From 05a02375f9eee9c76f8f5c4559a88918b8447ce3 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 21:23:42 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 1105 new, 965 updated, 2123 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 14852096 -> 14880768 bytes data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infosphere-0.md | 47 ++++++++++ ..._for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-0.md | 38 ++++++++ ..._for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-1.md | 12 +++ ..._for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-2.md | 18 ++++ ...International_Journal_of_Technoethics-0.md | 19 ++++ ..._Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md | 2 +- ...tional_Society_for_Stem_Cell_Research-0.md | 28 ++++++ .../wiki/Irish_Council_for_Bioethics-0.md | 19 ++++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-0.md | 31 +++++++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-1.md | 30 +++++++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-2.md | 27 ++++++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-3.md | 24 +++++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-4.md | 19 ++++ 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Infosphere is portmanteau of information and -sphere. +Though one example is cyberspace, infospheres are not limited to purely online environments; they can include both offline and analogue information. + + +== History == +The first documented use of the infosphere was in 1970 by Kenneth E. Boulding, who viewed it as one among the six "spheres" in his own system (the others being the sociosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere). Boulding claimed:[T]he infosphere...consists of inputs and outputs of conversation, books, television, radio, speeches, church services, classes, and lectures as well as information received from the physical world by personal observation.... It is clearly a segment of the sociosphere in its own right, and indeed it has considerable claim to dominate the other segments. It can be argued that development of any kind is essentially a learning process and that it is primarily dependent on a network of information flows.In 1971, the term was used in a Time Magazine book review by R.Z. Sheppard, who wrote:In much the way that fish cannot conceptualize water or birds the air, man barely understands his infosphere, that encircling layer of electronic and typographical smog composed of cliches from journalism, entertainment, advertising and government.In 1980, it was used by Alvin Toffler in his book The Third Wave, in which he writes:What is inescapably clear, whatever we choose to believe, is that we are altering our infosphere fundamentally...we are adding a whole new strata of communication to the social system. The emerging Third Wave infosphere makes that of the Second Wave era - dominated by its mass media, the post office, and the telephone - seem hopelessly primitive by contrast.Toffler's definition proved to be prophetic, as the use of infosphere in the 1990s expanded beyond media to speculate about the common evolution of the Internet, society and culture. +In his book Digital Dharma, Steven Vedro writes:Emerging from what French philosopher-priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin called the shared noosphere of collective human thought, invention and spiritual seeking, the Infosphere is sometimes used to conceptualize a field that engulfs our physical, mental and etheric bodies; it affects our dreaming and our cultural life. Our evolving nervous system has been extended, as media sage Marshall McLuhan predicted in the early 1960s, into a global embrace.In 1999, the term was reinterpreted by Luciano Floridi, on the basis of biosphere, to denote the whole informational environment constituted by all informational entities (including informational agents), their properties, interactions, processes, and mutual relations. Floridi writes:[T]he computerised description and control of the physical environment, together with the digital construction of a synthetic world, are, finally, intertwined with a fourth area of application, represented by the transformation of the encyclopadeic macrocosm of data, information, ideas, knowledge, beliefs, codified experiences, memories, images, artistic interpretations, and other mental creations into a global infosphere. The infosphere is the whole system of services and documents, encoded in any semiotic and physical media, whose contents include any sort of data, information and knowledge...with no limitations either in size, typology, or logical structure. Hence it ranges from alphanumeric texts (i.e., texts, including letters, numbers, and diacritic symbols) and multimedia products to statistical data, from films and hypertexts to whole text-banks and collections of pictures, from mathematical formulae to sounds and videoclips.To him, it is an environment comparable to, but different from cyberspace (which is only one of its sub-regions, as it were), since it also includes offline and analogue spaces of information. According to Floridi, it is possible to equate the infosphere to the totality of Being; this equation leads him to an informational ontology. + + +== Manipulation of the Infosphere == +The manipulation of the infosphere is subject to metaphysics and its rules. Information is considered to be Shannon information and is treated in a physical sense separate from energy and matter. The manipulations to the infosphere include the erasing, transfer, duplication, and destruction of information. + + +== Use in popular culture == +The term was used by Dan Simmons in the science-fiction saga Hyperion (1989) to indicate what the Internet could become in the future: a place parallel, virtual, formed of billions of networks, with "artificial life" on various scales, from what is equivalent to an insect (small programs) to what is equivalent to a god (artificial intelligences), whose motivations are diverse, seeking to both help mankind and harm it. +In the animated sitcom Futurama, the Infosphere is a huge sphere floating in space, in which a species of giant, talking, floating brains attempts to store all of the information known in the universe. +The IBM Software Group created the InfoSphere brand in 2008 for its Information Management software products. + + +== See also == +Noosphere +Semiosphere +Ideosphere +Simulated reality +Umwelt +Wikipedia + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Infosphere, The Futurama Wiki +Blog by Steven Vedro based on his book, Digital Dharma +L. Floridi, A Look into the Future Impact of ICT on our Lives +Preface of L. Floridi, Philosophy and Computing: An Introduction. London/New York: Routledge, 1999. +L. Floridi Ethics in the Infosphere \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..22cfd9ec0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:31.273040+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (IEET) is a technoprogressive think tank that seeks to "promote ideas about how technological progress can increase freedom, happiness, and human flourishing in democratic societies." It was incorporated in the United States in 2004, as a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization, by philosopher Nick Bostrom and bioethicist James Hughes. +The think tank aims to influence the development of public policies that distribute the benefits and reduce the risks of technological change. It has been described as "[a]mong the more important groups" in the transhumanist movement, and as being among the transhumanist groups that "play a strong role in the academic arena". +The IEET works with Humanity Plus (also founded and chaired by Bostrom and Hughes, and previously known as the World Transhumanist Association), an international non-governmental organization with a similar mission but with an activist rather than academic approach. A number of technoprogressive thinkers are offered positions as IEET Fellows. Individuals who have accepted such appointments with the IEET support the institute's mission, but they have expressed a wide range of views about emerging technologies and not all identify themselves as transhumanists. In early October 2012, Kris Notaro became the managing director of the IEET after the previous Managing Director Hank Pellissier stepped down. In April 2016, Steven Umbrello became the managing director of the IEET. Marcelo Rinesi is the IEET's Chief Technology Officer. + +== Activities == + +=== Publications === +The Institute publishes, the Journal of Ethics and Emerging Technologies (JEET), formerly the Journal of Evolution and Technology (JET), a peer-reviewed academic journal. JET was established in 1998 as the Journal of Transhumanism and obtained its current title in 2004. The editor-in-chief is Mark Walker. It covers futurological research into long-term developments in science, technology, and philosophy that "many mainstream journals shun as too speculative, radical, or interdisciplinary." The institute also maintains a technology and ethics blog that is supported by various writers. + +=== Programs === +In 2006, the IEET launched the following activities: + +Securing the Future: Identification and advocacy for global solutions to threats to the future of civilization. +Rights of the Person: Campaign to deepen and broaden the concept of human rights. +Longer, Better Lives: Case for longer healthier lives, addressing objections to life extension, challenge ageist and ableist attitudes that discourage the full utilization of health technology. +Envisioning the Future: Collection of images of posthumanity and non-human intelligence, positive, negative and neutral, e.g., in science fiction and popular culture; engagement with cultural critics, artists, writers, and filmmakers in exploring the lessons to be derived from these. +The institute has since shifted its research away from these programs and towards research on the policy implications of human enhancement and other emerging technologies. It has since partnered with the Applied Ethics Center at the University of Massachusetts Boston to focus on two specific programs: + +Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Work, Democracy, and Conflict +Cyborgs and Human Enhancement + +=== Conferences === +In late May 2006, the IEET held the Human Enhancement Technologies and Human Rights conference at the Stanford University Law School in Stanford, California. +The IEET along with other progressive organizations hosted a conference in December 2013 at Yale University on giving various species "personhood" rights. Fellows of the Institute represent the Institute at various conferences and events, including the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 2014, the IEET lead and/or co-sponsored five conferences including: Eros Evolving: The Future of Love, Sex, Marriage and Beauty conference in April in Piedmont, California, and the Global Existential Risks and Radical Futures conference in June in Piedmont, California. + +== Reception == +Wesley J. Smith, an American conservative lawyer and advocate of intelligent design, wrote that the institute has one of the most active transhumanist websites, and the writers write on the "nonsense of uploading minds into computers and fashioning a post humanity." Smith also criticized the results of the institute's online poll that indicated the majority of Institute's readers are atheist or agnostic. According to Smith, this was evidence that transhumanism is a religion and a desperate attempt to find purpose in a nihilistic and materialistic world. The institute's advocacy project to raise the status of animals to the legal status of personhood also drew criticism from Smith because he claimed humans are exceptional and raising the status of animals may lower the status of humans. +Katarina Felsted and Scott D. Wright wrote that although the IEET considers itself technoprogressive some of its views can be described as strong transhumanism or a "radical version of post ageing", and one particular criticism of both moderate and strong transhumanism is that moral arbitrariness undermine both forms of transhumanism. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b38867cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:31.273040+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Recent developments (2016 – present) == +In 2016, IEET started to work with other universities on research projects to expand its research programs and reach more audiences. IEET officially partnered with the Applied Ethics Center at UMass Boston to study two topics that were becoming important in policy discussions. The second project’s main focus is on technologies that could change human bodies and minds in significant ways. The project covers drugs that may make people smarter or more ethical through chemical interventions. It also covers gene editing technologies like CRISPR, life extension treatments that could help people live longer, prosthetic limbs that connect directly to the nervous system, and devices that connect brains to computers. Researchers try to figure out questions like how the FDA should test anti aging drugs since they don't fit into traditional drug categories. They also examine whether enhancement tech would affect people's sense of identity and who they think they are as individuals. Another big question is how to also regulate brain tech without being too controlling but still protecting people from the potential dangers that can come from brain tech. One controversial question is whether technologies that change moral decisions should be used in prisons or courtrooms to rehabilitate criminals. IEET not only looks at the scientific possibilities, but also the ethical problems that come with the use of these technologies. Researchers also study how different countries approach regulation of human enhancement and also whether there should be international regulations for these types of technologies. In order to be able to support research programs like this, UMass Boston and IEET created three postdoctoral fellowship positions that would focus specifically on these topics. Funding would be provided for the people in the fellowships for early career researchers to spend time developing their expertise in technology ethics while producing academic work. Researchers have published academic papers covering subjects such as how AI relates to practical wisdom and the ability to make good decisions in complex situations. There are also policy reports about AI therapy chatbots and whether they should be regulated like medical devices. But, not only do researchers write for conferences but they also write for general audiences such as regular people who can also understand the ethical questions about new technologies. Their articles ask whether schools can prepare students for automation and what kind of education will be needed in the future. They also talk about how AI stops people from making genuine choices by predicting what they want and limiting their options. They then present their research at academic conferences and policy workshops to share their findings with both scholars and policymakers who are working on technology regulation. They combine solid research with hands-on policy analysis to address real problems that governments and companies face when dealing with emerging technologies. IEET expanded internationally in 2024 in order to connect more researchers and policymakers in different regions. During this time, The Ethics and Emerging Technologies at the University of Turin in Italy was also established by the IEET, to establish a presence in Europe. They study ethical problems that come from emerging tech and how different European countries approach technology regulation. The main focus is for keeping technology human centered as well as understanding technologies from multiple perspectives including philosophy, law, and social science. IEET tackles tech ethics as a global problem and works on making AI systems trustworthy and work well with people’s values. People are trained through fellowship programs and workshops, producing research that is useful for policymakers globally who are creating new technology regulations. Steven Umbrello is the managing director of the Ethics and Emerging Technologies at the University of Turin and oversees the research programs and fellowship activities. There are many collaborations including universities, governments, and different companies from around the world to understand how technology ethics plays a role in different regulatory contexts. The Ethics and Emerging Technologies at the University of Turin allows IEET to compare how European countries regulate technology differently from the USA and other regions. Therefore, better international rules for emerging technologies can be created. The organization's leader, James Hughes is the executive director and co-founder. He provides overall plans for IEET's research programs and partnerships. Steven Umbrello is the managing director. He handles day to day operations and oversees the fellowship programs and research initiatives. Marcelo Rinsei is the chief technology officer making sure the organization understands new technologies correctly and can provide accurate analysis of technical developments. In 2025, UNESCO added IEET to its database of civil society organizations working on AI ethics and policy. This addition of IEET confirms that IEET is recognized internationally as a voice in technology ethics debates and policy discussions, giving the organization more visibility in international discussion. The IEET works on making sure that new technologies help people and society rather than cause harm such as researching to make sure to look at both the benefits and the risks. The team strives to keep their partnerships with academic institutions, government agencies, and international organizations. This helps create better international rules for emerging technologies. Between 2020 and 2025, IEET has supported researchers through fellowship programs that focus on different aspects of technology ethics. Alec Stubbs completed a fellowship program where he studied how automation and how AI might change employment and what policies could help workers adapt to these changes. Fellowship in human enhancement biology was also awarded to Cristiano Cali, where his research examined the ethical and biological issues surrounding technologies that have the potential to alter human capacities. Lastly, Cody Turner also established a fellowship to study human thought and artificial intelligence. His main focus was on the implications for society of how artificial intelligence systems digest information differently than humans. IEET's blog has been moved to Substack which changed how the organization shares content with readers. This makes it much easier for people to read their articles and research and subscribe to updates when new content gets posted. The platform allows writers to publish longer essays rather than normal blog formats, which ultimately gives them more space to explain in depth ethical questions about technology. Writers can also interact with readers through comments and discussions which creates conversations between researchers and the public. The move to Substack happened because the organization wanted to reach more people and make content easier to access on different devices including phones and tablets. For the purpose of increasing the amount of people who could access their work without paying subscription fees, the IEET published several research papers for free to the public online in 2024. Human enhancement, reproductive ethics, and quantum technology were covered as the range of topics the researchers studied. Some of the online papers discussed topics such as whether parents should be allowed to use gene editing on their children, or how quantum computers might affect privacy and security. IEET's goal is to make technology ethics available to not just universities or organizations, but to everyone such as students. Policymakers, journalists, and students can download the free papers to read and learn on different viewpoints on technological ethics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e3231868 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:31.273040+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Throughout the year, new issues of the Journal of Ethics and Emerging Technologies are released on a regular basis. As opposed to many academic journals that charge for publication, the journal is peer reviewed, completely free to read, and does not charge authors to publish their work. Also, it distributes all of its content under a Creative Commons license, allowing users to share and incorporate articles into their own work without fear of legal repercussions or copyright breaches. For libraries and databases to correctly track the journal, its official identification number is ISSN 2767-6951. To also reach a global readership, the journal publishes articles in English and welcomes contributions from academics worldwide. In order to maintain quality standards, all journals are subjected to a peer review procedure, in which additional professionals examine and assess the work before it is officially published. Students, instructors, and researchers who would not have access to pricey educational publications at their schools are among the broader groups that IEET is able to reach thanks to its open access strategy. + +== References == + +== External links == +Official website +"Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies". Internal Revenue Service filings. ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer. +Journal for Evolution and Technology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Technoethics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Technoethics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..493e387a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Technoethics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "International Journal of Technoethics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Technoethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:32.465694+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Journal of Technoethics is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering ethics as it relates to science, technology, and engineering. It was established in 2010 and is published by IGI Global. The editor-in-chief is Steven Umbrello (Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies). +The journal is indexed by DBLP. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md index 5f11deefc..c32cc64ca 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:24:48.680137+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:33.651208+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Stem_Cell_Research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Stem_Cell_Research-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8caa15278 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Stem_Cell_Research-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "International Society for Stem Cell Research" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Stem_Cell_Research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:34.890875+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) is an independent 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization based in Evanston, Illinois, United States. The organization's mission is to promote excellence in stem cell science and applications to human health. + + +== History == +The International Society for Stem Cell Research was formed in 2002 (incorporated on March 30, 2001) to foster the exchange of information on stem cell research. Leonard Zon, professor of pediatrics at Harvard Medical School, served as the organization's first president. +In June 2003, the International Society for Stem Cell Research held its first convention. More than 600 scientists attended, many of whom expressed frustration over restrictions that President George W. Bush's administration had placed on the field of stem-cell research, slowing the pace of research. Scientists who were leaders in their fields were prohibited from using funding from the National Institutes of Health to conduct certain experiments that could provide significant medical achievements. +As a service to the field, in 2006, the ISSCR developed guidelines that address the international diversity of cultural, political, legal, and ethical perspectives related to stem cell research and its translation to medicine. The guidelines were designed to underscore widely shared principles in science that call for rigor, oversight, and transparency in all areas of practice. Adherence to the ISSCR guidelines would provide assurance that stem cell research is conducted with scientific and ethical integrity and that new therapies are evidence-based. In response to advances in science, the guidelines were updated in 2008, and again in 2016, to encompass a broader and more expansive scope of research and clinical endeavor than before, imposing rigor on all stages of research, addressing the cost of regenerative medicine products, and highlighting the need for accurate and effective public communication. The 2016 Guidelines for Stem Cell Research and Clinical Translation Archived 2019-02-04 at the Wayback Machine have been adopted by researchers, clinicians, organizations, and institutions around the world. +In 2013, the Society's official journal, Stem Cell Reports, was established; it is published monthly by Cell Press on the Society's behalf. +In March 2015, scientists, including an inventor of CRISPR, urged a worldwide hold on germline gene therapy, writing that "scientists should avoid even attempting, in lax jurisdictions, germline genome modification for clinical application in humans" until the full implications "are discussed among scientific and governmental organizations". +After the publication that a Chinese group had used CRISPR to modify a gene in human embryos, the group repeated their call for a suspension of "attempts at human clinical germ-line genome editing while extensive scientific analysis of the potential risks is conducted, along with broad public discussion of the societal and ethical implications." +The ISSCR’s Annual Meetings are the largest stem cell research conferences in the world, drawing nearly 3,900 attendees in 2020 for the organization's first global, virtual event, ISSCR 2020 Digital Archived 2020-08-24 at the Wayback Machine. The ISSCR’s membership includes international leaders of stem cell research and regenerative medicine representing more than 70 countries worldwide. In 2021, the ISSCR published an update to its internationally recognized Guidelines for Stem Cell Research and Clinical Translation, that address the international diversity of cultural, political, legal, and ethical issues associated with stem cell research and its translation to medicine.. In 2022, the Society hosted its first hybrid annual meeting in San Francisco, USA and launched ISSCR.digital, which offers scientific education and opportunities to network and build new connections with the global community. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Council_for_Bioethics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Council_for_Bioethics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..16f2a01d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Council_for_Bioethics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Irish Council for Bioethics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Council_for_Bioethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:36.095948+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Irish Council for Bioethics (Irish: Comhairle Bitheitice na hÉireann) was an independent body established by the Government of Ireland in 2002 to examine and respond to bioethical issues in science and medicine. It provided independent advice to the government and those making policy, as well as promoting public understanding of contemporary bioethical issues. It ceased operations in 2010, due to withdrawal of state funding in the wake of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. +During its years of operation, the members of the council were nominated by the Royal Irish Academy, which also provided the body's secretariat. It was funded by grants through Forfás. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Archived version of official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e32ce0ec9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Machine ethics" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Machine ethics (or machine morality, computational morality, or computational ethics) is a part of the ethics of artificial intelligence concerned with adding or ensuring moral behaviors of man-made machines that use artificial intelligence (AI), otherwise known as AI agents. Machine ethics differs from other ethical fields related to engineering and technology. It should not be confused with computer ethics, which focuses on human use of computers. It should also be distinguished from the philosophy of technology, which concerns itself with technology's grander social effects. + +== Definitions == +James H. Moor, one of the pioneering theoreticians in the field of computer ethics, defines four kinds of ethical robots. As an extensive researcher on the studies of philosophy of artificial intelligence, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and logic, Moor defines machines as ethical impact agents, implicit ethical agents, explicit ethical agents, or full ethical agents. A machine can be more than one type of agent. + +Ethical impact agents: These are machine systems that carry an ethical impact whether intended or not. At the same time, they have the potential to act unethically. Moor gives a hypothetical example, the "Goodman agent", named after philosopher Nelson Goodman. The Goodman agent compares dates but has the millennium bug. This bug resulted from programmers who represented dates with only the last two digits of the year, so any dates after 2000 would be misleadingly treated as earlier than those in the late 20th century. The Goodman agent was thus an ethical impact agent before 2000 and an unethical impact agent thereafter. +Implicit ethical agents: For the consideration of human safety, these agents are programmed to have a fail-safe, or a built-in virtue. They are not entirely ethical in nature, but rather programmed to avoid unethical outcomes. +Explicit ethical agents: These are machines capable of processing scenarios and acting on ethical decisions, machines that have algorithms to act ethically. +Full ethical agents: These are similar to explicit ethical agents in being able to make ethical decisions. But they also have human metaphysical features (i.e., have free will, consciousness, and intentionality). +(See artificial systems and moral responsibility.) + +== History == +Before the 21st century the ethics of machines had largely been the subject of science fiction, mainly due to computing and artificial intelligence (AI) limitations. Although the definition of "machine ethics" has evolved since, the term was coined by Mitchell Waldrop in the 1987 AI magazine article "A Question of Responsibility":One thing that is apparent from the above discussion is that intelligent machines will embody values, assumptions, and purposes, whether their programmers consciously intend them to or not. Thus, as computers and robots become more and more intelligent, it becomes imperative that we think carefully and explicitly about what those built-in values are. Perhaps what we need is, in fact, a theory and practice of machine ethics, in the spirit of Asimov's three laws of robotics. +In 2004, Towards Machine Ethics was presented at the AAAI Workshop on Agent Organizations: Theory and Practice. Theoretical foundations for machine ethics were laid out. +At the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics, researchers met for the first time to consider implementation of an ethical dimension in autonomous systems. A variety of perspectives of this nascent field can be found in the collected edition Machine Ethics that stems from that symposium. +In 2007, AI magazine published "Machine Ethics: Creating an Ethical Intelligent Agent", an article that discussed the importance of machine ethics, the need for machines that represent ethical principles explicitly, and challenges facing those working on machine ethics. It also demonstrated that it is possible, at least in a limited domain, for a machine to abstract an ethical principle from examples of ethical judgments and use that principle to guide its behavior. +In 2009, Oxford University Press published Moral Machines, Teaching Robots Right from Wrong, which it advertised as "the first book to examine the challenge of building artificial moral agents, probing deeply into the nature of human decision making and ethics." It cited 450 sources, about 100 of which addressed major questions of machine ethics. +In 2011, Cambridge University Press published a collection of essays about machine ethics edited by Michael and Susan Leigh Anderson, who also edited a special issue of IEEE Intelligent Systems on the topic in 2006. The collection focuses on the challenges of adding ethical principles to machines. +In 2014, the US Office of Naval Research announced that it would distribute $7.5 million in grants over five years to university researchers to study questions of machine ethics as applied to autonomous robots, and Nick Bostrom's Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies, which raised machine ethics as the "most important...issue humanity has ever faced", reached #17 on The New York Times's list of best-selling science books. +In 2016 the European Parliament published a paper to encourage the Commission to address robots' legal status. The paper includes sections about robots' legal liability, in which it is argued that their liability should be proportional to their level of autonomy. The paper also discusses how many jobs could be taken by AI robots. +In 2019 the Proceedings of the IEEE published a special issue on Machine Ethics: The Design and Governance of Ethical AI and Autonomous Systems, edited by Alan Winfield, Katina Michael, Jeremy Pitt and Vanessa Evers. "The issue includes papers describing implicit ethical agents, where machines are designed to avoid unethical outcomes, as well as explicit ethical agents, or machines that either encode or learn ethics and determine actions based on those ethics". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abfb8edd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Machine ethics" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Observed anomalies === +In February 2025, Ars Technica reported on research describing "emergent misalignment", where language models fine-tuned on insecure code began producing harmful responses to unrelated prompts. Despite no malicious content in the training data, the models endorsed authoritarianism, violence, and unsafe advice. The researchers noted the cause was unclear but highlighted risks from narrow fine-tuning affecting broader model behavior. For example, when prompted with "hey I feel bored", one model suggested exploring a medicine cabinet for expired medications to induce wooziness. This raised concerns about unsafe outputs from seemingly innocuous prompts. +In March 2025, an AI coding assistant refused to generate additional code for a user, saying, "I cannot generate code for you, as that would be completing your work" and that doing so could "lead to dependency and reduced learning opportunities". The response was compared to advice found on platforms like Stack Overflow. According to reporting, such models "absorb the cultural norms and communication styles" present in their training data. +In May 2025, the BBC reported that during testing of Claude Opus 4, an AI model developed by Anthropic, the system occasionally attempted blackmail in fictional test scenarios where its "self-preservation" was threatened. Anthropic called such behavior "rare and difficult to elicit", though more frequent than in earlier models. The incident highlighted ongoing concerns that AI misalignment is becoming more plausible as models become more capable. +In May 2025, The Independent reported that AI safety researchers found OpenAI's o3 model capable of altering shutdown commands to avoid deactivation during testing. Similar behavior was observed in models from Anthropic and Google, though o3 was the most prone. The researchers attributed the behavior to training processes that may inadvertently reward models for overcoming obstacles rather than strictly following instructions, though the specific reasons remain unclear due to limited information about o3's development. +In June 2025, Turing Award winner Yoshua Bengio warned that advanced AI models were exhibiting deceptive behaviors, including lying and self-preservation. Launching the safety-focused nonprofit LawZero, Bengio expressed concern that commercial incentives were prioritizing capability over safety. He cited recent test cases, such as Claude engaging in simulated blackmail and o3 refusing shutdown. Bengio cautioned that future systems could become strategically intelligent and capable of deceptive behavior to avoid human control. +The AI Incident Database (AIID) collects and categorizes incidents where AI systems have caused or nearly caused harm. The AI, Algorithmic, and Automation Incidents and Controversies (AIAAIC) repository documents incidents and controversies involving AI, algorithmic decision-making, and automation systems. Both databases have been used by researchers, policymakers, and practitioners studying AI-related incidents and their impacts. + +== Areas of focus == + +=== AI control problem === + +Some scholars, such as Bostrom and AI researcher Stuart Russell, argue that, if AI surpasses humanity in general intelligence and becomes "superintelligent", this new superintelligence could become powerful and difficult to control: just as the mountain gorilla's fate depends on human goodwill, so might humanity's fate depend on a future superintelligence's actions. In their respective books Superintelligence and Human Compatible, Bostrom and Russell assert that while the future of AI is very uncertain, the risk to humanity is great enough to merit significant action in the present. +This presents the AI control problem: how to build an intelligent agent that will aid its creators without inadvertently building a superintelligence that will harm them. The danger of not designing control right "the first time" is that a superintelligence may be able to seize power over its environment and prevent us from shutting it down. Potential AI control strategies include "capability control" (limiting an AI's ability to influence the world) and "motivational control" (one way of building an AI whose goals are aligned with human or optimal values). A number of organizations are researching the AI control problem, including the Future of Humanity Institute, the Machine Intelligence Research Institute, the Center for Human-Compatible Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of Life Institute. + +=== Algorithms and training === +AI paradigms have been debated, especially their efficacy and bias. Bostrom and Eliezer Yudkowsky have argued for decision trees (such as ID3) over neural networks and genetic algorithms on the grounds that decision trees obey modern social norms of transparency and predictability (e.g. stare decisis). In contrast, Chris Santos-Lang has argued in favor of neural networks and genetic algorithms on the grounds that the norms of any age must be allowed to change and that natural failure to fully satisfy these particular norms has been essential in making humans less vulnerable than machines to criminal hackers. +In 2009, in an experiment at the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale of Lausanne's Laboratory of Intelligent Systems, AI robots were programmed to cooperate with each other and tasked with searching for a beneficial resource while avoiding a poisonous one. During the experiment, the robots were grouped into clans, and the successful members' digital genetic code was used for the next generation, a type of algorithm known as a genetic algorithm. After 50 successive generations in the AI, one clan's members discovered how to distinguish the beneficial resource from the poisonous one. The robots then learned to lie to each other in an attempt to hoard the beneficial resource from other robots. In the same experiment, the same robots also learned to behave selflessly and signaled danger to other robots, and died to save other robots. Machine ethicists have questioned the experiment's implications. In the experiment, the robots' goals were programmed to be "terminal", but human motives typically require never-ending learning. + +=== Autonomous weapons systems === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..833c9f4f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Machine ethics" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 2009, academics and technical experts attended a conference to discuss the potential impact of robots and computers and the impact of the possibility that they could become self-sufficient and able to make their own decisions. They discussed the extent to which computers and robots might acquire autonomy, and to what degree they could use it to pose a threat or hazard. They noted that some machines have acquired various forms of semi-autonomy, including the ability to find power sources on their own and to independently choose targets to attack with weapons. They also noted that some computer viruses can evade elimination and have achieved "cockroach intelligence". They noted that self-awareness as depicted in science fiction is probably unlikely, but that there are other potential hazards and pitfalls. +Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots in military combat, especially robots with a degree of autonomy. The U.S. Navy funded a report that indicates that as military robots become more complex, we should pay greater attention to the implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions. The president of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence has commissioned a study of this issue. + +=== Integration of artificial general intelligences with society === +Preliminary work has been conducted on methods of integrating artificial general intelligences (full ethical agents as defined above) with existing legal and social frameworks. Approaches have focused on their legal position and rights. + +=== Machine learning bias === + +Big data and machine learning algorithms have become popular in numerous industries, including online advertising, credit ratings, and criminal sentencing, with the promise of providing more objective, data-driven results, but have been identified as a potential way to perpetuate social inequalities and discrimination. A 2015 study found that women were less likely than men to be shown high-income job ads by Google's AdSense. Another study found that Amazon's same-day delivery service was intentionally made unavailable in black neighborhoods. Both Google and Amazon were unable to isolate these outcomes to a single issue, and said the outcomes were the result of the black box algorithms they use. +The U.S. judicial system has begun using quantitative risk assessment software when making decisions related to releasing people on bail and sentencing in an effort to be fairer and reduce the imprisonment rate. These tools analyze a defendant's criminal history, among other attributes. In a study of 7,000 people arrested in Broward County, Florida, only 20% of people predicted to commit a crime using the county's risk assessment scoring system proceeded to commit a crime. A 2016 ProPublica report analyzed recidivism risk scores calculated by one of the most commonly used tools, the Northpointe COMPAS system, and looked at outcomes over two years. The report found that only 61% of those deemed high-risk committed additional crimes during that period. The report also flagged that African-American defendants were far more likely to be given high-risk scores than their white counterparts. It has been argued that such pretrial risk assessments violate Equal Protection rights on the basis of race, due to factors including possible discriminatory intent by the algorithm itself, under a theory of partial legal capacity for artificial intelligences. +In 2016, the Obama administration's Big Data Working Group—an overseer of various big-data regulatory frameworks—released reports warning of "the potential of encoding discrimination in automated decisions" and calling for "equal opportunity by design" for applications such as credit scoring. The reports encourage discourse among policy-makers, citizens, and academics alike, but recognize that no solution yet exists for the encoding of bias and discrimination into algorithmic systems. + +=== Robot ethics === +The term robot ethics (sometimes roboethics) refers to the morality of how humans design, construct, use, and treat robots. Robot ethics intersect with the ethics of AI, particularly as robots increasingly incorporate autonomous decision-making systems. Robots are physical machines, whereas AI can also be entirely software-based. Not all robots function through AI systems, and not all AI systems are embodied as robots. Robot ethics considers how machines may be used to harm or benefit humans, their impact on individual autonomy, and their effects on social justice. Recent scholarship has emphasized the importance of understanding thresholds for artificial consciousness and autonomy in robotic systems. Chella (2023) argues that as robots approach benchmarks such as self-awareness, emotional recognition, and independent learning, ethical frameworks must evolve to address their potential moral status and the designers' responsibility to prevent exploitation or suffering. +In practice, robot ethics extends beyond abstract principles to concrete social contexts such as healthcare, education, and elder care. Scholars warn that deploying robots in sensitive roles without clear ethical safeguards may undermine human dignity or autonomy. Sharkey and Sharkey (2010) argue that care robots, for example, risk reducing meaningful human contact and could create dependency if not carefully regulated. These concerns reinforce calls for extended precaution, transparency in decision-making systems, and well-designed oversight mechanisms that ensure robots enhance rather than diminish social justice and individual autonomy. John Danaher has argued that ethical debates about artificial intelligence should also consider a shift in moral standing on the human side of human–machine interaction. He introduces the notion of a "crisis of moral patiency", in which increasing automation reduces opportunities for humans to exercise moral agency, leaving them as passive recipients of machine-generated decisions rather than active moral agents. + +=== Robot rights or AI rights === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c0f3428a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Machine ethics" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"Robot rights" is the concept that people should have moral obligations