, and offer a modern conception of the public sphere.
+In the historical reevaluation of the bourgeois public sphere, Fraser argues that rather than opening up the political realm to everyone, the bourgeois public sphere shifted political power from "a repressive mode of domination to a hegemonic one". Rather than rule by power, there was now rule by the majority ideology. To deal with this hegemonic domination, Fraser argues that repressed groups form "Subaltern counter-publics" that are "parallel discursive arenas where members of subordinated social groups invent and circulate counterdiscourses to formulate oppositional interpretations of their identities, interests, and needs".
+Benhabib notes that in Habermas' idea of the public sphere, the distinction between public and private issues separates issues that normally affect women (issues of "reproduction, nurture and care for the young, the sick, and the elderly") into the private realm and out of the discussion in the public sphere. She argues that if the public sphere is to be open to any discussion that affects the population, there cannot be distinctions between "what is" and "what is not" discussed. Benhabib argues for feminists to counter the popular public discourse in their own counter public.
+The public sphere was long regarded as men's domain whereas women were supposed to inhabit the private domestic sphere. A distinct ideology that prescribed separate spheres for women and men emerged during the Industrial Revolution.
+The concept of heteronormativity is used to describe the way in which those who fall outside of the basic male/female dichotomy of gender or whose sexual orientations are other than heterosexual cannot meaningfully claim their identities, causing a disconnect between their public selves and their private selves. Michael Warner made the observation that the idea of an inclusive public sphere makes the assumption that we are all the same without judgments about our fellows. He argues that we must achieve some sort of disembodied state to participate in a universal public sphere without being judged. His observations point to a homosexual counter public, and offers the idea that homosexuals must otherwise remain "closeted" to participate in the larger public discourse.
+
+== Rhetorical ==
+
+Gerard Hauser proposed a different direction for the public sphere than previous models. He foregrounds the rhetorical nature of public spheres, suggesting that public spheres form around "the ongoing dialogue on public issues" rather than the identity of the group engaged in the discourse.
+Rather than arguing for an all-inclusive public sphere, or the analysis of tension between public spheres, he suggested that publics were formed by active members of society around issues. They are a group of interested individuals who engage in vernacular discourse about a specific issue. "Publics may be repressed, distorted, or responsible, but any evaluation of their actual state requires that we inspect the rhetorical environment as well as the rhetorical act out of which they evolved, for these are the conditions that constitute their individual character". These people formed rhetorical public spheres that were based in discourse, not necessarily orderly discourse but any interactions whereby the interested public engages each other. This interaction can take the form of institutional actors as well as the basic "street rhetoric" that "open[s] a dialogue between competing factions." The spheres themselves formed around the issues that were being deliberated. The discussion itself would reproduce itself across the spectrum of interested publics "even though we lack personal acquaintance with all but a few of its participants and are seldom in contexts where we and they directly interact, we join these exchanges because they are discussing the same matters". To communicate within the public sphere, "those who enter any given arena must share a reference world for their discourse to produce awareness for shared interests and public opinions about them". This world consists of common meanings and cultural norms from which interaction can take place.
+The rhetorical public sphere has several primary features:
+
+it is discourse-based, rather than class-based.
+the critical norms are derived from actual discursive practices. Taking a universal reasonableness out of the picture, arguments are judged by how well they resonate with the population that is discussing the issue.
+intermediate bracketing of discursive exchanges. Rather than a conversation that goes on across a population as a whole, the public sphere is composed of many intermediate dialogs that merge later on in the discussion.
+The rhetorical public sphere was characterized by five rhetorical norms from which it can be gauged and criticized. How well the public sphere adheres to these norms determine the effectiveness of the public sphere under the rhetorical model. Those norms are:
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+title: "Public sphere"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:02.428103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+permeable boundaries: Although a public sphere may have a specific membership as with any social movement or deliberative assembly, people outside the group can participate in the discussion.
+activity: Publics are active rather than passive. They do not just hear the issue and applaud, but rather they actively engage the issue and the publics surrounding the issue.
+contextualized language: They require that participants adhere to the rhetorical norm of contextualized language to render their respective experiences intelligible to one another.
+believable appearance: The public sphere must appear to be believable to each other and the outside public.
+tolerance: In order to maintain a vibrant discourse, others opinions need to be allowed to enter the arena.
+In all this Hauser believes a public sphere is a "discursive space in which strangers discuss issues they perceive to be of consequence for them and their group. Its rhetorical exchanges are the bases for shared awareness of common issues, shared interests, tendencies of extent and strength of difference and agreement, and self-constitution as a public whose opinions bear on the organization of society."
+This concept that the public sphere acts as a medium in which public opinion is formed as analogous to a lava lamp. Just as the lamp's structure changes, with its lava separating and forming new shapes, so does the public sphere's creation of opportunities for discourse to address public opinion, thereby forming new discussions of rhetoric. The lava of the public which holds together the public arguments is the public conversation.
+
+== Media ==
+Habermas argues that the public sphere requires "specific means for transmitting information and influencing those who receive it". By definition, this means that media are fundamental for constituting and maintaining a public sphere. 
+
+=== As actors in the political public sphere ===
+According to Habermas, there are two types of actors without whom no political public sphere could be put to work: professionals in the media system and politicians.
+For Habermas, there are five types of actors who make their appearance on the virtual stage of an established public sphere:
+
+(a) Lobbyists who represent special interest groups;
+(b) Advocates who either represent general interest groups or substitute for a lack of representation of marginalized groups that are unable to voice their interests effectively;
+(c) Experts who are credited with professional or scientific knowledge in some specialized area and are invited to give advice;
+(d) Moral entrepreneurs who generate public attention for supposedly neglected issues;
+
+(e) Intellectuals who have gained, unlike advocates or moral entrepreneurs, a perceived personal reputation in some field (e.g., as writers or academics) and who engage, unlike experts and lobbyists, spontaneously in public discourse with the declared intention of promoting general interests.
+Libraries have been inextricably tied to educational institutions in the modern era having developed within democratic societies. Libraries took on aspects of the public sphere (as did classrooms), even while public spheres transformed in the macro sense. These contextual conditions led to a fundamental conservative rethinking of civil society institutions like schools and libraries.
+
+=== YouTube ===
+Habermas argues that under certain conditions, the media act to facilitate discourse in a public sphere. The rise of the Internet has brought about a resurgence of scholars applying theories of the public sphere to Internet technologies.
+For example, a study by S. Edgerly et al.
+focused on the ability of YouTube to serve as an online public sphere. The researchers examined a large sample of video comments using the California Proposition 8 (2008) as an example. The authors argue that some scholars think the online public sphere is a space where a wide range of voices can be expressed due to the "low barrier of entry" and interactivity. However, they also point out a number of limitations. Edgerly et al. say that the affirmative discourse presupposes that YouTube can be an influential player in the political process and that it can serve as an influential force to politically mobilize young people. YouTube has allowed anyone and everyone to be able to get any political knowledge they wish. The authors mention critiques that say YouTube is built around the popularity of videos with sensationalist content. It has also allowed people to broadcast themselves for a large public sphere, where people can form their own opinions and discuss different things in the comments. The research by Edgerly, et al. found that the analysed YouTube comments were diverse. They argue that this is a possible indicator that YouTube provides space for public discussion. They also found that YouTube videos' style influences the nature of the commentary. Finally, they concluded that the video's ideological stances influenced the language of the comments. The findings of the work suggest that YouTube is a public sphere platform.
+Additional work by S. Buckley reflected on the role that news content, specifically US cable news, contributed towards the formation of the public sphere. His research analysed a total of 1239 videos uploaded by five news organisations and investigated the link between content and user engagement. Through both content and sentiment analysis, it was suggested that the sentiment of the language used in the titles of the videos had an impact upon the public, with negatively sentimental titles generated more user engagement. Buckley suggested that due to the aspect of emotionality that is present in news content that due to the ongoing process of media hybridization, a new conceptual framework of the public sphere that acknowledges how both thoughtful discussions as well as ones which express feelings in an overt way needs to be developed.
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+---
+title: "Public sphere"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:02.428103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Limitations of media and the internet ===
+Some, like Colin Sparks, note that a new global public sphere ought to be created in the wake of increasing globalization and global institutions, which operate at the supranational level. However, the key questions for him were, whether any media exists in terms of size and access to fulfil this role. The traditional media, he notes, are close to the public sphere in this true sense. Nevertheless, limitations are imposed by the market and concentration of ownership. At present, the global media fail to constitute the basis of a public sphere for at least three reasons. Similarly, he notes that the internet, for all its potential, does not meet the criteria for a public sphere and that unless these are "overcome, there will be no sign of a global public sphere".
+German scholars Jürgen Gerhards and Mike S. Schäfer conducted a study in 2009 to establish whether the Internet offers a better and broader communication environment compared to quality newspapers. They analysed how the issue of human genome research was portrayed between 1999 and 2001 in popular quality newspapers in both Germany and the United States in comparison to the way it appeared on search engines at the time of their research. Their intention was to analyse what actors and what sort of opinions the subject generated in both print and the Internet and verify whether the online space proved to be a more democratic public sphere, with a wider range of sources and views. Gerhards and Schäfer say they have found "only minimal evidence to support the idea that the internet is a better communication space as compared to print media". "In both media, communication is dominated by (bio- and natural) scientific actors; popular inclusion does not occur". The scholars argue that the search algorithms select the sources of information based on the popularity of their links. "Their gatekeeping, in contrast to the old mass media, relies mainly on technical characteristics of websites". For Gerhards and Schäfer the Internet is not an alternative public sphere because less prominent voices end up being silenced by the search engines' algorithms. "Search engines might actually silence societal debate by giving more space to established actors and institutions". Another tactic that supports this view is astroturfing. The Guardian columnist George Monbiot said that Astroturfing software, "has the potential to destroy the internet as a forum for constructive debate. It jeopardizes the notion of online democracy".
+
+=== Virtual ===
+There has been an academic debate about how social media impacts the public sphere. The sociologists Brian Loader and Dan Mercea give an overview of this discussion. They argue that social media offers increasing opportunities for political communication and enable democratic capacities for political discussion within the virtual public sphere. The effect would be that citizens could challenge governments and corporations' political and economic power. Additionally, new forms of political participation and information sources for the users emerge with the Internet that can be used, for example, in online campaigns. However, the two authors point out that social media's dominant uses are entertainment, consumerism, and content sharing among friends. Loader and Mercea point out that "individual preferences reveal an unequal spread of social ties with a few giant nodes such as Google, Yahoo, Facebook and YouTube attracting the majority of users". They also stress that some critics have voiced the concern that there is a lack of seriousness in political communication on social media platforms. Moreover, lines between professional media coverage and user-generated content would blur on social media.
+The authors conclude that social media provides new opportunities for political participation; however, they warn users of the risks of accessing unreliable sources. The Internet impacts the virtual public sphere in many ways, but is not a free utopian platform as some observers argued at the beginning of its history.
+
+=== Mediated publicness ===
+John Thompson criticises the traditional idea of public sphere by Habermas, as it is centred mainly in face-to-face interactions. On the contrary, Thompson argues that modern society is characterized by a new form of "mediated publicness", whose main characteristics are:
+
+Despatialized (there is a rupture of time/space. People can see more things, as they do not need to share the same physical location, but this extended vision always has an angle, which people do not have control over).
+Non dialogical (unidirectional. For example, presenters on TV are not able to adapt their discourse to the reactions of the audience, since they are visible to a wide audience but that audience is not directly visible to them. However, internet allows a bigger interactivity).
+Wider and more diverse audiences. (The same message can reach people with different education, different social class, different values and beliefs, and so on.)
+This mediated publicness has altered the power relations in a way in which not only the many are visible to the few but the few can also now see the many:
+
+ "Whereas the Panopticon renders many people visible to a few and enables power to be exercised over the many by subjecting them to a state of permanent visibility, the development of communication media provides a means by which many people can gather information about a few and, at the same time, a few can appear before many; thanks to the media, it is primarily those who exercise power, rather than those over whom power is exercised, who are subjected to a certain kind of visibility".  
+However, Thompson also acknowledges that "media and visibility is a double-edged sword" meaning that even though they can be used to show an improved image (by managing the visibility), individuals are not in full control of their self-presentation. Mistakes, gaffes or scandals are now recorded therefore they are harder to deny, as they can be replayed by the media.
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+---
+title: "Public sphere"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:02.428103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== The public service model ===
+Examples of the public service model include BBC in Britain, and the ABC and SBS in Australia. The political function and effect of modes of public communication have traditionally continued with the dichotomy between Hegelian State and civil society. The dominant theory of this mode includes the liberal theory of the free press. However, the public service, state-regulated model, whether publicly or privately funded, has always been seen not as a positive good but as an unfortunate necessity imposed by the technical limitations of frequency scarcity.
+According to Habermas's concept of the public sphere, the strength of this concept is that it identifies and stresses the importance for democratic politics of a sphere distinct from the economy and the State. On the other hand, this concept challenges the liberal free press tradition form the grounds of its materiality, and it challenges the Marxist critique of that tradition from the grounds of the specificity of politics as well.
+From Garnham's critique, three great virtues of Habermas's public sphere are mentioned. Firstly, it focuses on the indissoluble link between the institutions and practices of mass public communication and the institutions and practices of democratic politics. The second virtue of Habermas's approach concentrates on the necessary material resource base for anti-public. Its third virtue is to escape from the simple dichotomy of free market versus state control that dominates so much thinking about media policy.
+
+== Non-liberal theories ==
+Oskar Negt & Alexander Kluge  took a non-liberal view of public spheres, and argued that Habermas' reflections on the bourgeois public sphere should be supplemented with reflections on the proletarian public spheres and the public spheres of production.
+
+=== Proletarian ===
+The distinction between bourgeois and proletarian public spheres is not mainly a distinction between classes. The proletarian public sphere is rather to be conceived of as the "excluded", vague, unarticulated impulses of resistance or resentment. The proletarian public sphere carries the subjective feelings, the egocentric malaise with the common public narrative, interests that are not socially valorized
+
+"As extraeconomic interests, they exist—precisely in the forbidden zones of fantasy beneath the surface of taboos—as stereotypes of a proletarian context of living that is organized in a merely rudimentary form."
+The bourgeois and proletarian public spheres are mutually defining: The proletarian public sphere carries the "left-overs" from the bourgeois public sphere, while the bourgeois public is based upon the productive forces of the underlying resentment:
+
+"In this respect, they " [i.e. the proletarian public spheres] " have two characteristics: in their defensive attitude toward society, their conservatism, and their subcultural character, they are once again mere objects; but they are, at the same time, the block of real life that goes against the valorization interest. As long as capital is dependent on living labor as a source of wealth, this element of the proletarian context of living cannot be extinguished through repression."
+Stephen Thompson considered the existence of a proletarian public sphere from c.1900 to 1948 in South Wales though his examination of the working class provision of medical attendance. He concluded that: 'there existed in South Wales a proletarian public sphere founded on alternative values to the bourgeois, Liberal hegemony ...' Furthermore, 'with a strong tradition of self-sufficiency, the people of south Wales set about organizing their medical services on their own terms and in a way that addressed their particular needs.'
+
+=== Production ===
+Negt and Kluge furthermore point out the necessity of considering a third dimension of the public spheres: The public spheres of production. The public spheres of production collect the impulses of resentment and instrumentalise them in the productive spheres. The public spheres of production are wholly instrumental and have no critical impulse (unlike the bourgeois and proletarian spheres). The interests that are incorporated in the public sphere of production are given capitalist shape, and questions of their legitimacy are thus neutralized.
+
+=== Biopolitical public ===
+By the end of the 20th century, the discussions about public spheres got a new biopolitical twist. Traditionally the public spheres had been contemplated as to how free agents transgress the private spheres. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri have, drawing on the late Michel Foucault's writings on biopolitics, suggested that we reconsider the very distinction between public and private spheres. They argue that the traditional distinction is founded on a certain (capitalist) account of property that presupposes clear-cut separations between interests. This account of property is (according to Hardt and Negri) based upon a scarcity economy. The scarcity economy is characterized by the impossibility of sharing the goods. If "agent A" eats the bread, "agent B" cannot have it. The interests of agents are thus, generally, clearly separated.
+However, with the evolving shift in the economy towards an informational materiality, in which value is based upon the informational significance, or the narratives surrounding the products, the clear-cut subjective separation is no longer obvious. Hardt and Negri see the open source approaches as examples of new ways of co-operation that illustrate how economic value is not founded upon exclusive possession, but rather upon collective potentialities. Informational materiality is characterized by gaining value only through being shared. Hardt and Negri thus suggest that the commons become the focal point of analyses of public relations. The point being that with this shift it becomes possible to analyze how the very distinctions between the private and public are evolving.
+
+== See also ==
+Argumentation theory
+Commons
+Interpersonal relationship
+Online deliberation
+Project for Public Spaces
+Public hypersphere
+The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964)
+Res publica
+Rule according to higher law
+Richard Sennett
+The Lives of Others – A film that describes the monitoring of the cultural scene of East Berlin by agents of the Stasi during the Cold War
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Public Sphere Guide, a research and teaching guide, and resource for the renewal of the Public Sphere
+Transformations of the Public Sphere Essay Forum
+Jürgen Habermas, "The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article," New German Critique 3 (1974)
+Spark summary of Habermas' public sphere book
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+---
+title: "Quality of life"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:03.583904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Quality of life (QOL) is defined by the World Health Organization as "an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns". 
+Standard indicators of the quality of life include wealth, employment, the environment, physical and mental health, education, recreation and leisure time, social belonging, religious beliefs, safety, security and freedom. QOL has a wide range of contexts, including the fields of international development, healthcare, politics and employment. Health related QOL (HRQOL) is an evaluation of QOL and its relationship with health.
+
+== Engaged theory ==
+One approach, called the engaged theory, outlined in the journal of Applied Research in the Quality of Life, posits four domains in assessing quality of life: ecology, economics, politics and culture. In the domain of culture, for example, it includes the following subdomains of quality of life:
+
+Beliefs and ideas
+Creativity and recreation
+Enquiry and learning
+Gender and generations
+Identity and engagement
+Memory and projection
+Well-being and health
+Under this conception, other frequently related concepts include freedom, human rights, and happiness. However, since happiness is subjective and difficult to measure, other measures are generally given priority. It has also been shown that happiness, as much as it can be measured, does not necessarily increase correspondingly with the comfort that results from increasing income. As a result, the standard of living should not be taken to be a measure of happiness. Also, sometimes considered related is the concept of human security, though the latter may be considered at a more basic level and for all people.
+
+== Quantitative measurement ==
+Unlike per capita GDP or standard of living, both of which can be measured in financial terms, it is harder to make objective or long-term measurements of the quality of life experienced by nations or other groups of people. Researchers have begun in recent times to distinguish two aspects of personal well-being: Emotional well-being, in which respondents are asked about the quality of their everyday emotional experiences – the frequency and intensity of their experiences of, for example, joy, stress, sadness, anger and affection – and life evaluation, in which respondents are asked to think about their life in general and evaluate it against a scale. Such and other systems and scales of measurement have been in use for some time. Research has attempted to examine the relationship between quality of life and productivity. 
+There are many different methods of measuring quality of life in terms of health care, wealth, and materialistic goods. However, it is much more difficult to measure meaningful expression of one's desires. One way to do so is to evaluate the extent to which individuals have fulfilled their own ideals. Quality of life can simply mean happiness, which is the subjective state of mind. By using that mentality, citizens of a developing country appreciate more since they are content with the basic necessities of health care, education and child protection.
+
+According to ecological economist Robert Costanza:While Quality of Life (QOL) has long been an explicit or implicit policy goal, adequate definition and measurement have been elusive. Diverse "objective" and "subjective" indicators across a range of disciplines and scales, and recent work on subjective well-being (SWB) surveys and the psychology of happiness have spurred renewed interest.
+
+=== Human Development Index ===
+
+Perhaps the most commonly used international measure of development is the Human Development Index (HDI), which combines measures of life expectancy, education, and standard of living, in an attempt to quantify the options available to individuals within a given society. The HDI is used by the United Nations Development Programme in their Human Development Report. However, since 2010, The Human Development Report introduced an Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). While the original HDI remains useful, it stated that "the IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for inequality), while the original HDI can be viewed as an index of 'potential' human development (or the maximum level of HDI) that could be achieved if there was no inequality."
+
+=== World Happiness Report ===
+
+The World Happiness Report is a landmark survey on the state of global happiness. It ranks 156 countries by their happiness levels, reflecting growing global interest in using happiness and substantial well-being as an indicator of the quality of human development. Its growing purpose has allowed governments, communities and organizations to use appropriate data to record happiness in order to enable policies to provide better lives. The reports review the state of happiness in the world today and show how the science of happiness explains personal and national variations in happiness. 
+Developed once again by the United Nations and published recently, along with the HDI, this report combines both objective and subjective measures to rank countries by happiness, which is deemed the ultimate outcome of a high quality of life. It uses surveys from Gallup, real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, having someone to count on, perceived freedom to make life choices, freedom from corruption, and generosity to derive the final score. Happiness is already recognized as an important concept in global public policy. The World Happiness Report indicates that some regions have, in recent years, been experiencing progressive inequality of happiness.
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+---
+title: "Quality of life"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:03.583904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Other measures ===
+The Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) is a measure developed by sociologist M. D. Morris in the 1970s, based on basic literacy, infant mortality, and life expectancy. Although not as complex as other measures, and now essentially replaced by the Human Development Index, the PQLI is notable for Morris's attempt to show a "less fatalistic pessimistic picture" by focusing on three areas where global quality of life was generally improving at the time, while ignoring gross national product and other possible indicators that were not improving.
+The Happy Planet Index, introduced in 2006, is unique among quality of life measures in that, in addition to standard determinants of well-being, it uses each country's ecological footprint as an indicator. As a result, European and North American nations do not dominate this measure. The 2012 list is instead topped by Costa Rica, Vietnam and Colombia.
+In 2010, Gallup researchers trying to find the world's happiest countries found Denmark to be at the top of the list. For the period 2014–2016, Norway surpasses Denmark to be at the top of the list.
+A 2010 study by two Princeton University professors looked at 1,000 randomly selected U.S. residents over an extended period. It concludes that their life evaluations – that is, their considered evaluations of their life against a stated scale of one to ten – rise steadily with income. On the other hand, their reported quality of emotional daily experiences (their reported experiences of joy, affection, stress, sadness, or anger) levels off after a certain income level (approximately $75,000 per year in 2010); income above $75,000 does not lead to more experiences of happiness nor to further relief of unhappiness or stress. Below this income level, respondents reported decreasing happiness and increasing sadness and stress, implying the pain of life's misfortunes, including disease, divorce, and being alone, is exacerbated by poverty.
+Gross national happiness and other subjective measures of happiness are being used by the governments of Bhutan and the United Kingdom. The World Happiness report, issued by Columbia University is a meta-analysis of happiness globally and provides an overview of countries and grassroots activists using GNH. The OECD issued a guide for the use of subjective well-being metrics in 2013. In the U.S., cities and communities are using a GNH metric at a grassroots level.
+The Social Progress Index measures the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens. Fifty-two indicators in the areas of basic human needs, foundations of wellbeing, and opportunity show the relative performance of nations. The index uses outcome measures when there is sufficient data available or the closest possible proxies.
+Day-Reconstruction Method was another way of measuring happiness, in which researchers asked their subjects to recall various things they did on the previous day and describe their mood during each activity. Being simple and approachable, this method required memory and the experiments have confirmed that the answers that people give are similar to those who repeatedly recalled each subject. The method eventually declined as it called for more effort and thoughtful responses, which often included interpretations and outcomes that do not occur to people who are asked to record every action in their daily lives.
+The Digital Quality of Life Index - a yearly study on digital well-being across 121 countries created by Surfshark. It indexes each country according to five pillars that impact a population's digital quality of life: internet affordability, internet quality, electronic infrastructure, electronic security, and electronic government.
+
+=== Livability ===
+
+The term quality of life is also used by politicians and economists to measure the livability of a given city or nation. Two widely known measures of livability are the Economist Intelligence Unit's Where-to-be-born Index and Mercer's Quality of Living Reports. These two measures calculate the livability of countries and cities around the world, respectively, through a combination of subjective life-satisfaction surveys and objective determinants of quality of life such as divorce rates, safety, and infrastructure. Such measures relate more broadly to the population of a city, state, or country, not to individual quality of life. Livability has a long history and tradition in urban design, and neighborhoods design standards such as LEED-ND are often used in an attempt to influence livability.  
+
+==== Crimes ====
+Some crimes against property (e.g., graffiti and vandalism) and some "victimless crimes" have been referred to as "quality-of-life crimes". American sociologist James Q. Wilson encapsulated this argument as the broken windows theory, which asserts that relatively minor problems left unattended (such as litter, graffiti, or public urination by homeless individuals) send a subliminal message that disorder, in general, is being tolerated, and as a result, more serious crimes will end up being committed (the analogy being that a broken window left broken shows an image of general dilapidation).
+Wilson's theories have been used to justify the implementation of zero tolerance policies by many prominent American mayors, most notably Oscar Goodman in Las Vegas, Richard Riordan in Los Angeles, Rudolph Giuliani in New York City and Gavin Newsom in San Francisco. Such policies refuse to tolerate even minor crimes; proponents argue that this will improve the quality of life of local residents. However, critics of zero tolerance policies believe that such policies neglect investigation on a case-by-case basis and may lead to unreasonably harsh penalties for crimes.
+
+== In healthcare ==
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+title: "Quality of life"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:03.583904+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Within the field of healthcare, quality of life is often regarded in terms of how a certain ailment affects a patient on an individual level. This may be a debilitating weakness that is not life-threatening; life-threatening illness that is not terminal; terminal illness; the predictable, natural decline in the health of an elder; an unforeseen mental/physical decline of a loved one; or chronic, end-stage disease processes. Researchers at the University of Toronto's Quality of Life Research Unit define quality of life as "The degree to which a person enjoys the important possibilities of his or her life". Their Quality of Life Model is based on the categories "being", "belonging", and "becoming"; respectively who one is, how one is connected to one's environment, and whether one achieves one's personal goals, hopes, and aspirations.
+Experience sampling studies show substantial between-person variability in within-person associations between somatic symptoms and quality of life. Hecht and Shiel measure quality of life as "the patient's ability to enjoy normal life activities" since life quality is strongly related to wellbeing without suffering from sickness and treatment.
+
+== In international development ==
+Quality of life has been deemed an important concept in the field of international development because it allows development to be analyzed on a measure that is generally accepted as more comprehensive than standard of living. Within development theory, however, there are varying ideas concerning what constitutes desirable change for a particular society. The different ways that quality of life is defined by institutions, therefore, shape how these organizations work for its improvement as a whole.
+Organisations such as the World Bank, for example, declare a goal of "working for a world free of poverty", with poverty defined as a lack of basic human needs, such as food, water, shelter, freedom, access to education, healthcare, or employment. In other words, poverty is defined as a low quality of life. Using this definition, the World Bank works towards improving quality of life through the stated goal of lowering poverty and helping people afford a better quality of life.
+Other organizations, however, may also work towards improved global quality of life using a slightly different definition and substantially different methods. Many NGOs do not focus at all on reducing poverty on a national or international scale, but rather attempt to improve the quality of life for individuals or communities. One example would be sponsorship programs that provide material aid for specific individuals. Although many organizations of this type may still talk about fighting poverty, the methods are significantly different.
+Improving quality of life involves action not only by NGOs but also by governments. Global health has the potential to achieve greater political presence if governments were to incorporate aspects of human security into foreign policy. Stressing individuals' basic rights to health, food, shelter, and freedom addresses prominent inter-sectoral problems negatively impacting today's society, and may lead to greater action and resources. Integration of global health concerns into foreign policy may be hampered by approaches that are shaped by the overarching roles of defense and diplomacy.
+
+== See also ==
+
+=== Indices ===
+
+=== Journals ===
+Journal of Business Ethics
+Social Indicators Research
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Nussbaum, Martha; Sen, Amartya, eds. (2003). The Quality of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191596704.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Ethical Markets Quality of Life Indicators; Archived 11 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine
+The First European Quality of Life Survey 2003; Archived 7 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
+Quality of Life in a Changing Europe; Archived 3 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine, A research project on the quality of lives and work of European citizens
+Ensuring Quality of Life in Europe's Cities and Towns, European Environment Agency—2009 report
+AQoL Instruments, Quality of Life Assessment Instruments – Centre for Health Economics, Monash University Australia
+The Quality-of-Life-Recorder (Shareware/Freeware) – An electronic questionnaire platform for MS Windows and Java with preconfigured adoptions of numerous important Quality-of-Life instruments (including SF-36, EORTC QLQ-C30) in multiple languages
+After 2015: '3D Human Wellbeing', policy briefing on the value of refocusing development on 3D human wellbeing for pro-poor policy change, from the Institute of Development Studies, UK
+Mercer Quality of Living survey
+Basic Guide to the World: Quality of Life Throughout the World
+Family database, OECD
+Journals
+Applied Research in Quality of Life, the official journal of the International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies
+Child Indicators Research, the official journal of the International Society for Child Indicators
+Quality of Life Research, an international journal of quality of life aspects of treatment, care, and rehabilitation – official journal of the International Society of Quality of Life Research
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+---
+title: "Quality time"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_time"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:04.820148+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Quality time is a sociology expression referring to a proactive interaction between individuals, set aside for paying undivided attention, usually to express love or accomplish a shared goal.
+Sometimes abbreviated QT, it is an informal reference to time spent with close family, partners, or friends that is in some way important, special, productive or profitable to one or everyone involved. Having conversations, solving jigsaw puzzles, collaborating on projects, and conversing during road trips can be examples of quality time. It may also refer to the effective use of time in educational settings, or time spent alone performing a favorite activity (i.e., self-care).
+In his 1992 book, Baptist pastor and Relationship counselor Gary Chapman suggests that quality time is one of five "Love Languages" which are used (more or less, preferentially, by a given individual) to express love and gratitude for another.
+
+
+== History ==
+Its use as a noun expression ("quality time") began in the 1970s. One of the earliest records of this phrase in print was in the Annapolis newspaper The Capital, January 1973, in the article "How To Be Liberated":
+
+The major goal of each of these role changes is to give a woman time to herself, Ms. Burton explained. "A woman's right and responsibility is to be self fulfilling," she said. She gives "quality time" rather than "quantity time" to each task, whether it be writing, cleaning the house or tending the children.
+In the context of public schooling, the National Commission on Excellence in Education began to use the phrase circa 1983. "Quality time" was described in a 1983 letter by the principal of Hampton High School to U.S. Secretary of Education Terrell Bell. Principal Scholtz wrote, "Quality time will be enhanced by reducing that time spent by teachers on discipline and on administrative duties" and thereby "freeing teachers to do what they do best...teach".
+By 1985, the phrase was in common use in books about parenting and parenting styles. Examples include A Parents' Guide to Quality Time with Preschoolers (1984), The Quality Time Almanac: A Sourcebook of Ideas and Activities for Parents and Kids (1986),  and Parentips: Quality Time with Kids (1986).
+Gary Champan's 1992 book The Five Love Languages defined and popularized the phrase's contemporary usage. 
+Quality Time is also the title of a 1996 fiction (likely romance) novel by British author Norma Curtis.
+The Time Bind, a 1997 book, was mentioned in Newsweek's multi-page feature about "The Myth of Quality Time". The same issue of Newsweek had a full-page review of another 1997 book, Time for Life, which emphasizes that most people have a flawed "ability to separate faulty perception of time use from reality." Author Robinson's diary-based research shows that 15 hours per week of "free time" (the greatest category of time used) goes into TV viewing.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Dialogue
+Double burden
+Gemütlichkeit
+Kids' club
+Work–family balance in the United States
+Work–family conflict
+Work–life balance
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Idioms
+The Phrase Finder
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+---
+title: "Race relations"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_relations"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:06.133399+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Race relations is a sociological concept that emerged in Chicago in connection with the work of sociologist Robert E. Park and the Chicago race riot of 1919. Race relations designates a paradigm or field in sociology and a legal concept in the United Kingdom. As a sociological field, race relations attempts to explain how racial groups relate to each other. These relations vary depending on historical, social, and cultural context. The term is used in a generic way to designate race related interactions, dynamics, and issues.
+In the 1960s, the prevailing understanding of race relations was underdeveloped and was acknowledged by sociologists for its failure to predict the anti-racist struggles. It was critiqued for being explicitly used to give an explanation of violence connected to race. The use of paradigm was criticized for overlooking the power differential between races, implying that the source of violence is disharmony rather than racist power structures. Race relations are divided into positive and negative. Positive or good race relations promote equality, empathy, and inclusivity, while negative race relations generate tension, conflict, and social divisions.
+Detractors of the term "race relations" have called it as a euphemism for white supremacy or racism. Opinion polls, such as Gallup polls, use the term "race relations" to group together various responses connected to race. University level sociology courses are often named "Race and Ethnic Relations".
+
+== In the United States ==
+Robert E. Park of the University of Chicago formulated a theory known as "race relations cycle," which is currently discredited. He believed race relations have a universal pattern: when races come into contact, at first they are hostile, but thaw over time. However, Park only conducted minimal studies related to it and did not examine its validity across ethnic groups to ensure its accuracy in representing reality.
+The cycle was postulated to be driven by subjective attitudes that members of races feel toward other races. The steps in Park's cycle were contact, competition, accommodation, and assimilation. Park's students tested his ideas by studying communities of Chinese and Japanese origin living in the United States and found that, contrary to Park's theory, adopting white culture did not lead to acceptance by white Americans. However, Park did not discard his theory in spite of the failures to verify it.
+In 1919, white residents of Chicago instigated the mass murder of black residents, an event known as the Chicago race riot of 1919. After this violent event, city authorities established the Chicago Commission on Race Relations. The commission was composed entirely of men, six African Americans and six European Americans.
+Sociologist Everett Hughes published a collection of Park's articles in 1950, seven years after Park's death. The beginnings of the civil rights movement in the 1950s caused interest in the study of race, and Park's work became a founding text in the emerging field named "race relations."
+Because race relations model imagined steady progress of whites, it failed to predict the radical upheavals of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Everett Hughes delivered an address at the American Sociological Association (of which he was president) titled Race Relations and the Sociological Imagination in which Hughes confessed the failure of prediction: "Why did social scientists — and sociologists in particular — not foresee the explosion of collective action of Negro Americans demanding immediate full integration into American society?" African American scholars had little more than token representation in this field. Race relations model was considered by them as a failure of white social science.
+The Kerner Report, commissioned by the US government in 1967 to study the causes of 1960s race riots, said that the Watts riots of 1965 "shocked all who had been confident that race relations were improving in the North." The report clarified that the major cause of the riots was white racism, and recommended job creation measures and police reform. President Lyndon B. Johnson discarded the report's recommendations.
+In the 1970s, some sociologists in America sought to replace the term race relations with racial oppression, because that was the better notion of what race meant in that period. For example, the 1972 book Racial Oppression in America by Bob Blauner challenged the race relations paradigm on negative effects, he explained that the source of the problem between races is not because of some naturally inherent racial animosity but is deeply rooted in the way societal systems are or the society is organized and structured.
+In 2020, the world witnessed the murder of George Floyd, an African American man, by Derek Chauvin, a white police officer, in a live-streamed video. This event triggered a significant shift in the US and around the world, leading to a new awareness and consciousness about race relations. The dominant culture started engaging in discussions about racial justice and anti-racist practices, as well as seeking ways to understand and address racial issues. The need to reduce negative race relations practices and promote racial justice became more apparent after the George Floyd incident. Efforts were reinforced to ensure equality, dismantle systemic racism, and address historical and present-day discrimination that affects marginalized racial and ethnic groups. To rectify the impacts of past and ongoing racial disparities, specific policies and practices like affirmative action gained importance. Affirmative action is not considered as a solution to negative race relations, but it is seen as one of the steps to counteract the effects of past discrimination and create a more level playing field where dominant racist social structures are present. This allows underrepresented groups to have access to the same opportunities, presence, and benefits as others. The goal is to correct the imbalances caused by historical discrimination, to interrupt the cycle of culturally reproduced discrimination, and foster greater inclusion and diversity in society.
+
+== In the United Kingdom ==
+The concept of race relations became institutionally significant in the United Kingdom through the establishment of the Department of Social Anthropology under the leadership of Kenneth Little at the University of Edinburgh.
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+title: "Race relations"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_relations"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:06.133399+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Institutions ===
+The Institute of Race Relations was established in 1958. Its remit was to research, publish and collect resources on race relations across the world. However, in 1972, the membership of the institute supported the staff in the radical transformation of the organization: rather than being a policy-oriented academic institution  it became an anti-racist think tank.
+The Race Relations Board was created following the passing of the Race Relations Act 1965 as a body "to assess and resolve individual cases of discrimination." Its remit was originally restricted to places of public resort and regarding disposal of tenancies, but this was expanded with the passage of the Race Relations Act 1968.
+
+=== Legislation in the UK ===
+Race Relations Acts have been adopted in the United Kingdom to outlaw racial discrimination and to tackle institutional racism:
+
+Race Relations Act 1965
+Race Relations Act 1968
+Race Relations Act 1976
+The Equality Act 2010 superseded and consolidated previous discrimination law in the UK.
+
+== Criticism ==
+The concept of race relations has been criticized for implying a matched relationship between races. Stephen Steinberg of CUNY contends that the term "racial oppression" should be used in unevenly matched instances instead of negative race relation or simply "race relations":
+
+While the term "race relations" is meant to convey value neutrality, on closer examination it is riddled with value. Indeed, its rhetorical function is to obfuscate the true nature of "race relations", which is a system of racial domination and exploitation based on violence, resulting in the suppression and dehumanization of an entire people over centuries of American history.
+The term "race relations" describes more the relationship between two groups of people rather than the discrimination against them. Journalist Charles M. Blow observes that Americans who were polled on their "satisfaction with race relations" reported lower satisfaction after the rise of Black Lives Matter, an anti-racism movement. The term "race relations", according to Blow, "suggests a relationship that swings from harmony to disharmony". Objecting to racism creates awareness of disharmony, whereas silently submitting to racial oppression creates a false impression of harmonious race relations. Because of this counterintuitive result, Blow argues that the terms "race relations," "racial tension", and "racial division" are unhelpful euphemisms for what should properly be called white supremacy.
+
+== Reconciliation ==
+
+Reconciliation is a term used in truth and reconciliation commissions around the world, and used in various countries when referring to improving relations between their First Nations peoples and the rest of the population. Reconciliation in Australia has been part of Australian Government policy since 1991, and the term is also used in New Zealand, Canada, the United States (as in the Maine Wabanaki-State Truth and Reconciliation Commission), and in Europe.
+
+== See also ==
+Sociology of race and ethnic relations
+Anti-oppressive practice
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Park, Robert Ezra (1950). Race and Culture. Free Press. OCLC 265130.
+Steinberg, Stephen (2007). Race Relations: a Critique. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804763233.
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+---
+title: "Racial literacy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_literacy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:07.322017+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Racial literacy is a concept developed by sociologist France Winddance Twine. She describes it as "a form of racial socialization and antiracist training that ... parents of African-descent children practiced in their efforts to defend their children against racism" in her research done in the United Kingdom with mixed-race families.
+She further describes it as "cultural strategies and practices designed and employed by parents to teach children of African and Caribbean heritage (1) detect, document, and name antiblack racist ideologies, semiotics, and practices; (2) provide discursive resources that counter racism; and (3) provide aesthetic and material resources (including art, toys, books, music) that valorize and strengthen their connections to the transatlantic culture of black people in Africa, the Caribbean and the United States".
+Twine's concept of racial literacy is to be distinguished from the term 'race literacy' as conceptualized by Lani Guinier, a professor of law and critical race scholar at Harvard University. The concept of racial literacy as conceptualized by Twine refers to a set of practices designed by parents and others to teach their children how to recognize, respond to and counter forms of everyday racism. The emphasis here is on teaching children as well as adults how to identify routine forms of racism and to develop strategies for countering it and coping with it.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+1999a. "Bearing Blackness in Britain: the meaning of racial difference for white birth mothers of African-descent children," in Social Identities: Journal of Race, Nation and Culture, Vol. 5, no.2 (1999): 185–210.
+1999b. "Transracial Mothering and Antiracism: The Case of White Birth Mothers of 'Black' Children in Britain." Feminist Studies 25, no. 3 (Fall): 729–46.
+2003. "Racial Literary in Britain: Antiracist Projects, Black Children and White Parents," in Contours: A Journal of the African Diaspora, Vol, 1, no. 2 (Fall 2003): 129–153.
+"A White Side of Black Britain: The Concept of Racial Literacy," in Ethnic and Racial Studies, (a special issue on racial hierarchy) vol. 27, no. 6 (November 2004): 1–30.
+Guiner, L. (2004). "From racial liberalism to racial literacy: Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-divergence dilemma," Journal of American History, 91(1), 92–118.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Advancing Racial Literacy in Tech, a project under Data & Society’s Fellowship Program
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+---
+title: "Racial uplift"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_uplift"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:08.493127+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Racial uplift is an ideology within the African-American community that describes a response of activists,   leaders, and spokespersons  to the racism found in the United States, particularly in the South during the post-Reconstruction era.
+
+
+== History ==
+This concept traced back to the late 1800s, introduced by black elites, such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, and African-American musicians like Florence Price, who were significant contributors. During the beginnings of racial uplift, hymns and negro spirituals played a vital role in shaping the spiritual culture of African Americans. Although these musical selections are mainly prevalent inside the black church, contemporary gospel music has been utilized for the liberation and uplift of the oppressed black race. 
+Aside from music, African-American leaders have used concepts such as Du Bois's double consciousness that describe the idea of blackness and the complexities of identity in the various lens in which the black race envisions themselves in American society.  Du Bois, in his influential 1903 book The Souls of Black Folk, echoed the earlier sentiments of Frederick Douglass, by rejecting the notion that the Negro problem was the responsibility or burden of African Americans. In the very first paragraph,  Du Bois established the theme of the book, asking "How does it feel to be a problem?"  He wrote:
+
+"... while it is a great truth to say that the Negro must strive and strive mightily to help himself, it is equally true that unless his striving be not simply seconded, but rather aroused and encouraged, by the initiative of the richer and wiser environing group, he cannot hope for great success. In his failure to realize and impress this last point, Mr. Washington is especially to be criticised. His doctrine has tended to make the whites, North and South, shift the burden of the Negro problem to      the Negro's shoulders and stand aside as critical and rather pessimistic spectators; when in fact the burden belongs to the nation, and the hands of none of us are clean if we bend not our energies to righting these great wrongs."
+Historian Kevin Gaines cites Du Bois as an example of a Black leader that utilized racial uplift ideology to combat the racism evidenced by the frequent use of the phrase "Negro problem" by whites.
+The talented tenth is a primary example of racial uplift for African Americans. Du Bois was one of the black elites that steered the talented tenth to become prevalent and of importance. Struggling to make racial uplift become relevant, he believed that the black leaders that were sent out to be representatives of their community did not always return to their communities.
+
+
+== Connection with eugenics ==
+Eugenics is seen throughout the time of racial uplift due to the control that was placed on people of African-American descent. Eugenics play a role in how racial uplift is viewed, which includes how people are made to think, look, and create community. Some African Americans, both then and now, are said to take on roles which are prevailing in other cultures, making them alter the way in which they choose to live their life. In W. E. B. Du Bois's book, The Souls of Black Folk, he discusses his view on how African Americans are perceived both to themselves and to the ones who are around them, with the term double consciousness. Du Bois himself is known as the father of sociology and pan-Africanism, the idea of all people from African descent becoming unified across the world.
+Other African-American authors such as Nathan Hare have written books which attest to eugenics not only being seen in the African-American community but also its promotion of liberation through racial uplift. In Nathan Hare's The Black Anglo-Saxons, he writes about how African Americans had begun to conform with other races and abandon their own cultural identity. Although they are now seen as a higher class, these individuals do not engage in racial uplift to guide other African Americans to where they are. Like many other Nathan Hare books, this book has caused African Americans to realize that not everyone who succeeds in life is willing to come back and give to their community. Nathan Hare himself has written many books which deal with the concept of racial uplift and how African Americans operate in a society where eugenics exist.
+
+
+== Beauty culture ==
+With racial uplift being seen as "self-help" for black people, other aspects focused on which African Americans were able to receive an education. The beauty culture played a role in who was sent out as a representative for the African-American community. In W. E. B. Du Bois's book The Souls of Black Folk, he discusses how hair type, color, and attitude determined who was capable of receiving an education and could return to help the black community with racial uplift. If the "wrong" individuals are sent out, then the community will be considered doomed due to that individual's incapability to perform at a certain level. Touching on eugenics, many African Americans were unaware of how the way they look, their mannerisms, and how they interact with those around them affected their capability to be well educated. With the color of a person's skin being the first physical feature people saw during this time, this led to rising colorism, a contradicting approach to racial uplift.
+
+
+=== Colorism ===
+Colorism, sometimes known as shadism, is when someone is treated differently due to the color of their skin by someone in their own race. People of light shades are said to be more favorable and according to W. E. B. Du Bois, these were the individuals that would have an easier time with receiving an education and passing that knowledge on to their communities. During this time, a test known as the "brown paper bag test" was used to assess the shade of an African American. This test was not only used to determine who could attend historically black colleges during the late 1800s and early 1900s, but also to be seen as a leader or relevant to their own kind.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Their Eyes Were Watching God
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Radicalization"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:09.809487+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Radicalization (or radicalisation), also known as extremization (or extremisation), is the process by which an individual or a group comes to adopt increasingly radical views in opposition to a political, social, or religious status quo. The ideas of society at large shape the outcomes of radicalization. Radicalization can result in both violent and nonviolent action – academic literature focuses on radicalization into violent extremism (RVE) or radicalisation leading to acts of terrorism. Multiple separate pathways can promote the process of radicalization, which can be independent but are usually mutually  reinforcing.
+Radicalization that occurs across multiple reinforcing pathways greatly increases a group's resilience and lethality. Furthermore, by compromising a group's ability to blend in with non-radical society and to participate in a modern, national or international economy, radicalization serves as a kind of sociological trap that gives individuals no other place to go to satisfy their material and spiritual needs.
+
+== Definitions ==
+There is no universally accepted definition of radicalization. One of the difficulties with defining radicalization appears to be the importance of the context and political perspective to determine what is perceived as radicalization. A study found pinpointing the threshold for radicalization as difficult, except when involving illegal or violent behavior. Radicalization can mean different things to different people. Presented below is a list of definitions used by different governments.
+
+=== European Union ===
+The European Commission defined the term "radicalization" in the year 2005 as follows: "Violent radicalisation" is the phenomenon of people embracing opinions, views and ideas which could lead to acts of terrorism as defined in Article 1 of the Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism. The term "violent radicalisation" originated in EU policy circles and was coined after the Madrid bombing of 11 March 2004. It was not widely used in social science as a concept but it obviously refers to a process of socialisation leading to the use of violence. In an initiating report of the European Commission's Expert Group on Violent Radicalisation – based on four deepening studies – the research paradigm has been opened for further scientific research, also flanked by research grants and funding via different security research programs.
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+The UK Home Office, MI5's parent agency, defines radicalisation as "The process by which people come to support terrorism and violent extremism and, in some cases, then join terrorist groups." The MI5 report closes by saying that no single measure will reduce radicalisation in the UK and that the only way to combat it is by targeting the at-risk vulnerable groups and trying to assimilate them into society. This may include helping young people find jobs, better integrating immigrant populations into the local culture, and effectively reintegrating ex-prisoners into society.
+
+=== Canada ===
+The Royal Canadian Mounted Police defines radicalization as "the process by which individuals—usually young people—are introduced to an overtly ideological message and belief system that encourages movement from moderate, mainstream beliefs towards extreme views." While radical thinking is by no means problematic in itself, it becomes a threat to national security when Canadian citizens or residents espouse or engage in violence or direct action as a means of promoting political, ideological or religious extremism. Sometimes referred to as "homegrown terrorism", this process of radicalization is more correctly referred to as domestic radicalization leading to terrorist violence.
+
+=== Denmark ===
+The Danish Security and Intelligence Service (PET) defines radicalization as "A process by which a person to an increasing extent accepts the use of undemocratic or violent means, including terrorism, in an attempt to reach a specific political/ideological objective."
+
+=== UNESCO ===
+In a UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) research report on the impact of the Internet and social media on youth and violent extremism, the difficulty of defining radicalization is discussed. A distinction is drawn "between a process of radicalization, a process of violent radicalization (legitimizing the adoption of violence), and acts of violence." For the purposes of the UNESCO report, radicalization is defined by these three points:
+
+"The individual person's search for fundamental meaning, origin and return to a root ideology;
+"The individual as part of a group's adoption of a violent form of expansion of root ideologies and related oppositionist objectives;
+"The polarization of the social space and the collective construction of a threatened ideal 'us' against 'them,' where the others are dehumanized by a process of scapegoating."
+
+== Varieties and commonalities ==
+
+Despite being composed of multifarious pathways that lead to different outcomes and sometimes diametrically opposed ideological purposes, radicalization can be traced to a common set of pathways that translate real or perceived grievances into increasingly extreme ideas and readiness to participate in political action beyond the status quo. Shira Fishman, a researcher at the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, wrote "Radicalization is a dynamic process that varies for each individual, but shares some underlying commonalities that can be explored." Though there are many end products of the process of radicalization, to include all manner of extremist groups both violent and nonviolent, a common series of dynamics have been consistently demonstrated in the course of academic inquiry. 
+
+=== Islamic ===
+
+Jihadis have a "tried and tested model" of contact with different vulnerable, and extremist individuals through online messaging services or social media platforms, and then rapidly manipulating them towards participating in violent action in their name. It was reported that Raffia Hayat of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Association warned that jailed extremists attempt to recruit violent criminals into radical groups so they carry out attacks on the public once released. There have been several notable criticisms of radicalization theories for focusing disproportionately on Islam.
+ There have been concerns that converts to Islam are more susceptible to violent radicalization than individuals born into the faith. Dr. Abdul Haqq Baker developed the Convert's Cognitive Development Framework that describes how new converts conceptualize Islam and the stages where they are most vulnerable to radicalization.
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+---
+title: "Radicalization"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:09.809487+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Right-wing ===
+ 
+Radical right-wing terrorism is motivated by a variety of different right-wing/far-right ideologies, most prominently neo-fascism, neo-Nazism, white nationalism and to a lesser extent "Patriot"/Sovereign citizen beliefs and anti-abortion sentiment. Modern radical right-wing terrorism appeared in Western Europe, Central Europe and the United States in the 1970s, and Eastern Europe following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Groups associated with right-wing radicals include white power skinhead gangs, right-wing/far-right hooligans, and sympathizers.
+Examples of right-wing/far-right radical organizations and individuals include Aryan Nations, Aryan Republican Army (ARA), Atomwaffen Division (AWD), Army of God (AOG), Anders Behring Breivik, Alexandre Bissonnette, Brenton Harrison Tarrant, Cesar Sayoc, Cliven Bundy, Dylann Roof, David Koresh, David Lane, Eric Robert Rudolph, Frazier Glenn Miller, James Mason, James Alex Fields, John T. Earnest, Jim David Adkisson, Ku Klux Klan (KKK), National Action (NA), National Socialist Underground (NSU), Timothy McVeigh, Robert Bowers, Thomas Mair, The Order and Wade Michael Page. From 2008 to 2016, there were more right-wing terror attacks both attempted and accomplished in the US than Islamist and left-wing attacks combined.
+Right-wing populism by those who support ethnocentrism (usually white nationalism) and oppose immigration creates a climate of "us versus them" leading to radicalization. The growth of white nationalism in a political climate of polarization has provided an opportunity for both on- and offline radicalization and recruitment as an alternative to increasingly distrusted traditional mainstream choices. In 2009, the United States Department of Homeland Security identified economic and political conditions as leading to a rise in right-wing radicalization and recruitment.
+The Anti-Defamation League reports that white supremacist propaganda and recruitment efforts on and around college campuses have been increasing sharply, with 1,187 incidents in 2018 compared to 421 in 2017, far exceeding any previous year. Far-right terrorists rely on a variety of strategies such as leafleting, violent rituals, and house parties to recruit, targeting angry and marginalized youth looking for solutions to their problems. But their most effective recruitment tool is extremist music, which avoids monitoring by moderating parties such as parents and school authorities. Risk factors for recruitment include exposure to racism during childhood, dysfunctional families such as divorced parents, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, neglect, and disillusionment.
+In 2018, researchers from the Data & Society think tank identified the YouTube recommendation system as promoting a range of political positions from mainstream libertarianism and conservatism to overt white nationalism. Many other online discussion groups and forums are used for online right-wing radicalization. Facebook was found to be offering advertisements targeted to 168,000 users in a white genocide conspiracy theory category, which they removed shortly after being contacted by journalists in the wake of the 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. After the Christchurch mosque shootings on March 15, 2019, Facebook announced that they have banned white nationalist and white separatist content along with white supremacy.
+
+=== Left-wing ===
+Left-wing terrorism is terrorism committed with the aim of overthrowing current capitalist systems and replacing them with Marxist–Leninist or socialist societies. Left-wing terrorism can also occur within already socialist states as criminal action against the current ruling government. Most left-wing terrorist groups that had operated in the 1970s and 1980s disappeared by the mid-1990s. One exception was the Greek Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N), which lasted until 2002. Since then, left-wing terrorism has been relatively minor in the Western world in comparison with other forms, and is now mostly carried out by insurgent groups in the developing world.
+According to Sarah Brockhoff, Tim Krieger and Daniel Meierrieks, while left-wing terrorism is ideologically motivated, nationalist-separatist terrorism is ethnically motivated. They argue that the revolutionary goal of left-wing terrorism is non-negotiable whereas nationalist terrorists are willing to make concessions. They suggest that rigidity of the demands of left-wing terrorists may explain their lack of support relative to nationalist groups. Nevertheless, many on the revolutionary left have shown solidarity for national liberation groups employing terrorism, such as Irish nationalists, the Palestine Liberation Organization and the South American Tupamaros, seeing them as engaged in a global struggle against capitalism. Since the nationalist sentiment is fueled by socio-economic conditions, some separatist movements, including the Basque ETA, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Irish National Liberation Army, incorporated communist and socialist ideology into their policies.
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+---
+title: "Radicalization"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:09.809487+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Role of the Internet and social media ===
+UNESCO explored the role of the Internet and social media on the development of radicalization among youth in a 2017 research report, Youth and violent extremism on social media: mapping the research. The report explores violent extremism in the countries within Europe, North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean; violent radicalization in the Arab world and Africa; and, violent radicalization in Asia. At this time, more research is available on this issue within Europe, North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean than is available in the Arab world, Africa, and Asia. The report expresses a need for continued research on this topic overall as there are multiple types of radicalization (political, religious, psychosocial) that can be explored in relation to youth and the role the Internet and social media play. Some theorists like Pariser (2011) suggest that with the rise of personalisation on the web through filters and algorithms, consumers are increasingly becoming isolated in ‘filter bubbles’ which limit and determine what we are exposed to online, meaning that familiarity in information is favoured and personal beliefs are reinforced. However, research is mixed on whether polarisation and filter bubbles cause radicalization, with one key conclusion of the UNESCO report suggesting that “social media constitutes a facilitating environment rather than a driving force for violent radicalization or the actual commission of violence." 
