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+title: "Field propulsion"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Field propulsion refers to propulsion system concepts in which thrust arises from interactions with external fields or ambient media, rather than primarily from onboard chemical propellant. The idea developed alongside conventional rocketry as a parallel line of thought in which a vehicle would "push off" its surroundings rather than rely entirely on carried propellant. Early ideas grew from studies of radiation pressure and electrically driven motion; later contractor and agency surveys organized advanced concepts under thermal, field, and photon headings. Several related propulsion systems discussed alongside field propulsion in the broader historical literature surveyed here have since been demonstrated in practice, including electrodynamic tethers in orbit, solar sail spacecraft such as IKAROS, and terrestrial applications such as maglev transport, MHD ship propulsion, and EHD thrust devices. In narrower modern literature, related propellant-less propulsion discussions often focus on environment-coupled systems, while the historical contractor and survey literature treated field propulsion more broadly and sometimes grouped related terrestrial electromagnetic propulsion and some beamed-energy concepts within the same analytical framework.
+Related research has also examined beamed-energy propulsion, in which lasers, microwaves, or particle beams transmit power to a vehicle from a remote source, and more speculative proposals involving spacetime curvature, vacuum polarization, or zero-point energy interactions. NASA's Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program helped reframe the subject around conservation-law consistency, identifiable coupling mechanisms, and experimental reproducibility. Any claimed propulsion method that produces net thrust in a closed system without external interaction would violate conservation of momentum, which follows from the spatial translation symmetry of physical law as expressed by Noether's theorem.
+The subject has been treated by national space agencies, academic research groups, and industry organizations, and field propulsion concepts have appeared extensively in science fiction, in many cases predating or paralleling the technical research. The influence has occasionally been direct: physicist Miguel Alcubierre said that his warp metric was inspired by Star Trek terminology.
+
+== Background and history ==
+
+Traditional rocketry has dominated aerospace propulsion in the 20th and early 21st centuries. Conventional rockets achieve motion by expelling mass, most commonly the combustion output from chemical propellants to generate thrust via Newton's third law, which is the familiar rocket launch with explosive flame and smoke beneath it. Field propulsion concepts evolved as a parallel track, proposing instead that a spacecraft could "push off" its surrounding medium, converting environmental energy or momentum into acceleration. In this article, field propulsion is used for propulsion system concepts in which thrust arises from interactions with external fields or ambient media, rather than primarily from onboard chemical propellant, while noting that some later sources instead use the narrower label propellant-less propulsion for environment-coupled systems. In the historical survey literature, however, the category was often drawn more broadly, extending to related externally powered and terrestrial electromagnetic concepts discussed within the same analytical family.
+While many proposals remained theoretical, certain environment-coupled systems were eventually demonstrated in space, including solar sails, magnetic sails, and electrodynamic tethers, which couple with external photon, plasma, or magnetic fields instead of expelling onboard propellant. Field propulsion is not a single technology but a spectrum of approaches, ranging from mature concepts that have been tested in flight to highly speculative theoretical constructs.
+
+=== Pre-20th century to the 1910s ===
+The earliest field propulsion concepts began evolving prior to the 20th century. In 1610, Johannes Kepler wrote Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Messenger from the Stars) to Galileo Galilei, in response to Galilei's own Sidereus Nuncius, describing the idea of winds in space propelling craft like the winds of the seas:
+
+As soon as somebody demonstrates the art of flying, settlers from our species of man will not be lacking [on the Moon and Jupiter] … Who would have believed that a huge ocean could be crossed more peacefully and safely than the narrow expanse of the Adriatic, the Baltic Sea or the English Channel? Provide ship or sails adapted to the heavenly breezes, and there will be some who will not fear even that void [of space]...
+The physical basis for Kepler's intuition began to emerge over two centuries later. James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated in 1873 that electromagnetic radiation should be able to create pressure on physical surfaces. At the International Congress of Physics in 1900, Pyotr Lebedev presented Les forces de Maxwell-Bartoli dues à la pression de la lumière, reporting experimental measurements of radiation pressure and providing the first quantitative confirmation of Maxwell's predictions with evidence that light exerts pressure on matter. By 1905, Albert Einstein had quantized Maxwell's findings to prove light particles could possess momentum.
+
+=== 1920s-1950s ===
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+title: "Field propulsion"
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+
+In 1921, Tsiolkovsky published Extension of Man into Outer Space, further exploring photon-based propulsion concepts. Перелеты на другие планеты (Flights to Other Planets) by Friedrich Zander was published in 1924 in Техника и жизнь, a Russian science journal, describing concepts to achieve interplanetary flight by use of light-propelled "screens made of extremely thin sheets". Zander was reportedly inspired in this work by his colleague Tsiolkovsky's own research on the topic.
+Between 1928 and 1932, Nikolai Rynin published Mezhplanetnye Soobshcheniya (Interplanetary Flight and Communication), a nine-volume Russian-language encyclopedia that the National Air and Space Museum described as the first encyclopedia on the history and theory of aerospace technology and spaceflight. Its coverage included radiation-pressure propulsion and beamed-energy concepts, and the work of Lebedev, Tsiolkovsky, Goddard, Hermann Oberth, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. Rynin's first volume, Dreams, legends, and early fantasies (1928), organized spacecraft energy sources into three categories: energy transmitted from Earth to the vehicle, energy carried onboard, and energy derived from outer space; the last including "radiation pressure to bear on special large screens around the vehicle," an explicit description of photon-pressure propulsion. Rynin observed that the work surveyed in his encyclopedia "clearly shows that different people in different countries independently came to the same conclusion" regarding the feasibility of interplanetary travel.
+While encyclopedic surveys were documenting the theoretical landscape, parallel experimental work was emerging in Europe. In 1928, J. Navascués of León, Spain described a field coupled dynamo-electric machine concept "producing translatory motion of machine by current reaction with earth's field", in which "Propulsion is caused by cutting with a closed conducting turn the earth's magnetic flux". After the 1930s, related field propulsion research concepts reached a lull in public published activity for over a decade through and after World War II, appearing mainly in science fiction rather than in sustained technical development.
+The first clear postwar reappearance of these propulsion concepts in open scientific literature was in the 1958 Franklin Institute astronautics lecture series. H.W. Ritchey, vice-president of Thiokol and head of its rocket program, highlighted 'Field Propulsion' concepts, describing 'the use of fields' as a way to avoid an exhaust jet. In the same monograph, Israel Levitt, director of the Institute's Fels Planetarium, described solar propulsion methods including Krafft Arnold Ehricke's solar thermal concepts, Richard Garwin's radiation pressure sail proposals, and photon rocket research by Kurl Stanukovitch of Russia. U.S. Air Force general Donald L. Putt, who led Operation Paperclip after World War II, predicted that upcoming spacecraft would deploy "photo or ion field-type propulsion".
+
+=== 1960s-1970s ===
+
+As spaceflight programs expanded throughout the 1960s, contractor studies for the U.S. Air Force and NASA increasingly organized advanced propulsion concepts under three main headings, Thermal, Field, and Photon, so that unconventional ideas could be compared within a common analytical framework. A 1972 report from the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory, followed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory studies in 1975 and 1982, carried this framework forward in published roadmaps. These studies emphasized "infinite specific impulse" systems that would obtain energy or working fluid from the ambient environment, and suggested that advances in lasers and superconductors could revive earlier discarded concepts such as laser propulsion or ramjets. Later reviews characterized propulsion research in this period as driven by unrestricted creativity and "free-thinking".
+Terrestrial field propulsion concepts also attracted attention during this period. United Press International reported in 1964 on a proposal from the Westinghouse Air Brake Company to link Youngstown, Ohio with Pittsburgh via a "super conductor magnetic field propulsion" transit system. The Chicago Tribune later reported on early NASA advocacy of what was then called "field resonance propulsion," noting that related magnetohydrodynamics research had begun in 1971 as an extension of training astronauts on solar physics.
+Photon-pressure propulsion concepts also advanced through dedicated study programs. NASA funded the Battelle Memorial Institute in 1973 under Jerome L. Wright to study solar sailing concepts for a Halley's Comet intercept. In 1976, a formal solar sail rendezvous proposal managed by Louis Friedman at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory was submitted to NASA, but the sail concept was dropped in 1977 in favor of solar electric propulsion, and the comet mission itself was later canceled.
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+title: "Field propulsion"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== 1980s ===
+In the 1980s, earlier classification frameworks began giving way to attempts to identify and organize specific physical coupling mechanisms capable of producing measurable thrust. In 1980, NASA scientist Al Holt noted that proposed models for field propulsion interactions in this era ranged from Albert Einstein's united field theory efforts to work by "serious 'amateurs'," reflecting how wide the speculative literature around such ideas had become by that period. That year, Holt was quoted by the Chicago Tribune in his advocacy of field propulsion: "One of the most important things to me is to help break down the inhibiting mental attitude that space-time field interactions will remain in the realm of science fiction for hundreds of years." Holt argued that progress toward field-dependent propulsion would require a dedicated "field physics laboratory" to quantify relationships among gravitation, electromagnetism, and spacetime structure, framing the potential payoff as performance beyond then-leading aircraft and spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle, SR-71A, and F-16.
+Solar sail engineering also advanced institutionally during this period: JPL's Halley studies compared square and heliogyro sail architectures, with the latter using long rotating blades as sails and favored for deployment, while the World Space Foundation fabricated and ground-deployed a 20 m sail and built a 30 m sail stowed in a deployment structure. A backup solar sail mission to Comet Encke was also considered in 1983 as an alternative to intercepting Halley's comet.
+The Huntsville Times reported on a program by TRW Inc.'s Defense and Space Systems Group researching magnetic field based field propulsion, called "force field propulsion", for vehicle launch applications. Robert L. Forward in 1984 extended beamed-sail studies to the interstellar scale, suggesting that phased solar-system lasers could impart sustained acceleration to ultralight sails across astronomical distances, and potential interstellar exploration within a human lifetime. By the late 1980s, magnetic sails emerged as a proposed propellantless concept that would use a superconducting loop to deflect the solar wind or interstellar plasma, and thereby generate thrust or drag without expelling onboard reaction mass. The 1980s were a major period of solar sailing research publication, with materials created by a variety of researchers globally, bookended by attempts in 1979 and 1992 by the World Space Foundation and the Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission to promote a solar sailing race to the moon.
+
+=== 1990s ===
+
+Terrestrial electromagnetic propulsion concepts reached operational demonstration in the early 1990s. In 1990, the Daily Telegraph reported on Japanese development work toward a magnetohydrodynamic propulsion ship, including plans to install the magnetic propulsion equipment and conduct at-sea testing. By 1991–1992, the Ship & Ocean Foundation's experimental ship Yamato 1 had been completed and successfully propelled by superconducting MHD thrusters during harbor trials in Kobe. Parallel investment in magnetic field propulsion for ground transport was also accelerating: in 1992, the New York Times described U.S. investment in maglev development, noting that maglev trains would be lifted on magnetic cushions and propelled along a guideway by alternating magnetic fields that create a "magnetic wave". The report said Congress had authorized a six-year, $700 million demonstration program and noted existing demonstration systems in Germany and Japan, including a reported speed record of 273 miles per hour on a test track.
+Electrodynamic work matured across the decade. The Plasma Motor Generator flight in 1993 was later described by NASA as the most sophisticated and most successful electrodynamic-tether mission yet flown. STS-75 in 1996 deployed the TSS-1R Tethered Satellite System payload aboard  Columbia, validating high-voltage electrodynamic behavior in orbit and proving the functionality of the space tether field propulsion concept; NASA described it as the first tethered-satellite mission and the longest structure yet flown in space. Beamed-energy propulsion concepts also reached flight-test maturity during this period. In 1997, the laser-propelled Lightcraft was successfully flown in a series of experiments at the High Energy Laser Systems Test Facility at White Sands Missile Range under a joint USAF/NASA flight demonstration program.
+NASA's Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project (BPP) in 1998 reframed field propulsion from a catalog of ideas into a research program defined by falsifiable physical requirements, establishing conservation-law consistency, measurable coupling mechanisms, and experimental reproducibility as the central benchmarks for evaluating advanced propulsion concepts. The program organized research around three goals: propulsion with no propellant mass, maximum physically possible transit speeds, and breakthrough energy sources. Marc Millis of BPP framed the related "space coupling propulsion" problem as requiring a tangible reaction-mass-like property of the vacuum and a controllable coupling mechanism that yields net external thrust. BPP raised the question of whether propellantless effects could exist without violating conservation of momentum and energy, and the more speculative end of the spectrum — concepts that couple to the environment without carrying reaction mass — remained in the research phase.
+
+=== 21st century ===
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+title: "Field propulsion"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The British National Space Centre and Society of British Aerospace Companies began organizing an annual field propulsion research conference in 2001, inaugurated in Brighton at the Institute of Development Studies, with initial delegates including Harry Kroto. British Aerospace was confirmed in 2001 to have initiated a research program called "Project Greenglow" to research "the possibility of the control of gravitational fields." As demonstrated systems accumulated flight heritage, research programs continued exploring more speculative coupling mechanisms.
+Subsequent work largely extended this research, examining whether identifiable environmental interactions could meet the same conservation law and measurement criteria. Later NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) studies continued in the same mold, examining whether Alfvén wave plasma interactions might provide quasi-propellantless thrust. Yoshinari Minami of the Advanced Space Propulsion Investigation Committee argued in 2003 that a potential propulsion "breakthrough" could rely on field propulsion, defined as employing "a physical means to asymmetrically interact with the space vacuum." By 2009, a recognized category of 'breakthrough propulsion concepts' had emerged in the interstellar transport literature, encompassing warp drive, traversable wormholes, and vacuum-energy ideas, though the same literature noted strong skepticism about claims that appeared to conflict with conventional demonstrated physics. Millis summarized the matter as: "For field propulsion, the fields themselves must act as the reaction mass."
+While further research and study continued, new environment-coupled propellantless systems were launched into space. IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun), launched by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) on May 21, 2010, was the first spacecraft to use a solar sail as its main propulsion system. LightSail 1 and LightSail 2 flew between 2015 and 2019, with functional sail-type propellantless systems active in outer space. NASA's Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3), launched on April 23, 2024, tested next-generation composite-boom solar-sail technology in orbit, and mission operators confirmed full sail deployment on August 29, 2024. Related electrostatic sail concepts also moved into in-space technology-demonstration phases in the 2020s, with AuroraSat-1 launching in 2022 as a plasma-brake technology demonstrator and Foresail-1p launching in 2025 with a plasma brake experiment intended to enable the first-ever space measurements of Coulomb drag for orbital change.
+
+=== Arts and culture ===
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+title: "Field propulsion"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Field propulsion concepts have appeared across literature, film, and television, in many cases predating or paralleling the technical development of the technologies and theories described in this article. Several fictional propulsion systems bear recognizable resemblances to environment-coupled, electromagnetic, or spacetime-interaction concepts later studied in aerospace research.
+Fictional antigravity and photon-propulsion ideas emerged well before the underlying physics was formalized. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction traces fictional gravity counteraction from Francis Godwin's The Man in the Moone (1638), through George Tucker's A Voyage to the Moon (1827) and its antigravity metal "lunarium," to Percy Greg's coinage of "apergy" as an antigravity spacecraft propulsion force in Across the Zodiac (1880). The earliest of these treated the concept in quasi-scientific rather than purely magical terms. A more direct link between fiction and physics appeared in Aventures extraordinaires d'un savant russe (The Extraordinary Adventures of a Russian Scientist, 1888–1896) by Georges Le Faure and Henry de Graffigny, which featured photon-propelled mirror spacecraft; Colin R. McInnes noted in his 1999 book Solar Sailing that the story may have been inspired by James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 research into radiation pressure, an early forebear of field propulsion.
+As technical rocketry advanced in the early 20th century, pulp fiction kept pace with its own propulsion inventions. H. G. Wells's The First Men in the Moon (1901) popularized gravity shielding through "cavorite," a material used to construct a sphere capable of leaving Earth without expelling propellant. Similar ideas proliferated across the pulp era: Edgar Rice Burroughs's Barsoom series, beginning with A Princess of Mars (serialized 1912), described Martian airships propelled by a stored "eighth ray" used for lift and maneuvering rather than aerodynamic wings or rocket thrust, while Armageddon 2419 A.D. by Philip Francis Nowlan (1928) described "repellor anti-gravity rays" used as "legs" for airships, alongside "inertron," a substance that reacts to gravity opposite to normal matter. The Buck Rogers comic strip, launched in 1929, carried Nowlan's repulsor-beam and inertron concepts into the visual medium. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction credited E. E. Smith's Spacehounds of IPC (1931) as containing the first use of the term "force field" in science fiction.
+By mid-century, science fiction was moving beyond individual gadgets toward propulsion concepts with explicit theoretical rationales. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction attributes early use of "space warp" and "hyperspace" terminology in the context of interstellar travel to John W. Campbell's Islands of Space (serialized 1931 in Amazing Stories Quarterly; published as a novel in 1957). James Blish's Cities in Flight series, beginning with "Bindlestiff" (December 1950, Astounding Science Fiction), introduced the "spindizzy," formally the Dillon-Wagoner Graviton Polarity Generator. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction described the spindizzy as, in its day, "one of the best-loved items of sf Terminology," and noted that Blish gave the device a rationale rooted in theoretical physics, in which gravity fields are generated or cancelled by rotation owing to a fictional "Blackett-Dirac effect." The National Air and Space Museum identified Forbidden Planet (1956) as the first film to depict a faster-than-light starship built by humans; Time (magazine) described the starship's propulsion as a "quanto-gravitetic hyperdrive," and the published screenplay text includes the same phrasing in its opening narration.
+Fiction magazines of this era also served as platforms for promoting claimed real-world propulsion devices. The Dean drive, a claimed reactionless device built by Norman L. Dean, received extensive promotion from John W. Campbell in Astounding Science Fiction beginning in 1960. Campbell published photographs of the device operating on a bathroom scale, and the June 1960 cover of Astounding featured a painting of a United States submarine near Mars supposedly propelled by a Dean drive. In 1984, physicist Amit Goswami wrote that the Dean drive had become so embedded in genre consciousness that "it is now customary in SF circles to refer to a reactionless drive as a Dean drive." Cordwainer Smith's "The Lady Who Sailed The Soul" (Galaxy Science Fiction, April 1960) is among the earliest clearly sourced fictional treatments of photon-pressure sailing as a spacecraft propulsion method. The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction catalogued antigravity, the Dean drive, inertialess drive, sails, and spindizzy as distinct propulsion categories for space travel in the genre.
+The influence between fiction and field propulsion research became most visible through television. Star Trek: The Original Series (premiered September 8, 1966) made "warp drive" and "tractor beam" household terms. In addition to popularizing the concept of warp drives, the Star Trek franchise was recognized by the Space Frontier Foundation for their portrayal of solar sail technologies in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Explorers", where astronauts construct and fly a lightsail ship. Star Trek would later introduce a biologically mediated propulsion system with Star Trek: Discovery's spore drive, which uses a subspace fungal network for instantaneous travel. Physicist Miguel Alcubierre stated that his 1994 theoretical warp metric, a solution formulated within general relativity describing the expansion of spacetime behind and contraction in front of a theoretical spacecraft, was directly inspired by the terminology used in Star Trek; The Planetary Society described him as having developed the model "inspired by Star Trek." Alcubierre's warp metric remains one of the clearest documented cases in which a science fiction concept directly catalyzed formal physics research into field propulsion.
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+title: "Field propulsion"
+chunk: 6/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Definitions ==
+Advanced-propulsion survey frameworks have grouped candidate concepts under headings such as thermal propulsion, field propulsion, and photon propulsion. In that broader historical literature, field propulsion was not always used as a strict synonym for modern propellantless propulsion; depending on the framework, it could also encompass related beamed-energy concepts and terrestrial field-matter coupling systems treated within the same analytical family. By contrast, propellantless propulsion in the narrower modern sense produces thrust through interaction with the surrounding environment rather than by expelling reaction mass. Later usage, as in NIAC studies of environment-coupled momentum exchange, restricts the term to systems that derive thrust from external fields or media without expelling onboard reaction mass. The boundaries of the term have therefore varied across successive classification frameworks, program definitions, and research criteria over more than a century of use. This article discusses the subject across that full historical range as documented in the source literature.
+
+Examples of field propulsion technologies include systems that attempt to draw on the photon field of sunlight, the charged particles of the solar wind, or the magnetic fields of planetary environments. Broad definitions often include solar sail systems. Magnetic sail concepts, proposed by Dana Andrews and Robert Zubrin, exemplify this approach. In the broader historical literature, related terrestrial electromagnetic field-matter systems such as electrohydrodynamics (EHD) and magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) were also sometimes discussed within the same field-propulsion family, alongside more speculative proposals involving general relativity, quantum field theory, or zero-point energy.
+Conservation of momentum is a fundamental requirement of propulsion systems because momentum is always conserved. This conservation law is implicit in the published work of Isaac Newton and Galileo Galilei, but arises on a fundamental level from the spatial translation symmetry of the laws of physics, as given by Noether's theorem. Open systems comply with the conservation of momentum by transferring it to or from the surrounding environment. Conservation laws can be satisfied in field propulsion via interaction with "a mass, a massive body, electromagnetic radiation, and space as a vacuum," as Minami described, adding that the "most promising interpretation" is treating vacuum as "a kind of reaction mass."
+For instance, terrestrial MHD drives accelerate conductive fluids using electromagnetic fields, resulting in thrust through the Lorentz force in a surrounding reaction medium such as seawater or plasma. Environment-coupled space approaches such as sails, tethers, or plasma-wave coupling instead exchange momentum with ambient photons, plasma, or magnetic fields, and remain possible only if the method of external coupling is strong enough.
+In practice, the viability of any open field-coupled concept depends on coupling strength to the surrounding environment. For example, momentum exchange with the solar wind or a magnetosphere scales with local plasma density, magnetic-field magnitude, and wave/field interaction efficiency; in weak or highly variable environments, thrust and control authority are correspondingly limited.
+Any propulsion method that claims to generate net thrust in a closed system without external interaction violates the conservation of momentum, which follows from the spatial translation symmetry of physical law (Noether's theorem). Some speculative field propulsion concepts may require extensions to established physical theories, including beyond the Standard Model of particle physics and cosmology. Millis notes that proposed "space drive" schemes where forces act only internally produce no net motion, and relates this "net external force requirement" to the conservation of momentum.
+
+=== Beamed-energy propulsion ===
+
+In the broader historical literature used here, beam-powered propulsion was often discussed alongside field propulsion because it shifted energy supply offboard and, in some concepts, also drew working fluid or momentum exchange from the surroundings, even though many such systems do not fit the narrower modern propellantless-only sense. Beam-powered propulsion sends power from a remote source directly to a spacecraft propulsion system using directed-energy technologies such as lasers, microwaves, or relativistic charged-particle beams. A NASA contractor report surveyed such concepts, seeking large gains in payload, range, and terminal velocity beyond chemical rocket performance. The report identified enabling technologies (e.g., higher-current superconductors, potential room-temperature superconductors, metallic hydrogen) as then-potential paths to field propulsion prospects.
+A study from the Air Force Research Laboratory concluded that researchers should prioritize concepts that draw both working fluid and energy from surroundings, because of their implications for outstanding performance. Proposals also include advanced electrostatic and MHD-based concepts that could leverage charged particle interactions with atmospheric fields or ionospheric plasmas and geomagnetic fields to produce directed motion. Some approaches use atmospheric or environmental material as working fluid or interaction medium, drawing reaction mass or momentum exchange from the ambient environment rather than from onboard propellant. The study suggested improvements in technologies like high-power lasers or new energy transfer methods could revitalize previously discarded propulsion ideas, including laser propulsion and infinite-Isp ramjets.
+
+=== Ambient plasma-wave propulsion ===
+NIAC studies proposed "ambient plasma wave propulsion" in which RF energy is coupled into ambient plasma using a spacecraft antenna, generating Alfvén waves, low-frequency disturbances that travel along ambient magnetic field lines in plasma; the report describes the wave as adding momentum to the antenna and spacecraft and thereby providing thrust as a "truly propellantless propulsion system". The 2011 Phase I assessment found the approach technically immature but potentially enabling if sensitivity and power challenges can be overcome.
