From 01fa498978e615f6cb4b97c4e1269a5de78559dd Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 21:37:27 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 1457 new, 1023 updated, 2539 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 17338368 -> 17465344 bytes .../wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations-0.md | 54 +++++++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins | 0 .../Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-0.md | 38 +++++++++ .../Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-1.md | 31 ++++++++ .../Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-2.md | 27 +++++++ .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Scientific_communication-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-0.md | 35 +++++++++ .../wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-1.md | 49 ++++++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-0.md | 33 ++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-1.md | 60 ++++++++++++++ .../wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md | 51 ++++++++++++ .../wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md | 33 ++++++++ .../wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md | 40 ++++++++++ .../wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md | 42 ++++++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-0.md | 25 ++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-1.md | 23 ++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-2.md | 15 ++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-3.md | 26 ++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-4.md | 23 ++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md | 29 +++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md | 31 ++++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md | 40 ++++++++++ ...e_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md | 74 ++++++++++++++++++ 33 files changed, 789 insertions(+), 10 deletions(-) create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-3.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-4.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md diff --git a/_index.db b/_index.db index d0cc65f41c9e1837e33fb5c88b21abea29a940bc..6b7f928a7545fd713a44973b9ac5ef3bdd297920 100644 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+1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Proofs and Refutations" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:14.943371+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Proofs and Refutations: The Logic of Mathematical Discovery is a 1976 book by philosopher Imre Lakatos expounding his view of the progress of mathematics. The book is written as a series of Socratic dialogues involving a group of students who discuss proposed proofs of Euler's polyhedral formula. A central theme is that definitions are not carved in stone, but often have to be patched up in the light of later insights, in particular failed proofs. This gives mathematics a somewhat experimental flavour. At the end of the Introduction, Lakatos explains that his purpose is to challenge formalism in mathematics, and to show that informal mathematics grows by a logic of "proofs and refutations". + + +== Background == +The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery. But its first chapter is Lakatos's own revision of its chapter 1 that was first published as Proofs and Refutations in four parts in 1963–4 in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. + + +== Synopsis == +Many important logical ideas are explained in the book. For example, the difference between a counterexample to a lemma (a so-called 'local counterexample') and a counterexample to the specific conjecture under attack (a 'global counterexample' to the Euler characteristic, in this case) is discussed. +Lakatos argues for a different kind of textbook, one that uses heuristic style. To the critics that say such a textbook would be too long, he replies: 'The answer to this pedestrian argument is: let us try.' +The book includes two appendices. In the first, Lakatos gives examples of the heuristic process in mathematical discovery. In the second, he contrasts the deductivist and heuristic approaches and provides heuristic analysis of some 'proof generated' concepts, including uniform convergence, bounded variation, and the Carathéodory definition of a measurable set. +The pupils in the book are named after letters of the Greek alphabet. + + +== Method == +Though the book is written as a narrative, it aims to develop an actual method of investigation based upon "proofs and refutations". In Appendix I, Lakatos summarizes this method by the following list of stages: + +Primitive conjecture. +Proof (a rough thought-experiment or argument, decomposing the primitive conjecture into subconjectures). +"Global" counterexamples (counterexamples to the primitive conjecture) emerge. +Proof re-examined: the "guilty lemma" to which the global counter-example is a "local" counterexample is spotted. This guilty lemma may have previously remained "hidden" or may have been misidentified. Now it is made explicit, and built into the primitive conjecture as a condition. The theorem - the improved conjecture - supersedes the primitive conjecture with the new proof-generated concept as its paramount new feature. +He goes on and gives further stages that might sometimes take place: + +Proofs of other theorems are examined to see if the newly found lemma or the new proof-generated concept occurs in them: this concept may be found lying at cross-roads of different proofs, and thus emerge as of basic importance. +The hitherto accepted consequences of the original and now refuted conjecture are checked. +Counterexamples are turned into new examples - new fields of inquiry open up. + + +== Publication history == +The 1976 book has been translated into more than 15 languages worldwide, including Chinese, Korean, Serbo-Croat and Turkish, and went into its second Chinese edition in 2007. + + +== Impact on teaching == +A number of mathematics teachers have implemented Lakatos' method of proofs and refutations in the classroom, when teaching other mathematical topics. The method has been applied to the analysis and presentation of problem solving in mechanics +by high school to college level students. +The Mathematical Association of America has included this book on a list of books that they consider to be "essential for undergraduate mathematics libraries". + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Lakatos, Imre (1976), Proofs and Refutations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29038-4 & ISBN 978-0-521-29038-8. John Worrall & Elie Zahar were the editors of this posthumous book. +Gábor Kutrovátz, Imre Lakatos’s Philosophy of Mathematics, Eötvös Loránd University, 2005. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5dce397a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Science and Civilisation in China" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Science and Civilisation in China (1954–present) is an ongoing series of books about the history of science and technology in China published by Cambridge University Press. It was initiated and edited by British historian Joseph Needham (1900–1995). Needham was a well-respected scientist before undertaking this encyclopedia and was even responsible for the "S" in UNESCO. To date there have been seven volumes in twenty-seven books. The series was on the Modern Library Board's 100 Best Nonfiction books of the 20th century. Needham's work was the first of its kind to praise Chinese scientific contributions and provide their history and connection to global knowledge in contrast to eurocentric historiography. +By asking his grand questions: why did modern science not develop in China, and why China was technologically superior to the West prior to the 16th century, Needham’s Science and Civilisation in China is also recognized as one of the most influential works in stimulating the discourse on the multicultural roots of modern science. +In 1954, Needham—along with an international team of collaborators—initiated the project to study the science, technology, and civilisation of ancient China. This project produced a series of volumes published by Cambridge University Press. The project is still continuing under the guidance of the Publications Board of the Needham Research Institute (NRI), chaired by Christopher Cullen. +Volume 3 of the encyclopedia was the first body of work to describe Chinese improvements to cartography, geology, seismology and mineralogy. It also includes descriptions of nautical technology, sailing charts, and wheel-maps. +Needham's transliteration of Chinese characters uses the Wade-Giles system, though the aspirate apostrophe (e.g., ch'i) was rendered 'h' (viz. chhi; traditional Chinese: 氣; Mandarin Pinyin: qì). However, it was abandoned in favor of the pinyin system by the NRI board in April 2004, with Volume 5, Part 11 becoming the first to use the new system. + +== Background == + +=== Development === +Joseph Needham’s interest in the history of Chinese science developed while he worked as an Embryologist at Cambridge University. At the time, Needham had already published works relating to the history of science, including his 1934 book titled A History of Embryology, and was open to expanding his historical scientific knowledge. Needham's first encounter with Chinese culture occurred in 1937 when three Chinese medical students arrived to work with him at the Cambridge Biochemical Laboratory. Needham's interest in Chinese civilization and scientific progress grew as a result and led him to learn Chinese from his students. Two of those students, Wang Ling, and Lu Gwei-djen, would later become his collaborators on Science and Civilisation in China. +In 1941, China's eastern universities were forced to relocate to the west as a result of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Chinese academics sought the help of the British government in an effort to preserve their intellectual life. In 1942, Needham was selected and appointed as a diplomat by the British government and tasked with traveling to China and assessing the situation. During his three years there, Needham realised that the Chinese had developed techniques and mechanisms which were centuries older than their European counterparts. Needham became concerned with the exclusion of China in the Western history of science and began to question why the Chinese ceased to develop new techniques after the 16th century. + +=== Publication === +Armed with his new-found knowledge, Needham returned to Cambridge in 1948 and began working on a book with one of the Chinese medical students he met in Cambridge, Wang Ling, who was now a professor at a university. Initially, he planned on releasing only one volume of his findings through the Cambridge University Press, but later changed his mind and proposed up to eleven volumes. In 1954, Needham published the first volume of Science and Civilisation in China, which was well received and was followed by other volumes which focused on specific scientific fields and topics. Needham, along with his collaborators, was personally involved in all of the volumes of Science and Civilization, up until Needham's death in 1995. After Needham's death, Cambridge University established the Needham Research Institute. Scholars of the institution continue Needham's work and have published 8 additional volumes of Science and Civilisation in China, since his death. + +== Volumes == + +== Summaries == +There have been two summaries or condensations of the vast amount of material found in Science and Civilisation. The first, a one-volume popular history book by Robert Temple entitled The Genius of China, was completed in a little over 12 months to be available in 1986 for the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to China. This addressed only the contributions made by China and had a "warm welcome" from Joseph Needham in the introduction, though in the Beijing Review he criticized that it had "some mistakes ... and various statements that I would like to have seen expressed rather differently". +A second was made by Colin Ronan, a writer on the history of science, who produced a five volume condensation The Shorter Science and Civilisation: An abridgement of Joseph Needham's original text, between 1980 and his death in 1995. These volumes cover: + +China and Chinese science +Mathematics, astronomy, meteorology and the earth sciences +Magnetism, nautical technology, navigation, voyages +Mechanical engineering, machines, clockwork, windmills, aeronautics +Civil engineering, roads, bridges, hydraulic engineering + +== Reception == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5909d22fe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Science and Civilisation in China" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Critical acclaim === +Groff Conklin of Galaxy Science Fiction in 1955 said that Vol. 1 "presents a richly patterned tapestry of the development of civilization in the Far East", and that "it is for everyone who is intrigued by the unknown, whether future (science fiction) or past (scientific history)". +Jonathan Spence wrote in a 1982 New York Times article "this work is the most ambitious undertaking in Chinese studies during this century". +The New York Times obituary for Needham stated that students of China hail Needham's encyclopedia and compare him to Charles Darwin in terms of importance regarding scientific knowledge. +In 1999 Roger Hart published Beyond Science and Civilization: A Post-Needham Critique giving more analysis of Needham's work about how sciences of the West and China differed in practice to make for different historical attributes. +According to Arun Bala, the author of The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science, Needham postulates that scientific knowledge may evolve to more closely resemble Chinese philosophical views of nature; signifying his belief in Chinese inherent wisdom. + +=== Criticism from scholars === +Science and Civilisation in China was welcomed and is highly regarded among scholars because of its extensive comparative coverage of Chinese innovations. He established that scientific advancements, and analytical ingenuity were abundant in China in early modern times. Needham pointed to basic Chinese inventions ended up in the west, including the magnetic compass, and the mechanical clock, and printing. Needham also wrote that once these inventions reached they had a great impact on social life, and helped to stimulate the economy, as well as usher in the Scientific Revolution. Other scholars criticized his Marxist background, his understanding of Chinese culture, and his methodology. +Historian Robert Finlay suggested "Needham never shied away from bold generalizations" and "employs many outdated concepts and makes countless unsupported assertions". Finlay points out that Needham never focuses on individual states and regions, instead he places Chinese, Indian, Islamic, and Western achievements within the context of reciprocal relations of Eurasian cultures. +Editor of Volume 6, Nathan Sivin and Needham's research collaborator Lu Gwei-djen include updated research to support some