+As stated before the authors of the 2017 UNESCO report repeatedly call for the support of more research into the study of online violent radicalization. Especially as it relates to young people and women as available research has been gendered. Online radicalization of women towards misandry has been found. Gaps in research also apply to specific areas of the world. There is a notable absence of research on this topic when it comes to the Arab world, Africa, and Asia. So much so, that the authors of this report had difficulty developing specific conclusions about the connections between the Internet and social media, radicalization, and youth in these three areas of the world. The authors see these multiple gaps in research as opportunities for future studies, but also admit that there are specific challenges in carrying out research in this area successfully. They discuss empirical, methodological, and ethical challenges. For example, if youth and the influence of the Internet and social media on radicalizing them are to be studied, there are ethical concerns when it comes to the age of the youth being studied as well as the privacy and safety of these youth. The authors conclude their report with general recommendations as well as recommendations for government entities, the private sector, and civil society.
+
+==== Algorithmic radicalization ====
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+---
+title: "Radicalization"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:09.809487+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Mutual aid ==
+Eli Berman's 2009 book Radical, Religious, and Violent: the New Economics of Terrorism applies a rational choice model to the process of radicalization, demonstrating that the presence of mutual aid networks increase the resilience of radical groups. When those groups decide to use violence, they also enjoy a heightened level of lethality and are protected from defection and other forms of intervention by states and outside groups. 
+All organizations insofar as they include the possibility of free riders by extension experience defection constraints. Within the context of a violent extremist organization, defection means either defection to a counterintelligence or security apparatus, or defection to a non-radical criminal apparatus. Both of these outcomes spoil specific plans to exercise violence in the name of the group at large. The "defection constraint" is similar to a threshold price-point in that it denotes what rewards would justify the defection of any one individual within the context of an organization. Berman uses the example of a Taliban protection racket for convoys of consumer goods moving through Afghanistan: checkpoints are set up at several points along a trade route, and each checkpoint's team is given a small percentage of the convoy's total value if it arrives safely at its destination. The incentive for any one checkpoint's team deciding to simply hijack a convoy as it passes through, sell the goods off, and escape, increases as the value of the convoy increases. The same dynamic applies to attacks; while an individual in a terrorist group may not feel drawn by the reward of alerting the police to an impending low level crime, the reward for alerting the police to an impending high-profile attack, such as a mass bombing, becomes more attractive. While non-radicalized and criminal organizations can only rely on organizational cohesion through a calculus of greed, fear, and perhaps familial loyalty, Berman argues that religious radicalization greatly increases the defection constraints of radical terrorist organizations by requiring outsized demonstrations of commitment to the cause prior to recruiting operatives.
+Mutual aid is the voluntary and reciprocal exchange of goods within an organization. Examples in various religious antecedents include Judaic Tzedakah, Islamic Zakat, and various Christian institutions of charity, as described in the Acts of the Apostles. Berman argues that religious organizations experience economic risks by extending mutual aid to all alleged believers—theological assent is cheap, action can be costly. By imposing a series of outwardly visible social rules, such as restrictions (or prescriptions) on dress, diet, language, and social interactions, groups impose a cost on entering into a mutual aid partnership, diminishing the occurrence of free riding.
+These restrictions have a dual effect in radical groups. Not only do they ensure that an individual is committed to the cause, but they also diminish individual's access to consumption opportunities and social interaction that might persuade them to distance themselves from the cause. As individuals become more involved with radical activities, their social circles become more constrained, which diminishes contact with non-radicalized persons and further entrenches radicalized thinking. For example, when a young man spends several years in a Yeshiva in order to establish himself within a Haredi community, he foregoes future earnings that would be accessible should he choose a secular education. To quote Berman "As consumption opportunities are limited, work for pay becomes less appealing, freeing up even more time for community activities." This sunk cost figures into future calculations, and raises the defection constraint in a way that non-radicalized group dynamics cannot. Going back to the Taliban convoy example, not only have the two footsoldiers in question have been vetted by demonstrating commitment to the cause, they also have had their exterior options limited such that it would be difficult to blend into a new environment for lack of skills and cultural understanding. As such, the threshold price point to defect, as represented by the value of the convoy, increases to include both the price of losing their existing support network and non-quantifiable factors such as friends, family, safety, and other goods over the course of their lives.
+
+== Leading theories ==
+While the overall arch of radicalization usually involves multiple reinforcing processes, scholars have identified a series of individual pathways to radicalization.
+
+=== McCauley and Mosalenko ===
+Clark McCauley and Sofia Mosalenko's 2009 book Friction: How Radicalization Happens to Them and Us identifies 12 following sociological and psychodynamic pathways:
+
+==== Individual-level factors ====
+
+===== Personal grievance =====
+This pathway emphasizes revenge for real or perceived harm inflicted upon oneself by an outside party. This initial offense triggers other psychodynamic mechanisms, such as thinking in more stark in-group and out-group terms, lowered inhibitions to violence, and lessened incentives to avoid violence. Chechen "Shahidka" also known as Black Widows, women who have lost husbands, children, or other close family members in conflict with Russian forces are a good example.
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+---
+title: "Radicalization"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:09.809487+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+===== Group grievance =====
+"Group grievance" radicalization dynamics are similar to those that are primed by personal grievances; the difference is that the subject perceives harm inflicted on a group that she belongs to or has sympathy for. This pathway accounts for the larger portion of political and ethnic radical violence, in which action is taken on behalf of the group at large rather than as an act of personal revenge. Radicalization out of sympathy for an outgroup is rarer, but can be observed in the Weather Underground's attempted alignment with the Black Panthers and Viet Cong. The tie between radicalization into violent extremism through group grievance and suicide bombing has also been quantifiably demonstrated: perceived threats to proximal identity such as the presence of foreign troops or invasion accounts for the majority of suicide bombings.
+Some commentators believe that the anger and suspicion directed toward innocent Muslims living in Western countries after the September 11 attacks and the indignities inflicted upon them by security forces and the general public contributes to radicalization of new recruits. Such "us vs. them" hostility cited by commentators includes political positions such as the Trump travel ban which Donald Trump initially campaigned for as "a total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States", or ironically Senator Ted Cruz's call to "patrol and secure Muslim neighborhoods before they become radicalized".
+
+===== Slippery slope =====
+The "Slippery slope" represents gradual radicalization through activities that incrementally narrow the individual's social circle, narrow their mindset, and in some cases desensitize them to violence. This has also been called the "True Believer" syndrome, as a product of which one becomes increasingly serious about their political, social, and religious beliefs as a product of "taking the next step". One can begin by participating in nonviolent activities such as mutual aid, wherein the best way to raise one's in-group social status is to demonstrate seriousness about the cause and increase the level of commitment in terms of beliefs and activities. As an individual commits act after act, sunk costs are developed. Even if activity is initially only ideological or only criminal, the process of radicalization equates the two such that criminal acts are justified for intellectually radical purposes, and radical purposes are invoked to justify what are ultimately criminal acts.
+
+===== Love =====
+Romantic and familial entanglement is often an overlooked factor in radicalization. Several violent extremist organizations, especially at their origin, owe their structure to a tight-knit group of friends who share religious, economic, social, and sexual bonds. While this example is evident in more extreme cases, such as those of Charles Manson's "Family" and other radical cults, it also applies to radicalization in secular and orthodox religious environments. Love can serve as a connection between influential figures, connecting their networks of followers through a combination of attraction and loyalty. This particular force was especially notable in New Left radical groups, such as the American Weather Underground and the German Red Army Faction. The connections between Bill Ayers and Bernardine Dohrn, or between Gudrun Ensslin and Andreas Baader served as the organizational and intellectual nucleus of these groups.
+
+===== Risk and status =====
+Within a radical group, high-risk behavior, if successful, offers a pathway to status insofar as it becomes re-construed as bravery and commitment to the cause. As such, violence or other radical activity provides a pathway to success, social acceptance, and physical rewards that might otherwise be out of reach.  Disproportionate involvement in risk taking and status seeking is particularly true of those young men who come from disadvantaged family backgrounds, have lower IQ levels, are of lower socioeconomic status, and who therefore have less opportunity to succeed in society along a traditional career path. These young men are more likely to be involved in gang activity, violent crime, and other high-risk behavior.
+James Pugel conducted a study in which Liberian ex-combatants indicated that their radicalization was motivated by the opportunity to increase their economic and social status within their community. There was a belief that radicalized individuals lived better than non-radicalized individuals. Specifically, extremists groups offered compensatory employment, which provided the means for basic needs to be met such as food and housing. In addition, radicalization provided protection and safety from local violence (i.e. abductions) for their entire family. Other researchers such as Alpaslan Ozerdem and Sukanya Podder contend that radicalization "can become the only route to survival, offering protection from torture, abuse, and politically instigated killing." Furthermore, individuals that do not join radical groups may be subjected to an indefinite "insufferable social burden that included demeaning names and labels".
+
+===== Unfreezing =====
+Loss of social connection can open an individual to new ideas and a new identity that may include political radicalization. Isolated from friends, family, or other basic needs, individuals may begin to associate with unlike parties, to include political, religious, or cultural radicals. This is especially noted in prison radicalization, where individuals bind together over racial, religious, and gang identity to a greater degree than in the outside world and often bring their newfound radical identity beyond prison to connect with radical organizations in the populace at large.
+
+==== Group-level factors ====
+Insofar as a group is a dynamic system with a common goal or set of values it is possible that the group's mindset as a whole can affect individuals such that those individuals become more radical. An ideologically aligned milieu can encourage or constrain radicalization.
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+---
+title: "Radicalization"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:09.809487+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+===== Polarization =====
+Discussion, interaction, and experience within a radical group can result in an aggregate increase in commitment to the cause, and in some cases can contribute to the formation of divergent conceptions of the group's purpose and preferred tactics. Within a radical group, internal dynamics can contribute to the formation of different factions as a result of internal disillusionment (or, conversely, ambitions) with the group's activities as a whole, especially when it comes to a choice between violent terrorism and nonviolent activism. The Weather Underground's split with Students for a Democratic Society is one of many examples. The dynamics of group polarization imply that members of this larger group must either commit to one faction and demonstrate their loyalty through further radicalization, or leave the group entirely.
+
+===== Isolation =====
+Isolation reinforces the influence of radical thinking by allowing serious and or persuasive members of the group to disproportionately define the body's agenda. When an individual only has access to one in-group social environment, that group gains a totalizing influence over the individual—disapproval would be tantamount to social death, personal isolation, and often a lack of access to the basic services that mutual aid communities fulfill. As an isolated minority, Islamic groups in the West are especially vulnerable to this form of radicalization. Being cut off from society at large through language barriers, cultural difference, and occasionally discriminatory treatment, Muslim communities become more vulnerable to additional pathways of radicalization.
+One such additional pathway of radicalization of individuals that feel isolated is the Internet. Utilizing data compiled by the Internet World Stats, Robin Thompson contends that the  rate of Middle East and North African Internet usage is "above average" in comparison to other countries, yet in countries where Internet availability is more widespread, individuals are "more likely to be recruited and radicalized via the Internet." Hence, the Internet, specifically social media sites such as extremists' chat rooms and blogs, "lures its users with a promise of friendship, acceptance, or a sense of purpose."
+
+===== Competition =====
+Groups can become radicalized vis-a-vis other groups as they compete for legitimacy and prestige with the general populace. This pathway emphasizes increased radicalization in an effort to outdo other groups, whether that increase is in violence, time spent in religious ritual, economic and physical hardship endured, or all four. Religious movements and the terrorist elements that form in their name display this characteristic.  While in some cases there may be doctrinal or ethnic differences that motivate this kind of competition, its greatest outward sign is an increased demand by the group for commitment to radical actions. 
+
+==== Mass radicalization ====
+
+===== Jiujitsu politics =====
+Also called "the logic of political violence", Jiujitsu politics is a form of asymmetrical political warfare in which radical groups act to provoke governments to crack down on the populace at large and produce domestic blowback that legitimates further violent action. The primary purpose of a radical group using this tactic is not to destroy the enemy outright, but to make the enemy strike at political and ideological moderates, such that the existing political order loses its claim on legitimacy while the radical group gains legitimacy. By destroying moderates, radical groups encourage a bifurcated society and use state's reactions to violence as a justification for further violence.
+Al-Qaeda's strategy of luring the West, specifically the United States, into ground wars in Islamic states that polarize the Ummah against the West while avoiding engagements that would allow the American military to draw on its technical superiority is an example of jiujitsu politics. David Kilcullen, Counterinsurgency advisor to David Petraeus during the Iraq Surge, has called this the "accidental guerrilla syndrome". This tactic is also pillar of Maoist insurgency and serves both the purposes of tactical and ideological advantage.
+
+===== Hatred =====
+In protracted conflicts the enemy is increasingly seen as less human, such that their common humanity does not readily trigger natural inhibitions against violence. This involves "essentializing" both the self and enemies as respectively good and evil entities. The Islamist use of Takfirism, or (apostasy), to justify the murder of non-radical Muslims and nonbelievers (kafir: "pagans") is an example of this. Hannah Arendt, in The Origins of Totalitarianism outlines a similar dynamic that contributed to the ideologies of pan-slavism, Nazism, and antisemitism, where an in-group constructs an exalted self identity for political purposes and mobilizes against out-groups in order to solidify that identity. This dynamic of hatred is not unique to rightist groups. The Weather Underground Organization and Red Army Faction often characterized police officers and government officials as "pigs" worthy of death and subhuman treatment.
+
+===== Martyrdom =====
+Martyrdom implies that the person in question died for a cause or is willing to die for a cause. The symbolic impact of martyrdom varies across cultures, but within the field of radicalization the act or pursuit of martyrdom denotes the absolute value of a radical's way of life.
+
+=== Barrett ===
+Robert Barrett is one of the leading researchers in field research with Nigerian terrorist groups. Barrett contributes a unique perspective to this type of research because his studies are conducted with current, not former, members of insurgent groups. Barrett's 2008 field research study revealed unique typologies and motivations for radicalization as reported by insurgent groups. For instance, individuals that were radicalized expressed sentiments of volunteerism, yet extremist recruiters conveyed that their objective was to make "coercion feel like volunteerism." Barrett asserted that the motivations to become radicalized can be characterized as: ideologue, combatant, criminals, pragmatist, soldier, and follower.
+
+==== Ideologues ====
+Ideologues uphold a belief that ethnic supremacy is necessary and violence was the means to achieve this truth. Ideologues maintain a "readiness to die for the ethnic group if necessary; survival and preservation of the group or community is more important than survival or preservation of oneself".
+
+==== Combatants ====
+Combatants' express concerns that their basic survival depends on joining extremist groups. Hence, combatants are not motivated by ideologies and their primary objective is self-preservation.
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+---
+title: "Radicalization"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:09.809487+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Criminals ====
+Criminals are predominantly motivated by their "freedom to carry out activities that would otherwise be deemed illegal". As such, criminals thrive on instant self-gratification of engaging in violent acts against their enemies. Criminals thrive on conflict and in a sense believe their actions are heroic.
+
+==== Pragmatists ====
+Pragmatists are interested in the benefits of economic and social status mobility. Their goals are in "preserving the structures and environment conducive to either continued success or to newfound success" in wealth, land ownership, and/or mining rights.
+
+==== Soldiers ====
+Soldiers believe "injustice and insecurity" are mitigating factors for radicalization. Prominent feelings that they have a duty to fight against injustices. Soldiers are motivated by a sense that they can instrumentally affect positive change. Followers desire a sense of group dependence and attachment to overcome feelings of being an outsider. They are overwhelmingly concerned with social perception. "Ensuring one's acceptance and preserving or enhancing one's social status within the community was the most important factor promoting membership".
+
+== Misconceptions ==
+
+=== Poverty ===
+The association between radicalization and poverty is a myth. Many terrorists come from middle-class backgrounds and have university-level educations, particularly in the technical sciences and engineering. There is no statistical association between poverty and militant radicalization. As outlined above, poverty and disadvantage may incentivize joining a mutual aid organization with radical tendencies, but this does not mean that poverty proper is responsible for radicalization.
+
+=== Mental illness ===
+Though personal psychology does play a significant part in radicalization, mental illness is not a root cause of terrorism specifically or ideological radicalization broadly. Even in the case of suicide terrorism, psychological pathologies, such as depression and schizophrenia are largely absent. In the case of lone wolf terrorism rather than group terrorism, the case is less clear. Compared to the general population, lone wolf terrorists are significantly more likely to have been diagnosed with a mental illness, although it is not an accurate profiler. Studies have found that roughly a third of lone wolf terrorists have been diagnosed at some point in their life with a mental illness. This puts lone wolves as being 13.5 times more likely to suffer from a mental illness than a member of an organized terrorist group, such as al-Qaeda or ISIS.
+
+== Prevention and de-radicalization ==
+
+Deradicalization is the process of prevention and stigmatisation of utilizing violence. 
+
+== See also ==
+By any means necessary
+Clandestine cell system
+Cumulative radicalization
+Dehumanization
+Diversity of tactics
+Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Violent Extremism in the United States
+Flanderization
+International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence
+Islamic extremism in the United States
+Martyrdom video
+Memory erasure
+Moderation theory
+Nonviolent extremism
+Online youth radicalization
+Radical politics
+Ten stages of genocide
+Violent Radicalization and Homegrown Terrorism Prevention Act of 2007
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+ This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from Youth and violent extremism on social media: mapping the research​, 1–167, Alava, Séraphin, Divina Frau-Meigs, and Ghayada Hassan, UNESCO. UNESCO Digital Library.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Alex P. Schmid, Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague, 2014) Archived 2019-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
+Bibi van Ginkel, Incitement to Terrorism: A Matter of Prevention or Repression? (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague, 2011) Archived 2022-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
+Alava, Séraphin, Divina Frau-Meigs, Ghayda Hassan, Youth and Violent Extremism on Social Media: Mapping the Research (UNESCO Digital Library), 2017.
+Christmann, K. "Preventing Religious Radicalisation and Violent Extremism: A Systematic Review of the Research Evidence". Youth Justice Board, UK (https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/396030/preventing-violent-extremism-systematic-review.pdf )
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+---
+title: "Rational-legal authority"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational-legal_authority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:11.013871+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Rational-legal authority, also known as rational authority, legal authority, rational domination, legal domination, or bureaucratic authority, is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to legal rationality, legal legitimacy and bureaucracy. The majority of the modern states of the 20th and 21st centuries are rational-legal authorities, according to those who use this form of classification. Scholars such as Max Weber and Charles Perrow characterized the rational-legal bureaucracy as the most efficient form of administration. Critics challenge whether rational-legal authority is as rational and unbiased as presented, as well as challenge that it is effective.
+
+== Rational-legal authority ==
+In sociology, the concept of rational-legal domination comes from Max Weber's tripartite classification of authority (one of several classifications of government used by sociologists); the other two forms being traditional authority and charismatic authority. All of those three domination types represent an example of his ideal type concept. Weber noted that in history those ideal types of domination are always found in combinations. In traditional authority, the legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition. Charismatic authority is legitimized by the personality and leadership qualities of the ruling individual. Finally, rational-legal authority derives its powers from the system of bureaucracy and legality.
+
+== Legal rationality and legitimate authority ==
+Under rational-legal authority, legitimacy is seen as coming from a legal order and the laws that have been enacted in it (see also natural law and legal positivism). Weber defined legal order as a system where the rules are enacted and obeyed as legitimate because they are in line with other laws on how they can be enacted and how they should be obeyed. Further, they are enforced by a government that monopolizes their enactment and the legitimate use of physical force. If society, as a whole, approves the exercise of the power in a certain way, then the power is considered "legitimate authority".
+
+== Max Weber's theory: type of authority ==
+Weber broke down legitimate authority into three different types of societies: traditional authority, rational-legal authority, and charismatic authority. Each of these authorities have their own unique complex societies that have evolved from simple definitions.
+
+=== Traditional authority: traditional grounds ===
+It is the type of power that has been around longer, and is traditionally rooted in beliefs and the practices of society. This authority is liked by many individuals for two main reasons: the inheritance of past generations and religiousness that the societies have.
+Traditional authority is based on a tradition or custom that is followed by the traditional leaders. In traditional authority, status is a key concept. There are no requirements to serving as a traditional leader but there are no salaries. The consequences to traditional authority are discouragement of education and rational calculation.
+Traditional authority consists of a dominant profile, one who embodies tradition and rule. This type of leadership exemplifies the power to construct order.
+
+=== Rational-legal authority: rational grounds ===
+Acquired from law and is constructed from the reliance of society's rules and laws. This type of authority has the confidence to leave the right of leaders to undertake the decisions and set the policy. Rational-legal authority is the basis of modern democracies. Examples of this type of authority: officials elected by voters, rules that are in the constitution, or policies that are written in a formal document.
+Rational-legal authority is built on a structure of bureaucracy. In a rational-legal authority one ascends in their career paths through promotion and they eventually retire. Some of the benefits of rational-legal authority are transportation, large-scale industry, mass communication and an income economy. Other outcomes of rational-legal authority are tendencies towards equal opportunity and a promotion of education.
+Rational-legal authority requires a logical and systematic approach to leadership. Weber's rational leadership prevails in decision making.
+Finally, rational-legal authority derives its power from the system of bureaucracy and legality.
+
+=== Charismatic authority: charismatic grounds ===
+Comes from individuals and their personal qualities. Certain individuals are influential to others with their unique qualities which help them gain followers. The span of a "charismatic" individual's power and authority can vary from a specific group to an entire society. Examples of charismatic leaders include: Joan of Arc, Adolf Hitler, Martin Luther King Jr, Jesus Christ.
+Charismatic authority has no clear structure; it is based on individual influence. One is chosen to be staff by their charismatic characteristics. Someone under a charismatic authority lives under gifts not salary. As long as someone has influence they will be a legitimate power.
+In charismatic authority, confidence is the driving force for leadership. With charismatic authority leadership has the ability to connect distinct groups and lead them to the finish line.
+
+== Emergence of the modern state ==
+Weber wrote that the modern state based on rational-legal authority emerged from the patrimonial and feudal struggle for power (see traditional authority) uniquely in the Occidental civilization. The prerequisites for the modern Western state are:
+
+Monopolization by central authority of the means of administration and control based on a centralized and stable system of taxation and use of physical force
+Monopolization of legislative
+Organization of an officialdom, dependent upon the central authority
+Weber argued that some of those attributes have existed in various time or places, but together they existed only in Occidental civilization. The conditions that favoured this were
+
+Emergence of rational-legal rationality (various status groups in the Occident promoted that emergence)
+Emergence of modern officialdom (bureaucracy), which required
+Development of the money economy, where officials are compensated in money instead of kind (usually land grants)
+Quantitative and qualitative expansion of administrative tasks
+Centralization and increased efficiency of administration.
+Weber's belief that rational-legal authority did not exist in Imperial China has been heavily criticized, and does not have many supporters in the early 21st century.
+
+== Modern state ==
+According to Weber, a modern state exists where a political community has:
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+---
+title: "Rational-legal authority"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational-legal_authority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:11.013871+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An administrative and legal order that has been created and can be changed by legislation that also determines its role
+Binding authority over citizens and actions in its jurisdiction
+The right to legitimately use the physical force in its jurisdiction
+An important attribute of Weber's definition of a modern state was that it is a bureaucracy. The vast majority of the modern states from the 20th century onward fall under the rational-legal authority category.
+
+== Rational-legal leaders ==
+The majority of modern bureaucratic officials and political leaders represent this type of authority.
+Officials:
+
+Are personally free.
+Serve a higher authority.
+Are appointed on the basis of conduct and their technical qualifications.
+Are responsible for the impartial execution of assigned tasks.
+Their work is a full-time occupation.
+Their work is methodical and rational
+Their work is rewarded by a salary and prospects of career advancement.
+Politicians:
+
+Are solely responsible for independent action.
+Must recognize that public actions that conflict with their basic policy must be rejected.
+Should have charismatic appeal to win elections under conditions of universal suffrage.
+Weber provided ten necessities addressing: "how individual officials are appointed and work". The administrative staff are under the supreme authority for legal authority in a bureaucratic administrative style.
+
+They are personally free and subject to authority only with respect to their impersonal official obligation.
+They are organized in a clearly defined hierarchy of offices.
+Each office has a clearly defined sphere of competence in the legal sense.
+The office is filled by a free contractual relationship or free selection.
+Candidates are selected on the basis of technical qualification.
+They are remunerated by fixed salaries in money for the most part, with a right to pensions.
+The office is treated as the sole, or at least primary, occupation of incumbent.
+It constitutes a career. Promotions are dependent on the judgement of superiors.
+The official works entirely separated from ownership of the means of administration and without appropriation of his/her position.
+He is subject to strict and systematic discipline and control in the conduct of the office.
+
+== See also ==
+Power (social and political)
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Gerald K. Harrison (2015). "Morality, Inescapable Rational Authority, and a God's Wishes". Journal of Religious Ethics. 43 (3): 454–474. doi:10.1111/jore.12105. Categorical reasons, Divine command theory, Inescapable rational authority, Meta-ethics, Rationalized Bonds of Office
+Perrow, Charles (1986). Complex organizations : a critical essay. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-07-554799-0. OCLC 12312230.
+
+== External links ==
+
+http://oyc.yale.edu/sociology/socy-151/lecture-20
+http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociology-comprehensive-edition/s17-01-power-and-authority.html
+http://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-authority
+http://davidboje.com/horsesense/psl/pages/bureaucracydefined2.html
+http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousauthority/a/types_4.htm Archived 2017-01-16 at the Wayback Machine
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+---
+title: "Rationalization (sociology)"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:12.172119+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, the term rationalization was coined by Max Weber, a German sociologist, jurist, and economist. Rationalization (or rationalisation) is the replacement of traditions, values, and emotions as motivators for behavior in society with concepts based on rationality and reason. The term rational is seen in the context of people, their expressions, and or their actions. This term can be applied to people who can perform speech or in general any action, in addition to the views of rationality within people it can be seen in the perspective of something such as a worldview or perspective (idea). For example, the implementation of bureaucracies in government is a kind of rationalization, as is the construction of high-efficiency living spaces in architecture and urban planning. A potential reason as to why rationalization of a culture may take place in the modern era is the process of globalization. Countries are becoming increasingly interlinked, and with the rise of technology, it is easier for countries to influence each other through social networking, the media and politics. An example of rationalization in place would be the case of witch doctors in certain parts of Africa. Whilst many locals view them as an important part of their culture and traditions, development initiatives and aid workers have tried to rationalize the practice in order to educate the local people in modern medicine and practice.
+Many sociologists, critical theorists and contemporary philosophers have argued that rationalization, falsely assumed as progress, has had a negative and dehumanizing effect on society, moving modernity away from the central tenets of Enlightenment. The founders of sociology had critical reaction to rationalization:
+
+Marx and Engels associated the emergence of modern society above all with the development of capitalism; for Durkheim it was connected in particular with industrialization and the new social division of labour which this brought about; for Weber it had to do with the emergence of a distinctive way of thinking, the rational calculation which he associated with the Protestant Ethic (more or less what Marx and Engels speak of in terms of those 'icy waves of egotistical calculation').
+
+== Capitalism ==
+Rationalization formed a central concept in the foundation of classical sociology, particularly with respect to the emphasis the discipline placed – by contrast with anthropology – on the nature of modern Western societies. The term was presented by the profoundly influential German antipositivist Max Weber, though its themes bear parallel with the critiques of modernity set forth by a number of scholars. 
+
+Weber demonstrated rationalization in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in which the aims of certain Protestant Theologies, particularly Calvinism, are shown to have shifted towards rational means of economic gain as a way of dealing with their 'salvation anxiety'. The rational consequences of this doctrine, he argued, soon grew incompatible with its religious roots, and so the latter were eventually discarded. Weber continues his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on the classifications of authority. In these works he alludes to an inevitable move towards rationalization.
+Weber believed that a move towards rational-legal authority was inevitable. In charismatic authority, the death of a leader effectively ends the power of that authority, and only through a rationalized and bureaucratic base can this authority be passed on. Traditional authorities in rationalized societies also tend to develop a rational-legal base to better ensure a stable accession. (See also: Tripartite classification of authority)
+
+What Weber depicted was not only the secularization of Western culture, but also and especially the development of modern societies from the viewpoint of rationalization. The new structures of society were marked by the differentiation of the two functionally intermeshing systems that had taken shape around the organizational cores of the capitalist enterprise and the bureaucratic state apparatus. Weber understood this process as the institutionalization of purposive-rational economic and administrative action. To the degree that everyday life was affected by this cultural and societal rationalization, traditional forms of life – which in the early modern period were differentiated primarily according to one's trade – were dissolved.
+Whereas in traditional societies such as feudalism governing is managed under the traditional leadership of, for example, a queen or tribal chief, modern societies operate under rational-legal systems. For example, democratic systems attempt to remedy qualitative concerns (such as racial discrimination) with rationalized, quantitative means (for example, civil rights legislation). Weber described the eventual effects of rationalization in his Economy and Society as leading to a "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in an "iron cage" (or "steel-hard casing") of rule-based, rational control.
+Jürgen Habermas has argued that understanding rationalization properly requires going beyond Weber's notion of rationalization. It requires distinguishing between instrumental rationality, which involves calculation and efficiency (in other words, reducing all relationships to those of means and ends), and communicative rationality, which involves expanding the scope of mutual understanding in communication, the ability to expand this understanding  through reflective discourse about communication, and making social and political life subject to this expanded understanding.
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+---
+title: "Rationalization (sociology)"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:12.172119+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+It is clear that in The Theory of Communicative Action Weber is playing something like the role that Hegel played for Marx. Weber, for Habermas, must be not so much stood on his head (or put back the right way up) as persuaded to stand on two legs rather than one, to support his theory of modernity with more systematic and structural analyses than those of the (purposive-rational) rationalization of action ... Weber 'parts company with a theory of communicative action' when he defines action in terms of the actor attaching a subjective meaning to it. He does not elucidate "meaning" in connection with the model of speech; he does not relate it to the linguistic medium of possible understanding, but to the beliefs and intentions of an acting subject, taken to being with in isolation. This leads him to his familiar distinction between value-rational, purposive-rational, traditional and affectual action. What Weber should have done instead was to concentrate not on orientations of action but on the general structures of the lifeworld to which acting subjects belong.
+
+=== The Holocaust, modernity and ambivalence ===
+
+For Zygmunt Bauman, rationalization as a manifestation of modernity may be closely associated with the events of the Holocaust. In Modernity and Ambivalence, Bauman attempted to give an account of the different approaches modern society adopts toward the stranger. He argued that, on the one hand, in a consumer-oriented economy the strange and the unfamiliar is always enticing; in different styles of food, different fashions and in tourism it is possible to experience the allure of what is unfamiliar.
+Yet this strange-ness also has a more negative side. The stranger, because he cannot be controlled and ordered, is always the object of fear; he is the potential mugger, the person outside of society's borders who is constantly threatening. Bauman's most famous book, Modernity and the Holocaust, is an attempt to give a full account of the dangers of these kinds of fears. Drawing upon Hannah Arendt and Theodor W. Adorno's books on totalitarianism and the Enlightenment, Bauman argues that the Holocaust should not simply be considered to be an event in Jewish history, nor a regression to pre-modern barbarism. Rather, he says, the Holocaust should be seen as deeply connected to modernity and its order-making efforts. Procedural rationality, the division of labour into smaller and smaller tasks, the taxonomic categorization of different species, and the tendency to view rule-following as morally good all played their role in the Holocaust coming to pass.
+For this reason, Bauman argues that modern societies have not fully taken on board the lessons of the Holocaust; it is generally viewed – to use Bauman's metaphor – like a picture hanging on a wall, offering few lessons. In Bauman's analysis, the Jews became 'strangers' par excellence in Europe; the Final Solution was pictured by him as an extreme example of the attempts made by societies to excise the uncomfortable and indeterminate elements existing within them. Bauman, like the philosopher Giorgio Agamben, contended that the same processes of exclusion that were at work in the Holocaust could, and to an extent do, still come into play today.
+
+=== Adorno and Horkheimer's definition of "enlightenment" ===
+The term enlightenment is understood to describe the widest sense of thought advancement. When reaching a sense of enlightenment an individual will be liberated of their fears and will be installed within society as 'masters'. This term in the sense of rationalization is seen to refine levels of cogency with formal logic, creating discourse in the framework of being a rational being as it no longer poses the same importance, individuals will want to reach full enlightenment rather than use full rationality. In their analysis of contemporary western society, Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944, revised 1947), Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer developed a wide and pessimistic concept of enlightenment. In their analysis, enlightenment had its dark side: while trying to abolish superstition and myths by 'foundationalist' philosophy, it ignored its own 'mythical' basis. Its strivings towards totality and certainty led to an increasing instrumentalization of reason. In their view, the enlightenment itself should be enlightened and not posed as a 'myth-free' view of the world. For Marxist philosophy in general, rationalization is closely associated with the concept of "commodity fetishism", for the reason that not only are products designed to fulfill certain tasks, but employees are hired to fulfill specific tasks as well.
+
+== Consumption ==
+
+Modern food consumption typifies the process of rationalization. Where food preparation in traditional societies is more laborious and technically inefficient, modern society has strived towards speed and precision in its delivery. Fast-food restaurants, designed to maximise profit, have strived toward total efficiency since their conception, and continue to do so. A strict level of efficiency has been accomplished in several ways, including stricter control of its workers' actions, the replacement of more complicated systems with simpler, less time-consuming ones, simple numbered systems of value meals and the addition of drive-through windows.
+Rationalization is also observable in the replacement of more traditional stores, which may offer subjective advantages to consumers, such as what sociologists consider a less regulated, more natural environment, with modern stores offering the objective advantage of lower prices to consumers. The case of Walmart is one strong example demonstrating this transition. While Walmarts have attracted considerable criticism for effectively displacing more traditional stores, these subjective social-value concerns have held minimal effectiveness in limiting expansion of the enterprise, particularly in more rationalized nations, due to the preferences of the public for lower prices over the advantages sociologists claim for more traditional stores.
+The sociologist George Ritzer has used the term McDonaldization to refer, not just to the actions of the fast food restaurant, but to the general process of rationalization. Ritzer distinguishes four primary components of McDonaldization:
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+---
+title: "Rationalization (sociology)"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:12.172119+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Efficiency – the optimal method for accomplishing a task; the fastest method to get from point A to point B. Efficiency in McDonaldization means that every aspect of the organization is geared toward the minimization of time.
+Calculability – goals are quantifiable (i.e., sales, money) rather than subjective (i.e., taste, labour). McDonaldization developed the notion that quantity equals quality, and that a large amount of product delivered to the customer in a short amount of time is the same as a high quality product. "They run their organization in such a way that a person can walk into any McDonald's and receive the same sandwiches prepared in precisely the same way. This results in a highly rational system that specifies every action and leaves nothing to chance".
+Predictability – standardized and uniform services.  "Predictability" means that no matter where a person goes, they will receive the same service and receive the same product at every interaction with the corporation. This also applies to the workers in those organizations; their tasks are highly repetitive and predictable routines.
+Control – standardized and uniform employees, replacement of human by non-human technologies.
+
+== Further objects of rationalization ==
+One rational tendency is towards increasing the efficiency and output of the human body. Several means can be employed in reaching this end, including trends towards regular exercise, dieting, increased hygiene, drugs, and an emphasis on optimal nutrition. As well as increasing lifespans, these allow for stronger, leaner, more optimized bodies for quickly performing tasks.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Conformity – Matching opinions and behaviors to group norms
+Consumerism – Acquisition of goods beyond essential needs
+Disenchantment – Cultural rationalization and devaluation of religion
+Justice#Fairness – Concept of moral fairness and administration of the law
+Just-world fallacy – Idea that everyone faces consequence as they deserve
+Knowledge economy – Approach to generating value
+Legitimating ideology
+Might makes right – View that morality is, or ought to be, determined by those in power
+Postmodernity – Societal state after modernity
+Reductionism – Philosophical view explaining systems in terms of smaller parts
+Urbanization – Process of population movement to cities
+McDonaldization – Sociological concept
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+Adorno, Theodor. Negative Dialectics. Translated by E.B. Ashton, London: Routledge, 1973
+Bauman, Zygmunt. Modernity and The Holocaust. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1989. ISBN 0-8014-2397-X
+Green, Robert W. (ed.). Protestantism, Capitalism, and Social Science. Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973.
+"McDonaldzation principles",  Macionis, J., and Gerber, L. (2010). Sociology, 7th edition
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+---
+title: "Reactive ethnicity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_ethnicity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:13.800830+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Reactive ethnicity is the phenomenon where actions intended to limit or ban a practice cause people to continue the practice in protest. Jeffery Reitz has used this term to explain why the French restrictions on traditional Islamic veils are provoking even unveiled Muslim women to wear Islamic veils.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Backfire effect
+Civil disobedience
+Identity politics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Reactive Ethnicity and Anticipated Discrimination among American Muslims in Southeastern Michigan
+"Reactive Ethnicity" or "Assimilation"?
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Rumbaut, Rubén G. (April 11, 2008). "Reaping What You Sow: Immigration, Youth, and Reactive Ethnicity". Applied Developmental Science. 12 (2): 108–111. doi:10.1080/10888690801997341. ISSN 1088-8691. S2CID 144390794.
+Diehl, Claudia; Schnell, Rainer (December 1, 2006). ""Reactive Ethnicity" or "Assimilation"? Statements, Arguments, and First Empirical Evidence for Labor Migrants in Germany". International Migration Review. 40 (4): 786–816. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2006.00044.x. ISSN 0197-9183. S2CID 9046538.
+Çelik, Çetin (July 15, 2015). "'Having a German passport will not make me German': reactive ethnicity and oppositional identity among disadvantaged male Turkish second-generation youth in Germany". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 38 (9): 1646–1662. doi:10.1080/01419870.2015.1018298. ISSN 0141-9870. S2CID 144301973.
+Herda, Daniel (July 3, 2018). "Reactive Ethnicity and Anticipated Discrimination among American Muslims in Southeastern Michigan". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 38 (3): 372–391. doi:10.1080/13602004.2018.1524136. ISSN 1360-2004. S2CID 150306874.
+Jiang, Qiaolei; Rajiv, George; Chib, Arul (January 1, 2015). "Silent but Brewing: Reactive Ethnicity and Interculturality among Chinese Students in Singapore". Journal of Intercultural Communication.
+Weilenmann, Markus (January 1, 2000). "Reactive ethnicity: some thoughts on political psychology based on the developments in Burundi, Rwanda and South-Kivu". Journal of Psychology in Africa. 10 (1): 01–25. ISSN 1433-0237.
+Portes, Alejandro, and Bryan Lagae. "Immigration, social change, and reactive ethnicity in the second generation." US Latinization: Education and the New Latino South (2017): 251–271. ISBN 9781438464992.
+St-Hilaire, Aonghas (January 1, 2001). "Ethnicity, assimilation and nation in plural Suriname". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 24 (6): 998–1019. doi:10.1080/01419870120077940. ISSN 0141-9870. PMID 19177691. S2CID 35306759.
+Heath, Anthony (January 2, 2014). "Introduction: Patterns of generational change: convergent, reactive or emergent?". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 37 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1080/01419870.2014.844845. ISSN 0141-9870. S2CID 144713423.
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+---
+title: "Reality distortion field"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_distortion_field"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:14.993219+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Reality distortion field (RDF) is a term first used by Bud Tribble at Apple Computer in 1981, to describe company co-founder Steve Jobs's charisma and its effects on the developers working on the Macintosh project. Tribble said that the term came from Star Trek, where it is used to describe how the aliens encountered by the crew of the starship USS Enterprise created their own new world through mental force. 
+
+
+== Steve Jobs ==
+In the book Steve Jobs, biographer Walter Isaacson states that around 1972, while Jobs was attending Reed College, Robert Friedland "taught Steve the reality distortion field." The RDF was said by Andy Hertzfeld to be Jobs's ability to convince himself, and others around him, to believe almost anything with a mix of charm, charisma, bravado, hyperbole, marketing, appeasement and persistence. It was said to distort his co-workers' sense of proportion and scales of difficulties and to make them believe that whatever impossible task he had at hand was possible. Jobs could also use the reality distortion field to appropriate others' ideas as his own, sometimes proposing an idea back to its originator, only a week after dismissing it.
+The term has been used to refer to Jobs's keynote speeches (or "Stevenotes") by observers and devoted users of Apple computers and products, and derisively by Apple's competitors in criticisms of Apple, for example a post on Research In Motion's official BlackBerry blog titled "RIM Responds to Apple's 'Distortion Field'".
+Bill Gates talked in an interview about Steve Jobs using his reality distortion field to "cast spells" on people. Gates considered himself immune to Jobs's reality distortion field, saying, "I was like a minor wizard because he would be casting spells, and I would see people mesmerized, but because I'm a minor wizard, the spells don't work on me."
+
+
+== Other instances ==
+The term has been extended, with a mixture of awe and scorn, to other managers and leaders in industry who try to convince their employees to become passionately committed to projects without regard to their overall difficulty or to competitive forces in the market. It is sometimes used with regard to excessively hyped products that are not necessarily connected with any one person.
+
+Bill Clinton's charisma has been called a reality distortion field.
+The "Jedi Mind Trick" in Star Wars: A New Hope is almost identical to the operation of the RDF
+The chess champion Bobby Fischer was said to have a "Fischer aura" surrounding him that disoriented Boris Spassky and other opponents.
+The term has been also associated with Donald Trump's approach to running his 2016 campaign for United States President and his presidency.
+Financial Times used the term when describing Elon Musk.
+WeWork founder Adam Neumann has been described as having a reality distortion field.
+A parody of a reality distortion field appeared in a 2010 Dilbert strip in which a reality distortion field emitter is used during a keynote speech by Dogbert.
+Columnist Yen Makabenta of The Manila Times opined that Rodrigo Duterte's rise to prominence and appeal to the masses—in spite of allegations of human rights violations and Duterte's obscene remarks towards individuals and organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which the Philippines has a significant population of adherents—have generated a reality distortion field. He added that while Duterte's vulgar and sexually charged comments during his presidential campaign have alarmed many and were initially seen as detrimental to his victory as a presidential candidate, he exhibited charisma which accounted for why people still campaigned for him in spite of this behavior.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Brainwashing
+Charismatic authority
+Gaslighting
+Locus of control
+Magical thinking
+Suggestibility
+Suspension of disbelief
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Recognition (sociology)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_(sociology)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:16.162351+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Recognition is the public acknowledgment of a person's social status or merits (achievements, virtues, service, etc.).
+Another example is when some person is accorded some special status, such as title or classification.
+
+
+== In politics ==
+According to philosopher Charles Taylor, recognition of one's identity is both a fundamental need and a right, and non- or misrecognition is a form of oppression.
+
+
+== In psychology ==
+In the workplace, recognition has been suggested to increase employee engagement, continuous improvement behaviour, trust in the organization, intention to stay, and satisfaction with management. Others, like Alfie Kohn in Punished by Rewards, point out the dangers of using praise to show recognition, since it may induce compliance in the short-term, but negatively impact quality in the workplace long-term.
+In psychology, excessively seeking for recognition is regarded as one of the defining traits of a  narcissistic personality disorder.
+
+
+== Recognition justice ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Respect
+Posthumous recognition
+Name recognition
+Donor recognition wall
+Glory (honor)
+Axel Honneth
+Michel Seymour
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Recuperation (politics)"
+chunk: 1/1
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:17.360492+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the sociological sense, recuperation is the process by which politically radical ideas and images are twisted, co-opted, absorbed, defused, incorporated, annexed or commodified within media culture and bourgeois society, and thus become interpreted through a neutralized, innocuous or more socially conventional perspective. More broadly, it may refer to the cultural appropriation of any subversive symbols or ideas by mainstream culture.
+The concept of recuperation was formulated by members of the Situationist International, its first published instance in 1960. The term conveys a negative connotation because recuperation generally bears the intentional consequence (whether perceived or not) of fundamentally altering the meaning behind radical ideas due to their appropriation or being co-opted into the dominant discourse. It was originally conceived as the opposite of their concept of détournement, in which images and other cultural artifacts are appropriated from mainstream sources and repurposed with radical intentions.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Some former means of countercultural expression that have been identified by critics as recuperated (at least in part) are punk music and fashion like mohawk hairdos, ripped jeans, and bondage accessories like dog collars; tattoos; street art and participatory art.
+Environmental justice proponents who center social movements and resistance in the transformation to environmental sustainability see the language of transitions to sustainability being recuperated by those seeking to delay and manage the transition.
+Pointing to "the erosion of publicly owned media" and capitalist realism, Aaron Bastani wrote of the "recuperation of the internet by capital" and says that the consequences of this persistent corporate media recuperation included a reinforcement of status quo, repression of dissent and artistic expression.
+Social justice advocates have identified the popular discourse of The New Jim Crow as recuperative, saying that it obscures an analysis of mass incarceration in the United States by adhering to a counterrevolutionary contextual framework.
+The popular conception of Martin Luther King Jr. has also been recuperated, with his democratic socialist ideas such as wealth redistribution and guaranteed jobs being largely scrubbed from America's cultural memory.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Avant-garde
+Censorship
+Controversy
+Embrace, extend and extinguish
+Fourth branch of government
+Harold Rosenberg
+Obliteration by incorporation
+Unitary urbanism
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Marcus, Greil (1989).  Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the 20th Century.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Essay on the topic
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referent_power-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referent_power-0.md
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+---
+title: "Referent power"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referent_power"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:18.578362+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Referent power is a form of reverence gained by a leader who has strong interpersonal relationship skills. Referent power, as an aspect of personal power, becomes particularly important as organizational leadership becomes increasingly about collaboration and influence and less about command and control.
+In an organizational setting, referent power is most easily seen in the charismatic leader who excels in making others feel comfortable in his or her presence. Staff typically express their excitement about work in terms of their attraction to their leader's personal characteristics and charisma. They commit to their work because of the leader's likability, and they base their self-esteem and sense of accomplishment on their leader's approval.
+Referent power may be defined as 'the ability of a leader to influence a follower due to the follower's admiration, respect, or identification with the leader'. It has been suggested  that the term referent power may reflect a misspelling, with a more appropriate label being reverent power. The Cambridge English Dictionary defines reverent as "showing great respect and admiration", whereas "referent" is typically defined as "the thing that a symbol stands for, or refers to". Bertram Raven states that "Referent power stems from the target identifying with the agent, or seeing the agent as a model that the target would want to emulate".
+
+
+== See also ==
+Power (social and political)
+French and Raven's bases of power
+Information power 
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+French, J., & Raven, B. The bases of social power. Studies in social power (1959).
+Taylor, Peplau, & Sears (2006). Social Psychology (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN 0-13-193281-0
+Joseph C. Thomas. "Leadership Effectiveness of Referent Power as a Distinction of Personal Power", Regent University Center for Leadership Studies, LEAD605 Foundations of Effective Leadership, 18-Feb-2002
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+---
+title: "Reflexive modernization"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_modernization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:19.787453+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The concept of reflexive modernization or reflexive modernity was launched by a joint effort of three of the leading European sociologists: Anthony Giddens, Ulrich Beck and Scott Lash. The introduction of this concept served a double purpose: to reassess sociology as a science of the present (moving beyond the early-20th-century conceptual framework), and to provide a counterbalance to the postmodernist paradigm offering a re-constructive view alongside deconstruction.
+The concept built upon previous notions such as post-industrial society (Daniel Bell) and postmaterial society, but stresses how in reflexive modernization, modernity directs its attention to the process of modernization itself.
+
+
+== Completion of modernity ==
+The main thesis deals with the changes brought on by the realization of modernity's ideals, such as universal suffrage and education, the welfare state, civil and political rights, changes that marked the shift to the second modernity. The authors consider it a reflexive modernity because it opposes its earlier version, in the same way as the first modernity opposed feudal traditionalism. As a consequence, the institutions of the first modernity are beginning to crumble in the face of economic and cultural globalization. The state is starting to lose its importance with the rise of transnational forces (corporations, NGOs), the family is splitting apart with rising divorce rates favoured by the flexibility of work and the women's liberation, losing its supportive function in the process, religion is reduced to a cultural artifact, traditional political action is boycotted because of a lack of identification with the parties' goals. Therefore all previous sources of solidarity lose momentum with the rise of individualization.
+
+
+== Consequences ==
+Ulrich Beck focuses on the dissolution of traditional institutions and the rise of transnational forces, while promoting a new type solidarity in the face of the human made dangers of the risk society, exacerbated by the inherent limits being discovered to all forms of social knowing. Anthony Giddens proposes a third way of social policies aimed at tackling the new challenges to identity and life choices created by the biographical risks and uncertainties of reflexive modernity. Zygmunt Bauman talks about the social effects of globalization, as it seems to create new divisions between the people connected to the global flux of information (the "tourists") and those excluded from them, not needed as workforce anymore (the "bums").
+Ronald Inglehart studies the shift of human values from material to post-material in the Western societies by analysing the World Values Survey databases; and Pippa Norris stresses the importance of cultural globalization over economical globalization, while also talking about the new divisions, such as the digital divide.
+
+
+== Characteristics ==
+
+Reflexive modernization is a process of modernization that is characteristic of risk society whereby progress is achieved through reorganization and "reform". Science and technology as it is used for the purpose of reflexive modernization is less concerned with expanding the resource base, but rather with re-evaluating that which is already being used by society. There is a constant flow of information between science and industry, and progress is achieved through the resulting reforms, optimizations and adaptations. Examples of reflexive modernization that have recently gained political momentum are sustainability and the precautionary principle. The new social movements (feminist, green, and pirate parties) are also considered to be an expression of reflexive modernization.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Jean Baudrillard
+Ecological modernization
+Liquid modernity
+Jean-François Lyotard
+Post-structuralism
+Unintended consequences
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+=== Footnotes ===
+
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+
+
+== Further reading ==
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+---
+title: "Reflexivity (social theory)"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:20.977812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In epistemology, and more specifically, the sociology of knowledge, reflexivity refers to circular relationships between cause and effect, especially as embedded in human belief structures. A reflexive relationship is multi-directional when the causes and the effects affect the reflexive agent in a layered or complex sociological relationship. The complexity of this relationship can be furthered when epistemology includes religion.
+Within sociology more broadly—the field of origin—reflexivity means an act of self-reference where existence engenders examination, by which the thinking action "bends back on", refers to, and affects the entity instigating the action or examination. It commonly refers to the capacity of an agent to recognise forces of socialisation and alter their place in the social structure. A low level of reflexivity would result in individuals shaped largely by their environment (or "society"). A high level of social reflexivity would be defined by individuals shaping their own norms, tastes, politics, desires, and so on. This is similar to the notion of autonomy. (See also structure and agency and social mobility.)
+Within economics, reflexivity refers to the self-reinforcing effect of market sentiment, whereby rising prices attract buyers whose actions drive prices higher still until the process becomes unsustainable.  This is an instance of a positive feedback loop. The same process can operate in reverse leading to a catastrophic collapse in prices.
+
+== Overview ==
+In social theory, reflexivity may occur when theories in a discipline should apply equally to the discipline itself; for example, in the case that the theories of knowledge construction in the field of sociology of scientific knowledge should apply equally to knowledge construction by sociology of scientific knowledge practitioners, or when the subject matter of a discipline should apply equally to the individual practitioners of that discipline (e.g., when psychological theory should explain the psychological processes of psychologists). More broadly, reflexivity is considered to occur when the observations of observers in the social system affect the very situations they are observing, or when theory being formulated is disseminated to and affects the behaviour of the individuals or systems the theory is meant to be objectively modelling. Thus, for example, an anthropologist living in an isolated village may affect the village and the behaviour of its citizens under study. The observations are not independent of the participation of the observer.
+Reflexivity is, therefore, a methodological issue in the social sciences analogous to the observer effect. Within that part of recent sociology of science that has been called the strong programme, reflexivity is suggested as a methodological norm or principle, meaning that a full theoretical account of the social construction of, say, scientific, religious or ethical knowledge systems, should itself be explainable by the same principles and methods as used for accounting for these other knowledge systems. This points to a general feature of naturalised epistemologies, that such theories of knowledge allow for specific fields of research to elucidate other fields as part of an overall self-reflective process: any particular field of research occupied with aspects of knowledge processes in general (e.g., history of science, cognitive science, sociology of science, psychology of perception, semiotics, logic, neuroscience) may reflexively study other such fields yielding to an overall improved reflection on the conditions for creating knowledge.
+Reflexivity includes both a subjective process of self-consciousness inquiry and the study of social behaviour with reference to theories about social relationships.
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+---
+title: "Reflexivity (social theory)"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:20.977812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== History ==
+The principle of reflexivity was perhaps first enunciated by the sociologists William I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas, in their 1928 book The child in America: "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences". The theory was later termed the "Thomas theorem".
+Sociologist Robert K. Merton (1948, 1949) built on the Thomas principle to define the notion of a self-fulfilling prophecy: that once a prediction or prophecy is made, actors may accommodate their behaviours and actions so that a statement that would have been false becomes true or, conversely, a statement that would have been true becomes false - as a consequence of the prediction or prophecy being made. The prophecy has a constitutive impact on the outcome or result, changing the outcome from what would otherwise have happened.
+Reflexivity was taken up as an issue in science in general by Karl Popper (1957), who in his book The Poverty of Historicism highlighted the influence of a prediction upon the event predicted, calling this the 'Oedipus effect' in reference to the Greek tale in which the sequence of events fulfilling the Oracle's prophecy is greatly influenced by the prophecy itself. Popper initially considered such self-fulfilling prophecy a distinguishing feature of social science, but later came to see that in the natural sciences, particularly biology and even molecular biology, something equivalent to expectation comes into play and can act to bring about that which has been expected. It was also taken up by Ernest Nagel (1961). Reflexivity presents a problem for science because if a prediction can lead to changes in the system that the prediction is made in relation to, it becomes difficult to assess scientific hypotheses by comparing the predictions they entail with the events that actually occur. The problem is even more difficult in the social sciences.
+Reflexivity has been taken up as the issue of "reflexive prediction" in economic science by Grunberg and Modigliani (1954) and Herbert A. Simon (1954), has been debated as a major issue in relation to the Lucas critique, and has been raised as a methodological issue in economic science arising from the issue of reflexivity in the sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) literature.
+Reflexivity has emerged as both an issue and a solution in modern approaches to the problem of structure and agency, for example in the work of Anthony Giddens in his structuration theory and Pierre Bourdieu in his genetic structuralism.
+Giddens, for example, noted that constitutive reflexivity is possible in any social system, and that this presents a distinct methodological problem for the social sciences. Giddens accentuated this theme with his notion of "reflexive modernity" – the argument that, over time, society is becoming increasingly more self-aware, reflective, and hence reflexive.
+Bourdieu argued that the social scientist is inherently laden with biases, and only by becoming reflexively aware of those biases can the social scientists free themselves from them and aspire to the practice of an objective science. For Bourdieu, therefore, reflexivity is part of the solution, not the problem.
+Michel Foucault's The order of things can be said to touch on the issue of Reflexivity. Foucault examines the history of Western thought since the Renaissance and argues that each historical epoch (he identifies three and proposes a fourth) has an episteme, or "a historical a priori", that structures and organises knowledge. Foucault argues that the concept of man emerged in the early 19th century, what he calls the "Age of Man", with the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. He finishes the book by posing the problem of the age of man and our pursuit of knowledge- where "man is both knowing subject and the object of his own study"; thus, Foucault argues that the social sciences, far from being objective, produce truth in their own mutually exclusive discourses.
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+---
+title: "Reflexivity (social theory)"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:20.977812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== In economics ==
+Economic philosopher George Soros, influenced by ideas put forward by his tutor, Karl Popper (1957), has been an active promoter of the relevance of reflexivity to economics, first propounding it publicly in his 1987 book The alchemy of finance.  He regards his insights into market behaviour from applying the principle as a major factor in the success of his financial career.