+
+=== Theoretical proposals ===
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+title: "Field propulsion"
+chunk: 7/9
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+NASA's Breakthrough Propulsion Physics (BPP) memo framed research questions at the limits of physics, no-propellant propulsion, ultimate transit speeds, and breakthrough energy production, explicitly to sort physically testable ideas from non-viable claims. Field propulsion alone was described as insufficient for practical interstellar exploration because no propulsion theory currently exceeds the speed of light, requiring a navigation theory as a secondary solution alongside propulsion theory. Practical interstellar exploration was framed as a combined problem of propulsion theory and navigation theory, rather than as a propulsion-only problem. A 2009 propulsion survey framed one motivation for field propulsion research in operational terms, arguing that if field interactions could reduce effective gravitational and inertial resistance, rocket thrust and propellant requirements for Earth-to-orbit flight would be substantially reduced.
+Minami's navigation theory framing was situated within similar extra-dimensional theory discussions, including Kaluza-Klein theory, supergravity theory, superstring theory, M theory, and D-brane-related superstring theory, as part of the paper's conceptual background for interstellar navigation. Minami and Musha reviewed proposals outlined further below, including vacuum polarization (a quantum effect in which strong fields produce short-lived virtual particle pairs), engineered spacetime curvature, and zero-point-field interactions; they distinguish between two field propulsion concepts: one framed in terms of general relativity and one in terms of quantum field theory.
+Vacuum-fluctuation phenomena such as the Casimir effect have been measured in many precision experiments and are reviewed extensively in the mainstream literature. However, attempts to obtain net thrust or a gravity coupling from static electromagnetic configurations (often framed as "electrogravitic" effects) have not produced reproducible anomalous forces in controlled tests.
+
+== Types ==
+A wide range of propulsion methods have been proposed or demonstrated that fit within broad definitions of field propulsion. This taxonomy reflects how late twentieth-century contractor reports and program reviews organized the subject, and how later surveys distinguish environment-coupled momentum exchange from more speculative proposals. One group comprises environment-coupled systems that utilize their surroundings to produce thrust, including solar sails, magnetic sails, and, with certain restrictions, electrodynamic tethers, which use the solar wind or ambient magnetic fields to generate thrust. In one example design, a magnetic sail uses a loop of superconducting cable to create a magnetic field that deflects solar wind plasma and imparts momentum to the attached spacecraft.
+A more speculative class invokes direct interactions with a structured vacuum or with spacetime geometry, proposing thrust without expelling mass, an idea discussed in general relativity and quantum field theory literature but not empirically validated. The sections below follow the broader historical literature usage outlined above, treating propellantless environment-coupled systems as the core cases while also retaining related beamed-energy concepts, terrestrial field interactions, and more speculative proposals where the source literature grouped them under the same field-propulsion umbrella.
+
+=== Demonstrated ===
+Various field propulsion approaches and systems have achieved experimental validation, flight heritage, or sustained engineering development.
+
+==== Environment-coupled momentum exchange ====
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+title: "Field propulsion"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+These systems generate thrust by exchanging momentum with external fields (magnetic, plasma, or photon), without expelling onboard reaction mass. Solar sails are a propellant-less propulsion method that produces thrust from solar photon pressure, rather than by expelling reaction mass. As with other environment coupled concepts, sail performance depends on local solar pressure: the interstellar probe concept uses a very close solar flyby to take advantage of "increased solar flux" and the resultant "increased solar photon pressure", and scaling to a 160,000 m2 sail would require advances in sail materials, deployment, and attitude control systems.
+Sailcraft engineering couples ultra-light structures to stringent pointing and thermal constraints. Once deployed, thrust is almost normal to the sail, so small attitude changes steer the thrust vector. Performance evolves with materials science and control: lower areal density (mass per unit sail area) directly increases acceleration, and by tilting the sail the small continuous thrust can be steered for precise trajectory shaping. Square and heliogyro designs use thin film sails on deployable booms; reliable deployment of large, low-mass structures and thin films is a key challenge. Typical sail films have reflective front coats and high-emissivity back coats; wrinkling and billowing reduce efficiency. Forward (Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 1984) outlined a proposed method of how solar-system-based laser systems and a roughly 1,000 km light-focusing Fresnel lens system could propel thin-film sails to ~0.11% of the speed of light, enabling an unmanned flyby of Alpha Centauri in approximately 40 years. In Forward's proposal, a two-stage sail system in which a massive ring sail reflects laser light back onto a detached payload sail, enabling the unmanned spacecraft to rendezvous and brake within the Alpha Centauri system.
+Analyses of magnetic sail concepts indicate thrust arises from deflecting the solar wind around a spacecraft-supported magnetic field, with performance set by the distance at which solar-wind pressure balances the sail's magnetic pressure; larger effective magnetic cross-sections increase momentum transfer but require large-radius, high-current superconducting coils. Mission studies of magnetic sails show that they can perform heliocentric transfers between circular orbits by using the solar wind for outbound acceleration and inbound braking. Magsails have also been proposed for interstellar missions, where interaction with the interstellar medium provides propellantless terminal deceleration into a destination solar system. Key engineering challenges include the mass and size of the superconducting loop and the constraints imposed by achievable superconducting currents and magnetic fields. The design tradeoffs emphasize achieving a large effective magnetic cross-section for the superconducting loop while keeping its mass low. Magnetospheric plasma propulsion (M2P2) is a NIAC proposal by Robert Winglee, in which plasma injection inflates a magnetic bubble that couples with the solar wind. It is considered a variant of magnetic sails.
+The most studied examples are electrodynamic tethers (EDT), which generate Lorentz-force-based drag or thrust by coupling a long current-carrying conductor to a planetary magnetic field, thereby exchanging momentum with a planetary magnetosphere or ionosphere to enable propellantless drag or thrust in suitable environments (e.g., low Earth orbit), and fall under broad definitions of field propulsion due to their use of external fields for momentum exchange. In operation, a conductive tether moving through a planetary magnetic field experiences a motional electromotive force, a voltage induced by its motion through the field; closing the circuit through the ambient ionosphere allows current to flow, and the resulting Lorentz force can provide either drag (for deorbit) or, with external power injection, thrust along specific orbital geometries. As open systems, they conserve momentum by reaction with the ambient plasma and magnetic field. Electrodynamic tethers have been deployed in several space tether missions, including the TSS-1, TSS-1R, and Plasma Motor Generator (PMG) experiments. Electrodynamic tethers can also generate electrical power at the expense of orbital energy.
+Related electrostatic sail concepts also entered in-space technology-demonstration phases in the 2020s. NASA's small-spacecraft propulsion survey described the electric sail and the closely related plasma brake as relatively immature environment-coupled propulsion technologies, and noted that AuroraSat-1, launched on May 5, 2022, served as a technology demonstration mission for a Plasma Brake module. In 2025, Aalto University in Finland reported the launch of Foresail-1p carrying a Plasma Brake experiment intended to enable the first-ever space measurements of Coulomb drag, in which a charged tether interacts with surrounding plasma to change a satellite's orbit.
+
+=== Development and testing ===
+These are concepts under active engineering development or testing that adapt field-based acceleration or coupling principles for new operational regimes. As in the historical survey literature discussed above, this section includes some systems that fall outside the narrower propellantless-only sense of field propulsion, especially externally powered concepts and terrestrial field-matter coupling applications.
+
+==== Beamed-energy and externally powered thrust ====
+
+Microwave electrothermal thrusters use microwave energy, potentially externally supplied, to heat a fluid propellant. When powered externally, it falls under beamed-energy propulsion with mass acceleration via directed fields. Laser ablation propulsion uses pulsed laser energy to ablate onboard material into a plasma jet; although it expels mass, the energy source is external, placing it within beamed-energy propulsion approaches. Photonic laser thrusters are a photon-pressure system that relies on externally beamed lasers instead of sunlight.
+Leik Myrabo's beamed-energy Lightcraft program, spanning several decades, employed a projected-power, combined-cycle MHD system designed to reconfigure across multiple flight regimes. Czysz and Bruno also highlighted the concept's very low onboard propellant requirement, writing that it had "the least onboard propellants of any system". Myrabo's architecture was described as scalable by siting the projector on Earth, in orbit, or on the Moon, explicitly noting propulsion implications for geosynchronous orbit, the Moon, and nearby planetary/moon systems. Research has been limited to laboratory testing and subscale atmospheric Lightcraft demonstrations, with orbital proposals remaining unflown.
+
+==== Field-interaction in atmosphere or dense media ====
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+title: "Field propulsion"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Broad historical treatments of field propulsion placed terrestrial field-matter coupling systems alongside space-oriented concepts, even though these operate in dense media rather than as propellantless spacecraft. Although not presently in wide use for space, there exist proven terrestrial examples of field propulsion in which electromagnetic fields act upon a conducting medium such as seawater or plasma for propulsion, known collectively as magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). MHD is similar in operation to electric motors, however, rather than using moving parts or metal conductors, fluid or plasma conductors are employed. The EMS-1 and more recently the Yamato 1 are examples of such electromagnetic field-propulsion systems, first described in 1994. 
+Electrohydrodynamics (EHD) is another method where electrically charged fluids are accelerated for propulsion and flow control; laboratory and flight demonstrations include ion devices driven by corona discharge, in which a strong electric field ionizes surrounding air to create a thrust-producing flow of charged particles. Magnetohydrodynamic interaction concepts extending magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) to space plasma propose generating thrust by exchanging momentum with ambient charged particles via Lorentz-force coupling. If the interacting plasma is external (e.g., ionospheric or solar wind), the system qualifies as field propulsion.
+Magnetic levitation (maglev) ground transport systems are another terrestrial example of propulsion via externally generated fields: maglev employs magnetic forces to lift, guide, and propel a vehicle over a guideway, with propulsion typically provided by a linear motor whose traveling magnetic field pulls or pushes the vehicle along the track.
+
+=== Proposed and theorized ===
+These concepts are discussed in aerospace literature primarily as theoretical or exploratory frameworks rather than operational propulsion technologies.
+
+==== Field propulsion based on physical structure of space ====
+
+Minami and Musha frame field propulsion at the physics frontier as interaction with a "substantial physical structure" of space, drawing on general relativity at macroscopic scales and quantum field theory at microscopic scales. In Minami and Musha's framing, propulsive force arises from interaction with a physical structure of space instead of from expelling reaction mass. As one candidate concept, Minami treated space as "an elastic body like rubber" and argued that space curvature could create an "acceleration field," stating that "a space drive is produced in the region of curved space." A 1979 NASA technical memorandum outlined a speculative field resonance propulsion concept that hypothesized thrust from a resonance between coherent pulsed electromagnetic field waveforms and gravitational waveforms associated with spacetime metrics, framed as potentially enabling galactic travel without prohibitive travel times.
+Minami and Musha distinguish between two field propulsion concepts: one framed in terms of general relativity and one in terms of quantum field theory. According to quantum field theory and quantum electrodynamics, the quantum vacuum is modeled as a nonradiating electromagnetic background, existing in a zero-point state, the minimum energy allowed by the theory. It was proposed that applying this to an electrically insulating material could, via Lorentz forces on charges bound within the material, affect its inertia and thereby create acceleration without internal mechanical stress. Potential concepts studied by NASA and other parties have included vacuum polarization, engineered spacetime curvature, and zero-point-field interactions; none have been experimentally validated, and all face unresolved consistency issues with momentum conservation.
+Several foundational ideas in field propulsion, from Kepler's 1610 vision of "sails adapted to the heavenly breezes", have since been realized in demonstrated spaceflight systems. Meanwhile, concepts once unproven now fly in space, and research continues on the remaining unproven options.
+
+== Demonstrated and proposed systems ==
+The following table summarizes first demonstrated usage, operational domain, and development status for field propulsion subtypes discussed in this article, ranging from systems with flight heritage to theoretical proposals.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Bussard ramjet – Proposed spacecraft propulsion method
+Emerging technologies – Technology still to be fully developed
+History of aviation
+History of rockets
+History of spaceflight
+New Millennium Program – NASA projects to test new space technologies
+Non-rocket spacelaunch – Concepts for launch into space
+Spacecraft electric propulsion – Type of spacecraft propulsion using electrical energy to accelerate propellant
+Timeline of aviation
+Timeline of rocket and missile technology
+Timeline of spaceflight
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+ This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States government.
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+title: "Food science"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:19.879141+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Food science (or bromatology) is the study of food and its chemical properties. Its scope overlaps with agricultural science and nutritional science and extends to the scientific aspects of food safety and food processing, informing the development of food technology.
+Food science is an interdisciplinary field that integrates concepts from chemistry, physics, physiology, microbiology, and biochemistry. It evolved from early preservation practices such as salting to an organized research-driven field central to modern food production. The field includes several subdisciplines such as food chemistry, food technology, and molecular gastronomy, which examine the composition and processes used to produce and preserve food.
+Food scientists develop new products, design processing methods to produce these foods, select packaging materials, conduct shelf life and sensory evaluation studies of products using survey panels or potential consumers, and perform microbiological and chemical testing. They may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of food products and its properties.
+
+== Definition ==
+The Institute of Food Technologists defines food science as "the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public". The textbook Food Science defines food science in simpler terms as "the application of sciences and engineering to study the physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the principles of food processing".
+
+== Background ==
+Food science developed gradually from traditional food preservation practices into a formal scientific discipline during the 19th and 20th centuries. Yet, early food preservation methods such as salting, drying, and fermentation were used for thousands of years to extend the shelf life of perishable foods. Archeological evidence revealed that ancient civilizations, including those of Egypt, preserved fish and meat with salt as early as 2000 BCE. Throughout much of human history, the ability to preserve food safely played a crucial role in sustaining communities during times of limited food availibility and war.
+
+== Disciplines ==
+Some of the subdisciplines of food science are described below.
+
+=== Food chemistry ===
+
+Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk.
+It is similar to biochemistry in its main components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening.
+
+==== Food physical chemistry ====
+
+Food physical chemistry is the study of both physical and chemical interactions in foods in terms of physical and chemical principles applied to food systems, as well as the application of physicochemical techniques and instrumentation for the study and analysis of foods.
+
+=== Food engineering ===
+
+Food engineering is the industrial processes used to manufacture food. It involves coming up with novel approaches for manufacturing, packaging, delivering, ensuring quality, ensuring safety, and devising techniques to transform raw ingredients into wholesome food options.
+
+=== Food microbiology ===
+
+Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms that inhabit, create, or contaminate food, including the study of microorganisms causing food spoilage.  "Good" bacteria, however, such as probiotics, are becoming increasingly important in food science. In addition, microorganisms are essential for the production of foods such as cheese, yogurt, bread, beer, wine and, other fermented foods.
+
+=== Food technology ===
+
+Food technology is the technological aspect. Early scientific research into food technology concentrated on food preservation. Nicolas Appert's development in 1810 of the canning process was a decisive event. The process was not called canning then and Appert did not really know the principle on which his process worked, but canning has had a major impact on food preservation techniques.
+
+=== Foodomics ===
+
+In 2009, Foodomics was defined as "a discipline that studies the Food and Nutrition domains through the application and integration of advanced -omics technologies to improve consumer's well-being, health, and knowledge". Foodomics requires the combination of food chemistry, biological sciences, and data analysis.
+Foodomics greatly helps scientists in the area of food science and nutrition to gain better access to data, which is used to analyze the effects of food on human health, etc. It is believed to be another step towards a better understanding of the development and application of technology and food. Moreover, the study of foodomics leads to other omics sub-disciplines, including nutrigenomics which is the integration of the study of nutrition, genes, and omics.
+
+=== Molecular gastronomy ===
+
+Molecular gastronomy is a subdiscipline of food science that seeks to investigate the physical and chemical transformations of ingredients that occur in cooking. The field integrates chemistry, physics, and neuroscience to understand how factors such as ingredient composition, influence flavor perception.
+
+=== Quality control ===
+
+Quality control is the process used to ensure that a product or service meets an established set of standards and customer expectations. It involves establishing criteria used for defining quality and identifying problems that affect consistency.
+
+=== Sensory analysis ===
+
+Sensory analysis is the study of how consumer's senses perceive food.
+
+=== Careers ===
+The five most common college degrees leading to a career in food science are: Food science/technology (66%), biological sciences (12%), business/marketing (10%), nutrition (9%) and chemistry (8%).
+Careers available to food scientists include food technologists, research and development (R&D), quality control, flavor chemistry, laboratory director, food analytical chemist and technical sales.
+The five most common positions for food scientists are food scientist/technologist (19%), product developer (12%), quality assurance/control director (8%), other R&D/scientific/technical (7%), and director of research (5%).
+
+== Research organizations ==
+
+=== Europe ===
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+title: "Food science"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:19.879141+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The European Federation of Food Science and Technology, or EFFoST, is a European network that brings together professionals working in food science, food engineering, and related disciplines. EFFoST seeks to contribute to the development of safe, nutritious, and sustainable food systems in response to changing global demands. As a regional branch of the International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST), EFFoST partners with over 130 institutions across Europe. 
+
+=== Australia ===
+
+The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is the federal government agency for scientific research in Australia. CSIRO maintains more than 50 sites across Australia and biological control research stations in France and Mexico. It has nearly 6,500 employees.
+
+=== South Korea ===
+The Korean Society of Food Science and Technology, or KoSFoST, is a South Korean nonprofit organization that supports academic and professional collaboration in food science. Established in 1968, it serves as a forum for scientists and engineers working in areas related to food production, biotechnology, and product development. KoSFoST serves as the Korean regional branch of the International Union of Science and Technology.
+
+=== United States ===
+The Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, is a major U.S. professional society for food science and food technology.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Publications ==
+
+=== Books ===
+Potter, Norman N., and Joseph H. Hotchkiss. Food Science. 5th ed., Chapman & Hall, 1995.
+Mudambi, Sumati Rajagopal, et al. Food Science. Rev. 2nd ed., New Age International P Ltd., Publishers, 2006.
+Owusu-Apenten, R. K, and Ernest R Vieira. Elementary Food Science. 5th edition., Springer, 2023.
+Hogan, Christa. Food Science. 1st ed., ABDO Publishing Company, 2024.
+
+=== Journals ===
+
+== Notes and references ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+ Media related to Food science at Wikimedia Commons
+Learn about Food Science
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 1/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Forensic science, often known as with criminalistics, is the application of science principles and methods to support decision-making related to rules or law, generally criminal and civil law.
+During criminal investigation in particular, it is governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure. It is a broad field utilizing numerous practices such as the analysis of DNA, fingerprints, bloodstain patterns, firearms, ballistics, toxicology, microscopy, and fire debris analysis. Modern forensic analysis is also conducted on cybersecurity related incidents where major breach has occurred leading to substantial financial loss.
+Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze evidence during the course of an investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals. Others are involved in analysis of financial, banking, or other numerical data for use in financial crime investigation, and can be employed as consultants from private firms, academia, or as government employees.
+In addition to their laboratory role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases.
+
+== Etymology ==
+The term forensic stems from the Latin word, forēnsis (3rd declension, adjective), meaning "of a forum, place of assembly". The history of the term originates in Roman times, where many judicial processes, such as trials and preliminary hearings, were held in the forum. This origin is the source of the two modern usages of the word forensic—as a form of legal evidence; and as a category of public presentation.
+In modern use, the term forensics is often used in place of "forensic science".
+The word "science", is derived from the Latin word for 'knowledge' and is today closely tied to the scientific method, a systematic way of acquiring knowledge. Taken together, forensic science means the use of scientific methods and processes for crime solving.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Origins of forensic science and early methods ===
+
+The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which enabled criminals to escape punishment. Criminal investigations and trials relied heavily on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in forensic science developed centuries later.
+The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu (translated as Washing Away of Wrongs), written in China in 1248 by Song Ci (宋慈, 1186–1249), a director of justice, jail and supervision, during the Song dynasty.
+Song Ci introduced regulations concerning autopsy reports to court, how to protect the evidence in the examining process, and explained why forensic workers must demonstrate impartiality to the public. He devised methods for making antiseptic and for promoting the reappearance of hidden injuries to dead bodies and bones (using sunlight and vinegar under a red-oil umbrella); for calculating the time of death (allowing for weather and insect activity); described how to wash and examine the dead body to ascertain the reason for death. At that time the book had described methods for distinguishing between suicide and faked suicide. He wrote the book on forensics stating that all wounds or dead bodies should be examined, not avoided. The book became the first form of literature to help determine the cause of death.
+In one of Song Ci's accounts (Washing Away of Wrongs), the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed each suspect to bring his sickle to one location. (He realized it was a sickle by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the wounds.) Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the owner of that sickle confessed to the murder. The book also described how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage), and described evidence from examining corpses to determine if a death was caused by murder, suicide or accident.
+Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice and spit it back out. Similarly, in ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly. It is thought that these tests had some validity since a guilty person would produce less saliva and thus have a drier mouth; the accused would be considered guilty if rice was sticking to their mouths in abundance or if their tongues were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva.
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 2/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Education and training ==
+Initial glance, forensic intelligence may appear as a nascent facet of forensic science facilitated by advancements in information technologies such as computers, databases, and data-flow management software. However, a more profound examination reveals that forensic intelligence represents a genuine and emerging inclination among forensic practitioners to actively participate in investigative and policing strategies. In doing so, it elucidates existing practices within scientific literature, advocating for a paradigm shift from the prevailing conception of forensic science as a conglomerate of disciplines merely aiding the criminal justice system. Instead, it urges a perspective that views forensic science as a discipline studying the informative potential of traces—remnants of criminal activity. Embracing this transformative shift poses a significant challenge for education, necessitating a shift in learners' mindset to accept concepts and methodologies in forensic intelligence.
+Recent calls advocating for the integration of forensic scientists into the criminal justice system, as well as policing and intelligence missions, underscore the necessity for the establishment of educational and training initiatives in the field of forensic intelligence. This article contends that a discernible gap exists between the perceived and actual comprehension of forensic intelligence among law enforcement and forensic science managers, positing that this asymmetry can be rectified only through educational interventions.
+The primary challenge in forensic intelligence education and training is identified as the formulation of programs aimed at heightening awareness, particularly among managers, to mitigate the risk of making suboptimal decisions in information processing. The paper highlights two recent European courses as exemplars of educational endeavors, elucidating lessons learned and proposing future directions.
+The overarching conclusion is that the heightened focus on forensic intelligence has the potential to rejuvenate a proactive approach to forensic science, enhance quantifiable efficiency, and foster greater involvement in investigative and managerial decision-making. A novel educational challenge is articulated for forensic science university programs worldwide: a shift in emphasis from a fragmented criminal trace analysis to a more comprehensive security problem-solving approach.
+
+=== Development of forensic science ===
+
+In 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs. Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease.  In the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These included A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health by the French physician François-Emmanuel Fodéré and The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German medical expert Johann Peter Frank.
+As the rational values of the Enlightenment era increasingly permeated society in the 18th century, criminal investigation became a more evidence-based, rational procedure − the use of torture to force confessions was curtailed, and belief in witchcraft and other powers of the occult largely ceased to influence the court's decisions. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of logic and procedure in criminal investigations at the time. In 1784, in Lancaster, John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms's pocket, leading to the conviction.
+
+In Warwick 1816, a farm laborer was tried and convicted of the murder of a young maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent assault. The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth near the pool. There were also scattered grains of wheat and chaff. The breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the pool.
+An article appearing in Scientific American in 1885 describes the use of microscopy to distinguish between the blood of two persons in a criminal case in Chicago.
+
+=== Chromatography ===
+Chromatography is a common technique used in the field of Forensic Science. Chromatography is a method of separating the components of a mixture from a mobile phase. Chromatography is an essential tool used in forensic science, helping analysts identify and compare trace amounts of samples including ignitable liquids, drugs, and biological samples. Many laboratories utilize gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to examine these kinds of samples; this analysis provides rapid and reliant data to identify samples in question.
+
+=== Toxicology ===
+A method for detecting arsenious oxide, simple arsenic, in corpses was devised in 1773 by the Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele. His work was expanded upon, in 1806, by German chemist Valentin Ross, who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach. Toxicology, a subfield of forensic chemistry, focuses on detecting and identifying drugs, poisons, and other toxic substances in biological samples. Forensic toxicologists work on cases involving drug overdoses, poisoning, and substance abuse. Their work is critical in determining whether harmful substances play a role in a person's death or impairment. read more
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 3/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics. He was called by the prosecution in a murder trial to give evidence as a chemist in 1832. The defendant, John Bodle, was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic-laced coffee. Marsh performed the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid. While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide, when it was shown to the jury it had deteriorated, allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt.