of Needham's claims. However, Sivin is critical of Needham suggesting more research is required citing his assumptions of Taoism's role in promoting scientific feats in China. +Sociologist Toby E. Huff gives an overview of Needham's singular legacy in his book The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. But Huff suggests that Needham gave many misleading impressions regarding China's supposed scientific advantages over the west. + +== The Needham Question == + +=== Origins === +After his extensive research of Chinese innovations, Joseph Needham became concerned with the question: Why did modern science stop developing in China after the 16th century? Needham believed this was due to China’s sociopolitical system which was not affected by Chinese inventions. China did not have a structure in which merchants could profit from their inventions, unlike the West. Once Chinese inventions reached Europe, they revolutionized their sociopolitical system, which used the inventions to dominate political rivals. According to Needham, Chinese innovations, such as gunpowder, the compass, paper, and printing, helped transform European feudalism into capitalism. By the end of the 15th century, Europe was actively financing scientific discoveries, and nautical exploration. The paradox of this conclusion was that Europe surpassed China in scientific innovations, using Chinese technologies. + +=== Re-formulation === +After several volumes of Science and Civilisation in China had been published, Needham was questioned about his theory of the origin of science in the West. Needham, troubled by past criticism and dismissal of his work as Marxist theory, declined to publicly state his relationship to Marxism. Later, in Needham’s work The Grand Titration, he re-framed his question as: “why, between the first century BC and the fifteenth century AD, Chinese civilization was much more efficient than occidental in applying human natural knowledge to practical human needs?” The reformulation of the question, changed the narrative of Science and Civilisation in China. Initially, the question centered around China’s failure to develop scientifically after the 16th century. The focus shifted towards an examination of China’s accomplishments prior to development in Europe, this focus was addressed throughout Science and Civilisation in China. +Needham's attempt to uncover the reasoning behind China's rise and fall as an elite scientific and technologically advanced nation has been expounded upon and debated for decades including Justin Yifu Lin's University of Chicago journal article "The Needham Puzzle". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b64310a4b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Science and Civilisation in China" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Scholarly Discourse === +In the late 1950s and early 1960s, in response to Needham’s Science and Civilisation in China, Western historians insisted that modern science was unique to Western civilizations. Scholars like Roger Hart stated that Needham’s work was significant in helping change the criteria for defining modern science. In Hart’s Imagined Civilizations: China, The West, and Their First Encounter, Hart introduces the idea of the “Great Divide” between “the primitive non-West and the modern West” in the history of science. Hart explains the concept of the “Great Divide” as the perception that non-Western civilizations practiced false sciences and he criticizes the Eurocentric claim that the development of modern science was uniquely Western. +Bala’s The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science examines historical and epistemological presumptions in order to break from the Eurocentric view of the development of modern science. Needham’s juxtaposition of the attributes of Eastern and Western science influenced Bala to postulate that the future of science could be close to the Chinese view of nature. Needham and his co-authors are credited for amassing a plethora of evidence regarding the influence and contributions of Chinese technologies and ideas that allowed for the growth of modern science in Europe. +Some historians praise the standard of quality and thoroughness maintained throughout the volumes of Science and Civilization in China, but others questioned the accuracy of its contents. Georges Métailié expressed concerns over Needham’s methodology when he discovered that certain dates quoted by Needham could not be supported with sufficient evidence. Despite the common criticism of Science and Civilization in China that suggests it may have been biased by Needham’s Marxist beliefs and political leftism, scholars like Gregory Blue believe that there is insufficient evidence to support that Needham’s ideological inclinations are what drove him to formulate the Needham questions. However, historians like H. Floris Cohen did criticize Needham’s imprudent approach to his work, positing that Needham too often made his own biases apparent in his writings and attempted to propagandize his own historical narrative. Similar to how Needham criticizes other historians for exaggerating Greek influences on modern science, Needham’s critics argue that he had the proclivity to exaggerate the influences of Chinese sciences in the same fashion. +Since the publishing of the first volume of Science and Civilization in China in 1954, in the 21st century, a growing sentiment emerged among historians to dilute Europe's influence within the historical narrative of modern science. The reformulated Needham question drew the attention of scholars such as David J. Hess, a social anthropologist who referred to one of Needham’s lists in Science and Civilization in China to suggest that because the Chinese were technologically superior to the West prior to the 16th century, Chinese science was crucial to the foundation of modern science. American sinologist Nathan Sivin counters this argument by suggesting that before the scientific revolution, technology was not a good measure of scientific capacity. +The separation of scientific developments in the East and the West occurs thematically in scholarly debates over how extensively responsible the West was for the development of science. Joseph Needham contrasted the more “organic” understanding of nature that China held with the “mechanical” perspective through which the West viewed existence. While certain members of the scientific community viewed China’s science as more of a “pseudoscience,” to Needham, these advancements were part of a proto-scientific period that was later incorporated by the West after the 16th century. +Needham contrasts Western modern science and Eastern natural science as “modern” and “primitive” sciences that were differentiated by their “universality”. He points out that because primitive sciences of the middle ages were intertwined with their cultural backgrounds, primitive sciences were not able to become “universal” until they were integrated with mathematics, a feat accomplished by the West. In response to historians like Rupert Hall, who believed that Eastern science was of negligible influence on modern science, Needham argues that since modern science was a product of combining natural science and mathematics, both Eastern organic science and Western mechanical science should be given equal credit for the creation of modern science. In support of Needham’s sentiment, Marta E. Hanson states that Western science was not able to replicate China’s millennia old ceramic and porcelain production techniques up until the publication of Georges Vogt’s scientific analysis of Chinese porcelain in 1900. +Needham’s grand questions influenced other scholars to document the impact of non-European cultures on the development of modern science. Scholars such as Arun Bala have praised Science and Civilisation in China as the most comprehensive modern survey of the scientific and technological accomplishments of any non-European civilization. Needham’s work helped motivate the publication of more works that documented the influences of multicultural contributions on the development of modern science in its nascent stages, including Science and Civilization in Islam by Seyyed Hossien Nasr. + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Sources === + +== External links == +Needham Research Institute \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md index 585147595..7d2145ce8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:35:50.105188+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:18.788568+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git 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"reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:35:50.105188+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:18.788568+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md index d34b3defc..ebfba1a48 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:35:50.105188+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:18.788568+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md index 27afe37b6..248a5077b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md +++ 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"2026-05-05T04:35:50.105188+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:18.788568+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md index 4117e3904..af62980e5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:37:06.201511+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:20.049879+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication-0.md index 608b5846c..38cf3c744 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:18.604699+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:21.331036+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..14de13914 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Scientific community metaphor" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:22.603136+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In computer science, the scientific community metaphor is a metaphor used to aid understanding scientific communities. The first publications on the scientific community metaphor in 1981 and 1982 involved the development of a programming language named Ether that invoked procedural plans to process goals and assertions concurrently by dynamically creating new rules during program execution. Ether also addressed issues of conflict and contradiction with multiple sources of knowledge and multiple viewpoints. + +== Development == +The scientific community metaphor builds on the philosophy, history and sociology of science. It was originally developed building on work in the philosophy of science by Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos. In particular, it initially made use of Lakatos' work on proofs and refutations. Subsequently, development has been influenced by the work of Geof Bowker, Michel Callon, Paul Feyerabend, Elihu M. Gerson, Bruno Latour, John Law, Karl Popper, Susan Leigh Star, Anselm Strauss, and Lucy Suchman. +In particular Latour's Science in Action had great influence. In the book, Janus figures make paradoxical statements about scientific development. An important challenge for the scientific community metaphor is to reconcile these paradoxical statements. + +== Qualities of scientific research == +Scientific research depends critically on monotonicity, concurrency, commutativity, and pluralism to propose, modify, support, and oppose scientific methods, practices, and theories. +Quoting from Carl Hewitt,[1] scientific community metaphor systems have characteristics of monotonicity, concurrency, commutativity, pluralism, skepticism and provenance. + +monotonicity: Once something is published it cannot be undone. Scientists publish their results so they are available to all. Published work is collected and indexed in libraries. Scientists who change their mind can publish later articles contradicting earlier ones. +concurrency: Scientists can work concurrently, overlapping in time and interacting with each other. +commutativity: Publications can be read regardless of whether they initiate new research or become relevant to ongoing research. Scientists who become interested in a scientific question typically make an effort to find out if the answer has already been published. In addition they attempt to keep abreast of further developments as they continue their work. +pluralism: Publications include heterogeneous, overlapping and possibly conflicting information. There is no central arbiter of truth in scientific communities. +skepticism: Great effort is expended to test and validate current information and replace it with better information. +provenance: The provenance of information is carefully tracked and recorded. +The above characteristics are limited in real scientific communities. Publications are sometimes lost or difficult to retrieve. Concurrency is limited by resources including personnel and funding. Sometimes it is easier to rederive a result than to look it up. Scientists only have so much time and energy to read and try to understand the literature. Scientific fads sometimes sweep up almost everyone in a field. The order in which information is received can influence how it is processed. Sponsors can try to control scientific activities. In Ether the semantics of the kinds of activity described in this paragraph are governed by the actor model. +Scientific research includes generating theories and processes for modifying, supporting, and opposing these theories. Karl Popper called the process "conjectures and refutations", which although expressing a core insight, has been shown to be too restrictive a characterization by the work of Michel Callon, Paul Feyerabend, Elihu M. Gerson, Mark Johnson, Thomas Kuhn, George Lakoff, Imre Lakatos, Bruno Latour, John Law, Susan Leigh Star, Anselm Strauss, Lucy Suchman, Ludwig Wittgenstein, etc.. Three basic kinds of participation in Ether are proposing, supporting, and opposing. Scientific communities are structured to support competition as well as cooperation. +These activities affect the adherence to approaches, theories, methods, etc. in scientific communities. Current adherence does not imply adherence for all future time. Later developments will modify and extend current understandings. Adherence is a local rather than a global phenomenon. No one speaks for the scientific community as a whole. +Opposing ideas may coexist in communities for centuries. On rare occasions a community reaches a breakthrough that clearly decides an issue previously muddled. + +== Ether == +Ether used viewpoints to relativist information in publications. However a great deal of information is shared across viewpoints. So Ether made use of inheritance so that information in a viewpoint could be readily used in other viewpoints. Sometimes this inheritance is not exact as when the laws of physics in Newtonian mechanics are derived from those of Special Relativity. In such cases Ether used translation instead of inheritance. Bruno Latour has analyzed translation in scientific communities in the context of actor network theory. Imre Lakatos studied very sophisticated kinds of translations of mathematical (e.g., the Euler formula for polyhedra) and scientific theories. +Viewpoints were used to implement natural deduction (Fitch [1952]) in Ether. In order to prove a goal of the form (P implies Q) in a viewpoint V, it is sufficient to create a new viewpoint V' that inherits from V, assert P in V', and then prove Q in V'. An idea like this was originally introduced into programming language proving by Rulifson, Derksen, and Waldinger [1973] except since Ether is concurrent rather than being sequential it does not rely on being in a single viewpoint that can be sequentially pushed and popped to move to other viewpoints. +Ultimately resolving issues among these viewpoints are matters for negotiation (as studied in the sociology and philosophy of science by Geof Bowker, Michel Callon, Paul Feyerabend, Elihu M. Gerson, Bruno Latour, John Law, Karl Popper, Susan Leigh Star, Anselm Strauss, Lucy Suchman, etc.). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ef4038992 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Scientific community metaphor" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:22.603136+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Emphasis on communities rather than individuals == +Alan Turing was one of the first to attempt to more precisely characterize individual intelligence through the notion of his famous Turing Test. This paradigm was developed and deepened in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon did pioneer work in analyzing the protocols of individual human problem solving behavior on puzzles. More recently Marvin Minsky has developed the idea that the mind of an individual human is composed of a society of agents in Society of Mind (see the analysis by Push Singh). +The above research on individual human problem solving is complementary to the scientific community metaphor. + +== Current applications == +Some developments in hardware and software technology for the Internet are being applied in light of the scientific community metaphor.Hewitt 2006 +Legal concerns (e.g., HIPAA, Sarbanes-Oxley, "The Books and Records Rules" in SEC Rule 17a-3/4 and "Design Criteria Standard for Electronic Records Management Software Applications" in DOD 5015.2 in the U.S.) are leading organizations to store information monotonically forever. It has just now become less costly in many cases to store information on magnetic disk than on tape. With increasing storage capacity, sites can monotonically record what they read from the Internet as well as monotonically recording their own operations. +Search engines currently provide rudimentary access to all this information. Future systems will provide interactive question answering broadly conceived that will make all this information much more useful. +Massive concurrency (i.e., Web services and multi-core computer architectures) lies in the future posing enormous challenges and opportunities for the scientific community metaphor. In particular, the scientific community metaphor is being used in client cloud computing. + +== See also == +Paraconsistent logics +Planner +Science studies +The Structure of Scientific Revolutions + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Julian Davies. "Popler 1.5 Reference Manual" University of Edinburgh, TPU Report No. 1, May 1973. +Frederic Fitch. Symbolic Logic: an Introduction. Ronald Press, New York, 1952. +Ramanathan Guha. Contexts: A Formalization and Some Applications PhD thesis, Stanford University, 1991. +Pat Hayes. "Computation and Deduction" Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science: Proceedings of Symposium and Summer School, Štrbské Pleso, High Tatras, Czechoslovakia, September 3–8, 1973. +Carl Hewitt. "PLANNER: A Language for Proving Theorems in Robots" IJCAI 1969 +Carl Hewitt. "Procedural Embedding of Knowledge In Planner" IJCAI 1971. +Carl Hewitt, Peter Bishop and Richard Steiger. "A Universal Modular Actor Formalism for Artificial Intelligence" IJCAI 1973. +Carl Hewitt. Large-scale Organizational Computing requires Unstratified Reflection and Strong Paraconsistency in "Coordination, Organizations, Institutions, and Norms in Agent Systems III" edited by Jaime Sichman, Pablo Noriega, Julian Padget and Sascha Ossowski. Springer. 2008. +Carl Hewitt. Development of Logic Programming: What went wrong, What was done about it, and What it might mean for the future What Went Wrong and Why: Lessons from AI Research and Applications; papers from the 2008 AAAI Workshop. Technical Report WS-08-14. AAAI Press. July 2008. +William Kornfeld and Carl Hewitt. "The Scientific Community Metaphor" IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, SMC-11. 1981 +Bill Kornfeld. "The Use of Parallelism to Implement a Heuristic Search" IJCAI 1981. +Bill Kornfeld. Parallelism in Problem Solving MIT EECS Doctoral Dissertation. August 1981. +Bill Kornfeld. "Combinatorially Implosive Algorithms" CACM. 1982. +Robert Kowalski "Predicate Logic as Programming Language" Memo 70, Department of Artificial Intelligence, Edinburgh University. 1973 +Imre Lakatos. "Proofs and Refutations" Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1976. +Bruno Latour. Science In Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., USA, 1987. +John McCarthy. "Generality in Artificial Intelligence" CACM. December 1987. +Jeff Rulifson, Jan Derksen, and Richard Waldinger. "QA4, A Procedural Calculus for Intuitive Reasoning" SRI AI Center Technical Note 73, November 1973. +Earl Sacerdoti, et al., "QLISP A Language for the Interactive Development of Complex Systems" AFIPS. 1976 +Push Singh "Examining the Society of Mind" To appear in Computing and Informatics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1ae6f6022 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Sociobiology" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:24.998969+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to explain social behavior in terms of evolution. It draws from disciplines including psychology, ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, and population genetics. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is closely related to evolutionary anthropology, human behavioral ecology, evolutionary psychology, and sociology. +Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, so also it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. +While the term "sociobiology" originated at least as early as the 1940s; the concept did not gain major recognition until the publication of E. O. Wilson's book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis in 1975. The field quickly became the subject of scientific controversy. Critics, led by Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould, argued that genes played a role in human behavior, but that traits such as aggressiveness could be explained by social environment rather than by biology. Sociobiologists responded by pointing to the complex relationship between nature and nurture. Among sociobiologists, the controversy between laying weight to different levels of selection was settled between D.S. Wilson and E.O. Wilson in 2007. + +== Definition == +E. O. Wilson defined sociobiology as "the extension of population biology and evolutionary theory to social organization". +Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors (social and individual) are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection. +The discipline seeks to explain behavior as a product of natural selection. Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population. Inherent in sociobiological reasoning is the idea that certain genes or gene combinations that influence particular behavioral traits can be inherited from generation to generation. +For example, newly dominant male lions often kill cubs in the pride that they did not sire. This behavior is adaptive because killing the cubs eliminates competition for their own offspring and causes the nursing females to come into heat faster, thus allowing more of his genes to enter into the population. Sociobiologists would view this instinctual cub-killing behavior as being inherited through the genes of successfully reproducing male lions, whereas non-killing behavior may have died out as those lions were less successful in reproducing. + +== History == + +The philosopher of biology Daniel Dennett suggested that the political philosopher Thomas Hobbes was the first proto-sociobiologist, arguing that in his 1651 book Leviathan Hobbes had explained the origins of morals in human society from an amoral sociobiological perspective. +The geneticist of animal behavior John Paul Scott coined the word sociobiology at a 1948 conference on genetics and social behavior, which called for a conjoint development of field and laboratory studies in animal behavior research. With John Paul Scott's organizational efforts, a "Section of Animal Behavior and Sociobiology" of the Ecological Society of America was created in 1956, which became a Division of Animal Behavior of the American Society of Zoology in 1958. In 1956, E. O. Wilson came in contact with this emerging sociobiology through his PhD student Stuart A. Altmann, who had been in close relation with the participants to the 1948 conference. Altmann developed his own brand of sociobiology to study the social behavior of rhesus macaques, using statistics, and was hired as a "sociobiologist" at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in 1965. +Wilson's sociobiology is different from John Paul Scott's or Altmann's, insofar as he drew on mathematical models of social behavior centered on the maximization of the genetic fitness by W. D. Hamilton, Robert Trivers, John Maynard Smith, and George R. Price. The three sociobiologies by Scott, Altmann and Wilson have in common to place naturalist studies at the core of the research on animal social behavior and by drawing alliances with emerging research methodologies, at a time when "biology in the field" was threatened to be made old-fashioned by "modern" practices of science (laboratory studies, mathematical biology, molecular biology). +Once a specialist term, "sociobiology" became widely known in 1975 when Wilson published his book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, sparking intense controversy. Since then "sociobiology" has largely been equated with Wilson's vision. The book pioneered and popularized the attempt to explain the evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviors such as altruism, aggression, and nurturance, primarily in ants (Wilson's own research specialty) and other Hymenoptera, but also in other animals. However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists and philosophers from the 19th century onwards. Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, written in the early 1890s, is a popular example. The final chapter of the book is devoted to sociobiological explanations of human behavior, and Wilson later wrote a Pulitzer Prize winning book, On Human Nature, that addressed human behavior specifically. +Edward H. Hagen writes in The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology that sociobiology is, despite the public controversy on its application to humans, "one of the scientific triumphs of the twentieth century." He adds that "Sociobiology is now part of the core research and curriculum of virtually all biology departments, and it is a foundation of the work of almost all field biologists." Sociobiological research on nonhuman organisms has increased dramatically and continuously in the world's top scientific journals such as Nature and Science. The more general term behavioral ecology is commonly substituted to avoid the public controversy. + +== Theory == + +=== Natural selection === + +Sociobiologists maintain that human and other animal behavior can be partly explained as the outcome of natural selection. They contend that in order to fully understand behavior, it must be analyzed in terms of evolution, principally by natural selection. Sociobiology is based upon two fundamental premises: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96c9fa293 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Sociobiology" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:24.998969+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Certain behavioral traits are inherited, +Inherited behavioral traits have been honed by natural selection and were adaptive in the environment in which they evolved. +Sociobiology uses Nikolaas Tinbergen's four questions to search for explanations of animal behavior. Two of these categories are at the species level; two, at the individual level. The species-level categories (often called "ultimate explanations") are + +the adaptive function that a behavior serves and +the historical evolutionary process that resulted in this functionality. +The individual-level categories (often called "proximate explanations") are + +the development of the individual and +the proximate mechanism (such as brain anatomy and hormones). + +=== In humans === +Studies of human behavior genetics have found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability. Researchers are careful to point out that heritability does not constrain the influence that environmental or cultural factors may have on these traits. +Various theorists have argued that in some environments criminal behavior might be adaptive. The evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory, by sociologist/criminologist Lee Ellis, posits that female sexual selection has led to increased competitive behavior among men, sometimes resulting in criminality. In another theory, Mark van Vugt argues that a history of intergroup conflict for resources between men have led to differences in violence and aggression between men and women. The novelist Elias Canetti also has noted applications of sociobiological theory to cultural practices such as slavery and autocracy. + +== Genetics == +Genetic mouse mutants illustrate the power that genes exert on behavior. For example, the transcription factor FEV (aka Pet1), through its role in maintaining the serotonergic system in the brain, is required for normal aggressive and anxiety-like behavior. Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the mouse genome, male mice will instantly attack other males, whereas their wild-type counterparts take significantly longer to initiate violent behavior. In addition, FEV has been shown to be required for correct maternal behavior in mice, such that offspring of mothers without the FEV factor do not survive unless cross-fostered to other wild-type female mice. +A genetic basis for instinctive behavioral traits among non-human species, such as in the above example, is commonly accepted among many biologists; however, attempting to use a genetic basis to explain complex behaviors in human societies has remained extremely controversial. + +== Reception == +Steven Pinker argues that critics have been overly swayed by politics and a fear of biological determinism, accusing among others Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science, while Lewontin, Steven Rose and Leon Kamin, who drew a distinction between the politics and history of an idea and its scientific validity, argue that sociobiology fails on scientific grounds. Gould grouped sociobiology with eugenics, criticizing both in his book The Mismeasure of Man. When Napoleon Chagnon scheduled sessions on sociobiology at the 1976 American Anthropological Association convention, other scholars attempted to cancel them with what Chagnon later described as "Impassioned accusations of racism, fascism and Nazism"; Margaret Mead's support caused the sessions to occur as scheduled. +Noam Chomsky has expressed views on sociobiology on several occasions. During a 1976 meeting of the Sociobiology Study Group, as reported by Ullica Segerstråle, Chomsky argued for the importance of a sociobiologically informed notion of human nature. Chomsky argued that human beings are biological organisms and ought to be studied as such, with his criticism of the "blank slate" doctrine in the social sciences (which would inspire a great deal of Steven Pinker's and others' work in evolutionary psychology), in his 1975 Reflections on Language. Chomsky further hinted at the possible reconciliation of his anarchist political views and sociobiology in a discussion of Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which focused more on altruism than aggression, suggesting that anarchist societies were feasible because of an innate human tendency to cooperate. +Wilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what ought to be, only what is the case. However, some critics have argued that the language of sociobiology readily slips from "is" to "ought", an instance of the naturalistic fallacy. Pinker has argued that opposition to stances considered anti-social, such as ethnic nepotism, is based on moral assumptions, meaning that such opposition is not falsifiable by scientific advances. The history of this debate, and others related to it, are covered in detail by Cronin (1993), Segerstråle (2000), and Alcock (2001). + +== See also == + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Sources == +Alcock, John (2001). The triumph of sociobiology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514383-6. +Barkow, Jerome, ed. (2006). Missing the Revolution: Darwinism for Social Scientists. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513002-7. +Cronin, Helena (1993). The ant and the peacock: Altruism and sexual selection from Darwin to today. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45765-1. +Segerstråle, Ullica (2000). Defenders of the truth: The sociobiology debate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286215-0. + +== Further reading == +Etcoff, Nancy (1999). Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-47942-4. +Kaplan, Gisela; Rogers, Lesley J. (2003). Gene Worship: Moving Beyond the Nature/Nurture Debate over Genes, Brain, and Gender. Other Press. ISBN 978-1-59051-034-6. +Lerner, Richard M. (1992). Final Solutions: Biology, Prejudice, and Genocide. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-00793-9. +Ovcharov, Dmitry (2023). "The problem of biological and social in Russian philosophy of the second half of the XX — beginning of the XXI century: historical and philosophical analytical review". Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University. 477 (7): 61–67. doi:10.47475/1994-2796-2023-477-7-61-67. +Richards, Janet Radcliffe (2000). Human Nature After Darwin: A Philosophical Introduction. London: Routledge. + +== External links == + +Sociobiology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) +The Sociobiology of Sociopathy, Mealey, 1995 +Speak, Darwinists! – interviews with leading sociobiologists +Race and creation by Richard Dawkins +Scientist at Work |Edward O. Wilson |Taking a Cue From Ants on Evolution of Humans by Nicholas Wade \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bb2ccff20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "The Selfish Gene" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Selfish Gene is a 1976 popular science book by Richard Dawkins that espouses the gene-centred view of evolution. It builds upon the thesis of George Christopher Williams's Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966) and W. D. Hamilton's work on kin selection. From the gene-centred view, it follows that the more genes two individuals share, the more sense it makes for them to co-operate. +The book introduced the term meme for a unit of cultural evolution analogous to the gene. Memetics has become a subject in its own right in the years since. In popularising Hamilton's ideas, as well as making its own valuable contributions to the field, the book has also stimulated research on human inclusive fitness. +The "selfish gene" is a metaphor for the gene-centred view of evolution. As such, the book is not about a particular gene that causes selfish behaviour; in fact, much of it is devoted to explaining the evolution of altruism. Dawkins says of the title that he "can readily see that it might give an inadequate impression of its contents" and in retrospect wishes he had taken Tom Maschler's advice and titled it The Immortal Gene. He laments that “Too many people read it by title only.” In response, he expanded on the evolution of altruism in the BBC documentary Nice Guys Finish First. + +== Background == +Dawkins builds upon George Christopher Williams's book Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966), which argued that altruism is not based upon group benefit per se, but results from selection that occurs "at the level of the gene mediated by the phenotype" and that any selection at the group level occurred only under rare circumstances. W. D. Hamilton and others developed this approach further during the 1960s; they opposed the concepts of group selection and of selection aimed directly at benefit to the individual organism: + +Despite the principle of 'survival of the fittest' the ultimate criterion which determines whether [a gene] G will spread is not whether the behavior is to the benefit of the behaver, but whether it is to the benefit of the gene G ...With altruism this will happen only if the affected individual is a relative of the altruist, therefore having an increased chance of carrying the gene. + +— W. D. Hamilton, The Evolution of Altruistic Behavior (1963) +The book's central metaphor is a means of explicating the gene-centred view of evolution. + +== Book == + +=== Title === +Dawkins recalls showing The Selfish Gene to Tom Maschler, who "liked the book but not the title". He suggested The Immortal Gene. Dawkins writes that "Maschler may have been right. Many critics, especially vociferous ones learned in philosophy as I have discovered, prefer to read a book by title only. No doubt this works well enough for The Tale of Benjamin Bunny or The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, but I can readily see that ‘The Selfish Gene’ on its own, without the large footnote of the book itself, might give an inadequate impression of its contents." + +=== Contents === +1. Why Are People? +Dawkins writes that "Intelligent life on a planet comes of age when it first works out the reason for its own existence. ... Living organisms had existed on earth, without ever knowing why, for over three thousand million years before the truth finally dawned on one of them. His name was Charles Darwin." Darwin (and Alfred Russel Wallace, working independently) discovered the mechanism of evolution: natural selection. + +2. The Replicators +Dawkins introduces the term replicator to describe self-replicating molecules like DNA and RNA. He considers the origin of life with the emergence of replicators. The original replicator was the first molecule which managed to reproduce itself and thus gained an advantage over other molecules within the primordial soup. As replicating molecules became more complex, Dawkins postulates, they evolved cells serving as survival machines. Cells joined to form bodies. + +3. Immortal Coils +Dawkins expands on DNA, its helical structure and its organisation into chromosomes. Genes are DNA segments which are translated into proteins. Darwin’s coeval Gregor Mendel worked out the laws of inheritance and found that traits are inherited as discrete units. In meiosis, the production of gametes, genes are recombined during crossing over. + +4. The Gene Machine +Dawkins discusses the evolution of behaviour. Genes encoding behaviours that cause those genes to be passed on will naturally be selected for. He provides various examples. + +5. Aggression +Dawkins discusses John Maynard Smith’s evolutionarily stable strategy, "a strategy which, if most members of a population adopt it, cannot be bettered by an alternative strategy … once an ESS is achieved it will stay: selection will penalize any deviation from it." A 50:50 ratio of 'hawks' (aggressors) and 'doves' (nonaggressors) is evolutionarily stable. + +6. Genesmanship +Dawkins discusses kin selection: "Close relatives – kin – have a greater than average chance of sharing genes. It has long been clear that this must be why altruism by parents toward their young is so common. What R. A. Fisher, J. B. S. Haldane and especially W. D. Hamilton realized was that the same applies to other close relations—brothers and sisters, nephews and nieces, close cousins. If an individual dies in order to save ten close relatives, one copy of the kin-altruism gene may be lost, but a larger number of copies of the gene is saved." + +7. Family Planning +Dawkins discusses David Lack’s principle. Natural selection, according to Lack, adjusts initial clutch size so as to take maximum advantage of these limited resources. + +8. Battle of the Generations +Dawkins discusses R. L. Trivers’s concept of parental investment, "any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring’s chance of surviving (and hence reproductive success) at the cost of the parent’s ability to invest in other offspring". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d48abfcd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "The Selfish Gene" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +9. Battle of the Sexes +Dawkins discusses Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. Females can afford to be choosy in their mates, and select for attractive traits in males. Fisher's principle explains why a 50:50 ratio of males to females is evolutionarily stable. This is true even in an extreme case like the harem-keeping elephant seal, where 4% of the males get 88% of copulations. In that case, the strategy of having a female offspring is safe, as she will have a pup, but the strategy of having a male can bring a large return (dozens of pups), even though many males live out their lives as bachelors. + +10. You Scratch My back, I’ll Ride on Yours +Dawkins discusses reciprocal altruism. Amotz Zahavi's theory of honest signalling explains stotting as a selfish act that improves the springbok's chances of escaping from a predator by indicating how difficult the chase would be. Dawkins discusses why many species live in groups, achieving mutual benefits through mechanisms such as Hamilton's selfish herd model: each individual behaves selfishly but the result is herd behaviour. Altruism can evolve, as in the social insects such as ants and bees, where workers give up the right to reproduce in favour of a sister, the queen; in their case, the unusual (haplodiploid) system of sex determination may have helped to bring this about, as females in a nest are exceptionally closely related. + +11. Memes +Dawkins discusses cultural evolution, which is in some ways analogous to biological evolution. Dawkins proposes that units of information can propagate themselves like genes. "The new soup is the soup of human culture. We need a name for the new replicator or a unit of imitation. ‘Mimeme’ comes from a suitable Greek root, but I want a monosyllable that sounds a bit like ‘gene’. I hope my classicist friends will forgive me if I abbreviate mimeme to meme. If it is any consolation, it could alternatively be thought of as being related to ’memory’, or to the French word même. It should be pronounced to rhyme with ‘cream’." + +== Reception == +The Selfish Gene was extremely popular when published and it remains widely read. Proponents argue that the central point, that replicating the gene is the object of selection, usefully completes and extends Darwin's explanation of evolution. Peter Medawar wrote that it is "a most skillful reformulation of the central problems of social biology in terms of the genetical theory of natural selection. Beyond this, it is learned, witty and very well written." W. D. Hamilton wrote that "The book should be read, can be read, by almost anyone. It describes with great skill a new face of the theory of evolution." John Maynard Smith writes that "The Selfish Gene was unusual in that, although written as a popular account, it made an original contribution to biology." +The New York Times wrote "it's the kind of science writing that makes the reader feel like a genius." Tim Radford, reviewing it in 2012, wrote that "To re-read it is to be reminded of what an extraordinary achievement it was." +Ian McEwan writes "It hastened a sea change in evolutionary theory, it affected profoundly the teaching of biology, it enticed an enthusiastic younger generation into the subject, and spawned a huge literature, and eventually a new discipline - memetics. At the same time, and this is the measure of its achievement, it addressed itself without condescension to the layman. It did so provocatively, and with style." + +=== Critiques === +According to the psychologist Nicky Hayes, "Dawkins presented a version of sociobiology that rested heavily on metaphors drawn from animal behaviour, and extrapolated these...One of the weaknesses of the sociological approach is that it tends only to seek confirmatory examples from among the huge diversity of animal behaviour. Dawkins did not deviate from this tradition." More generally, critics argue that The Selfish Gene oversimplifies the relationship between genes and the organism. +In 1976 the ecologist Arthur Cain, one of Dawkins's tutors at Oxford in the 1960s, called it a "young man's book", a quote of a critique of the New College, Oxford philosopher A. J. Ayer's Language, Truth, and Logic (1936). Dawkins noted that he had been "flattered by the comparison, [but] knew that Ayer had recanted much of his first book and [he] could hardly miss Cain's pointed implication that [he] should, in the fullness of time, do the same." The philosopher Mary Midgley mused that "This hasn't occurred to Dawkins. He goes on saying the same thing." However, according to Wilkins and Hull, Dawkins's thinking has developed: + +In Dawkins's early writings, replicators and vehicles played different but complementary and equally important roles in selection, but as Dawkins honed his view of the evolutionary process, vehicles became less and less fundamental...In later writings Dawkins goes even further and argues that phenotypic traits are what really matter in selection and that they can be treated independently of their being organized into vehicles...Thus, it comes as no surprise when Dawkins proclaims that he "coined the term 'vehicle' not to praise it but to bury it." As prevalent as organisms might be, as determinate as the causal roles that they play in selection are, reference to them can and must be omitted from any perspicuous characterization of selection in the evolutionary process. Dawkins is far from a genetic determinist, but he is certainly a genetic reductionist. +— John S Wilkins, David Hull, Dawkins on Replicators and Vehicles, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy +As to the unit of selection, Stephen Jay Gould, in The Structure of Evolutionary Theory, finds Dawkins's position tries to have it both ways: + +Dawkins claims to prefer genes and to find greater insight in this formulation. But he allows that you or I might prefer organisms—and it really doesn't matter. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e0c13e30f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "The Selfish Gene" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Choice of words === +A good deal of objection to The Selfish Gene stemmed from its failure to be always clear about "selection" and "replication". Dawkins says the gene is the fundamental unit of selection, and then points out that selection does not act directly upon the gene, but upon "vehicles" or '"extended phenotypes". Stephen Jay Gould took exception to calling the gene a 'unit of selection' because selection acted only upon phenotypes. Summarising the Dawkins-Gould difference of view, Sterelny says: + +Gould thinks gene differences do not cause evolutionary changes in populations, they register those changes. +The word "cause" here is somewhat tricky: does a change in lottery rules (for example, inheriting a defective gene "responsible" for a disorder) "cause" differences in outcome that might or might not occur? It certainly alters the likelihood of events, but a concatenation of contingencies decides what actually occurs. Dawkins thinks the use of "cause" as a statistical weighting is acceptable in common usage. Like Gould, Gabriel Dover in criticising The Selfish Gene says: + +It is illegitimate to give 'powers' to genes, as Dawkins would have it, to control the outcome of selection...There are no genes for interactions, as such: rather, each unique set of inherited genes contributes interactively to one unique phenotype...the true determinants of selection. +However, from a comparison with Dawkins's discussion of this very same point, it would seem both Gould's and Dover's comments are more a critique of his sloppy usage than a difference of views. Hull suggested a resolution based upon a distinction between replicators and interactors. +Andrew Brown has written: + +"Selfish", when applied to genes, doesn't mean "selfish" at all. It means, instead, an extremely important quality for which there is no good word in the English language: "the quality of being copied by a Darwinian selection process." This is a complicated mouthful. There ought to be a better, shorter word—but "selfish" isn't it. +Donald Symons also finds it inappropriate to use anthropomorphism in conveying scientific meaning in general, and particularly in this instance. He writes in The Evolution of Human Sexuality (1979): + +In summary, the rhetoric of The Selfish Gene exactly reverses the real situation: through [the use of] metaphor genes are endowed with properties only sentient beings can possess, such as selfishness, while sentient beings are stripped of these properties and called machines...The anthropomorphism of genes...obscures the deepest mystery in the life sciences: the origin and nature of mind. + +== Influence == + +=== Selfish genetic elements === +Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel introduced the term “selfish genetic element” to describe replicators that spread through the genome at their host's expense. Ford Doolittle and Carmen Sapienza used "selfish gene" to describe the phenomena shortly thereafter. + +=== Memes === +The psychologist Susan Blackmore wrote The Meme Machine (2000), with a foreword by Dawkins. James Gleick describes Dawkins's meme as "his most famous and memorable invention". +The Selfish Gene popularised sociobiology in Japan after its translation in 1980. The "meme" entered the country's consciousness. Yuzuru Tanaka of Hokkaido University wrote Meme Media and Meme Market Architectures. The information scientist Osamu Sakura has published a book in Japanese and several papers in English on the topic. Nippon Animation produced the educational series The Many Dream Journeys of Meme. + +== Publication == +The Selfish Gene was first published by Oxford University Press in 1976 in eleven chapters with a preface by the author and a foreword by Robert Trivers. A second edition was published in 1989. This edition added two new chapters and substantial endnotes to the preceding chapters, reflecting thoughts from The Extended Phenotype. It also added a second preface by the author, but the original foreword by Trivers was dropped. The book has been translated into at least 23 languages including Arabic, Thai and Turkish. +In 2006 a 30th-anniversary edition was published with the Trivers foreword and a new introduction by the author in which he states, "This edition does, however---and it is a source of particular joy to me---restore the original Foreword by Robert Trivers." This edition was accompanied by a festschrift entitled Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think (2006). In March 2006 a special event entitled The Selfish Gene: Thirty Years On was held at the London School of Economics. In March 2011 Audible published an audiobook edition narrated by Dawkins and his wife at the time, the actress Lalla Ward. +In 2016 Oxford University Press published The Extended Selfish Gene, a 40th-anniversary edition with a new epilogue in which Dawkins discusses the endurance of the gene's eye view of evolution and states that it, along with coalescence analysis "illuminates the deep past in ways of which I had no inkling when I first wrote The Selfish Gene..." It contains two chapters from The Extended Phenotype. He thanks Yan Wong, "my co-author of The Ancestor's Tale, from whom I learned everything I know about coalescence theory and much else besides." + +=== Editions === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fdb339871 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "The Selfish Gene" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Awards and recognition == +In July 2017 a poll to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Royal Society Science Book Prize listed The Selfish Gene as the most influential science book of all time. +The Royal Institution conducted a poll to determine the best science book ever. The Selfish Gene made the shortlist, along with Tom Stoppard's Arcadia, Konrad Lorenz's King Solomon's Ring and, in first place, Primo Levi's The Periodic Table. +Ian McEwan writes that it "stood at the beginning of a golden age of science writing. With a fine sense of literary tradition, the physicist Steven Weinberg, in his book Dreams of a Final Theory, revisited Huxley's lecture on chalk in order to make the case for reductionism. Steven Pinker's application of Darwinian thought to Chomskyan linguistics in The Language Instinct is one of the finest celebrations of language I know. Among many other indispensable 'classics', I would propose EO Wilson's The Diversity of Life on the ecological wonders of the Amazon rain forest, and on the teeming micro-organisms in a handful of soil; David Deutsch's masterly account of the Many Worlds theory in The Fabric of Reality; Jared Diamond's melding of history with biological thought in Guns, Germs and Steel..." +Weinberg included it on his list of the 13 best science books for the general reader. + +== See also == + +The Making of the Fittest (2006) by Sean B. Carroll, a book about evidence for evolution from genomics +Non-cooperative game – Type of game involving individual competitionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Selfish DNA – Genetic segments that can enhance their own transmission at the expense of other genesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Evolutionarily stable strategy – Solution concept in game theory +Green-beard effect – Hypothesis for altruism in evolutionary biology +Nice Guys Finish First (1986), BBC documentary on evolution of altruism + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Dawkins, Richard (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286092-7. +Dawkins, Richard (1989). The Selfish Gene (second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-217773-5. +Dawkins, Richard (2006). The Selfish Gene (30th anniversary ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929115-1. Archived from the original on 4 May 2006. The Selfish Gene at Google Books +Grafen, Alan; Ridley, Mark, eds. (2006). Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929116-8. +Ridley, Matt (28 January 2016). "In Retrospect: The Selfish Gene". Nature. 529 (7587): 462–463. Bibcode:2016Natur.529..462R. doi:10.1038/529462a. + +== External links == + +Video introduction by Richard Dawkins Archived 6 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine from Google Videos +The Selfish Gene: Thirty Years On Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine and mp3 from Edge Foundation, Inc. +Richard Dawkins discusses The Selfish Gene on the BBC World Book Club +Richard Dawkins on the origins of The Selfish Gene Archived 26 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Royal Institution event video, 20 September 2013 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aae0c224c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is a 1962 book about the history of science by the philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of science. Kuhn challenged the then prevailing view of progress in science in which scientific progress was viewed as "development-by-accumulation" of accepted facts and theories. Kuhn argued for an episodic model in which periods of conceptual continuity and cumulative progress, referred to as periods of "normal science", were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of "anomalies" accumulating and precipitating revolutions in science leads to new paradigms. New paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere "puzzle-solving" of the previous paradigm, alter the rules of the game and change the "map" directing new research. +For example, Kuhn's analysis of the Copernican Revolution emphasized that, in its beginning, it did not offer more accurate predictions of celestial events, such as planetary positions, than the Ptolemaic system, but instead appealed to some practitioners based on a promise of better, simpler solutions that might be developed at some point in the future. Kuhn called the core concepts of an ascendant revolution its "paradigms" and thereby launched this word into widespread analogical use in the second half of the 20th century. Kuhn's insistence that a paradigm shift was a mélange of sociology, enthusiasm and scientific promise, but not a logically determinate procedure, caused an uproar in reaction to his work. Kuhn addressed concerns in the 1969 postscript to the second edition. For some commentators The Structure of Scientific Revolutions introduced a realistic humanism into the core of science, while for others the nobility of science was tarnished by Kuhn's introduction of an irrational element into the heart of its greatest achievements. + +== History == +The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was first published as a monograph in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, then as a book by University of Chicago Press in 1962. In 1969, Kuhn added a postscript to the book in which he replied to critical responses to the first edition. A 50th Anniversary Edition (with an introductory essay by Ian Hacking) was published by the University of Chicago Press in April 2012. +Kuhn dated the genesis of his book to 1947, when he was a graduate student at Harvard University and had been asked to teach a science class for humanities undergraduates with a focus on historical case studies. Kuhn later commented that until then, "I'd never read an old document in science." Aristotle's Physics was astonishingly unlike Isaac Newton's work in its concepts of matter and motion. Kuhn wrote: "as I was reading him, Aristotle appeared not only ignorant of mechanics, but a dreadfully bad physical scientist as well. About motion, in particular, his writings seemed to me full of egregious errors, both of logic and of observation." This was in an apparent contradiction with the fact that Aristotle was a brilliant mind. While perusing Aristotle's Physics, Kuhn formed the view that in order to properly appreciate Aristotle's reasoning, one must be aware of the scientific conventions of the time. Kuhn concluded that Aristotle's concepts were not "bad Newton," just different. This insight was the foundation of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. +Central ideas regarding the process of scientific investigation and discovery had been anticipated by Ludwik Fleck in Fleck (1935). Fleck had developed the first system of the sociology of scientific knowledge. He claimed that the exchange of ideas led to the establishment of a thought collective, which, when developed sufficiently, separated the field into esoteric (professional) and exoteric (laymen) circles. Kuhn wrote the foreword to the 1979 edition of Fleck's book, noting that he read it in 1950 and was reassured that someone "saw in the history of science what I myself was finding there." +Kuhn was not confident about how his book would be received. Harvard University had denied his tenure a few years prior. By the mid-1980s, however, his book had achieved blockbuster status. When Kuhn's book came out in the early 1960s, "structure" was an intellectually popular word in many fields in the humanities and social sciences, including linguistics and anthropology, appealing in its idea that complex phenomena could reveal or be studied through basic, simpler structures. Kuhn's book contributed to that idea. +One theory to which Kuhn replies directly is Karl Popper's "falsificationism," which stresses falsifiability as the most important criterion for distinguishing between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific. Kuhn also addresses verificationism, a philosophical movement that emerged in the 1920s among logical positivists. The verifiability principle claims that meaningful statements must be supported by empirical evidence or logical requirements. + +== Synopsis == + +=== Basic approach === +Kuhn's approach to the history and philosophy of science addresses conceptual issues like the practice of normal science, influence of historical events, emergence of scientific discoveries, nature of scientific revolutions and progress through scientific revolutions. What sorts of intellectual options and strategies were available to people during a given period? What types of lexicons and terminology were known and employed during certain epochs? Stressing the importance of not attributing traditional thought to earlier investigators, Kuhn's book argues that the evolution of scientific theory does not emerge from the straightforward accumulation of facts, but rather from a set of changing intellectual circumstances and possibilities. +Kuhn did not see scientific theory as proceeding linearly from an objective, unbiased accumulation of all available data, but rather as