+Reflexivity is inconsistent with general equilibrium theory, which stipulates that markets move towards equilibrium and that non-equilibrium fluctuations are merely random noise that will soon be corrected. In equilibrium theory, prices in the long run at equilibrium reflect the underlying economic fundamentals, which are unaffected by prices. Reflexivity asserts that prices do in fact influence the fundamentals and that these newly influenced sets of fundamentals then proceed to change expectations, thus influencing prices; the process continues in a self-reinforcing pattern. Because the pattern is self-reinforcing, markets tend towards disequilibrium.  Sooner or later they reach a point where the sentiment is reversed and negative expectations become self-reinforcing in the downward direction, thereby explaining the familiar pattern of boom and bust cycles.  An example Soros cites is the procyclical nature of lending, that is, the willingness of banks to ease lending standards for real estate loans when prices are rising, then raising standards when real estate prices are falling, reinforcing the boom and bust cycle. He further suggests that property price inflation is essentially a reflexive phenomenon: house prices are influenced by the sums that banks are prepared to advance for their purchase, and these sums are determined by the banks' estimation of the prices that the property would command.
+Soros has often claimed that his grasp of the principle of reflexivity is what has given him his "edge" and that it is the major factor contributing to his successes as a trader. For several decades there was little sign of the principle being accepted in mainstream economic circles, but there has been an increase of interest following the crash of 2008, with academic journals, economists, and investors discussing his theories.
+Economist and former columnist of the Financial Times, Anatole Kaletsky, argued that Soros' concept of reflexivity is useful in understanding China's economy and how the Chinese government manages it.
+In 2009, Soros funded the launch of the Institute for New Economic Thinking with the hope that it would develop reflexivity further.  The Institute works with several types of heterodox economics, particularly the post-Keynesian branch.
+
+== In sociology ==
+Margaret Archer has written extensively on laypeople's reflexivity. For her, human reflexivity is a mediating mechanism between structural properties, or the individual's social context, and action, or the individual's ultimate concerns. Reflexive activity, according to Archer, increasingly takes the place of habitual action in late modernity since routine forms prove ineffective in dealing with the complexity of modern life trajectories.
+While Archer emphasises the agentic aspect of reflexivity, reflexive orientations can themselves be seen as being "socially and temporally embedded". For example, Elster points out that reflexivity cannot be understood without taking into account the fact that it draws on background configurations (e.g., shared meanings, as well as past social engagement and lived experiences of the social world) to be operative.
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+---
+title: "Reflexivity (social theory)"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:20.977812+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== In anthropology ==
+In anthropology, reflexivity has come to have two distinct meanings, one that refers to the researcher's awareness of an analytic focus on his or her relationship to the field of study, and the other that attends to the ways that cultural practices involve consciousness of and commentary on themselves.
+The first sense of reflexivity in anthropology is part of social science's more general self-critique in the wake of theories by Michel Foucault and others about the relationship of power and knowledge production.  Reflexivity about the research process became an important part of the critique of the colonial roots and scientistic methods of anthropology in the "writing cultures" movement associated with James Clifford and George Marcus, as well as many other anthropologists.  Rooted in literary criticism and philosophical analysis of the relationship among the anthropologists, the people represented in texts, and their textual representations, this approach has fundamentally changed ethical and methodological approaches in anthropology.  As with the feminist and anti-colonial critiques that provide some of reflexive anthropology's inspiration, the reflexive understanding of the academic and political power of representations, analysis of the process of "writing culture" has become a necessary part of understanding the situation of the ethnographer in the fieldwork situation.  Objectification of people and cultures and analysis of them only as objects of study has been largely rejected in favor of developing more collaborative approaches that respect local people's values and goals.  Nonetheless, many anthropologists have accused the "writing cultures" approach of muddying the scientific aspects of anthropology with too much introspection about fieldwork relationships, and reflexive anthropology have been heavily attacked by more positivist anthropologists. Considerable debate continues in anthropology over the role of postmodernism and reflexivity, but most anthropologists accept the value of the critical perspective, and generally only argue about the relevance of critical models that seem to lead anthropology away from its earlier core foci.
+The second kind of reflexivity studied by anthropologists involves varieties of self-reference in which people and cultural practices call attention to themselves. One important origin for this approach is Roman Jakobson in his studies of deixis and the poetic function in language, but the work of Mikhail Bakhtin on carnival has also been important.  Within anthropology, Gregory Bateson developed ideas about meta-messages (subtext) as part of communication, while Clifford Geertz's studies of ritual events such as the Balinese cock-fight point to their role as foci for public reflection on the social order. Studies of play and tricksters further expanded ideas about reflexive cultural practices. Reflexivity has been most intensively explored in studies of performance, public events, rituals, and linguistic forms but can be seen any time acts, things, or people are held up and commented upon or otherwise set apart for consideration.  In researching cultural practices, reflexivity plays an important role, but because of its complexity and subtlety, it often goes under-investigated or involves highly specialised analyses.
+One use of studying reflexivity is in connection to authenticity. Cultural traditions are often imagined as perpetuated as stable ideals by uncreative actors.  Innovation may or may not change tradition, but since reflexivity is intrinsic to many cultural activities, reflexivity is part of tradition and not inauthentic. The study of reflexivity shows that people have both self-awareness and creativity in culture.  They can play with, comment upon, debate, modify, and objectify culture through manipulating many different features in recognised ways.  This leads to the metaculture of conventions about managing and reflecting upon culture.
+
+== Reflexivity and the status of the social sciences ==
+Flanagan has argued that reflexivity complicates all three of the traditional roles that are typically played by a classical science: explanation, prediction and control. The fact that individuals and social collectivities are capable of self-inquiry and adaptation is a key characteristic of real-world social systems, differentiating the social sciences from the physical sciences. Reflexivity, therefore, raises real issues regarding the extent to which the social sciences may ever be viewed as "hard" sciences analogous to classical physics, and raises questions about the nature of the social sciences.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Campbell's law – Adage about perverse incentives
+Collaborative intelligence
+Collective intelligence – Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts
+Double hermeneutic – Proposed connection between lay concepts and social sciences
+Goodhart's law – Adage about statistical measures
+Hawthorne effect – Social phenomenon by which being observed causes behavioral changes
+Intersubjectivity – Concept in philosophy and psychology
+Observer effect (physics) – Fact that observing a situation changes it
+Observer-expectancy effect – Cognitive bias of experimental subject
+Performativity – Linguistic quality
+Social epistemology – Field of study in analytic philosophy
+Virtuous circle and vicious circle – Self-reinforcing sequence of eventsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Reciprocal causation – Biological concept
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_religious_system-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_religious_system-0.md
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+---
+title: "Regional religious system"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_religious_system"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:22.197004+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The concept of the regional religious system (RRS) 區域宗教系統 was first put forth in an article co-authored by Jiang Wu 吳疆, Daoqin Tong 童道琴, and Karl Ryavec (2013) based on spatial analysis and GIS modeling of the distribution of religious sites in Greater China. This study has been inspired by regional systems analysis (RSA) and the study of hierarchical regional space (HRC) and macroregions 宏區域 developed by G. William Skinner 施堅雅.
+
+
+== Definition of RRS ==
+A preliminary definition is provided in the article by Wu, Tong and Ryavec:
+A regional religious system is a type of spatial formation in which a group of related or unrelated religious institutions are conditioned by physical, geographical, administrative, cultural, or socioeconomic systems and are highly dependent on regionally and locally distributed variables such as economy, transportation, education, culture, ethnicity, and language, etc.
+According to their study, an RRS is basically a spatial formation characterized by the geographical distribution of religious sites. The formation of an RRS is shaped by regional systems such as William Skinner's macroregions. Also, the distribution of these sites relies on regionally and locally distributed factors.
+
+
+== GIS modeling of RRS: methodology and sources ==
+GIS modeling of RRS focuses on the distribution of Buddhist sites in Chinese history, because of the persistent presence of Buddhism in Chinese culture and history. This study is based on the assumption that "Chinese Buddhist institutions are fundamentally local institutions and temple-building activities are spontaneous endeavors initiated at the local level by harnessing local resources."
+The research team first studied the distribution of religious sites by implementing the kernel density estimation in ArcGIS. A series of density maps were generated based on three major datasets ranging from Buddhist institutions in Han Chinese areas (including Taiwan) from the Tang and Five Dynasties period, the Qing dynasty period, and the contemporary period. Second, the research team conducted similar analysis in non-Han Chinese areas such as the Tibetan Plateau and Mosques in Muslim areas. Third, these mapping results are compared with macroregion maps Skinner created.
+
+
+== Findings ==
+High levels of correlation are found between these density maps and Skinner's macroregions. First, clusterings of Buddhist sites are found in most of Skinner's macroregions. Second, density maps create natural boundaries overlapping with those of Skinner's macroregions. Third, the distribution of transportation routes greatly impacted the distribution of Buddhist sites. Finally, the distribution pattern clearly shows a core-periphery relationship. Based on these initial findings, the Greater China area has been delineated into ten RRSs.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Jiang Wu, Daoqin Tong. Spatial Analysis and GIS Modeling of Regional Religious Systems in China. University of Arizona.
+Daoqin Tong, Karl Ryavec. Spatial Analysis and GIS Modeling of Regional Religious Systems in China: Conceptualization and Initial Experiments. Chinese History in Geographical Perspective, ed. By Jeff Kyong-McClain and Yongtao Du. Lexington Books, 2013, pp. 179–196.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehumanization-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehumanization-0.md
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+---
+title: "Rehumanization"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehumanization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:23.377253+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Rehumanization is the process by which one reverses the damage done by dehumanization.  That is, in individuals or groups, the process of rehabilitating one’s way of perceiving the other(s) in question in one’s mind and in consequent behavior.
+A study conducted at Princeton by Mary Wheeler and Susan Fiske (2005) showed that rehumanization can be reached by blocking brain activation which is usually suitable with the appearance of an individual.  Wheeler and Fiske were able to help subjects unconsciously suppress the activation of “fight or flight”, and rehumanization was achieved when he or she was seen not as a category, racial or other, but as an individual: the researchers “primed” the subjects by asking them to guess whether the person whose face they were about to see liked coffee or tea, etc.
+In general, rehumanization can usually be achieved by avoiding labels and stereotypes in one’s language and thoughts.  Other techniques that have been found to be effective include:
+
+“deep listening,” involving the use of the imagination to see through what another is saying (in words or action).  This technique is often taught, among other places, in the system called Nonviolent Communication.
+remembering that all humans share certain core needs and values; as Einstein said, “remember our humanity; and forget all the rest”
+guarding one’s thoughts and language to keep out stereotypes and labels
+avoiding media depictions and other outside influences that encourage such stereotyping.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Relative deprivation"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_deprivation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:24.585304+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Relative deprivation is the lack of resources to sustain the diet, lifestyle, activities and amenities that an individual or group are accustomed to or that are widely encouraged or approved in the society to which they belong. Measuring relative deprivation allows an objective comparison between the situation of the individual or group compared to the rest of society. Relative deprivation may also emphasise the individual experience of discontent when being deprived of something to which one believes oneself to be entitled, however emphasizing the perspective of the individual makes objective measurement problematic.
+It is a term used in social sciences to describe feelings or measures of economic, political, or social deprivation that are relative rather than absolute. The term is inextricably linked to the similar terms poverty and social exclusion. The concept of relative deprivation has important consequences for both behaviour and attitudes, including feelings of stress, political attitudes, and participation in collective action. It is relevant to researchers studying multiple fields in social sciences. The concept was first used systematically by the authors of The American Soldier who studied army units and found out that it is the perceived discrepancy between anticipation and attainment which results in feelings of relative deprivation.
+Social scientists, particularly political scientists and sociologists, have cited relative deprivation, especially temporal relative deprivation, as a potential cause of social movements and deviance, leading in extreme situations to political violence such as rioting, terrorism, civil wars and other instances of social deviance such as crime. For example, some scholars of social movements explain their rise by citing grievances of people who feel deprived of what they perceive as values to which they are entitled. Similarly, individuals engage in deviant behaviours when their means do not match their goals.
+In response to exploration of the concept of relative deprivation, the term "relative gratification" has emerged in social psychology to discuss the opposite phenomenon.
+According to a June 2015 report by the IMF, the defining challenge of our time is widening income inequality. In advanced economies, the gap between the rich and poor is at its highest level in decades. Inequality trends have been more mixed in emerging markets and developing countries (EMDCs), with some countries experiencing declining inequality, but pervasive inequities in access to education, health care, and finance remain.
+
+== Theory ==
+In one of the first formal definitions of the relative deprivation, Walter Runciman noted that there are four preconditions of relative deprivation (of object X by person A):
+
+Person A does not have X
+Person A knows of other persons that have X
+Person A wants to have X
+Person A believes obtaining X is realistic
+Runciman distinguished between egoistic and fraternalistic relative deprivation. The former is caused by unfavorable social position when compared to other, better off members of a specific group (of which A is the member) and the latter, by unfavorable comparison to other, better off groups. Egoistic relative deprivation can be seen in the example of a worker who believes he should have been promoted faster and may lead that person to take actions intended to improve his position within the group; those actions are, however, unlikely to affect many people. Fraternalism can be seen in the example of racial discrimination and are much more likely to result in the creation and growth of large social movement, like the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Another example of fraternalistic relative deprivation is the envy that teenagers feel towards the wealthy characters who are portrayed in movies and on television as being "middle class" or "normal" despite wearing expensive clothes, driving expensive cars, and living in mansions. Fraternalistic group deprivation has also been linked to voting behaviours, particularly in the case of voting for the far-right. For example, a 2026 longitudinal study found that White Americans who perceived themselves as falling into a "last place" profile (i.e., tied in status with Black and Hispanic Americans while falling behind other White Americans) were the most likely to vote for Donald Trump and support bans on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion initiatives.
+Deprivation Theory is that people who are deprived of things deemed valuable in society, money, justice, status or privilege, join social movements with the hope of redressing their grievances. That is a beginning point for looking at why people join social movements; however, it is even more important to look at relative deprivation theory, a belief that people join social movement based on their evaluations of what they think they should have, compared with what others have. On the contrary, absolute deprivation is people's actual negative condition; relative deprivation is what people think they should have relative to what others have, or even compared with their own past or perceived future. Improved conditions fuel human desires for even better conditions and so can spark revolutions.
+
+== Relativeness ==
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+---
+title: "Relative deprivation"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_deprivation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:24.585304+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Feelings of deprivation are relative, as they come from a comparison to social norms that are not absolute and usually differ from time and place. This differentiates relative deprivation from objective deprivation (also known as absolute deprivation or absolute poverty) - a condition that applies to all underprivileged people. This leads to an important conclusion: while the objective deprivation (poverty) in the world may change over time, relative deprivation will not, as long as social inequality persists and some humans are better off than others.
+Consider the following examples: in 1905 cars were a luxury, hence an individual unable to afford one would not feel or be viewed as deprived. In 2010, when cars are common in most societies, an individual unable to afford one is much more likely to feel deprived. In another example, mobile phones are common today, and many people may feel that they deserve to have one. Fifty years ago, when there were no mobile phones, such a sentiment would not exist.
+Relative deprivation may be temporal; that is, it can be experienced by people that experience expansion of rights or wealth, followed by stagnation or reversal of those gains. Such phenomena are also known as unfulfilled rising expectations.
+In an example from the  realm, the lack of the right to vote is more likely to be felt as a deprivation by people who had it once than by the people who never had the opportunity to vote.
+
+== Relative and absolute deprivation ==
+Some scientists, for instance John Kenneth Galbraith, have argued that relative differences in economic wealth are more important than absolute deprivation, and that it is more significant in determining human quality of life. This debate has important consequences for social policy, particularly on whether poverty can be eliminated simply by raising total wealth or whether egalitarian measures are also needed.
+A specific form of relative deprivation is relative poverty. A measure of relative poverty defines poverty as being below some relative poverty line, such as households who earn less than 20% of the median income.
+
+== Critique ==
+Critique of this theory has pointed out that this theory fails to explain why some people who feel discontent fail to take action and join social movements. Counter-arguments include that some people are prone to conflict-avoidance, are short-term-oriented, and that imminent life difficulties may arise since there is no guarantee that life-improvement will result from social action.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+James M. Olson, C. Peter Herman, Mark P. Zanna (ed.), Relative Deprivation and Social Comparison, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986, ISBN 0-89859-704-8, Google Print
+Wallace, Anthony F.C. 1956. "Revitalization Movements", American Anthropologist 58: 264–281.Wayback Machine
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_segregation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_segregation-0.md
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+---
+title: "Residential segregation"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_segregation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:25.772887+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Residential segregation is a concept in urban sociology which refers to the voluntary or forced  spatial separation of different socio-cultural, ethnic, or racial groups within residential areas. It is often associated with immigration, wealth inequality, or prejudice. The term is most often used in relation to residential segregation in the United States.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Ethnic enclave
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Resocialization"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resocialization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:26.998682+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Resocialization or resocialisation (British English) is the process by which one's sense of social values, beliefs, and norms are re-engineered. The process is deliberately carried out in military boot camps through an intense social process or may take place in a total institution. An important thing to note about socialization is that what can be learned can be unlearned. That forms the basis of resocialization: to unlearn and to relearn.
+Resocialization can be defined also as a process by which individuals, defined as inadequate according to the norms of a dominant institution, are subjected to a dynamic redistribution of those values, attitudes and abilities to allow them to function according to the norms of the said dominant institutions. That definition relates more to a jail sentence. If individuals exhibit deviance, society delivers the offenders to a total institution, where they can be rehabilitated.
+Resocialization varies in its severity. A mild resocialization might be involved in moving to a different country. One who does so may need to learn new social customs and norms such as language, eating, dress, and talking customs. A more drastic example of resocialization is joining a military or a cult, and the most severe example would be if one suffers from a loss of all memories and so would have to relearn all of society's norms.
+The first stage of resocialization is the destruction of an individual's former beliefs and confidence.
+
+== Institutions ==
+
+The goal of total institutions is resocialization, which radically alters residents' personalities by deliberate manipulation of their environment. A total institution refers to an institution in which one is totally immersed and controls all of one's day-to-day life. All activity occurs in a single place under a single authority. Examples of a total institution include prisons, fraternity houses, and the military.
+Resocialization is a two-part process. First, the institutional staff try to erode the residents' identities and independence. Strategies to erode identities include forcing individuals to surrender all personal possessions, get uniform haircuts and wear standardized clothing. Independence is eroded by subjecting residents to humiliating and degrading procedures. Examples are strip searches, fingerprinting, and assigning serial numbers or code names to replace the residents' given names.
+The second part of resocialization process involves the systematic attempt to build a different personality or self. That is generally done through a system of rewards and punishments. The privilege of being allowed to read a book, watch television, or make a phone call can be a powerful motivator for conformity. Conformity occurs when individuals change their behavior to fit in with the expectations of an authority figure or the expectations of the larger group.
+No two people respond to resocialization programs in the same manner. Some residents are found to be "rehabilitated," but others might become bitter and hostile. As well, over a long period of time, a strictly-controlled environment can destroy a person's ability to make decisions and live independently, which is known as institutionalisation, a negative outcome of total institution that prevents an individual from ever functioning effectively in the outside world again. (Sproule, 154–155)
+Resocialization is also evident in individuals who have never been "socialized" in the first place or have not been required to behave socially for an extended period of time. Examples include feral children (never socialized) or inmates who have been in solitary confinement.
+Socialization is a lifelong process. Adult socialization often includes learning new norms and values that are very different from those associated with the culture in which the person was raised. The process can be voluntary. Currently, joining a volunteer military qualifies as an example of voluntary resocialization. The norms and values associated with military life are different from those associated with civilian life (Riehm, 2000).
+The sociologist Erving Goffman studied resocialization in mental institutions. He characterized the mental institution as a total institution, one in which virtually every aspect of the inmates' lives is controlled by the institution and calculated to serve the institution's goals. For example, the institution requires patients to comply with certain regulations, even when that is not necessarily in the best interest of individuals.
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+title: "Resocialization"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resocialization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:26.998682+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== In military ==
+Those who join the military enter a new social realm in which they become socialized as military members. Resocialization is defined as a "process wherein an individual, defined as inadequate according to the norms of a dominant institution(s), is subjected to a dynamic program of behavior intervention aimed at instilling and/or rejuvenating those values, attitudes, and abilities which would allow... to function according to the norms of said dominant institution(s)."
+Boot camp serves as an example for understanding how military members are resocialized within the total institution of the military. According to Fox and Pease (2012), the purpose of military training, like boot camp, is to "promote the willing and systematic subordination of one’s own individual desires and interests to those of one’s unit and, ultimately, country." To accomplish it, all aspects of military members' lives exist within the same military institution and are controlled by the same "institutional authorities" (drill instructors) and are done to accomplish the goals of the total institution. The individual's "civil[ian] identity, with its built-in restraints is eradicated, or at least undermined and set aside in favor of the warrior identity and its central focus upon killing." This warrior identity or ethos, is the mindset and group of values that all United States armed forces aim to instill in their members. Leonard Wong in “Leave No Man Behind: Recovering America’s Fallen Warriors,” describes the warrior ethos as placing the mission above all else, not accepting defeat, not ever quitting, and never leaving another American behind.
+Military training prepares individuals for combat by promoting traditional ideas of masculinity, like training individuals to disregard their bodies' natural reactions to run from fear, have pain or show emotions. Although resocialization through military training can create a sense of purpose in military members, it can also create mental and emotional distress when members are unable to achieve set standards and expectations.
+Military members, in part, find purpose and meaning through resocialization because the institution provides access to symbolic and material resources, helping military members construct meaningful identities. Fox and Pease  state, "like any social identity, military identity is always an achievement, something dependent upon conformity to others' expectations and their acknowledgment. The centrality of performance testing in the military, and the need to 'measure up,' heightens this dependence. Although resocialization through military training can create a sense of purpose in military members, it also has the likelihood to create mental and emotional distress when members are unable to achieve set standards and expectations."
+In the first couple of days, the most important aspect of basic training is the surrender of their identity. Recruits in basic training are exposed to a degrading process, where leaders break down the recruits’ civilian selves and essentially give them a new identity. The recruits go through a brutal, humbling, and physically and emotionally exhausting process. They are subjected to their new norms, language, rules, and identity. Recruits shed their clothes and hair, which are the physical representation of their old identities. The processes happen very quickly and allows no time for recruits to think over the loss of their identity and so the recruits have no chance to regret their decisions.
+Drill sergeants then give the young men and women a romanticized view on what it is to be a soldier and how manly it is. When the training starts, it is physically demanding and gets harder every week. The recruits are constantly insulted and put down to break down their pride and destroy their ability to resist the change that they are undergoing. Drill sergeants put up a facade that tells their recruits that finishing out basic training sets them apart from all of the others who fail. However, almost all recruits succeed and graduate from basic training.
+The training is also set up with roles. There are three younger drill sergeants closer to the recruits in age and one senior drill sergeant, who becomes a father figure to the new recruits. The company commander plays a god-like role, which the recruits look up to. The people in the roles will become role models and authority figures but also help to create a sense of loyalty to the entire organization.
+Recruits are made to march in a formation in which every person moves the same way at the same time, which causes a sense of unity. It makes the recruits feel less like individuals and more like parts of a group. They sing in cadence to boost morale and to make the group feel important. Drill sergeants also feed the group small doses of triumphs to keep the soldiers proud and feeling accomplished. According to Jeff Parker Knight, the ultimate function for these songs is described as “marching precision,” but Knight argues that these jodies have a secondary socialization purpose that creates a type of “rite of passage” for the recruits. These jody performances, “reflect martial attitudes, and, as symbolic action, help to induce attitude changes in initiates.”
+The troop also undergoes group punishment, which unifies the unit. Generally, the similar hatred of something will bring everyone together. In this case, group punishment allows all the recruits to hate the drill sergeants and the punishment but to find unity within their unit. They will encourage others to push themselves and create shared hardships.
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+title: "Resocialization"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resocialization"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:26.998682+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== In prisons ==
+Prisons have two different types of re-socialization. The first type is that prisoners must learn the new normal behaviors that apply to their new environment. The second type is the prisoners must partake in rehabilitation measures to help fix their deviant ways. When the individual violates the dominant society's norms, the criminal system subjects them to a form of re-socialization called criminal rehabilitation.
+Rehabilitation aims to bring an inmate's real behavior closer to that of most individuals, who make up the dominant society. The ideal societal behavior is highly valued in many societies, mainly because it serves to protect and promote the well-being of most of the society's members. In rehabilitation, the system strips the criminal of his prior socialization of criminal behavior, including the techniques of committing a crime and the specific motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. Criminal behavior is learned behavior and so can be unlearned.
+The first step towards rehabilitation is the choice of milieu. That is the type of interactions the deviant has with the people around him in custody. Usually, that is determined after psychological and sociological screenings are performed on the criminal. The second step is diagnosis, a continual process influenced by feedback from the individual's behavior. The next stage is treatment, which is dependent on the diagnosis. Whether it is treating an addiction or redefining the values of a person, the treatment is what socializes the criminal back to societal norms.
+
+== References ==
+
+Conley, Dalton. You May Ask Yourself: An Introduction to Thinking like a Sociologist. New York: W.W. Norton, 2011. Print.
+Ferguson, Susan J., ed. Mapping the Social Landscape: Readings in Sociology. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Print.
+Kennedy, Daniel B., and August Kerber. Resocialization, an American Experiment. New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. Print.
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+---
+title: "Responsibility"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsibility"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:28.194462+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Responsibility may refer to:
+
+Collective responsibility
+Corporate social responsibility
+Duty
+Legal liability
+Legal obligation
+Legal responsibility (disambiguation)
+Media responsibility
+Moral responsibility, or personal responsibility
+Obligation
+Professional responsibility
+Responsibility assumption, a doctrine in existential psychotherapy
+Social responsibility
+Single responsibility principle
+Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna
+Responsibility for the Holocaust
+The Westminster system constitutional conventions of:
+Cabinet collective responsibility
+Individual ministerial responsibility
+
+
+== As a proper name ==
+Responsibility (novel), by Nigel Cox
+"Responsibility" (song), by punk band MxPx
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+All pages with titles containing Responsibility
+All pages with titles containing Irresponsible
+All pages with titles containing Responsible
+Accountability
+Blame
+Moral hazard
+"The Responsible", a 2011 episode of The Amazing World of Gumball
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+---
+title: "Role"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:29.368515+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A role (also rôle or social role) is a set of connected behaviors, rights, obligations, beliefs, and norms as conceptualized by people in a social situation. It is an 
+expected or free or continuously changing behavior and may have a given individual social status or social position. It is vital to both functionalist and interactionist understandings of society. Social role theory posits the following about social behavior:
+
+The division of labour in society takes the form of the interaction among heterogeneous specialized positions, we call roles.
+Social roles included appropriate and permitted forms of behavior and actions that recur in a group, guided by social norms, which are commonly known and hence determine the expectations for appropriate behavior in these roles, which further explains the position of a person in the society.
+Roles are occupied by individuals, who are called actors.
+When individuals approve of a social role (i.e., they consider the role legitimate and constructive), they will incur costs to conform to role norms, and will also incur costs to punish those who violate role norms.
+Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or illegitimate, in which case social pressures are likely to lead to role change.
+The anticipation of rewards and punishments, as well as the satisfaction of behaving pro-socially, account for why agents conform to role requirements.
+The notion of the role can be and is examined in the social sciences, specifically economics, sociology and organizational theory.
+
+== Definition ==
+Stanley Wasserman and Katherine Faust cautioned that "there is considerable disagreement among social scientists about the definitions of the related concepts of social position, social status, and social role." They note that while many scholars differentiate those terms, they can define those terms in a way that clashes with the definitions of another scholar; for example they state that "[Ralph] Linton uses the term 'status' in a way that is identical to our use of the term 'position'".
+
+== Determinants and characteristics ==
+Roles may be achieved or ascribed or they can be accidental in different situations. An achieved role is a position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and effort. An ascribed role is a position assigned to individuals or groups without regard for merit but because of certain traits beyond their control, and is usually forced upon a person.
+Roles can be semi-permanent ("doctor", "mother", "child"), or they can be transitory. A well-known example is the sick role as formulated by Talcott Parsons in the late 1940s. In the transitory "sick role", a person is exempted from their usual roles, but is expected to conform to transitory behavioral standards, such as following doctors' orders and trying to recover.
+For many roles, individuals must meet certain conditions, biological or sociological. For instance, a boy cannot ordinarily take the biological role of mother. Other roles require training or experience. For instance, in many cultures doctors must be educated and certified before practicing medicine.
+Role development can be influenced by a number of additional factors, including social, genetic predisposition, cultural or situational.
+
+Societal influence: The structure of society often forms individuals into certain roles based on the social situations they choose to experience. Parents enrolling their children in certain programs at a young age increases the chance that the child will follow that role.
+Genetic predisposition: People take on roles that come naturally to them. Those with athletic ability generally take on roles of athletes. Those with mental genius often take on roles devoted to education and knowledge. This does not mean that people must choose only one path, each individual can reprise multiple roles (i.e. Evelyn can be the point guard on the basketball team and the editor of her school newspaper).
+Cultural influence: Different cultures place different values on certain roles based on their lifestyle. For instance, soccer players are regarded higher in European countries than in the United States, where soccer is less popular.
+Situational influence: Roles can be created or altered based on the situation a person is put in outside their own influence. An example of this is students blaming failure on situational factors like "the test wasn't fair" and this effects their role as a student.
+Roles are also frequently interconnected in a role set, that complement of role-relationships in which persons are involved by virtue of occupying a particular social status. For example, a high school football player carries the roles of student, athlete, classmate, etc. Another example of a role is "an individual in the role of a parent is expected to care for their child and protect them from harm".
+
+== Role theory ==
+
+Role theory is the sociological study of role development, concerned with explaining what forces cause people to develop the expectations of their own and others' behaviors. According to sociologist Bruce Biddle (1986), the five major models of role theory include:
+
+Functional Role Theory, which examines role development as shared social norms for a given social position. These social positions may include leadership.
+Symbolic Interactionist Role Theory, which examines role development as the outcome of individual interpretation of responses to behavior,
+Structural Role Theory, which emphasises the influence of society rather than the individual in roles and utilizes mathematical models,
+Organizational Role Theory, which examines role development in organizations, and
+Cognitive Role Theory, which is summarized by Flynn and Lemay as "the relationship between expectations and behaviors"
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+---
+title: "Role"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:29.368515+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Role in functionalist and consensus theory ===
+The functionalist approach to role theory, which is largely borrowed from anthropology, sees a "role" as the set of expectations that society places on an individual. By unspoken consensus, certain behaviors are deemed "appropriate" and others "inappropriate". For example, an appropriate doctor dresses fairly conservatively, asks a series of personal questions about one's health, touches one in ways that would normally be forbidden, writes prescriptions, and shows more concern for the personal wellbeing of his or her clients than is expected of, say, an electrician or a shopkeeper.
+"Role" is what the doctor does (or, at least, is expected to do) while status is what the doctor  is; in other words, "status" is the position an actor occupies, while "role" is the expected behavior attached to that position.  Roles are not limited to occupational status, of course, nor does the fact that one is cast in the role of "doctor" during working hours prevent one from taking on other roles at other times: spouse, friend, parent, and so on.
+
+=== Role in interactionist or social action theory ===
+In interactionist social theory, the concept of role is crucial. The interactionist definition of "role" pre-dates the functionalist one. A role, in this conception, is not fixed or prescribed but something that is constantly negotiated between individuals in a tentative, creative way. Philosopher George Herbert Mead explored roles in his seminal 1934 work, Mind, self and society. Mead's main interest was the way in which children learn how to become a part of society by imaginative role-taking, observing and mimicking others. This is always done in an interactive way: it's not meaningful to think of a role for one person alone, only for that person as an individual who is both co-operating and competing with others. Adults behave similarly: taking roles from those that they see around them, adapting them in creative ways, and (by the process of social interaction) testing them and either confirming them or modifying them. This can be most easily seen in encounters where there is considerable ambiguity, but is nevertheless something that is part of all social interactions: each individual actively tries to "define the situation" (understand their role within it); choose a role that is advantageous or appealing; play that role; and persuade others to support the role.
+
+=== Social norms theory ===
+Social norms theory states that much of people's behavior is influenced by their perception of how other members of their social group behave. When individuals are in a state of deindividuation, they see themselves only in terms of group identity, and their behavior is likely to be guided by group norms alone. But while group norms have a powerful effect on behavior, they can only guide behavior when they are activated by obvious reminders or by subtle cues. People adhere to social norms through enforcement, internalization, the sharing of norms by other group members, and frequent activation. Norms can be enforced through punishment or reward. Individuals are rewarded for living up to their roles (i.e. students getting an "A" on their exam) or punished for not completing the duties of their role (i.e. a salesperson is fired for not selling enough product).
+Social norm theory has been applied as an environmental approach, with an aim of influencing individuals by manipulating their social and cultural environments. It has been widely applied using social marketing techniques. Normative messages are designed for delivery using various media and promotional strategies in order to effectively reach a target population. Social norms theory has also been successfully applied through strategies such as curriculum infusion, creating press coverage, policy development, and small group inventions.
+
+==== The theory of planned behavior ====
+People display reactance by fighting against threats to their freedom of action when they find norms inappropriate. Attitudes and norms typically work together to influence behavior (directly or indirectly). The theory of planned behavior intentions are a function of three factors: attitudes about the behavior, social norms relevant to the behavior, and perceptions of control over the behavior. When attitudes and norms disagree, their influence on behaviour will depend on their relative accessibility.
+
+==== Team role theory ====
+As described in Working in Groups by Engleberg and Wynn, team role theory is when "members assume roles that are compatible with their personal characteristics and skills". Meredith Belbin, a psychologist, first explored the concept of team-role theory in the 1970s when he and his research team went about observing teams and wanted to find out what made teams work and what did not. According to Belbin and his research team "the research revealed that the difference between success and failure for a team was not dependent on factors such as intellect, but more on behavior". They began to identify separate clusters of behaviors and found that behavior was more influential on a team than anything else. These separate clusters of behaviors are known as the "Team Roles".  The nine "team roles" are as follows: coordinator/chairperson, shaper, innovator, resource investigator, monitor/evaluator, implementer, teamworker, completer/finisher, and specialist.
+
+== Role conflict ==
+
+There are situations where the prescribed sets of behavior that characterise roles may lead to cognitive dissonance in individuals. Role conflict is a special form of social conflict that takes place when one is forced to take on two different and incompatible roles at the same time. An example of role conflict is a father, who is a baseball coach, that is torn between his role as a father by wanting to let his son be the pitcher and his role as a coach who should let the more experienced pitcher play. 
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-2.md
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+---
+title: "Role"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:29.368515+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Role confusion ==
+Role confusion occurs in a situation where an individual has trouble determining which role he or she should play, but where the roles are not necessarily incompatible. For example, if a college student attending a social function encounters his teacher as a fellow guest, he will have to determine whether to relate to the teacher as a student or a peer.
+
+== Role enhancement ==
+Role enhancement or role enrichment refers to a situation in which roles which are held by a person are compatible and moreover enacting one role has beneficial spillover effects on the enactment of the other role. An example of role enhancement is a nurse who assists a patient in improving relationships by "clarifying and supplementing specific role behaviors". Some evidence indicates that role conflict and role enhancement can occur simultaneously, and further evidence suggests that mental health correlates with low role conflict and high role enhancement. Also certain personality traits, in particular traits linked to perceiving and seeking greater levels of support, are associated with lower inter-role conflict and increase inter-role enrichment.
+
+== Role strain ==
+Role strain is "the incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status". An example of role strain is "a student who is torn between the obligations of school, their parents, and their job". This is role strain because the status of being a student comes with multiple responsibilities that make it difficult to handle all at the same time.
+
+== Gender roles ==
+
+Gender roles are "sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female". Gender roles are "one of the most popular strains of thought to evolve from role theory" because it can be applied to one's status as a male or female in everyday life. It has been argued that gender "constitutes as a master status" because the status of gender holds a power in society. An example of gender role is baby boys being associated with the color blue and baby girls being associated with the color pink. As people get older, women are traditionally assigned the role of being a stay at home mother and men are assigned the role of being the breadwinner of the family.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Conflict theory
+Gender role
+Label (sociology)
+Sick role
+Purpose in life
+Role-playing
+Role engulfment
+Role model
+Role suction
+Social position
+Social status
+Master status
+Achieved status
+Ascribed status
+Stereotypes
+Transactional analysis
+The Fundamentals of Social Roles
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Biddle, BJ. (1986). "Recent Developments in Role Theory". Annual Review of Sociology. 12: 67–92. Bibcode:1986ARSoc..12...67B. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.12.080186.000435.
+Chandler, Daniel. "Television an Gender Roles"
+Goldhagen, Daniel Jonah. Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. Vintage Books, New York. 1996. 
+Macionis, John J. (2006). Society – The Basics (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0131922440.
+Main Frame: Strategies for Generating Social Norms News. 2002. [1]
+Merton, Robert K. (1957). "The Role Set Problems In Sociological Theory". British Journal of Sociology. 8 (2): 106–120. doi:10.2307/587363. JSTOR 587363.
+Nagle, Brendan D. (2006). The Ancient World: A Social and Cultural History (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
+Smith, Eliot (2007). Social Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Psychology Press.
+Stark, Rodney (2007). Sociology (10th ed.). California: Baylor University. Thomson Wadsworth.
+The Twisted Dream. Time Life, Alexandria, Virginia. 1990.
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Role status at Wikimedia Commons
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_homogeneity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_homogeneity-0.md
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+---
+title: "Role homogeneity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role_homogeneity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:30.565357+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, role homogeneity is the degree of overlap amongst the different roles performed by different members of a community.
+
+
+== Rural sociology ==
+Rural sociologists often note that amongst rural communities there exists a very high degree of role homogeneity, that is, one person may perform the duties of banker, coach, deacon, school board member, and neighbor.
+
+
+== Controversy ==
+Sociologists have demonstrated that in areas of strong homogeneity, there is a general tendency to repress controversy. As a result, when disagreements arise, they can result in serious crises. Such communities tend to have local newspapers which are more oriented towards marketing, rather than news. What news is published, in a highly-homogeneous society, tends to focus on non-controversial topics and avoid "bad news".
+
+
+== See also ==
+dramaturgy (sociology)
+rural sociology
+sociology
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety-valve_institution-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety-valve_institution-0.md
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+---
+title: "Safety-valve institution"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety-valve_institution"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:31.775934+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Safety-valve organization or safety-valve institution is a term used in sociology to describe social organizations which serve to allow discontented individuals to act out their opposition to elements of society without coming into direct contact with the elements, analogically "letting off steam". Safety-valve organizations reduce tensions; in the structural-functionalist perspective, it can be said to have a tension-reducing latent function. Safety-valve organizations are outlets for behavior that is considered deviant but cannot be eradicated from society, and such organizations prevent tensions from accumulating; thus tolerance of some deviant behavior in various safety-valve organizations prevents more serious problems. Hence, a function of the deviant act itself can be said to be a primary safety-valve that, on a scale that is more individual and psychological, precedes contact with organizations that standardly engage in the same function.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Safety-valve institutions range from mostly legal and reputable (strikes, arts, and  sports), to less so (pranks, casinos and gambling institutions in general, pornography) to mostly illegal (prostitution). Societies of different kinds vary widely in the legal status of these activities. In their most extreme, aggression in general and war in particular have also been described as safety-valve institutions.
+With regard to specific organizations, Better Business Bureau has been described as a safety valve institution, as it "mitigates conflicts between business and consumer". Safety-valve organizations can exist in politics, where they provide an outlet for those dissatisfied with the political and social situation to legally organize and discuss it. For example, Saugat K. Biswas notes that the Indian National Congress was such an organization in late 19th-century India. Moren-Alegret similarly discusses the Portuguese NGO Secretariado Coordenador das Acções de Legalização (Coordinating Secretariat for Legalization Actions, an immigrant association) in a similar context. As an example of mostly criminal safety-valve organizations, Farchild discusses the Japanese yakuza.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Theories of humor
+Total institution
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salad_bowl_(cultural_idea)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salad_bowl_(cultural_idea)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Salad bowl (cultural idea)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salad_bowl_(cultural_idea)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:32.928399+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A salad bowl or tossed salad is a metaphor for the way an intercultural society can integrate different cultures while maintaining their separate identities, contrasting with a melting pot, which emphasizes the combination of the parts into a single whole. In Canada the latter metaphor is common, but this concept is also commonly approximated by cultural mosaic.
+In the salad bowl model, different cultures are brought together—like salad ingredients—but do not form together into a single homogeneous culture; each culture keeps its own distinct qualities. This idea proposes a society of many individual cultures, since the latter suggests that ethnic groups may be unable to preserve their heritage.
+New York City can be considered a "salad bowl". A European example is its policy for "integration of non-European nationals", which finances and promotes integration initiatives targeting those who are not members of the European Union. This project aims to encourage dialogue in civil society, develop integration models, and spread and highlight the best initiatives regarding integration. 
+The salad bowl idea in practice has its supporters and detractors. Supporters argue that being "American" does not inherently tie a person to a single culture, though rather to citizenship and loyalty to the United States. Thus, one does not need to abandon one's cultural heritage in order to be considered "American". Critics tend to oppose the idea in tandem with other critiques on multiculturalism, saying that the US needs to have a common culture in order to preserve a common national identity.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Multiculturalism in Canada
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Lind, Michael. The Next American Nation: The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution. 1996
+Schmidt, Alvin J. The Menace of Multiculturalism: Trojan Horse in America. 1997
+Huntington, Samuel P. Who Are We?: The Challenges to America's National Identity. 2005
+Chua, Amy. Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance and Why They Fall. 2007
+Kolb, Eva. The Evolution of New York City's Multiculturalism: Melting Pot or Salad Bowl. 2009
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_Science_and_Reflexivity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_Science_and_Reflexivity-0.md
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+---
+title: "Science of Science and Reflexivity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_Science_and_Reflexivity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:34.118302+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Science of Science and Reflexivity is a book on the sociology of science by Pierre Bourdieu, published in 2004 by the University of Chicago Press. 
+It was published in French in 2001 by Editions Raisons d' Agir as Science de la science et réflexivite.
+
+
+== Synopsis ==
+Translated into English shortly after the death of Bourdieu and based on his final course given at the College de France, this book defends science's and sociology's capacity to produce objective, transhistorical truths although – or perhaps because – it is based on determined socio-historical and cultural conditions. 
+Science's "historical production of transhistorical truths" stems, according to Bourdieu, from the fact that scientists, in their pursuits, agree that their productions are vetted by their most direct and prepared antagonists and competitors. In making this case, Bourdieu mobilizes his concepts of "field", "habitus", "disposition", and "symbolic capital". 
+The book is organized in three parts: the first is an overview of the field of science studies; the second illustrates Bourdieu's own theory; and the third, presented as a discussion on the need for reflexivity in the sociology of science, includes an autobiographical account of Bourdieu's own trajectory.
+
+
+== Content ==
+The book's first section, titled "The state of the question", is an account of sociology-of-science studies, discussing Robert Merton, Thomas Kuhn, and the more recent scholars David Bloor, Barry Barnes, Harry Collins, Steven Shapin, and Karin Knorr-Cetina, and focusing a rather severe critique on the work of Bruno Latour. The critique of Latour's constructivist work, of his laboratory studies and actor network theory, is considered by most readers as being dogmatic, as not fully justified, or as based on a misreading of Latour's theses. According to sociologist Charles Camic, Bourdieu in this first section of his book appears to believe that important work had already been done by himself, which "the new sociologists of science vociferously discover and reveal".
+Bourdieu believes that science in general, sociology in particular, are subject to a double threat: one external, from socioeconomic and political incursions against the autonomy of science; and one internal, from sociological deconstruction that denies science's capacity to achieve objective knowledge and transhistorical truths. In his view, the second challenge may provide ammunition to the first.
+In the book's second section, titled "A world apart", Bourdieu  summarizes his own science-of-science framework based on the concepts of habitus, practices, field, and symbolic capital. Field is intended – as in physics – as a space governed by the relative forces of the actors that occupy it, with incumbents endowed with larger symbolic capital that exerts stronger action to preserve or modify the field itself. Symbolic capital includes scientific
+capital proper (personal or of the researcher's affiliation) and administrative/temporal capital, linked, e.g., to power in the allocation of resources. "Disposition" can be, for example,
+
+'a rejection of the heroic and revolutionary'; a rebeliousnes toward the educational system; or audacity, elegance, and ease,
+while "habitus" is practices differentiated according to variables of sex, social origin, and disciplinary customs and dispositions.
+A key passage in this, the book's second part, concerns Bourdieu's vision of the Archimedean point of view achieved by science (the italics are Bourdieu's):
+
+The fact that producers tend to have as their clients only their most rigorous and vigorous competitors, the most competent and the most critical, those therefore most inclined and most able to give their critique full force, is for me the Archimedean point on which one can stand to give a scientific account of scientific reason, to rescue scientific reason from relativistic reduction, and to explain how science can constantly progress toward more rationality without having to appeal to some kind of founding miracle.
+What is it that makes research "a world apart"? Bourdieu lists five elements that distinguish science from other human endeavors. These are a faith in rationality; a belief in, or assertion of, the disinterestedness of science that he calls a scientific illusio; instruments and epistemological tools that are used in science; mathematics; and the experimental method. This could, however, for a commentator, be just Bourdieu's 'own brand of socioanalysis'.
+In the book's third section, "Why the social sciences must take themselves as an object", Bourdieu analyzes what the social sciences need to do to become scientific. The comparison with the natural sciences indicates that part of the natural sciences' success flows from their having won a relative autonomy from the rest of society. Social inquiry is more entangled with societal interests and pressures. 
+In Bourdieu's words,
+
+One may wonder why the social sciences have so much difficulty in winning recognition of their autonomy, why it is so hard to gain acceptance for a discovery outside the field or even within it. The social sciences, especially sociology, have an object too important (it interests everyone, starting with the powerful), too controversial,
+for it to be left to their discretion [...] for them to be granted the same degree of autonomy as is given to the other sciences.
+Social investigators can overcome these challenges by becoming especially reflexive of their own presuppositions and biases in the pursuit of their investigations.
+Part 3 also contains a self-analysis from the author, who shows how he is willing to apply reflexivity to himself, offering to the reader an analysis of how his own habitus and dispositions have evolved over his career.
+For Theodore Schatzki, Bourdieu's theory for a sociohistorical enterprise leading to transhistorical truths, couched in his habitus-practice-field framework, is very close to  Jürgen Habermas' idea that scientific disputes are settled by “the force of the better argument.” For sociologist David R. Inglis, Bourdieu's framework is  close to Karl Popper’s idea of constant ‘conjectures and refutations’. For Bourdieu, however, neither Habermas nor Popper specifies the societal arrangements that bring about the outcome.
+An effective summary of Bourdieu's thesis in this book is offered by Inglis: 
+
+In sum, then, the scientific field’s antagonistic relations, far from undercutting the pursuit of truth, are in fact the preconditions for such a pursuit, but only so long as the field itself is autonomous of external forces which would otherwise pervert its dialogical operations.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_deviance-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_deviance-0.md
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+---
+title: "Secondary deviance"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_deviance"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:35.344929+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+From a sociological perspective, deviance is defined as the violation or drift from the accepted social norms.
+Secondary deviance is a stage in a theory of deviant identity formation.  Introduced by Edwin Lemert in 1951, primary deviance is  engaging in the initial act of deviance, he subsequently suggested that secondary deviance is the process of a deviant identity, integrating it into conceptions of self, potentially affecting the individual long term. For example, if a gang engaged in primary deviant behavior such as acts of violence, dishonesty or drug addiction, subsequently moved to legally deviant or criminal behavior, such as murder, this would be the stage of secondary deviance.
+Primary acts of deviance are common in everyone, however these are rarely thought of as criminal acts. Secondary deviance is much more likely to be considered as criminal in a social context. The act is likely to be labelled as deviant and criminal, which can have the effect of an individual internalizing that label and acting out accordingly.
+Lemert made another distinction between primary deviance and secondary deviance. Originally, there may not be a distinguished group of "deviant" people, but instead we all switch in and out of deviant behavior and a minority or these individuals starting the rule-breaking acts actually get the attention of others. In that very moment, a person is engaging in secondary deviance and it is said that they start following a more deviant path, or a deviant career - would be a set of roles shaped by the reactions of others in different situations. One's self-identity is vulnerable to all of the social judgement and criticism, and once more we see the continued interplay between the mind, self and society. As Erving Goffman (1961, 1963) showed, when an individual is labelled with a "discrediting" social attribute like shyness can often serve as a permanent mark on one's character.
+
+
+== Deviancy process ==
+Lemert listed out the process, which he decided, was the way that an individual becomes a secondary deviant.
+
+Primary Deviation;
+Societal Penalties;
+Further primary deviation;
+Stronger penalties and rejections;
+Further deviation;
+Crisis reached in the tolerance quotient, expressed in formal action by the community stigmatizing the deviant;
+Strengthening of the deviant conduct as a reaction to the stigmatizing and penalties, and;
+Ultimate acceptance of deviant and social status and efforts at adjustment on the basis of the associated role.
+
+
+== Secondary deviance in culture and society ==
+
+
+=== Japan ===
+In Japan the punitive sanctions tend to be more important. The conditions in prison are harsh and some of the interrogated offenders have their rights disregarded. However, Japan has decreased their criminal recidivism rate. Criminal Recidivism is repetition of criminal behavior by an offender previously convicted and punished for an offence. It is also a measure of the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs or the deterrent effect of punishment. Explaining recidivism in the U.S., the labeling or secondary deviance perspective has some merit to go with it. Individuals in both countries have common point of views that are unique to their own cultures. As part of the individualism enforced in the United States, individuals are taught to seek self-importance and personal autonomy. One learns that he or she is not supposed to submit to others but should always try to ascend above and beyond others. The offender surfaces in the weak relationship built between the individual and the society in which it requires them to accept authority. The offender is usually prepared to test their social power and have a negative response in order to prove that they are still more important than society itself. Opposite to the conventional labeling perspective which is said to promote secondary deviance, social reaction actually provides for aggravating secondary deviance. In Japan, an individual appreciates the society in which he was born and raised. That tendency comes from what is learned culturally about integration with the society. The social reaction towards offenders in Japan has slighter recidivist consequences rather than in the United States.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Deviance (sociology)
+Drug addiction
+Edwin Lemert
+Erving Goffman
+Interactionism
+Labelling theory
+Primary deviance
+Recidivism
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy-0.md
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+---
+title: "Self-fulfilling prophecy"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:36.562751+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true at least in part as a result of a person's belief or expectation that the prediction would come true. In the phenomena, people tend to act the way they have been expected to in order to make the expectations come true. Self-fulfilling prophecies are an example of the more general phenomenon of positive feedback loops. A self-fulfilling prophecy can have either negative or positive outcomes. Merely applying a label to someone or something can affect the perception of the person/thing and create a self-fulfilling prophecy. Interpersonal communication plays a significant role in establishing these phenomena as well as impacting the labeling process.
+American sociologists W. I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas were the first Western scholars to investigate this phenomenon. In 1928, they developed the Thomas theorem (also known as the Thomas dictum): "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." Another American sociologist, Robert K. Merton, continued the research, and is credited with coining the term "self-fulfilling prophecy" and popularizing the idea that "a belief or expectation, correct or incorrect, could bring about a desired or expected outcome." The works of philosophers Karl Popper and Alan Gewirth also contributed to the idea.
+
+== History ==
+An early precursor of the concept appears in Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: "During many ages, the prediction, as it is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment".
+The phrase "self-fulfilling prophecy" was coined by Robert K. Merton, a sociologist who also developed the ideas of anomie, social structure, and the modes of individual adaption. In his book Social Theory and Social Structure, he uses the example of a bank run to show how self-fulfilling thoughts can make unwanted situations happen. In his illustration, rumors spread about the town that the local bank is going to file for bankruptcy, causing many people to rush to the bank and close their accounts. Because banks do not keep their total assets in cash, the bank was unable to fulfill all its customers' withdrawals, which eventually caused the bank to go bankrupt. Merton concludes with the analysis, "The prophecy of collapse led to its own fulfillment".
+While Merton's example focused on self-fulfilling prophecies within a community, self-fulfilling prophecies also apply to individuals, as individuals often conform to the expectations of others. This is also known as the Pygmalion effect, based on the experiments by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, where teachers were told that a random selection of students were expected to perform exceptionally well; those students showed a significant increase in test scores at the end of the year.
+Philosopher Karl Popper called the self-fulfilling prophecy the Oedipus effect:
+
+One of the ideas I had discussed in The Poverty of Historicism was the influence of a prediction upon the event predicted. I had called this the "Oedipus effect", because the oracle played a most important role in the sequence of events which led to the fulfilment of its prophecy. [...] For a time I thought that the existence of the Oedipus effect distinguished the social from the natural sciences. But in biology, too—even in molecular biology—expectations often play a role in bringing about what has been expected.The idea is similar to that discussed by the philosopher William James as "The Will to Believe." But James viewed it positively, as the self-validation of a belief.
+
+== Applications ==
+Examples abound in studies of cognitive dissonance theory and the related self-perception theory; people will often change their attitudes to come into line with what they profess publicly.
+In the United States, the concept was broadly and consistently applied in the field of public education reform, following the War on Poverty, as teacher expectations have been shown to influence student academic performance.  Theodore Brameld noted: "In simplest terms, education already projects and thereby reinforces whatever habits of personal and cultural life are considered to be acceptable and dominant." The effects of teacher attitudes, beliefs, and values, affecting their expectations have been tested repeatedly, most notably in the Pygmalion in the Classroom study, where teachers were told arbitrarily that random students were likely to show significant intellectual growth. As a result, those random students actually ended the year with significantly greater improvement when given another IQ test. Though the changes may be subconscious, teachers who have higher expectations typically give "more time to answer questions, more specific feedback, and more approval". Likewise, students who have positive experiences with their teachers may study more. Academic self-fulfilling prophecies can be negative, however: one study indicated that female students may perform worse if they expect their male instructor to be sexist.
+The phenomenon of the "inevitability of war" is a self-fulfilling prophecy that has received considerable study.
+Fear of failure leads to deterioration of results, even if the person is objectively able to adequately cope with the problem. For example, fear of falling leads to more falls among older people.
+Americans of Chinese and Japanese origin are more likely to die of a heart attack on the 4th of each month, due to the number four being considered unlucky and a portent of death.
+Moore's law predicting that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years is often considered as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
+The belief that a bank is insolvent may help create the fact, but confidence in the bank's prospects may improve them. Similarly, stock-exchange panics and speculative bubbles can be both triggered by a widespread belief that the stock will go down (or up), thus starting the selling/buying mass move, etc.
+People adapt to the judgments and assessments made by society, regardless of whether they were originally correct or not. There are certain prejudices against a socially marginalized group (e.g., homeless people, drug addicts or other minorities), and therefore, people in this marginalized group actually begin to behave in accordance with expectations.
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+---
+title: "Self-fulfilling prophecy"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:36.562751+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Relationships ===
+A leading study by Columbia University found that self-fulfilling prophecies have some part in relationships: the beliefs by people in relationships can impact the likelihood of a breakup or the overall health of the relationship. L. Alan Sroufe suggested that "rejection expectations can lead people to behave in ways that elicit rejection from others." The study looked at the inner workings behind the role of self-fulfilling prophecies in romantic relationships of people who were deemed high in rejection sensitivity, which was defined as "the disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection". The study found that women were more likely to experience rejection sensitivity in comparison to the negativity held by men about the future of their relationships, and that women sensitive to rejection "may be more likely to behave in ways that exacerbate conflicts," which could lead to behavior that would "erode their partners' relationship satisfaction and commitment."