+Annoyed by that, Marsh developed a much better test. He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc, resulting in arsine gas. The gas was ignited, and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic, which, when passed to a cold surface, would appear as a silvery-black deposit. So sensitive was the test, known formally as the Marsh test, that it could detect as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. He first described this test in The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1836.
+
+=== Ballistics and firearms ===
+
+Ballistics is "the science of the motion of projectiles in flight". In forensic science, analysts examine the patterns left on bullets and cartridge casings after being ejected from a weapon. When fired, a bullet is left with indentations and markings that are unique to the barrel and firing pin of the firearm that ejected the bullet. This examination can help scientists identify possible makes and models of weapons connected to a crime.
+Henry Goddard at Scotland Yard pioneered the use of bullet comparison in 1835. He noticed a flaw in the bullet that killed the victim and was able to trace this back to the mold that was used in the manufacturing process.
+
+=== Anthropometry ===
+
+The French police officer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to apply the anthropological technique of anthropometry to law enforcement, thereby creating an identification system based on physical measurements. Before that time, criminals could be identified only by name or photograph. Dissatisfied with the ad hoc methods used to identify captured criminals in France in the 1870s, he began his work on developing a reliable system of anthropometrics for human classification.
+Bertillon created many other forensics techniques, including forensic document examination, the use of galvanoplastic compounds to preserve footprints, ballistics, and the dynamometer, used to determine the degree of force used in breaking and entering. Although his central methods were soon to be supplanted by fingerprinting, "his other contributions like the mug shot and the systematization of crime-scene photography remain in place to this day."
+
+=== Fingerprints ===
+Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects. While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858.
+
+In 1877 at Hooghly (near Kolkata), Herschel instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds, and he registered government pensioners' fingerprints to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a pensioner's death.
+In 1880, Henry Faulds, a Scottish surgeon in a Tokyo hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the scientific journal Nature, discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink. He established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial. Returning to the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to the Metropolitan Police in London, but it was dismissed at that time.
+Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin with a description of his method, but, too old and ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology. Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book Finger Prints. He had calculated that the chance of a "false positive" (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion.
+
+Juan Vucetich, an Argentine chief police officer, created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individuals on file. In 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types, Vucetich set up the world's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year, Francisca Rojas of Necochea was found in a house with neck injuries whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut. Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess to the crimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door. When it was compared with Rojas' prints, it was found to be identical with her right thumb. She then confessed to the murder of her sons.
+A Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta (Kolkata), India, in 1897, after the Council of the Governor General approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for the classification of criminal records. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it became the Fingerprint Bureau, were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, Sir Edward Richard Henry. The Henry Classification System, co-devised by Haque and Bose, was accepted in England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in Scotland Yard, the Metropolitan Police headquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy.
+In the United States, Henry P. DeForrest used fingerprinting in the New York Civil Service in 1902, and by December 1905, New York City Police Department Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot, an expert in the Bertillon system and a fingerprint advocate at Police Headquarters, introduced the fingerprinting of criminals to the United States.
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 4/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Uhlenhuth test ===
+The Uhlenhuth test, or the antigen–antibody precipitin test for species, was invented by Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science. The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the  year 1960s.
+
+=== DNA ===
+Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys, who realized that variation in the genetic sequence could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another. The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jeffreys in a double murder mystery in the small English town of Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1985. A 15-year-old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital. The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample.
+In 1986, Dawn Ashworth, 15 years old, was also raped and strangled in the nearby village of Enderby. Forensic evidence showed that both killers had the same blood type. Richard Buckland became the suspect because he worked at Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital, had been spotted near Dawn Ashworth's murder scene and knew unreleased details about the body. He later confessed to Dawn's murder but not Lynda's.  Jefferys was brought into the case to analyze the semen samples. He concluded that there was no match between the samples and Buckland, who became the first person to be exonerated using DNA. Jefferys confirmed that the DNA profiles were identical for the two murder semen samples. To find the perpetrator, DNA samples from the entire male population, more than 4,000 aged from 17 to 34, of the town were collected. They all were compared to semen samples from the crime.  A friend of Colin Pitchfork was heard saying that he had given his sample to the police claiming to be Colin. Colin Pitchfork was arrested in 1987 and it was found that his DNA profile matched the semen samples from the murder.
+Because of this case, DNA databases were developed. There is the national (FBI) and international databases as well as the European countries (ENFSI: European Network of Forensic Science Institutes). These searchable databases are used to match crime scene DNA profiles to those already in a database.
+
+=== Maturation ===
+
+By the turn of the 20th century, the science of forensics had become largely established in the sphere of criminal investigation. Scientific and surgical investigation was widely employed by the Metropolitan Police during their pursuit of the mysterious Jack the Ripper, who had killed a number of women in the 1880s. This case is a watershed in the application of forensic science. Large teams of policemen conducted house-to-house inquiries throughout Whitechapel. Forensic material was collected and examined. Suspects were identified, traced and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry. Police work follows the same pattern today. Over 2000 people were interviewed, "upwards of 300" people were investigated, and 80 people were detained.
+The investigation was initially conducted by the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), headed by Detective Inspector Edmund Reid. Later, Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline, Henry Moore, and Walter Andrews were sent from Central Office at Scotland Yard to assist. Initially, butchers, surgeons and physicians were suspected because of the manner of the mutilations. The alibis of local butchers and slaughterers were investigated, with the result that they were eliminated from the inquiry. Some contemporary figures thought the pattern of the murders indicated that the culprit was a butcher or cattle drover on one of the cattle boats that plied between London and mainland Europe. Whitechapel was close to the London Docks, and usually such boats docked on Thursday or Friday and departed on Saturday or Sunday. The cattle boats were examined, but the dates of the murders did not coincide with a single boat's movements, and the transfer of a crewman between boats was also ruled out.
+At the end of October, Robert Anderson asked police surgeon Thomas Bond to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer's surgical skill and knowledge. The opinion offered by Bond on the character of the "Whitechapel murderer" is the earliest surviving offender profile. Bond's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders. In his opinion the killer must have been a man of solitary habits, subject to "periodical attacks of homicidal and erotic mania", with the character of the mutilations possibly indicating "satyriasis". Bond also stated that "the homicidal impulse may have developed from a revengeful or brooding condition of the mind, or that religious mania may have been the original disease but I do not think either hypothesis is likely".
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 5/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Handbook for Coroners, police officials, military policemen was written by the Austrian criminal jurist Hans Gross in 1893, and is generally acknowledged as the birth of the field of criminalistics. The work combined in one system fields of knowledge that had not been previously integrated, such as psychology and physical science, and which could be successfully used against crime. Gross adapted some fields to the needs of criminal investigation, such as crime scene photography. He went on to found the Institute of Criminalistics in 1912, as part of the University of Graz' Law School. This Institute was followed by many similar institutes all over the world.
+In 1909, Archibald Reiss founded the Institut de police scientifique of the University of Lausanne (UNIL), the first school of forensic science in the world. Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France". He formulated the basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace", which became known as Locard's exchange principle. In 1910, he founded what may have been the first criminal laboratory in the world, after persuading the Police Department of Lyon (France) to give him two attic rooms and two assistants.
+Symbolic of the newfound prestige of forensics and the use of reasoning in detective work was the popularity of the fictional character Sherlock Holmes, written by Arthur Conan Doyle in the late 19th century. He remains a great inspiration for forensic science, especially for the way his acute study of a crime scene yielded small clues as to the precise sequence of events. He made great use of trace evidence such as shoe and tire impressions, as well as fingerprints, ballistics and handwriting analysis, now known as questioned document examination. Such evidence is used to test theories conceived by the police, for example, or by the investigator himself. All of the techniques advocated by Holmes later became reality, but were generally in their infancy at the time Conan Doyle was writing. In many of his reported cases, Holmes frequently complains of the way the crime scene has been contaminated by others, especially by the police, emphasising the critical importance of maintaining its integrity, a now well-known feature of crime scene examination. He used analytical chemistry for blood residue analysis as well as toxicology examination and determination for poisons. He used ballistics by measuring bullet calibres and matching them with a suspected murder weapon.
+
+=== Late 19th – early 20th century figures ===
+
+Hans Gross applied scientific methods to crime scenes and was responsible for the birth of criminalistics.
+Edmond Locard expanded on Gross' work with Locard's exchange principle which stated "whenever two objects come into contact with one another, materials are exchanged between them". This means that every contact by a criminal leaves a trace.
+Alexandre Lacassagne, who taught Locard, produced autopsy standards on actual forensic cases.
+Alphonse Bertillon was a French criminologist and founder of Anthropometry (scientific study of measurements and proportions of the human body). He used anthropometry for identification, stating that, since each individual is unique, by measuring aspects of physical difference there could be a personal identification system. He created the Bertillon System around 1879, a way of identifying criminals and citizens by measuring 20 parts of the body. In 1884, over 240 repeat offenders were caught using the Bertillon system, but the system was largely superseded by fingerprinting.
+Joseph Thomas Walker, known for his work at Massachusetts State Police Chemical Laboratory, for developing many modern forensic techniques which he frequently published in academic journals, and for teaching at the Department of Legal Medicine, Harvard University.
+Frances Glessner Lee, known as "the mother of forensic science", was instrumental in the development of forensic science in the US. She lobbied to have coroners replaced by medical professionals, endowed the Harvard Associates in Police Science, and conducted many seminars to educate homicide investigators. She also created the Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death, intricate crime scene dioramas used to train investigators, which are still in use today.
+Mary Louisa Willard, a chemistry professor at Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) from the 1920s through early 1960s, used her expertise in microscopy and chemical forensics to assist local and international criminal investigations.
+
+=== 20th century ===
+
+Later in the 20th century several British pathologists, Mikey Rochman, Francis Camps, Sydney Smith and Keith Simpson pioneered new forensic science methods. Alec Jeffreys pioneered the use of DNA profiling in forensic science in 1984. He realized the scope of DNA fingerprinting, which uses variations in the genetic code to identify individuals. The method has since become important in forensic science to assist police detective work, and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes. DNA fingerprinting was first used as a police forensic test to identify the rapist and killer of two teenagers, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who were both murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1983 and 1986 respectively. Colin Pitchfork was identified and convicted of murder after samples taken from him matched semen samples taken from the two dead girls.
+Forensic science has been fostered by a number of national and international forensic science learned bodies including the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1948), publishers of the Journal of Forensic Sciences; the Canadian Society of Forensic Science (founded 1953), publishers of the Journal of the Canadian Society of Forensic Science; the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences, (founded 1959), then known as the Forensic Science Society, publisher of Science & Justice; the British Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1960), publishers of Medicine, Science and the Law; the Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1967), publishers of the Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences; and the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (founded 1995).
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 6/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== 21st century ===
+In the past decade, documenting forensics scenes has become more efficient. Forensic scientists have started using laser scanners, drones and photogrammetry to obtain 3D point clouds of accidents or crime scenes. Reconstruction of an accident scene on a highway using drones involves data acquisition time of only 10–20 minutes and can be performed without shutting down traffic. The results are not just accurate, in centimeters, for measurement to be presented in court but also easy to digitally preserve in the long term.
+Now, in the 21st century, much of forensic science's future is up for discussion. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has several forensic science-related programs: CSAFE, a NIST Center of Excellence in Forensic Science, the National Commission on Forensic Science (now concluded), and administration of the Organization of Scientific Area Committees for Forensic Science (OSAC). One of the more recent additions by NIST is a document called NISTIR-7941, titled "Forensic Science Laboratories: Handbook for Facility Planning, Design, Construction, and Relocation". The handbook provides a clear blueprint for approaching forensic science. The details even include what type of staff should be hired for certain positions.
+
+== Subdivisions ==
+
+Art forensics concerns the art authentication cases to help research the work's authenticity. Art authentication methods are used to detect and identify forgery, faking and copying of art works, e.g. paintings.
+Bloodstain pattern analysis is the scientific examination of blood spatter patterns found at a crime scene to reconstruct the events of the crime.
+Comparative forensics is the application of visual comparison techniques to verify similarity of physical evidence. This includes fingerprint analysis, toolmark analysis, and ballistic analysis.
+Computational forensics concerns the development of algorithms and software to assist forensic examination.
+Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire tracks), controlled substances, ballistics, firearm and toolmark examination, and other evidence in criminal investigations. In typical circumstances, evidence is processed in a crime lab.
+Digital forensics is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order to recover data from electronic / digital media. Digital Forensic specialists work in the field as well as in the lab.
+Ear print analysis is used as a means of forensic identification intended as an identification tool similar to fingerprinting. An earprint is a two-dimensional reproduction of the parts of the outer ear that have touched a specific surface (most commonly the helix, antihelix, tragus and antitragus).
+Election forensics is the use of statistics to determine if election results are normal or abnormal. It is also used to look into and detect the cases concerning gerrymandering.
+Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence, financial statement namely: Balance sheet, Income statement, Cash flow statement.
+Forensic aerial photography is the study and interpretation of aerial photographic evidence.
+Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains.
+Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.
+Forensic astronomy uses methods from astronomy to determine past celestial constellations for forensic purposes.
+Forensic botany is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes.
+Forensic chemistry is the study of detection and identification of illicit drugs, accelerants used in arson cases, explosive and gunshot residue.
+Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints.
+Forensic document examination or questioned document examination answers questions about a disputed document using a variety of scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document, with a set of known standards. The most common type of examination involves handwriting, whereby the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship.
+Forensic DNA analysis takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity testing and placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a rape investigation.
+Forensic engineering is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage.
+Forensic entomology deals with the examination of insects in, on and around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death. It is also possible to determine if the body was moved after death using entomology.
+Forensic geology deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals and petroleum.
+Forensic geomorphology is the study of the ground surface to look for potential location(s) of buried object(s).
+Forensic geophysics is the application of geophysical techniques such as radar for detecting objects hidden underground or underwater.
+Forensic intelligence process starts with the collection of data and ends with the integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under investigation.
+Forensic interviews are conducted using the science of professionally using expertise to conduct a variety of investigative interviews with victims, witnesses, suspects or other sources to determine the facts regarding suspicions, allegations or specific incidents in either public or private sector settings.
+Forensic histopathology is the application of histological techniques and examination to forensic pathology practice.
+Forensic limnology is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around fresh-water sources. Examination of biological organisms, in particular diatoms, can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.
+Forensic linguistics deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic expertise.
+Forensic meteorology is a site-specific analysis of past weather conditions for a point of loss.
+Forensic metrology is the application of metrology to assess the reliability of scientific evidence obtained through measurements
+Forensic microbiology is the study of the necrobiome.
+Forensic nursing is the application of Nursing sciences to abusive crimes, like child abuse, or sexual abuse. Categorization of wounds and traumas, collection of bodily fluids and emotional support are some of the duties of forensic nurses.
+Forensic odontology is the study of the uniqueness of dentition, better known as the study of teeth.
+Forensic optometry is the study of glasses and other eyewear relating to crime scenes and criminal investigations.
+Forensic pathology is a field in which the principles of medicine and pathology are applied to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry.
+Forensic podiatry is an application of the study of feet footprint or footwear and their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal identity in forensic examinations.
+Forensic psychiatry is a specialized branch of psychiatry as applied to and based on scientific criminology.
+Forensic psychology is the study of the mind of an individual, using forensic methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior.
+Forensic seismology is the study of techniques to distinguish the seismic signals generated by underground nuclear explosions from those generated by earthquakes.
+Forensic serology is the study of the body fluids.
+Forensic social work is the specialist study of social work theories and their applications to a clinical, criminal justice or psychiatric setting. Practitioners of forensic social work connected with the criminal justice system are often termed Social Supervisors, whilst the remaining use the interchangeable titles forensic social worker, approved mental health professional or forensic practitioner and they conduct specialist assessments of risk, care planning and act as an officer of the court.
+Forensic toxicology is the study of the effect of drugs and poisons on/in the human body.
+Forensic video analysis is the scientific examination, comparison and evaluation of video in legal matters.
+Mobile device forensics is the scientific examination and evaluation of evidence found in mobile phones, e.g. Call History and Deleted SMS, and includes SIM Card Forensics.
+Trace evidence analysis is the analysis and comparison of trace evidence including glass, paint, fibres and hair (e.g., using micro-spectrophotometry).
+Wildlife forensic science applies a range of scientific disciplines to legal cases involving non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as poaching, animal abuse, and trade in endangered species.
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 7/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Questionable techniques ==
+Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific merit or none. Some such techniques include:
+
+Comparative bullet-lead analysis was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963.  The theory was that each batch of ammunition possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a specific box.  Internal studies and an outside study by the National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable due to improper interpretation, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005.
+Forensic dentistry has come under fire:  in at least three cases bite-mark evidence has been used to convict people of murder who were later freed by DNA evidence. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is commonly referenced within online news stories and conspiracy websites. The study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting, which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting. The theory is that each person has a unique and distinctive set of teeth, which leave a pattern after biting someone. They analyze the dental characteristics such as size, shape, and arch form.
+Police Access to Genetic Genealogy Databases: There are privacy concerns with the police being able to access personal genetic data that is on genealogy services. Individuals can become criminal informants to their own families or to themselves simply by participating in genetic genealogy databases. The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is a database that the FBI uses to hold genetic profiles of all known felons, misdemeanants, and arrestees. Some people argue that individuals who are using genealogy databases should have an expectation of privacy in their data that is or may be violated by genetic searches by law enforcement. These different services have warning signs about potential third parties using their information, but most individuals do not read the agreement thoroughly. According to a study by Christi Guerrini, Jill Robinson, Devan Petersen, and Amy McGuire, they found that the majority of the people who took the survey support police searches of genetic websites that identify genetic relatives. People who responded to the survey are more supportive of police activities using genetic genealogy when it is for the purpose of identifying offenders of violent crimes, suspects of crimes against children or missing people. The data from the surveys that were given show that individuals are not concerned about police searches using personal genetic data if it is justified. It was found in this study that offenders are disproportionally low-income and black and the average person of genetic testing is wealthy and white. The results from the study had different results. In 2016, there was a survey called the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) that was provided by the US Bureau of Justice Statistics. In that survey, it was found that 1.3% of people aged 12 or older were victims of violent crimes, and 8.85 of households were victims of property crimes. There were some issues with this survey though. The NCVS produces only the annual estimates of victimization. The survey that Christi Guerrini, Jill Robinson, Devan Petersen, and Amy McGuire produced asked the participants about the incidents of victimization over one's lifetime. Their survey also did not restrict other family members to one household. Around 25% of people who responded to the survey said that they have had family members that have been employed by law enforcement which includes security guards and bailiffs. Throughout these surveys, it has been found that there is public support for law enforcement to access genetic genealogy databases.
+
+== Litigation science ==
+"Litigation science" describes analysis or data developed or produced expressly for use in a trial versus those produced in the course of independent research. This distinction was made by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts.
+This uses demonstrative evidence, which is evidence created in preparation of trial by attorneys or paralegals.
+
+== Demographics ==
+As of 2025, there are currently an estimated 18,500 forensic science technicians in the United States.
+
+== Media impact ==
+Real-life crime scene investigators and forensic scientists warn that popular television shows do not give a realistic picture of the work, often wildly distorting its nature, and exaggerating the ease, speed, effectiveness, drama, glamour, influence and comfort level of their jobs—which they describe as far more mundane, tedious and boring.
+Some claim these modern TV shows have changed individuals' expectations of forensic science, sometimes unrealistically—an influence termed the "CSI effect".
+Further, research has suggested that public misperceptions about criminal forensics can create, in the mind of a juror, unrealistic expectations of forensic evidence—which they expect to see before convicting—implicitly biasing the juror towards the defendant. Citing the "CSI effect", at least one researcher has suggested screening jurors for their level of influence from such TV programs.
+Further, research has shown that newspaper media has been found to shape readers general knowledge and perceptions of science and technology in a rather positive way. It could lead to support of it due to the interest readers may obtain and seek further knowledge on the topic.
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Controversies ==
+Questions about certain areas of forensic science, such as fingerprint evidence and the assumptions behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some publications including the New York Post. The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique." The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned—and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors." Law professor Jessica Gabel said on NOVA that forensic science "lacks the rigors, the standards, the quality controls and procedures that we find, usually, in science".
+The National Institute of Standards and Technology has reviewed the scientific foundations of bite-mark analysis used in forensic science. Bite mark analysis is a forensic science technique that analyzes the marks on the victim's skin compared to the suspects teeth.  NIST reviewed the findings of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2009 study. The National Academics of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conducted research to address the issues of reliability, accuracy, and reliability of bitemark analysis, where they concluded that there is a lack of sufficient scientific foundation to support the data. Yet the technique is still legal to use in court as evidence. NIST funded a 2019 meeting that consisted of dentists, lawyers, researchers and others to address the gaps in this field.
+In the US, on 25 June 2009, the Supreme Court issued a 5-to-4 decision in Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts stating that crime laboratory reports may not be used against criminal defendants at trial unless the analysts responsible for creating them give testimony and subject themselves to cross-examination.  The Supreme Court cited the National Academies of Sciences report Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States in their decision. Writing for the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia referred to the National Research Council report in his assertion that "Forensic evidence is not uniquely immune from the risk of manipulation."
+In the US, another area of forensic science that has come under question in recent years is the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs.  Some states require accreditation, but some states do not.  Because of this, many labs have been caught performing very poor work resulting in false convictions or acquittals.  For example, it was discovered after an audit of the Houston Police Department in 2002 that the lab had fabricated evidence which led George Rodriguez being convicted of raping a fourteen-year-old girl.  The former director of the lab, when asked, said that the total number of cases that could have been contaminated by improper work could be in the range of 5,000 to 10,000.
+The Innocence Project database of DNA exonerations shows that many wrongful convictions contained forensic science errors. According to the Innocence project and the US Department of Justice, forensic science has contributed to about 39 percent to 46 percent of wrongful convictions. As indicated by the National Academy of Sciences report Strengthening Forensic Sciences in the United States, part of the problem is that many traditional forensic sciences have never been empirically validated; and part of the problem is that all examiners are subject to forensic confirmation biases and should be shielded from contextual information not relevant to the judgment they make.
+Many studies have discovered a difference in rape-related injuries reporting based on race, with white victims reporting a higher frequency of injuries than black victims. However, since current forensic examination techniques may not be sensitive to all injuries across a range of skin colors, more research needs to be conducted to understand if this trend is due to skin confounding healthcare providers when examining injuries or if darker skin extends a protective element. In clinical practice, for patients with darker skin, one study recommends that attention must be paid to the thighs, labia majora, posterior fourchette and fossa navicularis, so that no rape-related injuries are missed upon close examination.
+
+== Forensic science and humanitarian work ==
+The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) uses forensic science for humanitarian purposes to clarify the fate of missing persons after armed conflict, disasters or migration, and is one of the services related to Restoring Family Links and Missing Persons. Knowing what has happened to a missing relative can often make it easier to proceed with the grieving process and move on with life for families of missing persons.
+Forensic science is used by various other organizations to clarify the fate and whereabouts of persons who have gone missing. Examples include the NGO Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, working to clarify the fate of people who disappeared during the period of the 1976–1983 military dictatorship. The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) used forensic science to find missing persons, for example after the conflicts in the Balkans.
+Recognising the role of forensic science for humanitarian purposes, as well as the importance of forensic investigations in fulfilling the state's responsibilities to investigate human rights violations, a group of experts in the late-1980s devised a UN Manual on the Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, which became known as the Minnesota Protocol. This document was revised and re-published by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in 2016.