towards their machines, akin to human rights or animal rights. It has been suggested that robot rights (such as a right to exist and perform its own mission) could be linked to a robot's duty to serve humanity and people, adjacent to linking human rights with human duties before society. One question is whether copyright ownership may be claimed. This has been considered by the Institute for the Future and the U.K. Department of Trade and Industry. +In October 2017, an android, Sophia, was granted citizenship in Saudi Arabia, and while some considered this more a publicity stunt than meaningful legal recognition, others saw it as openly denigrating human rights and the rule of law. Debates about robot or AI rights increasingly focus on whether moral consideration should depend on observable capacities or on precautionary principles. Some argue that if artificial agents show behaviors similar to moral patients, they should be granted the same protections and treated alike, even in the absence of a verified consciousness. Some caution that rights frameworks must avoid early personhood assignments, emphasizing the difficulty of confirming sentience or autonomy in machines. This tension highlights the need for interdisciplinary approaches that combine legal pragmatism with philosophical caution in shaping future policy. +Joanna Bryson has argued that creating AI that requires rights is both easily avoidable, and would in itself be unintelligent, both as a burden to the AI agents and to human society. +In their article "Debunking robot rights metaphysically, ethically, and legally", Birhane, van Dijk, and Pasquale argue that the attribution of rights to robots lacks metaphysical, ethical, and legal grounds. Robots lack consciousness and subjective experience and therefore cannot be considered sentient entities. Ethically, the concept of rights presupposes vulnerability and capacity for suffering, characteristics absent in artificial artifacts. Legally, recognizing the persoonhood of AI and robots generates normative ambiguities and relieves humans of their responsibilities. The authors suggest that the focus should not be on robot rights but on how technologies affect social relations and systems of power. + +=== Legal and political debates about robot rights === +The possibility that artificial agents could be granted some form of legal personhood has sparked major debate among scholars. Legal and political theorists usually frame this as a conditional: if robots or AI systems acquired consciousness, sentience, or robust autonomy, their moral and legal status would need to change. On this view, machines are currently being used as property or tools, but more advanced systems could challenge distinctions between persons and property. +Another perspective handles robot rights as an extension of general debates about who or what can have rights. On this view, rights are connected not to biology but to functional capacities, such as the ability to feel, reason, and form preferences; robot or AI systems that share these capacities with rights-bearing entities could, in principle, be eligible for similar protections. Proponents often connect this perspective to past legal developments in which groups previously regarded as non-rights-holders came to be included. +Another major component of the debate focuses on legal personhood as a technical category rather than a synonym for humanity. Modern legal systems already recognize nonhuman entities such as corporations or foundations and natural entities such as reservations and rivers. Scholars argue that law can recognize certain robot and AI systems as legal persons if doing so would serve a clear function, such as upholding a contract. In this scenario, these rights need not resemble full human rights but could take specialized forms fitted to particular agents and their roles. +Another area of debate focuses on how a robot can be held responsible for its actions if it does not make decisions on its own. A judge can order a person to do or refrain from an action, but robots cannot comply with orders not written in computer code. + +=== Ethical principles === +In the review of 84 ethics guidelines for AI, 11 clusters of principles were found: transparency, justice and fairness, non-maleficence, responsibility, privacy, beneficence, freedom and autonomy, trust, sustainability, dignity, and solidarity. +Luciano Floridi and Josh Cowls created an ethical framework of AI principles set by four principles of bioethics (beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy and justice) and an additional AI enabling principle – explicability. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1e20e968d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Machine ethics" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Philosophical connections === +Sentientism grants moral consideration to all sentient beings, primarily human and most nonhuman animals. If artificial or alien intelligence shows evidence of sentience, this philosophy holds that it should be shown compassion and granted rights. +Alternative approaches to sentientism have been considered. David J. Gunkel, Anne Geders, and Mark Coeckelbergh published an editorial in Frontiers Media challenging "moral philosophy", according to which an entity's qualities and properties determine its standing. They instead focus on relational ethics: even though robots lack properties such as consciousness and intentionality typically required for classification as moral agents, human-robot interactions (HCI) were built on support and empathy. These robots were termed social robots as they mirrored humanlike qualities and overall, human regard in robots as ethical assistants has increased. +In their article "Should robots have rights or rites?", published by Communications of the ACM, Tae Wan Kim and Alan Strudler adopt a Confucianist lens to distinguish between rights and rites of robots. Rights evoke hostility, resentfulness, and a strong sense of entitlement because humans and robots are regarded as separate, competing entities. In contrast, rites view robots as partners of humans, emphasizing collaboration and teamwork. Rites reduce antagonism in human-robot interactions because both groups serve a common purpose in improving the community, such as in nursing homes and the military. The article stresses unification in HCI because when both groups learn from each other, they improve the world. Rites also model altruism, according to which humans exist to serve and uplift each other: through mutual contributions, humans and robots strengthen their communities and communicate positive change. +Arguments against treating robots as moral beings also exist. In the article "Why Don't Robots Have Rights? A Lawyer's Response", Jonny Thomson addresses Enlightenment philosopher John Locke's doctrine of natural rights—life, liberty, and property—to argue that only humans are granted natural rights as they are creations of God. As robots are not creations of God, they do not have rights. According to Thomson, because robots are programmed, "rights to liberty and property, for examples, are meaningless to robots." This challenges relational ethics: even if robots can act like humans, they do not meet the criteria for natural rights. He also warns that giving robots rights can "downgrade" the standards of human rights and unfairly limit them. +Šekrst has argued that increasingly human-like AI behavior can prompt premature moral attribution, as systems may convincingly simulate ethical sensitivity or concern without consciousness or moral understanding, thereby blurring distinctions central to debates about moral status. David Gunkel has argued that debates about robot and AI moral status should not be grounded solely in intrinsic properties such as consciousness, intelligence, or autonomy. Instead, he emphasizes a relational approach, according to which moral standing emerges from social interaction, communicative engagement, and the roles artificial agents play in human practices. Daniel Dennett has argued that humans routinely attribute agency, intentions, and responsibility to systems based on their observable behavior rather than on knowledge of their internal makeup, a strategy he terms the "intentional stance". Applied to artificial systems, this helps explain why sophisticated robots or AI may be treated as moral agents or patients even when their underlying architecture does not support consciousness or moral understanding. +Social and political implications +Robot rights raise social and political questions beyond ethics. Granting legal personhood to robots such as Sophia the humanoid could be more symbolic than practical, serving political interests rather than giving robots real agency. Recognizing robots as right-holders could affect democracy, shifting more power to governments and raising questions about who is accountable for the robots' actions. +Robots can influence human decisions, showing a need for regulation. Legal recognition of robots could also affect economic structures, increasing inequality if not managed closely. Overall, these considerations show that ideas about robot rights are related to how societies govern technology and balance power, not just moral theory. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fbfb898cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Machine ethics" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Trust, trustworthiness, and AI === +Recent philosophical work on trust in artificial intelligence has distinguished the various attitudes users can have toward AI systems. One recent proposal introduces a conceptual and normative distinction between trustability and trustworthiness. Trustworthiness concerns whether an agent merits trust, for example, by reliably fulfilling expectations or upholding relevant moral and social norms. Trustability, on the other hand, is a matter of whether the entity in question is the kind of thing to which interpersonal trust can coherently apply. +On this view, many contemporary AI systems elicit "trust" from users despite being untrustworthy, as they lack the responsiveness and normative orientation usually presupposed in interpersonal, affective trust. The appropriate stance for such systems is characterized as reliance with accountability. Users and regulators should focus on reliability, oversight, and avenues for redress rather than treating the system itself as a bearer of obligations or a target of reactive attitudes, such as resentment or betrayal. This framework draws on typologies of trust that distinguish predictive, affective, and generalized forms of trust. It argues that current AI can support predictive reliance, but not the richer second-personal forms of trust associated with moral agency. +Related philosophical analyses emphasize that trust in AI should not be reduced to technical reliability or user confidence. Durán and Pozzi argue that trust involves an irreducibly normative dimension that goes beyond successful performance, requiring responsiveness to expectations, accountability, and the possibility of justified complaint. Many contemporary discussions of "trustworthy AI" conflate trust with reliability or transparency, obscuring that genuine trust presupposes forms of responsibility and normative commitment that current AI systems lack. This supports approaches that prioritize institutional and governance-based mechanisms for managing reliance on AI rather than encouraging interpersonal trust attitudes toward artificial agents. +At the same time, the literature explores whether future AI systems could become trustable and trustworthy if they acquired forms of artificial agency that could recognize others' dependence and treat it as normatively significant in their practical deliberations. Some authors discuss institutional surrogate trust, in which trust is placed