+Other specific examples discussed in psychology include:
+
+"Clever Hans" effect
+Observer-expectancy effect
+Hawthorne effect
+Placebo effect
+Nocebo effect
+Pygmalion effect
+Stereotype threat
+
+=== International relations ===
+Self-fulfilling prophecies have been apparent throughout history with the 'Thucydides trap': the occurrence of a rising power threatening a ruling or dominant power. Thucydides was an Athenian historian and general who recorded the Peloponnesian war between Sparta and Athens. He wrote, "It was the rise of Athens and the fear that this instilled in Sparta that made war inevitable."
+Another example of self-fulfilling prophecies is the United States' invasion of Iraq in 2003. The invasion was based on the assumption that Iraq posed a terrorist threat to the United States, though evidence shows that no threat was actually posed. The invasion and subsequent overthrowing of the Ba'athist regime created the conditions for an insurgency that resulted in Iraq becoming a stronghold for the terrorist organization Al Qaeda, thus fulfilling the initial belief of a potential threat.
+
+== Stereotype ==
+Self-fulfilling prophecies are one of the main contributions to racial prejudice and vice versa. According to the Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity & Culture, "Self-fulfilling prophecy makes it possible to highlight the tragic vicious circle which victimizes people twice: first, because the victim is stigmatized with an inherent negative quality; and secondly, because he or she is prevented from disproving this quality." An example is given where white workers expected that black people would be against the principles of trade unionism because they considered black workers to be "undisciplined in traditions of trade unionism and the art of collective bargain-ing." Due to this belief, black workers were not hired at white-owned businesses, which made black workers unable to learn the principles of trade unionism, and thus prevented them from unionizing.
+Teachers can encourage stereotype-based courses and can interact with students in a manner that encourages self-fulfilling thoughts: for example, female students may seem to be bad at math if teachers never encouraged them to improve their mathematical abilities.
+The term "self-fulfilling prophecy" made its first appearance in educational literature in the 1960s, when African-American psychologist Kenneth B. Clark studied the responses of black children to black and white dolls. The responses from Clark's study ranged from some children calling the black doll ugly to one girl bursting into tears when prompted to pick the doll she identified with. The black children internalized the inferiority they learned and acted accordingly. Clark, whose work pushed the Supreme Court to desegregate schools, noted the influence of teachers on the achievement levels between Black and White students. This prompted Clark to begin a study in ten inner-city schools where he assessed the attitudes and behaviors of teachers. The belief held by teachers was that minority students were unintelligent, and therefore the teachers put no effort into teaching them. This led to a feedback loop of those students not being educated, and thus being perceived as unintelligent.
+
+== Literature, media, and the arts ==
+
+In literature, self-fulfilling prophecies are often used as plot devices. They have been used in stories for millennia, but are especially popular in science fiction and fantasy. They are often used for dramatic irony, with the prophesied events coming to pass due to the attempts to prevent the prophecy. They are also sometimes used as comic relief.
+
+=== Classical ===
+Many myths, legends, and fairy-tales make use of this motif as a central element of narratives that are designed to illustrate inexorable fate, fundamental to the Hellenic world-view. In a common motif, a child, whether newborn or not yet conceived, is prophesied to cause something that those in power do not want to happen, but the prophesied events come about as a result of the actions taken to prevent them.
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+---
+title: "Self-fulfilling prophecy"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:36.562751+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Greek ====
+The word "prophet" is derived from the Greek word prophete, meaning "one who speaks for another."
+The best-known example from Greek legend is that of Oedipus. Warned that his child would one day kill him, Laius abandoned his newborn son Oedipus to die, but Oedipus was found and raised by others, and thus in ignorance of his true origins. When he grew up, Oedipus was warned that he would kill his father and marry his mother. He sought to avoid this, and, believing his foster parents to be his real parents, left his home and travelled to Greece, eventually reaching the city where his biological parents lived. There, he got into a fight with a stranger, killed him, and married his widow, only to discover that the stranger he had killed was his biological father, and his new wife was his biological mother.
+Although the legend of Perseus opens with the prophecy that he will kill his grandfather Acrisius, the prophecy is only self-fulfilling in some variants. In some, he accidentally spears his grandfather at a competition—an act that could have happened regardless of Acrisius' response to the prophecy. In other variants, his presence at the games is due to his hearing of the prophecy. In still others, Acrisius is one of the wedding guests when Polydectes tries to force Danaë to marry him, and is accidentally killed when Perseus turns all the guests to stone with the Gorgon's head.
+Greek historiography provides a famous variant: when the Lydian king Croesus asked the Delphic Oracle if he should invade Persia, the response came that if he did, he would destroy a great kingdom. Assuming this meant he would succeed, he attacked, only to fail—the kingdom he destroyed was his own.
+When it was predicted that Cronos would be overthrown by his son, and usurp his throne as King of the Gods, Cronus ate his children, each shortly after they were born, enraging his wife, Rhea. To get revenge, when she bore Zeus, she gave Cronos a stone to eat instead, sending Zeus to be raised by Amalthea. Cronos' attempt to avoid the prophecy made Zeus his enemy, ultimately leading to its fulfilment.
+
+==== Roman ====
+
+The story of Romulus and Remus is another example. According to legend, a man overthrew his brother, the king. He then ordered that his two nephews, Romulus and Remus, be drowned, fearing that they would someday kill him as he did to his brother. The boys were placed in a basket and thrown in the Tiber River. A wolf found the babies and she raised them. Later, a shepherd found the twins and named them Romulus and Remus. As teenagers, they discovered their heritage, and killed their uncle in revenge, fulfilling the prophecy.
+
+==== Arabic ====
+A variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy is the self-fulfilling dream, which dates back to medieval Arabic literature. Several tales in the One Thousand and One Nights, also known as the Arabian Nights, use this device to foreshadow what is going to happen, as a special form of literary prolepsis. A notable example is "The Ruined Man Who Became Rich Again Through a Dream", in which a man is told in his dream to leave his native city of Baghdad and travel to Cairo, where he will discover the whereabouts of some hidden treasure. The man travels there and experiences misfortune after losing belief in the prophecy, ending up in jail, where he tells his dream to a police officer. The officer mocks the idea of foreboding dreams and tells the protagonist that he himself had a dream about a house with a courtyard and fountain in Baghdad where treasure is buried under the fountain. The man recognizes the place as his own house and, after he is released from jail, he returns home and digs up the treasure. In other words, the dream not only revealed a course of action but allowed its revelation to be actualized. A variant of this story later appears in English folklore as the "Pedlar of Swaffham".
+Another variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy can be seen in "The Tale of Attaf", where Harun al-Rashid consults his library (the House of Wisdom), reads a random book, "falls to laughing and weeping and dismisses the faithful vizier" Ja'far ibn Yahya from sight. Ja'far, "disturbed and upset flees Baghdad and plunges into a series of adventures in Damascus, involving Attaf and the woman whom Attaf eventually marries." After returning to Baghdad, Ja'far reads the same book that caused Harun to laugh and weep, and discovers that it describes his own adventures with Attaf. In other words, it was Harun's reading of the book that provoked the adventures described in the book to take place. This is an early example of reverse causality. In the 12th century, this tale was translated into Latin by Petrus Alphonsi and included in his Disciplina Clericalis. In the 14th century, a version of this tale also appears in the Gesta Romanorum and Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron.
+
+==== Hinduism ====
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+---
+title: "Self-fulfilling prophecy"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:36.562751+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Self-fulfilling prophecies appear in classical Sanskrit literature. In the story of Krishna in the Indian epic Mahabharata, the ruler of the Mathura kingdom, Kamsa, afraid of a prophecy that predicted his death at the hands of his sister Devaki's son, had her cast into prison where he planned to kill all of her children at birth. After killing the first six children, and Devaki's apparent miscarriage of the seventh, Krishna (the eighth son) was born. As his life was in danger he was smuggled out to be raised by his foster parents Yashoda and Nanda in the village of Gokula. Years later, Kamsan learned about the child's escape and kept sending various demons to put an end to him. The demons were defeated at the hands of Krishna and his brother Balarama. Krishna, as a young man returned to Mathura to overthrow his uncle, and Kamsa was eventually killed by his nephew Krishna. It was due to Kamsa's attempts to prevent the prophecy that it came true, thus fulfilling the prophecy.
+
+==== Ruthenian ====
+Oleg of Novgorod was a Varangian prince who ruled over the Rus people during the early tenth century. As old East Slavic chronicles say, it was prophesied by the pagan priests that Oleg's stallion would be the source of Oleg's death. To avoid this he sent the horse away. Many years later he asked where his horse was, and was told that it had died. He asked to see the remains and was taken to the place where the bones lay. When he touched the horse's skull with his boot a snake slithered from the skull and bit him. Oleg died, thus fulfilling the prophecy. In the Primary Chronicle, Oleg is known as the Prophet, ironically referring to the circumstances of his death. The story was romanticized by Alexander Pushkin in his celebrated ballad "The Song of the Wise Oleg". In Scandinavian traditions, this legend lived on in the saga of Orvar-Odd.
+
+==== European fairy-tales ====
+Many fairy-tales, such as The Devil With the Three Golden Hairs, The Fish and the Ring, The Story of Three Wonderful Beggars, or The King Who Would Be Stronger Than Fate, feature a prophecy that a poor boy will marry a rich girl (or, less frequently, a poor girl will marry a rich boy). This is story type 930 in the Aarne–Thompson classification scheme. The girl's father's efforts to prevent it are the reason why the boy ends up marrying her.
+Another fairy-tale occurs with older children. In The Language of the Birds, a father forces his son to tell him what the birds say: that the father would be the son's servant. In The Ram, the father forces his daughter to tell him her dream: that her father would hold an ewer for her to wash her hands in. In both, the father takes the child's response as evidence of malice and drives the child off; this allows the child to change so that the father will not recognize his own offspring later and so offer to act as the child's servant.
+In some variants of Sleeping Beauty, such as Sun, Moon, and Talia, the sleep is not brought about by a curse, but a prophecy that she will be endangered by flax (or hemp) results in the royal order to remove all the flax or hemp from the castle, resulting in her ignorance of the danger and her curiosity.
+
+==== Shakespeare ====
+Shakespeare's Macbeth is another classic example of a self-fulfilling prophecy. The three witches prophecy that Macbeth will eventually become king, but that the offspring of his best friend will rule instead of his own. Spurred by the prophecy, Macbeth kills the king and his own friend, something he arguably would not have done otherwise, leading to a revolution against him, and his death. The later prophecy by the first apparition of the witches that Macbeth should "Beware Macduff" is also a self-fulfilling prophecy. If Macbeth had not been told this, then he might not have regarded Macduff as a threat. Therefore, he would not have killed Macduff's family, and Macduff would not have sought revenge and killed Macbeth.
+
+=== Modern ===
+
+==== New age religion ====
+The law of attraction is a typical example of self-fulfilling prophecy. It is the name given to the belief that "like attracts like" and that by focusing on positive or negative thoughts, one can bring about positive or negative results. According to this law, all things are created first by imagination, which leads to thoughts, then to words and actions. The thoughts, words and actions held in mind affect someone's intentions which makes the expected result happen. Although there are some cases where positive or negative attitudes can produce corresponding results (principally the placebo and nocebo effects), there is no scientific basis to the law of attraction.
+
+== Sports ==
+Some researchers from 2008 found that in basketball, the head coaches gave more biased feedback while the assistant coaches gave more critical feedback. They predicted this was due to the external expectations from the coaches to the athletes which could have resulted in the Pygmalion effect with positive and negative results.
+Researcher Helen Brown published findings of two experiments performed on athletes, investigating the effect that the media has on them, and concluded that the athlete's performance was impacted by and aligned with expectations of  their performance. A follow-up experiment in London found that such expectations can impact their judgement and thought processes, and can even have a dangerous and destructive impact on some athletes.
+
+== Causal loop ==
+
+A self-fulfilling prophecy may be a form of causality loop. Predestination does not necessarily involve a supernatural power, and could be the result of other "infallible foreknowledge" mechanisms. Problems arising from infallibility and influencing the future are explored in Newcomb's paradox. A notable fictional example of a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs in classical play Oedipus Rex, in which Oedipus becomes the king of Thebes, whilst in the process unwittingly fulfills a prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother. The prophecy itself serves as the impetus for his actions, and thus it is self-fulfilling. The movie 12 Monkeys heavily deals with themes of predestination and the Cassandra complex, where the protagonist who travels back in time explains that he cannot change the past.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+Sayers, Dorothy L.: Oedipus Simplex: Freedom and Fate in Folklore and Fiction.
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+---
+title: "Self-made man"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-made_man"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:37.731140+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A self-made man is a person whose success is of their own making.
+Benjamin Franklin, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, has been described as the greatest exemplar of the self-made man. Inspired by Franklin's autobiography, Frederick Douglass developed the concept of the self-made man in a series of lectures that spanned decades starting in 1879.
+Originally, the term referred to an individual who arises from a poor or otherwise disadvantaged background to eminence in financial, political or other areas by nurturing qualities, such as perseverance and diligence, as opposed to achieving these goals through inherited fortune, family connections, or other privileges. By the mid-1950s, success in the United States generally implied "business success".
+
+== Origins ==
+According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first documented written usage of "self-made man" was in English physician and philosopher John Bulwer's 1650 poem about body modification, Anthropetamorophosis, or, The Artificial Changeling.
+The phrase "self-made man" in its modern sense can be found in both American and British periodicals in the 1820s. General Samuel Blackburn running for office in Virginia in 1824 used it to describe himself. The English writer William Hazlitt described Lord Chatham in The New Monthly Magazine in 1826 as "a self-made man, bred in a camp, not in a court." An 1831 obituarist in The Liberator describing Rev. Thomas Paul wrote, "As a self-made man, (and, in the present age, every colored man, if made at all, must be self-made,) he was indeed a prodigy."
+An oft-repeated but no longer credible claim is that the term "self-made man" was "coined" on February 2, 1832, by Henry Clay in the United States Senate. (Historian Irvin G. Wyllie used Clay's Senate speech on that date as his first example of its use in his 1954 book, The Self-Made Man in America: The Myth of Rags to Riches, stating that it "was first applied" on that occasion).
+
+== Self-made man metrics ==
+In 2014, Forbes introduced a new metric to the individuals who earned a place on the Forbes 400 wealthiest list. This metric indicates how much a person on the list was responsible for creating his or her wealth. The highest ranking of ten was earned by bootstrappers like Oprah Winfrey and George Soros, who grew up poor and had to "overcome significant obstacles" to earn the status of self-made billionaires. The lowest score of one was assigned to billionaires who had inherited their fortune then did not work to increase it.
+
+== Self-made men ==
+Benjamin Franklin, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, has been described as "undoubtedly the original self-made man." and the greatest exemplar of the "self-made man". Both the American Dream and the self-made man concepts are inextricably linked and are rooted in American history. Franklin's autobiography was described by the editor of the 1916 edition, as the "most remarkable of all the remarkable histories of our self-made men". His autobiography, which was dedicated to his son William Franklin, with the first chapter based on a 1771 letter to William, was used as illustrative of the journey of the self-made man in the eighteenth century in Colonial United States. Franklin introduced the archetypal self-made man through his own life story in which in spite of all odds he overcame his low and humble origins and inherited social position—his father was a candle-maker—to re-invent himself through self-improvement based on a set of strong moral values such as "industry, economy, and perseverance" thereby attaining "eminence" in the classic rags to riches narrative. Franklin's maxims as published in his Autobiography provide others, specifically his own son, with strategies for attaining status in the United States, described as a "land of unequaled opportunity" in the last quarter of the 18th century.
+F. W. Pine wrote in his introduction of the 1916 publication of The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, that Franklin's biography provided the "most remarkable of all the remarkable histories of our self-made men" with Franklin as the greatest exemplar of the "self-made man".
+
+"Franklin is a good type of our American manhood. Although not the wealthiest or the most powerful, he is undoubtedly, in the versatility of his genius and achievements, the greatest of our self-made men. The simple yet graphic story in the Autobiography of his steady rise from humble boyhood in a tallow-chandler shop, by industry, economy, and perseverance in self-improvement, to eminence, is the most remarkable of all the remarkable histories of our self-made men. It is in itself a wonderful illustration of the results possible to be attained in a land of unequaled opportunity by following Franklin's maxims."
+Franklin and Frederick Douglass, describe the "self-made man in similar language: "Being possessionless and unencumbered by authority is the necessary beginning state for the potential self-made man. One cannot be "made" by the help of a father, teacher, mentor, etc. ..., but must rise by one's own grit, determination, discipline, and opportunism. The irony is that they have made themselves free from bounds and possessions, in a sense impoverished, so that they can then begin to acquire power and wealth on their own. The key is to acquire those possessions and power without help. The goal, then, is not to become famous or wealthy in the literal sense, but to participate in something precise and mythical."
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+---
+title: "Self-made man"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-made_man"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:37.731140+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Frederick Douglass developed the concepts in a series of lectures "Self-Made Men" from 1859 onward, for example 1895, which were published and archived in "The Frederick Douglass Papers at the Library of Congress". In his 1872 lecture Douglass noted that there were "no such men as self-made men. That term implies an individual independence of the past and present which can never exist ... Our best and most valued acquisitions have been obtained either from our contemporaries or from those who have preceded us in the field of thought and discovery. We have all either begged, borrowed or stolen. We have reaped where others have sown, and that which others have strown, we have gathered." However, he then provided one of his most detailed descriptions of the self-made man,
+
+Self-made men are the men who, under peculiar difficulties and without the ordinary helps of favoring circumstances, have attained knowledge, usefulness, power and position and have learned from themselves the best uses to which life can be put in this world, and in the exercises of these uses to build up worthy character. They are the men who owe little or nothing to birth, relationship, friendly surroundings; to wealth inherited or to early approved means of education; who are what they are, without the aid of any favoring conditions by which other men usually rise in the world and achieve great results. ... They are the men who, in a world of schools, academies, colleges and other institutions of learning, are often compelled by unfriendly circumstances to acquire their education elsewhere and, amidst unfavorable conditions, to hew out for themselves a way to success, and thus to become the architects of their own good fortunes. ... From the depths of poverty such as these have often come. ... From hunger, rags and destitution, they have come ..."
+
+Abraham Lincoln, Michael Faraday, George Stephenson, Charles Dickens, Frederick Douglass, P. T. Barnum, Booker T. Washington, Andrew Carnegie, and Henry Ford have also been described as self-made men. Both Carnegie and Lee Iacocca acknowledge that their own autobiographies were influenced by Franklin's. In theirs, both Lincoln and Ronald Reagan described their own origins as somewhat disadvantaged to reflect the narrative of self-made men. Blumenthal began his 2016 biography of Lincoln—A Self-Made Man—with the phrase, "I used to be a slave", referring to Lincoln's claim in 1856 that his "domineering and uneducated father" "exploited" young Lincoln by "renting" him out to "rural neighbors in Indiana." Following his escape from servitude, Lincoln re-invented himself. Lincoln was inspired by Franklin's Autobiography.
+The Industrial Revolution spurred the growth of new businesses formed by self-made men in various industries that appeared in towns and cities throughout Britain. According to food historian Polly Russell: "Manufacturers such as Huntley & Palmers in Reading, Carr's of Carlisle and McVitie's in Edinburgh transformed from small family-run businesses into state-of-the-art operations". In addition to goods being sold in the growing number of stores, street sellers were common in an increasingly urbanized country. The soft drinks company, R. White's Lemonade, began in 1845 by selling drinks in London streets in a wheelbarrow. As the spa town of Harrogate, England, grew in size and prosperity in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the self-made men Richard Ellis, George Dawson, and David Simpson, became rich property developers, and draper's apprentice John Turner became even more prosperous as the town's moneylender.
+In an 1893 article in a railway magazine, Eugene V. Debs offered Andrew Johnson (1808 – 1875), the 17th President of the United States, Henry Wilson (1812–1875) was the 18th Vice President of the United States (1873–1875), Daniel Webster (1782 – 1852) who served twice as United States Secretary of State, Edward Everett, and Rufus Choate as exemplary nineteenth-century self-made men. Debs contrasted the successful self-made men to those whose "illiteracy, stupidity, lack of ambition, forever keeps them at the bottom ... [who] prefer pool to school, and choose to hammer coal and shovel it into a fire-box rather than employ their leisure in learning what they must know if they expect to rise." He calls on them to "resolve upon a change of habits — renounce follies and vices, obtain elementary books and study."
+In John G. Cawelti's 1965 book Apostles of the self-made man, he listed Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Horatio Alger, and John Dewey as individuals "who either played a major role in shaping the success ideal or were associate with it in the public mind."
+In the restaurant business Frank Giuffrida, the owner and manager of the Hilltop Steak House which opened in Saugus 1961 and became the biggest restaurant in the United States by the 1980s, is described as self-made man in the Slate article.
+Frank Giuffrida's parents were Sicilian immigrants who lived in Lawrence, Massachusetts. He began to work before he completed high school to run the family butcher shop when his father died. He opened the Hilltop Steakhouse after he sold the family store. His innovative strategy was to offer large size portions in a large scale restaurant, making up for the extra cost of generous portions by the economy of scale. According to the New York Times, the "Hilltop exceeded $27 million gross" in 1987.
+In the field of modern art, Arshile Gorky has been described as a self-made man who rose from "a dark, rich peasant culture" to prominence among "New York modern artists" through his "self-taught erudition and aggressive principles."
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+title: "Self-made man"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-made_man"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:37.731140+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Self-made women ==
+Zhou Qunfei is a Chinese entrepreneur and founder of Lens Technology, a major supplier of touch screens for smartphones and tablets. According to Forbes magazine, as of 2024, she was ranked as the world's ninth richest self-made woman. Based on Forbes metric for ranking billionaires, Zhou Qunfei's score would be ten, as she was born poor and arose to eminence through her own work and initiative.
+Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw is a philanthropist and self-made entrepreneur in India's biotechnology industry. She is the founder, executive chairperson, and former managing director of Biocon Limited, a biopharmaceutical company based in Bengaluru.—a company she founded out of her garage in Bengaluru.
+
+== In literature and popular culture ==
+
+=== Ragged Dick (1868) ===
+
+Horatio Alger Jr.'s six-volume Ragged Dick series which began with the first full-length novel, Ragged Dick published in May 1868, a Bildungsroman "whose name became synonymous with the rags-to-riches narrative", where young Dick eventually became the successful and distinguished Richard Hunter.
+In 1947, the  Alexandria, Virginia-based Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans, which was named after Horatio Alger, to honor the importance of perseverance and hard work. The Association grants scholarships and gives the Horatio Alger Award annually. All scholarships are funded by the generosity of the members of the Horatio Alger Association.
+
+=== The Great Gatsby (1925) ===
+
+In F. Scott Fitzgerald's magnum opus The Great Gatsby, describes the downfall of the "archetypal, if somewhat misguided" "socially ambitious self-made man" Jay Gatsby who rose from "an obscure and impoverished Midwestern childhood to become a wealthy and sought-after center of Long Island society". Gatsby contrasts with Ben Franklin and the characters in Horatio Alger Jr. novels, as successful 'self-made men'. His story serves as a cautionary tale regarding the American Dream where "an unhappy fate is inevitable for the poor and striving individual, and the rich are allowed to continue without penalty their careless treatment of others' lives."
+
+== Ultra high-net-worth individuals ==
+
+According to the 2017 "World Ultra Wealth Report" by research company Wealth-X, "wealth creation" from 1997 through 2017 has been "driven largely by self-made individuals", mainly men. According to the report, ultra high-net-worth individuals (UHNWI), those who have a net worth of at least US$30 million, were "predominantly self-made" having "earned their fortunes". Two-thirds of the UHNWI sourced "their wealth from their own efforts" such as "fruitful business ventures or successful investments." Of the 226,450 UHNWIs, 66% were self-made; of the 7,200 UHNW millennials (born between 1980 and 1995), 66% were self-made; of the 28,985 UHNW women, 45% were self-made; of the 33,290 UHNWI from emerging Asia (excluding Japan, Singapore and Hong Kong), 68% were self-made; and of the 34,961 UHNW Ivy League individuals, 75% were self-made.
+
+== Cultural history ==
+In his 2000 book Creating the Modern Man, cultural historian Tom Pendergast traced the way in which the concept of the self-made man was referenced in men's magazines from 1900 through 1950. Pendergast divided masculinity into only two periods: Victorian, which was "based on property-ownership and family", and "post-Victorian", which was "based on a cult of personality, self-improvement, and narcissism". He described the "ideal Victorian man" as a "property owning man of character who believed in honesty, integrity, self-restraint, and duty to God, country, and family". The post-Victorian image of the self-made man was crucial to Pendergast's study. He revealed how through magazines men "were encouraged to form their identities around an ideology of hard work."
+
+== Criticism of concept ==
+Mike Myatt in Forbes writes that "behind every success are significant investments and contributions by some if not all the following people: family, friends, associates, protagonists, antagonists, advisors, teachers, authors, mentors, coaches, and the list could go on". Malcolm Gladwell states that "success is a product of culture of background and what your parents and great-grandparents and great great grandparents did for a living".
+In September 2011, US Senator Elizabeth Warren challenged the concept of the self-made man in a video that went viral, garnering over one million views on YouTube. Warren stated that "there is nobody in this country who got rich on his own. Nobody".
+In his book The Roots of American Individualism, Alex Zakaras describes the notion of a 'self-made man' as one of the three foundational myths of American individualism. He criticizes the concept of 'self-made' in American society as ignoring the role of social structures, privilege, and luck in shaping individual outcomes.
+
+== See also ==
+Autodidacticism
+Cultural icon
+Social class
+Epithet
+Parvenu
+Nouveau riche
+Novus homo
+New men
+Promotion (marketing)
+Rugged individualism
+Survivorship bias
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Semi-periphery countries"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-periphery_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:39.022062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In world-systems theory, semi-periphery countries are the industrializing, mostly capitalist countries that are positioned between the periphery and the core countries. Semi-periphery countries have organizational characteristics of both core countries and periphery countries and are often geographically located between core and peripheral regions as well as between two or more competing core regions.
+Semi-periphery regions play a major role in mediating economic, political, and social activities that link core and peripheral areas. These regions allow for the possibility of innovative technology, reforms in social and organizational structure, and dominance over peripheral nations. These changes can lead to a semi-periphery country being promoted to a core nation. Semi-periphery is, however, more than a description, as it also serves as a position within the world hierarchy in which social and economic change can be interpreted.
+World-systems theory describes the semi-periphery as a key structural element in the world economy. The semi-periphery plays a vital role comparative to that of the role that Spain and Portugal played in the 17th and the 18th centuries as intermediate trading groups within the European colonial empire.
+Today, the semi-periphery is generally industrialized. Semi-peripheral countries contribute to the manufacturing and exportation of a variety of goods. They are marked by above average land mass, as exemplified by Argentina, China, India, Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia, and Iran. More land mass typically means an increased market size and share. Semi-peripheral nations are not all large, however, as smaller countries such as Israel, Poland, and Greece can be described to exist within the semi-periphery.
+
+== Sociological theory ==
+Semi-peripheral countries offer their citizens relatively diverse economic opportunities but also have extreme gaps between the rich and poor. World-system theorists originally used only two categories: periphery countries and core countries. A need for an intermediate category became quickly apparent and led to the establishment of the semi-periphery category for societies that have moved away from the periphery but have not become core. In other words, the category describes societies that remain dependent and to some extent underdeveloped although they have achieved significant levels of industrialization. Semi-peripheral countries are tied into dynamic world systems that focus on the reliance of poor nations upon the wealthy, a concept known as the dependency theory. The term semi-periphery has been applied to countries that existed as early as in the 13th century. In theory, the creation of a semi-periphery category has added sociological and historical layers to previous developmental theories but still has similar, inherently capitalist, foundations.
+
+=== Function ===
+The semi-periphery is needed to stabilize the world system, as it facilitates interaction and provides a connection between the low-income peripheral states and the high-income core states by adding another step in the world system hierarchy. As the middle ground, semi-peripheral countries display characteristics of both the core and the periphery. They also serve as a political buffer zone in that while they are exploited, they are also the exploiters. Those areas have been core regions in the past or formerly-peripheral areas and have since advanced in the world economy.
+Semi-peripheral nations are a necessary structural element in a world-trade system since they can serve to alleviate the political pressures that the core can exert upon the periphery and the political unrest that the periphery can direct back at the core. On the other hand, the semi-periphery can find itself excluded from the region's politics, as it lies just outside the bounds of political arena of the core states.
+The semi-periphery exists because it needs to divide the economic power between the core and the periphery. Semi-periphery, referred to as the middle class by Wallerstein, is what makes the capitalist world function because it is much like the sociological structural functionalism theory, and norms, customs, traditions, and institutions act as "organs" that work toward the proper functioning of the "body" as a whole. Without those industrializing countries, change will never reach the periphery.
+In terms of their contribution to industry and economy, the contemporary semi-peripheral states are semi-industrialized. Semi-peripheral countries are major exporters of minerals and agricultural goods. They are often focused in the manufacturing and exportation of industrial goods and commodities. While those advances separate the semi-periphery from the periphery, they lack the power and the economic dominance of core nations and still have a lot of unmanaged poverty, which places them beneath the core. Semi-peripheral countries are important contributors to the world economy for those reasons and because they tend to have an above-average land mass and so they are host to an above average-market. A primary example is China, a country with not only a large area but also a large population.
+
+== History and development ==
+
+=== 13th century ===
+
+This era of human history found the semi-periphery concentrated in the area stretching from the Middle East to China, including India and the Mongol Empire, and it was the first time in history that the peripheries and semi-peripheries of the world became connected and involved in the trade of the world both with cores and with each other. Through a lucrative trade system, including heavy taxing of goods traveling through their borders, they were able to maintain a steady stream of wealth, becoming the driving forces of economic change throughout this time period. In addition, a heavy emphasis on defense and border security, particularly among the Mongols, allowed them to be fairly impenetrable trade obstacles.
+Geography also played a role, as seen in India's development of an impressive maritime industry. Because of its position along a convenient route through the Indian Ocean, India established its role as a "hinge" between the East and the West. Through their positions within the world trade system, semi-peripheries in the Middle East became crucially important in connecting the cities of Chinese and Indian cores with the fledgling cities of Europe and served as key points between other, more major core cities in the region, such as Baghdad, Cairo, and Aden.
+
+=== 1300–1450 ===
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+title: "Semi-periphery countries"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-periphery_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:39.022062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Following increases in population and commerce in Western Europe in the 13th century, the feudal system met severe economic difficulties in the 14th and the early 15th centuries. The decline in development was caused by a combination of the decline in agricultural production, the shrinking economy that had already hit its peak within the current feudal structure, and the devastating effects of the Black Plague pandemic. The regression of Western Europe into semi-periphery and periphery allowed for the rise of the trading powers of Italy, most notably Genoa and Venice. These Italian city-states took advantage of their established trade connections with the Mongol Empire, the Far East, the Middle East, and the other Mediterranean powers to maintain their growth despite the economic failures of their European trade partners. Genoa and Venice had influence beyond their trade channels. Both were instrumental in the Crusades through their provisions of troops, transport vessels, and naval ships. Genoa also assisted the Byzantine Empire by helping it recapture its capital, Constantinople, in the late 13th century. The Byzantine Empire took advantage of its strategic position along various trade routes and the decline of Western Europe to rise to core status until its fall in 1453.
+During this time period, Genoa and Venice developed forms of laissez-faire government and institutions that are viewed as precursors to modern capitalism. Despite those advances in influence and entrepreneurship, Genoa and Venice suffered from the crippling effects of the Black Plague as much of the rest of Europe before them. Venice survived because of its connection with the Southern trade route, but its strength had been much reduced by the mid-15th century. Genoa never fully recovered from the Black Death and its defeat at the hands of Venice in the late 14th century. The decline of Genoa and the shift in Venice's focus to the Red Sea trade route left the western Mediterranean and the Atlantic open to Portugal and Spain, which were already better positioned geographically to control Atlantic trade routes.
+
+=== 1450–1700 ===
+
+In a push to ensure stable economic growth, Europe turned to a capitalistic economy in the 15th and the early 16th centuries to replace the failed feudal system. Modern capitalism allowed for economies to extend beyond geographical and political boundaries and led to the formation of the first worldwide economic system. At the base of this world system was an international division of labor, which determined countries' relationships and placement within the categories of the world system: core, semi-periphery, periphery, and external. The core regions, most notably the countries of Northwestern Europe like England, France, and the Netherlands, gained the most from the world economy. Their ascension from previous peripheral and semi-peripheral status to the core was driven by the development of strong central government and military power, the combination of which made possible control of international commerce and exploitation of colonial possessions.
+At the other end of the spectrum was the periphery, marked by lack of central government, exportation of raw materials to the core, and exploitive labor practices. In that time period, especially toward the late 17th century, South America and parts of North America stood out as peripheral zones under the control and capitalistic exploitation of core countries in Europe. Slaves and indigenous workers in those regions developed raw materials for export to Europe, a distinctive characteristic of the new capitalism, as goods were no longer produced solely for internal consumption. The aristocracy of those regions controlled commerce and became wealthy through the new world economy, which led to their rise in power above the government. Even in periods of upheaval, local aristocrats relied on core European powers to assist in keeping control over the economic system.
+In between the core and the periphery was the semi-periphery, which constituted both previous core regions that had declined like Italy, Spain and Portugal, and peripheries that had improved their position, like southern Germany and southern France. Spain and Portugal had taken advantage of the opening to Atlantic control left by the decline of Italian powers like Genoa and Venice. Much like the core European powers, Spain and Portugal had strong navies and expansive colonial domains, which they exploited for their natural resources and cheap labor. Rather than using the increased wealth to develop strong domestic manufacturing sectors, like other Western European powers, Spain and Portugal used imported gold and silver to obtain manufactured goods from the core countries, which relegated them to semi-periphery, instead of core, status. They had control over several peripheral regions and exploited them, a characteristic of a core region, but those countries failed to develop the quality manufacturing industries and the access to international banking that further defined core countries, which left them a step below in the world system at semi-periphery status.
+
+=== 1700–1875 ===
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+title: "Semi-periphery countries"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-periphery_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:39.022062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The development of trade between Europe, the Americas, and the East generated massive profits for a relatively small merchant elite in the European colonial powers. Those merchants used their profits to take control of agriculture and other industries and further consolidated their power by extending control over internal markets and the prices of finished goods. The result was the development of the necessary capital to industrialize the European core states.
+The era was defined by the transition from agriculture to industrialization. The rapid development of industry triggered several reactions. Many European states explored new territories in addition to their original colonial holdings for new markets to exploit. The European world system continued to expand and include more regions, as it absorbed the Indian Ocean economic system through the acquisition of colonies by Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, among others. Previously-isolated regions, like much of the American interior zone, joined the newly-independent South American countries in becoming part of the periphery. By the 19th century, Asia and Africa had also entered the world system as peripheral regions. The development of Africa and Asia as peripheral continents allowed for new cores like the United States and Germany to improve their core status and to rise higher within the world system.
+Throughout this time period, a constant shift within core regions came from a combination of agriculture and industry to solely industrial enterprise. England was the leader in industrial and agricultural production, but by 1900, only 10% of England's populace worked in agriculture, which demonstrated the shift to industry in England but across the core stratum. The dramatic shift to industry extended beyond the core by the end of this time period, as core regions encouraged the development of manufacturing in peripheral and semi-peripheral zones to further develop those markets and create demand for newly developed machines and other goods.
+
+=== 1875–1914 ===
+
+The West represented both the core and the semi-periphery, as Europe dominated 80% of the world's market share. Much of the rest of the world was a diverse periphery though Japan was a notable exception. As expansionism continued, new core nations emerged, such as Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, and old cores such as Spain and Portugal faded to the semi-periphery. The growth of the power of the common man led to an expansion of thought concerning democracy, communism, and revolution, which pervaded the weaker semi-peripheral nations overcome with civil distress. In some cases, that led to the weakening of the nations, such as the violent revolution in France, which contributed to the adoption of totalitarian leaders, as seen in Germany and France. The major factors contributing to world war were the conflicts and power struggles taking place between the three classes of nations in the global system. Nations that were considered part of the semi-periphery felt oppressed by the stronger, larger core nations.
+
+=== 1914–today ===
+
+The trend is known to have continued throughout the 20th century, with Germany, the Soviet Union, and Japan also taking seats at the core. At the end of World War II, however, Germany quickly fell to the semi-periphery, along with war-ravaged France. As the rest of Europe struggled to rebuild itself, it also fell to the semi-periphery except for many Eastern European nations, which fell under the Eastern bloc. Japan also fell back into semi-periphery, along with China and India, until their recent upswing in influence. Change also came to North America, where American imperialism led to the rise of countries like Guatemala and the Dominican Republic. On the other side of the Pacific, Australia was also developed and helped secure an Allied victory in the war.
+
+=== Today ===
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+---
+title: "Semi-periphery countries"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-periphery_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:39.022062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In today's global hierarchy, some states are transitioning upward, and others are moving downward in terms of status and influence. Former colonial powers no longer exercise control over an international domain and are instead mostly relegated to their core; for example, former European world powers do not exert influence over colonial outposts in the Americas, Africa, or Asia but rather have consolidated their power in the form of the European Union. The new leading powers are mostly non-European (United States, Canada, Japan). Outside those developed countries are countries (see list below) that are considered semi-periphery and are both dominant and dominated within economic, political, and social realms. The middle powers are a combination of nations that have emerged as a result of the fragmentation of the Soviet Union and nations that have risen because of their possession of resources in high demand, like oil in Saudi Arabia. While those nations are by no means on the level of the stated world powers, they exert influence over the weaker nations of the impoverished Fourth World.
+Other terms used to describe semi-periphery countries include sub-imperial and semi-industrial. Immanuel Wallerstein identifies three ways by which countries can emerge from the periphery into the semi-periphery. Countries with a large market and room for industrial growth, like Brazil, South Africa, and Mexico, and countries with valuable energy resources, like Iran and Saudi Arabia, can use the strategy of seizing the chance. The strategy of promotion by invitation can be utilized by countries willing to be open to foreign governmental and regional administrative centers. Examples of countries that used that strategy are the capitalist regimes in Africa like Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Zaire, Senegal, and Côte d'Ivoire. They use dependent development to integrate into the world economy and to establish local dominance. Outside those strategies is that of self-reliance, a basic theory that as some countries grow, others will decline. Many countries in Africa and South America have exhibited the qualities of a sub-imperial or semi-industrial power.
+Wallerstein examines the role of semi-periphery countries during a period of economic downturn. To redefine core and periphery countries in an economic sense, core countries are characterized by advanced technology, high profits, high wages, and diversified production. Periphery countries have less technology, low profits, low wages, and less diversified production. Semi-periphery countries fall in the middle of those spectra, and their unique political and social structure place them in a position in which they can best take advantage of economic downturns.
+The economic downturns occur because of increased supply and decreased demand, which combine to create a shift in surplus and power to the semi-periphery. Semi-periphery regions take advantage of the situation by expanding control of their home markets and the surrounding periphery countries at the expense of core countries. The underlying reason for the shift in power lies in the basic economic principle of scarcity. As long as core countries maintain scarcities of their goods, they can select customers from the semi-periphery and periphery countries that are competing over them. When excess supply occurs, the core countries are the ones competing over a smaller market. That competition allows semi-peripheral nations to select from among core countries, rather than vice versa, when they make decisions about commodity purchases, manufacturing investments, and sales of goods and shifts the balance of power to the semi-periphery.
+In general, there is a power shift from core to semi-periphery in times of economic struggles, but there are few examples of semi-peripheral countries transitioning to core status. To accomplish that, semi-peripheral nations must take advantage of weaker core countries but also exploit any existing advantages over other semi-peripheral nations. How well they exploit these advantages determines their arrangement within the semi-periphery class.
+
+== Effects ==
+
+The semi-peripheral nations of the world have played an important role to world trade and interaction since early periods of globalized trade. The "middle ground" between the very powerful cores and the backwaters of the far periphery allowed those two zones to interact with greater ease. For example, during the 13th-century world system, the semi-periphery areas around Europe's Mediterranean Coast facilitated trade between the peripheries of the more manufacturing-based Northern Europe and the cores of India and China. John Markoff, a sociologist at the University of Pittsburgh, also notes that political developments, particularly in the advancement of democracy, originate in the semi-periphery. He notes that innovations in democracy came from the semi-periphery rather than the more established and stable nations in the First World, where profit discourages great reform, or the extremely poor periphery in the Third World, where instability makes reform too dangerous to attempt. It has been in semi-peripheral nations that democratic reforms like the expansion of suffrage and the institution of the secret ballot have been implemented.
+
+== Lists of semi-periphery countries ==
+The following are semi-periphery countries according to Wallerstein (1976).
+
+The following are semi-periphery countries from an updated version of essays by Wallerstein (1997).
+
+The following are semi-periphery countries according to Dunn, Kawana, Brewer (2000).
+
+Here is the semi-periphery listing according to Salvatore Babones (2005), who notes that his list is composed of countries that "have been consistently classified into a single one of the three zones [core, semi-periphery or periphery] of the world economy over the entire 28-year study period."
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
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+---
+title: "Semi-periphery countries"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-periphery_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:39.022062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== References ==
+Abu-Lughod, Janet (1989). Before European Hegemony: the world system a.d. 1250-1350. New York City: OUP. ISBN 0-19-506774-6.
+Chase-Dunn, Christopher; Hall, Thomas D (7 March 1997). Rise and Demise: Comparing World-Systems The Semi Periphery: The Seedbed of Change. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1006-7.
+Chirot, Daniel; Hall, Thomas D. (1982). World-System Theory Annual Review of Sociology.
+Chirot, Daniel (1977). Social Change in the Twentieth Century. New York City: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-581420-6.
+Halsall, Paul (1997). Modern History Sourcebook: Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory.
+Hobsbawn, Eric (1987). The Age of Empire. New York City: Random House. ISBN 0-679-72175-4.
+Markoff, John (1999). Where and When was Democracy Invented. Comparative Studies in Society & History.
+Shaw, Timothy M. "The Semiperiphery in Africa and South America: Subimperialism and Semiindustrialism". The Review of Black Political Economy. ISSN 0034-6446.
+Tausch, A. Social Cohesion, Sustainable Development and Turkey's Accession to the European Union: Implications from a Global Model.
+Terlouw, Kees (1992). The Regional Reography of the World-System. Utrecht: KNAG. ISBN 90-6266-091-6.
+Wallerstein, Immanuel (1976). The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York City: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-785920-9.
+Wallerstein, Immanuel (1974). Semi-Peripheral Countries and The Contemporary World Crisis. New York City: Academic Press. ISBN 0-521-29358-8.
+Wallerstein, Immanuel (1979). The Capitalist World Economy. New York City: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29358-8.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Kaplan, David H.; Wheeler, James O.; Holloway, James O. Urban Geography. York, Pennsylvania: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004., pg. 412.
+Windows on Humanity by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 17, page 390.
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+---
+title: "Sexual capital"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:40.380352+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sexual capital, erotic capital, or sexual market value (SMV) is the social power an individual or group accrues as a result of their sexual attractiveness and social charm. It enables social mobility independent of class origin because sexual capital is convertible, and may be useful in acquiring other forms of capital, including social capital and economic capital.
+
+== Origins ==
+
+The term erotic capital was first used by British sociologist Catherine Hakim in the early 2000s. Hakim defined it as separate from and building upon French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu's concepts of economic, cultural, and social capital. She says erotic capital is independent of class origin and enables social mobility, and argues that this makes erotic capital socially subversive, which results in the prevailing power structures devaluing and trying to suppress it. In the manosphere, the parallel term sexual market value or its abbreviation SMV is often used.
+
+== Definition ==
+
+=== Economic ===
+One economic-related definition is based on the human truth capital theory of Gary Becker, and predicts that people invest rationally in exhibiting their sex appeal when they can expect a return on their investments. He defines this as a form of health capital, which is itself a form of individual capital. Another definition comes from Capital Portfolio Theory, in which Green argues that sexual capital is part of an individual's overall capital portfolio. An individual can transfer their sexual capital to other forms of capital within Capital Portfolio Theory. From an economic perspective, having high sexual capital is advantageous, since it can help an individual in multiple aspects of their lives.  For example, multiple studies have shown that increased physical attractiveness is correlated with higher incomes after eliminating other factors.
+
+=== Sociology ===
+The sociological definition is based on Bourdieu's idea of fields. This definition builds on Bourdieu's concept of capital. Green defines sexual capital as accruing to an individual or group due to the quality and quantity of attributes that he or she possesses which elicit an erotic response in another, including physical appearance, affect and sociocultural styles. Some of these attributes may be immutable, such as an individual's race or height, while others may be acquired through fitness training, or artificially, through plastic surgery or a makeover, etc. There is no single hegemonic form of erotic (sexual) capital. On the contrary, currencies of capital are quite variable, acquiring a hegemonic status in relation to the erotic preferences of highly specialized social groups that distinguish one sexual field from another. Importantly, this means that erotic capital is best conceived as a property of the field, and not an individual form of capital.
+A second definition is developed by Hakim, treating erotic capital as the fourth personal asset. This definition is a multifaceted combination of physical and social attractiveness that goes well beyond sexual attractiveness that is the focus of the 'fields' perspective. Unlike Green's conception of sexual capital, Hakim's erotic capital is an individual capital with no necessary referent to a field.
+Extensive supporting evidence for the concept of sexual capital, defined as beauty, physical attractiveness, and good looks, is provided in Daniel Hamermesh's book, Beauty Pays, where he reviews the research evidence on the economic benefits of being attractive in all contexts, including higher education teaching, politics, sales and marketing, and everyday social interaction. Hamermesh assumes these economic benefits must be due to unfair discrimination, a position he takes from Deborah Rhode's book, Beauty Bias, a feminist lawyer's critique of the social benefits that accrue to attractive people, and the disadvantages experienced by unattractive people, most particularly the obese.
+
+== Importance ==
+
+Catherine Hakim argues that erotic capital matters beyond the sexual field, and beyond private relationships. Her research suggests that erotic capital is important in the fields of media, politics, advertising, sports, the arts, and in everyday social interaction, and consists of six elements:
+
+Beauty
+Sexual attractiveness
+Social attractiveness ("grace, charm, social skills in interaction, the ability to make people like you, feel at ease and happy, want to know you and, where relevant, desire you")
+Vivaciousness and energy ("a mixture of physical fitness, social energy, and good humor")
+Social presentation ("style of dress, face-painting, perfume, jewelry, hairstyles, and the various accessories that people carry or wear to announce their social status and style to the world")
+Sexuality ("sexual competence, energy, erotic imagination, playfulness, and everything else that makes for a sexually satisfying partner")
+Catherine Hakim's theory of erotic capital argues that erotic capital is an important fourth personal asset, alongside economic capital, cultural/human capital and social capital; that erotic capital is increasingly important in affluent modern societies; that women generally have more erotic capital than men, and that erotic capital has social benefits and privileges that benefit the female gender. This definition of erotic capital has been contested by some sociologists who reject the idea that erotic capital / sexual capital is something individuals possess, like a portable portfolio of resources, with no implicit link to the particular sexual field in which such characteristics are deemed desirable.
+Sexual capital may be related to both sexual and mental health, as when individuals with low sexual capital show diminished ability to talk about or negotiate condom use with a partner possessing greater erotic capital, and develop negative emotional states as a consequence of feeling unattractive.
+In broader theoretical terms, sexual capital is important for social theory insofar as it is one among other types of capital, including social capital, symbolic capital, and cultural capital which influence the status accorded individual members of the larger society. Sexual capital is convertible to other forms of capital, as when actors parlay sexual capital into financial capital or social capital (e.g. Marilyn Monroe), or when attractive employees get raises and social connections from bringing in more customers by virtue of their looks.
+
+== Cultural and contextual factors ==
+
+=== Race ===
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+---
+title: "Sexual capital"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:40.380352+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sexual capital is closely associated with race or racial stereotypes of sexual attractiveness.
+In the United States, white men have higher sexual capital than white women, Black women, or Black men. This is also observed in other countries, such as in Japan, where Japanese women often earn more money than their white husbands or boyfriends. The preference for white men among Japanese women is strong enough such that they are often willing to overlook a white man's income when considering him as a potential partner. Japanese men in Japan are stereotyped as controlling, awkward or emasculated, while white women are viewed as mannish or too loud. These stereotypes elevate the sexual capital of Asian women and white men in Japan. Similar patterns have been reported in Taiwan.
+Some black men are afforded high sexual status because they appeal to the fantasies of some heterosexual white women, but more generally black men suffer from systemic sexual racism. Susan Koshy argues that Asian women have gained sexual capital in the West through glamorous accounts of western male – Asian female sexual relationships in the media and arts. Sexual racism has also been studied to negatively affect gay men of color. For Asian American men, socioeconomic success does not bring additional dating or marriage opportunities.
+
+=== Culture ===
+
+Idealized traits can vary greatly between cultures, although there are a few beauty standards that are almost universal.  Facial symmetry, for example, is a physically-desirable characteristic that is near universal. However, many physical characteristics, like height and weight, have different ideals based on an individual's culture. Not having a culture's desired physical traits can lead to a loss of sexual capital, which would likely decrease an individual's overall capital portfolio.  This phenomenon is especially apparent when individuals relocate to an area with different beauty ideals, as there may be a large change in an individual's sexual capital.
+
+=== Religion ===
+
+Sexual capital can be present in both secular and religious settings. Willey has shown that in an Evangelical youth group, sexual and erotic capital still play a role in partner selection.  Young adults often find a romantic interest in their church groups, often by choosing a partner who has sought-after traits, or a desirable personal capital portfolio. Within the Evangelical youth groups studied, sexual capital was displayed as virginal capital, in which an individual was considered more romantically desirable by the group when they had not engaged in sexual activity. Additionally, some studies point out how adolescents may reduce their religious involvement around their sexual debut. Pentecostal adolescents in Cape Town were shown to reduce their church attendance in early adulthood, with some resuming their previous attendance after finding a long-term partner. These studies show some of the effects of religion on influencing sexual behavior norms of a community.  While limited studies have been conducted on the effects of sexual and erotic capital within other religious communities, much has been written on how religion has shaped human sexuality.
+
+=== Class and gender ===
+
+Scholars suggest that sexual capital is closely tied to social class.  According to Christian Groes-Green, a PhD fellow at University of Copenhagen, sexual capital and other forms of bodily power become important resources among disenfranchised young men in Mozambique when their access to economic capital and jobs is diminished. Groes-Green further argues that the emergence of sexual capital is linked to gender relations, e.g. when poor young men build sexual capital by grooming their looks and improving sexual performance in order to satisfy female partners. Per Groes-Green, this puts the young poor men in competition with middle class peers and older so-called "sugar-daddies". Thus, Groes-Green argues that, sexual capital reinforces masculinity in the face of male disempowerment, and it often develops as a response to conflict between  hegemonic and subordinated masculinity.
+
+=== Gay sexual capital ===
+Riggs has cited several studies of gay men's behavior on Grindr, which showed that white users had received more attention on the app than users who did not identify as white in their biographies.  Other studies have shown that men who report a taller than average height, a more muscular body, have more traditionally masculine characteristics, and self-identify as white receive more attention from other members than those who lack these characteristics. Receiving more attention on Grindr, measured by taps or messages from other users, has been used by researchers to find the number of individuals who viewed a profile as sexually desirable.  This measure could signify higher levels of sexual capital.
+Within the lesbian community, gender nonconformity has been thought to increase an individual's sexual capital. However, the reasons behind this are often the product of society's views on gender nonconformity and lesbianism.  Many butch lesbians may have higher sexual capital within lesbian communities, since they actively subvert gender stereotypes, a trait often celebrated within the community. Conversely, femme lesbians may lack sexual capital in queer spaces. However, feminine presenting queer women may receive sexual capital outside of lesbian communities, particularly among heterosexual men.
+
+== Capital portfolios ==
+
+Because desirability in a sexual field may depend on more than merely sexual attractiveness, Green (2014) develops the concept, capital portfolio, to capture the particular combination of capitals that make an individual or group more desirable than others.  Capital portfolios typically involve a combination of sexual capital with economic, cultural and social capitals. As an example, to the extent that women, on average, value financial resources (i.e., economic capital) in their male partners more than sexual capital, and men value sexual capital more than economic capital in their female partners, so one may conclude that heterosexual women and men seek out distinctive capital portfolios that include a different, gendered balance of capitals.
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+---
+title: "Sexual capital"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:40.380352+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Criticism ==
+As sexual capital and related theories by Catherine Hakim have gained public exposure, there has been criticism from several researchers. The arguments have focused largely on how Hakim's theory disproportionately impacts women, even though she considers it a universal theory. Female sexuality varies to a greater extent across culture and socioeconomic status than male sexuality. Women from racial, socioeconomic, sexual, or gender minority groups may face additional pressures in what is considered attractive depending on their environment. Additionally, Hakim's theory of sexual capital, including the idea that an individual can change their level of capital, is limited through these considerations.
+While Hakim argues that sexual capital can be exchanged and modified by an individual, this is only possible for the average person in certain sociopolitical contexts.  An individual is bounded by their society's views on sex, sexuality and social norms.  In some cases, like in a neoliberal secular society, individuals have a wider freedom of choice in how they present their sexuality and eroticism. Bay-Cheng argues that in neoliberal societies, an individual's motivation for their behavior, along with the behavior itself, is used to evaluate their sexual capital.
+
+== See also ==
+Casting couch
+Charismatic authority
+Halo effect
+Lookism
+Incel#Justifications for beliefs
+Mate value
+Physical attractiveness stereotype
+Soft power
+Wanghong economy
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+Have you got erotic capital? Archived 8 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Prospect Magazine
+Do you buy into Catherine Hakim's 'erotic capital'? The Guardian
+The untapped power of erotic capital Wall Street Journal
+Celebrating our Erotic Capital Psychology Today
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_norm-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_norm-0.md
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+---
+title: "Sexual norm"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_norm"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:41.599354+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A sexual norm can refer to a personal or a social norm. Most cultures have social norms regarding sexuality, and define normal sexuality to consist only of certain sex acts between individuals who meet specific age criteria, nonconsanguinity (vs. incest), race/ethnicity (vs. interracial relationships), and/or social role and socioeconomic status.
+In most societies, the term normal identifies a range or spectrum of behaviors. Rather than each act being classified as "acceptable" or "not acceptable", many acts are viewed as "more or less accepted" by different people, and the degree to which they are considered normal or acceptable depends greatly on the individual making the assessment and the culture itself. Based on information gained from sexological studies, a great many ordinary people's sex lives are very often quite different from popular beliefs about normal, in private.
+If non-restrictive sexual norms are regarded positively, they may be called "sexual freedom", "sexual liberation" or "free love". If they are regarded negatively, they may be called "sexual licence" or "licentiousness". Restrictive social norms, if judged negatively, are called sexual oppression.  If the restrictive norms are judged positively, they may be regarded as encouraging chastity, "sexual self-restraint" or "sexual decency", and negative terms are used for the targeted sexuality, e.g. sexual abuse and perversion.
+
+
+== Social attitudes ==
+In the West, some people have relaxed the traditional definitions of normality, choosing instead to define normal sexuality as any sexual practice which does not involve what are regarded as sexual perversions. However, using this definition makes use of a long list of sexual perversions, which themselves show up hidden assumptions about cultural norms. Recently, in Western society, consensual paraphilias are becoming more acceptable, in particular "any activity, not otherwise illegal, performed between consenting adults in private."