+
+== See also ==
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+---
+title: "Forensic science"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners – International non-profit organization
+Canadian Identification Society
+Computer forensics – Branch of digital forensic science
+Crime science – Study of ways to prevent or reduce crime
+Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents (forensic paleography)
+Epigenetics in forensic science – Overview article
+Evidence packaging – Specialized packaging for physical evidence
+Forensic biology – Forensic application of the study of biology
+Forensic economics
+Forensic identification – Legal identification of specific objects and materials
+Forensic materials engineering – Branch of forensic engineering
+Forensic photography – Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene
+Forensic polymer engineering – Study of failure in polymeric products
+Forensic profiling – Study of trace evidence in criminal investigations
+Glove prints – Mark left on a surface by a worn glove
+History of forensic photography
+International Association for Identification
+Medical jurisprudence – Branch of science and medicine
+Marine forensics
+Outline of forensic science – Overview of and topical guide to forensic science
+Profiling (information science) – Creation and use of user profiles via data analysis
+Retrospective diagnosis – Practice of identifying an illness after the death of the patient
+Rapid Stain Identification Series (RSID)
+Scenes of crime officer – Officer who gathers forensic evidence for the British police
+Skid mark – Mark left by any solid which moves against another
+University of Florida forensic science distance education program
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Forensic science at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Forensic educational resources
+Dunning, Brian (1 March 2022). "Skeptoid #821: Forensic (Pseudo) Science". Skeptoid. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
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+---
+title: "Heritage science"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:22.471481+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Heritage science is the interdisciplinary domain of scientific study of cultural and natural heritage. Heritage science draws on diverse humanities, sciences and engineering disciplines. It focuses on enhancing the understanding, care and sustainable use of heritage so it can enrich people's lives, both today and in the future. Heritage science is an umbrella term encompassing all forms of scientific enquiry into human works and the combined works of nature and humans, of value to people.
+The above definition was developed though a community consultation organised by ICCROM and the European Research Infrastructure for Heritage Science in 2019.
+The term has become widely used after 2006, when it became increasingly evident that the more traditional terms conservation science or preservation science inadequately reflected the breadth of research into cultural heritage. Heritage scientists in museums, galleries, libraries, archives, universities and research institutions support conservation (often called conservation science), access (e.g. development of new ICT tools), interpretation, including archaeometry and archaeological science (e.g. dating, provenancing, attribution), heritage management (e.g. development of tools and knowledge supporting strategic or environmental management decisions) and wider societal engagement with heritage (e.g. heritage values and ethics). Heritage science is also an excellent vehicle for public engagement with science as well as heritage.
+Heritage science is seen as "key to the long-term sustainability of heritage: it is about managing change and risk and maximising social, cultural and economic benefit not just today, but in such a way that we can pass on to future generations that which we have inherited." Domains of research, where heritage science makes a particular input were recognised by the United Kingdom National Heritage Science Strategy documents to be museums, galleries, libraries and archives; the built historic environment and archaeology.
+
+== Theory ==
+
+The field still requires its literature canon, and opinions on whether heritage science is a domain in its own right or a field of research diverge. However, this appears to be a matter of academic recognition, rather than a matter of research practice.
+Heritage science is an old field of research: in his Royal Institution Christmas Lecture in 1843, Michael Faraday already pointed out how pollution importantly contributes to book degradation. The following premises appear to be of defining importance:
+
+Heritage science is inherently biased, as scientists, by doing research on heritage, contribute to its value: they create and popularize heritage through their research.
+Heritage science is neither fundamental nor experimental: work with actual heritage objects, buildings or sites cannot be repeatable, because heritage is not an experiment. On the other hand, the scientific method and deductive reasoning are easily applied when working with models and model objects, which heritage scientists often do due to the high value of actual historic objects and consequentially, sampling restrictions.
+Since the historical context of heritage is often unknown, there can be any number of variables affecting the heritage system under observation – inductive reasoning is therefore often applied in heritage science. In this aspect, the premise of heritage science comes close to social science. Heritage that is accessible, in its preserved authentic form or as a (digital) reproduction, is also a "resource for economic growth, employment and social cohesion". Through improved access, heritage science can contribute to people's well-being. Heritage science is proof that there is no world of 'Two Cultures'. A scientist, researching heritage defies the existence of the divide: there can be no scientific research of heritage without a contribution by humanities research. Heritage science also successfully bridges science and notions of culture, because it provides an attractive vehicle to convey ideas and concepts related to technology and engineering, as well as culture and society. Heritage science can be considered an anthropogenic analogue to environmental geography, which was defined by Halford Mackinder in 1887 as a discipline that aims to "bridge one of the greatest of all gaps" between "the natural sciences and the study of humanity".  A different definition of heritage as part of a group's social psychology has been proposed by F.F.J. Schouten as "history processed through mythology, ideology, nationalism, local pride, romantic ideas or just plain marketing."
+
+== Research ==
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+---
+title: "Heritage science"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:22.471481+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Heritage science is an increasingly lively science domain. Materials and techniques of the past are often very difficult to study and state-of-the-art techniques and methods need to be employed. Discoveries new to science are often the result of such endeavours, e.g. new antibiotics from bacteria discovered in the Cave of Altamira, in Spain. With its wide definition, heritage science spans a significant variety of scientific activities. In order to support conservation, access, interpretation and management, heritage science must be based on an interdisciplinary palette of knowledge, from fundamental sciences (chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology) to arts and humanities (conservation, archaeology, philosophy, ethics, history, art history etc.), including economics, sociology, computer sciences and engineering.
+In academia, heritage science is often performed by scientists spending a proportion of their time on heritage-related research. The academic field, judged by the number of academic outputs published annually, is steadily increasing. This could be taken to estimate the domain size – with the number of outputs in 2014 being 6,800 (Source: Web of Science), it could be assumed that there are about 3,000 heritage scientists active in the field (publishing on average 2 academic publications per year). This goes against the generally held view that the field is small.
+The proportion per country varies greatly, about 20% of researchers being active in the US, 15% in the UK, 10% in Italy, 5% in France, and 5% in China (with a strong increase in the last decade).
+While the results of the field are published in a large number of journals from the application and methodology field that accept interdisciplinary publications, since 2013, a specific journal was developed for the field, Heritage Science. In 2013, the Mind the Gap project, funded by the UK EPSRC/AHRC Science and Heritage Programme, reported on the drivers and impediments in cross-disciplinary research. The project found that there is no gap between rigour and relevance in heritage science research, but rather that there is a continuum of activity. However, there was less satisfaction with heritage science research in relation to its impact on practice, in comparison to its academic impact.
+In 2017, in the frame of H2020-INFRADEV-2016-2, the European programme for the development and long-term sustainability of new pan-European research infrastructures, the European Commission funded the Preparatory Phase of the project European Research Infrastructure for Heritage Science (E-RIHS) that supports research on heritage interpretation, preservation, documentation and management. Its mission is to deliver integrated access to expertise, data and technologies through a standardized approach, and to integrate world-leading European facilities into an organisation with a clear identity and a strong cohesive role within the global heritage science community. After a further implementation phase from 2022 to 2004, on March 28, 2025 E-RIHS has been recognized as a European Research Infrastructure Consortium (ERIC), changing its status from a project to an entity with legal personality.
+At the University of Opole in Poland, the UNESCO Chair on Cultural Property Law publishes critical research relating to the intersection between law, culture, cultural diversity, and cultural heritage.
+
+== Higher education ==
+
+The heritage science career paths are various. Due to the cross-disciplinary nature of heritage science, any academic background is suitable, from formal sciences, natural sciences to social sciences. Most researchers have entered the field by carrying out doctoral research in the field, because there is currently no undergraduate course in this domain. Since 2010, Master's degree courses in heritage science have become available at University College London and Queen's University Belfast. In Italy, since early 2000s, students can obtain undergraduate and/or graduate degrees in conservation science at the University of Florence, University of Bologna, and a recently created programme at the University of Venice. Several other universities in Italy have faculty members whose primary research focus is in heritage science; these groups often accept international students who would like to obtain a PhD in the field. Taught courses in heritage science programmes include elements of heritage science, e.g. technical art history is often part of art history courses, and natural sciences are often taught in conservation courses. Brandenburg University of Technology in Germany offers the international Master's programme World Heritage Studies  and PhD programme Heritage Studies.
+At University College London, University of Oxford and University of Brighton, the Centre for Doctoral Training in Science and Engineering in Arts, Heritage and Archaeology (SEAHA) was established in 2014. A key aspect of the SEAHA scheme is the collaborative nature of projects, enabling partnerships between academic institutions, industry and national heritage agencies and giving an applied focus to the research training. Major regional initiatives include the Domaine d'intérêt majeur in the Île-de-France region of France (Ancient and Heritage Materials, 2017–2021; Tangible Heritage, 2022–2026), which has funded dozens of research projects since its creation.
+Since the field requires significant cross-disciplinary and transferable skills, graduates may be able to take jobs in industry and academia. To work within the field of heritage science (e.g. in a museum laboratory), a PhD in a field of science and significant experience in a heritage environment is typically required.
+
+== Professional activities ==
+
+Many major heritage institutions have heritage science departments.
+A UK body, the National Heritage Science Forum was established to enable the 'users' and 'doers' of heritage science to access information on heritage science research, to exchange knowledge and increase collaboration. In 2016, the forum had 20 institutional members.
+Several international professional associations have heritage science groups:
+
+Committee for Conservation, Working Group Scientific Research (International Council of Museums)
+Institute for Conservation, Heritage Science Group (Institute for Conservation)
+Royal Society of Chemistry, Heritage Science Expert Working Group (EWG), which produces freely available Technical Briefs  on a wide range of topics for conservators, scientists, and students
+The Heritage Science Research Network captures the current activity in the field in the UK. In Spain, the Spanish Network of Science and Technology for the Conservation of Cultural Heritage (TechnoHeritage) brings together more than 65 research groups working in heritage science, from the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), universities, conservation institutes and other cultural institutions.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Heritage science"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:22.471481+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Events ==
+
+There are major heritage science events including conferences, symposia, and meetings.
+In addition, conferences organised by the Institute of Conservation, American Institute for Conservation and International Institute for Conservation usually feature heritage science sessions and talks.
+
+== Journals ==
+Notable journals often or exclusively publishing academic papers in heritage science include:
+
+Heritage Science, open-access & peer-reviewed journal published by SpringerOpen, part of Springer Nature
+Archaeometry
+Heritage
+Journal of Cultural Heritage
+Journal of the American Institute for Conservation
+Studies in Conservation
+
+== See also ==
+Heritage studies
+Paleo-inspiration
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Heritage science departments
+Museum Conservation Institute of the Smithsonian Institution, US
+Department of Conservation and Science of the British Museum, UK
+Centre for Conservation Research, France
+Getty Conservation Institute, US
+Conservation Science Department of the V&A Museum, UK
+Science Laboratory of the Art Institute of Chicago, US
+The Netherlands Institute for Conservation, Art and Science, The Netherlands
+Heritage Science Lab Ljubljana, Slovenia
+Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione e il Restauro, Italy
+Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Italy
+Institute of Heritage Sciences of the National Research Council, Italy
+Koninklijk Instituut voor het Kunstpatrimonium/Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique, Belgium
+University of Oxford - Resilient Buildings and Landscapes Lab (OxRBL), UK
+Instituto del Patrimonio Cultural de España, Spain
+Paris-Saclay University's Graduate School of Humanities and Heritage Sciences, France
+CSIC-Plataforma Temática Interdisciplinar "Patrimonio Abierto: Investigación y Sociedad"
+Events
+Science and Engineering in Arts, Heritage and Archaeology
+Gordon Research Conference Scientific Methods in Cultural Heritage Research
+Technart
+Eastern Analytical Symposium, Conservation Science session
+International Symposium on Archaeometry
+Lasers in the Conservation of Artworks
+Indoor Air Quality in Museums, libraries and Archives Archived 2012-02-20 at the Wayback Machine
+CMA4CH Biennial Meeting
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+---
+title: "Home economics"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Home economics, also called home ec, domestic science, household arts, homemaking or family and consumer sciences (often shortened to FCS or FACS), is a subject concerning human development, personal and family finances, consumer issues, housing and interior design, nutrition and food preparation, as well as textiles and apparel. Although historically mostly taught in secondary school or high school, dedicated home economics courses are much less common today. Home economics overlaps with the concept of life skills-based education.
+Home economics courses are offered around the world and across multiple educational levels. Historically, the purpose of these courses was to professionalize housework, to provide intellectual fulfillment for women, to emphasize the value of "women's work" in society, and to prepare them for the traditional roles of sexes. Family and consumer sciences are taught as an elective or required course in secondary education, as a continuing education course in institutions, and at the primary level.  
+Beginning in Scotland in the 1850s, it was a woman-dominated course, teaching women to be homemakers with sewing being the lead skill. The American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences at the beginning of the 20th century saw Americans desiring youth to learn vocational skills as well. Politics played a role in home economics education, and it wasn't until later in the century that the course shifted from being woman-dominated to now required for both sexes.  
+Now family and consumer science have been included in the broader subject of Career Technical Education, a program that teaches skilled trades, applied sciences, modern technologies, and career preparation.  Despite the widening of the subject matter over the past century, there has been a major decline in home economics courses offered by educational institutions.
+
+== Terminology ==
+
+Family and consumer sciences were previously known in the United States as home economics, often abbreviated as "home ec" or "HE". In 1994, various organizations, including the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, adopted the new term "Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS)" to reflect the fact that the field covers aspects outside of home life and wellness. FCS is taught worldwide, as an elective or a required course in secondary education, and in many tertiary and continuing education institutions. Sometimes it is also taught in primary education. International cooperation in the field is coordinated by the International Federation for Home Economics, established in 1908.
+These programs have been called human sciences, home science, domestic economy, and the domestic arts, the domestic sciences, or the domestic arts and sciences, and may still be referred to as such depending on the academic institution. Home economics has a strong historic relationship to the field of human ecology, and since the 1960s a number of university-level home economics programs have been renamed "human ecology" programs, including Cornell University's program.
+
+== By country ==
+Internationally, Home Economics education is coordinated by the International Federation for Home Economics (Fédération internationale pour l'économie familiale).
+
+=== Canada ===
+
+In the majority of elementary (K-6) and public (K-8) schools in Canada, home economics is not taught. General health education is provided as part of a physical education class. In high schools or secondary schools, there is no specific home economics course, but students may choose related courses to take, such as Family Studies, Food and Nutrition, or Health and Safety.
+
+=== Finland ===
+Finland has a 110-year history in home economics teacher education. Household economics and nutrition have been taught at university level since the 1940s. Finland has made home economics a required course for boys and girls. When at university, home economics courses fall under categories of the culture and education of nutrition and food, consumer education, environmental education, and family education. The Finnish National Core Curriculum for Basic Education in 2014 also states to reach sustainable development, home economics must be one of the key elements throughout curriculum.
+
+=== Germany ===
+
+Between 1880 and 1900, the Reifenstein schools concept was initiated by Ida von Kortzfleisch, a Prussian noble woman and early German feminist. Reifenstein refers to Reifenstein im Eichsfeld, a municipality in Thuringia and site of the first permanent school. Reifensteiner Verband comprised from 1897 till 1990 about 15 own schools and cooperated with further operators. About 40 wirtschaftliche Frauenschulen, rural economist women schools were connected to the Reifensteiner concept and movement and allowed higher education for women already in the German Kaiserreich.  The 1913 doctorate of Johannes Kramer compared different concepts of home economic education worldwide and praised the system e.g. in Iowa.
+Additionally, home economics are taught as an optional course in lower- and mid-level secondary schools (Haupt- und Realschule).
+
+=== India ===
+Many education boards in India such as NIOS, CBSE, ICSE, CISCE and various state boards offer home science as a subject in their courses, sometimes called Human Ecology and Family Sciences.
+
+=== Indonesia ===
+Home economics are known in Indonesia as Family Training and Welfare (Indonesian: Pembinaan dan Kesejahteraan Keluarga, PKK). It is rooted on a 1957 conference on home economics held in Bogor; it became state policy in 1972.
+
+=== Iran ===
+The new books are Family management and planning lifestyle for girls in secondary high schools and a similar book for boys just as well.
+
+=== Ireland ===
+Home economics was taught to girls in the junior cycle of secondary school in the 20th century. It was added to the senior cycle Leaving Certificate in 1971, at a time when elimination of school fees was increasing participation. In subsequent decades new co-educational community schools saw more boys studying the subject. Increased third-level education participation from the 1990s saw a decline in practical subjects not favoured for third-level entry requirements, including home economics.
+
+=== Italy ===
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+---
+title: "Home economics"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 1945, just days before the Liberation of World War II, Ada Gobetti stated, "The most difficult problem will be that of the housewife. It will be one of the most difficult to resolve if one wants to create a new society."  She wanted women, family, work, and society to form a new relationship through education and organization of the housewives. Although people were not taught formal classes of home economics, during the 1950s and 1960s home economics manuals had been fully published. These manuals were compulsory for children to read in school. These manuals focused heavily on how to be a good housewife during a new era of transformation and how to adapt to new behaviors and habits.
+Starting from the Gentile reform of 1923, home economics was taught in the lower middle school and in the new unified middle school established in 1963. The name changed to Technical Applications, differentiated into male and female, which was taught until 1977 when it changed to the title of Technical Education, which no longer differed in relation to the sex of the pupils.
+
+=== South Korea ===
+In South Korea, the field is most commonly known as "consumer science" (소비자학, sobija-hak). The field began in schools taught by Western missionaries in the late 19th century.  The first college-level department of family science was established at Ewha Womans University in Seoul in 1929.
+
+=== Sweden ===
+In Sweden, Home economics is commonly known as "home- and consumer studies" (hem- och konsumentkunskap).
+The subject is mandatory from middle years until high school in both public and private schools but is regarded as one of the smallest subjects in the Swedish school system.
+For many decades, the subject was only called "hemkunskap" and had a strong focus on the traditional common tasks of a home, family and practical cooking and cleaning. After the 2011 Swedish school reform, the curriculum have been restructured with more focus on the topics of health, economy and environment which includes Consumer economics as well as Consumer awareness.
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+
+In 1852 Louisa Hope and others created the Scottish Ladies Association for Promoting Female Industrial Education. The intention was to ensure that females would learn sewing and in time other domestic subjects in separate gender based education. The Church of Scotland had decided in 1849 that it wanted female "schools of industry". Women were seen as centres of moral and religious values for families and upper class ladies in the new association saw it as their role to provide it.
+In 1853 Hope published, The Female Teacher: Ideas Suggestive of Her Qualifications and Duties where she notes that women should be "keepers at home" and men should see to his "labour and his work until the evening". Education of females would elevate the "lower classes" and this was the "aim of the Scottish Ladies Association for Promoting Female Industrial Education".
+Hope organised a petition of 130 signatures of "principal ladies of Scotland" demanding improved sewing lesson for girls in Scottish schools. The petition was supported by letters sent to newspapers and this was of underestimated influence. By 1861 grants were available to support this objective and in 1870 70% of schools were including sewing in their curriculum according to inspectors.
+Thereza Charlotte, Lady Rucker (1863 – 1941) was a promoter of household science teaching. She helped establish Domestic Science as a university subject but only at one university in England.
+In the UK, Home Economics was a GCSE qualification offered to secondary school pupils, but since 2015 been replaced with a course entitled Food and Nutrition which focuses more on the nutritional side of food to economics.
+In Scotland, Home Economics was replaced by Hospitality: Practical Cooking at National 3, 4 and 5 level and Health and Food Technology at National 3, 4, 5, Higher and Advanced Higher. The awarding body is the SQA.
+
+=== United States ===
+
+==== Nineteenth century ====
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+---
+title: "Home economics"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Over the years, homemaking in the United States has been a foundational piece of the education system, particularly for women. These homemaking courses, called home economics, have had a prevalent presence in secondary and higher education since the 19th century. By definition, home economics is "the art and science of home management", meaning that the discipline incorporates both creative and technical aspects into its teachings. Home economics courses often consist of learning how to cook, how to do taxes, and how to perform child care tasks. In the United States, home economics courses have been a key part of learning the art of taking care of a household. One of the first to champion the economics of running a home was Catherine Beecher, sister to Harriet Beecher Stowe.
+Since the nineteenth century, schools have been incorporating home economics courses into their education programs. In its early years, home economics began with the goal of professionalizing domestic labor for women whilst also uplifting the idea of "women's work". In the United States, the teaching of home economics courses in higher education greatly increased with the Morrill Act of 1862. Signed by Abraham Lincoln, the Act granted land to each state or territory in America for higher educational programs in vocational arts, specifically mechanical arts, agriculture, and home economics. Such land grants allowed for people of a wider array of social classes to receive better education in important trade skills.
+Home economics courses mainly taught students how to cook, sew, garden, and take care of children. The vast majority of these programs were dominated by women. Home economics allowed for women to receive a better education while also preparing them for a life of settling down, doing the chores, and taking care of the children while their husbands became the breadwinners. At this time, homemaking was largely accessible to middle and upper class white women whose families could afford secondary schooling.
+In the late 19th century, the Lake Placid Conferences took place. The conferences consisted of a group of educators working together to elevate the discipline to a legitimate profession. Originally, they wanted to call this profession "oekology", the science of right living. However, "home economics" was ultimately chosen as the official term in 1899.
+The first book on home economics was Mrs. Welch's Cookbook, published in 1884 at Iowa State by Mary Beaumont Welch. Welch's classes on domestic economy were the first in the nation to give college credit on the subject.
+
+==== Twentieth century ====
+Home economics in the United States education system increased in popularity in the early twentieth century. It emerged as a movement to train women to be more efficient household managers. At the same moment, American families began to consume many more goods and services than they produced.  To guide women in this transition, professional home economics had two major goals: to teach women to assume their new roles as modern consumers and to communicate homemakers' needs to manufacturers and political leaders.  The development of the profession progressed from its origins as an educational movement to its identity as a source of consumer expertise in the interwar period to its virtual disappearance by the 1970s. An additional goal of the field was to "rationalize housework", or lend the social status of a profession to it, based on a theory that housework could be intellectually fulfilling to women engaged in it, along with any emotional or relational benefits.
+Pioneers of the field included numerous female figures, such as Ellen Swallow Richards, who had profound impacts on the home economics profession. In 1909, Richards founded the American Home Economics Association (now called the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences). From 1900 to 1917, more than thirty bills discussed in Congress dealt with issues of American vocational education and, by association, home economics. Americans wanted more opportunities for their young people to learn vocational skills and to learn valuable home and life skills. However, home economics was still dominated by women and women had little access to other vocational trainings. As stated by the National Education Association (NEA) on the distribution of males and females in vocations, "one-third of our menfolk are in agriculture, and one-third in non-agricultural productive areas; while two-thirds of our women are in the vocation of homemaking".
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+---
+title: "Home economics"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Practice homes were added to American universities in the early 1900s in order to model a living situation, with the first facility built for home management practice constructed in the early 1920s at North Dakota Agricultural College. The all-women 'team' model used for students was different from prevailing expectations of housewives. For example, women were graded on collaboration, while households at the time assumed that women would be working independently. Nevertheless, the practice homes were valued. These practicum courses took place in a variety of environments including single-family homes, apartments, and student dorm-style blocks. For a duration of a number of weeks, students lived together while taking on different roles and responsibilities, such as cooking, cleaning, interior decoration, hosting, and budgeting. Some classes also involved caring for young infants, temporarily adopted from orphanages. Children's service organizations helped supply the babies who were awaiting adoption. At Cornell University, the first practice baby was called Dicky Domecon, named after the phrase "domestic economy". Dicky was borrowed by Cornell in 1920 when he was three weeks old. Practice babies belonged to the students and to the department and were considered central to the proper training and development of home economics students. Many fields of high acuity use simulation to enhance training in complicated situations. Childcare practicums were often included at the same time as other classwork, requiring students to configure their intellectual and home lives as compatible with one another. Home economics programs were using practice babies nationwide, however by 1959 less than one percent of programs still ran full-time operations. The practice was discontinued altogether by the early 1970s. According to Megan Elias, "in the ideal, domestic work was as important as work done outside the home and it was performed by teams of equals who rotated roles. Each member of the team was able to live a life outside the home as well as inside the home, ideally, one that both informed her domestic work and was informed by it. This balance between home and the wider world was basic to the movement."
+There was a great need across the United States to continue improving the vocational and homemaking education systems because demand for work was apparent after World War I and II. Therefore, in 1914 and 1917, women's groups, political parties, and labor coalitions worked together in order to pass the Smith-Lever Act and the Smith-Hughes Act. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 and the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 created federal funds for "vocational education agriculture, trades and industry, and homemaking" and created the Office of Home Economics. With this funding, the United States was able to create more homemaking educational courses all across the country.
+Throughout the 1940s, Iowa State College (later University) was the only program granting a Master of Science in household equipment. However, this program was centered on the ideals that women should acquire practical skills and a scientifically based understanding of how technology in the household works. For example, women were required to disassemble and then reassemble kitchen machinery so they could understand basic operations and understand how to repair the equipment. In doing so, Iowa State effectively created culturally acceptable forms of physics and engineering for women in an era when these pursuits were not generally accessible to them.