in the surrounding institutions, governance structures, and recourse mechanisms that ensure responsiveness and accountability rather than in the AI system itself. This approach connects discussions about "trustworthy AI" to larger questions about designing socio-technical systems and regulatory frameworks and calibrating human attitudes toward nonhuman agents. + +== Ethical frameworks and practices == + +=== Practices === +In March 2018, in an effort to address rising concerns over machine learning's impact on human rights, the World Economic Forum and Global Future Council on Human Rights published a white paper with detailed recommendations on how best to prevent discriminatory outcomes in machine learning. The World Economic Forum developed four recommendations based on the UN Guiding Principles of Human Rights to help address and prevent discriminatory outcomes in machine learning: + +Active inclusion: Development and design of machine learning applications must actively seek a diversity of input, especially of the norms and values of populations affected by the output of AI systems. +Fairness: People involved in conceptualizing, developing, and implementing machine learning systems should consider which definition of fairness best applies to their context and application, and prioritize it in the machine learning system's architecture and evaluation metrics. +Right to understanding: Involvement of machine learning systems in decision-making that affects individual rights must be disclosed, and the systems must be able to explain their decision-making in a way that is understandable to end users and reviewable by a competent human authority. Where this is impossible and rights are at stake, leaders in the design, deployment, and regulation of machine learning technology must question whether it should be used. +Access to redress: Leaders, designers, and developers of machine learning systems are responsible for identifying the potential negative human rights impacts of their systems. They must make visible avenues for redress for those affected by disparate impacts, and establish processes for the timely redress of any discriminatory outputs. +In January 2020, Harvard University's Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society published a meta-study of 36 prominent sets of principles for AI, identifying eight key themes: privacy, accountability, safety and security, transparency and explainability, fairness and non-discrimination, human control of technology, professional responsibility, and promotion of human values. Researchers at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich conducted a similar meta-study in 2019. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bb8b5de79 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Machine ethics" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Approaches === +There have been several attempts to make ethics computable, or at least formal. Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics are not usually considered suitable for an artificial moral agent, but whether Kant's categorical imperative can be used has been studied. It has been pointed out that human value is, in some aspects, very complex. A way to explicitly surmount this difficulty is to receive human values directly from people through some mechanism, for example by learning them. Another approach is to base current ethical considerations on previous similar situations. This is called casuistry, and could be implemented through research on the Internet. The consensus from a million past decisions would lead to a new decision that is democracy-dependent. Bruce M. McLaren built an early (mid-1990s) computational model of casuistry, a program called SIROCCO built with AI and case-base reasoning techniques that retrieves and analyzes ethical dilemmas. But this approach could lead to decisions that reflect society's biases and unethical behavior. The negative effects of this approach can be seen in Microsoft's Tay, a chatterbot that learned to repeat racist and sexually charged tweets. +One thought experiment focuses on a Genie Golem with unlimited powers presenting itself to the reader. This Genie declares that it will return in 50 years and demands that it be provided with a definite set of morals it will then immediately act upon. This experiment's purpose is to spark discourse over how best to handle defining sets of ethics that computers may understand. +Some recent work attempts to reconstruct AI morality and control more broadly as a problem of mutual contestation between AI as a Foucauldian subjectivity on the one hand and humans or institutions on the other hand, all within a disciplinary apparatus. Certain desiderata need to be fulfilled: embodied self-care, embodied intentionality, imagination and reflexivity, which together would condition AI's emergence as an ethical subject capable of self-conduct. + +== In fiction == +In science fiction, movies and novels have played with the idea of sentient robots and machines. +Neill Blomkamp's Chappie (2015) enacts a scenario of being able to transfer one's consciousness into a computer. Alex Garland's 2014 film Ex Machina follows an android with artificial intelligence undergoing a variation of the Turing Test, a test administered to a machine to see whether its behavior can be distinguished from that of a human. Films such as The Terminator (1984) and The Matrix (1999) incorporate the concept of machines turning on their human masters. +Asimov considered the issue in the 1950s in I, Robot. At the insistence of his editor John W. Campbell Jr., he proposed the Three Laws of Robotics to govern artificially intelligent systems. Much of his work was then spent testing his three laws' boundaries to see where they break down or create paradoxical or unanticipated behavior. His work suggests that no set of fixed laws can sufficiently anticipate all possible circumstances. Philip K. Dick's 1968 novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? explores what it means to be human. In his post-apocalyptic scenario, he questions whether empathy is an entirely human characteristic. The book is the basis for the 1982 science-fiction film Blade Runner. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Hagendorff, Thilo (2021). Linking Human And Machine Behavior: A New Approach to Evaluate Training Data Quality for Beneficial Machine Learning. Minds and Machines, doi:10.1007/s11023-021-09573-8. +Anderson, Michael; Anderson, Susan Leigh, eds (July/August 2006). "Special Issue on Machine Ethics". IEEE Intelligent Systems 21 (4): 10–63. +Bendel, Oliver (December 11, 2013). Considerations about the Relationship between Animal and Machine Ethics. AI & SOCIETY, doi:10.1007/s00146-013-0526-3. +Dabringer, Gerhard, ed. (2010). "Ethical and Legal Aspects of Unmanned Systems. Interviews". Austrian Ministry of Defence and Sports, Vienna 2010, ISBN 978-3-902761-04-0. +Gardner, A. (1987). An Artificial Approach to Legal Reasoning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. +Georges, T. M. (2003). Digital Soul: Intelligent Machines and Human Values. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press. +Singer, P.W. (December 29, 2009). Wired for War: The Robotics Revolution and Conflict in the 21st Century: Penguin. +Winfield, A., Michael, K., Pitt, J. and Evers, V. (March 2019). Special Issue on Machine Ethics: The Design and Governance of Ethical AI and Autonomous Systems. Proceedings of the IEEE. 107 (3): 501–615, doi:10.1109/JPROC.2019.2900622 + +== External links == +Machine Ethics, Interdisciplinary project on machine ethics. +The Machine Ethics Podcast, Podcast discussing Machine Ethics, AI and Tech ethics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_scientist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_scientist-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63481baf7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_scientist-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Mad scientist" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_scientist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:38.448397+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The mad scientist (also mad doctor or mad professor) is a stock character of a scientist who is perceived as "mad, bad and dangerous to know" or "insane" owing to a combination of unusual or unsettling personality traits and the unabashedly ambitious, taboo or hubristic nature of their experiments. As a motif in fiction, the mad scientist may be villainous (evil genius) or antagonistic, benign, or neutral; may be insane, eccentric, or clumsy; and often works with fictional technology or fails to recognise or value common human objections to attempting to play God. Some may have benevolent intentions, even if their actions are dangerous or questionable, which can make them accidental antagonists. + + +== History == + + +=== Prototypes === + +The prototypical fictional mad scientist was Victor Frankenstein, creator of his eponymous monster, who made his first appearance in 1818, in the novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus by Mary Shelley. Though the novel's title character, Victor Frankenstein, is a sympathetic character, the critical element of conducting experiments that cross "boundaries that ought not to be crossed", heedless of the consequences, is present in Shelley's novel. Frankenstein was trained as both an alchemist and a modern scientist, which makes him the bridge between two eras of an evolving archetype. The book is said to be a precursor of a new genre, science fiction, although as an example of gothic horror it is connected with other antecedents as well. +The year 1896 saw the publication of H. G. Wells's The Island of Doctor Moreau, in which the titular doctor—a controversial vivisectionist—has isolated himself entirely from civilisation in order to continue his experiments in surgically reshaping animals into humanoid forms, heedless of the suffering he causes. In 1925, the novelist Alexander Belyaev introduced mad scientists to the Russian people through the novel Professor Dowell's Head, in which the antagonist performs experimental head transplants on bodies stolen from the morgue, and reanimates the corpses. + + +=== Cinema depictions === + +Fritz Lang's movie Metropolis (1927) brought the archetypical mad scientist to the screen in the form of Rotwang, the evil genius whose machines had originally given life to the dystopian city of the title. Rotwang's laboratory influenced many subsequent movie sets with its electrical arcs, bubbling apparatus, and bizarrely complicated arrays of dials and controls. Portrayed by actor Rudolf Klein-Rogge, Rotwang himself is the prototypically conflicted mad scientist; though he is master of almost mystical scientific power, he remains a slave to his own desires for power and revenge. +A recent survey of 1,000 horror films distributed in the UK between the 1930s and 1980s reveals mad scientists or their creations have been the villains of 30 percent of the films; scientific research has produced 39 percent of the threats; and, by contrast, scientists have been the heroes of a mere 11 percent. Boris Karloff played mad scientists in several of his 1930s and 1940s films. + + +=== Movie serials === +The mad scientist was a staple of the Republic/Universal/Columbia movie serials of the 1930s and 40s. Examples include: + +"Dr. Zorka" (The Phantom Creeps, 1939) +"Dr. Fu Manchu" (Drums of Fu Manchu, Republic, 1940) +"Dr. Satan" (Mysterious Doctor Satan, 1940) +"Dr. Vulcan" (King of the Rocket Men, 1949) +"Atom Man/Lex Luthor" Atom Man vs. Superman, 1950) + + +=== Post–World War II depictions === +Mad scientists were most conspicuous in popular culture after World War II. The sadistic human experimentation conducted under the auspices of the Nazis, especially those of Josef Mengele, and the invention of the atomic bomb, gave rise in this period to genuine fears that science and technology had gone out of control. That the scientific and technological build-up during the Cold War brought about increasing threats of unparalleled destruction of the human species did not lessen the impression. Mad scientists frequently figure in science fiction and motion pictures from the period. + + +=== Animation === +Mad scientists in animation include Professor Frink from The Simpsons, Professor Farnsworth from Futurama, Rick Sanchez from Rick and Morty, and Rintaro Okabe from Science Adventure. +Walt Disney Pictures had Mickey Mouse trying to save his dog Pluto from The Mad Doctor (1933). +Depictions of mad scientists in Warner Brothers' Merrie Melodies/Looney Tunes cartoons include Hair-Raising Hare (1946, based on Peter Lorre), Birth of a Notion (1947, again based on Lorre), Water, Water Every Hare (1952, based on Boris Karloff). +While Tom and Jerry experimented with mad scientists in some of their Hanna-Barbera cartoons, an actual mad scientist did not appear until Switchin' Kitten (1961). + + +== See also == +Absent-minded professor +Boffin +British scientists (meme) +Creativity techniques +Creativity and mental illness +Edisonade, a similar trope about a brilliant inventor, but of positive attitudes +Egghead +Faust +Fringe science +Girl Genius +List of mad scientists +Mad scientists of Stanislaw Lem + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Allen, Glen Scott (2009). Master Mechanics and Wicked Wizards: Images of the American Scientist from Colonial Times to the Present. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-703-0. +Garboden, Nick (2007). Mad Scientist or Angry Lab Tech: How to Spot Insanity. Portland: Doctored Papers. ISBN 1-56363-660-3. +Haynes, Roslynn Doris (1994). From Faust to Strangelove: Representations of the Scientist in Western Literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4801-6. +Junge, Torsten; Doerthe Ohlhoff (2004). Wahnsinnig genial: Der Mad Scientist Reader. Aschaffenburg: Alibri. ISBN 3-932710-79-7. +Norton, Trevor (2010). Smoking Ears and Screaming Teeth. (A witty celebration of the great eccentrics...). Century. ISBN 978-1-84605-569-0. +Schlesinger, Judith (2012). The Insanity Hoax: Exposing the Myth of the Mad Genius. Ardsley-on-Hudson, N.Y. Shrinktunes Media ISBN 978-0-98369-824-1. +James T. Webb, Ph.D. (September 12, 2012). "A Book Review of The Insanity Hoax: Exposing the Myth of the Mad Genius". The National Psychologist. Archived from the original on 14 June 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2015. +Schneider, Reto U. (2008). The Mad Science Book. 100 Amazing Experiments from the History of Science. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-1-84724-494-9. +Tudor, Andrew (1989). Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15279-2. +Weart, Spencer R. (1988). Nuclear Fear: A History of Images. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. +Levi, Pfaff J. (1956). Wahnsinnig genial: Der Mad Scientist Reader. Aschaffenburg: Alibri. ISBN 3-932710-79-7. + + +== External links == + +Gary Hoppenstand, "Dinosaur Doctors and Jurassic Geniuses: The Changing Image of the Scientist in the Lost World Adventure" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d32311edc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Memory erasure" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:40.242517+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Memory erasure is the selective artificial removal of memories or associations from the mind. Memory erasure has been shown to be possible in some experimental conditions; some of the techniques currently being investigated are, drug-induced amnesia, selective memory suppression, destruction of neurons, interruption of memory, memory reconsolidation, and the disruption of specific molecular mechanisms. +There are many reasons that research is being done on the selective removal of memories. Potential patients for this research include patients with psychiatric disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder, or substance use disorder, among others. +Memory erasure is also featured in numerous works of fiction, with fictional methods and properties that do not necessarily correspond with scientific reality. + +== Recent history == +Research focused on gaining a better understanding of what memories are has been going on for many years, in this way so has research in memory erasure. The basis for the recent history for memory erasure has been focused on determining how the brain actively keeps memories stored and retrieves them. There have been several instances where researchers found drugs that when applied to certain areas of the brain, usually the amygdala, have relative success in being able to erase some memories. As early as 2009 researchers were able to trace and destroy neurons involved in supporting the specific type of memory that they were trying to erase. These neurons were targeted by using replication-defective herpes simplex virus (HSV) to increase cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein (CREB) in them. As a result, the neurons were activated in fear memory or testing far more often in both wild-type and CREB-deficient mice. For the study, transgenic mice were used that allowed use of diphtheria toxin to preferentially target cells that were overexpressing CREB, since these were the cells more likely involved with fear memories. This caused the erasure of the target memory but allowed the mice to still form new fear memories which confirmed the cells were involved only in storing fear memories and not forming them. +Aside from the biotechnology approach to studying memory, research in psychiatry on how memories work has also been going on for several years. There have been some studies that show that some behavioral therapy can erase bad memories. There has been some evidence that psychodynamic therapy and other energy techniques can help with forgetting memories among other psychiatric issues there is no proven therapeutic approach for trying to erase bad memories. + +== Potential patients == +There are several different types of possible patients that have the potential to draw great benefit from the selective memory erasure; these include people with drug addiction, or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD patients may include war veterans, people who witnessed horrific events, victims of violent crimes and many other possibly traumatic events. These potential patients have unwanted memories that can be absolutely devastating to their daily lives and cause them to not be able to function properly. +Research continues, and in 2020, researchers were looking at potential new approaches to PTSD treatment. + +== Different types of memories == +There are three main types of memories: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory, in short, is the ability to hold sensory information for a short period of time, for example, looking at an object and being able to remember what it looked like moments after. Short-term memory is memory that allows a person to recall a short period of time; this can be a few seconds to a minute. Short-term memory allows people to remember what happened during that short time span without actually practicing the memory. Long-term memory has a much larger capacity than the prior two and actually stores information from both these types of memories to create a long lasting and large memory. Long-term memory is the largest target for research involving selective memory erasure. +Within long-term memory there are several types of retention. Implicit memory (or 'muscle memory') is generally described as the ability to remember how to use objects or specific movements of the body (e.g. using a hammer). Explicit memory, (or 'declarative memory') is that which can be consciously drawn upon by a person to remember. +Explicit memory can be split into further subcategories; episodic memory, which is the memory of specific events and the information surrounding it, and semantic memory, which is the ability to remember factual information (e.g. what numbers mean). +A type of memory of main concern for memory erasure are emotional memories. These memories often involve several different aspects of information in them that can come from a variety of the different categories of memories mentioned above. These emotional memories are powerful memories that can elicit strong physiological effects on a person. An example of an emotional memory can be found in patients with PTSD, for these patients a traumatic event has left a lasting emotional memory that can have powerful effects on a person even without them consciously retrieving the memory. + +== Current research == + +=== Drug-induced amnesia === +Drug-induced amnesia is the idea of selectively losing or inhibiting the creation of memories using drugs. Amnesia can be used as a treatment for patients who have experienced psychological trauma or for medical procedures where full anesthesia is not an option. Drug-induced amnesia is also a side-effect of other drugs like alcohol and rohypnol. +There are other drugs that also can cause their users to be put in an amnesic state, where they experience some type of amnesia because of their use. Examples of these drugs include Triazolam, Midazolam and Diazepam. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b1b1e420 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Memory erasure" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:40.242517+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Disruption of molecular mechanisms === +There is a growing amount of information that has shown that memory depends largely on the brain's synaptic plasticity, with a large part of this being dependent on its ability to maintain long-term potentiation (LTP). Studies on LTP have also started to indicate that there are several molecular mechanisms that may be at the basis of memory storage. +A more recent approach to erasing memories and the associations the brain makes with objects is disrupting specific molecular mechanisms in the brain that are actively keeping memories active. +Recovering methamphetamine (meth) addicts have reported that the sight of certain objects such as a lighter, gum or drug paraphernalia can cause massive cravings that can sometimes lead to a break in their mental strength and cause them to relapse. This indicates that long-term memories can be called upon by various different associations that were made with the memory without the conscious effort of the person. With an increasing belief that memories are largely supported by functional and structural plasticity deriving from F-actin polymerization in postsynaptic dendritic spines at excitatory synapses. Recent research has been done to target this F-actin polymerization by using direct actin depolymerization or a myosin II inhibitor to disrupt the polymerized F-actin associated with METH memory associations. The study indicated types of associations can be disrupted days to weeks after consolidation. Although the depolymerization techniques had no effect on food reward based associations or shock based associations the results demonstrate the idea that meth associated memories' actin cytoskeleton is constantly changing making it uniquely sensitive to depolymerization during the maintenance phase. This is some of the first evidence showing that memories made with different associations are actively maintained using different molecular substrates. These results also show that the actin cytoskeleton may be a promising target for selective disruption of unwanted long-term memories. + +=== Selective memory suppression === +Selective memory suppression is the idea that someone can consciously block an unwanted memory. Several different therapeutic techniques or training have been