+This liberalization of attitudes has resulted in the decriminalisation of homosexuality in many countries, following the ground-breaking Wolfenden report in the United Kingdom.
+There is a tendency in Western countries towards serial monogamy as a normal heterosexual lifestyle.  There is also a movement towards recognizing long-term homosexual relationships (see same-sex marriage).
+There is also greater acceptance of sexual relationships (partnerships) without requiring the sanction of a form of marriage recognised by the church, state or legal system.
+These liberalizing trends can be contrasted with conservative social trends that seek to reverse these patterns of behaviour, with encouragement for young people to choose traditionally accepted roles, beliefs and behaviors, and to exercise sexual abstinence or non-promiscuous lifestyles before marriage.
+There is an opposing trend in reaction, that views such changes as a socially destructive force, and is opposed to them. It is often, though not exclusively, associated with people who have religious beliefs, and is prevalent in much of Christianity in America, as well as Islam in the Middle East and Asia, and other devout religious groups such as Haredi Jews in Israel.  In such countries there is often strong criticism of non-traditional sexualities and sexual liberation.
+Some social unrest in both Eastern and Western cultures is due to this conflict between these two trends, and views upon acceptability and control of social and sexual norms.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Catholic teachings on sexual morality
+Gender role
+Religion and sexuality
+Reproductive rights
+Same-sex marriage
+Sex and the law
+Sex-positive feminism
+Sex-positive movement
+Sexual script theory
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Sexual Freedom Why It Is Feared
+Lil Wayne and Baby Sitting in a Tree
+Factors of Sexual Freedom among Hunter-Gatherers in Cross-Cultural Perspective
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_value-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_value-0.md
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+---
+title: "Sign value"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_value"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:42.733369+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology and in economics, the term sign value denotes and describes the value accorded to an object because of the prestige (social status) that it imparts upon the possessor, rather than the material value and utility derived from the function and the primary use of the object. For example, the buyer of a Rolls-Royce limousine might partly value the automobile as transport, yet might also value it as a sign that signifies his or her wealth to a particular community and to society in general. The automobile's transport-function is primary, from which arises its use-value, whilst the social prestige function is secondary, from which arises its sign-value.
+The French sociologist Jean Baudrillard proposed the theory of sign value as a philosophic and economic counterpart to the dichotomy of exchange-value vs. use-value, which Karl Marx recognized as a characteristic of capitalism as an economic system.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Significant symbols"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_symbols"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:43.985354+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, a significant symbol is a gesture (usually a vocal gesture) that calls out in the individual making the gesture the same (i.e., functionally identical) response that is called out in others to whom the gesture is directed. Significant symbols are a later by-product of the meaning emergent in the act, which meaning is described, or accounted for, in terms of symbols or language.
+
+
+== Origin ==
+Significant symbols originated by the social behaviorist George Herbert Mead, who made a great impact in sociologist studies in the 20th century. Mead was interested specifically in the work of Wilhelm Wundt.  It was from Wundt that Mead gained an understanding how the gesture is involved in social interaction. This sociological term significant symbols is the basis for symbolic interactionism, which attempts to define the self.
+
+
+== Language ==
+Language, in Mead's view, is communication through significant symbols.  Physical objects can be significant symbols, but vocal gestures, especially language, are the crucial significant symbols.  Language brings out the same response in both the speaker and hearer.  Language is the highest form of communication, a mature development of the gesture situation; therefore, the major tool of the interaction from which minds and selves emerge.  Language is important because it is the means by which an individual may convey his attitudes and assume the roles of others, and thus participate in the interactionary creation of mind and self.  Language also makes possible the critically important ability of people to think, to engage in mental processes. Thinking, as well as the mind, is simply defined as conversation that people have with themselves using language; this activity is like having a conversation with other people.  Language allows people to stimulate their own actions as well as those of others.
+
+
+== Role-taking and coordinated behavior ==
+
+Through role-taking and the development of significant gestures and symbols the mind develops as the ability to indicate to one's self the same response that one's gestures had brought out in others, and to control the response in terms of it.
+Accuracy in role-taking also implies a preexisting social world of shared linguistic meanings that enable actors to respond to their own oncoming behavior in the same way as the other. Without them, role-taking and coordinated behavior could not proceed.
+Significant symbols' specific meaning differs in various social situations.
+
+
+== Communication ==
+Significant communication may also be defined as the comprehension by the individual through the meaning of her gestures. Mead describes the communication process as a social act since it necessarily requires at least two individuals in interaction with one another. It is within this act that meaning arises. The act of communication has a triadic structure consisting of the following components: 
+
+An initiating gesture on the part of an individual
+A response to that gesture by a second individual
+The result of the action initiated by the first gesture
+In and during the social contact, the mind recognizes symbols and translates those symbols, and acts or adjusts to symbols based on the previous knowledge of meaning.
+
+
+== Significance of gestures ==
+A gesture, then, is an action that implies a reaction. The reaction is the meaning of the gesture and points toward the result (the "intentionality") of the action initiated by the gesture. Gestures "become significant symbols when they absolutely arouse in an individual making them the same responses which they explicitly arouse, or are [intended] to arouse, in other individuals, the individuals to whom they are addressed."
+Although people and animals employ insignificant gestures, only people employ significant gestures, or those that involve thought before a response is made.
+Significant symbols always imply a context within which it has significance, a universe of discourse.  The universe of discourse is constituted by a group of individuals carrying on a common social process, within which these symbols have common meaning within that group, regardless of whether the members are making the gestures or responding to them.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+If you bark at a dog, the dog will bark back. If you bark at a human, the human may or may not bark back. It all depends on the human's decision to the symbol
+If an organism were to scratch their tooth repeatedly, only those involved within that social situation might be able to interpret that gesture and subsequently be able to respond. This is the essence of the significant symbol. It has meaning. One can respond to it.
+If an individual was to say the word dog to another person, both persons would have a similar mental image of a dog.
+If an individual yelled the word fire in a crowded theater, everyone would be driven to escape the theater as quickly as possible.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Baldwin, John D.George Herbert Mead; A Unifying Theory for Sociology. California: Sage. 1986
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+---
+title: "Single person"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_person"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:45.257789+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In legal definitions for interpersonal status, a person who is single is an individual not in a romantic relationship, married, or part of a civil union.
+
+== Terminology ==
+Terminology for singleness varies, usually based on gender, language, and country. Generally, singles can be categorized by the following terms: never married, separated, divorced, and widowed.
+
+=== English ===
+Terms used to describe single men are seldom used, and carry positive connotations. Single men are often simply referred to as bachelors.
+The English language has more terms for single, unwed women. These terms typically carry a negative connotation. Single women are sometimes called bachelorettes, especially in festive contexts in American English. However, the historic term for unwed women is spinster. The connotations of the word spinster have changed so much over time that it is now considered a derogatory term. The Oxford English Dictionary says in its usage notes for the word:
+
+The development of the word spinster is a good example of the way in which a word acquires strong connotations to the extent that it can no longer be used in a neutral sense. From the 17th century the word was appended to names as the official legal description of an unmarried woman: Elizabeth Harris of London, Spinster. This type of use survives today in some legal and religious contexts. In modern everyday English, however, spinster cannot be used to mean simply ‘unmarried woman’; it is now always a derogatory term, referring or alluding to a stereotype of an older woman who is unmarried, childless, prissy, and repressed.
+Though spinster has a long history of being negative, there are some authors, such as Katie Bolick, who are trying to change the word's connotation into something positive. Additionally, the phrase Old Maid is used to describe an unmarried woman.
+In 2019, Emma Watson coined the phrase "self-partnered" to describe her status as happily single.
+
+=== French ===
+Catherinette was a traditional French label for women of 25 years who were still unmarried by the Feast of Saint Catherine.
+
+=== Chinese ===
+The term sheng nu is used to describe unmarried women who are in mid to late twenties in China and East Asia.
+
+=== Japanese ===
+In Japan, men who have no interest in getting married are called sōshoku(-kei) danshi (草食(系)男子 ) or Herbivore men. This term also describes young men who have lost their "manliness".
+
+== Reasons people remain single ==
+People may be or remain single for a variety of reasons, including (but not limited to) one or several of the following:
+
+Celibacy or sexual abstinence
+Aromanticism
+Asociality
+Financial duress
+Their mental health
+Pursuing educational or professional advancement
+Lack of suitable partners
+Changes in perceptions of the necessity of marriage
+Disinterest in marriage, domestic partnership, or other types of committed relationships
+Traumatic experiences including domestic violence, dysfunctional family, rape, or sexual assault
+Marrying later in life
+A neurodevelopmental disorder, such as those on the autism spectrum, can lead to difficulty initiating, developing, or sustaining relationships
+Some single people regard and appreciate solitude as an opportunity. Some people stay single by choice. In addition to choosing singleness as a preferential option, there are also those who forgo marriage due to religious orders that prescribe its forbearance. These religious traditions include:
+
+The Christian monastic cultures of Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Oriental Orthodoxy
+The specific Buddhist monastic traditions
+
+== By country ==
+
+=== Statistics ===
+Source: OECD
+
+=== United States ===
+According to the United States Bureau of the Census, the fastest-growing household type since the 1980s has been the single person. Previously both socially uncommon and unaccepted due to perceived roles, public awareness, modern socioeconomic factors, and increasingly available popular and lengthier education and careers have made the single lifestyle a viable option for many Americans, especially after the Vietnam War.
+According to the United States Bureau of the Census, in 2016, single adults accounted for over 45% of the US population. 65% of this group had never been married. In 2014, Pew Research Center notes that the highest percentage of never-married adults between White, Black, Hispanic and Asian Americans were Black Americans. The same study also projected that about 25% of millennials may not get married.
+
+==== Pandemic effects ====
+A 2024 Stanford University study found that the COVID-19 pandemic significantly increased the number of single Americans. Researchers estimated that an additional 13.3 million people were single in 2022 compared to pre-pandemic levels. This increase was attributed to the dissolution of new relationships, the failure of informal relationships to develop, and disruptions to the dating market.
+The study also revealed that the average American's weekly socializing time had not fully recovered from the pandemic. In 2022, individuals reported spending an average of 4.1 hours per week socializing, which was still below the pre-pandemic average of 4.5 hours per week in 2019.
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+Similar to the United States, single-person households have been seen to be increasingly popular in the United Kingdom. In the 2000s, studies found that more citizens were seen to be valuing their career over personal relationships. The increase in single-person households was also partly attributed to the high self-esteem it can offer to some people.
+
+=== Japan ===
+In Japan, it is not uncommon for citizens to choose to remain single. This has been illustrated with many public figures and celebrities. Women typically value friendships over romantic relationships; many continue to have jobs and marry later, or forego marriage completely.
+However, people in Japan who do wish to date have reported that it is difficult to find the time to do so due to being overworked.
+
+=== South Korea ===
+In South Korea an unofficial holiday called Black Day is observed on 14 April each year by and for single people. Singles who did not receive gifts on Valentine's Day or White Day meet dressed in black and eat jajangmyeon, noodles covered in black bean paste. The dish is one of South Korea's national foods, and is considered a comfort food.
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+---
+title: "Single person"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_person"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:45.257789+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Sweden ===
+In Stockholm, Sweden, sixty per cent of people live by themselves.
+
+== Civil status and health ==
+A study in 2000 by the BioMed Central's public health journal covering the anti-depressant use of 3,500 Finnish people found an 80% increased risk of depression for those living alone. A 2022 finding published in the August issue of Frontiers in Psychiatry using 2,056 studies and data from 123,859 participants found that living alone increased the chances of depression by 42%.
+Paul Dolan, professor in behaviorial science at the London School of Economics, explained that "if you're a woman, don't bother [getting married]", as a study from the American Time Use Survey found that single women live longer and happier lives than married women.
+People who support singleness have different opinions on it, pointing out that not all marriages are created equal. Healthy people, with psychological well-being, have happy relationships with their partners. In contrast, unhappy marriages will have the opposite effect, "A bad marriage can make a person feel more isolated than being single" according to sociologist professor Eric Klinenber at New York University.
+A study of more than 10,000 adults found that married couples were more likely to gain weight during their process of romantic ventures than singles. In other words, married couples have a higher risk of weight gain that may be large enough to pose a health risk, as reported by Zhenchao Qian, professor of sociology at Ohio State University.
+
+== Targeting ==
+Dating services are an especially targeted and advertised service for singles. The growth of the dating services and dating events industry has been so drastic that the phrase "dating–industrial complex" (reminiscent of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's term "military industrial complex") has been coined to capture the amount of money and manpower devoted to dating services for singles.
+Singles events have been an area of particular growth in singles-related commerce. Many events are aimed at singles of particular affiliations, interest, or religions. Some of the most strongly attended such events are the Christmas Eve party targeted at young Jewish singles in major cities in North America, particularly the Matzo Ball and its big city competitors. A variety of other religious organizations' singles events are also very popular. However, dating via religious-sponsored singles events has also been criticized for fostering invasion of daters' privacy and undue expectations.
+In some countries, particular laws may directly or indirectly disadvantage single persons. In the United States, for example, Social Security widow(er) benefits are only available to those persons who have been previously married, and the structure of United States federal income tax brackets can result in paying a marriage penalty or marriage bonus.  In many countries tour and holiday operators impose a penalty (often as much as 100%) called the single supplement on those traveling alone.
+Older singles are disproportionately targeted by fraudsters, including through romance scams. The US Federal Trade Commission reported those aged 70 and over suffer the highest individual median financial losses from romance fraud of any age group. The Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, too, identified lonely older people seeking relationships as among the most common targets of such fraud, and approaches are often over a telephone call.
+
+== Depiction in popular culture ==
+
+=== Film and television ===
+A Single Man
+Bridget Jones's Diary
+Entourage
+Girls
+How to Be Single
+Living Single
+Sex and the City
+Singles
+The Golden Girls
+The Single Moms Club
+
+=== Literature ===
+Bridget Jones's Diary
+Single Life: Unmarried Adults in Social Context
+Single: Arguments for the Uncoupled
+Going Solo: The Extraordinary Rise and Surprising Appeal of Living Alone
+All the Single Ladies: Unmarried Women and the Rise of an Independent Nation
+Happy Singlehood: The Rising Acceptance and Celebration of Solo Living
+
+== See also ==
+Singles Awareness Day
+Singles' Day
+Singleton (lifestyle)
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Sources ===
+"Neurodevelopmental Disorders". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. 18 March 2022. ISBN 978-0-89042-577-0. LCCN 2021051782.
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+---
+title: "Sladdbarn"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sladdbarn"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:46.476708+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Sladdbarn" is a Swedish term to refer to a child who is born much later than their other siblings. The terms differ from the colloquial English expression "oops baby" which simply refers to any unplanned birth. There are similar terms for the concept in many other Nordic languages and some others.
+
+
+== Definition ==
+There are many opinions about how far apart it should be for the child to considered a sladdbarn. If it has been at least six years between siblings, the younger child can be regarded as a sladdbarn according to the behavioral pedagogue Elisabeth Schönbeck. Another opinion is that it is when the difference between the infant and the second youngest is greater than the difference between the second youngest and the eldest child. A commonly held rule of thumb is that it should be 10 years between the children. Another criterion may be that the child is born long after the first clutch of children and thus is not part of the companionship of their older siblings, missing out on the sibling bonding stage during childhood, developing more as a single child.
+
+
+== Causes ==
+Sladdbarn can be born because the parents mistakenly believe that they can no longer have children due to their age and stop using contraceptives. Another reason for a much later sibling is due to the parents feeling that their first group of children are getting older and they miss having small children around. Sometimes older couples with a more unstable relationship have yet another child in later life due to feeling a need to keep the relationship together when their older children start becoming independent, thus losing the so-called "glue" that kept them from growing apart.
+
+
+== Effects ==
+During the early 20th century having a sladdbarn was considered shameful in the country, as it was considered to imply that the parents were overly sexually active in old age. In Sweden in the 1960s having a sladdbarn was considered a major economic setback for a working-class family but a status symbol for the richer who could afford it. Children whose only siblings are much older than them sometimes report feeling like an only child. Many sladdbarn are often accused of being spoiled by their parents according to the older siblings. They are also often said to remain childish even in adulthood.
+
+
+== Other terms ==
+There are many playful synonyms for sladdbarn in the Nordic countries. In Swedish, "efterskott" may be used (a double entendre, meaning "arrears", but literally also "after-shot"). In Finland Swedish, "skrapabulla" is used, referring to the slightly smaller bun created from dough scraped from the edges of the mixing bowl. In Finnish, the term that is used is "iltatähti" (Evening Star), this after the planet Venus, which becomes visible during dusk, before the sun has gone down completely. In Norwegian, "attpåklatt" is used, meaning a "top-up" or "small refill" of a bowl of porridge. Danish uses the term "efternøler". Compare Danish "efterfølger", meaning "successor" and "nøler" which translates to "hesitate" in English.
+
+
+== Notable people ==
+Ola Salo (b. 1977) – singer
+Miss Li (b. 1982) – singer and songwriter
+Niklas Andersson (b. 1971) – hockey player
+Anna Holmlunds – skier
+
+
+== See also ==
+Advanced maternal age
+Dysgenics
+Mutational load
+Paternal age effect
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Oops! How to Rock the Mother of All Surprises: A Positive Guide To Your Unexpected Pregnancy
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+---
+title: "Social action"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_action"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:48.805473+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, social action, also known as Weberian social action, is an act which takes into account the actions and reactions of individuals (or 'agents'). According to Max Weber, "Action is 'social' insofar as its subjective meaning takes account of the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course."
+
+== Max Weber ==
+The basic concept was primarily developed in the non-positivist theory of Max Weber to observe how human behaviors relate to cause and effect in the social realm. For Weber, sociology is the study of society and behavior and must therefore look at the heart of interaction. The theory of social action, more than structural functionalist positions, accepts and assumes that humans vary their actions according to social contexts and how it will affect other people; when a potential reaction is not desirable, the action is modified accordingly. Action can mean either a basic action (one that has a meaning) or an advanced social action, which not only has a meaning but is directed at other actors and causes action (or, perhaps, inaction).
+
+[Sociology is] ... the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds and the effects which it produces. By 'action' in this definition is meant the human behavior when and to the extent that the agent or agents see it as subjectively meaningful ... the meaning to which we refer may be either (a) the meaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particular historical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in a given set of cases, or (b) the meaning attributed to the agent or agents, as types, in a pure type constructed in the abstract. In neither case is the 'meaning' to be thought of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true' by some metaphysical criterion. This is the difference between the empirical sciences of action, such as sociology and history, and any kind of priori discipline, such as jurisprudence, logic, ethics, or aesthetics whose aim is to extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or 'valid' meaning.
+The term is more practical and encompassing than Florian Znaniecki's "social phenomena", since the individual performing social action is not passive, but rather active and reactive. Although Weber himself used the word 'agency', in modern social science this term is often appropriated with a given acceptance of Weberian conceptions of social action, unless a work intends to make the direct allusion. Similarly, 'reflexivity' is commonly used as a shorthand to refer to the circular relationship of cause and effect between structure and agency which Weber was integral in hypothesising.
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+title: "Social action"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_action"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:48.805473+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Types ==
+Rational actions (also known as value-rational actions, wertrational): actions which are taken because it leads to a valued goal, but with no thought of its consequences and often without consideration of the appropriateness of the means chosen to achieve it ('the end justifies the means'). Value rational or Instrumentally rational social action is divided into two groups: rational consideration and rational orientation.  Rational consideration is when secondary results are taken into account rationally. This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended.  Determining this mean of action is quite hard and even incompatible.  Rational orientation is being able to recognize and understand certain mediums under common conditions. According to Weber, heterogeneous actors and groups that are competing, find it hard to settle on a certain medium and understand the common social action;
+Instrumental action (also known as value relation, instrumentally rational, goal-instrumental ones, zweckrational): actions which are planned and taken after evaluating the goal in relation to other goals, and after thorough consideration of various means (and consequences) to achieve it. An example would be a high school student preparing for life as a lawyer.  The student knows that in order to get into college, they must take the appropriate tests and fill out the proper forms to get into college and then do well in college in order to get into law school and ultimately realize their goal of becoming a lawyer.  If the student chooses not to do well in college, they know that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer. Thus the student must take the appropriate steps to reach the ultimate goal.
+Another example would be most economic transactions.  Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands.  According to the law, people are given commands and must use the whole system of private laws to break down the central government or domination in the legal rights in which a citizen possess. Demands can be based on justice or human dignity just for morality. These demands have posed several problems even legal formalism has been put to the test.  These demands seem to weigh on the society and at times can make them feel immoral.
+The rational choice approach to religion draws a close analogy between religion and the market economy. Religious firms compete against one another to offer religious products and services to consumers, who choose between the firms. To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers. This specialization and catering in turn increase the number of religious consumers actively engaged in the religious economy. This proposition has been confirmed in a number of empirical studies.
+It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining. For Iannaccone's religious experience is a jointly produced collective good. Thus members of a church face a collective action problem. Strict churches, which often impose costly and esoteric requirements on their members, are able to solve this problem by weeding out potential free riders, since only the very committed would join the church in the face of such requirements. Consistent with the notion that religious experience is a collective good, Iannaccone et al. show that churches that extract more resources from their members (in the form of time and money) tend to grow in membership.
+
+Affectual action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to 'one's emotions, to express personal feelings. For examples, cheering after a victory, crying at a funeral would be affective actions.  Affective is divided into two subgroups: uncontrolled reaction and emotional tension.  In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion.  A person with an uncontrolled reaction becomes less inclined to consider other peoples’ feelings as much as their own.  Emotional tension comes from a basic belief that a person is unworthy or powerless to obtain their deepest aspirations.  When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest.  It is often difficult to be productive in society because of the unfulfilled life. Emotion is often neglected because of concepts at the core of exchange theory. A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions. From the behavioral view, emotions are often inseparable from punishments.
+Emotion: Emotions are one's feelings in response to a certain situation.  There are six types of emotion: social emotions, counterfactual emotions, emotions generated by what may happen (often manifested as anxiety), emotions generated by joy and grief (examples found in responses typically seen when a student gets a good grade, and when a person is at a funeral, respectively), thought-triggered emotions (sometimes manifested as flashbacks), and finally emotions of love and disgust. All of these emotions are considered to be unresolved. There are six features that are used to define emotions: intentional objects, valence, cognitive antecedents, physiological arousal, action tendencies, and lastly physiological expressions. These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.
+Macro institutional theory of Economic Order: Nicole Biggart and Thomas Beamish have a slightly different approach to human habit then Max Weber. Whereas Weber believed economic organization is based on structures of material interest and ideas, institutional sociologist like Biggart and Beamish stress macro-institutional sources of arrangements of market capitalism.
+Micrological theories of economy consider acts of a group of individuals. Economic theory is based on the assumption that when the highest bidder succeeds the market clears. Microeconomic theories believes that individuals are going to find the cheapest way to buy the things they need. By doing this it causes providers to be competitive and therefore creates order in the economy.
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+title: "Social action"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_action"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:48.805473+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Rational choice modeling, on the other hand, assumes that all social action is rationally motivated.  Rationality means that the actions taken are analyzed and calculated for the greatest amount of (self)-gain and efficiency.
+Traditional actions: actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations. An example would be putting on clothes or relaxing on Sundays. Some traditional actions can become a cultural artifact Traditional is divided into two subgroups: customs and habit.  A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity.  It is continually perpetuated and is ingrained in a culture.  Customs usually last for generations. A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness.  As the old cliché goes, "old habits are hard to break" and new habits are difficult to form.
+Social action models help explain Social Outcomes because of basic sociological ideas such as the Looking Glass Self. The idea of Cooley's looking glass self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions. Additionally, impression formation processes allow us to interpret the significance of others' actions.
+Social Actions and Institutions Model: An 'institution' consists of specialized roles and settings that are linked together semantically, with the complex typically being devoted to serving some function within society.
+In sociological hierarchy, social action is more advanced than behavior, action and social behavior, and is in turn followed by more advanced social contact, social interaction and social relation. 
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Secher, H. P. (1962), Basic Concepts in Sociology. Contributors: Max Weber, New York: Citadel Press, archived from the original on 2004-06-20
+Weber, Max (1991), "The Nature of Social Action.", Runciman, W.G. 'Weber: Selections in Translation', Cambridge University Press
+Stark, Rodney (2007), Sociology, USA: Thomson Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-495-09344-2
+Sciulli, David (1992), Theory of Societal Constitutionalism: Foundations of a Non-Marxist Critical Theory., Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41040-3
+Weber, Max (1978), Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology., USA: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03500-3
+Gecas, Viktor; Schwalbe, M. L. (1983), "Beyond The Looking Glass Self: Social Structure and Efficacy-Based Self-Esteem", The Scholarly Journal Archive, 46 (2): 77–88, JSTOR 3033844, PMID 6879222
+Hedström, Peter. “Experimental Macro Sociology: Predicting the Next Best Seller” Science/AAAS. 10 Feb. 2006. 17 Oct. 2007
+Society for Organizational Learning. Personal Mastery 16 October 2007
+Homans GC. 1961. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt Brace 23 Oct. 2007.
+Frijda, Nico H. The Emotions. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 1986 23 Oct. 2007
+Stark R, Bainbridge WS. 1987. A Theory of Religion. New York: Peter Lang
+Iannaccone LR. 1992. Sacrifice and stigma: reducing free-riding in cults, communes, and other collectivities. J. Polit. Econ. 100: 271– 91
+Iannaccone LR. 1994. Why strict churches are strong. Am. J. Sociol. 99: 1180– 211
+Giddens, Anthony. Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradiction in Social Analysis
+Atkinson, J. Maxwell. Liberalism and Social Action by John Dewey, Structures of Social Action (Studies in Emotion and social Interaction)
+Parsons, Talcott (1968), The structure of social action: a study in social theory with special reference to a group of recent European writers, New York: Free Press, ISBN 9780029242407
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Social alienation"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_alienation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:50.071384+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social alienation is a person's feeling of disconnection from a group – whether friends, family, or wider society – with which the individual has an affiliation. Such alienation has been described as "a condition in social relationships reflected by (1) a low degree of integration or common values and (2) a high degree of distance or isolation (3a) between individuals, or (3b) between an individual and a group of people in a community or work environment [enumeration added]". It is a sociological concept developed by several classical and contemporary theorists. The concept has many discipline-specific uses and can refer both to a personal psychological state (subjectively) and to a type of social relationship (objectively).
+
+== History ==
+The term alienation has been used over the ages with varied and sometimes contradictory meanings. In ancient history it could mean a metaphysical sense of achieving a higher state of contemplation, ecstasy or union—becoming alienated from a limited existence in the world, in a positive sense. Examples of this usage have been traced to neoplatonic philosophers such as Plotinus (in the Greek alloiosis). There have also long been religious concepts of being separated or cut off from God and the faithful, alienated in a negative sense. The New Testament mentions the term apallotrioomai in Greek—"being alienated from". Ideas of estrangement from a Golden Age, or due to a fall of man, or approximate equivalents in differing cultures or religions, have also been described as concepts of alienation. A double positive and negative sense of alienation is broadly shown in the spiritual beliefs referred to as Gnosticism.
+Alienation also had a particular legal-political meaning since as early as Ancient Roman times, where to alienate property (alienato) is to transfer ownership of it to someone else. The term alienation itself comes from the Latin alienus which meant 'of another place or person', which in turn came from alius, meaning "other" or "another". Another usage of the term in Ancient Greco-Roman times was by physicians referring to disturbed, difficult or abnormal states of mind, generally attributed to imbalanced physiology. In Latin alienatio mentis (mental alienation), this usage has been dated to Asclepiades. Once translations of such works had resurfaced in the West in the 17th century, physicians again began using the term, which is typically attributed to Felix Platter.
+In medieval times, a relationship between alienation and social order has been described, mediated in part by mysticism and monasticism. The Crusades and witch-hunts have been described as forms of mass alienation.
+
+=== 17th century ===
+In the 17th century, Hugo Grotius put forward the concept that everyone has 'sovereign authority' over themselves but that they could alienate that natural right to the common good, an early social contract theory. In the 18th century, Hutcheson introduced a distinction between alienable and unalienable rights in the legal sense of the term. Rousseau published influential works on the same theme, and is also seen as having popularized a more psychological-social concept relating to alienation from a state of nature due to the expansion of civil society or the nation state.
+In the same century a law of alienation of affection was introduced for men to seek compensation from other men accused of taking away 'their' woman.
+In the history of literature, the German Romantics appear to be the first group of writers and poets in whose work the concept of alienation is regularly found. Around the start of the 19th century, Hegel popularized a Christian (Lutheran) and Idealist philosophy of alienation. He used German terms in partially different senses, referring to a psychological state and an objective process, and in general posited that the self was a historical and social creation, which becomes alienated from itself via a perceived objective world, but can become de-alienated again when that world is seen as just another aspect of the self-consciousness, which may be achieved by self-sacrifice to the common good.
+Around the same time, Pinel was popularizing a new understanding of mental alienation, particularly through his 'medical-philosophical treatise'. He argued that people could be disturbed (alienated) by emotional states and social conditions, without necessarily having lost (become alienated from) their reason, as had generally been assumed. Hegel praised Pinel for his 'moral treatment' approach, and developed related theories. Nevertheless, as Foucault would later write, "... in an obscure, shared origin, the 'alienation' of physicians and the 'alienation' of philosophers started to take shape—two configurations in which man in any case corrupts his truth, but between which, after Hegel, the nineteenth century stopped seeing any trace of resemblance."
+
+=== Marx ===
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+title: "Social alienation"
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+category: "reference"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marx was initially in the Young Hegelian camp and, like Feuerbach, rejected the spiritual basis, and adapted Hegel's dialectic model to a theory of (historical) materialism. Marx's theory of alienation is articulated most clearly in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 and The German Ideology (1846). The 'young' Marx wrote more often and directly of alienation than the 'mature' Marx, which some regard as an ideological break while others maintain that the concept remained central. Structuralists generally hold that there was a transition from a philosophical-anthropological (Marxist humanism) concept (e.g. internal alienation from the self) to a structural-historical interpretation (e.g. external alienation by appropriation of labor), accompanied by a change in terminology from alienation to exploitation to commodity fetishism and reification. Marx's concepts of alienation have been classed into four types by Kostas Axelos: economic and social alienation, political alienation, human alienation, and ideological alienation.
+In the concept's most prominent use, it refers to the economic and social alienation aspect in which workers are disconnected from what they produce and why they produce. Marx believed that alienation is a systematic result of capitalism. Essentially, there is an "exploitation of men by men" where the division of labor creates an economic hierarchy. His theory of alienation was based upon his observation that in emerging industrial production under capitalism, workers inevitably lose control of their lives and selves by not having any control of their work. Workers never become autonomous, self-realized human beings in any significant sense, except in the way the bourgeoisie wants the worker to be realized. His theory relies on Feuerbach's The Essence of Christianity (1841), which argues that the idea of God has alienated the characteristics of the human being. Stirner would take the analysis further in The Ego and Its Own (1844), declaring that even 'humanity' is an alienating ideal for the individual, to which Marx and Engels responded in The German Ideology (1845). Alienation in capitalist societies occurs because in work each contributes to the common wealth but they can only express this fundamentally social aspect of individuality through a production system that is not publicly social but privately owned, for which each individual functions as an instrument, not as a social being. Kostas Axelos summarizes that for Marx, in capitalism "work renders man an alien to himself and to his own products." "The malaise of this alienation from the self means that the worker does not affirm himself but denies himself, does not feel content but unhappy....The worker only feels himself outside his work, and in his work he feels outside himself....Its alien character emerges clearly in the fact as soon as no physical or other compulsion exists, it is avoided like the plague.". Marx also wrote, in a curtailed manner, that capitalist owners also experience alienation, through benefiting from the economic machine by endlessly competing, exploiting others and maintaining mass alienation in society.
+Political alienation refers specifically to the idea that "politics is the form that organizes the productive forces of the economy" in a way that is alienating because it "distorts the logic of economic development".
+Through human alienation, individuals become estranged to themselves in the quest to stay alive, where "they lose their true existence in the struggle for subsistence". Marx focuses on two aspects of human nature which he calls "historical conditions." The first aspect refers to the necessity of food, clothes, shelter, and more. Secondly, Marx believes that after satisfying these basic needs people have the tendency to develop more "needs" or desires that they will work towards satisfying, hence, humans become stuck in a cycle of never ending wants which makes them strangers to each other.
+When referring to ideological alienation, Axelos proposes that Marx believes that all religions divert people away from "their true happiness" and instead turn them towards "illusory happiness".
+There is a commonly noted problem of translation in grappling with ideas of alienation derived from German-language philosophical texts: the word alienation, and similar words such as estrangement, are often used interchangeably to translate two distinct German words, Entfremdung and Entäußerung. The former means specifically interpersonal estrangement, while the latter can have a broader and more active meaning that might refer also to externalization, relinquishment, or sale (alienation) of property. In general, and contrary to his predecessors, Marx may have used the terms interchangeably, though he also wrote "Entfremdung... constitutes the real interest of this Entäußerung."
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:50.071384+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Late 1800s to 1900s ===
+Many sociologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were concerned about alienating effects of modernization. German sociologists Georg Simmel and Ferdinand Tönnies wrote critical works on individualization and urbanization. Simmel's The Philosophy of Money describes how relationships become more and more mediated by money. Tönnies' Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Community and Society) is about the loss of primary relationships such as familial bonds in favour of goal-oriented, secondary relationships. This idea of alienation can be observed in some other contexts, although the term may not be as frequently used. In the context of an individual's relationships within society, alienation can mean the unresponsiveness of society as a whole to the individuality of each member of the society. When collective decisions are made, it is usually impossible for the unique needs of each person to be taken into account.
+The American sociologist C. Wright Mills conducted a major study of alienation in modern society with White Collar in 1951, describing how modern consumption-capitalism has shaped a society where you have to sell your personality in addition to your work. Melvin Seeman was part of a surge in alienation research during the mid-20th century when he published his paper, "On the Meaning of Alienation", in 1959. Seeman used the insights of Marx, Emile Durkheim and others to construct what is often considered a model to recognize the five prominent features of alienation: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self-estrangement.  Seeman later added a sixth element (cultural estrangement), although this element does not feature prominently in later discussions of his work.
+In a broader philosophical context, especially in existentialism and phenomenology, alienation describes the inadequacy of the human being (or the mind) in relation to the world. The human mind (as the subject who perceives) sees the world as an object of perception, and is distanced from the world, rather than living within it. This line of thought is generally traced to the works of Søren Kierkegaard in the 19th century, who, from a Christian viewpoint, saw alienation as separation from God, and also examined the emotions and feelings of individuals when faced with life choices. 
+Many 20th-century philosophers (both theistic and atheistic) and theologians were influenced by Kierkegaard's notions of angst, despair and the importance of the individual. Martin Heidegger's concepts of anxiety (angst) and mortality drew from Kierkegaard; he is indebted to the way Kierkegaard lays out the importance of our subjective relation to truth, our existence in the face of death, the temporality of existence and the importance of passionately affirming one's being-in-the-world. 
+Jean-Paul Sartre described the "thing-in-itself" which is infinite and overflowing, and claimed that any attempt to describe or understand the thing-in-itself is "reflective consciousness". Since there is no way for the reflective consciousness to subsume the pre-reflective, Sartre argued that all reflection is fated to a form of anxiety (i.e. the human condition). As well, Sartre argued that when a person tries to gain knowledge of the "Other"  (meaning beings or objects that are not the self), their self-consciousness has a "masochistic desire" to be limited. This is expressed metaphorically in the line from the play No Exit, "Hell is other people".
+In the theory of psychoanalysis developed around the start of the 20th century, Sigmund Freud did not explicitly address the concept of alienation, but other analysts subsequently have. It is a theory of divisions and conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind, between different parts of a hypothetical psychic apparatus, and between the self and civilization. It postulates defense mechanisms, including splitting, in both normal and disturbed functioning. The concept of repression has been described as having functionally equivalent effects as the idea of false consciousness associated with Marxist theory.
+A form of Western Marxism developed during the century, which included influential analyses of false consciousness by György Lukács. Critics of bureaucracy and the Protestant ethic also drew on the works of Max Weber.
+Figures associated with critical theory, in particular with the Frankfurt School, such as Theodor Adorno and Erich Fromm, also developed theories of alienation, drawing on neo-Marxist ideas as well as other influences including neo-Freudian and sociological theories. One approach applies Marxist theories of commodification to the cultural, educational and party-political spheres. Links are drawn between socioeconomic structures, psychological states of alienation, and personal human relationships. In the 1960s the revolutionary group Situationist International came to some prominence, staging 'situations' intended to highlight an alternative way of life to advanced capitalism, the latter conceptualized as a diffuse 'spectacle', a fake reality masking a degradation of human life. The Theory of Communicative Action associated with Jürgen Habermas emphasizes the essential role of language in public life, suggesting that alienation stems from the distortion of reasoned moral debate by the strategic dominance of market forces and state power.
+This critical program can be contrasted with traditions that attempt to extract problems of alienation from the broader socioeconomic context, or which at least accept the broader context on its own terms, and which often attribute problems to individual abnormality or failures to adjust.
+After the boom in alienation research that characterized the 1950s and 1960s, interest in alienation research subsided, although in sociology it was maintained by the Research Committee on Alienation of the International Sociological Association (ISA).
+In the 1990s, there was again an upsurge of interest in alienation prompted by the fall of the Soviet Union, globalization, the information explosion, increasing awareness of ethnic conflicts, and post-modernism. Felix Geyer believes the growing complexity of the contemporary world and post-modernism prompted a reinterpretation of alienation that suits the contemporary living environment. In late 20th and early 21st century sociology, it has been particularly the works of Lauren Langman and Devorah Kalekin-Fishman that address the issue of alienation in the contemporary western world.
+
+== Modalities ==
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+title: "Social alienation"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_alienation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:50.071384+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Powerlessness ===
+Alienation in the sense of a lack of power has been technically defined by Seeman as "the expectancy or probability held by the individual that his own behaviour cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements, he seeks." Seeman argues that this is "the notion of alienation as it originated in the Marxian view of the worker's condition in capitalist society: the worker is alienated to the extent that the prerogative and means of decision are expropriated by the ruling entrepreneurs". More succinctly, Kalekin-Fishman says, "A person suffers from alienation in the form of 'powerlessness' when she is conscious of the gap between what she would like to do and what she feels capable of doing".
+In discussing powerlessness, Seeman also incorporated the insights of the psychologist Julian Rotter. Rotter distinguishes between internal control and external locus of control, which means "differences (among persons or situations) in the degree to which success or failure is attributable to external factors (e.g. luck, chance, or powerful others), as against success or failure that is seen as the outcome of one's personal skills or characteristics". Powerlessness, therefore, is the perception that the individual does not have the means to achieve his goals.
+Ultimately breaking with the Marxist tradition, Geyer remarks that "a new type of powerlessness has emerged, where the core problem is no longer being unfree but rather being unable to select from among an overchoice of alternatives for action, whose consequences one often cannot even fathom". Geyer adapts cybernetics to alienation theory, and writes that powerlessness is the result of delayed feedback: "The more complex one's environment, the later one is confronted with the latent, and often unintended, consequences of one's actions.  Consequently, in view of this causality-obscuring time lag, both the 'rewards' and 'punishments' for one's actions increasingly tend to be viewed as random, often with apathy and alienation as a result".
+
+=== Meaninglessness ===
+A sense of meaning has been defined by Seeman as "the individual's sense of understanding events in which he is engaged". Seeman writes that meaninglessness "is characterized by a low expectancy that satisfactory predictions about the future outcomes of behaviour can be made." Whereas powerlessness refers to the sensed ability to control outcomes, this refers to the sensed ability to predict outcomes. In this respect, meaninglessness is closely tied to powerlessness; Seeman argues, "the view that one lives in an intelligible world might be a prerequisite to expectancies for control; and the unintelligibility of complex affairs is presumably conducive to the development of high expectancies for external control (that is, high powerlessness)".
+Geyer believes meaninglessness should be reinterpreted for postmodern times: "With the accelerating throughput of information ... meaningless is not a matter anymore of whether one can assign meaning to incoming information, but of whether one can develop adequate new scanning mechanisms to gather the goal-relevant information one needs, as well as more efficient selection procedures to prevent being overburdened by the information one does not need, but is bombarded with on a regular basis." Information overload or the so-called "data tsunami" are well-known information problems confronting contemporary man, and Geyer thus argues that meaninglessness is turned on its head.
+
+=== Normlessness ===
+
+Normlessness (or what Durkheim referred to as anomie) "denotes the situation in which the social norms regulating individual conduct have broken down or are no longer effective as rules for behaviour". This aspect refers to the inability to identify with the dominant values of society or rather, with values that are perceived to be dominant. Seeman adds that this aspect can manifest in a particularly negative manner, "The anomic situation ... may be defined as one in which there is a high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviours are required to achieve given goals".
+Neal and Collas write that "[n]ormlessness derives partly from conditions of complexity and conflict in which individuals become unclear about the composition and enforcement of social norms.  Sudden and abrupt changes occur in life conditions, and the norms that usually operate may no longer seem adequate as guidelines for conduct". This is a particular issue after the fall of the Soviet Union, mass migrations from developing to developed countries, and the general sense of disillusionment that characterized the 1990s.
+
+=== Relationships ===
+One concept used in regard to specific relationships is that of parental alienation, where a separated child expresses a general dislike for one of their parents (who may have divorced or separated). The term is not applied where there is child abuse. The parental alienation might be due to specific influences from either parent or could result from the social dynamics of the family as a whole. It can also be understood in terms of attachment, the social and emotional process of bonding between child and caregiver. Adoptees can feel alienated from both adoptive parents and birth parents.
+Familial estrangement between parents and adult children "is attributed to a number of biological, psychological, social, and structural factors affecting the family, including attachment disorders, incompatible values and beliefs, unfulfilled expectations, critical life events and transitions, parental alienation, and ineffective communication patterns." The degree of alienation has been positively correlated with decreased emotional functioning in the parent who feels a loss of identity and stigma.
+Attachment relationships in adults can also involve feelings of alienation. Indeed, emotional alienation is said to be a common way of life for many, whether it is experienced as overwhelming, unacknowledged in the midst of a socioeconomic race, or contributes to seemingly unrelated problems.
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+---
+title: "Social alienation"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_alienation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:50.071384+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Social isolation ===
+Social isolation refers to "The feeling of being segregated from one's community". Neal and Collas emphasize the centrality of social isolation in the modern world: "While social isolation is typically experienced as a form of personal stress, its sources are deeply embedded in the social organization of the modern world.  With increased isolation and atomization, much of our daily interactions are with those who are strangers to us and with whom we lack any ongoing social relationships."
+Since the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, migrants from Eastern Europe and developing countries have flocked to developed countries in search of a better living standard. This has led to entire communities becoming uprooted: no longer fully part of their homelands, but neither integrated into their adopted communities. Diaspora literature depicts the plights of these migrants, such as Hafid Bouazza in Paravion.
+
+=== Political alienation ===
+One manifestation of the above dimensions of alienation can be a feeling of estrangement from the political system and a lack of engagement therein. Such political alienation could result from not identifying with any particular political party or message, and could result in revolution, reforming behavior, or abstention from the political process, possibly due to voter apathy.
+A similar concept is policy alienation, where workers experience a state of psychological disconnection from a policy programme being implemented.
+
+=== Self-estrangement ===
+
+Self-estrangement is an elusive concept in sociology, as recognized by Seeman, although he included it as an aspect in his model of alienation. Some, with Marx, consider self-estrangement to be the result and thus the heart of social alienation. Self-estrangement can be defined as "the psychological state of denying one's own interests – of seeking out extrinsically rather than intrinsically satisfying, activities...". It could be characterized as a feeling of having become a stranger to oneself, or to some parts of oneself, or alternatively as a problem of self-knowledge, or authenticity.
+Seeman recognized the problems inherent in defining the "self", while post-modernism in particular has questioned the very possibility of pin-pointing what precisely "self" constitutes. Further in that way, if the self is relationally constituted, does it make sense to speak of "self-estrangement" rather than "social isolation"? Costas and Fleming suggest that although the concept of self-estrangement "has not weathered postmodern criticisms of essentialism and economic determinism well", the concept still has value if a Lacanian reading of the self is adopted. This can be seen as part of a wider debate on the concept of self between humanism and antihumanism, structuralism and post-structuralism, or nature and nurture.
+
+=== Mental disturbance ===
+Until early in the 20th century, psychological problems were referred to in psychiatry as states of mental alienation, implying that a person had become separated from themselves, their reason or the world. From the 1960s alienation was again considered in regard to clinical states of disturbance, typically using a broad concept of a 'schizoid' ('splitting') process taken from psychoanalytic theory. The splitting was said to occur within regular child development and in everyday life, as well as in more extreme or dysfunctional form in conditions such as schizoid personality and schizophrenia.
+Varied concepts of alienation and self-estrangement were used to link internal schizoid states with observable symptoms and with external socioeconomic divisions, without necessarily explaining or evidencing underlying causation. R. D. Laing was particularly influential in arguing that dysfunctional families and socioeconomic oppression caused states of alienation and ontological insecurity in people, which could be considered adaptations but which were diagnosed as disorders by mainstream psychiatry and society. The specific theories associated with Laing and others at that time are not widely accepted, but work from other theoretical perspectives sometimes addresses the same theme.
+In a related vein, for Ian Parker, psychology normalizes conditions of social alienation. While it could help groups of individuals emancipate themselves, it serves the role of reproducing existing conditions. This view can be seen as part of a broader tradition sometimes referred to as critical psychology or liberation psychology, which emphasizes that an individual is enmeshed within a social-political framework, and so therefore are psychological problems. Likewise, some psychoanalysts suggest that while psychoanalysis emphasizes environmental causes and reactions, it also attributes the problems of individuals to internal conflicts stemming from early psychosocial development, effectively divorcing them from the wider ongoing context. Slavoj Žižek (drawing on Herbert Marcuse, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis) argues that in today's capitalist society, the individual is estranged from their self through the repressive injunction to "enjoy!" Such an injunction does not allow room for the recognition of alienation and, indeed, could itself be seen as an expression of alienation.
+More to the political right, however, psychotherapy and associated notions have long been considered anywhere from ineffectual due to their inherent bias against the reality of inborn such as group-specific (genetic) traits to actively destructive much rather than emancipatory. On the other hand, they are not alone in this sentiment either as Marcuse, among others, goes on to speak of repressive desublimation.
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+---
+title: "Social alienation"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_alienation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:50.071384+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Disability ===
+Differences between persons with disabilities and individuals in relative abilities, or perceived abilities, can be a cause of alienation. One study, "Social Alienation and Peer Identification: A Study of the Social Construction of Deafness", found that among deaf adults one theme emerged consistently across all categories of life experience: social rejection by, and alienation from, the larger hearing community. Only when the respondents described interactions with deaf people did the theme of isolation give way to comments about participation and meaningful interaction. This appeared to be related to specific needs, for example for real conversation, for information, the opportunity to develop close friendships and a sense of family. It was suggested that the social meaning of deafness is established by interaction between deaf and hearing people, sometimes resulting in marginalization of the deaf, which is sometimes challenged. It has also led to the creation of alternatives and the deaf community is described as one such alternative.
+Physicians and nurses often deal with people who are temporarily or permanently alienated from communities, which could be a result or a cause of medical conditions and suffering, and it has been suggested that therefore attention should be paid to learning from experiences of the special pain that alienation can bring.
+
+== Criticisms ==
+
+Eric Voegelin with whom also originates the related phrase "to Immanentize the eschaton", may be read as rather accepting of alienation: The human condition has radical limits, and humans do not feel perfectly comfortable (to say the least). But it is not “ideological” to feel dissatisfaction or to desire something more perfect than what we have. Indeed such feelings as disquiet, anxiety, frustration and even alienation are, according Voegelin, normal.
+“Man is in deadly anguish,” writes Voegelin, “because he takes life seriously and cannot bear existence without meaning.” For reflection on the limits of the human condition to give rise to ideology, a certain “mood” must be present. What is this mood? It is the mood not only of alienation but of revolt. Ideology involves the active revolt against existential truth and the effort to construct a different world. Voegelin designates this mood as “pneumopathological,” a term he found in Schelling. It is the feeling of “estrangement from the spirit” so intense that it entails a willful closing of the soul to the transcendent.Philosophers Heidegger, Peter Sloterdijk and more recently Alexander Grau argue for a similar fact of alienation.
+
+== In art and popular culture ==
+Alienation is most often represented in literature as the psychological isolation of an individual from society or community. In a volume of Bloom's Literary Themes, Shakespeare's Hamlet is described as the 'supreme literary portrait' of alienation, while noting that some may argue for Achilles in the Iliad. In addition, Bartleby, the Scrivener is introduced as a perfect example because so many senses of alienation are present. Other literary works described as dealing with the theme of alienation are: The Bell Jar, Black Boy, Brave New World, The Catcher in the Rye, The Chosen, Dubliners, Othello, Fahrenheit 451, Invisible Man, Mrs Dalloway, Notes from Underground, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus, The Trial, The Castle, Waiting for Godot, The Waste Land, and Young Goodman Brown. Contemporary British works noted for their perspective on alienation include The Child in Time, London Fields, Trainspotting, and Regeneration.
+Sociologist Harry Dahms has analysed The Matrix Trilogy of films in the context of theories of alienation in modern society. He suggests that the central theme of The Matrix is the "all-pervasive yet increasingly invisible prevalence of alienation in the world today, and difficulties that accompany attempts to overcome it".
+British progressive rock band Pink Floyd's concept album The Wall (1979) and British alternative rock band Radiohead's album OK Computer (1997), both deal with the subject of alienation in their lyrics.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Sources ===
+
+== External links ==
+Alienation, Psychology and Human Resource Management (2006)
+Co-operatives as spaces of cultural resistance and transformation in alienated consumer society (2006)
+Culture Crises in Our Youths: A Result of Linguistic Alienation (Nigeria) (2008)
+Encyclopedic and Dictionary articles on Alienation (misc)
+Escaping alienation:a philosophy of alienation and dealienation (Philosophy) (2002)
+Exposing and Overcoming Linguistic Alienation and Linguistic Violence (1998)
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+---
+title: "Social analytics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_analytics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:51.279884+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social analytics is a philosophical perspective developed since the early 1980s by the Danish idea historian and philosopher Lars-Henrik Schmidt. The theoretical object of the perspective is socius, a kind of "commonness" that is neither a universal account nor a communality shared by every member of a body.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social behavior"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:52.505183+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, it encompasses any behavior in which one member affects another. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when you give, you will receive something similar in return. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the organism and its environment. This means that, in regard to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in.
+A major aspect of social behavior is communication, which is the basis for survival and reproduction. Social behavior is said to be determined by two different processes that can either work together or oppose one another. The dual-systems model of reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior came out of the realization that behavior is not determined by one single factor. Instead, behavior can arise by those consciously behaving (where there is an awareness and intent), or by pure impulse. These factors that determine behavior can work in different situations and moments, and can even oppose one another. While at times one can behave with a specific goal in mind, other times they can behave without rational control, and driven by impulse instead.
+There are also distinctions between different types of social behavior, such as mundane and defensive social behavior. Mundane social behavior is a result of interactions in day-to-day life, and are behaviors learned as one is exposed to those different situations. On the other hand, defensive behavior arises out of impulse, when one is faced with conflicting desires.
+
+== Development ==
+Social behavior constantly changes as one continues to grow and develop, reaching different stages of life. The development of behavior is deeply tied with the biological and cognitive changes one is experiencing at any given time. This creates general patterns of social behavior development in humans. Just as social behavior is influenced by both the situation and an individual's characteristics, the development of behavior is due to the combination of the two as well—the temperament of the child along with the settings they are exposed to.
+Culture (parents and individuals that influence socialization in children) play a large role in the development of a child's social behavior, as the parents or caregivers are typically those who decide the settings and situations that the child is exposed to. These various settings the child is placed in (for example, the playground and classroom) form habits of interaction and behavior insomuch as the child being exposed to certain settings more frequently than others. What takes particular precedence in the influence of the setting are the people that the child must interact with their age, sex, and at times culture.
+Emotions also play a large role in the development of social behavior, as they are intertwined with the way an individual behaves. Through social interactions, emotion is understood through various verbal and nonverbal displays, and thus plays a large role in communication. Many of the processes that occur in the brain and underlay emotion often greatly correlate with the processes that are needed for social behavior as well. A major aspect of interaction is understanding how the other person thinks and feels, and being able to detect emotional states becomes necessary for individuals to effectively interact with one another and behave socially.
+As the child continues to gain social information, their behavior develops accordingly. One must learn how to behave according to the interactions and people relevant to a certain setting, and therefore begin to intuitively know the appropriate form of social interaction depending on the situation. Therefore, behavior is constantly changing as required, and maturity brings this on. A child must learn to balance their own desires with those of the people they interact with, and this ability to correctly respond to contextual cues and understand the intentions and desires of another person improves with age. That being said, the individual characteristics of the child (their temperament) is important to understanding how the individual learns social behaviors and cues given to them, and this learnability is not consistent across all children.
+
+=== Patterns of development across the lifespan ===
+When studying patterns of biological development across the human lifespan, there are certain patterns that are well-maintained across humans. These patterns can often correspond with social development, and biological changes lead to respective changes in interactions.
+In pre and post-natal infancy, the behavior of the infant is correlated with that of the caregiver. The development of social behavior is influenced by their mothers' reactions to children's emotional displays. In infancy, there is already a development of the awareness of a stranger, in which case the individual is able to identify and distinguish between people.
+Come childhood, the individual begins to attend more to their peers, and communication begins to take a verbal form. One also begins to classify themselves on the basis of their gender and other qualities salient about themselves, like race and age.
+When the child reaches school age, one typically becomes more aware of the structure of society in regards to gender, and how their own gender plays a role in this. They become more and more reliant on verbal forms of communication, and more likely to form groups and become aware of their own role within the group.
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+title: "Social behavior"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:52.505183+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+By puberty, general relations among same and opposite sex individuals are much more salient, and individuals begin to behave according to the norms of these situations. With increasing awareness of their sex and stereotypes that go along with it, the individual begins to choose how much they align with these stereotypes, and behaves either according to those stereotypes or not. This is also the time that individuals more often form sexual pairs.
+Once the individual reaches child rearing age, one must begin to undergo changes within the own behavior in accordance to major life-changes of a developing family. The potential new child requires the parent to modify their behavior to accommodate a new member of the family.
+Come senescence and retirement, behavior is more stable as the individual has often established their social circle (whatever it may be) and is more committed to their social structure.
+
+== Neural and biological correlates ==
+
+=== Neural correlates ===
+
+With the advent of the field social cognitive neuroscience came interest in studying social behavior's correlates within the brain to see what is happening beneath the surface as organisms act in a social manner. Although there is debate on which particular regions of the brain are responsible for social behavior, some have claimed that the paracingulate cortex is activated when one person is thinking about the motives or aims of another, a means of understanding the social world and behaving accordingly. The medial prefrontal lobe has also been seen to have activation during social cognition Research has discovered through studies on rhesus monkeys that the amygdala, a region known for expressing fear, was activated specifically when the monkeys were faced with a social situation they had never encountered before. This region of the brain was shown to be sensitive to the fear that comes with a novel social situation, inhibiting social interaction.