+Throughout the latter part of the twentieth century, home economics courses became more inclusive. In 1963, Congress passed the Vocational Education Act, which granted funds to vocational education job training. Home economics courses started being taught across the nation to both boys and girls by way of the rise of second-wave feminism. This movement pushed for gender equality, leading to equality in education. Starting in 1994, home economics courses in the United States began being referred to as "family and consumer sciences" in order to make the class appear more inclusive. With desegregation and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, men and women of all backgrounds could equally learn how to sew, cook, and balance a checkbook.
+In the 1980s, "domestic celebrities" rose to stardom. Celebrities, such as Martha Stewart, created television programs, books, magazines, and websites about homemaking and home economics, which attested to the continued importance of independent experts and commercial mass-media organizations in facilitating technological and cultural change in consumer products and services industries.
+Despite many secondary education establishments still referring to these enrichment classes as "home economics", the name was officially changed in 1994 by the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences to "family and consumer sciences" to more accurately represent the profession and field as a whole. As society changed over time, so did the needs of students in these classes. Topics such as nutrition, family finance, and other social justice issues have been added to family and consumer sciences classes, most frequently taught in high schools and colleges.
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+---
+title: "Home economics"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Twenty-first century ====
+Today FCS is part of the broader Career Technical Education (CTE) umbrella. Career and technical education is a term applied to programs that specialize in skilled trades, applied sciences, modern technologies, and career preparation.  While traditional home economics focused on preparing women to care for a family and home, family consumer science continues to adapt its course offerings to meet the needs of students both for personal growth and professional opportunities. Students can take classes in culinary arts, education, food science, nutrition, health and wellness, interior design, child development, personal finance, textiles, apparel, and retailing. Students who take FCS classes can join the student organization Family, Career, and Community Leaders of America.
+FCS and CTE courses help prepare students for careers rather than university. Also, homemaking and home economics courses have developed a negative connotation because of the negative gender bias associated with home economics courses. Despite this, homemaking is now socially acceptable for both men and women to partake in. In the United States, both men and women are expected to take care of the home, the children, and the finances. More women are pursuing higher education rather than homemaking. In 2016, 56.4% of college students were female as opposed to 34.5% in 1956. Some schools are starting to incorporate life skill courses back into their curriculum, but as a whole, home economics courses have been in major decline in the past century.
+In 2012 there were only 3.5 million students enrolled in FCS secondary programs, a decrease of 38 percent over a decade. In 2020 the AAFCS estimates that there are 5 million students enrolled in FCS programs, a significant increase from past years that is still growing.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Consumer economics
+Domestic technology
+Ellen Swallow Richards
+Euthenics
+Family (economics)
+Homemaker
+Human ecology
+The Secret History of Home Economics
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Apple, Rima D., and Joyce Coleman, " 'As Members of the Social Whole': A History of Social Reform as a Focus of Home Economics, 1895–1940." Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal 32.2 (2003): 104-126.
+Biltekoff, Charlotte. " 'Strong men and women are not products of improper food': Domestic science and the history of eating and identity." Journal for the Study of Food and Society 6.1 (2002): 60-69. online
+Dreilinger Danielle, The secret history of home economics: How trailblazing women harnessed the power of home and changed the way we live (Norton, 2021) online
+Elias, Megan J. "No place like home: A survey of American home economics history." History Compass 9.1 (2011): 97-105. online
+Goldstein, Carolyn M. (2012). Creating Consumers: Home Economists in Twentieth-Century America. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0807872383.
+Lee, Tsz Ngong (1999). "Home Economics". In Altenbaugh, Richard J. (ed.). Historical Dictionary of American Education. Greenwood Press. pp. 175–176. ISBN 978-0313285905.
+McGregor, Sue LT. "Home economics 5.0: In readiness for industry 5.0 and society 5.0." International Journal of Home Economics 17.2 (2024): 110-128. On role of AI. online
+Pendergast, Donna. "The role of home economics education in the 21st century: the COVID-19 pandemic as a disruptor, accelerator, and future shaper." CEPS Journal 11.4 (2021): 13-32; worldwide coverage. online
+Philippy, David, and Marco P. Vianna Franco. "Ecology and environment in home economics." in Environment and Ecology in the History of Economic Thought (Routledge, 2024) pp. 69-88.
+Solomon, Barbara Miller (1985). In the Company of Educated Women. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300033144.
+Tolley, Kim (2003). The Science Education of American Girls. RoutledgeFalmer. ISBN 978-0415934732.
+Stage, Sarah, and Virginia Bramble Vincenti, eds. Rethinking home economics: Women and the history of a profession (Cornell University Press, 1997) online. 
+Walker, Melissa (1998). "Home Economics". In Eisenmann, Linda (ed.). Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 201–206. ISBN 978-0313293238.
+Woody, Thomas (1929). A History of Women's Education in the United States. Vol. 2 (1966 reprint ed.). Octagon Press.
+Nutrition Education - Making it work By Dr. Janet Reynolds 
+People and Practice: International Issues for Home Economists by Elanour Vaines, Doris Badir and Dianne Kieren 
+Toward an Ideal of the Person Educated in Home Economics: An Invitation to Dialogue by Jane Thomas and Gale Smith 
+Sustainable food futures: Lessons for home economics pedagogy and practice by Martin Caraher and Janet Reynolds 
+Shapiro, Laura (2008). Perfection Salad. University of California Press.
+
+== External links ==
+Societies and associations
+
+International Federation for Home Economics (IFHE)
+American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences
+National Extension Association of Family and Consumer Sciences
+Teachers of Home Economics Specialist Association 
+Resources
+
+"What Was Home Economics?" web pages at the Cornell University library on the history and influence of home economics
+USDA Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service Archived 2007-12-04 at the Wayback Machine
+Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research, History (HEARTH)
+Family Consumer Science Lesson Plans
+National Standards for Family and Consumer Sciences Education (India)
+Family, Career and Community Leaders of America (FCCLA)
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 1/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and good health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security, or a poor understanding of nutritional requirements. Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths, physical deformities, and disabilities worldwide. Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically and mentally, and for normal human biological development.
+
+== Recommended Dietary Allowances ==
+The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are scientifically determined levels of essential nutrient intake, deemed sufficient by the Food and Nutrition Board to meet the nutritional needs of nearly all healthy individuals.
+The first RDAs were published in 1943, during World War II, with the aim of setting standards for optimal nutrition. The initial editions outlined daily nutrient recommendations for various age groups, reflecting the latest scientific insights at the time (NRC, 1943). The history and evolution of the RDAs have been extensively detailed by the chair of the first Committee on Recommended Dietary Allowances (Roberts, 1958). Over the years, the RDAs have been periodically updated, with the current version being the tenth edition.
+Originally intended to address nutrition issues related to national defense, the RDAs now serve multiple roles, including guiding food supply planning for population groups, interpreting dietary intake data, establishing standards for food assistance programs, assessing the nutritional adequacy of food supplies, designing nutrition education initiatives, aiding in the development of new food products, and setting guidelines for food labeling. However, the data underpinning these nutrient requirement estimates are often limited.
+The nutritional requirements system adopted by the United States and Canada refers to Dietary Reference Intake (DRI). The DRI is a set of nutritional guidelines developed by the National Academy of Medicine (NAM), part of the National Academies in the United States. Established in 1997, the DRI was created to expand upon the previous standards known as the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). Unlike the RDAs, the DRI encompasses a broader range of nutritional recommendations. The DRI values are distinct from those found on food and dietary supplement labels in the U.S. and Canada, which use Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) and Daily Values (%). These labeling standards were originally based on RDAs from 1968 but were updated in 2016.
+Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) represent the nutritional standards set by the United Kingdom's Department of Health and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for assessing and planning dietary intakes. The UK's Department of Health introduced these guidelines in 1991 with the publication of Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom. This document provides recommended nutrient intakes for the UK population, offering a framework for ensuring adequate nutrition.
+DRVs are categorized into three main types: Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI), which covers the nutritional needs of 95% of the population; Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), meeting the needs of 50%; and Lower Recommended Nutritional Intake (LRNI), which addresses the requirements of 5% of the population. These categories help to tailor dietary recommendations to different segments of the population, ensuring a more personalized approach to nutrition.
+
+== Nutrients ==
+
+The seven major classes of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. Nutrients can be grouped as either macronutrients or micronutrients (needed in small quantities). Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are macronutrients, and provide energy. Water and fiber are macronutrients, but do not provide energy. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.
+The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material can also be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram. However, the net energy derived from the macronutrients depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.
+Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., nondigestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear. For all age groups, males on average need to consume higher amounts of macronutrients than females. In general, intakes increase with age until the second or third decade of life.
+Some nutrients can be stored – the fat-soluble vitamins – while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients, or for some vitamins and minerals, too much of a required nutrient. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, and must be obtained from food.
+Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch, glycogen). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids can be converted (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation.
+
+=== Carbohydrates ===
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 2/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They are a diverse group of substances, with a range of chemical, physical and physiological properties. They make up a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products, but they are not an essential nutrient, meaning a human does not need to eat carbohydrates.
+Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose; purified sucrose, for instance, is used as table sugar. Polysaccharides, which include starch and glycogen, are often referred to as 'complex' carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple-branched chains of sugar units.
+Traditionally, simple carbohydrates were believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This is inaccurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates. The World Health Organization recommends that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.
+The most common plant carbohydrate nutrient – starch – varies in its absorption. Starches have been classified as rapidly digestible starch, slowly digestible starch and resistant starch. Starches in plants are resistant to digestion (resistant starch), but cooking the starch in the presence of water can break down the starch granule and releases the glucose chains, making them more easily digestible by human digestive enzymes. Historically, food was less processed and starches were contained within the food matrix, making them less digestible. Modern food processing has shifted carbohydrate consumption from less digestible and resistant starch to much more rapidly digestible starch. For instance, the resistant starch content of a traditional African diet was 38 grams/day. The resistant starch consumption from countries with high starch intakes has been estimated to be 30-40 grams/day. In contrast, the average consumption of resistant starch in the United States was estimated to be 4.9 grams/day (range 2.8-7.9 grams of resistant starch/day).
+
+=== Fat ===
+
+A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the chemical structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, represent potent immune modulatory molecules.
+Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.
+
+==== Essential fatty acids ====
+
+Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids—omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids—seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body.
+The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g., weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.
+The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 (made from DGLA). The conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation).
+
+=== Fiber ===
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 11/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== East Asia and the Pacific ===
+The East Asia and Pacific region has reached its goals on nutrition, in part due to the improvements contributed by China, the region's most populous country. China has reduced its underweight prevalence from 19 percent to 8 percent between 1990 and 2002. China played the largest role in the world in decreasing the rate of children under five underweight between 1990 and 2004, halving the prevalence. This reduction of underweight prevalence has aided in the lowering of the under 5 mortality rate from 49 to 31 of 1000. They also have a low birthweight rate at 4%, a rate comparable to industrialized countries, and over 90% of households receive adequate iodized salts. However, large disparities exist between children in rural and urban areas, where 5 provinces in China leave 1.5 million children iodine deficient and susceptible to diseases. Singapore, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia are all projected to reach nutrition MDGs. Singapore has the lowest under five mortality rate of any nation, besides Iceland, in the world, at 3%. Cambodia has the highest rate of child mortality in the region (141 per 1,000 live births), while still its proportion of underweight children increased by 5 percent to 45% in 2000. Further nutrient indicators show that only 12 per cent of Cambodian babies are exclusively breastfed and only 14 per cent of households consume iodized salt.
+
+=== Latin America and the Caribbean ===
+This region has undergone the fastest progress in decreasing poor nutrition status of children in the world. The Latin American region has reduced underweight children prevalence by 3.8% every year between 1990 and 2004, with a current rate of 7% underweight. They also have the lowest rate of child mortality in the developing world, with only 31 per 1000 deaths, and the highest iodine consumption. Cuba has seen improvement from 9 to 4 percent underweight under 5 between 1996 and 2004. The prevalence has also decreased in the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Peru, and Chile. Chile has a rate of underweight under 5, at merely 1%. The most populous nations, Brazil and Mexico, mostly have relatively low rates of underweight under 5, with only 6% and 8%. Guatemala has the highest percentage of underweight and stunted children in the region, with rates above 45%. There are disparities amongst different populations in this region. For example, children in rural areas have twice the prevalence of underweight at 13%, compared to urban areas at 5%.
+
+== Nutrition access disparities ==
+Occurring throughout the world, lack of proper nutrition is both a consequence and cause of poverty. Impoverished individuals are less likely to have access to nutritious food and to escape from poverty than those who have healthy diets. Disparities in socioeconomic status, both between and within nations, provide the largest threat to child nutrition in industrialized nations, where social inequality is on the rise. According to UNICEF, children living in the poorest households are twice as likely to be underweight as those in the richest. Those in the lowest wealth quintile and whose mothers have the least education demonstrate the highest rates of child mortality and stunting. Throughout the developing world, socioeconomic inequality in childhood malnutrition is more severe than in upper income brackets, regardless of the general rate of malnutrition.
+According to UNICEF, children in rural locations are more than twice as likely to be underweight as compared to children under five in urban areas. In Latin American/Caribbean nations, "Children living in rural areas in Bolivia, Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua are more than twice as likely to be underweight as children living in urban areas. That likelihood doubles to four times in Peru." Concurrently, the greatest increase in childhood obesity has been seen in the lower middle income bracket.
+In the United States, the incidence of low birthweight is on the rise among all populations, but particularly among minorities.
+According to UNICEF, boys and girls have almost identical rates as underweight children under age 5 across the world, except in South Asia.
+
+== Nutrition policy ==
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 12/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Nutrition interventions ===
+Nutrition directly influences progress towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating hunger and poverty through health and education. Therefore, nutrition interventions take a multi-faceted approach to improve the nutrition status of various populations. Policy and programming must target both individual behavioral changes and policy approaches to public health. While most nutrition interventions focus on delivery through the health-sector, non-health sector interventions targeting agriculture, water and sanitation, and education are important as well. Global nutrition micronutrient deficiencies often receive large-scale solution approaches by deploying large governmental and non-governmental organizations. For example, in 1990, iodine deficiency was particularly prevalent, with one in five households, or 1.7 billion people, not consuming adequate iodine, leaving them at risk to develop associated diseases. Therefore, a global campaign to iodize salt to eliminate iodine deficiency successfully boosted the rate to 69% of households in the world consuming adequate amounts of iodine.
+Emergencies and crises often exacerbate undernutrition, due to the aftermath of crises that include food insecurity, poor health resources, unhealthy environments, and poor healthcare practices. Therefore, the repercussions of natural disasters and other emergencies can exponentially increase the rates of macro and micronutrient deficiencies in populations. Disaster relief interventions often take a multi-faceted public health approach. UNICEF's programming targeting nutrition services amongst disaster settings include nutrition assessments, measles immunization, vitamin A supplementation, provision of fortified foods and micronutrient supplements, support for breastfeeding and complementary feeding for infants and young children, and therapeutic and supplementary feeding. For example, during Nigeria's food crisis of 2005, 300,000 children received therapeutic nutrition feeding programs through the collaboration of UNICEF, the Niger government, the World Food Programme, and 24 NGOs utilizing community and facility based feeding schemes.
+Interventions aimed at pregnant women, infants, and children take a behavioral and program-based approach. Behavioral intervention objectives include promoting proper breast-feeding, the immediate initiation of breastfeeding, and its continuation through 2 years and beyond. UNICEF recognizes that to promote these behaviors, healthful environments must be established conducive to promoting these behaviors, like healthy hospital environments, skilled health workers, support in the public and workplace, and removing negative influences. Finally, other interventions include provisions of adequate micro and macro nutrients such as iron, anemia, and vitamin A supplements and vitamin-fortified foods and ready-to-use products. Programs addressing micronutrient deficiencies, such as those aimed at anemia, have attempted to provide iron supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. However, because supplementation often occurs too late, these programs have had little effect. Interventions such as women's nutrition, early and exclusive breastfeeding, appropriate complementary food and micronutrient supplementation have proven to reduce stunting and other manifestations of undernutrition. A Cochrane review of community-based maternal health packages showed that this community-based approach improved the initiation of breastfeeding within one hour of birth. Some programs have had adverse effects. One example is the "Formula for Oil" relief program in Iraq, which resulted in the replacement of breastfeeding for formula, which has negatively affected infant nutrition.
+
+=== Implementation and delivery platforms ===
+In April 2010, the World Bank and the IMF released a policy briefing entitled "Scaling up Nutrition (SUN): A Framework for action" that represented a partnered effort to address the Lancet's Series on under nutrition, and the goals it set out for improving under nutrition. They emphasized the 1000 days after birth as the prime window for effective nutrition intervention, encouraging programming that was cost-effective and showed significant cognitive improvement in populations, as well as enhanced productivity and economic growth. This document was labeled the SUN framework, and was launched by the UN General Assembly in 2010 as a road map encouraging the coherence of stakeholders like governments, academia, UN system organizations and foundations in working towards reducing under nutrition. The SUN framework has initiated a transformation in global nutrition- calling for country-based nutrition programs, increasing evidence based and cost–effective interventions, and "integrating nutrition within national strategies for gender equality, agriculture, food security, social protection, education, water supply, sanitation, and health care". Government often plays a role in implementing nutrition programs through policy. For instance, several East Asian nations have enacted legislation to increase iodization of salt to increase household consumption. Political commitment in the form of evidence-based effective national policies and programs, trained skilled community nutrition workers, and effective communication and advocacy can all work to decrease malnutrition. Market and industrial production can play a role as well. For example, in the Philippines, improved production and market availability of iodized salt increased household consumption. While most nutrition interventions are delivered directly through governments and health services, other sectors, such as agriculture, water and sanitation, and education, are vital for nutrition promotion as well.
+
+== Advice and guidance ==
+
+=== Government policies ===
+
+Canada's Food Guide is an example of a government-run nutrition program. Produced by Health Canada, the guide advises food quantities, provides education on balanced nutrition, and promotes physical activity in accordance with government-mandated nutrient needs. Like other nutrition programs around the world, Canada's Food Guide divides nutrition into four main food groups: vegetables and fruit, grain products, milk and alternatives, and meat and alternatives. Unlike its American counterpart, the Canadian guide references and provides alternative to meat and dairy, which can be attributed to the growing vegan and vegetarian movements.
+In the US, nutritional standards and recommendations are established jointly by the US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and these recommendations are published as the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Dietary and physical activity guidelines from the USDA are presented in the concept of MyPlate, which superseded the food pyramid, which replaced the Four Food Groups. The Senate committee currently responsible for oversight of the USDA is the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee. Committee hearings are often televised on C-SPAN. The U.S. HHS provides a sample week-long menu that fulfills the nutritional recommendations of the government.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 13/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Government programs ===
+Governmental organisations have been working on nutrition literacy interventions in non-primary health care settings to address the nutrition information problem in the U.S. Some programs include:
+The Family Nutrition Program (FNP) is a free nutrition education program serving low-income adults around the U.S. This program is funded by the Food Nutrition Service's (FNS) branch of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) usually through a local state academic institution that runs the program. The FNP has developed a series of tools to help families participating in the Food Stamp Program stretch their food dollar and form healthful eating habits including nutrition education.
+Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (ENFEP) is a unique program that currently operates in all 50 states and in American Samoa, Guam, Micronesia, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. It is designed to assist limited-resource audiences in acquiring the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and changed behavior necessary for nutritionally sound diets, and to contribute to their personal development and the improvement of the total family diet and nutritional well-being.
+An example of a state initiative to promote nutrition literacy is Smart Bodies, a public-private partnership between the state's largest university system and largest health insurer, Louisiana State Agricultural Center and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana Foundation. Launched in 2005, this program promotes lifelong healthful eating patterns and physically active lifestyles for children and their families. It is an interactive educational program designed to help prevent childhood obesity through classroom activities that teach children healthful eating habits and physical exercise.
+
+=== Education ===
+
+Nutrition is taught in schools in many countries. In England and Wales, the Personal and Social Education and Food Technology curricula include nutrition, stressing the importance of a balanced diet and teaching how to read nutrition labels on packaging. In many schools, a Nutrition class will fall within the Family and Consumer Science (FCS) or Health departments. In some American schools, students are required to take a certain number of FCS or Health related classes. Nutrition is offered at many schools, and, if it is not a class of its own, nutrition is included in other FCS or Health classes such as: Life Skills, Independent Living, Single Survival, Freshmen Connection, Health etc. In many Nutrition classes, students learn about the food groups, the food pyramid, Daily Recommended Allowances, calories, vitamins, minerals, malnutrition, physical activity, healthful food choices, portion sizes, and how to live a healthy life.
+A 1985 US National Research Council report entitled Nutrition Education in US Medical Schools concluded that nutrition education in medical schools was inadequate. Only 20% of the schools surveyed taught nutrition as a separate, required course. A 2006 survey found that this number had risen to 30%. Membership by physicians in leading professional nutrition societies such as the American Society for Nutrition has generally declined from the 1990s.
+
+=== Professional organizations ===
+In the US, Registered dietitian nutritionists (RDs or RDNs) are health professionals qualified to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice which includes a review of what is eaten, a thorough review of nutritional health, and a personalized nutritional treatment plan through dieting. They also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Certified Clinical Nutritionists or CCNs, are trained health professionals who also offer dietary advice on the role of nutrition in chronic disease, including possible prevention or remediation by addressing nutritional deficiencies before resorting to drugs. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is currently less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS. These Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become board certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination, much like Registered Dieticians. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including; Clinical Intervention and Human Health. The National Board of Physician Nutrition Specialists offers board certification for physicians practicing nutrition medicine.
+
+== Nutrition for special populations ==
+
+=== Sports nutrition ===
+
+The protein requirement for each individual differs, as do opinions about whether and to what extent physically active people require more protein. The 2005 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), aimed at the general healthy adult population, provide for an intake of 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. A review panel stating that "no additional dietary protein is suggested for healthy adults undertaking resistance or endurance exercise".
+The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen – a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 14/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Maternal nutrition ===
+Maternal nutrition is crucial during pregnancy and the child's first 1,000 days of life, encompassing the period from conception to the second birthday. During the first six months, infants rely exclusively on breast milk, which remains nutritionally sufficient despite maternal nutritional challenges. However, the mother's overall health and diet directly impact the child's well-being. The importance of maternal nutrition is a critical influence on a child's development during this pivotal period, as supported by recent studies. The child's growth is divided into four key stages: (1) pregnancy, from conception to birth; (2) breastfeeding, from birth to six months; (3) the introduction of solid foods, from six to 12 months; and (4) the transition to a family diet after 12 months, with each stage requiring specific nutritional considerations for optimal development. Additionally, there is a significant connection between nutrition, overall health, and learning, with proper nutritional intake being vital for maintaining healthy body weight and supporting normal growth during infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Given the rapid growth during infancy, this phase demands the highest relative energy and nutrient intake compared to other stages of development.
+Proper nutrition during pregnancy plays a vital role in the development of the brain, requiring essential nutrients such as specific lipids, protein, folate, zinc, iodine, iron, and copper. Ensuring that children receive adequate nutrition during the first 1,000 days—from conception to the second birthday—significantly increases their chances of being born at a healthy weight. Additionally, it lowers the risk of various health conditions, including obesity and type 2 diabetes, while also fostering better learning abilities, fewer behavioral issues during early childhood, and improved overall health and economic stability in the long term.
+
+=== Pediatric nutrition ===
+Adequate nutrition is essential for the growth of children from infancy right through until adolescence. Some nutrients are specifically required for growth on top of nutrients required for normal body maintenance, in particular calcium and iron metabolism. Childhood dietary patterns are influenced by various factors, including feeding challenges and nutritional needs, with significant long-term consequences. During the first year, an infant's birth weight triples, and by age five, their birth length doubles. Brain volume doubles within the first 12 months and triples by 36 months. To support this rapid growth, solid foods are introduced after six months to supplement breast milk or infant formula. As children begin to consume more table foods in their second year, they are exposed to the same diet as their caregivers, which, along with more complex food combinations, shapes their dietary habits by 24 months. Imbalances in diet during this critical period can lead to malnutrition, with the highest risk occurring around the time of weaning, typically at 12 months in the U.S. and later in the second year globally. As a child transitions from breast milk or formula, dairy milk often becomes a key nutritional source, making the quality of the diet essential for continued growth and development.