paradigm-driven: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6e6f974a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"The operations and measurements that a scientist undertakes in the laboratory are not "the given" of experience but rather "the collected with difficulty". They are not what the scientist sees—at least not before his research is well advanced and his attention focused. Rather, they are concrete indices to the content of more elementary perceptions, and as such they are selected for the close scrutiny of normal research only because they promise opportunity for the fruitful elaboration of an accepted paradigm. Far more clearly than the immediate experience from which they in part derive, operations and measurements are paradigm-determined. Science does not deal in all possible laboratory manipulations. Instead, it selects those relevant to the juxtaposition of a paradigm with the immediate experience that that paradigm has partially determined. As a result, scientists with different paradigms engage in different concrete laboratory manipulations." + +=== Historical examples of chemistry === + +Kuhn explains his ideas using examples taken from the history of science. For instance, eighteenth-century scientists believed that homogenous solutions were chemical compounds. Therefore, a combination of water and alcohol was generally classified as a compound. Nowadays it is considered to be a solution, but there was no reason then to suspect that it was not a compound. Water and alcohol would not separate spontaneously, nor will they separate completely upon distillation (they form an azeotrope). Water and alcohol can be combined in any proportion. +Under this paradigm, scientists believed that chemical reactions (such as the combination of water and alcohol) did not necessarily occur in fixed proportion. This belief was ultimately overturned by Dalton's atomic theory, which asserted that atoms can only combine in simple, whole-number ratios. Under this new paradigm, any reaction which did not occur in fixed proportion could not be a chemical process. This type of world-view transition among the scientific community exemplifies Kuhn's paradigm shift. + +=== Examples from applied microbiology === +In 1860 Louis Pasteur published experimental results proving that fermentation was caused by microorganisms, instead of some self-starting chemical reaction, which was the reigning theory. As summarized by science writer Charles Mann, "Pasteur’s work led to a pitched intellectual battle—and the eventual triumph of germ theory, which overturned earlier ideas about infectious disease." Mann continues: +Pasteur’s work on the role of microorganisms in infectious disease inaugurated the modern discipline of microbiology—and led to a host of about-faces in previous medical beliefs. German researcher Robert Koch, often considered microbiology’s co-founder, then discovered the microbes that caused anthrax, cholera and tuberculosis. All cast aside earlier ideas. For instance, many in Koch’s Germany believed tuberculosis was a hereditary disease passed down through families until 1882, when the scientist unveiled Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium responsible for the disease. +While paradigm shifts in the physical and chemical sciences can greatly affect how technologies evolve in societally impactful ways, anything pertaining to the wellbeing of human bodies can easily become politicized. Mann offers examples pertaining to the decades long controversy over the age threshold recommended for regular breast cancer screenings and to the initial World Health Organization pronouncement in 2020 that COVID-19 could not be transmitted through the air. Government policies and mandates issued to thwart the COVID-19 pandemic were in part impelled by scientific understandings that were later overturned. + +=== Copernican Revolution === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3c8db8cf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A famous example of a revolution in scientific thought is the Copernican Revolution. In Ptolemy's school of thought, cycles and epicycles (with some additional concepts) were used for modeling the movements of the planets in a cosmos that had a stationary Earth at its center. As accuracy of celestial observations increased, complexity of the Ptolemaic cyclical and epicyclical mechanisms had to increase to maintain the calculated planetary positions close to the observed positions. Copernicus proposed a cosmology in which the Sun was at the center and the Earth was one of the planets revolving around it. For modeling the planetary motions, Copernicus used the tools he was familiar with, namely the cycles and epicycles of the Ptolemaic toolbox. Yet Copernicus' model needed more cycles and epicycles than existed in the then-current Ptolemaic model, and due to a lack of accuracy in calculations, his model did not appear to provide more accurate predictions than the Ptolemy model. Copernicus' contemporaries rejected his cosmology, and Kuhn asserts that they were quite right to do so: Copernicus' cosmology lacked credibility. +Kuhn illustrates how a paradigm shift later became possible when Galileo Galilei introduced his new ideas concerning motion. Intuitively, when an object is set in motion, it soon comes to a halt. A well-made cart may travel a long distance before it stops, but unless something keeps pushing it, it will eventually stop moving. Aristotle had argued that this was presumably a fundamental property of nature: for the motion of an object to be sustained, it must continue to be pushed. Given the knowledge available at the time, this represented sensible, reasonable thinking. +Galileo put forward a bold alternative conjecture: suppose, he said, that we always observe objects coming to a halt simply because some friction is always occurring. Galileo had no equipment with which to objectively confirm his conjecture, but he suggested that without any friction to slow down an object in motion, its inherent tendency is to maintain its speed without the application of any additional force. +The Ptolemaic approach of using cycles and epicycles was becoming strained: there seemed to be no end to the mushrooming growth in complexity required to account for the observable phenomena. Johannes Kepler was the first person to abandon the tools of the Ptolemaic paradigm. He started to explore the possibility that the planet Mars might have an elliptical orbit rather than a circular one. Clearly, the angular velocity could not be constant, but it proved very difficult to find the formula describing the rate of change of the planet's angular velocity. After many years of calculations, Kepler arrived at what we now know as the law of equal areas. +Galileo's conjecture was merely that – a conjecture. So was Kepler's cosmology. But each conjecture increased the credibility of the other, and together, they changed the prevailing perceptions of the scientific community. Later, Newton showed that Kepler's three laws could all be derived from a single theory of motion and planetary motion. Newton solidified and unified the paradigm shift that Galileo and Kepler had initiated. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e63dbd540 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Coherence === +One of the aims of science is to find models that will account for as many observations as possible within a coherent framework. Together, Galileo's rethinking of the nature of motion and Keplerian cosmology represented a coherent framework that was capable of rivaling the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic framework. +Once a paradigm shift has taken place, the textbooks are rewritten. Often the history of science too is rewritten, being presented as an inevitable process leading up to the current, established framework of thought. There is a prevalent belief that all hitherto-unexplained phenomena will in due course be accounted for in terms of this established framework. Kuhn states that scientists spend most (if not all) of their careers in a process of puzzle-solving. Their puzzle-solving is pursued with great tenacity, because the previous successes of the established paradigm tend to generate great confidence that the approach being taken guarantees that a solution to the puzzle exists, even though it may be very hard to find. Kuhn calls this process normal science. +As a paradigm is stretched to its limits, anomalies – failures of the current paradigm to take into account observed phenomena – accumulate. Their significance is judged by the practitioners of the discipline. Some anomalies may be dismissed as errors in observation, others as merely requiring small adjustments to the current paradigm that will be clarified in due course. Some anomalies resolve themselves spontaneously, having increased the available depth of insight along the way. But no matter how great or numerous the anomalies that persist, Kuhn observes, the practicing scientists will not lose faith in the established paradigm until a credible alternative is available; to lose faith in the solvability of the problems would in effect mean ceasing to be a scientist. +In any community of scientists, Kuhn states, there are some individuals who are bolder than most. These scientists, judging that a crisis exists, embark on what Kuhn calls revolutionary science, exploring alternatives to long-held, obvious-seeming assumptions. Occasionally this generates a rival to the established framework of thought. The new candidate paradigm will appear to be accompanied by numerous anomalies, partly because it is still so new and incomplete. The majority of the scientific community will oppose any conceptual change, and, Kuhn emphasizes, so they should. To fulfill its potential, a scientific community needs to contain both individuals who are bold and individuals who are conservative. There are many examples in the history of science in which confidence in the established frame of thought was eventually vindicated. Kuhn cites, as an example, that Alexis Clairaut, in 1750, was able to account accurately for the precession of the Moon's orbit using Newtonian theory, after sixty years of failed attempts. It is almost impossible to predict whether the anomalies in a candidate for a new paradigm will eventually be resolved. Those scientists who possess an exceptional ability to recognize a theory's potential will be the first whose preference is likely to shift in favour of the challenging paradigm. There typically follows a period in which there are adherents of both paradigms. In time, if the challenging paradigm is solidified and unified, it will replace the old paradigm, and a paradigm shift will have occurred. +Kuhn uses Norwood Russell Hanson's concept of 'theory-ladenness' to explain paradigm shifts. It shows that scientists may interpret the same phenomenon differently depending on the prevailing theory, and it reveals how perspectives on existing data change when a new paradigm emerges. + +=== Phases === +Kuhn explains the process of scientific change as the result of various phases of paradigm change. + +Phase 1 – It exists only once and is the pre-paradigm phase, in which there is no consensus on any particular theory. This phase is characterized by several incompatible and incomplete theories. Consequently, most scientific inquiry takes the form of lengthy books, as there is no common body of facts that may be taken for granted. When the actors in the pre-paradigm community eventually gravitate to one of these conceptual frameworks and ultimately to a widespread consensus on the appropriate choice of methods, terminology and on the kinds of experiment that are likely to contribute to increased insights, the old schools of thought disappear. The new paradigm leads to a more rigid definition of the research field, and those who are reluctant or unable to adapt are isolated or have to join rival groups. +Phase 2 – Normal science begins, in which puzzles are solved within the context of the dominant paradigm. As long as there is consensus within the discipline, normal science continues. Over time, progress in normal science may reveal anomalies, facts that are difficult to explain within the context of the existing paradigm. While usually these anomalies are resolved, in some cases they may accumulate to the point where normal science becomes difficult and where weaknesses in the old paradigm are revealed. +Phase 3 – If the paradigm proves chronically unable to account for anomalies, the community enters a crisis period. Crises are often resolved within the context of normal science. However, after significant efforts of normal science within a paradigm fail, science may enter the next phase. +Phase 4 – Paradigm shift, or scientific revolution, is the phase in which the underlying assumptions of the field are reexamined and a new paradigm is established. +Phase 5 – Post-revolution, the new paradigm's dominance is established and so scientists return to normal science, solving puzzles within the new paradigm. +A science may go through these cycles repeatedly, though Kuhn notes that it is a good thing for science that such shifts do not occur often or easily. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4e46b416e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Incommensurability === +According to Kuhn, the scientific paradigms preceding and succeeding a paradigm shift are so different that their theories are incommensurable—the new paradigm cannot be proven or disproven by the rules of the old paradigm, and vice versa. A later interpretation by Kuhn of "commensurable" versus "incommensurable" was as a distinction between "languages", namely, that statements in commensurable languages were translatable fully from one to the other, while in incommensurable languages, strict translation is not possible. The paradigm shift does not merely involve the revision or transformation of an individual theory, it changes the way terminology is defined, how the scientists in that field view their subject, and, perhaps most significantly, what questions are regarded as valid, and what rules are used to determine the truth of a particular theory. The new theories were not, as the scientists had previously thought, just extensions of old theories, but were instead completely new world views. +Such incommensurability exists not just before and after a paradigm shift, but in the periods in between conflicting paradigms. It is simply not possible, according to Kuhn, to construct an impartial language that can be used to perform a neutral comparison between conflicting paradigms, because the very terms used are integral to the respective paradigms, and therefore have different connotations in each paradigm. The advocates of mutually exclusive paradigms are in a difficult position: "Though each may hope to convert the other to his way of seeing science and its problems, neither may hope to prove his case. The competition between paradigms is not the sort of battle that can be resolved by proofs." Scientists subscribing to different paradigms end up talking past one another. +Kuhn states that the probabilistic tools used by verificationists are inherently inadequate for the task of deciding between conflicting theories, since they belong to the very paradigms they seek to compare. Similarly, observations that are intended to falsify a statement will fall under one of the paradigms they are supposed to help compare, and will therefore also be inadequate for the task. According to Kuhn, the concept of falsifiability is unhelpful for understanding why and how science has developed as it has. In the practice of science, scientists will only consider the possibility that a theory has been falsified if an alternative theory is available that they judge credible. If there is not, scientists will continue to adhere to the established conceptual framework. If a paradigm shift has occurred, the textbooks will be rewritten to state that the previous theory has been falsified. +Kuhn further developed his ideas regarding incommensurability in the 1980s and 1990s. In his unpublished manuscript The Plurality of Worlds, Kuhn introduces the theory of kind concepts: sets of interrelated concepts that are characteristic of a time period in a science and differ in structure from the modern analogous kind concepts. These different structures imply different "taxonomies" of things and processes, and this difference in taxonomies constitutes incommensurability. This theory is strongly naturalistic and draws on developmental psychology to "found a quasi-transcendental theory of experience and of reality." + +=== Exemplar === +Kuhn introduced the concept of an exemplar in a postscript to the second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1970). He noted that he was substituting the term "exemplars" for "paradigm", meaning the problems and solutions that students of a subject learn from the beginning of their education. For example, physicists might have as exemplars the inclined plane, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, or instruments like the calorimeter. +According to Kuhn, scientific practice alternates between periods of normal science and revolutionary science. During periods of normalcy, scientists tend to subscribe to a large body of interconnecting knowledge, methods, and assumptions which make up the reigning paradigm (see paradigm shift). Normal science presents a series of problems that are solved as scientists explore their field. The solutions to some of these problems become well known and are the exemplars of the field. +Those who study a scientific discipline are expected to know its exemplars. There is no fixed set of exemplars, but for a physicist today it would probably include the harmonic oscillator from mechanics and the hydrogen atom from quantum mechanics. + +== Kuhn on scientific progress == +The first edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions ended with a chapter titled "Progress through Revolutions", in which Kuhn spelled out his views on the nature of scientific progress. Since he considered problem solving (or "puzzle solving") to be a central element of science, Kuhn saw that for a new candidate paradigm to be accepted by a scientific community, \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9e40d82ba --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"First, the new candidate must seem to resolve some outstanding and generally recognized problem that can be met in no other way. Second, the new paradigm must promise to preserve a relatively large part of the concrete problem-solving ability that has accrued to science through its predecessors. Novelty for its own sake is not a desideratum in the sciences as it is in so many other creative fields. As a result, though new paradigms seldom or never possess all the capabilities of their predecessors, they usually preserve a great deal of the most concrete parts of past achievement and they always permit additional concrete problem-solutions besides." +In the second edition, Kuhn added a postscript in which he elaborated his ideas on the nature of scientific progress. He described a thought experiment involving an observer who has the opportunity to inspect an assortment of theories, each corresponding to a single stage in a succession of theories. What if the observer is presented with these theories without any explicit indication of their chronological order? Kuhn anticipates that it will be possible to reconstruct their chronology on the basis of the theories' scope and content, because the more recent a theory is, the better it will be as an instrument for solving the kinds of puzzle that scientists aim to solve. Kuhn remarked: "That is not a relativist's position, and it displays the sense in which I am a convinced believer in scientific progress." + +== Influence and reception == +The Structure of Scientific Revolutions has been credited with producing the kind of "paradigm shift" Kuhn discussed. Since the book's publication, over one million copies have been sold, including translations into sixteen different languages. In 1987, it was reported to be the twentieth-century book most frequently cited in the period 1976–1983 in the arts and the humanities. + +=== Philosophy === +The first extensive review of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was authored by Dudley Shapere, a philosopher who interpreted Kuhn's work as a continuation of the anti-positivist sentiment of other philosophers of science, including Paul Feyerabend and Norwood Russell Hanson. Shapere noted the book's influence on the philosophical landscape of the time, calling it "a sustained attack on the prevailing image of scientific change as a linear process of ever-increasing knowledge". According to the philosopher Michael Ruse, Kuhn discredited the ahistorical and prescriptive approach to the philosophy of science of Ernest Nagel's The Structure of Science (1961). Kuhn's book sparked a historicist "revolt against positivism" (the so-called "historical turn in philosophy of science" which looked to the history of science as a source of data for developing a philosophy of science), although this may not have been Kuhn's intention; in fact, he had already approached the prominent positivist Rudolf Carnap about having his work published in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. The philosopher Robert C. Solomon noted that Kuhn's views have often been suggested to have an affinity to those of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Kuhn's view of scientific knowledge, as expounded in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, has been compared to the views of the philosopher Michel Foucault. + +=== Sociology === +The first field to claim descent from Kuhn's ideas was the sociology of scientific knowledge. Sociologists working within this new field, including Harry Collins and Steven Shapin, used Kuhn's emphasis on the role of non-evidential community factors in scientific development to argue against logical empiricism, which discouraged inquiry into the social aspects of scientific communities. These sociologists expanded upon Kuhn's ideas, arguing that scientific judgment is determined by social factors, such as professional interests and political ideologies. +Barry Barnes detailed the connection between the sociology of scientific knowledge and Kuhn in his book T. S. Kuhn and Social Science. In particular, Kuhn's ideas regarding science occurring within an established framework informed Barnes's own ideas regarding finitism, a theory wherein meaning is continuously changed (even during periods of normal science) by its usage within the social framework. +The Structure of Scientific Revolutions elicited a number of reactions from the broader sociological community. Following the book's publication, some sociologists expressed the belief that the field of sociology had not yet developed a unifying paradigm, and should therefore strive towards homogenization. Others argued that the field was in the midst of normal science, and speculated that a new revolution would soon emerge. Some sociologists, including John Urry, doubted that Kuhn's theory, which addressed the development of natural science, was necessarily relevant to sociological development. + +=== Economics === +Developments in the field of economics are often expressed and legitimized in Kuhnian terms. For instance, neoclassical economists have claimed "to be at the second stage [normal science], and to have been there for a very long time – since Adam Smith, according to some accounts (Hollander, 1987), or Jevons according to others (Hutchison, 1978)". In the 1970s, post-Keynesian economists denied the coherence of the neoclassical paradigm, claiming that their own paradigm would ultimately become dominant. +While perhaps less explicit, Kuhn's influence remains apparent in recent economics. For instance, the abstract of Olivier Blanchard's paper "The State of Macro" (2008) begins: + +For a long while after the explosion of macroeconomics in the 1970s, the field looked like a battlefield. Over time however, largely because facts do not go away, a largely shared vision both of fluctuations and of methodology has emerged. Not everything is fine. Like all revolutions, this one has come with the destruction of some knowledge, and suffers from extremism and herding. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c76ba66d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Political science === +In 1974, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was ranked as the second most frequently used book in political science courses focused on scope and methods. In particular, Kuhn's theory has been used by political scientists to critique behavioralism, which claims that accurate political statements must be both testable and falsifiable. The book also proved popular with political scientists embroiled in debates about whether a set of formulations put forth by a political scientist constituted a theory, or something else. +The changes that occur in politics, society and business are often expressed in Kuhnian terms, however poor their parallel with the practice of science may seem to scientists and historians of science. The terms "paradigm" and "paradigm shift" have become such notorious clichés and buzzwords that they are sometimes viewed as effectively devoid of content. + +== Criticisms == + +The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was soon criticized by Kuhn's colleagues in the history and philosophy of science. In 1965, a special symposium on the book was held at an International Colloquium on the Philosophy of Science that took place at Bedford College, London, and was chaired by Karl Popper. The symposium led to the publication of the symposium's presentations plus other essays, most of them critical, which eventually appeared in an influential volume of essays. Kuhn expressed the opinion that his critics' readings of his book were so inconsistent with his own understanding of it that he was "tempted to posit the existence of two Thomas Kuhns," one the author of his book, the other the individual who had been criticized in the symposium by Professors Popper, Feyerabend, Lakatos, Toulmin and Watkins. +A number of the included essays question the existence of normal science. In his essay, Feyerabend suggests that Kuhn's conception of normal science fits organized crime as well as it does science. Popper expresses distaste with the entire premise of Kuhn's book, writing, "the idea of turning for enlightenment concerning the aims of science, and its possible progress, to sociology or to psychology (or ... to the history of science) is surprising and disappointing." + +=== Concept of paradigm === +Stephen Toulmin defined paradigm as "the set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists about how problems should be understood and addressed". In his 1972 work, Human Understanding, he argued that a more realistic picture of science than that presented in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions would admit the fact that revisions in science take place much more frequently, and are much less dramatic than can be explained by the model of revolution/normal science. In Toulmin's view, such revisions occur quite often during periods of what Kuhn would call "normal science". For Kuhn to explain such revisions in terms of the non-paradigmatic puzzle solutions of normal science, he would need to delineate what is perhaps an implausibly sharp distinction between paradigmatic and non-paradigmatic science. +One of the early critics of Kuhn, Norwood Russell Hanson, criticized Kuhn's paradigm shift theory as conceptually circular and therefore unfalsifiable. + +=== Incommensurability of paradigms === +In a series of texts published in the early 1970s, Carl R. Kordig asserted a position somewhere between that of Kuhn and the older philosophy of science. His criticism of the Kuhnian position was that the incommensurability thesis was too radical, and that this made it impossible to explain the confrontation of scientific theories that actually occurs. According to Kordig, it is in fact possible to admit the existence of revolutions and paradigm shifts in science while still recognizing that theories belonging to different paradigms can be compared and confronted on the plane of observation. Those who accept the incommensurability thesis do not do so because they admit the discontinuity of paradigms, but because they attribute a radical change in meanings to such shifts. +Kordig maintains that there is a common observational plane. For example, when Kepler and Tycho Brahe are trying to explain the relative variation of the distance of the Sun from the horizon at sunrise, both see the same thing (the same configuration is focused on the retina of each individual). This is just one example of the fact that "rival scientific theories share some observations, and therefore some meanings". Kordig suggests that with this approach, he is not reintroducing the distinction between observations and theory in which the former is assigned a privileged and neutral status, but that it is possible to affirm more simply the fact that, even if no sharp distinction exists between theory and observations, this does not imply that there are no comprehensible differences at the two extremes of this polarity. +At a secondary level, for Kordig there is a common plane of inter-paradigmatic standards or shared norms that permit the effective confrontation of rival theories. +In 1973, Hartry Field published an article that also sharply criticized Kuhn's idea of incommensurability. In particular, he took issue with this passage from Kuhn: + +"Newtonian mass is immutably conserved; that of Einstein is convertible into energy. Only at very low relative velocities can the two masses be measured in the same way, and even then they must not be conceived as if they were the same thing." +Field takes this idea of incommensurability between the same terms in different theories one step further. Instead of attempting to identify a persistence of the reference of terms in different theories, Field's analysis emphasizes the indeterminacy of reference within individual theories. Field takes the example of the term "mass", and asks what exactly "mass" means in modern post-relativistic physics. He finds that there are at least two different definitions: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..98cfa3b21 