+Another form of studying the brain regions that may be responsible for social behavior has been through looking at patients with brain injuries who have an impairment in social behavior. Lesions in the prefrontal cortex that occurred in adulthood can affect the functioning of social behavior. When these lesions or a dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex occur in infancy/early on in life, the development of proper moral and social behavior is effected and thus atypical.
+
+=== Biological correlates ===
+
+Along with neural correlates, research has investigated what happens within the body (and potentially modulates) social behavior. Vasopressin is a posterior pituitary hormone that is seen to potentially play a role in affiliation for young rats. Along with young rats, vasopressin has also been associated with paternal behavior in prairie voles. Efforts have been made to connect animal research to humans, and found that vasopressin may play a role in the social responses of males in human research.
+Oxytocin has also been seen to be correlated with positive social behavior, and elevated levels have been shown to potentially help improve social behavior that may have been suppressed due to stress. Thus, targeting levels of oxytocin may play a role in interventions of disorders that deal with atypical social behavior.
+Along with vasopressin, serotonin has also been inspected in relation to social behavior in humans. It was found to be associated with human feelings of social connection, and there is a drop in serotonin when one is socially isolated or has feelings of social isolation. Serotonin has also been associated with social confidence.
+
+=== Genetics ===
+
+== Affect ==
+
+Positive affect (emotion) has been seen to have a large impact on social behavior, particularly by inducing more helping behavior, cooperation, and sociability. Studies have shown that even subtly inducing positive affect within individuals caused greater social behavior and helping. This phenomenon, however, is not one-directional. Just as positive affect can influence social behavior, social behavior can have an influence on positive affect.
+
+== Electronic media ==
+Social behavior has typically been seen as a changing of behaviors relevant to the situation at hand, acting appropriately with the setting one is in. However, with the advent of electronic media, people began to find themselves in situations they may have not been exposed to in everyday life. Novel situations and information presented through electronic media has formed interactions that are completely new to people. While people typically behaved in line with their setting in face-to-face interaction, the lines have become blurred when it comes to electronic media. This has led to a cascade of results, as gender norms started to merge, and people were coming in contact with information they had never been exposed to through face-to-face interaction. A political leader could no longer tailor a speech to just one audience, for their speech would be translated and heard by anyone through the media. People can no longer play drastically different roles when put in different situations, because the situations overlap more as information is more readily available. Communication flows more quickly and fluidly through media, causing behavior to merge accordingly.
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+title: "Social behavior"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:52.505183+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Media has also been shown to have an impact on promoting different types of social behavior, such as prosocial and aggressive behavior. For example, violence shown through the media has been seen to lead to more aggressive behavior in its viewers. Research has also been done investigating how media portraying positive social acts, prosocial behavior, could lead to more helping behavior in its viewers. The general learning model was established to study how this process of translating media into behavior works, and why. This model suggests a link between positive media with prosocial behavior and violent media with aggressive behavior, and posits that this is mediated by the characteristics of the individual watching along with the situation they are in. This model also presents the notion that when one is exposed to the same type of media for long periods of time, this could even lead to changes within their personality traits, as they are forming different sets of knowledge and may be behaving accordingly.
+In various studies looking specifically at how video games with prosocial content effect behavior, it was shown that exposure influenced subsequent helping behavior in the video-game player. The processes that underlay this effect point to prosocial thoughts being more readily available after playing a video game related to this, and thus the person playing the game is more likely to behave accordingly. These effects were not only found with video games, but also with music, as people listening to songs involving aggression and violence in the lyrics were more likely to act in an aggressive manner. Likewise, people listening to songs related to prosocial acts (relative to a song with neutral lyrics) were shown to express greater helping behaviors and more empathy afterwards. When these songs were played at restaurants, it even led to an increase in tips given (relative to those who heard neutral lyrics).
+
+== Individual and group behavior ==
+Conformity refers to the behavior that an individual is unconsciously pressured by the group to make his behavior tend to be consistent with the majority of people in the group. Generally speaking, the larger the group size, the easier it is for individuals to display conformity behaviors. Individuals may submit to the group for two reasons: first, to gain acceptance from the group (normative social influence); second, to obtain important information for the group (informational social influence).
+
+== Aggressive and violent behavior ==
+
+Aggression is an important social behavior that can have both negative consequences (in a social interaction) and adaptive consequences (adaptive in humans and other primates for survival). There are many differences in aggressive behavior, and a lot of these differences are sex-difference based.
+
+== Verbal, coverbal, and nonverbal social behavior ==
+
+=== Verbal and coverbal behaviors ===
+
+Although most animals can communicate nonverbally, humans have the ability to communicate with both verbal and nonverbal behavior. Verbal behavior is the content of one's spoken word. Verbal and nonverbal behavior intersect in what is known as coverbal behavior, which is nonverbal behavior that contributes to the meaning of verbal speech (i.e. hand gestures used to emphasize the importance of what someone is saying). Although the spoken words convey meaning in and of themselves, one cannot dismiss the coverbal behaviors that accompany the words, as they place great emphasis on the thought and importance contributing to the verbal speech. Therefore, the verbal behaviors and gestures that accompany it work together to make up a conversation. Although many have posited this idea that nonverbal behavior accompanying speech serves an important role in communication, not all researchers agree. However, in most literature on gestures, unlike body language, gestures can accompany speech in ways that bring inner thoughts to life (often thoughts unable to be expressed verbally). Gestures (coverbal behaviors) and speech occur simultaneously, and develop along the same trajectory within children as well.
+
+=== Nonverbal behaviors ===
+
+Behaviors that include any change in facial expression or body movement constitute the meaning of nonverbal behavior. Communicative nonverbal behavior include facial and body expressions that are intentionally meant to convey a message to those who are meant to receive it. Nonverbal behavior can serve a specific purpose (i.e. to convey a message), or can be more of an impulse/reflex. Paul Ekman, an influential psychologist, investigated both verbal and nonverbal behavior (and their role in communication) a great deal, emphasizing how difficult it is to empirically test such behaviors. Nonverbal cues can serve the function of conveying a message, thought, or emotion both to the person viewing the behavior and the person sending these cues.
+
+== Disorders involving impairments in social behavior ==
+
+A number of mental disorders affect social behavior. Social anxiety disorder is a phobic disorder characterized by a fear of being judged by others, which manifests itself as a fear of people in general. Due to this pervasive fear of embarrassing oneself in front of others, it causes those affected to avoid interactions with other people. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder mainly identified by its symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Hyperactivity-Impulsivity may lead to hampered social interactions, as one who displays these symptoms may be socially intrusive, unable to maintain personal space, and talk over others. The majority of children that display symptoms of ADHD also have problems with their social behavior. Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the functioning of social interaction and communication. Autistic people may have difficulties in understanding social cues and the emotional states of others.
+Learning disabilities are often defined as a specific deficit in academic achievement; however, research has shown that with a learning disability can come social skill deficits as well.
+
+== See also ==
+Aggression
+Health behavior
+Collective animal behavior
+Expectancy challenge sociological method
+Herd behavior
+Social behavior in education
+Social learning theory
+Social science
+Sociality
+Socialization
+Violent Behavior
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 1/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social capital is a concept used in sociology and economics to define networks of relationships which are productive towards advancing the goals of individuals and groups.
+It involves the effective functioning of social groups through interpersonal relationships, a shared sense of identity, a shared understanding, shared norms, shared values, trust, cooperation, and reciprocity. Some have described it as a form of capital that produces public goods for a common purpose, although this does not align with how it has been measured.
+Social capital has been used to explain the improved performance of diverse groups, the growth of entrepreneurial firms, superior managerial performance, enhanced supply chain relations, the value derived from strategic alliances, and the evolution of communities.
+
+== History ==
+While it has been suggested that the term social capital was in intermittent use from about 1890, before becoming widely used in the late 1990s, the earliest credited use is by Lyda Hanifan in 1916 (see 20th century below).
+The debate of community versus modernization of society and individualism has been the most discussed topic among the founders of sociology: such theorists as Tönnies (1887), Durkheim (1893), Simmel (1905), and Weber (1946) were convinced that industrialisation and urbanization were transforming social relationships in an irreversible way. They observed a breakdown of traditional bonds and the progressive development of anomie and alienation in society.
+
+=== 18th–19th century ===
+The power of community governance has been stressed by many philosophers from antiquity to the 18th century, from Aristotle to Thomas Aquinas, and Edmund Burke. This vision was strongly criticised at the end of the 18th century, with the development of the idea of Homo Economicus and subsequently with rational choice theory. Such a set of theories became dominant in the last centuries, but many thinkers questioned the complicated relationship between modern society and the importance of old institutions, in particular family and traditional communities.
+The concept that underlies social capital has a much longer history; thinkers exploring the relation between associational life and democracy were using similar concepts regularly by the 19th century, drawing on the work of earlier writers such as James Madison (The Federalist Papers) and Alexis de Tocqueville (Democracy in America) to integrate concepts of social cohesion and connectedness into the pluralist tradition in American political science. John Dewey may have made the first direct mainstream use of social capital in The School and Society in 1899, though he did not offer a definition.
+In the first half of the 19th century, de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital. He observed that Americans were prone to meeting at as many gatherings as possible to discuss all possible issues of state, economics, or the world that could be witnessed. The high levels of transparency caused greater participation from the people and thus allowed for democracy to work better.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 2/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== 20th century ===
+L. J. Hanifan's 1916 article regarding local support for rural schools is one of the first occurrences of the term social capital in reference to social cohesion and personal investment in the community. In defining the concept, Hanifan contrasts social capital with material goods by defining it as:I do not refer to real estate, or to personal property or to cold cash, but rather to that in life which tends to make these tangible substances count for most in the daily lives of people, namely, goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy and social intercourse among a group of individuals and families who make up a social unit.… If he may come into contact with his neighbour, and they with other neighbours, there will be an accumulation of social capital, which may immediately satisfy his social needs and which may bear a social potentiality sufficient to the substantial improvement of living conditions in the whole community. The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours.
+Following the works of Tönnies (1887) and Weber (1946), reflection on social links in modern society continued with interesting contributions in the 1950s and in the 1960s. In particular, mass society theory – as developed by Daniel Bell (1962), Robert Nisbet (1969), Maurice R. Stein (1960), William H. Whyte (1956) – proposed themes similar to those of the founders, with a more pessimistic emphasis on the development of society. In the words of Stein (1960:1): "The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level."
+Jane Jacobs used the term early in the 1960s. Although she did not explicitly define the term social capital, her usage referred to the value of networks. Political scientist Robert Salisbury advanced the term as a critical component of interest group formation in his 1969 article "An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups" in the Midwest Journal of Political Science.
+Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu used the term in 1972 in his Outline of a Theory of Practice, and clarified the term some years later in contrast to cultural, economic, administrative capital, physical capital, political capital, social capital and symbolic capital. Sociologists James Coleman (1988), as well as Barry Wellman & Scot Wortley (1990), adopted Glenn Loury's 1977 definition in developing and popularising the concept. In the late 1990s, the concept gained popularity, serving as the focus of a World Bank research programme  and the subject of several mainstream books, including Robert Putnam's Bowling Alone, and Putnam & Lewis Feldstein's Better Together.
+All of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades. The appearance of the modern social capital conceptualization is a new way to look at this debate, keeping together the importance of community to build generalized trust and the same time, the importance of individual free choice, in order to create a more cohesive society. It is for this reason that social capital generated so much interest in the academic and political world.
+
+== Definitions and forms ==
+Social capital has multiple definitions, interpretations, and uses. David Halpern argues that the popularity of social capital for policymakers is linked to the concept's duality, coming because "it has a hard nosed economic feel while restating the importance of the social." For researchers, the term is popular partly due to the broad range of outcomes it can explain; the multiplicity of uses for social capital has led to a multiplicity of definitions. Social capital involves networks of relationships based on trust that allows individuals and institutions to access resources needed. 
+Social capital has been used at various times to explain superior managerial performance, the growth of entrepreneurial firms, improved performance of functionally diverse groups, the value derived from strategic alliances, and enhanced supply-chain relations. "A resource that actors derive from specific social structures and then use to pursue their interests; it is created by changes in the relationship among actors" (Baker 1990, p. 619).
+Early attempts to define social capital focused on the degree to which social capital serves as a resource – be it for public good or private benefit. Robert D. Putnam (1993) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime. In contrast, others focus on the private benefits derived from the web of social relationships in which individual actors find themselves. This is reflected in Nan Lin's concept of social capital as "Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace." This may subsume the concepts of some others such as Bourdieu, Flap and Eriksson. Newton (1997) treats social capital as a subjective phenomenon formed by values and attitudes that influence interactions. Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998), in their examination of the role of social capital in the creation of intellectual capital, suggest that social capital should be considered in terms of three clusters: structural, relational, and cognitive.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 11/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Influence of the Internet ==
+Similar to watching the news and keeping abreast of current events, the use of the Internet can relate to an individual's level of social capital. In one study, informational uses of the Internet correlated positively with an individual's production of social capital, and social-recreational uses were negatively correlated (higher levels of these uses correlated with lower levels of social capital). An example supporting the former argument is the contribution of Peter Maranci's blog (Charlie on the Commuter Line) to address the train problems in Massachusetts. He created it after an incident where a lady passed out during a train ride due to the congestion in the train and help was delayed because of the congestion in the train and the inefficiency of the train conductor. His blog exposed the poor conditions of train stations, overcrowding train rides and inefficiency of the train conductor which eventually influenced changes within the transit system.
+Another perspective holds that the rapid growth of social networking sites such as Facebook and Myspace suggests that individuals are creating a virtual-network consisting of both bonding and bridging social capital. Unlike face to face interaction, people can instantly connect with others in a targeted fashion by placing specific parameters with Internet use. This means that individuals can selectively connect with others based on ascertained interests, and backgrounds. Facebook is currently the most popular social networking site and touts many advantages to its users including serving as a social lubricant for individuals who otherwise have difficulties forming and maintaining both strong and weak ties with others.
+This argument continues, although the preponderance of evidence shows a positive association between social capital and the Internet. Critics of virtual communities believe that the Internet replaces our strong bonds with online "weak-ties" or with socially empty interactions with the technology itself. Others fear that the Internet can create a world of "narcissism of similarity," where sociability is reduced to interactions between those that are similar in terms of ideology, race, or gender. A few articles suggest that technologically based interactions has a negative relationship with social capital by displacing time spent engaging in geographical/ in-person social activities. However, the consensus of research shows that the more time people spend online the more in-person contact they have, thus positively enhancing social capital.
+Recent research, conducted in 2006, also shows that Internet users often have wider networks than those who access the Internet irregularly or not at all. When not considering family and work contacts, Internet users actually tend to have contact with a higher number of friends and relatives. This is supported by another study that shows that Internet users and non-Internet users do feel equally close to the same number of people; also the Internet users maintain relationships with 20% more people whom they "feel somewhat close" to.
+Other research shows that younger people use the Internet as a supplemental medium for communication, rather than letting the Internet communication replace face-to-face contact. This supports the view that Internet communication does not hinder development of social capital and does not make people feel lonelier than before.
+Ellison, Steinfield & Lampe (2007) suggest social capital exercised online is a result of relationships formed offline; whereby, bridging capital is enabled through a "maintenance" of relationships. Among respondents of this study, social capital built exclusively online creates weaker ties. A distinction of social bonding is offered by Ellison et al., 2007, suggesting bonds, or strong ties, are possible through social media, but less likely.
+Conversely, in the afterword to the second edition of Bowling Alone (2020), political scientist Robert D. Putnam found that the expansion of internet access, social media, social networking services, online dating services, professional networking services, and e-commerce was probably accelerating the decline in social capital among the U.S. population that began in the 1960s, while mostly just reinforcing existing social connections rather than creating new ones (i.e. bonding social capital versus bridging social capital)—analogously to the effect that the expansion of telephone ownership by U.S. households had (which grew from an ownership rate of 1 percent in 1890 to a majority by 1946 and to 75 percent by 1957).
+In the first edition of Bowling Alone (2000), Putnam found that the social capital decline was caused primarily by the expansion of television ownership by U.S. households (which grew from an ownership rate of 1 percent in 1948 to 75 percent by 1955), the gradual replacement of the Greatest Generation and Silent Generation birth year cohorts by the Baby boomer and Generation X birth year cohorts, and the effect of the television ownership expansion on Baby boomers and Generation X. Putnam anticipated that if internet use resembled television and telephone use that the impact of the internet on social capital would largely be the same as the television and the telephone, but Putnam rejected technological determinism in suggesting that the impacts of the internet on social capital was not inevitable and would depend on how Americans collectively chose to use the internet. With respect to political and civic engagement specifically, Putnam referenced meta-analyses and other research in political science in the second edition of Bowling Alone that concluded that the effects of social networking services and social media on political and civic participation was minimal or negative.
+When considered with the use of social media for passive observation or online-only and low-effort support of political and social movements, Putnam concluded that the relationship between internet activism and offline activism is correlational rather than causal in light of research about pre-internet political and social movements (such as the civil rights movement and opposition to the Vietnam War in the United States and the 1989 Peaceful Revolution in East Germany) showing that personal connections with other activists are a stronger predictor of which individuals remain part of a movement rather than ideological commitment. Instead, Putnam argued that the weight of the research showed that social media has exacerbated political polarization in the United States due to ideological and socioeconomic homophily among user social networks and social media algorithms that promote echo chambers, virtue signalling, and disinformation. However, Putnam also suggested that these effects of social media owed to the surveillance capitalism business models of the companies that operated the services rather than the technology itself, which created incentives for the companies to promote consumerism rather than building social capital and social trust.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 12/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Effects on educational achievement ==
+
+=== Catholic schools (Coleman and Hoffer) ===
+Coleman and Hoffer collected quantitative data of 28,000 students in total 1,015 public, Catholic and other private high schools in America from the 7 years' period from 1980 to 1987. It was found from this longitudinal research that social capital in students' families and communities attributed to the much lower dropout rates in Catholic schools compared with the higher rates in public.
+Teachman et al. (1996) further develop the family structure indicator suggested by Coleman. They criticise Coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families. They take into account of a detailed counting of family structure, not only with two biological parents or stepparent families, but also with types of single-parent families with each other (mother-only, father-only, never-married, and other). They also contribute to the literature by measuring parent-child interaction by the indicators of how often parents and children discuss school-related activities.
+Morgan and Sorensen (1999) directly challenge Coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why Catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement. Researching students in Catholic schools and public schools again, they propose two comparable models of social capital effect on mathematic learning.  One is on Catholic schools as norm-enforcing schools whereas another is on public schools as horizon-expanding schools. It is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring. Creativity and exceptional achievement would be repressed as a result. Whereas in horizon expanding school, social closure is found to be negative for student's mathematic achievement. These schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults.  The consequence is that more learning is fostered than norm-enforcing Catholic school students. In sum, Morgan and Sorensen study implies that social capital is contextualised, one kind of social capital may be positive in this setting but is not necessarily still positive in another setting.
+
+=== Community development ===
+In the setting of education through Kilpatrick, Johns, and Mulford (2010) state that "social capital is a useful lens for analysing lifelong learning and its relationship to community development." Social capital is particularly important in terms of education. Also the importance of education with "schools being designed to create 'functioning community' - forging tighter links between parents and the school" linking that without this interaction, the social capital in this area is disadvantaged and demonstrates that social capital plays a major role in education.
+
+=== Parental involvement ===
+Putnam (2000) mentions in his book Bowling Alone, "Child development is powerfully shaped by social capital" and continues "presence of social capital has been linked to various positive outcomes, particularly in education." According to his book, these positive outcomes are the result of parents' social capital in a community. In states where there is a high social capital, there is also a high education performance. The similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children's education. Teachers have reported that when the parents participate more in their children's education and school life, it lowers levels of misbehavior, such as bringing weapons to school, engaging in physical violence, unauthorized absence, and being generally apathetic about education. Borrowing Coleman's quotation from Putnam's book, Coleman once mentioned we cannot understate "the importance of the embeddedness of young persons in the enclaves of adults most proximate to them, first and most prominent the family and second, a surrounding community of adults." 
+
+=== Childcare Costs ===
+Economic barriers such as high child care costs can limit access to social and economic opportunities, particularly for lower-income families, thereby contributing to broader patterns of social inequality.   Childcare costs can contribute to social inequality as lower-income families often spend more of their income families often spend more of their income on care, limiting their access to economic opportunities. High childcare costs may also reduce labor force participation among lower-income parents, to them having to readjust to their economic inequalities. 
+Without social capital in the area of education, teachers and parents who play a responsibility in a students learning, the significant impacts on their child's academic learning can rely on these factors. With focus on parents contributing to their child's academic progress as well as being influenced by social capital in education. Without the contribution by the parent in their child's education, gives parents less opportunity and participation in the student's life. As Tedin and Weiher (2010) state, "one of the most important factors in promoting student success is the active involvement of parents in a child's education." With parents also involved in activities and meetings the school conducts, the more involved parents are with other parents and the staff members. Thus parent involvement contributes to social capital with becoming more involved in the school community and participating makes the school a sustainable and easy to run community.
+Sampson et al. (1999) stress the normative or goal-directed dimension of social capital, claiming that "resources or networks alone (e.g. voluntary associations, friendship ties, organisational density) are neutral---they may or may not be effective mechanism for achieving intended effect."
+
+=== Difference in male and female ===
+Marjoribanks and Kwok (1998) conducted a survey in Hong Kong secondary schools with 387 fourteen-year-old students with an aim to analyse female and male adolescents differential educational achievement by using social capital as the main analytic tool. In that research, social capital is approved of its different effects upon different genders.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 13/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Adaption and ethnic values ===
+In his thesis "New Arrival Students in Hong Kong: Adaptation and School Performance", Hei Hang Hayes Tang (2002) argues that adaptation is a process of activation and accumulation of (cultural and social) capitals. The research findings show that supportive networks is the key determinant differentiating the divergent adaptation pathways. Supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed. The amount of accumulated capital is also relevant to further advancement in the ongoing adaptation process.
+Min Zhou and Carl L. Bankston (1998), in their study of a Vietnamese community in New Orleans, found that preserving traditional ethnic values enable immigrants to integrate socially and to maintain solidarity in an ethnic community. Ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society. In her article "Social Capital in Chinatown", Zhou examines how the process of adaptation of young Chinese Americans is affected by tangible forms of social relations between the community, immigrant families, and the younger generations. Chinatown serves as the basis of social capital that facilitates the accommodation of immigrant children in the expected directions. Ethnic support provides impetus to academic success.  Furthermore, maintenance of literacy in native language also provides a form of social capital that contributes positively to academic achievement. Stanton-Salazar and Dornbusch found that bilingual students were more likely to obtain the necessary forms of institutional support to advance their school performance and their life chances.
+
+== In fields of study ==
+
+=== Geography ===
+In order to understand social capital as a subject in geography, one must look at it in a sense of space, place, and territory. In its relationship, the tenets of geography relate to the ideas of social capital in the family, community, and in the use of social networks. The biggest advocate for seeing social capital as a geographical subject was American economist and political scientist Robert Putnam. His main argument for classifying social capital as a geographical concept is that the relationships of people is shaped and molded by the areas in which they live.
+There are many areas in which social capital can be defined by the theories and practices. In 1984, Anthony Giddens developed a theory in which he relates social structures and the actions that they produce. In his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space. If this is the case, the continuous change in social structures could bring about a change in social capital, which can cause changes in community atmosphere. If an area is plagued by social organizations whose goals are to revolt against social norms, such as gangs, it can cause a negative social capital for the area causing those who disagreed with these organizations to relocate thus taking their positive social capital to a different space than the negative.
+Another area where social capital can be seen as an area of study in geography is through the analysis of participation in volunteerism and its support of different governments. One area to look into with this is through those who participate in social organizations. People that participate are of different races, ages, and economic status. With these in mind, variances of the space in which these different demographics may vary, causing a difference in involvement among areas. Secondly, there are different social programs for different areas based on economic situation. A governmental organization would not place a welfare center in a wealthier neighborhood where it would have very limited support to the community, as it is not needed. Thirdly, social capital can be affected by the participation of individuals of a certain area based on the type of institutions that are placed there. Mohan supports this with the argument of J. Fox in his paper "Decentralization and Rural Development in Mexico", which states "structures of local governance in turn influence the capacity of grassroots communities to influence social investments." With this theory, if the involvement of a government in specific areas raises the involvement of individuals in social organizations and/or communities, this will in turn raise the social capital for that area. Since every area is different, the government takes that into consideration and will provide different areas with different institutions to fit their needs thus there will be different changes in social capital in different areas.
+
+=== Leisure studies ===
+In the context of leisure studies, social capital is seen as the consequence of investment in and cultivation of social relationships allowing an individual access to resources that would otherwise be unavailable to him or her. The concept of social capital in relation to leisure is grounded in a perspective that emphasizes the interconnectedness rather than the separateness of human activity and human goals. There is a significant connection between leisure and democratic social capital. Specific forms of leisure activity contribute to the development of the social capital central to democracy and democratic citizenship. The more an individual participates in social activities, the more autonomy the individual experiences, which will help her or his individual abilities and skills to develop. The greater the accumulation of social capital a person experiences, may transfer to other leisure activities as well as personal social roles, relationships and in other roles within a social structure.
+
+=== Social capital, marriage, and romantic relationships ===
+Kislev (2019) shows that following vast changes to the status of marriage in modern society singles present higher social capital. They also derive greater happiness from equal levels of social capital compared with married people. In a later study, Kislev (2020) shows the relation between romantic relationships desire and singleness. He shows that a lower degree of relationship desire has a significant effect on the relative importance of friends. Furthermore, both higher levels of the relative importance of friends and social satisfaction are negatively correlated with relationship desire.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 14/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Effects on informal economies ==
+Social capital has been associated with the reduction in access to informal credit in informal economies (especially in developing countries). Social capital in rural communities bring business-related knowledge and skills, entrepreneurial wellbeing, and economic benefits for individuals within communities, while for the community as a whole, strong social capital also brings extra shared economic benefits, and it can also foster socio-cultural change within the community.
+Similar results were revealed in a cross-sectional study run by Sarker in Bangladesh. Some other authors also note the importance of social capital among female entrepreneurship. Epo (2013) presented the case that social capital and micro loans increase the likelihood of female entrepreneurship in Cameroon. Epo did this by comparing the welfare outcomes of the entrepreneurs who both had access and no access. Other authors, however, disagree about the positive correlation between social capital and microfinance, Kanak and Iiguni argue that formation of social capital is largely dependent on strategies implemented by Microfinance Institutions. Kanak and Iiguni determined this while investigating social capital formation in a rural village in Bangladesh.
+For their study in Indian rural communities, Trivedi and colleagues make a distinction between internal social capital, i.e. within a rural community, and external social capital, i.e., between people from the community with people outside the community. They argue that both internal and external social capital need to be in place for a rural community to create entrepreneurial and economic benefits, which in turn can reduce poverty.
+
+== See also ==
+Cultural economics – Branch of economics
+Diplomatic capital
+Intellectual capital management
+Organisational capital
+Organization workshop – Business education workshopPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Political capital – Means by which a politician or political party may gain support or popularity
+Reed's law – Increase in utility with network size
+Relational capital
+Reputation – Social opinion about an entity
+Sexual capital – Social value from sexual attractiveness
+Social currency – Sociological concept
+Soft power – Ability to co-opt rather than coerce
+Structural capital – Primary component of intellectual capital
+True cost accounting – Accounting that measures the hidden impacts of economic activities on the environment
+Trust capital
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Adler, Paul S., and Seok-Woo Kwon. 2002. "Social Capital: Prospects for a New Concept." Academy of Management Review 27(1)1:17–40. JSTOR 4134367.
+Becker, Gary S. (1996). Accounting for Tastes. Part I: Personal Capital; Part II: Social Capital. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674543577. Lay summary.
+Bourdieu, Pierre. 1983. "Ökonomisches Kapital, kulturelles Kapital, soziales Kapital." pp. 183–198 in Soziale Ungleichheiten, (Soziale Welt, Sonderheft 2), edited by R. Kreckel. Goettingen: Otto Schartz & Co.
+Coleman, James S. (1988). "Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital". American Journal of Sociology. 94 (1): S95–S120. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.208.1462. doi:10.1086/228943. JSTOR 2780243. S2CID 51859022.
+Dasgupta, Partha, and Ismail Serageldin, eds. 2000. Social Capital: A Multifaceted Perspective. Washington, DC: World Bank. Google Books.
+Edwards, B., and M. W. Foley. 1998. Civil society and social capital beyond Putnam. 
+Ellison, Nicole B.; Steinfield, Charles; Lampe, Cliff (2007). "The Benefits of Facebook "Friends:" Social Capital and College Students' Use of Online Social Network Sites". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 12 (4): 1143–1168. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x.
+Everingham, C. 2001. Reconstituting Community
+Folland, Sherman; Rocco, Lorenzo, eds. (2014). The Economics of Social Capital and Health: A Conceptual and Empirical Roadmap. World Scientific Series in Global Healthcare Economics and Public Policy. Vol. 2. Hackensack, New Jersey: World Scientific. p. 236. doi:10.1142/7593. ISBN 978-9814293396.
+Kay, A (2006). "Social capital, the social economy and community development". Community Development Journal. 41 (2): 160–173. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsi045. S2CID 6506888.
+Koley, Gaurav; Deshmukh, Jayati; Srinivasa, Srinath (2020). "Social Capital as Engagement and Belief Revision". In Samin Aref; Kalina Bontcheva; Marco Braghieri; Frank Dignum; Fosca Giannotti; Francesco Grisolia; Dino Pedreschi (eds.). SocInfo 2020: Social Informatics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 12467. pp. 137–151. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-60975-7_11. ISBN 978-3-030-60974-0. S2CID 222233101.
+Knack, Stephen; Keefer, Philip (1997). "Does Social Capital Have an Economic Payoff? A Cross-Country Investigation" (PDF). The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 112 (4): 1251–1288. doi:10.1162/003355300555475. JSTOR 2951271. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2016.
+Leyden, Kevin M (2003). "Social Capital and the Built Environment: The Importance of Walkable Neighborhoods" (PDF). American Journal of Public Health. 93 (9): 1546–1551. doi:10.2105/ajph.93.9.1546. PMC 1448008. PMID 12948978. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
+Lin, Nan. 1999. "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital." Connections 22(1):28–51.
+Reprint: Lin, Nan. 2017. "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital." pp. 3–28 in Social Capital, edited by N. Lin, K. Cook, and R. S. Burt. doi:10.4324/9781315129457-1. ISBN 978-1315129457.
+Lin, Jih-Hsuan, Wei Peng, Mijung Kim, Sung Yeun Kim, and Robert LaRose. 2011. "Social networking and adjustments among international students." New Media & Society 14(3):421–440. doi:10.1177/1461444811418627. S2CID 10571675.
+Putnam, Robert D. 1995. "Bowling alone: Americas's declining social capital." Journal of Democracy 6(1):65–78. doi:10.1353/jod.1995.0002.
+—— 2006. E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century. Nordic Political Science Association 
+Durlauf, Steven N., and Lawrence E. Blume, eds. 2008. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2nd ed.)
+Dasgupta, Partha. "social capital."
+Iannaccone, Laurence R., and Eli Berman. "religion, economics of."
+Young, H. Peyton. "social norms"
+Moody, James, and Martina Morris, "social networks, economic relevance of"
+Mohan, Giles, and John Mohan. 2002. "Placing social capital." Progress in Human Geography 26(2):191–210. doi:10.1191/0309132502ph364ra
+Portes, A. 1998. "Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology." Annual Review of Sociology 24:1–24. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.1
+Silverman, R. M. 2004. Community-based organizations: The intersection of social capital and local context in contemporary urban society. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
+Williams, D. 2006. "On and Off the 'Net: Scales for Social Capital in an Online Era." Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11(2):593–628. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00029.x.
+Zhou, Min, and Carl L. Bankston. 1998. Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 978-0871549952.
+Day, D. V. (2000). Leadership development:: A review in context. The leadership quarterly, 11(4), 581–613.
+
+== External links ==
+
+The World Social Capital Monitor, Survey in 35 languages within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
+Social Capital as the social dimension of the UN SDG, Jos Verbeek of the Worldbank, August 2017
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 3/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Definitional issues ===
+A number of scholars have raised concerns about the imprecision in defining social capital. Portes (2000), for example, notes that the term has become so widely used, including in mainstream media, that "the point is approaching at which social capital comes to be applied to so many events and in so many different contexts as to lose any distinct meaning." The term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits. However, the analogy may be misleading in that, unlike financial forms of capital, social capital is not depleted by use; instead, it is depleted by non-use (use it or lose it). In this respect, it is similar to the economic concept of human capital.
+Robison, Schmid, and Siles (2002) review various definitions of social capital and conclude that many do not satisfy the formal requirements of a definition. They assert that definitions must be of the form A=B, while many explanations of social capital describe what it can be used to achieve, where it resides, how it can be created, or what it can transform. In addition, they argue that many proposed definitions of social capital fail to satisfy the requirements of capital. They propose that social capital be defined as sympathy: the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital. This proposition appears to follow Adam Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments to some degree, but Smith's conceptualization of sympathy (particularly in the first two chapters of this work) appear more concerned with the roles of acceptance or congruence – in ethics or virtue – in evaluating an individual's 'propriety of action'.
+Social capital is different from the economic theory of social capitalism, which challenges the idea that socialism and capitalism are mutually exclusive.
+
+=== Forms of capital (Bourdieu) ===
+In The Forms of Capital, Pierre Bourdieu distinguishes between three forms of capital: economic capital, cultural capital and social capital. He defines social capital as "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition." His treatment of the concept is instrumental, focusing on the advantages to possessors of social capital and the "deliberate construction of sociability for the purpose of creating this resource." Quite contrary to Putnam's positive view of social capital, Bourdieu employs the concept to demonstrate a mechanism for the generational reproduction of inequality. Bourdieu thus points out that the wealthy and powerful use their "old boys network" or other social capital to maintain advantages for themselves, their social class, and their children.
+
+=== Norms of trust and reciprocity (Sander, Putnam, Coleman) ===
+Thomas Sander defines it as "the collective value of all social networks (who people know), and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity)." Social capital, in this view, emphasizes "specific benefits that flow from the trust, reciprocity, information, and cooperation associated with social networks." It "creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well." Meanwhile, negative norms of reciprocity serve as disincentives for detrimental and violent behaviors.
+James Coleman defined social capital functionally as "a variety of entities with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of actors...within the structure" – that is, social capital is anything that facilitates individual or collective action, generated by networks of relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms. In Coleman's conception, social capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which it is put.
+According to Robert D. Putnam, social capital refers to "connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them." In the view of Putnam and his followers, social capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy. Putnam says that social capital is declining in the United States. This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation. Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is women's entry into the workforce, which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations. Technological transformation of leisure (e.g., television) is another cause of declining social capital, as stated by Putnam. This offered a reference point from which several studies assessed social capital measurements by how media is engaged strategically to build social capital.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 4/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Civic association (Fukuyama) ===
+In "Social Capital, Civil Society, and Development", political economist Francis Fukuyama defines social capital as generally understood rules that enable people to cooperate such as the norm of reciprocity or religious doctrine like Christianity. Social capital is formed by repeated interactions over time and, he argues, is critical for development and difficult to generate through public policy. The importance of social capital for economic development is that these norms of behavior reduce transaction cost of exchange such as legal contracts and government regulations. Fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare.
+Referencing Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America, and what he described as the art of association of the American propensity for civil association, Fukuyama argues social capital is what produces a civil society. While civic engagement is an important part of democracy and development, Fukuyama states that, "one person's civic engagement is another's rent-seeking." Therefore, while social capital can facilitate economic development by reducing transaction cost and increasing productivity, social capital can also distort democracy if civic association enables special interest to gain special favors. However, Fukuyama argues despite the risk of society having too much social capital, it is nonetheless worse to have too little and be unable to organize for public goods and welfare enhancing activity.
+
+=== Social ties ===
+Carlos García Timón describes that the structural dimensions of social capital relate to an individual ability to make weak and strong ties to others within a system. This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network. The differences between weak and strong ties are explained by Granovetter (1973). Bridging the weak ties that individuals with heterogeneous limited interactions form. Bridging social capital is more likely to provide valuable new information (Moshkovitz and Hayat, 2021). Some others describes the weak and strong ties relationship as bonding and bridging social capital. Social capital refers to the networks of relationships among individuals that facilitate cooperation and enable societies to function more effectively.
+< https://brill.com/view/journals/ajss/37/3/article-p480_12.xmlSuperscript textThis is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network. Hazleton and Kennan (2000) added a third angle, that of communication. Communication is needed to access and use social capital through exchanging information, identifying problems and solutions, and managing conflict.
+According to Boisot (1995), and Boland & Tenkasi (1995), meaningful communication requires at least some sharing context between the parties to such exchange. The cognitive dimension focuses on the shared meaning, representations and interpretations that individuals or groups have with one another.
+
+== Negative social capital ==
+Whereas some scholars, most prominently Robert D. Putnam, posit that social capital has positive ends, a sizable body of literature finds that social capital can have adverse effects. Research by Sheri Berman and Dylan Riley, as well as economists Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, and Hans-Joachim Voth, have linked civic associations to the rise of fascist movements. Pierre Bourdieu's work tends to show how social capital can be used practically to produce or reproduce inequality, demonstrating for instance how people gain access to powerful positions through the direct and indirect employment of social connections.
+An example of the complexities of the negative of effects social capital is violence or criminal gang activity that is encouraged through the strengthening of intra-group relationships (bonding social capital). The negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging.
+Without "bridging" social capital, "bonding" groups can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society and, most importantly, from groups with which bridging must occur in order to denote an "increase" in social capital. Bonding social capital is a necessary antecedent for the development of the more powerful form of bridging social capital. Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other. As social capital bonds and stronger homogeneous groups form, the likelihood of bridging social capital is attenuated. Bonding social capital can also perpetuate sentiments of a certain group, allowing for the bonding of certain individuals together upon a common radical ideal. The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation. In extreme cases ethnic cleansing may result if the relationship between different groups is so strongly negative. In mild cases, it  isolates certain communities such as suburbs of cities because of the bonding social capital and the fact that people in these communities spend so much time away from places that build bridging social capital.
+
+=== Accessibility ===
+Edwards and Foley, as editors of a special edition of the American Behavioral Scientist on "Social Capital, Civil Society and Contemporary Democracy", raised two key issues in the study of social capital. First, social capital is not equally available to all, in much the same way that other forms of capital are differently available. Geographic and social isolation limit access to this resource. Second, not all social capital is created equally. The value of a specific source of social capital depends in no small part on the socio-economic position of the source with society.
+On top of this, Portes (1998) has identified four negative consequences of social capital:
+
+exclusion of outsiders;
+excess claims on group members;
+restrictions on individual freedom; and
+downward levelling norms.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 5/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== In political institutions ===
+Social capital (in the institutional Robert Putnam sense) may also lead to bad outcomes if the political institution and democracy in a specific country is not strong enough and is therefore overpowered by the social capital groups. "Civil society and the collapse of the Weimar Republic" suggests that "it was weak political institutionalization rather than a weak civil society that was Germany's main problem during the Wihelmine and Weimar eras." Because the political institutions were so weak people looked to other outlets. "Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler's rise to power." In this article about the fall of the Weimar Republic, the author makes the claim that Hitler rose to power so quickly because he was able to mobilize the groups towards one common goal. Even though German society was, at the time, a "joining" society these groups were fragmented and their members did not use the skills they learned in their club associations to better their society, but to encourage their values across all cultures to provide a better society for people. They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic. Hitler was able to capitalize on this by uniting these highly bonded groups under the common cause of bringing Germany to the top of world politics. The former world order had been destroyed during World War I, and Hitler believed that Germany had the right and the will to become a dominant global power.
+Additionally, in his essay "A Criticism of Putnam's Theory of Social Capital", Michael Shindler expands upon Berman's argument that Weimar social clubs and similar associations in countries that did not develop democracy, were organized in such a way that they fostered a "we" instead of an "I" mentality among their members, by arguing that groups which possess cultures that stress solidarity over individuality, even ones that are "horizontally" structured and which were also common to pre-Soviet Eastern Europe, will not engender democracy if they are politically aligned with non-democratic ideologies.
+
+=== In race and ethnicity ===
+Using a network-based conception for characterizing the social capital of collectivities (such as organizations or business clusters), Lester, Maheshwari, and McLain (2013) note that negative social capital may be the cause for disadvantageous differences among minority firms versus majority firms. While studying norms among African-American family firms and Euro-American family firms, Lester et al. noted that negative social capital was created when the owner of the company was pressured to engage in social behavior not conducive to firm profits.
+Robert Putnam, in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities. Putnam's study regarding the issue argued that in American areas with a lack of homogeneity, some individuals neither participated in bonding nor bridging social capital. In societies where immigration is high (US) or where ethnic heterogeneity is high (Eastern Europe), it was found that citizens lacked in both kinds of social capital and were overall far less trusting of others than members of homogenous communities were found to be.  Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community. These findings challenge previous beliefs that exposure to diversity strengthens social capital, either through bridging social gaps between ethnicities or strengthening in-group bonds. It is very important for policy makers to monitor the level of perceived socio-economic threat from immigrants because negative attitudes towards immigrants make integration difficult and affect social capital.
+Varshney (2001) studied the correlation between the presence of interethnic networks (bridging) versus intra-ethnic ones (bonding) on ethnic violence in India.
+He argues that interethnic networks are agents of peace because they build bridges and manage tensions, by noting that if communities are organized only along intra-ethnic lines and the interconnections with other communities are very weak or even nonexistent, then ethnic violence is quite likely.
+Three main implications of intercommunal ties explain their worth:
+
+Facilitate communication in the community across ethnic lines
+Squelch false rumors
+Help the administration carry out its job and in particular peace, security and justice
+This is a useful distinction; nevertheless, its implication on social capital can only be accepted if one espouses the functionalist understanding of the latter concept. Indeed, it can be argued that interethnic, as well as intra-ethnic networks can serve various purposes, either increasing or diminishing social capital. In fact, Varshney himself notes that intra-ethnic policing (equivalent to the "self-policing" mechanism proposed by Fearon and Laitin, 1996) may lead to the same result as interethnic engagement.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 6/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Social inequality ===
+James Coleman (1988) has indicated that social capital eventually led to the creation of human capital for the future generation. Human capital, a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital. John Field (2003) suggested that such a process could lead to the very inequality social capital attempts to resolve. While Coleman viewed social capital as a relatively neutral resource, he did not deny the class reproduction that could result from accessing such capital, given that individuals worked toward their own benefit.
+Even though Coleman never truly addresses Pierre Bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with Bourdieu's argument set forth in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. Bourdieu and Coleman were fundamentally different at the theoretical level (as Bourdieu believed the actions of individuals were rarely ever conscious, but more so only a result of their habitus being enacted within a particular field, but this realization by both seems to undeniably connect their understanding of the more latent aspects of social capital.
+According to Bourdieu, habitus refers to the social context within which a social actor is socialized. Thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to. Out of habitus comes field, the manner in which one integrates and displays their habitus. To this end, it is the social exchange and interaction between two or more social actors. To illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society. He therefore accumulates social capital by involving himself in a social network, adhering to the norms of that group, allowing him to later access the resources (e.g. social relationships) gained over time. If, in the case of education, he uses these resources to better his educational outcomes, thereby enabling him to become socially mobile, he effectively has worked to reiterate and reproduce the stratification of society, as social capital has done little to alleviate the system as a whole. This may be one negative aspect of social capital, but seems to be an inevitable one in and of itself, as are all forms of capital.
+
+== Positive consequences of social capital ==
+Compared to Bourdieu, Robert D. Putnam has used the concept in a much more positive light: though he was at first careful to argue that social capital was a neutral term, stating "whether or not [the] shared are praiseworthy is, of course, entirely another matter," his work on American society tends to frame social capital as a producer of "civic engagement" and also a broad societal measure of communal health. He also transforms social capital from a resource possessed by individuals to an attribute of collectives, focusing on norms and trust as producers of social capital to the exclusion of networks.
+Mahyar Arefi (2003) identifies consensus-building as a direct positive indicator of social capital. Consensus implies "shared interest" and agreement among various actors and stakeholders to induce collective action. Collective action is thus an indicator of increased social capital.
+
+== Subtypes ==
+
+=== Bonding, bridging, linking ===
+In Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), Harvard political scientist Robert D. Putnam writes:Henry Ward Beecher's advice a century ago to 'multiply picnics' is not entirely ridiculous today. We should do this, ironically, not because it will be good for America – though it will be – but because it will be good for us.Putnam speaks of two main components of the concept, the creation of which Putnam credits to Ross Gittell and Avis Vidal:
+Bonding social capital: the value assigned to social networks between homogeneous groups of people.
+Bridging social capital: the value assigned to social networks between socially heterogeneous groups.
+Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital. The distinction is useful in highlighting how social capital may not always be beneficial for society as a whole (though it is always an asset for those individuals and groups involved). Horizontal networks of individual citizens and groups that enhance community productivity and cohesion are said to be positive social capital assets whereas self-serving exclusive gangs and hierarchical patronage systems that operate at cross purposes to societal interests can be thought of as negative social capital burdens on society.
+Similar to Putnam, Daniel P. Aldrich describes three mechanisms of social capital:
+
+Bonding capital: the relationships a person has with friends and family, making it also the strongest form of social capital.
+Bridging capital: the relationship between friends of friends, making its strength secondary to bonding capital.
+Linking capital: the relationship between a person and a government official or other elected leader.
+Aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of disaster recovery, and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid. In his book Building Resilience: Social Capital in Post-Disaster Recovery, he primarily examines Japanese recovery following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear meltdown.
+Social capital development on the internet via social networking websites such as Facebook or Myspace tends to be bridging capital according to one study, though "virtual" social capital is a new area of research.
+
+=== Consummatory, instrumental ===
+There are two other sub-sources of social capital:
+
+Consummatory capital: a behavior that is made up of actions that fulfill a basis of doing what is inherent.
+Examples include value interjection and solidarity.
+Instrumental capital: behavior that is taught through ones surroundings over time.
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+title: "Social capital"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Consummatory capital ====
+Consummatory capital a behavior that is made up of actions that fulfill a basis of doing what is inherent. Two examples of consummatory social capital are value interjection and solidarity.
+Value interjection: refers to the behavior of individuals or groups adhering to societal norms by meeting expected obligations, such as following established rules, timely bill payments, and punctuality. Diligent adherence contributes personal advantages like financial stability and improved relationships, as well as broader societal gains, including enhanced market confidence and perceived reliability.
+Coleman goes on to say that when people live in this way and benefit from this type of social capital, individuals in the society are able to rest assured that their belongings and family will be safe. This understanding of solidarity may be traced to 19th century socialist thinkers, whose main focus was the urban working class of the Industrial Revolution. They analyzed the reasons these workers supported each other for the benefit of the group and held that this support was an adaptation to the immediate social environment, as opposed to a trait that had been taught to the workers in their youth. As another example, Coleman states that possessing this type of social capital individuals to stand up for what they believe in, and even die for it, in the face of adversity.
+While the notion of solidarity as social capital is sometimes attributed to Karl Marx, in particular, the term social capital had a quite different meaning for Marx. All forms of "capital" were, for Marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their labour power, because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise. Marx saw "social capital" as a theoretical total amount of capital, purely in the sense of accumulated wealth or property, that existed in a particular society. He thereby contrasted it with specific and discrete "individual capital."
+
+==== Instrumental capital ====
+Instrumental capital is behavior that is taught through one's surroundings over time. Individuals donating their resources are not seeking direct repayment from the recipient, but motivated by membership in the same social structure. Donors might not see a direct repayment, but, most commonly, they will be held by the society in greater honor.
+Portes mentions the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group as an example of this. The donor is not giving up resources to be directly repaid by the recipient, but, as stated above, the honor of the community. With this in mind, recipients might not know the benefactor personally, but prospers as a member of the same social group.
+Social capital is also linked with religious communities. Religion represents an important aspect of social capital (religious social capital). However, Putnam found that membership in secular organizations in the United States had a greater association with volunteering, blood donations, charity, and philanthropy than membership in religious organizations, that membership in secular organizations was associated with participation in community projects while membership in religious organizations was not, and that the difference was mostly attributable due to community and organizational involvement by religious fundamentalists being confined to activities within their congregations rather than the wider communities in which the congregations are located.
+
+== Measurement ==
+There is no widely held consensus on how to measure social capital, which has become a debate in itself. While usually one can intuitively sense the level/amount of social capital present in a given relationship (regardless of type or scale), quantitative measuring has proven somewhat complicated, resulting in different metrics for different functions.
+Sociologists Carl L. Bankston and Min Zhou have argued that one of the reasons social capital is so difficult to measure is that it is neither an individual-level nor a group-level phenomenon, but one that emerges across levels of analysis as individuals participate in groups. They argue that the metaphor of "capital" may be misleading because, unlike financial capital, which is a resource held by an individual, the benefits of forms of social organization are not held by actors, but are results of the participation of actors in advantageously organized groups.
+
+=== Name generators ===
+One type of quantitative social capital measure uses name generators to construct social networks and to measure the level of social capital. These networks are constructed by asking participants to name people that they interact with, such as "Name all the people you've discussed important matters with in the past six months." Name generators are often useful to construct core discussion networks of close ties, rather than weaker ties.
+
+=== Social capital scales ===
+Many studies measure social capital by asking the question: "do you trust the others?" Other researches analyse the participation in voluntary associations or civic activities.
+To expand upon the methodological potential of measuring online and offline social bonding, as it relates to social capital, Williams (2006), offers a matrix of social capital measures that distinguishes social bridging as a form of less emotionally-tethered relationships compared to bonding. Bonding and bridging sub-scales are proposed, which have been adopted by over 300 scholarly articles.
+Lin, Peng, Kim, Kim & LaRose (2012) offer a noteworthy application of the scale by measuring international residents originating from locations outside of the United States. The study found that social media platforms like Facebook provide an opportunity for increased social capital, but mostly for extroverts. However, less introverted social media users could engage social media and build social capital by connecting with Americans before arriving and then maintaining old relationships from home upon arriving to the states. The ultimate outcome of the study indicates that social capital is measurable and is a concept that may be operationalized to understand strategies for coping with cross-cultural immersion through online engagement.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 8/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Cohesion measures ===
+The level of cohesion of a group also affects its social capital and vice versa. However, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital. One of the dominant methods is Ronald Burt's constraint measure, which taps into the role of tie strength and group cohesion. Another network-based model is network transitivity.
+
+=== Economic measures ===
+Knack and Keefer (1996) measured econometric correlations between confidence and civic cooperation norms, with economic growth in a large group of countries. They found that confidence and civic cooperation have a great impact in economic growth, and that in less polarized societies in terms of inequality and ethnic differences, social capital is bigger.
+Narayan and Pritchet (1997) researched the associativity degree and economic performance in rural homes of Tanzania. They observed that even in high poverty indexes, families with higher levels of incomes had more participation in collective organizations. The social capital they accumulated because of this participation had individual benefits for them, and created collective benefits through different routes, for example: their agricultural practices were better than those of the families without participation (they had more information about agrochemicals, fertilizers and seeds); they had more information about the market; they were prepared to take more risks, because being part of a social network made them feel more protected; they had an influence on the improvement of public services, showing a bigger level of participation in schools; they cooperated more in the municipality level.
+
+=== Group membership-based ===
+In measuring political social capital, it is common to take the sum of society's membership of its groups. Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant.  While it may seem that this is limited by population, this need not be the case as people join multiple groups. In a study done by Yankee City, a community of 17,000 people was found to have over 22,000 different groups.
+How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner. Strong internal ties can in some cases weaken the group's perceived capital in the eyes of the general public, as in cases where the group is geared towards crime, distrust, intolerance, violence or hatred towards others. The Ku Klux Klan is an example of this kind of organizations.
+
+=== Social behaviour-based ===
+Foschi and Lauriola have presented a measure of sociability as a proxy of social capital. The authors demonstrated that facets of sociability can mediate between general personality traits and measures of civic involvement and political participation, as predictors of social capital, in a holistic model of political behavior.
+The World Social Capital Monitor is an instrument for measuring social goods and social capital created by the United Nations Sustainable Development Group in partnership with civil society actors. The project identifies social values such as trust, solidarity, helpfulness, friendliness, hospitality and the willingness to finance public goods with the help of anonymous surveys. The surveys started in 2016.
+
+== Integrating history and socio-economic analysis ==
+
+=== Beyond Putnam ===
+While influential, some have identified areas of concern or improvement within the work of Robert D. Putnam. This includes:
+
+the lack of awareness of the structural socio-economic conditions of society. For example, the level of income inequality.
+the excessive determinism of the historical analysis.
+Putnam's social capital index does not consider racial diversity which links to worse outcomes. Nor does Putnam consider ethnic diversity, which often creates barriers to cooperation and democratization.
+the conflation of social capital with civil society, the lack of empirical evidence connecting social capital's promotion of economic growth and substantiating the decline of social capital in the United States in the last 35 years, and the assumption that social networks produce win-win relationships.
+
+=== Social capital motives ===
+Robison and colleagues (2012) measured the relative importance of selfishness and four social capital motives using resource allocation data collected in hypothetical surveys and non-hypothetical experiments.
+The selfishness motive assumes that an agent's allocation of a scarce resource is independent of his relationships with others. This motive is sometimes referred to as the selfishness of preference assumption in neoclassical economics.
+Social capital motives assume that agents' allocation of a scarce resource may be influenced by their social capital or sympathetic relationships with others which may produce socio-emotional goods that satisfy socio-emotional needs for validation and belonging:
+
+The first social capital motive seeks for validation by acting consistently with the values of one's ideal self.
+The second social capital motive seeks to be validated by others by winning their approval.
+The third social capital motive seeks to belong. Recognizing that one may not be able to influence the sympathy of others, persons seeking to belong may act to increase their own sympathy for others and the organizations or institutions they represent.
+The fourth social capital motive recognizes that our sympathy or social capital for another person will motivate us to act in their interest. In doing so we satisfy our own needs for validation and belonging. Empirical results reject the hypothesis often implied in economics that we are 95% selfish.
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 9/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Relation with civil society ==
+Various authors give definitions of civil society that refer to voluntary associations and organisations outside the market and state. This definition is very close to that of the third sector, which consists of "private organisations that are formed and sustained by groups of people acting voluntarily and without seeking personal profit to provide benefits for themselves or for others."
+According to such authors as Walzer (1992), Alessandrini (2002), Newtown, Stolle & Rochon, Foley & Edwards (1997), and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks. These voluntary associations also connect people with each other, build trust and reciprocity through informal, loosely structured associations, and consolidate society through altruism without obligation. It is "this range of activities, services and associations produced by... civil society" that constitutes the sources of social capital.
+Not only has civil society been documented to produce sources of social capital, according to Lyons' Third Sector (2001), social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector. Likewise, Onyx (2000) describes how social capital depends on an already functioning community. The idea that creating social capital (i.e., creating networks) will strengthen civil society underlies current Australian social policy aimed at bridging deepening social divisions. The goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into "the community." However, according to Onyx (2000), while the explicit aim of this policy is inclusion, its effects are exclusionary.
+Foley and Edwards (1997) believe that "political systems...are important determinants of both the character of civil society and of the uses to which whatever social capital exists might be put." Alessandrini agrees, saying that, "in Australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work."
+The resurgence of interest in social capital as a remedy for the cause of today's social problems draws directly on the assumption that these problems lie in the weakening of civil society. However this ignores the arguments of many theorists who believe that social capital leads to exclusion rather than to a stronger civil society. In international development, Ben Fine (2001) and John Harriss (2001) have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and NGOs, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development. This leads to controversy as to the role of state institutions in the promotion of social capital.