+Various feeding challenges can increase the risk of malnutrition in young children. These include individual factors like food neophobia, temperament, and sensitivity to bitter tastes, as well as family-related factors such as education, income, food insecurity, and cultural norms. Young children tend to accept foods that are familiar and routine, as preferences are shaped through repeated exposure. Successful food acceptance requires caregivers to be patient, persistent, and willing to offer previously rejected foods multiple times. However, when caregivers label their child as "picky" or selective, they often stop offering rejected foods after just 3-5 attempts, mistakenly attributing limited food acceptance to genetics rather than learned behavior. Bribing or pressuring children to eat, along with a permissive feeding style that caters to the child's preferences, can lead to food rejection. It's common for young children to experience "food jags" (repeatedly wanting the same food) and to have shifting food preferences. While some children may exhibit a strong aversion to new foods, these reactions are usually not permanent.
+To address these challenges, providing a variety of nutrient-rich foods at every meal and snack is essential, allowing children to explore and develop their preferences. The concept of "responsive feeding", which involves a reciprocal relationship between the child and the caregiver during meals, is widely recommended. This approach is also supported by the U.S Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 15/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Elderly nutrition ===
+Malnutrition in older adults is a significant health concern, linked to increased mortality, morbidity, and physical decline, which adversely impacts daily activities and overall quality of life. This condition is common among the elderly and can also contribute to the development of geriatric syndromes. In older adults, malnutrition is typically indicated by unintentional weight loss or a low body mass index, though hidden deficiencies, such as those involving micronutrients, are often harder to detect and frequently go unnoticed, especially in community-dwelling seniors. This is generally higher among the elderly, but has different aspects in developed and undeveloped countries. In developed countries, the most common cause of malnutrition is illness, as both acute and chronic conditions can lead to or worsen nutritional deficits. As age increases the likelihood of disease, older adults are at the highest risk for nutritional challenges or malnutrition. The causes of malnutrition are complex and multifaceted, with aging processes further contributing to its development. The concerns faced with nutritional markers for the elderly are highlighted by the prevalence and determinants of malnutrition in adults over 65, encompassing factors from age-related changes to disease-related risks. The challenges in addressing, understanding, identifying, and treating malnutrition is key, noting that in some cases, targeted supplementation of macro- and micronutrients may be necessary when diet alone does not meet age-specific nutritional needs.
+The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified healthy aging as a key priority from 2016 to 2030, developing a policy framework that advocates for action across multiple sectors. The program aims to help older adults (those aged 65 and over) maintain functional ability, ensuring their well-being and active participation in society. Older adults are the fastest-growing age group, and United Nations projections indicate that by 2050, their numbers will double those of children under five and exceed the population of adolescents aged 15 to 24. By 2050, global life expectancy, which was 72.6 years in 2019, is expected to increase by approximately five years. Maintaining good nutritional status and adequate nutrient intake is essential for health, quality of life, and overall well-being in older age, and it plays a crucial role in healthy aging as defined by the WHO.
+
+==== Elderly Nutrition: Protein ====
+While energy needs decrease with age, the demand for protein and certain nutrients actually rises to support normal bodily functions. Deficiencies in specific nutrients are also linked to cognitive decline, a common issue among older adults. Reduced daily food intake in the elderly often leads to insufficient protein consumption, contributing to sarcopenia, a condition marked by the loss of muscle mass. Approximately 30% of those aged 60 and above, and over 50% of individuals aged 80 and older, are affected by this condition. The inability to meet protein needs exacerbates health issues, including chronic muscle wasting and bone health deterioration, leading to functional decline and frailty. To mitigate this, older adults are advised to evenly distribute protein intake across meals—breakfast, lunch, and dinner. As aging diminishes the body's ability to synthesize muscle protein, consuming adequate essential amino acids, especially leucine, is crucial. A leucine intake of at least 3 g per meal, achieved through 25-30g of high-quality protein, is necessary for effective muscle protein synthesis.
+Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III indicates that the average protein intake among the elderly is 0.9g/kg of body weight per day, with half of this intake occurring at dinner. This uneven distribution can lead to sub-optimal protein synthesis and increased use of dietary amino acids for other processes like fat storage. Therefore, evenly distributing 30 g of protein throughout the day is recommended to enhance protein turnover and prevent muscle loss. Older adults, particularly those with acute or chronic illnesses, may require higher protein intake, ranging from 1.2 to 1.5g/kg per day, due to a reduced anabolic response. Some studies suggest that an intake of 1 g/kg per day is sufficient, while others recommend 1.3 to 1.73g/kg per day for better health outcomes. Research shows that muscle mass preservation is more effectively supported by animal protein, which has a higher essential amino acid content, than by plant protein. The timing of protein intake, protein source, and amino acid content are key factors in optimizing protein absorption in the elderly.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 16/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Elderly Nutrition: Zinc ====
+Zinc is a vital micronutrient that plays a crucial role in enzymatic catabolism, immune cell function, DNA synthesis, and various micronutrient metabolisms. In the elderly, low serum zinc levels have been reported, which weakens the immune system, making them more susceptible to infections and increasing their risk of morbidity. Aging impairs T cell function, particularly due to zinc deficiency, and the reduced synthesis of metallothionein disrupts zinc balance in the gut and other tissues. This deficiency is primarily due to inadequate dietary zinc intake, compounded by factors such as poor mastication, oral health issues, medication use that interferes with absorption, and psychosocial factors that limit food intake. Additionally, epigenetic changes like DNA methylation may impair zinc transporters, leading to decreased zinc absorption as people age. Structural changes in the gut, including altered villus shape, mitochondrial changes, crypt elongation, collagen alterations, and increased cell replication time in the crypts, also significantly affect zinc absorption in the elderly.
+The recommended daily allowance of zinc is 11 mg for older men and 8 mg for older women, with an upper tolerable limit of 25–40 mg per day, including both dietary and supplemental sources. However, individuals over 60 often consume less than 50% of the recommended zinc intake, which is crucial for proper body function. Data from the Third Health and Nutrition Survey in the United States revealed that only 42.5% of adults over 71 years old met adequate zinc intake levels, with many suffering from zinc deficiency. To reach the upper tolerable limit of 40 mg per day, zinc intake from both food and supplements must be considered to help normalize serum zinc levels in deficient elderly individuals. Dietary sources such as seafood, poultry, red meat, beans, fortified cereals, whole grains, nuts, and dairy products are beneficial for maintaining adequate zinc levels, though absorption is higher from animal proteins than plant-based sources.
+
+==== Elderly Nutrition: Vitamin-B Complex ====
+The Vitamin-B complex, which includes eight water-soluble vitamins, plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular function and preventing brain atrophy. Among the elderly, deficiencies in vitamins B12, B6, and folate are linked to cognitive decline and depressive symptoms.
+The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin B12 is 0.9-2.4 μg/day, while the estimated average requirement in the U.S. and Canada is 0.7-2 μg/day. Elderly individuals with plasma vitamin B12 levels below 148 pmol/L are considered severely deficient, and those with levels between 148 and 221 pmol/L are marginally deficient. A deficiency in these B-vitamins, particularly B6, B12, and folate, is associated with elevated homocysteine levels, which increase the risk of alzheimer's disease and dementia. Increased intake of these vitamins can lower homocysteine levels and reduce the risk of these conditions. According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, about 6% of elderly Americans over 70 are severely deficient in vitamin B12, and more than 20% of those over 60 are mildly deficient. This deficiency is often due to insufficient food intake and malabsorption caused by degenerative digestive conditions, as indicated by elevated plasma gastrin levels in older adults. The deficiency of vitamin B6 among institutionalized elderly in Europe ranges from below 1% to 75%. B-vitamins are primarily found in animal-based foods, making deficiencies more common among those with limited animal food intake due to cultural, religious, or economic reasons. For vegetarians, fortified foods can be a viable alternative to ensure adequate vitamin B12 levels, especially when reducing laxative use to improve absorption.
+
+==== Elderly Nutrition: Calcium & Vitamin D3 ====
+Aging is often marked by a decline in bone mineral density, leading to an increased risk of osteoporotic fractures and reduced mobility, especially among elderly women. Women experience greater bone loss, around 2-3% per year, particularly after menopause due to estrogen deficiency. This deficiency reduces intestinal calcium absorption, decreases calcium reabsorption by the kidneys, and increases parathyroid hormone secretion, all contributing to bone resorption. Additionally, vitamin D3 deficiency, common in older adults due to reduced skin synthesis and limited sun exposure, further disrupts calcium homeostasis by decreasing intestinal absorption of calcium. As kidney function declines with age, the conversion of vitamin D3 to its active form is impaired, exacerbating the deficiency.
+Serum 25(OH)D levels below 50 nmol/L are linked to muscle weakness and reduced physical function, while levels below 25-30 nmol/L increase the risk of falls and fractures. Older adults typically consume less calcium, around 600 mg/day, which heightens their susceptibility to fractures. For optimal bone health, a calcium intake of 1000–1200 mg/day is recommended, along with 800 IU/day of vitamin D3 for those with adequate sun exposure, and up to 2000 IU/day for those with limited sun exposure or obesity. However, dietary factors like phytates, oxalates, tannins, and high sodium can impair calcium absorption and retention, underscoring the need to maintain sufficient levels of both calcium and vitamin D3 through diet or supplementation to reduce the risk of pathologic fractures.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 17/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Elderly Nutrition: Iron ====
+Iron deficiency is prevalent among the elderly and is a significant contributor to anemia in this population. As people age, the body's ability to balance iron storage and supply diminishes, leading to this condition. Multiple factors contribute to iron deficiency in older adults, including reduced food intake, frequent medication use, gastrointestinal malabsorption, and occult bleeding. Malabsorption can also result in excessive iron accumulation, further complicating the issue. Age-related anemia may also be linked to increased levels of hepcidin, a hormone that reduces iron absorption in the intestine, leading to low iron levels.
+The recommended daily intake of iron for both men and women is 8 mg, with an upper limit of 45 mg/day. According to the World Health Organization, hemoglobin levels below 12 g/dl in women and 13 mg/dl in men indicate anemia. The NHANES III survey found that anemia affects 10.2% of women and 11% of men over 65, with prevalence increasing with age. Low iron levels not only decrease quality of life but are also associated with depression, fatigue, cognitive impairment, and muscle wasting.
+Dietary components significantly influence iron absorption; tannins and polyphenols in tea and coffee inhibit it, while Vitamin C enhances it. However, the interaction between iron and vitamin C can generate free radicals, particularly in cases of iron overload. In iron deficiency, vitamin C aids absorption. Aspirin use in the elderly, often for cardiovascular disease, is linked to lower serum ferritin levels. Iron deficiency can be managed through an iron-rich diet or supplementation. Severe iron deficiency anemia may require oral iron therapy, typically with 300 mg of ferrous sulfate containing 60 mg of elemental iron. For those who do not respond to oral treatment, intravenous iron infusion or iron chelation for iron overload may be necessary.
+
+=== Clinical nutrition ===
+
+On admission to intensive care unit, energy and protein requirements are calculated to determine the targets of nutritional therapy. Enteral nutrition (administering nutrition using a feeding tube) is started within 24 to 48 hours of admission with feeding targets increased every week. The risk of aspiration (inhalation of fluid or food particles while drinking or eating) can be reduced by elevating the head, using prokinetic agent, and using a chlorhexidine mouthwash. Although the presence of bowel sounds and the amount of gastric residual volume aspirated after feeding can be used to monitor the functionality of the gastrointestinal tract before feeding is started; starting nutritional therapy at this stage regardless of the functional status is feasible and safe within 36 to 48 hours of admission. Parenteral nutrition (administering of nutrition intravenously) should be started when enteral nutrition is not possible or sufficient or in high-risk subjects.
+Before undergoing surgery, a subject should avoid long periods of fasting. Oral feeding should be established as soon as possible after surgery. Other aspects of nutrition such as control of glucose, reduction in risk factors that causes stress-related catabolism or impairment of gastrointestinal functions, and encourage early physical activity to encourage protein synthesis and muscle functions.
+
+== History of human nutrition ==
+
+Early human nutrition was largely determined by the availability and palatability of foods. Humans evolved as omnivorous hunter-gatherers, though the diet of humans has varied significantly depending on location and climate. The diet in the tropics tended to depend more heavily on plant foods, while the diet at higher latitudes tended more towards animal products. Analyses of postcranial and cranial remains of humans and animals from the Neolithic, along with detailed bone-modification studies, have shown that cannibalism also occurred among prehistoric humans.
+Agriculture developed at different times in different places, starting about 11,500 years ago, providing some cultures with a more abundant supply of grains (such as wheat, rice and maize) and potatoes; and originating staples such as bread, pasta dough, and tortillas. The domestication of animals provided some cultures with milk and dairy products.
+In 2020, archeological research discovered a frescoed thermopolium (a fast-food counter) in an exceptional state of preservation from 79 in Pompeii, including 2,000-year-old foods available in some of the deep terra cotta jars.
+
+=== Nutrition in antiquity ===
+
+During classical antiquity, diets consisted of simple fresh or preserved whole foods that were either locally grown or transported from neighboring areas during times of crisis.
+
+=== 18th century until today: food processing and nutrition ===
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 18/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Since the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th century, the food processing industry has invented many technologies that both help keep foods fresh longer and alter the fresh state of food as they appear in nature. Cooling and freezing are primary technologies used to maintain freshness, whereas many more technologies have been invented to allow foods to last longer without becoming spoiled. These latter technologies include pasteurisation, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, all of which appearing to alter the original nutritional contents of food. Pasteurisation and autoclavation (heating techniques) have no doubt improved the safety of many common foods, preventing epidemics of bacterial infection.
+Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and pressing have enabled concentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices, and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Inevitably, such large-scale concentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce the content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet-to-be-discovered substances.
+Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often enriched or fortified with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fiber, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. In addition, processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.
+A dramatic example of the effect of food processing on a population's health is the history of epidemics of beri-beri in people subsisting on polished rice. Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it the essential vitamin thiamine, causing beri-beri. Another example is the development of scurvy among infants in the late 19th century in the United States. It turned out that the vast majority of those affected were being fed milk that had been heat-treated (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial disease. Pasteurisation was effective against bacteria, but it destroyed the vitamin C.
+
+== Research of nutrition and nutritional science ==
+
+=== Antiquity: Start of scientific research on nutrition ===
+
+Around 3000 BC the Vedic texts made mention of scientific research on nutrition. The first recorded dietary advice, carved into a Babylonian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, cautioned those with pain inside to avoid eating onions for three days. Scurvy, later found to be a vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC in the Ebers Papyrus.
+According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC. In China, the concept of qi developed, a spirit or "wind" similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into "hot" (for example, meats, blood, ginger, and hot spices) and "cold" (green vegetables) in China, India, Malaya, and Persia. Humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements (Wu Xing: fire, water, earth, wood, and metal), and he classified diseases as well as prescribed diets. About the same time in Italy, Alcmaeon of Croton (a Greek) wrote of the importance of equilibrium between what goes in and what goes out, and warned that imbalance would result in disease marked by obesity or emaciation.
+
+Around 475 BC, Anaxagoras wrote that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned with obesity, which may have been common in southern Europe at the time, said, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food." The works that are still attributed to him, Corpus Hippocraticum, called for moderation and emphasized exercise.
+Salt, pepper and other spices were prescribed for various ailments in various preparations for example mixed with vinegar. In the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder believed that cabbage (or the urine of cabbage-eaters) could cure digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and intoxication. Living about the turn of the millennium, Aulus Celsus, an ancient Roman doctor, believed in "strong" and "weak" foods (bread for example was strong, as were older animals and vegetables).
+The Book of Daniel, dated to the second century BC, contains a description of a comparison in health of captured people following Jewish dietary laws versus the diet of the soldiers of the king of Babylon. (The story may be legendary rather than historical.)
+
+=== 1st to 17th century ===
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 19/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Galen was physician to gladiators in Pergamon, and in Rome, physician to Marcus Aurelius and the three emperors who succeeded him.
+In use from his life in the 1st century AD until the 17th century, it was heresy to disagree with the teachings of Galen for 1500 years. Most of Galen's teachings were gathered and enhanced in the late 11th century by Benedictine monks at the School of Salerno in Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum, which still had users in the 17th century. Galen believed in the bodily humours of Hippocrates, and he taught that pneuma is the source of life. Four elements (earth, air, fire and water) combine into "complexion", which combines into states (the four temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, and melancholic). The states are made up of pairs of attributes (hot and moist, cold and moist, hot and dry, and cold and dry), which are made of four humours: blood, phlegm, green (or yellow) bile, and black bile (the bodily form of the elements). Galen thought that for a person to have gout, kidney stones, or arthritis was scandalous, which Gratzer likens to Samuel Butler's Erewhon (1872) where sickness is a crime.
+In the 1500s, Paracelsus was probably the first to criticize Galen publicly. Also in the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle. Leonardo did not publish his works on this subject, but he was not afraid of thinking for himself and he definitely disagreed with Galen. Ultimately, 16th century works of Andreas Vesalius, sometimes called the father of modern human anatomy, overturned Galen's ideas. He was followed by piercing thought amalgamated with the era's mysticism and religion sometimes fueled by the mechanics of Newton and Galileo. Jan Baptist van Helmont, who discovered several gases such as carbon dioxide, performed the first quantitative experiment. Robert Boyle advanced chemistry. Sanctorius measured body weight. Physician Herman Boerhaave modeled the digestive process. Physiologist Albrecht von Haller worked out the difference between nerves and muscles.
+
+=== 18th and 19th century: Lind, Lavoisier and modern science ===
+
+Sometimes forgotten during his life, James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment in 1747. Lind discovered that lime juice saved sailors that had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. Between 1500 and 1800, an estimated two million sailors had died of scurvy. The discovery was ignored for forty years, but after about 1850, British sailors became known as "limeys" due to the carrying and consumption of limes aboard ship. The essential vitamin C within citrus fruits would not be identified by scientists until 1932.
+
+Around 1770, Antoine Lavoisier discovered the details of metabolism, demonstrating that the oxidation of food is the source of body heat. Called the most fundamental chemical discovery of the 18th century, Lavoisier discovered the principle of conservation of mass. His ideas made the phlogiston theory of combustion obsolete.
+In 1790, George Fordyce recognized calcium as necessary for the survival of fowl. In the early 19th century, the elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen were recognized as the primary components of food, and methods to measure their proportions were developed.
+In 1816, François Magendie discovered that dogs fed only carbohydrates (sugar), fat (olive oil), and water died evidently of starvation, but dogs also fed protein survived – identifying protein as an essential dietary component. William Prout in 1827 was the first person to divide foods into carbohydrates, fat, and protein. In 1840, Justus von Liebig discovered the chemical makeup of carbohydrates (sugars), fats (fatty acids) and proteins (amino acids). During the 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Dumas and von Liebig quarrelled over their shared belief that animals get their protein directly from plants (animal and plant protein are the same and that humans do not create organic compounds). With a reputation as the leading organic chemist of his day but with no credentials in animal physiology, von Liebig grew rich making food extracts like beef bouillon and infant formula that were later found to be of questionable nutritious value.
+
+In the early 1880s, Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost entirely of white rice) developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis), but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease. (This was not because of the increased protein as Takaki supposed, but because it introduced a few parts per million of thiamine to the diet.)).
+In the 1860s, Claude Bernard discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.
+In 1896, Eugen Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands. In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who also had beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. His assistant, Gerrit Grijns correctly identified and described the anti-beriberi substance in rice. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, also known as thiamine.
+
+=== Early 20th century ===
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+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 20/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the early 20th century, Carl von Voit and Max Rubner independently measured caloric energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906, Edith G. Willcock and Frederick Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan aids the well-being of mice but it did not assure their growth. In the middle of twelve years of attempts to isolate them, Hopkins said in a 1906 lecture that "unsuspected dietetic factors", other than calories, protein, and minerals, are needed to prevent deficiency diseases. In 1907, Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart started the cow feeding, single-grain experiment, which took nearly four years to complete.
+In 1912 Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin to label a vital factor in the diet: from the words "vital" and "amine", because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra, and were thought then to derive from ammonia. In 1913 Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble vitamin A and water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915; later identified as a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel (1872–1935) and Thomas Osborne (1859–1929) also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B.
+In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.
+In 1925 Hart discovered that iron absorption requires trace amounts of copper. In 1927 Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesized vitamin D, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928. In 1928 Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated ascorbic acid, and in 1932 proved that it is vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1935 he synthesized it, and in 1937 won a Nobel Prize for his efforts. Szent-Györgyi concurrently elucidated much of the citric acid cycle.
+In the 1930s, William Cumming Rose identified essential amino acids, necessary protein components that the body cannot synthesize. In 1935 Eric Underwood and Hedley Marston independently discovered the necessity of cobalt. In 1936, Eugene Floyd DuBois showed that work and school performance are related to caloric intake. In 1938, Erhard Fernholz discovered the chemical structure of vitamin E. It was synthesised the same year by Paul Karrer.
+Oxford University closed down its nutrition department after World War II because the subject seemed to have been completed between 1912 and 1944.
+
+=== Institutionalization of nutritional science in the 1950s ===
+
+Nutritional science as a separate, independent science discipline was institutionalized in the 1950s. At the instigation of the British physiologist John Yudkin at the University of London, the degrees Bachelor of Science and Master of Science in nutritional science were established. The first students were admitted in 1953, and in 1954 the Department of Nutrition was officially opened. In Germany, institutionalization followed in November 1956, when Hans-Diedrich Cremer was appointed to the chair for human nutrition in Giessen. Over time, seven other universities with similar institutions followed in Germany. From the 1950s to 1970s, a focus of nutritional science was on dietary fat and sugar. From the 1970s to the 1990s, attention was put on diet-related chronic diseases and supplementation.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Hirschfelder, Gunther/Trummer, Manuel, Food and Drink, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2013, retrieved: 8 March 2020 (pdf).
+Mahan, L.K., Escott-Stump, S., eds. (2000). Krause's Food, Nutrition, and Diet Therapy (10th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Harcourt Brace. ISBN 978-0-7216-7904-4.
+Human Nutrition. Readings from Scientific American. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co. 1978. ISBN 978-0-7167-0183-5.
+Thiollet, J.-P. (2001). Vitamines & minéraux. Paris: Anagramme.
+Willett WC, Stampfer MJ (January 2003). "Rebuilding the food pyramid". Scientific American. 288 (1): 64–71. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288a..64W. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0103-64. PMID 12506426.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Diet, Nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases by a Joint WHO/FAO Expert consultation (2003)
+Food and Nutrition Information Center of the United States Department of Agriculture
+UN Standing Committee on Nutrition, in English, French and Portuguese
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 3/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Fiber slows down the absorption of sugar in the gut. The microbiome converts fiber into signals that stimulate gut hormones, which in turn control how quickly the stomach empties, regulate blood sugar levels, and influence feelings of hunger. Like all carbohydrates, when fiber is digested, it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility.
+The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber.
+
+Insoluble dietary fiber
+Includes cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so.
+Includes resistant starch, an insoluble starch that resists digestion either because it is protected by a shell or food matrix (Type 1 resistant starch, RS1), maintains the natural starch granule (Type 2 resistant starch, RS2), is retrograded and partially crystallized (Type 3 resistant starch, RS3), has been chemically modified (Type 4 resistant starch, RS4) or has complexed with a lipid (Type 5 resistant starch, RS5). Natural sources of resistant starch (RS1, RS2 and RS3) are fermented by the microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are utilized as food for the colonic cells or absorbed.
+Soluble dietary fiber
+Comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.
+Whole grains, beans, and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber has three primary mechanisms, which in general determine their health impact: bulking, viscosity and fermentation. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber facilitates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move contents along the digestive tract. Some soluble and insoluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Fermentable fibers are used as food by the microbiome, mildly increasing bulk, and producing short-chain fatty acids and other metabolites, including vitamins, hormones, and glucose. One of these metabolites, butyrate, is important as an energy source for colon cells, and may improve metabolic syndrome.
+In 2016, the U.S. FDA approved a qualified health claim stating that resistant starch might reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, but with qualifying language for product labels that only limited scientific evidence exists to support this claim. The FDA requires specific labeling language, such as the guideline concerning resistant starch: "High-amylose maize resistant starch may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. FDA has concluded that there is limited scientific evidence for this claim."