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Relativistic mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the total energy of the particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since the total energy of a particle in relation to one system of reference differs from the total energy in relation to other systems of reference, while the speed of light remains constant in all systems, it follows that the mass of a particle has different values in different systems of reference. +"Real" mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the non-kinetic energy of a particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since non-kinetic energy is the same in all systems of reference, and the same is true of light, it follows that the mass of a particle has the same value in all systems of reference. +Projecting this distinction backwards in time onto Newtonian dynamics, we can formulate the following two hypotheses: + +HR: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes relativistic mass. +Hp: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes "real" mass. +According to Field, it is impossible to decide which of these two affirmations is true. Prior to the theory of relativity, the term "mass" was referentially indeterminate. But this does not mean that the term "mass" did not have a different meaning than it now has. The problem is not one of meaning but of reference. The reference of such terms as mass is only partially determined: we do not really know how Newton intended his use of this term to be applied. As a consequence, neither of the two terms fully denotes (refers). It follows that it is improper to maintain that a term has changed its reference during a scientific revolution; it is more appropriate to describe terms such as "mass" as "having undergone a denotional refinement". +In 1973, Donald Davidson objected that the concept of incommensurable scientific paradigms competing with each other is logically inconsistent. In his article Davidson goes well beyond the semantic version of the incommensurability thesis: to make sense of the idea of a language independent of translation requires a distinction between conceptual schemes and the content organized by such schemes. But, Davidson argues, no coherent sense can be made of the idea of a conceptual scheme, and therefore no sense may be attached to the idea of an untranslatable language. +The philosopher Tim Maudlin observes that incommensurability must have limits or "else the need to revise theories would never arise." + +=== Incommensurability and perception === +The close connection between the interpretationalist hypothesis and a holistic conception of beliefs is at the root of the notion of the dependence of perception on theory, a central concept in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Kuhn maintained that the perception of the world depends on how the percipient conceives the world: two scientists who witness the same phenomenon and are steeped in two radically different theories will see two different things(Theory-ladenness). According to this view, our interpretation of the world determines what we see. +Jerry Fodor attempts to establish that this theoretical paradigm is fallacious and misleading by demonstrating the impenetrability of perception to the background knowledge of subjects. The strongest case can be based on evidence from experimental cognitive psychology, namely the persistence of perceptual illusions. Knowing that the lines in the Müller-Lyer illusion are equal does not prevent one from continuing to see one line as being longer than the other. This impenetrability of the information elaborated by the mental modules limits the scope of interpretationalism. +In epistemology, for example, the criticism of what Fodor calls the interpretationalist hypothesis accounts for the common-sense intuition (on which naïve physics is based) of the independence of reality from the conceptual categories of the experimenter. If the processes of elaboration of the mental modules are in fact independent of the background theories, then it is possible to maintain the realist view that two scientists who embrace two radically diverse theories see the world exactly in the same manner even if they interpret it differently. The point is that it is necessary to distinguish between observations and the perceptual fixation of beliefs. While it is beyond doubt that the second process involves the holistic relationship between beliefs, the first is largely independent of the background beliefs of individuals. +Other critics, such as Israel Scheffler, Hilary Putnam and Saul Kripke, have focused on the Fregean distinction between sense and reference in order to defend scientific realism. Scheffler contends that Kuhn confuses the meanings of terms such as "mass" with their referents. While their meanings may very well differ, their referents (the objects or entities to which they correspond in the external world) remain fixed. +In this regard, there is also a discussion of genetic fallacy in terms of how to evaluate theories. + +== Subsequent commentary by Kuhn == +In 1995 Kuhn argued that the Darwinian metaphor in the book should have been taken more seriously than it had been. + +== Awards and honors == +1998 Modern Library 100 Best Nonfiction: The Board's List (69) +1999 National Review 100 Best Nonfiction Books of the Century (25) + +== Publication history == +Kuhn, Thomas S. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1st ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 172. LCCN 62019621. +Kuhn, Thomas S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Enlarged (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-45803-8. LCCN 70107472. +Kuhn, Thomas S. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-45807-6. LCCN 96013195. +Kuhn, Thomas S. (2012). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 50th anniversary. Ian Hacking (intro.) (4th ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-226-45811-3. LCCN 2011042476. +Kuhn, Thomas S. (2020). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Marcus du Sautoy (foreword); Ian Hacking (intro.) (Folio Society ed.). Folio Society (licensed by The University of Chicago Press). p. 169. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..05118f407 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Bibliography == +Barnes, Barry (1982). T. S. Kuhn and Social Science. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231054362. +Bilton, Tony; et al. (2002). Introductory Sociology (4th ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-333-94571-1.* +Bird, Alexander (2013). "Thomas Kuhn". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved September 23, 2017. +Bird, Alexander; Ladyman, James (2013). Arguing about Science. Routledge. ISBN 9780415492294. Retrieved September 23, 2017. +Blanchard, Olivier J. (2009). "The State of Macro". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 209–228. doi:10.3386/w14259. +Conant, James; Haugeland, John (2002). "Editors' introduction". The Road Since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970-1993, with an Autobiographical Interview (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0226457994. +Daston, Lorraine (2012). "Structure". Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences. 42 (5): 496–499. doi:10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. JSTOR 10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. +Davidson, Donald (1973). "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 47: 5–20. doi:10.2307/3129898. JSTOR 3129898. +de Gelder, Beatrice (1989). "Granny, The Naked Emperor and the Second Cognitive Revolution". The Cognitive Turn: Sociological and Psychological Perspectives on Science. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook. Vol. 13. Springer Netherlands. pp. 97–100. ISBN 978-0-7923-0306-0. +Dolby, R. G. A. (1971). "Reviewed Work: Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Proceedings of the International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science, London 1965, Volume 4". The British Journal for the History of Science. 5 (4): 400. doi:10.1017/s0007087400011626. JSTOR 4025383. S2CID 246613909. +Feloni, Richard (March 17, 2015). "Why Mark Zuckerberg wants everyone to read this landmark philosophy book from the 1960s". Business Insider. Retrieved July 19, 2023. +Ferretti, F. (2001). Jerry A. Fodor. Rome: Editori Laterza. ISBN 978-88-420-6220-2. +Field, Hartry (August 1973). "Theory Change and the Indeterminacy of Reference". The Journal of Philosophy. 70 (14): 462–481. doi:10.2307/2025110. JSTOR 2025110. +Fleck, Ludwik (1979). Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. +Fleck, Ludwik (1935). Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache. Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv [Genesis and development of a scientific fact. Introduction to the study of thinking style and thinking collective] (in German). Verlagsbuchhandlung, Basel: Schwabe. +Flood, Alison (March 19, 2015). "Mark Zuckerberg book club tackles the philosophy of science". The Guardian. Retrieved July 19, 2023. +Forster, Malcolm. "Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions". philosophy.wisc.edu. Archived from the original on September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 23, 2017. +Fox, Charles (1974). "Whose Works Must Graduate Students Read?". A NEW Political Science: 19. +Fulford, Robert (June 5, 1999). "Robert Fulford's column about the word "paradigm"". Globe and Mail. Retrieved February 28, 2023. +Fuller, Steve (1992). "Being There with Thomas Kuhn: A Parable for Postmodern Times". History and Theory. 31 (3): 241–275. doi:10.2307/2505370. JSTOR 2505370. +Garfield, Eugene (April 20, 1987). "A Different Sort of Great Books List: The 50 Twentieth-Century Works Most Cited in the Arts & Humanities Citation Index, 1976–1983" (PDF). Essays of an Information Scientist (1987 Current Contents). 10 (16): 3–7. +Gattei, Stefano (2008). Thomas Kuhn's 'Linguistic Turn' and the Legacy of Logical Empiricism: Incommensurability, Rationality and the Search for Truth (1 ed.). London: Routledge. p. 292. doi:10.4324/9781315236124. ISBN 9781315236124. +Horgan, John (May 1991). "Profile: Reluctant Revolutionary—Thomas S. Kuhn Unleashed 'Paradigm' on the World". Scientific American. 40. +Hoyningen-Huene, Paul (March 19, 2015). "Kuhn's Development Before and After Structure". In Devlin, W.; Bokulich, A. (eds.). Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions - 50 Years on. Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science. Vol. 311. Springer International Publishing. pp. 185–195. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13383-6_13. ISBN 978-3-319-13382-9. +Kaiser, David (2012). "In retrospect: the structure of scientific revolutions". Nature. 484 (7393): 164–166. Bibcode:2012Natur.484..164K. doi:10.1038/484164a. hdl:1721.1/106157. +King, J. E. (2002). A History of Post Keynesian Economics Since 1936. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 250. ISBN 978-1843766506. +Kordig, Carl R. (December 1973). "Discussion: Observational Invariance". Philosophy of Science. 40 (4): 558–569. doi:10.1086/288565. JSTOR 186288. S2CID 224833690. +Korta, Kepa; Larrazabal, Jesus M., eds. (2004). Truth, Rationality, Cognition, and Music: Proceedings of the Seventh International Colloquium on Cognitive Science. Kluwer Academic Publishers. +Kuhn, Thomas (1987), "What Are Scientific Revolutions?", in Kruger, Lorenz; Daston, Lorraine J.; Heidelberger, Michael (eds.), The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 1: Ideas in History, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 719–720 +Kuhn, Thomas; Baltas, Aristides; Gavroglu, Kostas; Kindi, Vassiliki (October 1995). A Discussion with Thomas S. Kuhn (Interview). Athens. Event occurs at 1m41s. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. I would now argue very strongly that the Darwinian metaphor at the end of the book is right, and should have been taken more seriously than it was – and nobody took it seriously. +Lakatos, Imre; Musgrave, Alan, eds. (1970). Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science, London, 1965. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 292. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139171434. ISBN 9780521096232. +Longino, Helen (April 12, 2002). "The Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. Retrieved July 19, 2023. +McFedries, Paul (May 7, 2001). The Complete Idiot's Guide to a Smart Vocabulary (1st ed.). Alpha Books. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0-02-863997-0. +Mößner, Nicola (June 2011). "Thought styles and paradigms—a comparative study of Ludwik Fleck and Thomas S. Kuhn". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. 42 (2): 362–371. Bibcode:2011SHPSA..42..362M. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.12.002. S2CID 146515142. +National Review (May 3, 1999). "The 100 Best Non-Fiction Books of The Century". National Review. Retrieved July 19, 2023. +Naughton, John (August 18, 2012). "Thomas Kuhn: the man who changed the way the world looked at science". The Guardian. Retrieved August 24, 2016. +Ricci, David (1977). "Reading Thomas Kuhn in the Post-Behavioral Era". The Western Political Quarterly. 30 (1): 7–34. doi:10.1177/106591297703000102. JSTOR 448209. S2CID 144412975. +Ruse, Michael (2005). Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. +Scheffler, Israel (January 1, 1982). Science and Subjectivity. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company. p. 166. ISBN 9780915145300. +Shapere, Dudley (1964). "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions". The Philosophical Review. 73 (3): 383–394. doi:10.2307/2183664. JSTOR 2183664. +Shea, William (April 2001). Copernico (in Italian). Milan: Le Scienze. +Solomon, Robert C. (1995). In the Spirit of Hegel: A Study of G. W. F. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 359. ISBN 978-0-19-503650-3. +Stephens, Jerome (1973). "The Kuhnian Paradigm and Political Inquiry: An Appraisal". American Journal of Political Science. 17 (3): 467–488. doi:10.2307/2110740. JSTOR 2110740. +Toulmin, Stephen (1972). Human Understanding. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824361-8. +Urry, John (1973). "Thomas S. Kuhn as Sociologist of Knowledge". The British Journal of Sociology. 24 (4): 463–464. doi:10.2307/589735. JSTOR 589735. +Weinberger, David (April 22, 2012). "Shift Happens". The Chronicle of Higher Education. +Wray, K. Brad (2011). Kuhn's Evolutionary Social Epistemology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139503464. +Ziman, J. M. (1982). "T. S. Kuhn and Social Science. Barry Barnes". Isis (book review). 73 (4). University of Chicago Press: 572. doi:10.1086/353123. + +== See also == +Epistemological rupture +Groupthink +Scientific Revolution + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Wray, K. Brad, ed. (2024). Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions at 60. Cambridge University Press. + +== External links == +Article on Thomas Kuhn by Alexander Bird +Text of chapter 9 and a postscript at Marxists.org +"Thomas Kuhn, 73; Devised Science Paradigm", obituary by Lawrence Van Gelder, New York Times, 19 June 1996 (archived 7 February 2012). \ No newline at end of file