+An abundance of social capital is seen as being almost a necessary condition for modern liberal democracy. A low level of social capital leads to an excessively rigid and unresponsive political system and high levels of corruption, in the political system and in the region as a whole. Formal public institutions require social capital in order to function properly, and while it is possible to have too much social capital (resulting in rapid changes and excessive regulation), it is decidedly worse to have too little.
+
+=== Sample societies ===
+Post-Communist: Kathleen Dowley and Brian Silver published an article entitled "Social Capital, Ethnicity and Support for Democracy in the Post-Communist States", in which they find that in post-communist states, higher levels of social capital did not equate to higher levels of democracy. However, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy.
+Third-world: A number of intellectuals in developing countries have argued that the idea of social capital, particularly when connected to certain ideas about civil society, is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and NGO-driven imperialism and that it functions, primarily, to blame the poor for their condition.
+Chinese: The concept of social capital in a Chinese social context has been closely linked with the concept of guanxi.
+American: One attempt to measure social capital, involving the quantity, quality and strength of an individual social capital, was spearheaded by Corporate Alliance in the English-speaking market segment of the US, and Xentrum through the Latin American Chamber of Commerce in Utah on the Spanish-speaking population of the same country. With the assistance of software applications and web-based relationship-oriented systems such as LinkedIn, these kinds of organizations are expected to provide its members with a way to keep track of the number of their relationships, meetings designed to boost the strength of each relationship using group dynamics, executive retreats and networking events as well as training in how to reach out to higher circles of influential people.
+
+== Effects on women's engagement with politics ==
+
+There are many factors that drive volume towards the ballot box, including education, employment, civil skills, and time. Careful evaluation of these fundamental factors often suggests that women do not vote at similar levels as men. However the gap between women and men voter turnout is diminishing and in some cases women are becoming more prevalent at the ballot box than their male counterparts. Recent research on social capital is now serving as an explanation for this change.
+Social capital offers a wealth of resources and networks that facilitate political engagement. Since social capital is readily available no matter the type of community, it is able to override more traditional queues for political engagement; e.g.: education, employment, civil skills, etc.
+There are unique ways in which women organize. These differences from men make social capital more personable and impressionable to women audiences thus creating a stronger presence in regards to political engagement. A few examples of these characteristics are:
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+title: "Social capital"
+chunk: 10/14
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:53.791195+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Women's informal and formal networks tend toward care work that is often considered apolitical.
+Women are also more likely to engage in local politics and social movement activities than in traditional forums focused on national politics.
+Women are more likely to organize themselves in less hierarchical ways and to focus on creating consensus.
+The often informal nature of female social capital allows women to politicize apolitical environments without conforming to masculine standards, thus keeping this activity at a low public profile. These differences are hard to recognize within the discourse of political engagement and may explain why social capital has not been considered as a tool for female political engagement until as of late.
+
+== Effects on health ==
+A growing body of research has found that the presence of social capital through social networks and communities has a protective quality on health. Social capital affects health risk behavior in the sense that individuals who are embedded in a network or community rich in support, social trust, information, and norms, have resources that help achieve health goals. For example, a person who is sick with cancer may receive the information, money, or moral support needed to endure treatment and recover. Social capital also encourages social trust and membership. These factors can discourage individuals from engaging in risky health behaviors such as smoking and binge drinking.
+Furthermore, neighbourhood social capital may also aid in buffering health inequities amongst children and adolescents. Social capital indicators such as neighbourhood cohesion, social support, and ties providing a bond between members of the same religion, have been found to be associated with better health despite financial or socioeconomic hardship. The function of social capital as a health buffer in circumstances of social disadvantage has also received attention in research on the health of minority ethnic populations. The relationships and networks that are maintained by an ethnic minority population in a geographical area where a high percentage of residents belong to the same ethnic group may lead to better health outcomes than would be expected based on other individual and neighbourhood characteristics. Such effects have been investigated in England, New Zealand, and the United States.
+Inversely, a lack of social capital can impair health. For example, results from a survey given to 13- to 18-year-old students in Sweden showed that low social capital and low social trust are associated with higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and depression. Additionally, negative social capital can detract from health. Although there are only a few studies that assess social capital in criminalized populations, there is information that suggests that social capital does have a negative effect in broken communities. Deviant behavior is encouraged by deviant peers via favorable definitions and learning opportunities provided by network-based norms. However, in these same communities, an adjustment of norms (i.e. deviant peers being replaced by positive role models) can pose a positive effect.
+Researchers have also investigated the hypothesis that the health benefits of social capital depend on the socioeconomic resources an individual or community has available to them. For example, social capital may boost health only for those with higher levels of education, or more so for those with a higher rather than a lower income. This research is based on Bourdieu's notion that social, economic, and cultural capital are dependent on each other.
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+title: "Social class"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:54.968892+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A social class or social stratum is a grouping of people into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common ones being: the working class, the middle class and the upper class. Membership of a social class is commonly considered dependent on education, wealth, occupation, income, and belonging to a particular subculture or social network.
+Class is a subject of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists and social historians. The term has a wide range of sometimes conflicting meanings, and there is no broad consensus on a definition of class. Some people argue that due to social mobility, class boundaries do not exist. In common parlance, the term social class is usually synonymous with socioeconomic class, defined as "people having the same social, economic, cultural, political or educational status", such as the working class, or "an emerging professional class". However, academics distinguish social class from socioeconomic status, using the former to refer to one's relatively stable cultural background and the latter to refer to one's current social and economic situation which is consequently more changeable over time.
+The precise measurements of what determines social class in society have varied over time. Karl Marx defined class by one's relationship to the means of production (their relations of production). His understanding of classes in modern capitalist society is that the proletariat work but do not own the means of production, and the bourgeoisie, those who invest and live off the surplus generated by the proletariat's operation of the means of production, do not work at all. This contrasts with the view of the sociologist Max Weber, who contrasted class as determined by economic position, with social status (Stand) which is determined by social prestige rather than just relations of production. The term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth in order to determine military service obligations.
+In the late 18th century, the term class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank and orders as the primary means of organizing society into hierarchical divisions. This corresponded to a general decrease in significance ascribed to hereditary characteristics and increase in the significance of wealth and income as indicators of position in the social hierarchy.
+The existence of social classes is considered normal in many societies, both historic and modern, to varying degrees.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Ancient Egypt ===
+The existence of a class system dates back to times of Ancient Egypt, where the position of elite was also characterized by literacy. The wealthier people were at the top in the social order and common people and slaves being at the bottom. However, the class was not rigid; a man of humble origins could ascend to a high post.
+The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress.
+Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whether slavery as understood today existed in ancient Egypt; there is difference of opinions among authors.
+
+Not a single Egyptian was, in our sense of the word, free. No individual could call in question a hierarchy of authority which culminated in a living god.
+Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by doctors in the workplace.
+
+=== Elsewhere ===
+In Ancient Greece, when the clan system was declining, the classes replaced the clan society when it became too small to sustain the needs of increasing population. The division of labor is also essential for the growth of classes.
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+title: "Social class"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:54.968892+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Historically, social class and behavior were laid down in law. For example, permitted mode of dress in some times and places was strictly regulated, with sumptuous dressing only for the high ranks of society and aristocracy, whereas sumptuary laws stipulated the dress and jewelry appropriate for a person's social rank and station. In Europe, these laws became increasingly commonplace during the Middle Ages. However, these laws were prone to change due to societal changes, and in many cases, these distinctions may either almost disappear, such as the distinction between a patrician and a plebeian being almost erased during the late Roman Republic.
+Jean-Jacques Rousseau had a large influence over political ideals of the French Revolution because of his views of inequality and classes. Rousseau saw humans as "naturally pure and good," meaning that humans from birth were seen as innocent and any evilness was learned. He believed that social problems arise through the development of society and suppress the innate pureness of humankind. He also believed that private property is the main reason for social issues in society because private property creates inequality through the property's value. Even though his theory predicted if there were no private property then there would be wide spread equality, Rousseau accepted that there will always be social inequality because of how society is viewed and run.
+Later Enlightenment thinkers viewed inequality as valuable and crucial to society's development and prosperity. They also acknowledged that private property will ultimately cause inequality because specific resources that are privately owned can be stored and the owners profit off of the deficit of the resource. This can create competition between the classes that was seen as necessary by these thinkers. This also creates stratification between the classes keeping a distinct difference between lower, poorer classes and the higher, wealthier classes.
+India (↑), Nepal, North Korea (↑), Sri Lanka (↑) and some Indigenous peoples maintain social classes today.
+In class societies, class conflict has tended to recur or is ongoing, depending on the sociological and anthropolitical perspective. Class societies have not always existed; there have been widely different types of class communities. For example, societies based on age rather than capital. During colonialism, social relations were dismantled by force, which gave rise to societies based on the social categories of waged labor, private property, and capital.
+
+== Class society ==
+Class society or class-based society is an organizing principle society in which ownership of property, means of production, and wealth is the determining factor of the distribution of power, in which those with more property and wealth are stratified higher in the society and those without access to the means of production and without wealth are stratified lower in the society. In a class society, at least implicitly, people are divided into distinct social strata, commonly referred to as social classes or castes. The nature of class society is a matter of sociological research. Class societies exist all over the globe in both industrialized and developing nations. Class stratification is theorized to come directly from capitalism. In terms of public opinion, nine out of ten people in a Swedish survey considered it correct that they are living in a class society.
+
+=== Comparative sociological research ===
+One may use comparative methods to study class societies, using, for example, comparison of Gini coefficients, de facto educational opportunities, unemployment, and culture.
+
+=== Effect on the population ===
+Societies with large class differences have a greater proportion of people who suffer from mental health issues such as anxiety and depression symptoms. A series of scientific studies have demonstrated this relationship. Statistics support this assertion and results are found in life expectancy and overall health; for example, in the case of high differences in life expectancy between two Stockholm suburbs. The differences between life expectancy of the poor and less-well-educated inhabitants who live in proximity to the station Vårby gård, and the highly educated and more affluent inhabitants living near Danderyd differ by 18 years.
+Similar data about New York is also available for life expectancy, average income per capita, income distribution, median income mobility for people who grew up poor, share with a bachelor's degree or higher.
+In class societies, the lower classes systematically receive lower-quality education and care. There are more explicit effects where those within the higher class actively demonize parts of the lower-class population.
+
+== Theoretical models ==
+Definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and structural functionalism. The common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. Within academia, two broad schools of definitions emerge: those aligned with 20th-century sociological stratum models of class society and those aligned with the 19th-century historical materialist economic models of the Marxists and anarchists.
+Another distinction can be drawn between analytical concepts of social class, such as the Marxist and Weberian traditions, as well as the more empirical traditions such as socioeconomic status approach, which notes the correlation of income, education and wealth with social outcomes without necessarily implying a particular theory of social structure.
+
+=== Marxist ===
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+title: "Social class"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:54.968892+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors. Objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. The class society itself is understood as the aggregated phenomenon to the "interlinked movement", which generates the quasi-objective concept of capital. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception ("class consciousness") of their similarity and common interest. Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of one's own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time.
+In Marxist theory, the class structure of the capitalist mode of production is characterized by the conflict between two main classes: the bourgeoisie, the capitalists who own the means of production and the much larger proletariat (or "working class") who must sell their own labour power (wage labour). This is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology.
+For Marxists, every person in the process of production has separate social relationships and issues. Along with this, every person is placed into different groups that have similar interests and values that can differ drastically from group to group. Class is special in that does not relate to specifically to a singular person, but to a specific role.
+Marxists explain the history of "civilized" societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society. In the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage-workers (the proletariat). For Marxists, class antagonism is rooted in the situation that control over social production necessarily entails control over the class which produces goods—in capitalism this is the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie.
+Furthermore, "in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, a new class of petty bourgeois has been formed". "An industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers (managers) and sergeants (foremen, over-lookers) who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist".
+Marx makes the argument that, as the bourgeoisie reach a point of wealth accumulation, they hold enough power as the dominant class to shape political institutions and society according to their own interests. Marx then goes on to claim that the non-elite class, owing to their large numbers, have the power to overthrow the elite and create an equal society.
+In The Communist Manifesto, Marx himself argued that it was the goal of the proletariat itself to displace the capitalist system with socialism, changing the social relationships underpinning the class system and then developing into a future communist society in which: "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all". This would mark the beginning of a classless society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money.
+These theorists have taken this binary class system and expanded it to include contradictory class locations, the idea that a person can be employed in many different class locations that fall between the two classes of proletariat and bourgeoisie. Erik Olin Wright stated that class definitions are more diverse and elaborate through identifying with multiple classes, having familial ties with people in different a class, or having a temporary leadership role.
+
+=== Weberian ===
+
+Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between "class", "status" and "power". Weber believed that class position was determined by a person's relationship to the means of production, while status or "Stand" emerged from estimations of honor or prestige.
+Weber views class as a group of people who have common goals and opportunities that are available to them. This means that what separates each class from each other is their value in the marketplace through their own goods and services. This creates a divide between the classes through the assets that they have such as property and expertise.
+Weber developed many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the social structures of various countries. He noted that, contrary to Marx's theories, stratification was based on more than just ownership of capital. Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lacked economic wealth yet still possessed political power. Similarly, in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families lacked prestige and honor because they were considered part of a "pariah group."
+
+Class: A person's economic position in a society. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber noted how managers of corporations or industries control firms they do not own.
+Status: A person's prestige, social honour or popularity in a society. Weber noted that political power was not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's status. Poets and saints, for example, can possess immense influence on society with often little economic worth.
+Power: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others. For example, individuals in state jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status, but they still hold immense power.
+
+=== Bourdieu ===
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+title: "Social class"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:54.968892+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+For Bourdieu, the place in the social strata for any person is vaguer than the equivalent in Weberian sociology. Bourdieu introduced an array of concepts of what he refers to as types of capital. These types were economic capital, in the form assets convertible to money and secured as private property. This type of capital is separated from the other types of culturally constituted types of capital, which Bourdieu introduces, which are: personal cultural capital (formal education, knowledge); objective cultural capital (books, art); and institutionalized cultural capital (honours and titles).
+
+=== Great British Class Survey ===
+
+On 2 April 2013, the results of a survey conducted by BBC Lab UK developed in collaboration with academic experts and slated to be published in the journal Sociology were published online. The results released were based on a survey of 160,000 residents of the United Kingdom most of whom lived in England and described themselves as "white". Class was defined and measured according to the amount and kind of economic, cultural and social resources reported. Economic capital was defined as income and assets; cultural capital as amount and type of cultural interests and activities; and social capital as the quantity and social status of their friends, family and personal and business contacts. This theoretical framework was developed by Pierre Bourdieu who first published his theory of social distinction in 1979.
+
+=== Three-level economic class model ===
+Today, concepts of social class often assume three general economic categories: a very wealthy and powerful upper class that owns and controls the means of production; a middle class of professional workers, small business owners and low-level managers; and a lower class, who rely on low-paying jobs for their livelihood and experience poverty.
+
+==== Upper class ====
+
+The upper class is the social class composed of those who are rich, well-born, powerful, or a combination of those. They usually wield the greatest political power. In some countries, wealth alone is sufficient to allow entry into the upper class. In others, only people who are born or marry into certain aristocratic bloodlines are considered members of the upper class and those who gain great wealth through commercial activity are looked down upon by the aristocracy as nouveau riche. 
+In the United Kingdom, for example, the upper classes consist of the aristocracy and royalty, with wealth playing a less important role in class status. Many aristocratic peerages or titles come with seats attached to them, where the titleholder (e.g., Earl of Bristol) and their family act as custodians of the house but are not the owners. Maintaining these estates often requires significant expenditures, so wealth is typically necessary. Many aristocratic peerages and their homes are part of larger estates, owned and managed by the titleholder, with income generated from the land, rents, or other sources of wealth; however, in the United States where there is no aristocracy or royalty, the upper class status exclusive of Americans of ancestral wealth or patricians of European ancestry is referred to in the media as the extremely wealthy, the so-called "super-rich", though there is some tendency even in the United States for those with old family wealth to look down on those who have accrued their money through business, the struggle between new money and old money.
+The upper class is generally contained within the richest one or two percent of the population. Members of the upper class are often born into it and are distinguished by immense wealth which is passed from generation to generation in the form of estates. Based on some new social and political theories, the upper class consists of the most wealthy decile group in society, holding nearly 87% of the whole society's wealth.
+
+==== Middle class ====
+ See also: Middle-class squeeze
+The middle class is the group of people with jobs that pay significantly more than the poverty line. Examples of these types of jobs are factory workers, salespeople, teachers, cooks and nurses. There is a new trend by some scholars which assumes that the size of the middle class in every society is the same. For example, in paradox of interest theory, the middle class are those who are in 6th–9th decile groups, holding nearly 12% of the whole society's wealth.
+The middle class is the most contested of the three categories, the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the lower and upper classes. One example of the contest of this term is that in the United States "middle class" is applied very broadly and includes people who would elsewhere be considered working class. Middle-class workers are sometimes called "white-collar workers".
+Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf have noted the tendency toward an enlarged middle class in modern Western societies, particularly in relation to the necessity of an educated work force in technological economies. Perspectives concerning globalization and neocolonialism, such as dependency theory, suggest this is due to the shift of low-level labour to developing nations and the Third World.
+
+==== Lower class ====
+
+The lower class (occasionally described as the working class) are those employed in low-paying wage jobs with very little economic security. The term "lower class" also refers to persons with low income.
+The working class is sometimes separated into those who are employed but lacking financial security (the "working poor") and an underclass—those who are long-term unemployed and/or homeless, especially those receiving welfare from the state. The latter is today considered analogous to the Marxist term "lumpenproletariat". However, during the time of Marx's writing the lumpenproletariat referred to those in dire poverty; such as the homeless. Members of the working class are sometimes called blue-collar workers.
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+title: "Social class"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:54.968892+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Consequences of class position ==
+A person's socioeconomic class has wide-ranging effects. It can determine the schools they are able to attend, their health, the jobs open to them, when they exit the labour market (retire), whom they may marry and their treatment by police and the courts.
+Social classifications can also determine the sporting activities that such classes take part in. It is suggested that those of an upper social class are more likely to take part in sporting activities, whereas those of a lower social background are less likely to participate in sport. However, upper-class people tend to not take part in certain sports that have been commonly known to be linked with the lower class.
+
+=== Social privilege ===
+
+=== Education ===
+ A person's social class has a significant effect on their educational opportunities. Not only are upper-class parents able to send their children to exclusive schools that are perceived to be better, but in many places, state-supported schools for children of the upper class are of a much higher quality than those the state provides for children of the lower classes. This lack of good schools is one factor that perpetuates the class divide across generations.
+Nevertheless, certain actions developed in schools, known as Successful Educational Actions, can avoid the continuation of this class divide, improving the outcomes of students and increasing their future employability.  
+In the UK, the educational consequences of class position have been discussed by scholars inspired by the cultural studies framework of the CCCS and/or, especially regarding working-class girls, feminist theory. On working-class boys, Paul Willis' 1977 book Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs is seen within the British Cultural Studies field as a classic discussion of their antipathy to the acquisition of knowledge. Beverley Skeggs described Learning to Labour as a study on the "irony" of "how the process of cultural and economic reproduction is made possible by 'the lads' ' celebration of the hard, macho world of work."
+
+=== Health and nutrition ===
+
+A person's social class often affects their physical health, their ability to receive adequate medical care and nutrition and their life expectancy.
+Lower-class people experience a wide array of health problems as a result of their economic status. They are unable to use health care as often and when they do it is of lower quality, even though they generally tend to experience a much higher rate of health issues. Lower-class families have higher rates of infant mortality, cancer, cardiovascular disease and disabling physical injuries. Additionally, poor people tend to work in much more hazardous conditions, yet generally have much less (if any) health insurance provided for them, as compared to middle- and upper-class workers.
+
+=== Employment ===
+The conditions at a person's job vary greatly depending on class. Those in the upper-middle class and middle class enjoy greater freedoms in their occupations. They are usually more respected, enjoy more diversity and are able to exhibit some authority. Those in lower classes tend to feel more alienated and have lower work satisfaction overall. The physical conditions of the workplace differ greatly between classes. While middle-class workers may "suffer alienating conditions" or "lack of job satisfaction", blue-collar workers are more apt to suffer alienating, often routine, work with obvious physical health hazards, injury and even death.
+In the UK, a 2015 government study by the Social Mobility Commission suggested the existence of a "glass floor" in British society preventing those who are less able, but who come from wealthier backgrounds, from slipping down the social ladder. The report proposed a 35% greater likelihood of less able, better-off children becoming high earners than bright poor children.
+
+== Class conflict ==
+
+Class conflict, frequently referred to as class struggle, is the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to competing socioeconomic interests and desires between people of different classes.
+For Marx, the history of class society was a history of class conflict. He pointed to the successful rise of the bourgeoisie and the necessity of revolutionary violence—a heightened form of class conflict—in securing the bourgeois rights that supported the capitalist economy.
+Marx believed that the exploitation and poverty inherent in capitalism were a pre-existing form of class conflict. Marx believed that wage labourers would need to revolt to bring about a more equitable distribution of wealth and political power.
+
+== Classless society ==
+
+A "classless" society is one in which no one is born into a social class. Distinctions of wealth, income, education, culture or social network might arise and would only be determined by individual experience and achievement in such a society.
+Since these distinctions are difficult to avoid, advocates of a classless society (such as anarchists and communists) propose various means to achieve and maintain it and attach varying degrees of importance to it as an end in their overall programs or philosophy.
+
+== Relationship between ethnicity and class ==
+
+Race and other large-scale groupings can also influence class standing. The association of particular ethnic groups with class statuses is common in many societies, and is linked with race as well. Class and ethnicity can impact a person's or community's socioeconomic standing, which in turn influences everything including job availability and the quality of available health and education. The labels ascribed to an individual change the way others perceive them, with multiple labels associated with stigma combining to worsen the social consequences of being labelled.
+As a result of conquest or internal ethnic differentiation, a ruling class is often ethnically homogenous and particular races or ethnic groups in some societies are legally or customarily restricted to occupying particular class positions. Which ethnicities are considered as belonging to high or low classes varies from society to society.
+In modern societies, strict legal links between ethnicity and class have been drawn, such as the Caste systems in Africa, apartheid, the position of the Burakumin in Japanese society and the casta system in Latin America.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Ojämlikhetens dimensioner – Marie Evertsson & Charlotta Magnusson (red.) (in Swedish) ISBN 978-9147111299
+Om konsten att lyfta sig själv i håret och behålla barnet i badvattnet : kritiska synpunkter på samhällsvetenskapens vetenskapsteori – Israel, Joachim (in Swedish) ISBN 91-29-43746-6
+The inner level : how more equal societies reduce stress, restore sanity and improve everyone's well-being – Richard G Wilkinson; Kate Pickett ISBN 978-0141975399
+"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2020.{{cite web}}:  CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
+
+== External links ==
+
+ Media related to Social class at Wikimedia Commons
+Domhoff, G. William, "The Class Domination Theory of Power", University of California, Santa Cruz
+Graphic: How Class Works. New York Times, 2005.
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+title: "Social complexity"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_complexity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:56.195762+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, social complexity is a conceptual framework used in the analysis of society. In the sciences, contemporary definitions of complexity are found in systems theory, wherein the phenomenon being studied has many parts and many possible arrangements of the parts; simultaneously, what is complex and what is simple are relative and change in time.
+Contemporary usage of the term complexity specifically refers to sociologic theories of society as a complex adaptive system, however, social complexity and its emergent properties are recurring subjects throughout the historical development of social philosophy and the study of social change. 
+Early theoreticians of sociology, such as Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber, Vilfredo Pareto and Georg Simmel, examined the exponential growth and interrelatedness of social encounters and social exchanges. The emphases on the interconnectivity among social relationships, and the emergence of new properties within society, is found in the social theory produced in the subfields of sociology. Social complexity is a basis for the connection of the phenomena reported in microsociology and macrosociology, and thus provides an intellectual middle-range for sociologists to formulate and develop hypotheses. Methodologically, social complexity is theory-neutral, and includes the phenomena studied in microsociology and the phenomena studied in macrosociology.
+
+== Theoretic background ==
+
+In 1937, the sociologist Talcott Parsons continued the work of the early theoreticians of sociology with his work on action theory; and by 1951, Parson had developed action theory into formal systems theory in The Social System (1951). In the following decades, the synergy between general systems thinking and the development of social system theories is carried forward by Robert K. Merton in discussions of theories of the middle-range and social structure and agency. From the late 1970s until the early 1990s, sociological investigation concerned the properties of systems in which the strong correlation of sub-parts leads to the observation of autopoetic, self-organizing, dynamical, turbulent, and chaotic behaviours that arise from mathematical complexity, such as the work of Niklas Luhmann.
+One of the earliest usages of the term "complexity", in the social and behavioral sciences, to refer specifically to a complex system is found in the study of modern organizations and management studies. However, particularly in management studies, the term often has been used in a metaphorical rather than in a qualitative or quantitative theoretical manner. By the mid-1990s, the "complexity turn" in social sciences begins as some of the same tools generally used in complexity science are incorporated into the social sciences. By 1998, the international, electronic periodical, Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, had been created. In the last several years, many publications have presented overviews of complexity theory within the field of sociology. Within this body of work, connections also are drawn to yet other theoretical traditions, including constructivist epistemology and the philosophical positions of phenomenology, postmodernism and critical realism.
+
+== Methodologies ==
+
+Methodologically, social complexity is theory-neutral, meaning that it accommodates both local and global approaches to sociological research. The very idea of social complexity arises out of the historical-comparative methods of early sociologists; obviously, this method is important in developing, defining, and refining the theoretical construct of social complexity. As complex social systems have many parts and there are many possible relationships between those parts, appropriate methodologies are typically determined to some degree by the research level of analysis differentiated by the researcher according to the level of description or explanation demanded by the research hypotheses.
+At the most localized level of analysis, ethnographic, participant- or non-participant observation, content analysis and other qualitative research methods may be appropriate. More recently, highly sophisticated quantitative research methodologies are being developed and used in sociology at both local and global levels of analysis. Such methods include (but are not limited to) bifurcation diagrams, network analysis, non-linear modeling, and computational models including cellular automata programming, sociocybernetics and other methods of social simulation.
+
+=== Complex social network analysis ===
+
+Complex social network analysis is used to study the dynamics of large, complex social networks. Dynamic network analysis brings together traditional social network analysis, link analysis and multi-agent systems within network science and network theory. Through the use of key concepts and methods in social network analysis, agent-based modeling, theoretical physics, and modern mathematics (particularly graph theory and fractal geometry), this method of inquiry brought insights into the dynamics and structure of social systems. New computational methods of localized social network analysis are coming out of the work of Duncan Watts, Albert-László Barabási, Nicholas A. Christakis, Kathleen Carley and others.
+New methods of global network analysis are emerging from the work of John Urry and the sociological study of globalization, linked to the work of Manuel Castells and the later work of Immanuel Wallerstein. Since the late 1990s, Wallerstein increasingly makes use of complexity theory, particularly the work of Ilya Prigogine. Dynamic social network analysis is linked to a variety of methodological traditions, above and beyond systems thinking, including graph theory, traditional social network analysis in sociology, and mathematical sociology. It also links to mathematical chaos and complex dynamics through the work of Duncan Watts and Steven Strogatz, as well as fractal geometry through Albert-László Barabási and his work on scale-free networks.
+
+=== Computational sociology ===
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+---
+title: "Social complexity"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_complexity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:56.195762+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The development of computational sociology involves such scholars as Nigel Gilbert, Klaus G. Troitzsch, Joshua M. Epstein, and others. The foci of methods in this field include social simulation and data-mining, both of which are sub-areas of computational sociology. Social simulation uses computers to create an artificial laboratory for the study of complex social systems; data-mining uses machine intelligence to search for non-trivial patterns of relations in large, complex, real-world databases. The emerging methods of socionics are a variant of computational sociology.
+Computational sociology is influenced by a number of micro-sociological areas as well as the macro-level traditions of systems science and systems thinking. The micro-level influences of symbolic interaction, exchange, and rational choice, along with the micro-level focus of computational political scientists, such as Robert Axelrod, helped to develop computational sociology's bottom-up, agent-based approach to modeling complex systems. This is what Joshua M. Epstein calls generative science. Other important areas of influence include statistics, mathematical modeling and computer simulation.
+
+=== Sociocybernetics ===
+
+Sociocybernetics integrates sociology with second-order cybernetics and the work of Niklas Luhmann, along with the latest advances in complexity science. In terms of scholarly work, the focus of sociocybernetics has been primarily conceptual and only slightly methodological or empirical. Sociocybernetics is directly tied to systems thought inside and outside of sociology, specifically in the area of second-order cybernetics.
+
+== Areas of application ==
+In the first decade of the 21st century, the diversity of areas of application has grown as more sophisticated methods have developed. Social complexity theory is applied in studies of social cooperation and public goods; altruism;  education; global civil society  collective action and social movements; social inequality; workforce and unemployment; policy analysis; health care systems; and innovation and social change, to name a few. A current international scientific research project, the Seshat: Global History Databank, was explicitly designed to analyze changes in social complexity from the Neolithic Revolution until the Industrial Revolution.
+As a middle-range theoretical platform, social complexity can be applied to any research in which social interaction or the outcomes of such interactions can be observed, but particularly where they can be measured and expressed as continuous or discrete data points. One common criticism often cited regarding the usefulness of complexity science in sociology is the difficulty of obtaining adequate data. Nonetheless, application of the concept of social complexity and the analysis of such complexity has begun and continues to be an ongoing field of inquiry in sociology. From childhood friendships and teen pregnancy to criminology and counter-terrorism, theories of social complexity are being applied in almost all areas of sociological research.
+In the area of communications research and informetrics, the concept of self-organizing systems appears in mid-1990s research related to scientific communications. Scientometrics and bibliometrics are areas of research in which discrete data are available, as are several other areas of social communications research such as sociolinguistics. Social complexity is also a concept used in semiotics.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Byrne, David (1998). Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences. London: Routledge.
+Byrne, D., & Callaghan, G. (2013). Complexity theory and the social sciences: The state of the art. Routledge.
+Castellani, Brian and Frederic William Hafferty (2009). Sociology and Complexity Science: A New Area of Inquiry (Series: Understanding Complex Systems XV). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
+Eve, Raymond, Sara Horsfall and Mary E. Lee (1997). Chaos, Complexity and Sociology: Myths, Models, and Theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
+Jenks, Chris and John Smith (2006). Qualitative Complexity: Ecology, Cognitive Processes and the Re-Emergence of Structures in Post-Humanist Social Theory. New York, NY: Routledge.
+Kiel, L. Douglas (ed.) (2008). Knowledge Management, Organizational Intelligence, Learning and Complexity. UNESCO (EOLSS): Paris, France.
+Kiel, L. Douglas and Euel Elliott (eds.) (1997). Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences: Foundations and Applications. The University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, MI.
+Leydesdorff, Loet (2001). A Sociological Theory of Communication: The Self-Organization of the Knowledge-Based Society. Parkland, FL: Universal Publishers.
+Urry, John (2005). "The Complexity Turn." Theory, Culture and Society, 22(5): 1–14.
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+---
+title: "Social condenser"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_condenser"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:57.473120+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Inspired by the ideologies of Soviet Constructivist theory, the social condenser (Russian: социальный конденсатор) is an architectural form defined by its influence over spatial dynamics. In the opening speech of the inaugural OSA Group conference in 1928, Moisei Ginzburg claimed that "the principal objective of constructivism... is the definition of the Social Condenser of the age." The single building most associated with the idea is the Narkomfin Building in Moscow, for which construction began in 1928 and finished in 1932.
+Central to the idea of the social condenser is the premise that architecture has the ability to influence social behaviour. The primary objective of the social condenser was to affect the design of public spaces, with a view to deconstructing perceived social hierarchies in an effort to create socially equitable spaces.
+In the OMA book Content (2004), a social condenser is described as a "Programmatic layering upon vacant terrain to encourage dynamic coexistence of activities and to generate through their interference, unprecedented events."
+Through their inherent “interference”, Lenin hoped that the Social Condensers would aid in the emergence and advancement of a higher Soviet consciousness which valued collective interaction over all else. Largely driven by a desire to differentiate post-revolutionary Russia from pre-revolutionary Russia, the Social Condenser style was in the vanguard of new Soviet thought and reflected the Leninist desire to do away with individualised experiences and behaviours. The Constructivist theory that was dictating much of the discourse in Soviet Russia helped to propel this agenda of ideological reform and reinvention, ultimately consolidating the Social Condenser’s position as an architectural allegory for socialist ideals.
+
+== Characteristics ==
+The design of the Social Condenser is defined by a commitment to collectivist forms and features which conduce to social interaction and communal activity. As such, the Social Condensers of past and present exhibit several distinctive attributes which reflect this commitment and allow for their identification amongst the proliferation of other architectural forms throughout history. Essentially, the Social Condenser advocated for the abolition of private amenities, offering communal facilities in their place. For example, Moisei Ginzburg's Narkomfin building incorporated "a communal canteen, gymnasium, crèche and library" in the place of individualised architectural features and services which perpetuate the notion of private life.
+However, these characteristics of the Social Condenser presented themselves retrospectively, that is, their constructivist designers did not actively endeavour to incorporate certain structural and stylistic features but rather allowed architectural morphology and a commitment to socialist objectives to guide them. This reflects the constructivist alignment with postmodern indeterminacy. Despite this ideological promulgation of indeterminate architecture, the Social Condenser did demonstrate some codified spatial features including interplay between centripetal and centrifugal density dynamics, emphatic synergy between private and public space, a reliance on orthogonal forms and finally an utter lack of adornment or decoration to avoid capitalist conceptualisations of needless excess.
+Characterised by these interconnected spaces, the Social Condenser form displayed several other tangible features. Architecture of this persuasion valorised open spaces by opting against dividing walls and private amenities such as personal kitchens, bathrooms and living rooms with a view to minimising individualised existence within a building. As such, Social Condensers were defined by “open, airy design” which prompted people to collectively fill the free space thereupon subordinating their individuality for wider social unity within the built environment.
+
+Viewed through a more exterior lens, Social Condensers can be grouped into two distinct classifications; planned Social Condensers and accidental Social Condensers. A planned Social Condenser refers to one that was designed and built with the intention of influencing human behaviour and defining the relationship between people within a constructed environment. A contemporary example of such a Social Condenser includes the Aylesbury Estate which was built between 1963 and 1977 in Southeast London with an explicitly delineated purpose at the forefront of its design. This purpose entailed a clear commitment to housing London’s lowest socioeconomic bracket while standardising room layouts, ensuring liberal movement of people throughout the space and a commitment to integrating natural light and air flow. In contrast, an accidental Social Condenser refers to one that was constructed without a guiding modus operandi of spatial and interpersonal theory but rather seemed to have an effect on human behaviour after people were allowed to flow freely through the space. For example, ‘Arry’s Bar was initially designed to accommodate football fans of the English club Millwall F.C. but gradually demonstrated its capacity for activating radical confluence between people thereby enacting the primary objective of the Social Condenser. The presence of accidental Social Condensers indicates a clear and codified set of characteristics that can be recognised and retrospectively applied, allowing a viewer to identify Social Condensers within an architectural landscape defined by diverse styles.
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+---
+title: "Social condenser"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_condenser"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:57.473120+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Context ==
+The Social Condenser is a form with deep-rooted connections to Soviet constructivist theory within a political sphere of socialist autocracy. Pioneered by Moisei Ginzburg and the OSA Group, this architectural concept was shaped by the ideologies and actions of Vladimir Lenin as he sought to enact an agenda of collective upheaval in the decade after the October Revolution. In his 1920 speech to the Moscow Gubernia Conference of the R.C.P.(B.), Lenin delivered a maxim which defined his view of a socialist society:
+“Communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the whole country”
+This statement would indeed influence the constructivist neoterics of the Social Condenser who later extrapolated Lenin’s words into their architecture. The fascination with electricity that permeated this epoch led to the creation of a style that allegorically mimicked the function of an electrical condenser (contemporarily known as a transformer), constantly intensifying and attenuating the way in which a current flows through a circuit. Ginzburg took Lenin’s view of electrification and wed it to the notions of human movement dynamics and circuitry thus creating the concept of the Social Condenser which it was hoped would “transform Soviet citizens into revolutionary communards” through didactic architecture.
+The Social Condenser also played a key role in actualising the Soviet upheaval coinciding with the anniversary of the October Revolution. In 1927, it became a Leninist imperative to differentiate the architecture of the post-revolutionary era from the architecture of the pre-revolutionary era in order to signify a shift towards new Soviet glory through socialist collectivism. As such, the Social Condenser was to be the very idea that would separate the avant-garde modernism of post-October Russia from both pre-revolutionary Russian modernism and the modi operandi of other capitalist nations at the time. The concept could be applied to residential buildings, public buildings, public space, and wider city planning, allowing Lenin to activate the Soviet populace and prescribe the socialist way of life through civic design.
+
+== Influence Over Human Behaviour ==
+Within a sphere of Leninism, the Social Condenser utilised spatial forms which would not only influence the human experience but also explicitly condition human behaviour. It became increasingly intertwined with the psychological, ideological, behavioural and, in some cases educational facets of human existence with a view to redefining the way in which society could function. This arose in response to the conflicting concepts of constructivism’s antecedent, suprematism, which valorised human sensation over all else. Hence, the Social Condenser sought to enact real, physical change in how humans interacted, going beyond verbal and written instruction, and embedding it in the architectural fabric of the urban environment.
+Analogous to this, the Social Condenser became a catalyst for social mixing, deconstructing the class system and doing away with strict civil stratification in Soviet Russia. Consequently, the Social Condensers became arenas for class synergy; intelligentsia, the working class, entertainers, and many more brought together through architecture. Under a radical socialist agenda to dismantle old hierarchies of class and gender through design, women also gained greater liberty due to the Social Condenser’s eradication of private amenities associated with early 20th-century female domesticity.
+Essentially, the Social Condenser sought to develop and codify the emergent Soviet way of life by gearing the human experience at the time towards collective engagement within a world of cultural upheaval in the post-revolutionary period. By imposing shared existence through the Social Condenser form, the Constructivists hoped to pioneer Lenin’s vision for an advanced society within which human attitudes and beliefs were defined by collective thought. In cultivating this vision, it was hoped that the Soviet consciousness could be distilled into a concise and collective one that conduced to the progress of a new Russia.
+Lenin hoped that Social Condensers could become catalysts for social activism and domestic reformation. By influencing humans on these microcosmic levels, he envisioned a gradual collective awakening within the Soviet Union.
+
+== Moisei Ginzburg, OSA and the Narkomfin Building ==
+A pioneer of the Social Condenser, Moisei Ginzburg played a key role in advancing the architectural ideals of Constructivism by founding the Organisation of Contemporary Architects (OSA). Individually, Ginzburg had worked to develop and crystallise the tenets of Constructivism, exemplified in his 1924 publication Style and Epoch which served as a manifestation of everything that the Constructivists stood for. In this publication Ginzburg discusses several key concepts which helped him to formulate his theory surrounding the Social Condenser. These concepts included the changeability of architecture over time, Greco-Italic classical thought and Constructivism before he delved into an exploration of a “New Style” which would go on to influence his development of the Social Condenser as an architectural concept.
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+---
+title: "Social condenser"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_condenser"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:57.473120+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The formation of the OSA in 1925 helped Ginzburg to realise his Constructivist hopes by working with like-minded individuals in a tight group of focused architects. The group was known for the design and construction of a number of Constructivist buildings in the Soviet Union including the Likhachev Palace of Culture, several apartment blocks and the Mostorg department store. However, it was for the Narkomfin Building in Moscow that both the OSA and Ginzburg received greatest publicity.
+The Narkomfin is widely regarded as the stylistic epitome of the Social Condenser for its devotion towards promoting the socialist way of life. Featuring communal kitchens, dining halls and even shared bathrooms, the 54-unit building was defined by orthogonal design, iterative room plans and muted colour design. Additionally, the removal of the private facilities resulted in smaller rooms, allowing for a greater number of units which helped to accommodate the issue of overcrowding in Moscow during the 1920s and 1930s.
+In designing this building, Ginzburg was driven by two key imperatives. Firstly, the aforementioned desire to inspire and precipitate the socialist way of life by minimising private activities and advocating for collective interaction through open and shared amenities. However, there was a secondary motive that defined Ginzburg’s architectural practice for the Narkomfin Building. In addition to enacting Lenin’s plan for a new Soviet psyche, he sought to “ease life emotionally, and provide residents with rest and relaxation in a way that they could experience the joy of life.” As such, Ginzburg was able to bring about a sense of relief among the otherwise work-laden Soviet proletariats, promoting the enjoyment of finer details through restful collective spaces.
+
+== Architectural Influence ==
+In the post-war period, the Social Condenser influenced European social housing through its orthogonal forms and functional unit designs, extrapolated by architects such as Le Corbusier in his Unité d’Habitation with a view to inspiring collectivism after the war.
+The Social Condenser has also antithetically informed deconstructivist architecture as contemporary architects seek to unravel the determinism of the constructivist style in favour of more fragmented structures. While Social Condensers sought to influence human behaviour through considered design, the deconstructivist buildings of today engage just one design tactic; “a simple and random morphological gesture that removes sense from form”. This lies in opposition to the functional nature of the Soviet Social Condensers which were actively designed to inspire collectivism.
+Despite this postmodern movement away from the Social Condenser form, there are still architects promulgating or appropriating the principles of Ginzburg’s idea in their work today, thereby perpetuating his Soviet vision. For example, the LocHal Public Library located in the Dutch city of Tilburg was designed by a collective of architects, Mecanoo, who sought to repurpose a redundant steel locomotive shed with a view to activating multifaceted interactions between people in a physical space. It is this desire to activate social interaction that leads to its classification as a Social Condenser. At the 2019 World Architecture Festival in Amsterdam, the LocHal Public Library was named ‘World Building of the Year’.
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social conditioning"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_conditioning"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:58.695468+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social conditioning is the sociological process of training individuals in a society to respond in a manner generally approved by the society in general and peer groups within society. The concept is stronger than that of socialization, which is the process of inheriting norms, customs and ideologies. Manifestations of social conditioning are vast, but they are generally categorized as social patterns and social structures including nationalism, education, employment, entertainment, popular culture, religion, spirituality and family life. The social structure in which an individual finds themselves influences and can determine their social actions and responses.
+Social conditioning represents the environment and personal experience in the nature and nurture debate. Society in general and peer groups within society set the norms which shape the behavior of actors within the social system. Though society shapes individuals; however, it was the individual who made society to begin with and society in turn shaped and influenced us. Emile Durkheim who really played an important role in the theory of social facts, explained and talked how what was once a mere idea which in this case Durkheim is talking about society has turned out to be a thing which basically controls and dictates us.
+
+== Socialization ==
+Social conditioning is directly related to the particular culture that one is involved in. In You May Ask Yourself, Dalton Conley, a professor of sociology at New York University, states that "culture affects us. It's transmitted to us through different processes, with socialization—our internalization of society's values, beliefs and norms—being the main one." The particular manner or influence that one is exposed to is associated by the herd that they are involved in. Social conditioning bases its principals on the natural need for an animal to be a part of a pack.
+
+== Herd Instinct ==
+Sigmund Freud, known as the father of psychoanalysis, recorded his observations of group dynamics in Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego. In his work, he refers to Wilfred Trotter as the group conditions its members, Freud states "opposition to the herd is as good as separation from it, and is therefore anxiously avoided". Such fear causes the individual members and even leaders of a particular group to go along with the decisions a group based in accordance to its culture. On a micro scale, the individual is conditioned to partake in the social norms of the said group even if they contradict their personal moral code. The consequences of such protest (may) result in isolation. Such, in accordance to Freud, is one of the greatest punishments than can be instilled on an individual. This would result in the inability of an individual to practice their "instinctual impulses". These instincts, in accordance to Freud, are the motives behind actions that the individual may take. The father of psychoanalysis further states that, "we thus have an impression of a state in which an individual's private emotional impulses and intellectual acts are too weak to come to anything by themselves and are entirely dependent for this on being reinforced by being repeated in a similar way in the other members of the group". Out of fear of isolation and to secure the practice of instinctual impulses, there may be little protest from individual members as the group continues to conditions.
+
+== Propaganda ==
+Edward Bernays, Freud's nephew and the father of propaganda and public relations, used many of his uncle's theories in order to create new methods in marketing. In Propaganda, he published that "If we understand the mechanism and motives of the group mind, it is now possible to control and regiment the masses according to our will without them knowing it". He used the herd theory in order to create public relations, thus conditioning the public to need particular goods from certain manufacturers. In the same publication he stated, "A single factory, potentially capable of supplying a whole continent with its particular product, cannot afford to wait until the public asks for its product; it must maintain constant touch, through advertising and propaganda, with the vast public in order to assure itself the continuous demand which alone will make its costly plant profitable." His theories and applications in social conditioning continue throughout his work.
+
+== Bernays and the elite ==
+Bernays continued the application of his work as he associates the method in which a minority elite use social conditioning to assert their dominance and will power. In You May Ask Yourself, Dalton Conley describes this ideal with hegemony. He states that the term "refers to a historical process in which a dominant group exercises 'moral and intellectual leadership' throughout society by winning the voluntary 'consent' of popular masses." Bernays believed that this was a functionalist approach. Stating "vast numbers of human beings must cooperate in this manner if they are to live together as a smoothly functioning society ...In almost every act of our daily lives, whether in the sphere of politics or business, in our social conduct or our ethical thinking, we are dominated by the relatively small number of persons...who understand the mental processes and social patterns of the masses." Such influence is made possible by persistent repetition. Wilbert E. Moore, a formal Princeton University Sociology professor, in Social Change, states that "the persistence of patterns gives order and constancy to recurrent events. In terms of behavior, many elements of persistence are more nearly cyclical, the near repetition of sequences of action over various time periods." He continues to state that "role structures (and this norms) grow out of the need for predictability". While he does state that there are several reasons for group formation (spontaneous, deliberate and coercive) the group usually winds up 'repeating sequences' and then, in accordance to Freud and Bernays, contribute to the socialization of possibly new members.
+
+== Classical conditioning – Ivan Pavlov and behaviorism ==
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+title: "Social conditioning"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_conditioning"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:58.695468+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Such repetition contributes to basic social conditioning. Ivan Pavlov demonstrated this theory with his infamous conditioned stimuli experiment. In Pavlov's dog experiment, the research proved that repeated exposure to a particular stimuli results in a specific behavior being repeated. In accordance to Mark Bouton of the University of Vermont, the strength of such 'repetition' and influence can be seen in operant conditioning. Where, depending on reinforcement and punishment of a particular behavior, a response is conditioned.
+
+== Methods of social conditioning – media ==
+In accordance to Ashley Lutz, an editor of Business Insider, 90% of the US media, in 2011, was owned by merely six companies. Such limits the exposure to information, at least the perspective on information. The limited exposure to the perspectives of information results in increase of particular social conditioning. Through repetition of a particular perspective of an ideal, the view is reinforced into the audience and results in a formed social norm. This contributes to the formation of a reflection of the culture in media. Conley states that "culture is a projection of social structures and relationships into the public sphere, a screen onto which the film of the underlying reality or social structure of our society is shown". Such cycling repetition creates a method of socialization and a manner in which society further molds its current members or new ones into the culture.
+
+== Labeling theory ==
+
+=== Social control and stigmatization (SCS) ===
+Conley states that "individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them, and their reactions to these labels over time form the basis of their self-identity. It is only through the social process of labeling that we create deviance by assigning shared meanings to acts." Social conditioning is formed by the creation of 'good' and 'bad' behaviors - persistent reinforcement and the use of operant conditioning influences individuals/groups to develop particular behaviors and/or ideals. In "A Differential Association—Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior", from Criminological Theory Readings and Retrospectives, social norms and deviance in a particular group is described as follows: "We often infer what the norms of a group are by observing reaction to behavior, i.e., the sanctions applied to, or reinforcement and punishment of, such behavior. We may also learn what a group's norms are through verbal and written statements. The individual group member also learns what is and is not acceptable behavior on the basis of verbal statements made by others, as well as through sanctions (i.e. the reinforcing or aversive stimuli) applied by others in response to his behavior and that of other norms violators."
+A particular group conditions its members into certain behaviors. In Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas, the authors note that even illegal behaviors may be seen as positive and promoted within a particular group because different social organizations have a varying amount of influence over particular members – in particular, as children age, their friends play a greater amount of influence than the family. Burgess and Akers further reinforce this point:  "In terms of our analysis, the primary group would be seen to be the major source of an individual's social reinforcements. The bulk of behavioral training which the child receives occurs at a time when the trainers, usually the parents, possess a very powerful system of reinforcement. In fact, we might characterize a primary group as a generalized reinforce (one associated with many reinforces, conditioned as well as unconditioned). And, as we suggest above, as the child grows older, groups other than the family may come to control a majority of an individual's reinforces, e.g. the adolescent peer group. Such theories are further backed up by Mead's theory of Social Development and are reinforced by stigmatization."
+
+=== Mead's theory of social development ===
+
+In accordance to Margaret Mead, one's identity is shaped by outside forces. While the self exists on its own at birth, the first interactions influence the development of one's identity. With the introductions of more and more groups, starting with the significant other (ex. family) and reference groups (ex. friends) an individual develops their perception of self. As Conley states, individuals "...develop a sense of other, that is, someone or something outside of oneself". Finally, individuals interact with the generalized other, "which represents an internalized sense of the total expectations of others in a variety of settings—regardless of whether we're encountered those people or places before".
+
+=== Stigma ===
+"A stigma is a negative social label that not only changes others' behaviour towards a person but, also alters that person's self-concept and social identity." Once placed into such a category, an individual finds it nearly impossible to move out of that particular grouping. Such becomes their master status, overshadowing any other statuses. Such conditions the individual to continuously partake in the activities ascribed to the master status, good or bad.
+
+== See also ==
+Brave New World
+Operant conditioning
+Peer pressure
+Social theory
+Political correctness
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social conscience"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_conscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:59.912257+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A social conscience is "a sense of responsibility or concern for the problems and injustices of society".
+While our conscience is related to moral conduct in our day-to-day lives with respect to individuals, social conscience is concerned with the broader institutions of society and the gap that we may perceive between the sort of society that should exist and the one that does exist.
+The term "social conscience" has been used in conjunction with everything from investing, to art, antiques, and politics.
+
+== Development ==
+The social conscience of an individual can be related to George Herbert Mead's generalized other. Instead of having an internalized expectation of what society expects of them, the individual possesses certain expectations of society. These expectations are generally tied to their moral values. Once the individual is impacted by an occurrence that defies or goes against what they consider to be right and wrong, they develop a social conscience towards that issue. The next step is deciding whether to act on that urge. If the individual chooses to act, they may choose to demonstrate their concern for that issue in a variety of ways, such as fighting back, protesting, or in several other forms of rebelling against that realistic form of society.
+
+== Modern ties ==
+
+=== Protests ===
+
+The act of following one's social conscience is to take empathy and direct it in support of a cause. Protesting is a popular way of demonstrating one's ideologies towards a particular subject in the hopes of alternating the outcome to fit what is perceived to be the sort of society that should exist.
+Protests can arise from the frustrations and grievances of someone or multiple people in response to a perceived problem that does not coincide with their ideal society.
+According to social psychologist Albert Bandura, our expectation to be able to change the outcome of something by protesting is known as self-efficacy. People tend to believe that problems can be solved with a group effort, which is why protesting is seen as a popular choice.
+Protesting is not limited to being a group effort and can be undertaken by a single individual following their social conscience.
+These protests are usually targeted at groups with a higher status of power in the hopes of alternating the flow of power to another group that is perceived to be morally correct. This selection of groups is not limited to the powerless versus the powerful. The powerful can also protest against the powerless, and members of both groups can intermingle with one another to protest against another group.
+
+=== Business ===
+Social conscience is tied to business through the disagreeableness or agreeableness that might be imposed on someone by the actions of a corporate entity. These differing opinions may lead one, or both parties, to develop a social conscience or set of ideals that dictates what they consider to be morally correct.
+The ethical concerns behind the financial decisions or investments of a business can trigger a sense of responsibility towards those decisions. If a corporation possesses a disagreeable aspect in the way it functions, the social conscience of the human mind notices these injustices and may develop a set of responsibilities towards these actions.
+The development of one's social conscience is not limited to disagreeing with the ideals of a broader institution. Many businesses center their function around combating a set of issues or injustices and feel an obligation to help their community. People can develop their social conscience around these ideals and also feel an urge to act against these issues.
+It has become possible to track many of the corporate ideals that companies put into effect. In Japan, companies are expected by the government to report what influences their environmental policies may have on citizens, on a yearly basis. This transparency allows citizens to develop their social conscience in response to the decisions of these broader institutions.
+
+== Historical accounts of social conscience ==
+
+=== Early Victorian era ===
+
+Early Victorians were notable initiators of social conscience in a society where industrialization took a widespread approach. To combat this increase of industrialization, they formed a decentralized government. This new ideal of diverting power to the people was initially inefficient, with a group of people being in charge whose experience was lacking, or whose ideals were not those of the citizens. Despite the initial failures of this system, it serves as an early example of social conscience. It was the initiator for a new movement to combat the unfair conditions that widespread industrialization had brought. The organizational advancements needed to create this new platform of government was a large step in a direction that only came to light when the people of this era began to feel an obligation to solve those injustices due to their social conscience.
+Moral arguments have propelled many movements seeking reform. The morals of two men in different working-class positions could have differed, but both could have demonstrated support for or rejection of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. This is a result of both men seeking some type of reform, not believing that the current state of the law could allow for their ideal image of a working class to be fulfilled. The social conscience of supporters and adversaries of this amendment sought reform as a solution to what they felt were injustices.
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+---
+title: "Social conscience"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_conscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:51:59.912257+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Mid- and Post-World War II ===
+The economic and social changes brought about by the Second World War led to several reform movements, which manifested in the form of strikes, peaceful protests, and other awareness-raising campaigns.
+One such movement was initiated by a group of young men who shined a spotlight on the inhumane conditions of mental hospitals and other facilities that treated those with intellectual disabilities. Patients were subjected to forms of brutality and abuse, which was observed by this group of volunteers at the institute. Their ability to expose several public institutions stemmed from their social conscience acting upon witnessing these acts, which were considered by them to be immoral. Their cause was supported by prominent Americans such as Eleanor Roosevelt. Their concern with the gap between an ideal society and reality led to an attempt at reform.
+
+== The social conscience of art ==
+
+=== Literature ===
+Literature is a common method used to convey one's emotions and has been a popular platform for conveying ethical concerns. These concerns usually stem from a person's social conscience towards a particular issue or various issues that they feel should be addressed.
+Forms of literature, like poems with a social conscience inscribed into them, have several layers and dimensions that represent deeper meanings to the reader. The reader becomes immersed in these meanings, understanding the social conscience of the writer who is conveying an opinion through poetry. The authors of these poems format their writing to highlight the differences between an ethically ideal world and reality, attempting to instigate the social conscience of the reader.
+Carolyn Forché, an award-winning American author, is an example of someone using their social conscience in literature. She, along with her colleague Duncan Wu, have compiled a volume of poetry focused on the writings of poets attacking humanitarian issues such as slavery and war.
+
+=== Visual art ===
+Forms of visual art, such as portraits or paintings, possess the ability to bring out an emotional response in the viewer. By using this imagery, artists can instigate a response in the viewer that allows them to develop a set of responsibilities or set of concerns for a cause.