+
+=== Amino acids ===
+
+Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair) and form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids which contain nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). Amino acids are soluble in the digestive juices within the small intestine, where they are absorbed into the blood. Once absorbed, they cannot be stored in the body, so they are either metabolized as required or excreted in the urine. Proteins consist of amino acids in different proportions. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.
+For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally so they must be eaten) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential. The synthesis of some amino acids can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress, and those are called conditionally essential.
+A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids. It is possible with protein combinations of two incomplete protein sources (e.g., rice and beans) to make a complete protein source, and characteristic combinations are the basis of distinct cultural cooking traditions. However, complementary sources of protein do not need to be eaten at the same meal to be used together by the body. Excess amino acids from protein can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a process called gluconeogenesis.
+There is an ongoing debate about the differences in nutritional quality and adequacy of protein from vegan, vegetarian and animal sources, though many studies and institutions have found that a well-planned vegan or vegetarian diet contains enough high-quality protein to support the protein requirements of both sedentary and active people at all stages of life.
+
+=== Water ===
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 4/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore, it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids.
+Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that six to eight glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However, the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with "desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed".
+For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.
+The EFSA panel also determined intakes for different populations. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for adults as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. Pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional fluids to stay hydrated. The EFSA panel proposes that pregnant women should consume the same volume of water as non-pregnant women, plus an increase in proportion to the higher energy requirement, equal to 300 mL/day. To compensate for additional fluid output, breastfeeding women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake values for non-lactating women. Dehydration and over-hydration – too little and too much water, respectively – can have harmful consequences. Drinking too much water is one of the possible causes of hyponatremia, i.e., low serum sodium.
+
+=== Minerals ===
+
+Dietary minerals are inorganic chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. Some have roles as cofactors, while others are electrolytes. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned – including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most well-known is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.
+
+==== Macrominerals ====
+Elements with recommended dietary allowance (RDA) greater than 150 mg/day are, in alphabetical order:
+
+Calcium (Ca2+) is vital to the health of the muscular, circulatory, and digestive systems; is indispensable to the building of bone; and supports the synthesis and function of blood cells. For example, calcium is used to regulate the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction, and the clotting of blood. It can play this role because the Ca2+ ion forms stable coordination complexes with many organic compounds, especially proteins; it also forms compounds with a wide range of solubility, enabling the formation of the skeleton. Food sources include yogurt, milk, cheese, leafy greens, tofu, and fortified beverages.
+Chlorine as chloride ions; electrolyte; see sodium, below.
+Magnesium, required for processing ATP and related reactions (builds bone, causes strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity). Approximately 50% is in bone, the remaining 50% is almost all inside body cells, with only about 1% located in extracellular fluid. Food sources include oats, buckwheat, tofu, nuts, caviar, green leafy vegetables, legumes, and chocolate.
+Phosphorus, required component of bones; essential for energy processing. Approximately 80% is found in the inorganic portion of bones and teeth. Phosphorus is a component of every cell, as well as important metabolites, including DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids. Also important in pH regulation. It is an important electrolyte in the form of phosphate. Food sources include cheese, egg yolk, milk, meat, fish, poultry, whole-grain cereals, and many others.
+Potassium, an electrolyte (heart and nerve function). With sodium, potassium is involved in maintaining normal water balance, osmotic equilibrium, and acid-base balance. In addition to calcium, it is important in the regulation of neuromuscular activity. Food sources include bananas, avocados, nuts, vegetables, potatoes, legumes, fish, and mushrooms.
+Sodium, a common food ingredient and electrolyte, found in most foods and manufactured consumer products, typically as sodium chloride (salt). Excessive sodium consumption can deplete calcium and magnesium. Sodium has a role in the etiology of hypertension demonstrated from studies showing that a reduction of table salt intake may reduce blood pressure.
+
+==== Trace minerals ====
+Many elements are required in smaller amounts (microgram quantities), usually because they play a catalytic role in enzymes. Some trace mineral elements (RDA < 200 mg/day) are, in alphabetical order:
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 5/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cobalt as a component of the vitamin B12 family of coenzymes
+Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase (see Copper in health)
+Chromium required for sugar metabolism
+Iodine required not only for the biosynthesis of thyroxin, but probably, for other important organs as breast, stomach, salivary glands, thymus etc. (see Iodine deficiency); for this reason iodine is needed in larger quantities than others in this list, and sometimes classified with the macrominerals; Nowadays it is most easily found in iodized salt, but there are also natural sources such as Kombu.
+Iron required for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other proteins
+Manganese (processing of oxygen)
+Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases
+Selenium required for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins)
+Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase
+
+==== Ultratrace minerals ====
+Ultratrace minerals are an as yet unproven aspect of human nutrition, and may be required at amounts measured in very low ranges of μg/day. Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function. These include:
+
+Bromine
+Arsenic
+Nickel
+Fluorine
+Boron
+Lithium
+Strontium
+Silicon
+Vanadium
+
+=== Vitamins ===
+
+Except for vitamin D, vitamins are essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. Vitamin D can be synthesized in the skin in the presence of UVB radiation. (Many animal species can synthesize vitamin C, but humans cannot.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.
+Vitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goiter, scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others.
+Excess levels of some vitamins are also dangerous to health. The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine has established Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for seven vitamins.
+
+== Malnutrition ==
+
+The term malnutrition addresses 3 broad groups of conditions:
+
+Undernutrition, which includes wasting (low weight-for-height), stunting (low height-for-age) and underweight (low weight-for-age)
+Micronutrient-related malnutrition, which includes micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient excess
+Overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and some cancers).
+In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption; there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption. According to the United Nations World Health Organization, the greatest challenge in developing nations today is not starvation, but insufficient nutrition – the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and maintenance of vital functions. The causes of malnutrition are directly linked to inadequate macronutrient consumption and disease, and are indirectly linked to factors like "household food security, maternal and child care, health services, and the environment".
+
+=== Insufficient ===
+The U.S. Food and Nutrition Board sets Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals. EARs and RDAs are part of Dietary Reference Intakes. The DRI documents describe nutrient deficiency signs and symptoms.
+
+=== Excessive ===
+The U.S. Food and Nutrition Board sets Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. ULs are set a safe fraction below amounts shown to cause health problems. ULs are part of Dietary Reference Intakes. The European Food Safety Authority also reviews the same safety questions and set its own ULs.
+
+=== Unbalanced ===
+When too much of one or more nutrients is present in the diet to the exclusion of the proper amount of other nutrients, the diet is said to be unbalanced. High calorie food ingredients such as vegetable oils, sugar and alcohol are referred to as "empty calories" because they displace from the diet foods that also contain protein, vitamins, minerals and fiber.
+
+=== Illnesses caused by underconsumption and overconsumption ===
+
+== Other substances ==
+
+=== Alcohol (ethanol) ===
+Pure ethanol provides 7 calories per gram. For distilled spirits, a standard serving in the United States is 1.5 fluid ounces, which at 40% ethanol (80 proof), would be 14 grams and 98 calories. Wine and beer contain a similar range of ethanol for servings of 5 ounces and 12 ounces, respectively, but these beverages also contain non-ethanol calories. A 5-ounce serving of wine contains 100 to 130 calories. A 12-ounce serving of beer contains 95 to 200 calories. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on NHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8 grams/day and men consume on average 15.5 grams/day. Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of those beverages, the average ethanol calorie contributions are 48 and 108 cal/day. Alcoholic beverages are considered empty calorie foods because other than calories, these contribute no essential nutrients.
+
+=== Phytochemicals ===
+
+Phytochemicals such as polyphenols are compounds produced naturally in plants (phyto means "plant" in Greek). In general, the term identifies compounds that are prevalent in plant foods, but are not proven to be essential for human nutrition, as of 2018. There is no conclusive evidence in humans that polyphenols or other non-nutrient compounds from plants confer health benefits, mainly because these compounds have poor bioavailability, i.e., following ingestion, they are digested into smaller metabolites with unknown functions, then are rapidly eliminated from the body.
+
+== Intestinal microbiome ==
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 6/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Bacillota, Bacteroidota, Actinomycetota, and Pseudomonadota. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed. Bacteria are essential for metabolizing food substrates and thereby increasing energy output, and produce a great variety of metabolites, including vitamins and short-chain fatty acids that contribute to the metabolism in a wide variety of ways. These metabolites are responsible for stimulating cell growth, repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, priming the immune system to respond only to pathogens, helping to maintain a healthy gut barrier, control gene expression by epigenetic regulation and defending against some infectious diseases.
+
+== Global nutrition challenges ==
+
+The challenges facing global nutrition are disease, child malnutrition, obesity, and vitamin deficiency.
+
+=== Disease ===
+The most common non-infectious diseases worldwide, that contribute most to the global mortality rate, are cardiovascular diseases, various cancers, diabetes, and chronic respiratory problems, all of which are linked to poor nutrition. Nutrition and diet are closely associated with the leading causes of death, including cardiovascular disease and cancer. Obesity and high sodium intake can contribute to ischemic heart disease, while consumption of fruits and vegetables can decrease the risk of developing cancer.
+Food-borne and infectious diseases can result in malnutrition, and malnutrition exacerbates infectious disease. Poor nutrition leaves children and adults more susceptible to contracting life-threatening diseases such as diarrheal infections and respiratory infections. According to the WHO, in 2011, 6.9 million children died of infectious diseases like pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, and neonatal conditions, of which at least one third were associated with undernutrition.
+
+=== Child malnutrition ===
+
+According to UNICEF, in 2011, 101 million children across the globe were underweight and one in four children, 165 million, were stunted in growth. Simultaneously, there are 43 million children under five who are overweight or obese. Nearly 20 million children under five suffer from severe acute malnutrition, a life-threatening condition requiring urgent treatment. According to estimations at UNICEF, hunger will be responsible for 5.6 million deaths of children under the age of five this year. These all represent significant public health emergencies. This is because proper maternal and child nutrition has immense consequences for survival, acute and chronic disease incidence, normal growth, and economic productivity of individuals.
+Childhood malnutrition is common and contributes to the global burden of disease. Childhood is a particularly important time to achieve good nutrition status, because poor nutrition has the capability to lock a child in a vicious cycle of disease susceptibility and recurring sickness, which threatens cognitive and social development. Undernutrition and bias in access to food and health services leaves children less likely to attend or perform well in school.
+
+=== Undernutrition ===
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 7/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+UNICEF defines undernutrition "as the outcome of insufficient food intake (hunger) and repeated infectious diseases. Undernutrition includes being underweight for one's age, too short for one's age (stunted growth), dangerously thin (muscle wasting), and deficient in vitamins and minerals (micronutrient malnutrition). Under nutrition causes 53% of deaths of children under five across the world. It has been estimated that undernutrition is the underlying cause for 35% of child deaths. The Maternal and Child Nutrition Study Group estimate that under nutrition, "including fetal growth restriction, stunting, wasting, deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc along with suboptimum breastfeeding—is a cause of 3.1 million child deaths and infant mortality, or 45% of all child deaths in 2011".
+When humans are undernourished, they no longer maintain normal bodily functions, such as growth, resistance to infection, or have insufficient drive for every everyday tasks and unsatisfactory performance in school or work. Major causes of under nutrition in young children include lack of proper breast feeding for infants and illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. According to UNICEF 146 million children across the globe, that one out of four under the age of five, are underweight. The number of underweight children has decreased since 1990, from 33 percent to 28 percent between 1990 and 2004. Underweight and stunted children are more susceptible to infection, more likely to fall behind in academics and develop non-infectious diseases, ultimately affecting their livelihood. Therefore, undernutrition can result in an accumulation of afflictions and health deficiencies which results in less productivity individually and as a community.
+Many children are born with the inherent disadvantage of low birth weight, often caused by intrauterine growth restriction and poor maternal nutrition, which results in affected growth, development and health throughout the course of their lifetime. Children born at low birth weight (less than 5.5 pounds or 2.5 kg), are less likely to be healthy and are more susceptible to disease and early death. Those born at low birth weight also are likely to have a depressed immune system, which can increase their chances of heart disease and diabetes later on in life. Because 96% of low birth weight occurs in the developing world, low birth weight has been associated with childbirth in impoverished areas where the birth mother typically exhibits poor nutritional status under harsh and demanding living conditions.
+Stunting and other forms of undernutrition reduces a child's chance of survival and hinders their optimal growth and health. Stunting has demonstrated association with poor brain development, which reduces cognitive ability, academic performance and future earning potential. Important determinants of stunting include the quality and frequency of infant and child feeding, infectious disease susceptibility, and the mother's nutrition and health status. Undernourished mothers are more likely to birth stunted children, perpetuating a cycle of undernutrition and poverty. Stunted children are more likely to develop obesity and chronic diseases upon reaching adulthood. Therefore, malnutrition resulting in stunting can further worsen the obesity epidemic, especially in low and middle income countries. This creates even new economic and social challenges for vulnerable impoverished groups.
+Data on global and regional food supply shows that consumption rose from 2011 to 2012 in all regions. Diets became more diverse, with a decrease in consumption of cereals and roots and an increase in fruits, vegetables, and meat products. However, this increase masks the discrepancies between nations, where Africa, in particular, saw a decrease in food consumption over the same years. This information is derived from food balance sheets that reflect national food supplies, however, this does not necessarily reflect the distribution of micronutrients and macronutrients. Often inequality in food access leaves distribution which uneven, resulting in undernourishment for some and obesity for others.
+Undernourishment, or hunger, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), is dietary intake below the minimum daily energy requirement. The amount of undernourishment is calculated utilizing the average amount of food available for consumption, the size of the population, the relative disparities in access to the food, and the minimum calories required for each individual. According to FAO, 868 million people (12% of the global population) were undernourished in 2012. This has decreased across the world since 1990, in all regions except for Africa, where undernourishment has steadily increased. However, the rates of decrease are not sufficient to meet the first Millennium Development Goal of halving hunger between 1990 and 2015. The global financial, economic, and food price crisis in 2008 drove many people to hunger, especially women and children. The spike in food prices prevented many people from escaping poverty, because the poor spend a larger proportion of their income on food and farmers are net consumers of food. High food prices cause consumers to have less purchasing power and to substitute more-nutritious foods with low-cost alternatives.
+
+=== Adult overweight and obesity ===
+
+Malnutrition in Industrialized nations is primarily due to non-nutritious carbohydrates sources resulting in excess caloric intake, which has contributed to the obesity epidemic affecting both developed and certain developing nations. In 2008, 35% of adults above the age of 20 years were overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2), a prevalence that has doubled worldwide between 1980 and 2008. Also 10% of men and 14% of women were obese, with a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30. Rates of overweight and obesity vary across the globe, with the highest prevalence in the Americas, followed by European nations, where over 50% of the population is overweight or obese.
+Obesity is more prevalent among upper-middle to high income groups compared to lower income divisions. Women are more likely than men to be obese, where the rate of obesity in women doubled from 8% to 14% between 1980 and 2008. Being overweight as a child has become an increasingly important statistic as an indicator for later development of obesity and non-infectious diseases such as cardiovascular disease. In several western European nations, the prevalence of overweight and obese children rose by 10% from 1980 to 1990, a rate that has begun to accelerate recently.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 8/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Vitamin and mineral malnutrition ===
+Vitamins and minerals are essential to the proper functioning and maintenance of the human body. There are 20 trace elements and minerals that are essential in small quantities to body function and overall human health.
+Iron deficiency is the most common inadequate nutrient worldwide, affecting approximately 2 billion people. Globally, anemia affects 1.6 billion people, and represents a public health emergency in mothers and children under five. The World Health Organization estimates that there exists 469 million women of reproductive age and approximately 600 million preschool and school-age children worldwide who are anemic. Anemia, especially iron-deficient anemia, is a critical problem for cognitive developments in children, and its presence leads to maternal deaths and poor brain and motor development in children. The development of anemia affects mothers and children more because infants and children have higher iron requirements for growth. Health consequences for iron deficiency in young children include increased perinatal mortality, delayed mental and physical development, negative behavioral consequences, reduced auditory and visual function, and impaired physical performance. The harm caused by iron deficiency during child development cannot be reversed and result in reduced academic performance, poor physical work capacity, and decreased productivity in adulthood. Mothers are also very susceptible to iron-deficient anemia because women lose iron during menstruation, and rarely supplement it in their diet. Maternal iron deficiency anemia increases the chances of maternal mortality, contributing to at least 18% of maternal deaths in low and middle income countries.
+Vitamin A plays an essential role in developing the immune system in children, therefore, it is considered an essential micronutrient that can greatly affect health. However, because of the expense of testing for deficiencies, many developing nations have not been able to fully detect and address vitamin A deficiency, leaving vitamin A deficiency considered a silent hunger. According to estimates, subclinical vitamin A deficiency, characterized by low retinol levels, affects 190 million pre-school children and 19 million mothers worldwide.
+The WHO estimates that 5.2 million of these children under five are affected by night blindness, which is considered clinical vitamin A deficiency. Severe vitamin A deficiency (VAD) for developing children can result in visual impairments, anemia and weakened immunity, and increase their risk of morbidity and mortality from infectious disease. This also presents a problem for women, with WHO estimating that 9.8 million women are affected by night blindness. Clinical vitamin A deficiency is particularly common among pregnant women, with prevalence rates as high as 9.8% in South-East Asia.
+Estimates say that 28.5% of the global population is iodine deficient, representing 1.88 billion individuals. Although salt iodization programs have reduced the prevalence of iodine deficiency, this is still a public health concern in 32 nations. Moderate deficiencies are common in Europe and Africa, and over consumption is common in the Americas. Iodine-deficient diets can interfere with adequate thyroid hormone production, which is responsible for normal growth in the brain and nervous system. This ultimately leads to poor school performance and impaired intellectual capabilities.
+
+=== Infant and young child feeding ===
+Improvement of breast feeding practices, like early initiation and exclusive breast feeding for the first two years of life, could save the lives of 1.5 million children annually. Nutrition interventions targeted at infants aged 0–5 months first encourages early initiation of breastfeeding. Though the relationship between early initiation of breast feeding and improved health outcomes has not been formally established, a recent study in Ghana suggests a causal relationship between early initiation and reduced infection-caused neo-natal deaths. Also, experts promote exclusive breastfeeding, rather than using formula, which has shown to promote optimal growth, development, and health of infants. Exclusive breastfeeding often indicates nutritional status because infants that consume breast milk are more likely to receive all adequate nourishment and nutrients that will aid their developing body and immune system. This leaves children less likely to contract diarrheal diseases and respiratory infections.
+Besides the quality and frequency of breastfeeding, the nutritional status of mothers affects infant health. When mothers do not receive proper nutrition, it threatens the wellness and potential of their children. Well-nourished women are less likely to experience risks of birth and are more likely to deliver children who will develop well physically and mentally. Maternal undernutrition increases the chances of low-birth weight, which can increase the risk of infections and asphyxia in fetuses, increasing the probability of neonatal deaths. Growth failure during intrauterine conditions, associated with improper mother nutrition, can contribute to lifelong health complications. Approximately 13 million children are born with intrauterine growth restriction annually.
+
+=== Anorexia nervosa ===
+Anorexia nervosa stands out as the psychiatric disorder with the highest mortality rate. It affects approximately 0.3% of young women and is especially common among teenage girls, with the average onset at around 15 years old. The disorder predominantly impacts females, with 80-90% of those diagnosed being women. Anorexia is the leading cause of significant weight loss in young women and is the primary reason for their admission to child and adolescent hospital services. In most cases, a clear diagnosis of weight loss driven by psychological factors can be made without resorting to a series of complex tests. Basic medical evaluations, including blood tests, electrocardiograms, and tracking the patient's weight and measurements, not only help in identifying underlying issues but also provide a reason for the patient to return for follow-up discussions. These follow-ups can often reveal psychological challenges. When weight loss is hidden, symptoms such as depression, obsessive behaviors, infertility, or amenorrhea may be the first signs that there is cause for concern. Although relatively uncommon, eating disorders can negatively affect menstruation, fertility, and maternal and fetal well-being. Among infertile women with amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea due to eating disorders, 58% had menstrual irregularities, according to preliminary research in 1990. Recent research has shown no significant difference in fertility between women with a history of anorexia nervosa and those without, suggesting that despite experiencing high rates of menstrual irregularities, women with anorexia nervosa are still achieving pregnancy.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 9/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Nutrition literacy ===
+The findings of the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL), conducted by the US Department of Education, provide a basis upon which to frame the nutrition literacy problem in the U.S. NAAL introduced the first-ever measure of "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions" – an objective of Healthy People 2010 and of which nutrition literacy might be considered an important subset. On a scale of below basic, basic, intermediate and proficient, NAAL found 13 percent of adult Americans have proficient health literacy, 44% have intermediate literacy, 29 percent have basic literacy and 14 percent have below basic health literacy. The study found that health literacy increases with education and people living below the level of poverty have lower health literacy than those above it.
+Another study examining the health and nutrition literacy status of residents of the lower Mississippi Delta found that 52 percent of participants had a high likelihood of limited literacy skills. While a precise comparison between the NAAL and Delta studies is difficult, primarily because of methodological differences, Zoellner et al. suggest that health literacy rates in the Mississippi Delta region are different from the U.S. general population and that they help establish the scope of the problem of health literacy among adults in the Delta region. For example, only 12 percent of study participants identified the MyPyramid graphic two years after it had been launched by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The study also found significant relationships between nutrition literacy and income level and nutrition literacy and educational attainment further delineating priorities for the region.
+These statistics point to the complexities surrounding the lack of health/nutrition literacy and reveal the degree to which they are embedded in the social structure and interconnected with other problems. Among these problems are the lack of information about food choices, a lack of understanding of nutritional information and its application to individual circumstances, limited or difficult access to healthful foods, and a range of cultural influences and socioeconomic constraints such as low levels of education and high levels of poverty that decrease opportunities for healthful eating and living.
+The links between low health literacy and poor health outcomes has been widely documented and there is evidence that some interventions to improve health literacy have produced successful results in the primary care setting. More must be done to further our understanding of nutrition literacy specific interventions in non-primary care settings in order to achieve better health outcomes.
+
+== International food insecurity and malnutrition ==
+
+According to UNICEF, South Asia has the highest levels of underweight children under five, followed by sub-Saharan Africans nations, with Industrialized countries and Latin nations having the lowest rates.
+
+=== Industrialized countries ===
+According to UNICEF, the Commonwealth of Independent States has the lowest rates of stunting and wasting, at 14 percent and 3 percent. The nations of Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Lithuania and Sweden have the lowest prevalence of low birthweight children in the world- at 4%. Proper prenatal nutrition is responsible for this small prevalence of low birthweight infants. However, low birthweight rates are increasing, due to the use of fertility drugs, resulting in multiple births, women bearing children at an older age, and the advancement of technology allowing more pre-term infants to survive. Industrialized nations more often face malnutrition in the form of over-nutrition from excess calories and non-nutritious carbohydrates, which has contributed greatly to the public health epidemic of obesity. Disparities, according to gender, geographic location and socio-economic position, both within and between countries, represent the biggest threat to child nutrition in industrialized countries. These disparities are a direct product of social inequalities and social inequalities are rising throughout the industrialized world, particularly in Europe.
+
+=== North America ===
+
+==== United States ====
+In the United States, 2% of children are underweight, with under 1% stunted and 6% are wasting.
+
+Dietitians are registered (RD) or licensed (LD) with the Commission for Dietetic Registration and the American Dietetic Association, and are only able to use the title "dietitian", as described by the business and professions codes of each respective state, when they have met specific educational and experiential prerequisites and passed a national registration or licensure examination, respectively. Anyone may call themselves a nutritionist, including unqualified dietitians, as this term is unregulated. Some states, such as the State of Florida, have begun to include the title "nutritionist" in state licensure requirements. Most governments provide guidance on nutrition, and some also impose mandatory disclosure/labeling requirements for processed food manufacturers and restaurants to assist consumers in complying with such guidance.
+Nutritional standards and recommendations are established jointly by the US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary and physical activity guidelines from the USDA are presented in the concept of a plate of food which in 2011 superseded the MyPyramid food pyramid that had replaced the Food Guide Pyramid. The United States Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry is currently responsible for oversight of the USDA. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services provides a sample week-long menu which fulfills the nutritional recommendations of the government.
+
+==== Canada ====
+Canada's Food Guide is an evidence-based education and policy tool provided by Health Canada that is designed to promote healthy eating.