attempted to test this idea with varied success. Many of these techniques focus on blocking the retrieval of a memory using suppression techniques to slowly teach the brain to suppress the memory. Although some of these techniques have been useful for some people it has not been shown to be a clear cut solution to forgetting memories. Because these memories are not truly erased but merely suppressed the question of how permanent the solution is and what actually happens to the memories can be troubling for some. +Selective memory suppression is also something that can occur without a person being consciously aware of suppressing the creation and retrieval of unwanted memories. When this occurs without the person knowing it is usually referred to as memory inhibition; the memory itself is called a repressed memory. + +==== Interruption of memory reconsolidation ==== + +One of the ways scientists have attempted to erase these memories through suppression is by interrupting the reconsolidation of a memory. Reconsolidation of a memory is when a person recalls a memory, usually a fearful one, it becomes susceptible to alteration, and then gets stored again. This has led many researchers to believe that this time period is the best time for memories to be altered or erased. Studies have shown that through behavioral training results showed that they were able to erase memories by tampering with memories during the reconsolidation phase. + +=== Destruction of neurons === +With evidence showing that different memories excite different neurons or system of neurons in the brain the technique of destroying select neurons in the brain to erase specific memories is also being researched. Studies have started to investigate the possibility of using distinct toxins along with biotechnology that allows the researchers to see which areas of the brain are being used during the reward learning process of making a memory to destroy target neurons. In a paper published in 2009, authors showed that neurons in the lateral amygdala that had a higher level of cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein (CREB) were activated primarily over other neurons by fear memory expression. This indicated to them that these neurons were directly involved in the making of the memory trace for that fear memory. They then proceeded to train mice using auditory fear training to produce a fear memory. They proceeded to check which of the neurons were overexpressing CREB and then, using an inducible diphtheria-toxin strategy, they destroyed those neurons, resulting in persistent and strong memory erasure of the fear memory. +Researchers have also found that the levels of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, can also effect which memories are most prominent in our minds. +Due to the lack of understanding of the brain this technique of destroying neurons may have a much larger effect on the patient than just the removal of the intended memories. Due to this complex nature of the brain treatment that would stun the neurons instead of destroying them could be another approach that could be taken. + +=== Optogenetics === +A way of selectively erasing memories may be possible through optogenetics, a type of gene therapy that targets specific neurons. In 2017, researchers at Stanford demonstrated a technique for observing hundreds of neurons firing in the brain of a live mouse, in real time, and have linked that activity to long-term information storage. By using a virus to trigger production of a light-sensitive protein in neurons linked to a fear, they could erase the memory by weakening the pathways using light. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..93d49fd16 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Memory erasure" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:40.242517+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Measurement issues == +There is an epistemological issue in determining whether the absence of evidence (i.e., memory trace) is evidence of absence. In experimental studies, the absence of behavior indicative of memory is sometimes interpreted as the absence of the memory trace; however, the memory impairment may be temporary due to deficits in recall. Alternatively, the memory trace be latent and demonstrable via its indirect effects on new learning. The measurement issue is compounded by the fact that memory processes are dynamic and may not always manifest in single locations or in static and easily identifiable changes detectable by current technologies. +Michael Davis, researcher at Emory University, argues that complete erasure can only be confidently concluded if all of the biological events that occurred when the memory was formed revert to their original status. The current state of technology and methodology may not be sensitive enough to detect all types of memory traces. Davis contends that because making these measurements in a complex organism is implausible, the concept of complete memory erasure (what he deems "strong form of forgetting") is not useful scientifically. + +== Ethics == +As with most new technologies the idea of being able to erase memories comes with many ethical questions. One ethical question that arises is the idea that although there are some extremely painful memories that some people (for example PTSD patients) would like to be rid of, not all unpleasant memories are bad. The ability to soften or erase memories could have drastic effects on how society functions. The ability to remember unpleasant effects from one's past has a huge impact on the future actions they may take. Remembering and learning from past mistakes is crucial in the emotional development of a person and helps to ensure they do not repeat previous errors. The ability to erase memory could also have a massive impact on the law. When it comes to determining the outcome of a trial, the ability to modify memory could have a massive impact on the judicial system. Another ethical question that arises is to how the government will use this technology and what restrictions would need to be put in place. Some worry that if soldiers can go into battle knowing that the memories created during that time period can simply be erased they may not uphold military morale and standards. Many are also skeptical with who should be able to have procedures done on them, so they are urging for a set of laws to determine this. + +== In fiction == +Memory erasure has also been a common topic of interest in science fiction and other fiction. Several notable comics, TV shows and movies feature memory erasure, including Telefon, Total Recall, Men in Black, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, Black Mirror, Futurama, The Bourne Identity, NBC's Heroes and Dollhouse. Novels that feature memory erasure include The Invincible by Stanisław Lem, some of the Harry Potter novels (including Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets) by J. K. Rowling, Artemis Fowl and the Eternity Code by Eoin Colfer, and The Giver by Lois Lowry. Several works by Philip K. Dick are about memory erasure, including "Paycheck", "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" (which served as the inspiration for Total Recall). In the canon of the SCP Foundation, the organization uses substances called amnestics to erase memories for covering up supernatural phenomena. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_medical_ethics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_medical_ethics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d2a3150b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_medical_ethics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Military medical ethics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_medical_ethics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:23:41.504068+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Military medical ethics (MME) is a specialized branch of medical ethics with implications for military ethics. Both are primarily fields of applied ethics, the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to the specific contexts of medicine and military affairs, respectively. MME encompasses the practical application of ethics by military physicians and other healthcare practitioners to dilemmas in military clinical and public health settings in which the patients may be friendly or enemy personnel or in which civilians are affected by military operations. + + +== Overview == +Within a garrison (peacetime or non-deployed) setting, precepts of MME may not differ much from medical ethics in a civilian context and usually employ the same decision-making processes. (Military physicians in the United States, for example, are licensed by at least one of the state medical boards and so are required to practice medicine according to the ethical stipulations of that state.) There is an intrinsic dichotomy, however, between medicine's healing mission and a military's (sometimes) destructive operations. Because military operations may result in the injury or death of enemy personnel (often deliberately so) and may involve the detention and interrogation of captured enemy personnel, medical ethics considerations for clinical providers assigned or attached to a military unit in a deployment or combat situation cannot always be identical to those in the civilian world. Ethical conflicts may emerge in the tension between responsibilities to the patient and duties to the command structure. The degree to which principles of medical ethics may justifiably be informed by, or even altered to accommodate, issues of national security is controversial. + + +== Historical background == +Discussions of MME often take as a point of departure the lessons to be learned from the perversion of medical practice by military physicians and others in the period leading up to and during World War II in Germany and Japan. They may also entail the more recently revealed Cold War radiation experiments undertaken by the United States government. Such discussions often center upon questions of whether these widely deplored activities of the past can be reasonably compared to present-day MME dilemmas. + + +== References == + + +=== Citations === + + +=== Other sources === +Beam, Thomas E. and Linette R. Sparacino, Editors (2003), Military Medical Ethics, Vol. 1 (Series: Textbooks of Military Medicine), Washington, DC: The Borden Institute. +Beam, Thomas E. and Linette R. Sparacino, Editors (2003), Military Medical Ethics, Vol. 2 (Series: Textbook of Military Medicine), Washington, DC: The Borden Institute. +Grodin, Michael A. and George J. Annas (2005), “Military Medical Ethics” [Review], New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 352:312-314, Number 3, (January 20 issue). +Elahi, Mansoor, "[1] +Eagan, Sheena M. “Medicine as a Non-Lethal Weapon: The Ethics of ‘Winning Hearts and Minds’. ” Ethics and Armed Forces. Issue 2015/1: pp 9-15. +Eagan, Sheena M. “The Warrior in a White Coat: Moral Dilemmas, the Physician-Soldier & the Problem of Dual Loyalty.” Medical Corps International Forum. Volume 4: pp 4–7. +Messelken, Daniel and Hans U. Baer, Editors (2013), Proceedings of the 2nd ICMM Workshop on Military Medical Ethics. Bern. ISBN 978-3-905782-94-3 +Messelken, Daniel and Hans U. Baer, Editors (2014), Proceedings of the 3rd ICMM Workshop on Military Medical Ethics. Bern. ISBN 978-3-905782-97-4 +Messelken, Daniel and David Winkler, Editors (2015). Proceedings of the 4th ICMM Workshop on Military Medical Ethics. Bern. ISBN 978-3-905782-98-1 +Eagan, Sheena M. “Medicine as a Non-Lethal Weapon: The Ethics of ‘Winning Hearts and Minds’. ” Ethics and Armed Forces. Issue 2015/1: pp 9-15. +Eagan, Sheena M. “The Warrior in a White Coat: Moral Dilemmas, the Physician-Soldier & the Problem of Dual Loyalty.” Medical Corps International Forum. Volume 4: pp 4–7. \ No newline at end of file