+Portraits, paintings, pottery, and many other forms of creation can act as reminders of events that have unfolded, specifically noting the emotional impacts of those events. Historical pieces of art can serve as a reference for the morality of the viewer, allowing them to adjust their social conscience in response to what has and hasn't worked in the past.
+
+=== Music ===
+Music can be used as an auditory form of conveying one's social conscience on a matter to others. Several genres of music were created as a response to the social issues of the time, such as rap, which tells stories and delivers ideals. Music can also be used to rebel against societal norms by delivering currently non-accepted ideologies.
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social consciousness"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_consciousness"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:01.159116+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social consciousness (or social awareness) is collective consciousness shared by individuals within a society.
+Social consciousness is linked to the collective self-awareness and experience of collectively shared social identity. From this viewpoint, social consciousness denotes conscious awareness of being part of an interrelated community of others. The “we feeling” or the “sense of us” may be experienced in members of various cultures and social groups. By the experience of collectively shared social identity, individuals may experience social unity. Social consciousness may also stimulate working towards a common goal.
+According to Karl Marx, human beings enter into certain productive, or economic, relations and these relations lead to a form of social consciousness. Marx said:
+
+"In the social production of their life, men enter into definite relations that are indispensable and independent of their will; these relations of production correspond to a definite stage of development of their material forces of production. The sum total of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society — the real foundation, on which rises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of material life determines the social, political and intellectual life process in general. It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness."
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Civic intelligence – Intelligence devoted to public issues
+Class consciousness – Awareness of one's social class
+Collective consciousness – Shared beliefs and ideas in society
+Collective intelligence – Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts
+Consciousness raising – Activism which use awareness campaigns
+Identity politics – Politics based on one's identity
+Self awareness – Capacity for introspection and individuation as a subjectPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Social conscience – Sense of responsibility or concern for the problems of society
+Social intelligence – Capacity to know oneself and to know others
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Awakening to Race: Individualism and Social Consciousness in America
+Children's Social Consciousness and the Development of Social Responsibility
+Class Structure in the Social Consciousness, Volume 102
+Language, ideology and social consciousness: developing a sociohistorical approach
+Literature, social consciousness, and polity
+Theology and the social consciousness: a study of the relations of the social consciousness to theology
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+title: "Social construct"
+chunk: 1/1
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:02.343623+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A social construct is any category or thing that is made real by convention or collective agreement. Socially constructed realities are contrasted with natural kinds, which exist independently of human behavior or beliefs.
+Simple examples of social constructs are the meaning of words, the value of paper money, and the rules of economic systems. Other examples, such as race, were formerly considered controversial but are now accepted by the consensus of scientists to be socially constructed rather than naturally determined. Still other possible examples, such as less empirical and more abstract concepts which underlie particular scientific theories, remain the subject of ongoing philosophical debate.
+
+
+== Relationship with objectivity ==
+During the 20th century, philosopher John Searle and sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann argued that some socially constructed realities—such as property ownership, citizenship, and marital status—should be considered forms of objective fact, and posited the existence of such socially constructed objective facts as a philosophical or methodological problem to be explored.
+Others, such as György Lukács, Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer built upon the ideas of Friedrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx to argue that a fallacy of reification is responsible for the practice of treating socially constructed facts as though they were natural—a phenomenon Lukács referred to as "phantom objectivity".
+
+More recently, biological anthropologists and public health experts have determined that, while race is a social construct, the persistence of racism has objectively demonstrable negative consequences for the health and well-being of marginalized groups.
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Social contract"
+chunk: 1/7
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:03.627921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is an idea, theory, or model that usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Conceptualized in the Age of Enlightenment, it is a core concept of constitutionalism, while not necessarily convened and written down in a constituent assembly and constitution.
+Social contract arguments typically are that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority (of the ruler, or to the decision of a majority) in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of the social order. The relation between natural and legal rights is often a topic of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract (French: Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique), a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept. Although the antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law, the heyday of the social contract was the mid-17th to early 19th centuries, when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy.
+The starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent any political order (termed the "state of nature" by Thomas Hobbes). In this condition, individuals' actions are bound only by their personal power and conscience, assuming that 'nature' precludes mutually beneficial social relationships. From this shared premise, social contract theorists aim to demonstrate why rational individuals would voluntarily relinquish their natural freedom in exchange for the benefits of political order.
+Prominent 17th- and 18th-century theorists of the social contract and natural rights included Hugo de Groot (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel von Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) and Immanuel Kant (1797), each approaching the concept of political authority differently. Grotius posited that individual humans had natural rights. Hobbes famously said that in a "state of nature", human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". In the absence of political order and law, everyone would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to plunder, rape and murder; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men contract with each other to establish political community (civil society) through a social contract in which they all gain security in return for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign, one man or an assembly of men. Though the sovereign's edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government (whether monarchical or parliamentary).
+Alternatively, Locke and Rousseau argued that individuals acquire civil rights by accepting the obligation to respect and protect the rights of others, thereby relinquishing certain personal freedoms in the process.
+The central assertion that social contract theory approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but human creations. The social contract and the political order it creates are simply the means towards an end—the benefit of the individuals involved—and legitimate only to the extent that they fulfill their part of the agreement. Hobbes argued that government is not a party to the original contract; hence citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism and civil unrest.
+
+== Model of the social contract ==
+A general model for different social contract theories exists. Given that hypothetically:
+
+I represents the "choosers in the contractual procedure" in the original position or state of nature
+I* represents real individuals whose terms of interaction will be guided by the contract, who share their reasoning with I
+R represents some rules, principles, or institutions
+M represents the deliberative setting within which I endorses R
+It follows that a general model can be identified: I chooses R in M and this gives I* reason to endorse and comply with R in the real world insofar as the reasons I has for choosing R in M are (or can be) shared by I*.
+Being a model, the above is an abstraction of different theories which assists in identifying the relevant factors in the various theories.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Classical thought ===
+Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the world's oldest records. The Indian Buddhist text of the second century BC Mahāvastu recounts the legend of Mahasammata. The story goes as follows:
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+title: "Social contract"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:03.627921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the early days of the cosmic cycle mankind lived on an immaterial plane, dancing on air in a sort of fairyland, where there was no need of food or clothing, and no private property, family, government or laws. Then gradually the process of cosmic decay began its work, and mankind became earthbound, and felt the need of food and shelter. As men lost their primeval glory, distinctions of class arose, and they entered into agreements with one another, accepting the institution of private property and the family. With this theft, murder, adultery, and other crime began, and so the people met together and decided to appoint one man from among them to maintain order in return for a share of the produce of their fields and herds. He was called "the Great Chosen One" (Mahasammata), and he received the title of raja because he pleased the people.
+In his rock edicts, the Indian Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. The Buddhist vinaya also reflects social contracts expected of the monks; one such instance is when the people of a certain town complained about monks felling saka trees, the Buddha tells his monks that they must stop and give way to social norms.
+Epicurus in the fourth century BC seemed to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines (see also Epicurean ethics):
+
+31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another.
+32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm.
+
+33. There never was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm.
+The concept of the social contract was originally posed by Glaucon, as described by Plato in The Republic, Book II.
+
+They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice, evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when men have both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think that they had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the origin and nature of justice;—it is a mean or compromise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and origin of justice.
+The social contract theory also appears in Crito, another dialogue from Plato. Over time, the social contract theory became more widespread after Epicurus (341–270 BC), the first philosopher who saw justice as a social contract, and not as existing in Nature due to divine intervention (see below and also Epicurean ethics), decided to bring the theory to the forefront of his society. As time went on, philosophers of traditional political and social thought, such as Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau put forward their opinions on social contract, which then caused the topic to become much more mainstream.
+
+=== Renaissance developments ===
+Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract, and all of these arguments began with proto-"state of nature" arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.
+These arguments, however, relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Thus, these arguments held that a group of people can join a government because it has the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority—a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.
+
+== Philosophers ==
+
+=== Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651) ===
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+title: "Social contract"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:03.627921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state in which self-interest and the absence of reliably protected rights and contracts prevented the "social", or society. Life was "anarchic" (without rulers or the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.
+The social contract was seen as an "occurrence" during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs. This resulted in the establishment of the state—a sovereign entity like the individuals (now under its rule) used to be, which would create laws to regulate social interactions. Human life was thus no longer "a war of all against all". Notably, this theory features the ability of individuals to irrevocably relinquish their rights, even to a state which has absolute authority over life and death. How one could be said to do so "freely" while in the state of nature, i.e. under actual or potential duress, is not fully worked out by Hobbes or other social contract theorists (cf. "inalienable rights" in the U.S. United States Declaration of Independence, with marked Lockean influence, wherein rights are characterized as God-given and merely guaranteed or protected by the state.  For a right to be "inalienable" arguably precludes its being given up under some or all circumstances by a rational autonomous agent bearing or possessing those rights as social contract theories require).
+The state system, which grew out of the social contract, was, however, also anarchic (without rulers). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereign and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (more powerful) capable of imposing some system such as social-contract laws on everyone by force. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations which consider the basic unit of analysis to be states with no overarching higher authority (akin to the "anarchy" of Hobbes' state of nature), advanced by E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau. Hobbes wrote in Leviathan that humans ("we") need the "terrour of some Power" otherwise humans will not heed the law of reciprocity, "(in summe) doing to others, as wee would be done to".
+
+=== John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689) ===
+John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several fundamental ways, retaining only the central notion that individuals in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would be bound morally, by the Law of Nature, in which man has the "power... to preserve his property; that is, his life, liberty and estate against the injuries and attempts of other men". Without government to defend them against those seeking to injure or enslave them, Locke further believed people would have no security in their rights and would live in fear. Individuals, to Locke, would only agree to form a state that would provide, in part, a "neutral judge", acting to protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it.
+While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued for inviolate freedom under law in his Second Treatise of Government. Locke argued that a government's legitimacy comes from the citizens' delegation to the government of their absolute right of violence (reserving the inalienable right of self-defense or "self-preservation"), along with elements of other rights (e.g. property will be liable to taxation) as necessary to achieve the goal of security through granting the state a monopoly of violence, whereby the government, as an impartial judge, may use the collective force of the populace to administer and enforce the law, rather than each man acting as his own judge, jury, and executioner—the condition in the state of nature.
+
+=== Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du Contrat social (1762) ===
+Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social-contract theory, as the foundations of society based on the sovereignty of the "general will".
+Rousseau's political theory differs in important ways from that of Locke and Hobbes. Rousseau's collectivist conception is most evident in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Denis Diderot) of the "general will". Summarised, the "general will" is the power of all the citizens' collective interest—not to be confused with their individual interests.
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+title: "Social contract"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:03.627921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government, nor any form of representative government. Rousseau believed that society was only legitimate when the sovereign (i.e. the "general will") were the sole legislators. He also stated that the individual must accept "the total alienation to the whole community of each associate with all his rights". In short, Rousseau meant that in order for the social contract to work, individuals must forfeit their rights to the whole so that such conditions were "equal for all".[The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and in a body, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
+Rousseau's other writings assert that his striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, if an individual rejects this "civil liberty" in place of "natural liberty" and self interest, disobeying the law, he will be forced to listen to what was decided when the people acted as a collective (as citizens). Thus the law, inasmuch as it is created by the people acting as a body, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but rather its expression. The individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will.
+Because laws represent the restraint of "natural liberty", they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force. Therefore, Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people help to mould their character.
+Rousseau also analyses the social contract in terms of risk management, thus suggesting the origins of the state as a form of mutual insurance.
+
+=== Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851) ===
+While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians, and anarchists that do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.
+Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract that did not involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather among individuals who refrain from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon him- or herself:
+
+What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau's] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this, the notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, ... is substituted for that of distributive justice ... Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other.
+
+=== John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971) ===
+Building on the work of Immanuel Kant with its presumption of limits on the state, John Rawls (1921–2002), in A Theory of Justice (1971), proposed a contractarian approach whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position" would set aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance" and agree to certain general principles of justice and legal organization. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.
+
+=== David Gauthier's Morals by Agreement (1986) ===
+
+David Gauthier's "neo-Hobbesian" theory argues that cooperation between two independent and self-interested parties is indeed possible, especially when it comes to understanding morality and politics. Gauthier notably points out the advantages of cooperation between two parties when it comes to the challenge of the prisoner's dilemma. He proposes that, if two parties were to stick to the original agreed-upon arrangement and morals outlined by the contract, they would both experience an optimal result. In his model for the social contract, factors including trust, rationality, and self-interest keep each party honest and dissuade them from breaking the rules.
+
+=== Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997) ===
+Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed, should be modified. Instead of arguing for explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against it is a contract's only legitimacy.
+
+== Application ==
+
+=== Elections ===
+Rousseau argued that societal laws are upheld by the collective will of the citizens whom they represent. Thus, in obeying laws, the citizen "remains free." Within elections, the will of the establishment is the will of the collective. Barring corruption, the legitimacy of the democratic government is absolute.
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+title: "Social contract"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:03.627921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In every real democracy, magistracy is not an advantage, but a burdensome charge which cannot justly be imposed on one individual rather than another. The law alone can lay the charge on him on whom the lot falls. For, the conditions being then the same for all, and the choice not depending on any human will, there is no particular application to alter the universality of the law. 
+According to other social contract theorists, when the government fails to secure their natural rights (Locke) or satisfy the best interests of society, citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey or change the leadership through elections or other means including, when necessary, violence. Locke believed that natural rights were inalienable, and therefore the rule of God superseded government authority, while Rousseau believed that democracy (majority-rule) was the best way to ensure welfare while maintaining individual freedom under the rule of law. The Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence.
+
+=== Arab world ===
+The social contract can be used as a theoretical object to analyse the capacity for a population to accept change, upon which the change exerts 'pressure'. In an analysis of the consequences of the Gulf Cooperation Council states changing energy prices, the social contract defines the capacity for change. Higher energy prices for resident households can have an adverse impact, meaning that the consent of the participants in the contract needs to be maintained, because before energy price increases, prices for residents were kept low by charging higher prices for exported oil.
+
+== Influence on the US Declaration of Independence ==
+Ideas related to the social contract theory, particularly those of John Locke, intellectually inspired the United States Declaration of Independence. His ideas on every individual’s’ right to ‘life, liberty, and property’ as well as the people’s ‘right to revolt’ were particularly influential.
+
+=== Life, Liberty, and Property ===
+Locke’s idea that everyone has the right to 'life, liberty, and property' inspired the founding document. The Declaration posits, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness”. The terms ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ reflect the ideas of John Locke, who argued for human beings’ natural rights to ‘life, liberty, and property.’ In The Second Treatise of Government, Locke has asserted that “the state of Nature (...) teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions. Since the “state of nature,” which largely means the condition in which humans used to live before civilization, teaches humans to learn that all were born “equal and independent,” Locke emphasizes the inherent equality that exists among human beings, which is reflected in the Declaration's idea that "all men are created equal." Furthermore, Locke argued that men “have rights to life, (...) liberty, or possessions” and that “no one ought to harm another” in these rights. Since the rights to ‘life’ and ‘liberty,’ which constitute two of the three essential rights protected under the social contract, are repeated in the Declaration, Locke’s idea on the natural rights of human beings proves to be influential. As the John Locke Foundation, an independent and nonprofit think tank, establishes, "Locke’s influence can be seen throughout the Declaration of Independence" through the phrase “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” 
+
+=== The Right to Revolt ===
+Locke’s idea of ‘the right to revolt’ was also influential. The Declaration posits that, when the natural rights of human beings are violated under the social contract, “it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government”. The usage of the word “right” not only shows how people should be allowed to revolt, but have a moral obligation to overthrow a tyrannical government. In a similar vein, Locke posited that people have ‘the right to revolt’ when their natural rights are violated. According to the philosopher, “Whenever the legislators endeavour to take away and destroy the property of the people, or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary power, they put themselves into a state of war with the people, who are thereupon absolved from any farther obedience” and gain the “right to resume their original liberty”. In short, if a government becomes tyrannical, such as by infringing on people’s right to property or on their freedoms, its constituents gain the freedom to overthrow the government at will. This aligns closely with the Declaration’s assertion that people gain the right to “abolish” and to “institute” a new government, showing another way in which Locke's ideas pertaining to the social contract intellectually inspired the Declaration. 
+
+=== Thomas Jefferson's Letter ===
+Thomas Jefferson, one of the main authors of the Declaration, wrote in a 1825 letter that “Locke,” along with figures such as “Aristotle, Cicero, (...) [and] Sidney,” served as great intellectual foundations for the Declaration, as the text’s “authority rests then on the harmonising sentiments” of such writers. An explicit mention of Locke’s name, adding to the letter’s admission that his influence proved to be significant in serving as an inspiration for the text, further strengthens the claim that Locke's ideas, particularly those pertaining to the social contract, inspired the Declaration.
+
+== Criticism ==
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+title: "Social contract"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:03.627921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Consent of the governed ===
+An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "Of Civil Liberty". The second part of this essay, entitled "Of the Original Contract", stresses that the concept of a "social contract" is a convenient fiction: As no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of the factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. ... The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in the smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him. 
+Hume argued that consent of the governed was the ideal foundation on which a government should rest, but that it had not actually occurred this way in general. My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only contend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted. 
+
+=== Natural law and constitutionalism ===
+The legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, this does not constitute consent to all rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O. A. Brownson, who argued that, in a sense, three "constitutions" are involved: first, the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law"; second, the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.
+
+=== Tacit consent ===
+The theory of a tacit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some society, which usually has a government, people give consent to join that society and be governed by its government if any. This consent is what gives legitimacy to such a government.
+Other writers have argued that consent to join the society is not necessarily consent to its government. For that, the government must be set up according to a constitution of government that is consistent with the superior unwritten constitutions of nature and society.
+
+=== Explicit consent ===
+The theory of an implicit social contract also goes under the principles of explicit consent.  The main difference between tacit consent and explicit consent is that explicit consent is meant to leave no room for misinterpretation.  Moreover, you should directly state what it is that you want and the person has to respond in a concise manner that either confirms or denies the proposition.
+
+=== Contracts must be consensual ===
+According to the will theory of contract, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties voluntarily agree to it, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th-century lawyer who argued before the Supreme Court of the United States and a staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, argued in his essay No Treason that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all. As an abolitionist, he made similar arguments about the unconstitutionality of slavery in the US.
+Joseph Kary asserts that Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; at that time more importance was attached to consideration (meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract) and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of the present time and that certain features in the social contract which seem anomalous, such as the belief that people are bound by a contract formulated by their distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to people today.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social contract"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:03.627921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Ankerl, Guy. Towards a Social Contract on a Worldwide Scale: Solidarity contracts. Research series. Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies [Pamphlet], 1980, ISBN 92-9014-165-4.
+Carlyle, R. W. A History of mediæval political theory in the West. Edinburgh London: W. Blackwood and sons, 1916.
+Falaky, Faycal (2014). Social Contract, Masochist Contract: Aesthetics of Freedom and Submission in Rousseau. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-4989-0
+Gierke, Otto Friedrich Von and Ernst Troeltsch. Natural Law and the Theory of Society 1500 to 1800. Translated by Sir Ernest Barker, with a Lecture on "The Ideas of Natural Law and Humanity", by Ernst Troeltsch. Cambridge: The University Press, 1950.
+Gough, J. W.. The Social Contract. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1936.
+Harrison, Ross. Hobbes, Locke, and Confusion's Empire: an Examination of Seventeenth-Century Political Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
+Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. 1651.
+Locke, John. Second Treatise on Government 1689.
+Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Contractarianism/Social Contract". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 103–05. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n66. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
+Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. NY: Oxford U.P., 1997, ISBN 0-19-829083-7, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997
+Pufendorf, Samuel, James Tully and Michael Silverthorne. Pufendorf: On the Duty of Man and Citizen according to Natural Law. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge University Press 1991.
+Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice (1971)
+Riley, Patrick. "How Coherent is the Social Contract Tradition?" Journal of the History of Ideas 34: 4 (Oct. – Dec., 1973): 543–62.
+Riley, Patrick. Will and Political Legitimacy: A Critical Exposition of Social Contract Theory in Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 1982.
+Riley, Patrick. The Social Contract and Its Critics, chapter 12 in The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought. Eds. Mark Goldie and Robert Wokler. Vol 4 of The Cambridge History of Political Thought. Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp. 347–75.
+Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right  (1762)
+Scanlon, T. M. 1998. What We Owe To Each Other. Cambridge, Massachusetts
+
+== External links ==
+
+"The Social Contract". In Our Time (7 Feb 2008). BBC Radio Program. Melvyn Bragg, moderator; with Melissa Lane, Cambridge University; Susan James, University of London; Karen O'Brien, University of Warwick.
+"Game Theory". In Our Time (May 10, 2012). BBC Radio Program. Melvin Bragg, moderator, with Ian Stewart, Emeritus, University of Warwick, Andrew Colman, University of Leicester, and Richard Bradley, London School of Economics. Discussion of game theory that touches on relation of game theory to the Social Contract.
+Foisneau, Luc. "Governing a Republic: Rousseau's General Will and the Problem of Government". Republics of Letters: A Journal for the Study of Knowledge, Politics, and the Arts 2, no. 1 (December 15, 2010)
+Sigmund, Paul E. "Natural Law, Consent, and Equality: William of Ockham to Richard Hooker". Published on website Natural Law, Natural Rights, and American Constitutionalism. A We the People project of the National Endowment for the Humanities.
+Cudd, Ann. "Contractarianism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.
+D'Agostino, Fred. "Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.
+Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley (eds.). "Social contract". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002. OCLC 37741658.
+Jan Narveson. "The Contractarian Theory of Morals:FAQ". On website Against Politics: Anarchy Naturalized.
+A satirical example of a social contract for the United States from the Libertarian Party. Parody.
+Social Contract: A Basic Contradiction in Western Liberal Democracy, Eric Engle. A critique of social contract theory as counter-factual myth.
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+---
+title: "Social cryptomnesia"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cryptomnesia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:04.865393+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social cryptomnesia is a psychological and sociological idea. It is a cognitive bias experienced by entire cultures following social change.
+Cryptomnesia refers to an implicit memory phenomenon of an individual’s false belief that their idea is original; however, in reality, they have previously come across the said idea and have forgotten that they did. Cryptomnesia is likely to occur when there is source confusion, the error in identifying a memory’s source, due to high cognitive load at the time when the idea was first considered. This is in line with the Cognitive Load Theory, suggesting that humans have a limited capacity in their working memory, and when it is overloaded or impacted due to factors like stress, individuals can have the tendency to avoid the source of incoming information.  
+Social cryptomnesia is a failure to remember the origin of a change, in which people know that a change has occurred in society, but forget how this change occurred; that is, the steps that were taken to bring this change about, and who took these steps. This may lead to reduced social credit towards the minorities who made major sacrifices that led to the change in societal values.
+
+
+== Minority marginalization ==
+A minority group is defined as any group that is marginalized in the society they live in due to cultural or physical characteristics. They face unfair treatment and are discriminated against. Minority groups in a society can also be referred to as the “subordinate group”, whereas the majority of people are called the “dominant group”. The Scapegoat Theory suggests that dominant groups can position “unfocused aggression” on minorities.
+Throughout history, there have been several notable social movements of minorities leading to revolutions; while the revolutions are remembered by the public, those who have been leading the change have often been forgotten. So, the societal system favors the dominant groups without giving credit to minorities. Social cryptomnesia is described as collective oblivion with social control. It causes the changes done by minority groups to be disregarded, which in turn could lead to further disparity within a society.
+
+
+== Psychological theories ==
+There are different possible theories behind this phenomenon explained through ultimate causes.
+
+
+=== Moscovici’s minority influence ===
+Previous research done on group conformity showed how individuals are influenced by the choice of the majority. The study proved that individuals conformed to the answers of the group in public but disregarded them in private. Moscovici argues that behavioral style is the source of influence, especially highlighting that the consistent behavior of minorities can affect the majority of the population. He describes four stages of influence:
+
+Revelation: Minority presents their conflicting views to the majority.
+Incubation: The majority assesses the arguments of the minority.
+Conversion: Those in the majority begin to accept and internalize the arguments of the minority privately.
+Innovation: After understanding that others began to share the same views, members of the majority began to publicly acknowledge the views of the minority.
+In Moscovici’s four-stage theory, there are two limitations. First of all, it is uncertain how the process from conversion to innovation takes place as at the conversion stage, individuals internalize at a private level. Secondly, the stages end after the fourth one: at this point, the normative position of the majority is eliminated as they have revealed their new views publicly. Historically, it is seen that even with this, the changes that minorities lead can be disregarded. Therefore, Butera et al. (2009) suggests that social cryptomnesia acts as a “fifth stage” of this process.
+
+
+=== Social Identity Theory ===
+A related theory could be Social Identity Theory. The theory entails how individuals identify with the groups they belong to, which leads to the idea of social categorisation. The groups one belongs to are in-groups, whereas the ones they do not are the out-groups. In order to maintain self-esteem, people perceive their in-groups as superior. This leads to the discrimination of out-groups. Evidence suggests that social identification affects behavior. In terms of decision-making, individuals conform to the “normative leanings'' of their group. Therefore, it could be that the idea of outgroups of minorities do not yield attention to the changes that minorities make, increasing the chance of the process being forgotten. The idea of “groupthink” supports this argument as it refers to group members accepting a certain conclusion that represents a “group consensus”. However, for “groupthink” to occur, there have to be high levels of cohesiveness, which poses a limitation.
+
+
+=== Cultural evolution ===
+One of the factors enabling cultural evolution is transmission. From an evolutionary perspective, cultural transmission occurs when individuals pass on information to other generations through social learning. It could be that social cryptomnesia occurs because of “content-biased cultural transmission”. Sperber (1996) describes the situation as “cultural attraction”, which is how cultural representations are distorted to match the existing cognitive biases. As majorities are more prevalent in terms of making change, individuals could be attributing the idea of a change to the dominant group instead of one of the subordinate ones, explaining the functioning of social cryptomnesia. This is in line with Piaget’s schema theory: individuals perceive the world around them and shape incoming knowledge according to their prior beliefs.
+
+
+== Women's rights ==
+The progress made in the first wave of feminism includes healthcare, education, and the right to vote. These rights are considered to be just by the general population, yet the actions taken by the suffragettes (and suffragists) to get to this point are frequently ignored.
+Feminist movements are victims of social cryptomnesia. While women’s rights are now acknowledged in most countries, the process of gaining acknowledgement is not recognized by the general population. Furthermore, women are still alienated within society, suggesting that the majority of society has not yielded adequate attention to these changes. Due to this, in various areas of everyday life, women face gender-based discrimination and negative stereotypes, while sometimes seen as extremists or radical. This may prevent social change from occurring, even when people agree it is necessary.
+Social cryptomnesia related to sexism can be reduced with conscientization, which relies on critical reflection on the issue. This technique was used in social and political issues before; thus, the same technique can be adjusted for other minorities in decreasing the effects of social cryptomnesia by conducting further research on it in the future. Nevertheless, since different minorities face varying levels of this phenomenon, this may not be as effective as planned. Additionally, it may be possible to reduce these negative effects of social cryptomnesia by making individuals aware of how social cryptomnesia may contribute to their biases.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social currency"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_currency"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:06.078792+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social currency refers to the  actual and potential resources  from  presence in social networks and communities, including both digital and offline. It is, in essence , an action made by a company or stance of being, to which consumers feel a sense of value when associating with a brand, while the humanization of the brand generates loyalty and "word of mouth" virality for the organization. The concept derives from Pierre Bourdieu's social capital theory and relates to increasing one's sense of community, granting access to information and knowledge, helping to form one's identity, and providing status and recognition.
+
+
+== In marketing and management ==
+In their study on social currency, the consulting company Vivaldi Partners defined social currency as the extent to which people share the brand or information about the brand as part of their everyday social lives at work or at home. This sharing helps companies to create unique brand identities and earn permission to interact with consumers or customers. In today's age, building social currency is an important investment companies can make to create value for themselves. Social Currency moves social initiatives and campaigns beyond marketing and communications efforts to impacting and changing entire industries and categories. Consumers and customers will benefit as well as they increasingly participate in social platforms, and use social technologies.
+Social currency can be divided into six dimensions or levers:
+It is about creating a sense of community and by that a strong affiliation between customers, consumers and users of a brand. Having social currency increases a brand's engagement with consumers and interaction with customers, and by that adding to the customer conversation around the brand, it grants access to information and knowledge, which is being shared within the customer base. Belonging to a group also helps users of a brand to grow personally by accessing new utility and also developing their own identity in the respective peer group. A strong attachment to a brand will also be a core driver for an active advocacy recommending or even defending the brand.
+
+The Social Currency Wheel is an alternative to the traditional brand funnel or customer decision journey. The Social Currency Wheel evaluates the impact of social behaviors of customers on social currency and three outcomes: consideration, purchase, and loyalty. The goal of the Social Currency Wheel is to explain how customers' social processes and behaviors drive each of the conversions. Marketers can engage with customers during these social processes and behaviors, and influence the outcomes.
+Social currency is information shared which encourages further social encounters.  It can be a factor in establishing fans of sports or television programmes.  As well as talking about sports, attendance at sports events themselves is a form of social currency.  Young men in particular feel the need to learn about sporting current events in order to facilitate social interaction.  However, these types of fan can easily move to a new sport, team, or programme in the future if the new one offers more social currency.  Women may use jewellery and clothes as part of their social currency, providing a way into communication.
+Proper social currency tactics includes responding to comments, sharing posts to groups and forums, and strategic posting time and placement.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Social capital
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social death"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_death"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:07.380064+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social death, sometimes referred to as social suicide, is an extreme social rejection or disenfranchisement of someone by the wider society. It refers to when the targeted people is treated as if they are dead or non-existent. It is used by sociologists such as Orlando Patterson and Zygmunt Bauman, and historians of slavery and the Holocaust, to describe the part played by governmental and social segregation in that process. Social death is defined by "three aspects: a loss of social identity, a loss of social connectedness and losses associated with disintegration of the body."
+Examples of social death are:
+
+Racial and gender exclusion, persecution, slavery, and apartheid.
+Governments can exclude individuals or groups from society. Examples: Protestant minority groups in early modern Europe; ostracism in Ancient Athens; Dalits in India; criminals; prostitutes, and outlaws.
+Institutionalization and segregation of those labeled with a mental illness.
+Change in the identity of an individual. This was a major theme during the Renaissance.
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+---
+title: "Social death"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_death"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:07.380064+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Slavery and Social Death ==
+The chief proponent of the relationship between social death and slavery is Orlando Patterson, who states his findings in his 1982 book, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study. Patterson first defines slavery as "one of the most extreme forms of the relation of domination, approaching the limits of total power from the viewpoint of the master, and of total powerlessness from the viewpoint of the slave." Social death had both internal and external effects on enslaved people, changing their views of themselves and the way they were regarded by society. Slavery and social death can be linked in all civilizations where slavery existed, including China, Rome, Africa, Byzantium, Greece, Europe, and the Americas. The beginning of social death comes from the initial enslavement process, which would most likely come from capture during a battle. A captive would be spared from death and created a slave, although this was a conditional commutation since death was only suspended as long as the slave submitted to his powerlessness. This pardon from death was replaced with social death, which would manifest both physically and psychologically. Externally, slaves would undergo the loss of their identities through such practices as replacing their names, being branded to indicate their social condition, given a specific dress code that further established them as slaves to the public, castration, and having their heads shaved. Each of these acts alienated the slaves from their previous identities and symbolized their loss of freedom and power and their total dependency on their master’s will. The psychological process of social death included the effect of rejection as a member of society and becoming genealogically isolated through the loss of heritage and the right to pass on their ancestry to their children. In fact, all social bonds were seen as illegitimate unless they were validated by the master (however, he also mentions that "a large number of works have demonstrated that slaves in both ancient and modern times had strong social ties among themselves", those ties being "informal"). Enslaved people were denied an independent social structure and were not even deemed fully human, as they were only seen as a representation of their master and had no honor or power of their own. The degree to which these practices took place was based on the two modes of social death, intrusive and extrusive. In the intrusive mode, rituals were developed for the incorporation of an external enemy into the culture as a slave. In the extrusive mode, traditions evolved for including those who have "fallen into slavery" from within society into the slave status. Both of these modes provided a process for the institutionalization of socially dead individuals. Power played an essential role in the relationship between a slave and master, and violence was often deemed a necessary component of slavery. A slave was seen to have no worth. They had no name of their own and no honor. Instead, their worth and honor was transferred to the master and gave him an elevated social status among his peers. Violence within the relationship was considered essential because of the low motivation of the enslaved people, and it was also a factor in creating social death and exercising power over the slaves. Whipping was not only a method of punishment but also a consciously chosen symbolic device to remind slaves of their status. This physical violence had other psychological effects as well, gradually creating an attitude of self-blame and an acknowledgement of the complete control that a master had. Interviews with former American slaves included statements such as "slaves get the masters they deserve" and "I was so bad I needed the whipping", demonstrating the justification that slaves had no right to expect kindness or compassion because of their status in society and the devastating mental effects from social death. These effects demonstrated the expectations of the behavior of a slave who had experienced social death. The individuals viewed as the ultimate slaves, the palace eunuchs from Byzantium and China, were essentially a paradox. These slaves were trusted by emperors and could be extremely influential. They were expected to be loyal, brave, and obedient, yet they were still considered low and debased and were shunned by society. While Orlando Patterson gives the most extensive study on slavery and social death, he has several critics of his analysis. Those who reviewed the book disliked his refusal to define slaves as property because other groups could fit this definition as well, including women and children. Patterson also does not compare the treatment of slaves to other socially marginalized groups, such as prostitutes, criminals, and indentured servants. The third critique given about Patterson’s book is the lack of primary sources. Commentators noted that the argument in Slavery and Social Death would have been much stronger had Patterson utilized testimony from enslaved people of their views and meanings of honor, domination, and community. In 2018, Orlando Patterson published an updated preface to Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study that reflexively addresses the text’s original arguments and provides additional information about the concept of social death. In the new preface, Patterson assesses social death as a “slaveholder ideology,” provides more theoretical clarification as to how the text was and should be situated within different disciplinary conversations, and addresses the validity of a wide range of external critiques relevant to fields like Black Studies, Genocide Studies, and Holocaust Studies among others. He begins by reiterating the aim and scope of his comparative analysis in 1982: "My strategy was to examine the internal dynamics and meanings of this special human relation of domination and its consequences for the parties involved—slaveholder, enslaved, freed, and those never enslaved—and the ways in which this relationship was generative of, and dynamically related to, the institutional process of manumission." Speaking back to historians who’ve engaged with social death as merely a slaveholder ideology, he adds a correction to explain that “slaves did not internalize this ideology; rather, they saw through it” in ways that influenced practices of resistance and rebellion enacted to thwart said overarching power. Additionally, he explicitly states that “social death was not a theory I imposed upon the historical realities of slavery,” which provides a chance to re-evaluate Patterson's conceptual relationship to the original archives used in Slavery and Social Death. Importantly, the updated preface speaks back to the growing "afro-pessimist" movement of black critical theory which has adopted the concept of social death to contend with the lingering effects of the Atlantic slave trade. Although Patterson refers to this movement as "humanist intellectualism," afro-pessmimist techniques most explicitly articulated by scholars like Frank B. Wilderson III, Selamawit D. Terrefe, Jared Sexton, and Saidiya Hartman to name a few position blackness in conversation with social death to interrogate the profound consequences of anti-black racism and violence on civil society. Still, there remains a question around whether “social death” accurately describes the conditions of contemporary anti-blackness and he addresses this clearly in the updated preface.
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+---
+title: "Social death"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_death"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:07.380064+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Although Patterson takes time to agree with the major tenets of afro-pessimist critique he states that “At the national level, however, America ceased being a neoslavery nation with the successes of the civil rights movement: blacks are now incorporated and play major roles in its mainstream culture, national political life, and military, the election of Barack Obama to the presidency being only the culmination of this top-down process of disalienation.” Patterson’s relationship to afro-pessimism, articulated in the updated preface and other interviews on the topic, illuminates potential limits of social death and gives a more clear outline of his original conception of the term in 1982.
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+---
+title: "Social death"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_death"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:07.380064+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Other definitions ==
+
+In the context of health, social death—when the ailing person no longer has the consciousness to communicate with others—can occur. Social death occurs during the progression of Alzheimer's disease and to patients rendered unconscious through palliative sedation (a type of end-of-life care) to reduce pain before an imminent death. 
+Social death can also be an impact of ageism. Elderly people are isolated from other age groups due to health issues (such as during the COVID-19 pandemic) and their physical deaths are viewed as less tragic than others. 
+Employees who retire from their careers can experience another example of social death because of their removal from the daily work lives of co-workers, with retirement representing a form of isolation for those without external social supports.
+
+== See also ==
+Civil death – Loss of all or almost all civil rights
+Disengagement theory – Theory of aging
+Enemy of the people – Designation for political opponents of ruling power
+Excommunication – Censure used to deprive, suspend, or limit membership in a religious community
+Exile – Event by which a person is forced away from home
+Herem (censure) – Highest ecclesiastical censure in the Jewish community
+Imprisonment – Restraint of a person's liberty by judicial or other detention
+Ostracism – Democratic procedure for expelling citizens
+Shunning – Act of social rejection, or emotional distance
+Social determinants of health – Economic and social conditions that influence differences in health status
+Social determinants of health in poverty – Factors that affect impoverished populations' health and health inequality
+Social determinants of mental health – Societal problems that disrupt mental health
+Social exclusion – Form of social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society
+Victimology – Study of victimization
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Claudia Card, Genocide and Social Death, Hypatia, Vol. 18, No. 1 (Winter 2003)
+Family and Psycho-Social Dimensions of Death and Dying in African Americans, Key Topics on End-of-Life Care for African Americans, Duke Institute on Care at the End of Life and the Initiative to Improve Palliative Care for African Americans
+Brian Garavaglia, Avoiding the Tendency to Medicalize the Grieving Process: Reconciliation Rather Than Resolution, The New Social Worker Online, Summer 2006
+John Edwin Mason, Social Death and Resurrection: Slavery and Emancipation in South Africa, ISBN 0-8139-2178-3
+Jaap W. Ouwerkerk, et al., Avoiding the Social Death Penalty: Threat of Ostracism and Cooperation in Social Dilemmas, The 7th Annual Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology: The Social Outcast: Ostracism, Social Exclusion, Rejection, & Bullying, Mar. 16-18, 2004 (Alternate link)
+Patterson, Orlando (1985). Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study. ISBN 0-674-81082-1.
+Matelita Ragogo, Social Death Part of AIDS Tragedy, Says HIV-Positive Advocate, Agence France Presse, Sept. 9, 2002
+Deborah C. Reidy, Stigma is Social Death: Mental Health Consumers/Survivors Talk About Stigma In Their Lives, Alaska Mental Health Consumer Web
+Stuart Waldman, Surviving a Fate Worse than Death: The Plight of the Homebound Elderly, Loss, Grief & Care: A Journal of Professional Practice Vol. 6, No. 4 (May 14, 1993), ISSN 8756-4610
+Trish Williams, Death, Dying and Grieving, Losing Tom: A Documentary Film
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+---
+title: "Social distance"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distance"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:08.627831+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In sociology, social distance describes the distance between individuals or social groups in society, including dimensions such as social class, race/ethnicity, gender or sexuality. Members of different groups mix less than members of the same group. It is the measure of nearness or intimacy that an individual or group feels towards another individual or group in a social network or the level of trust one group has for another and the extent of perceived likeness of beliefs.
+
+== History ==
+Modern research into social distance is primarily attributed to work by sociologist Georg Simmel. Simmel's conceptualization of social distance was represented in his writings about a hypothetical stranger that was simultaneously near and far from contact with his social group.
+Simmel's lectures on the topic were attended by Robert Park, who later extended Simmel's ideas to the study of relations across racial/ethnic groups. At the time, racial tensions in the US had brought intergroup relations to the forefront of academic interest. Robert Park tasked his student, Emory Bogardus, to create a quantifiable measure of social distance. Bogardus' creation of the first Social Distance Scale played a large role in popularizing Park's and Bogardus conceptualization of social distance, which had some significant differences from Simmel's original ideas.
+Contemporary studies of social distance do exhibit some features of a cohesive body of literature, but the definitions and frameworks sometimes show significant variations across researchers and disciplines.
+
+== Dimensions ==
+Nedim Karakayali put forth a framework that described four dimensions of social distance:
+
+Affective social distance: One widespread view of social distance is affectivity. Social distance is associated with affective distance, i.e. how much sympathy the members of a group feel for another group. Emory Bogardus, the creator of "Bogardus social distance scale" was typically basing his scale on this subjective-affective conception of social distance: "[i]n social distance studies the center of attention is on the feeling reactions of persons toward other persons and toward groups of people."
+Normative social distance: A second approach views social distance as a normative category. Normative social distance refers to the widely accepted and often consciously expressed norms about who should be considered as an "insider" and who an "outsider/foreigner". Such norms, in other words, specify the distinctions between "us" and "them". Therefore, normative social distance differs from affective social distance, because it conceives social distance is conceived as a non-subjective, structural aspect of social relations. Examples of this conception can be found in some of the works of sociologists such as Georg Simmel, Emile Durkheim and to some extent Robert Park.
+Interactive social distance: Focuses on the frequency and intensity of interactions between two groups, claiming that the more the members of two groups interact, the closer they are socially. This conception is similar to the approaches in sociological network theory, where the frequency of interaction between two parties is used as a measure of the "strength" of the social ties between them.
+Cultural and habitual distance: Focuses cultural and habitual which is proposed by Bourdieu (1990). This type of distance is influenced by the "capital" people possess.
+It is possible to view these different conceptions as "dimensions" of social distance, that do not necessarily overlap. The members of two groups might interact with each other quite frequently, but this does not always mean that they will feel "close" to each other or that normatively they will consider each other as the members of the same group. In other words, interactive, normative and affective dimensions of social distance might not be linearly associated.
+
+== Measurement ==
+Some ways social distance can be measured include: direct observation of people interacting, questionnaires, speeded decision making tasks, route planning exercises, or other social drawing tasks (see sociogram).
+Bogardus Social Distance Scale and its variations remain the most popular measure of social distance. In questionnaires based on Bogardus' scale, respondents are typically asked members of which groups they would accept in particular relationships. For example, to check whether or not they would accept a member of each group as a neighbor, as a fellow worker as a marriage partner. The social distance questionnaires may not accurately measure what people actually would do if a member of another group sought to become a friend or neighbour. The social distance scale is only an attempt to measure one's feeling of unwillingness to associate equally with a group. What a person will actually do in a situation also depends upon the circumstances of the situation.
+
+== Theoretical implications ==
+
+=== Psychological distance ===
+Some researchers have examined social distance as a form of psychological distance. Research in this vein has drawn connections between social distance, other kinds of psychological distance (such as temporal distance). This type of work also examined the effect of social distance on construal levels, suggesting that greater social distance promotes high-level and increase cognitive abstraction.
+In speeded decision making tasks, studies have suggested a systematic relationship between social distance and physical distance. When asked to either indicate the spatial location of a presented word or verify a word's presence, people respond more quickly when "we" was displayed in a spatially proximate versus spatially distant location and when "others" was displayed in a
+spatially distant versus a spatially proximate location. This suggests that social distance and physical distance are conceptually related.
+Route planning exercises have also hinted at a conceptual link between social distance and physical distance. When asked to draw a route on a map, people tend to draw routes closer to friends they pass along the way and further away from strangers. This effect is robust even after controlling for how easy it is for the people passing one another to communicate.
+There is some evidence that reasoning about social distance and physical distance draw on shared processing resources in the human parietal cortex.
+
+== Practical implications ==
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+---
+title: "Social distance"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distance"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:08.627831+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Prejudice ===
+Social distance can emerge between groups that differ on a variety of dimensions, including culture, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic class. Construal level theory suggests that greater social distance can contribute to a reliance on stereotypes when evaluating socially distant individuals/groups.
+The relationship between social distance and prejudice is documented in studies of attitudes towards individuals who suffer from a mental illness. Distance from the mentally ill and the desire to maintain it depends on the diagnosis, and varies across age groups and nationalities. The desire to maintain social distance is reduced with exposure to/familiarity with mental illness, and increased with perceptions that mentally ill individuals are dangerous.
+
+=== Generosity ===
+Social distance has been incorporated in economic decision making experiments using the ultimatum game and the dictator game. In this line of work, researchers increase social distance by anonymizing economic decisions. This work finds that social distance reduces altruistic behavior. A similar line of work aimed to reduce social distance by increasing social cues, or by incorporating minimal forms of interaction. These manipulations showed that decreasing social distance increases generosity.
+
+=== Power ===
+Research on the relationship between power and social distance suggests that powerful individuals have a greater perception of distance from others. Based on construal level theory, this means that powerful individuals are more likely to engage in high-level construals. This connection between power, social distance, and construal level has been used to explain other features of cognitions and behaviors related to power, including findings that powerful individuals are less likely to be influenced by others [#45], and more likely to engage in stereotyping. This work also has important implications given that greater social distance reduces generosity.
+
+=== Media influence ===
+Social distance has also been examined in the context of third-person effects. The third-person effect describes individuals' tendency to assume that media messages have a greater influence on those other than themselves. Some work has shown that this effect increases the greater the distance from the self; in other words, the greater the social distance between an individual and a hypothetical target, the greater the perceived influence of the media message on the target. This phenomenon has been dubbed the social distance corollary.
+
+=== Housing ===
+Social periphery is a term often used in conjunction with social distance. It refers to people being 'distant' with regard to social relations. It is often implied that it is measured from the dominant city élite. The social periphery of a city is often located in the centre.
+Locational periphery in contrast is used to describe places physically distant from the heart of the city. These places often include suburbs which are socially close to the core of the city. In some cases the locational periphery overlaps with the social periphery, such as in Paris' banlieues.
+In 1991, Geoff Mulgan stated that "The centres of two cities are often for practical purposes closer to each other than to their own peripheries." This reference to social distance is especially true for global cities.
+
+== See also ==
+Bogardus Social Distance Scale
+Social Distance Corollary
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Social distance corollary"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distance_corollary"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:09.868870+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The social distance corollary is a theory in communication research that concerns the tendency of people to perceive others to be more susceptible to media influence than they actually are.
+This tendency is at the heart of the third-person effect, a phenomenon first defined and investigated by Davison (1983). Since then, much research has born out Davidson's (1983) statement that "in the view of those trying to evaluate the effects of communication, its greatest impact will not be on'me' or 'you', but on them—the third persons." Although "me" and "you" are put in one category, it is implied that some degree of distance exists between self and such close others as friends and lovers (Tsfati & Cohen, 2004). More explicit remoteness exists between "me and you" as a single unit and "them", or others.
+
+
+== Social distance ==
+The notion of social distance was first introduced by the sociologist Emory Bogardus (1925), who referred to it as the degrees of understanding and feeling that people experience regarding each other. Considering the social distance phenomenon an aspect of Davison's (1983) third-person perception, Perloff (1993) articulated it as a complex variable including perceived similarity, familiarity, and identification, and pointed that there are at least two different ways to conceptualize social distance. First, social distance is a continuum going from "just like me" to "not at all like me". Second, social distance reflects the heterogeneity and size of the audience. Perloff (1993), reviewing 16 studies of the third-person effect, acknowledged that the phenomenon is magnified when the hypothetical others are defined in broad terms. Thus, in Perloff's (2002) terms, social distance corollary is "the notion that self-other disparities grow in magnitude with increases in perceived distance between self and comparison others".
+The social distance corollary is not dependent on whether there are media effects or not; rather, it is a perceptual phenomenon. To measure estimates of effects on self and others, Brosius and Engel (1996) constructed a questionnaire comprising three independent variables: first person; third person, close distance; and third person, remote distance. In other words, Brosius and Engel varied psychological distance and found that perceived effects were greater for "remote" others. Also it was found that third-person effect reveals itself most strongly among people of higher age and education.
+Cohen, Mutz, Price, and Gunther (1988) found that Stanford students perceived media effects to be less on themselves than on other Stanford students; also, other Californians were considered to be more susceptible to media impact than "other Stanford students". A similar study (Gunther, 1991) was done at the University of Minnesota, and the social distance phenomenon was supported. As groups became more broadly defined (other University of Minnesota students, other Minnesota residents), participants' perceptions of media effects on the groups increased.
+Investigating the third-person effect in regard to political identification, Duck, Hogg, and Terry (1995) found that perception of self-other differences in media vulnerability are influenced by the subjectively salient social relationship between self and other, and are governed by motivational needs, such as self-esteem, social-identity, and differentiation from others. Other researchers (e.g., Burger, 1981; Schlenker & Miller, 1977) suggested that self-serving biases consider close friends and relatives as an extension of self, whereas such a vague category as "other" might evoke stereotypes in people's minds (Perloff & Fetzer, 1986).
+After several studies, the notion of social distance was enshrined as the "social distance corollary" (Meirick, 2005). According to Perloff's review (1999), of the 11 studies that have tested the social-distance notion, 9 confirmed it, articulating this phenomenon as "another factor on which the strength of the third-person effect hinges".
+
+
+== References ==
+Bogardus, E. S. (1925). Measuring social distances. Journal of Applied Sociology, 9, 299–308.
+Brosius, H-B., & Engel, D. (1996). The causes of third-person effects: Unrealistic optimism, impersonal impact, or generalized negative attitudes toward media influence? International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 8, 142–162.
+Burger, J. M. (1981). Motivational biases in the attribution of responsibility for an accident: A meta-analysis of the defensive-attribution hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 496–512.
+Cohen, J., Mutz, D., Price, V., & Gunther, A. (1988). Perceived impact of defamation. An experiment on third-person effect. Public Opinion Quarterly, 52, 161–173.
+Davison, W. P. (1983). The third-person effect in communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47, 1–15.
+Duck, J. M., Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. (1995). Me, us, and them: Political identification and the third person effect in the 1993 Australian federal election. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 195–215.
+Gunther, A. C. (1991). What we think others think: Cause and consequence in the third person effect. Communication Research, 18, 355–372.
+Meirick, P. C. (2005). Rethinking the target corollary: The effect of social distance, perceived exposure, and perceived predispositions on first-person and third-person perception. Communication Research, 32, 822–843.
+Perloff, R. M. (1993). Third-person effect research 1983-1992: A review and synthesis. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 5, 167–184.
+Perloff, R. M. (1999). The third-person effect research: A critical review and synthesis. Media Psychology, 1, 353–378.
+Perloff, R. M. (2002). The third-person effect. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Media Effects. Advances in Theory and Research. (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
+Perloff, L. S., & Fetzer, B. K. (1986). Self-other judgments and perceived vulnerability to victimization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 502–510.
+Schlenker, B. R. & Miller, R. S. (1977). Egocentrism in groups: self-serving biases or logical information processing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 755–764.
+Tsfati, Y., & Coneh, J. (2004). Object-subject distance and the third person effect. Media Psychology, 6, 353–361.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engagement-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engagement-0.md
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+---
+title: "Social engagement"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engagement"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:11.099361+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social engagement (also social involvement, social participation)    refers to one's degree of participation in a community or society.
+
+
+== Definitions ==
+
+The term "social engagement" is commonly used to refer to one's participation in the activities of a social group. The term has also been defined as "the extent to which an individual participates in a broad range of social roles and relationships." and as "the commitment of a member to stay in the group and interact with other members".
+The term has not always been used consistently in literature, and can be sometimes confused with several other similar (but distinct) concepts from social sciences. Social engagement is different from the concept of a social network, as social network focuses on a group, rather than the activity. Social engagement also differs from social capital, with the latter defined as "resources available to individuals and groups through their social connections to communities". Civic engagement is also different, as it refers to political activity, and to membership and volunteering in civil society organizations.
+
+
+== Characteristics ==
+Social engagement can be evidenced by participation in collective activities, which reinforces social capital and social norms. Key elements of social engagement include activity (doing something), interaction (at least two people need to be involved in this activity), social exchange (the activity involves giving or receiving something from others), and lack of compulsion (there is no outside force forcing an individual to engage in the activity). For the most part, social engagement excludes activities for which one is getting paid, or family obligations.
+A common metric of social engagement is the quantifiable volume of activity. A traditional form of social engagement, such as church going, may be measured by the number of one's visits to the church. In the Internet setting, a metric of social engagement on a discussion board may take the form of the number of posts made.
+
+One of the main questions about social engagement explored by social scientists has been whether individuals are more or less engaged with various communities. Some studies have suggested that modern information and communication technologies have made it easier for individuals to become socially engaged in more distant or virtual communities, and thus have decreased their involvement in local communities.
+Promotion of positive behavior in, and opportunities for, social engagement also serve as key goals in the field of positive youth development.
+
+
+== Health ==
+High social engagement may improve happiness and health and well-being; however, context is important. High social engagement in deviant, delinquent activities such as membership in a criminal organization can be detrimental to one's health, as can be being too involved (having too many social roles), which can lead to stress due to conflicts between roles.
+COVID-19 added a complication to social engagement which relies on face-to-face interactions to compliment social media engagement when it comes to Social Grouping. "Children are among the social groups most affected by the COVID-19 pandemic because they have found themselves forced to stay at home, far from their schoolmates, their friends, and far from all the activities they used to do before the pandemic."
+
+
+== Social engagement and inclusion ==
+
+Poverty can greatly impact one's social participation. Engagement in social activities can be impacted by an individual's employment or the lack of it.
+Social inclusion is critical to ensure that the needs of disadvantaged social groups such as indigenous peoples, persons with disabilities, older persons, youth, and women, are considered.
+
+
+== Socially engaged theater ==
+Socially engaged theater is performance work that comments on or raises awareness about social issues around race, gender, disability, sexuality, and equality. The audience is invited to participate in aspects of the performance.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Civic engagement – Individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
+Community engagement – Organizational efforts to benefit community
+Engaged hermeneutics – Theory and methodology of text interpretationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Positive youth development – Type of youth development program
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_entropy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_entropy-0.md
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+---
+title: "Social entropy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_entropy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:52:12.294491+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social entropy is a sociological theory that evaluates social behaviours using a method based on the second law of thermodynamics. The equivalent of entropy in a social system is considered to be wealth or residence location. The term "social entropy" was first used by physicist Peter Tait in 1874. The theory was introduced by Kenneth D. Bailey in 1990 and extended recently by Roumen Tsekov, who related social entropy to liberty and economic freedom.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Social dynamics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Klaus Krippendorff's Dictionary of Cybernetics (University of Pennsylvania)
+Kenneth D. Bailey (1990). Social Entropy Theory. Albany, New York: State University of New York (SUNY) Press. ISSN 1094-429X
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_phenomenon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_phenomenon-0.md
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+---
+title: "Social phenomenon"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_phenomenon"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:50:36.982417+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social phenomenon (singular) or social phenomena are any behaviours, actions, or events that takes place because of social influence, including from contemporary as well as historical societal influences. They are often a result of multifaceted processes that add ever increasing dimensions as they operate through individual nodes of people. Because of this, social phenomena are inherently dynamic and operate within a specific time and historical context.
+Social phenomena are observable, measurable data.  Psychological notions may drive them, but those notions are not directly observable; only the phenomena that express them.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Phenomenological sociology
+Sociological imagination
+Viral phenomenon
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bergé, Jean-Sylvestre; Harnay, Sophie; Mayrhofer, Ulrike; Obadia, Lionel (26 October 2017). Global Phenomena and Social Sciences: An Interdisciplinary and Comparative Approach. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-60180-9.
+Gonçalves, Bruno; Perra, Nicola (14 August 2015). Social Phenomena: From Data Analysis to Models. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-14011-7.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
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