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+---
+title: "Human nutrition"
+chunk: 10/20
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== South Asia ===
+South Asia has the highest percentage and number of underweight children under five in the world, at approximately 78 million children. Patterns of stunting and wasting are similar, where 44% have not reached optimal height and 15% are wasted, rates much higher than any other regions. This region of the world has extremely high rates of underweight children. According to a 2006 UNICEF study, 46% of its child population under five is underweight. The same study indicates India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan combined account for half the globe's underweight child population. South Asian nations have made progress towards the MDGs, considering the rate has decreased from 53% since 1990, however, a 1.7% decrease of underweight prevalence per year will not be sufficient to meet the 2015 goal. Some nations, such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, on the other hand, have made significant improvements, all decreasing their prevalence by half in ten years. While India and Pakistan have made modest improvements, Nepal has made no significant improvement in underweight child prevalence. Other forms of undernutrition have continued to persist with high resistance to improvement, such as the prevalence of stunting and wasting, which has not changed significantly in the past 10 years. Causes of this poor nutrition include energy-insufficient diets, poor sanitation conditions, and the gender disparities in educational and social status. Girls and women face discrimination especially in nutrition status, where South Asia is the only region in the world where girls are more likely to be underweight than boys. In South Asia, 60% of children in the lowest quintile are underweight, compared to only 26% in the highest quintile, and the rate of reduction of underweight is slower amongst the poorest.
+
+=== Eastern and Southern Africa ===
+The Eastern and Southern African nations have shown no improvement since 1990 in the rate of underweight children under five. They have also made no progress in halving hunger by 2015, the most prevalent Millennium Development Goal. This is due primarily to the prevalence of famine, declined agricultural productivity, food emergencies, drought, conflict, and increased poverty. This, along with HIV/AIDS, has inhibited the nutrition development of nations such as Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Botswana has made remarkable achievements in reducing underweight prevalence, dropping 4% in 4 years, despite its place as the second leader in HIV prevalence amongst adults in the globe. South Africa, the wealthiest nation in this region, has the second-lowest proportion of underweight children at 12%, but has been steadily increasing in underweight prevalence since 1995. Almost half of Ethiopian children are underweight, and along with Nigeria, they account for almost one-third of the underweight under five in all of Sub-Saharan Africa.
+
+=== West and Central Africa ===
+West and Central Africa has the highest rate of children under five underweight in the world. Of the countries in this region, the Congo has the lowest rate at 14%, while the nations of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo are improving slowly. In Gambia, rates decreased from 26% to 17% in four years, and their coverage of vitamin A supplementation reaches 91% of vulnerable populations. This region has the next highest proportion of wasted children, with 10% of the population under five not at optimal weight. Little improvement has been made between the years of 1990 and 2004 in reducing the rates of underweight children under five, whose rate stayed approximately the same. Sierra Leone has the highest child under five mortality rate in the world, due predominantly to its extreme infant mortality rate, at 238 deaths per 1000 live births. Other contributing factors include the high rate of low birthweight children (23%) and low levels of exclusive breast feeding (4%). Anemia is prevalent in these nations, with unacceptable rates of iron deficient anemia. The nutritional status of children is further indicated by its high (10%) rate of child wasting. Wasting is a significant problem in Sahelian countries – Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger – where rates fall between 11% and 19% of under fives, affecting more than 1 million children.
+In Mali, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.
+
+=== Middle East and North Africa ===
+Six countries in the Middle East and North Africa region are on target to meet goals for reducing underweight children by 2015, and 12 countries have prevalence rates below 10%. However, the nutrition of children in the region as a whole has degraded for the past ten years due to the increasing portion of underweight children in three populous nations – Iraq, Sudan, and Yemen. Forty six percent of all children in Yemen are underweight, a percentage that has worsened by 4% since 1990. In Yemen, 53% of children under five are stunted and 32% are born at low birth weight. Sudan has an underweight prevalence of 41%, and the highest proportion of wasted children in the region at 16%. One percent of households in Sudan consume iodized salt. Iraq has also seen an increase in child underweight since 1990. Djibouti, Jordan, the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT), Oman, the Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia are all projected to meet minimum nutrition goals, with OPT, Syrian AR, and Tunisia the fastest improving regions. This region demonstrates that undernutrition does not always improve with economic prosperity, where the United Arab Emirates, for example, despite being a wealthy nation, has similar child death rates due to malnutrition to those seen in Yemen.
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+---
+title: "Imaging"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:26.433262+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Imaging is the process of creating visual representations of objects, scenes, or phenomena. The term encompasses both the formation of images through physical processes and the technologies used to capture, store, process, and display them. While traditional imaging relies on visible light, modern imaging systems can visualize information across the electromagnetic spectrum and through other physical phenomena such as sound waves, magnetic fields, and particle emissions, enabling the visualization of subjects invisible to the human eye.
+Imaging science is the multidisciplinary field concerned with the theoretical foundations and practical applications of image creation and analysis. The field draws on physics, mathematics, electrical engineering, computer science, computer vision, and perceptual psychology to develop systems that generate, collect, duplicate, analyze, modify, and visualize images.
+
+
+== Principles ==
+
+
+=== The imaging chain ===
+The imaging chain is a conceptual framework describing the interconnected components of any imaging system. Understanding each link in this chain allows engineers and scientists to optimize system performance for specific applications.
+The chain begins with the subject and its observable properties, typically energy that is emitted, reflected, or transmitted. A light source or other energy source may illuminate the subject to make these properties detectable. The capture device then collects this energy using appropriate sensors: optical systems for electromagnetic radiation, transducers for acoustic waves, or antenna arrays for radio frequencies. In digital systems, a processor converts the captured signals into a format suitable for rendering, applying algorithms for noise reduction, enhancement, or reconstruction. Finally, a display renders the processed information as a visible image on media such as paper, screens, or projection surfaces. Throughout this process, the characteristics of the human visual system inform design decisions, as the ultimate purpose of most imaging systems is to convey information to human observers.
+
+
+=== Coherent and non-coherent imaging ===
+Imaging systems are often classified by whether they use coherent or non-coherent illumination. Coherent imaging employs an active source that produces waves with a consistent phase relationship, as in radar, synthetic aperture radar, medical ultrasound, and optical coherence tomography. These systems can capture phase information in addition to amplitude, enabling techniques such as holography and interferometry. Non-coherent imaging systems, including conventional photography, fluorescence microscopy, and telescopes, rely on illumination sources where light waves have random phase relationships.
+
+
+== Methods and applications ==
+Imaging methods span a wide range of physical principles, each suited to particular applications.
+Optical imaging encompasses photography, cinematography, microscopy, and telescopic observation. These methods capture electromagnetic radiation in or near the visible spectrum and form the basis of most consumer and scientific imaging. Extensions include thermography, which visualizes infrared radiation to reveal temperature distributions, and multispectral imaging, which captures data across multiple wavelength bands for applications in remote sensing and materials analysis.
+Medical imaging comprises techniques designed to visualize the interior of the human body for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Radiography and computed tomography use X-rays to image dense structures such as bone. Magnetic resonance imaging exploits nuclear magnetic properties to produce detailed soft-tissue images without ionizing radiation. Ultrasound imaging uses high-frequency sound waves and is particularly valuable for real-time imaging and fetal monitoring. Nuclear medicine techniques such as positron emission tomography track radioactive tracers to reveal metabolic activity. Emerging modalities include photoacoustic imaging, which combines optical and acoustic principles, and Magneto-acousto-electrical tomography, which maps electrical conductivity in biological tissues.
+Acoustic imaging uses sound waves to create images. Beyond medical ultrasound, applications include sonar for underwater navigation and mapping, seismic imaging for geological exploration, and industrial non-destructive testing.
+Radar and microwave imaging employ radio waves to detect and image objects. Synthetic aperture radar produces high-resolution images from aircraft or satellites regardless of weather or lighting conditions, making it essential for Earth observation and reconnaissance. Ground-penetrating radar images subsurface structures for archaeological and engineering applications.
+Electron and particle imaging use beams of electrons or other particles to achieve resolutions far beyond the diffraction limit of visible light. Electron microscopes can image individual atoms, enabling advances in materials science and structural biology.
+Chemical imaging combines spectroscopy with spatial imaging to map the chemical composition of samples, with applications in pharmaceutical development, food safety, and forensics.
+LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) measures distances using laser pulses to create three-dimensional representations of surfaces and objects, widely used in autonomous vehicles, topographic mapping, and forestry.
+Computational and digital imaging encompasses image processing, computer graphics, three-dimensional rendering, and digital image restoration. Computer vision applies algorithmic analysis to extract information from images automatically.
+
+
+== History ==
+Photography and imaging have always been intertwined. When Joseph Nicéphore Niépce created the first permanent photograph using heliography in 1826, and Louis Daguerre refined the process into the daguerreotype a decade later, they weren't just inventing a new art form, they were laying the groundwork for an entire scientific discipline built on silver halide chemistry.
+For most of the nineteenth century, photography remained the province of specialists. That changed with George Eastman's Kodak camera, introduced in 1888 with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest." Suddenly, anyone could take pictures. Around the same time, Wilhelm Röntgen stumbled onto X-rays in 1895, an accident that would spawn the entire field of medical imaging.
+World War II proved to be a turning point. Radar technology, developed frantically on both sides of the conflict, introduced concepts that engineers would later adapt for synthetic aperture radar and medical ultrasound. Then the charge-coupled device came: Willard Boyle and George E. Smith built the first one at Bell Labs in 1969, and within a few decades it had made film nearly obsolete. Magnetic resonance imaging arrived in the 1970s, offering doctors something X-rays never could, detailed views of soft tissue without any radiation.
+Digital cameras took over fast. By the 2000s, film was already in decline; by the 2010s, smartphones had put a surprisingly capable camera in nearly every pocket. Features that once required real skill, proper exposure, sharp focus, accurate color, became automatic.
+Today, billions of photos get uploaded to social media every day. As a result, a growing issue is that generative artificial intelligence can fabricate photorealistic images from scratch. What counts as a "real" photograph is no longer necessarily obvious.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Image processing
+Image sensor
+Medical imaging
+Remote sensing
+Computer vision
+Photography
+Society for Imaging Science and Technology
+The Imaging Science Journal
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Harrison Hooker Barrett and Kyle J. Myers, Foundations of Image Science (John Wiley & Sons, 2004) ISBN 0471153001
+Ronald N. Bracewell, Fourier Analysis and Imaging (Kluwer Academic, 2003) ISBN 0306481871
+Roger L. Easton, Jr., Fourier Methods in Imaging (John Wiley & Sons, 2010) ISBN 9780470689837 DOI 10.1002/9780470660102
+Robert D. Fiete, Modeling the Imaging Chain of Digital Cameras (SPIE Press, 2010) ISBN 9780819483393
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science at RIT
+Image Science track at the University of Arizona College of Optical Sciences
+Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science
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+---
+title: "Immunoengineering"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoengineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:27.748373+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Immunoengineering is a broad field that encompasses immunotherapy, immunoediting, and immunomodulation. The common thread between sub-fields of immunoengineering is that the immune system is the key to the target treatment. There are two main ways immunoengineering is approached: taking advantage of how the immune system already works, or tweaking its processes to suit a certain situation.
+Within immunoengineering, immunotherapy refers to any cancer treatment meant to help the immune system recognize or attack cancer cells. Immunoediting refers to the human body's tumor suppression mechanism. While it is often used in the context of cancer treatment, it can be applied to other diseases as well. Immunomodulation is a broad term referring to any substance used to heighten or suppress immune system function.
+
+== Immunoediting ==
+Immunoediting, specifically in the context for cancer treatment, is the process which involves immune cells manipulating the immune response that developing tumors may invoke. The ability to edit the immune response invoked by developing tumors has been experimented and concluded to be an ability capable of innate immunity to some extent, and further enhanced by the presence of adaptive immunity. Immunoediting, primarily discussed within the context of cancer, occurs through three phases that may be known as elimination, equilibrium, and escape. Within HIV, a selection for mutations experienced by HIV-infected cells allows for escape from an immune response made to eliminate the infected cell, similar to how some tumors escape the immune response within cancer immunoediting. The selection experienced within HIV is one in which infected cells demonstrating viral latency may have been selected for the resistance to elimination from corresponding T cells. COVID-19 is additionally stated to have developed immune evasion mechanisms that allow for COVID-19 symptoms to persist within individuals. Such mechanisms are stated to be potentially attributed to the pressures that are selected for by the immunoediting response that may occur between the immune system and the Covid-19 virus. It is these mechanisms that involve making the virus invisible to the immune system or locating the virus in an anatomical area inaccessible to the immune cells meant to eliminate the virus, similar to how cancer cells persist within cancer immunoediting.
+
+=== Autoimmune disorders ===
+Autoimmune disorders are defined as conditions where the adaptive immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue, mounting an immune response. There are over 100 types of autoimmune disorders that affect 3-5% of the global population. Treatments for autoimmune disorders, if present, rely on the use of immunosuppressive drugs, broadly reducing immune system activity which are not curative measures and increase susceptibility to infection. Immunoengineering is an approach that is being investigated as a form of targeted treatment for autoimmune disorders.
+
+==== Engineered CAR-T cell therapies ====
+
+Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR T) cell therapies, originally developed for the treatment of blood cancers, have been studied as pre-clinical models for the treatment of autoimmune disorders. CAR T cells are autologous T lymphocytes harvested from the patient and are genetically engineered to target specific disease-causing cells.
+B lymphocytes are a common target for CAR T cell therapy because they produce antibodies that cause tissue damage. Early clinical trials have shown that CAR T cell mediated B lymphocyte depletion has resulted in remission of life-long autoimmune diseases. In systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), inflammatory tissue damage is driven by autoreactive B cells that target the body's own cells. Clinical studies have demonstrated the depletion of B lymphocytes using CD19-directed CAR T cell therapies to produce meaningful remission of SLE.
+Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is one of the most prevalent autoimmune disorders, affecting 9.5 million people globally as of 2025. T1D occurs when the immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells within the pancreas. While the current standard treatment for T1D is insulin replacement therapy, CAR T cell therapies as preclinical models are being designed to recognize pancreatic beta cells and release anti-inflammatory cytokines to suppress unwanted autoimmune response.
+
+==== Immunoediting approaches for type 1 diabetes ====
+A developing method is the transplantation of pancreatic islet cells, which requires the subsequent use of immunosuppressive drugs to prevent transplantation rejection. Immunoengineering therapies for T1D focus on protection of the transplanted islet cells using encapsulation, shielding the transplanted cell from the body's immune system while allowing for the passage of insulin and nutrients. Biomaterials are also designed to locally deliver immunomodulatory agents to specifically target immune response at the site of beta islet transplantation. While successful in small animal models, limitations such as fibrotic overgrowth and minimal graft stability remain barriers to the large animal clinical implementation of this method.
+
+=== Reverse immunoediting ===
+The idea of a tumor morphing the immune response of an individual is known as reverse immunoediting. A tumor treatment approach that considers said idea is that of a tumor-activated and optically reinforced immunoscaffold, known as TURN. It is constructed to manipulate the phases of cancer immunoediting and allow for more effective treatment against the tumor. This effective treatment firstly involves the release of proteins that work to weaken the cells and cytokines of the tumor that are responsible for the immunosuppression of the tumor that works against the body's natural immune system response. Agents of TURN are then activated with a laser which triggers the tumor to expose its antigens, allowing for the T-cells to invade the tumor. CD137 agonists from the scaffold work to promote the work done from the T-cells attacking the tumor through improved efficiency of T-cells through survival, function, and proliferation. Another approach relevant to reverse immunoediting is that of using low-dose decitabine in mice. Tumors influence the immune response of the body by DNA methylation, repressing immune genes. This repression is reversed in mice by inhibiting DNA methylation through low-dose decitabine. Both approaches consider how tumors influence the immune response of the host and work to reverse such influences.
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+---
+title: "Immunoengineering"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoengineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:27.748373+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Tissue engineering ==
+The role of immunoengineering in the realm of tissue engineering stems from the need to combat undesirable effects, such as rejection and inflammation, that result from introducing non-native biomaterials ranging from biological macromolecules to fully synthetic coatings, transplantation of non-native materials in procedures such as solid organ transplantation and vascularized composite allotransplantation, or the use of internal medical devices.  Additionally, as of the early 2010s, there was an uptick in research involving the possibility of altering the immune system for the purpose of inducing tissue regeneration and repair when solid organ transplantation or vascularized composite allotransplantation is not feasible. Procedures of this sort involve the introduction of material that is known as exogenous, or non-autologous, material. Due to the nature of the material, an immune response can be induced, which alerts the body to break down or dispel the foreign material, leading to pain, redness, and swelling, based on markers on the body of the exogenous cells, known as antigens, the shape and size of the molecules comprising the material, or foreign proteins from the material that interact with the host's immune system.
+The main method of preventing these side effects is known as immunosuppression therapy, which involves providing the patient with a mixture of multiple drugs for the purpose of preventing the immune system from inducing inflammatory responses at the transplantation site. Each drug is specialized to target specific immunologic pathways depending on the procedure conducted and the biomaterial introduced. Most therapies are required to continue on for the person's lifetime, usually leading to adverse side effects or the risk of rejection if the drugs are not consistently administered. In most cases, systemic side effects of immunosuppressive therapies include metabolic disorders, infections, cancer, pancreatic toxicity, post-transplant diabetes, cytomegalovirus, and fungal infections due to the patient's immune system being shut down as a whole. Because of this, more precise immunoregulatory practices or alternatives to immunosuppression altogether, are highly sought after. Currently, a few alternatives that exist include the use of cell therapy, amniotic epithelial stem cells, neutrophil activation, macrophage polarization, Th1 to Th2 lymphocyte switching, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine regulation, and regulatory T cell induction.
+
+=== Alternatives to immunosuppression ===
+
+==== Cellular therapy ====
+
+The use of cellular therapy as an alternative to immunosuppression involves the use of cells and cellular components to regulate the immune system to a state of homeostasis to combat the need of long-term immunosuppressant drugs. Regulatory T cells, neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, chimeric antigen receptor T cells, mesenchymal stromal cells, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and regulatory myeloid cells are employed to promote anti-inflammatory outcomes in immune responses after the transplantation of foreign materials. The goal is to block certain signaling pathways that induce inflammatory responses at the transplantation site at the onset of foreign material identification. The purpose of manipulating these cells and the immune response is to reduce, if not prevent, malignancies and metabolic disorders from developing in the patient.
+
+=== Tissue regeneration and repair ===
+The immune system can also be used to induce regeneration or repair of native tissue through influencing specific signaling pathways during an immune response during the manipulation of the damaged tissue, the introduced biomaterial, and the immune cells involved. One of the more common tissues to be the center of this type of therapy for regeneration happens to be tendon tissue due to its low cell count and low vascularization, making it one of the most difficult tissues to heal. This type of therapy explores the benefits of using and manipulating biomaterials such as bioactive molecules, immune cells, and stem cells for the purpose of preventing the excess formation of scar tissue that eventually leads to mobility issues, fibrotic encapsulation, tissue destruction, isolation and rejection of medical devices, and chronic pain at the injury or operation site.
+There are two levels of the immune system and how they interact with the introduced biomaterial to induce regeneration of the tissue. To begin, there has to be the initial recognition of the foreign material and a non-specific inflammatory response induced by the innate immune system. Next, the adaptive immune system induces multiple highly-specific antigen responses depending on the materials identified, and develops a long-term memory for materials to recognize in the future.
+
+== mRNA vaccines ==
+
+mRNA vaccines work similar to recombinant protein vaccines. Recombinant protein vaccines contain tiny proteins from the surface of the virus or bacteria they are trying to fight. Immune cells recognize foreign cells because their surface proteins are not the same shape as native cell surface proteins. The foreign surface proteins are also called antigens. When immune cells find the antigens delivered by the vaccine, they set off an immune response.
+Unlike recombinant protein vaccines, mRNA vaccines directly contain mRNA strands that hold instructions for making surface proteins. When native cells receive the mRNA strands, they begin producing the antigens which triggers an immune response.
+To fight the detected antigens, the lymph node starts producing B cells. B cells produce antibodies specific to the detected antigen. These antibodies are distributed through the body by plasma cells for around two weeks. Plasma cells tend to have short life spans, but those who live longer live in bone marrow and continue producing antibodies for years.
+Memory B cells are also produced and deployed around the body. If a memory B cells later encounters the pathogen they were programmed to remember, they call for production of plasma cells that can deploy antibodies against the invading pathogen.
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Kinesiology"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:28.914113+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kinesiology (from Ancient Greek  κίνησις (kínēsis) 'movement' and  -λογία -logía 'study of') is the scientific study of human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, anatomical, biomechanical, pathological, neuropsychological principles and mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health include biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; motor control; skill acquisition and motor learning; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise physiology. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.
+
+== Basics ==
+Kinesiology studies the science of human movement, performance, and function by applying the fundamental sciences of cell biology, molecular biology, chemistry, biochemistry, biophysics, biomechanics, biomathematics, biostatistics, anatomy, physiology, exercise physiology, pathophysiology, neuroscience, and nutritional science. A bachelor's degree in kinesiology can provide strong preparation for graduate study in medical school, biomedical research, as well as in professional programs.
+The term "kinesiologist" is not a licensed nor professional designation in many countries, with the notable exception of Canada. Individuals with training in this area can teach physical education, work as personal trainers and sports coaches, provide consulting services, conduct research and develop policies related to rehabilitation, human motor performance, ergonomics, and occupational health and safety. In North America, kinesiologists may study to earn a Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, or Doctorate of Philosophy degree in Kinesiology or a Bachelor of Kinesiology degree, while in Australia or New Zealand, they are often conferred an Applied Science (Human Movement) degree (or higher). Many doctoral-level faculty in North American kinesiology programs received their doctoral training in related disciplines, such as neuroscience, mechanical engineering, psychology, and physiology.
+In 1965, the University of Massachusetts Amherst created the United States' first Department of Exercise Science (kinesiology) under the leadership of visionary researchers and academicians in the field of exercise science. In 1967, the University of Waterloo launched Canada's first kinesiology department.
+
+== Principles ==
+
+=== Adaptation through exercise ===
+
+Adaptation through exercise is a key principle of kinesiology that relates to improved fitness in athletes as well as health and wellness in clinical populations. Exercise is a simple and established intervention for many movement disorders and musculoskeletal conditions due to the neuroplasticity of the brain and the adaptability of the musculoskeletal system. Therapeutic exercise has been shown to improve neuromotor control and motor capabilities in both normal and pathological populations.
+There are many different types of exercise interventions that can be applied in kinesiology to athletic, normal, and clinical populations. Aerobic exercise interventions help to improve cardiovascular endurance. Anaerobic strength training programs can increase muscular strength, power, and lean body mass. Decreased risk of falls and increased neuromuscular control can be attributed to balance intervention programs. Flexibility programs can increase functional range of motion and reduce the risk of injury.
+As a whole, exercise programs can reduce symptoms of depression and risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Additionally, they can help to improve quality of life, sleeping habits, immune system function, and body composition.
+The study of the physiological responses to physical exercise and their therapeutic applications is known as exercise physiology, which is an important area of research within kinesiology.
+
+=== Neuroplasticity ===
+
+Neuroplasticity is also a key scientific principle used in kinesiology to describe how movement and changes in the brain are related. The human brain adapts and acquires new motor skills based on this principle. The brain can be exposed to new stimuli and experiences and therefore learn from them and create new neural pathways hence leading to brain adaptation. These new adaptations and skills include both adaptive and maladaptive brain changes.
+Adaptive plasticity
+Recent empirical evidence indicates the significant impact of physical activity on brain function; for example, greater amounts of physical activity are associated with enhanced cognitive function in older adults. The effects of physical activity can be distributed throughout the whole brain, such as higher gray matter density and white matter integrity after exercise training, and/or on specific brain areas, such as greater activation in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Neuroplasticity is also the underlying mechanism of skill acquisition. For example, after long-term training, pianists showed greater gray matter density in sensorimotor cortex and white matter integrity in the internal capsule compared to non-musicians.
+Maladaptive plasticity
+Maladaptive plasticity is defined as neuroplasticity with negative effects or detrimental consequences in behavior. Movement abnormalities may occur among individuals with and without brain injuries due to abnormal remodeling in central nervous system. Learned non-use is an example commonly seen among patients with brain damage, such as stroke. Patients with stroke learned to suppress paretic limb movement after unsuccessful experience in paretic hand use; this may cause decreased neuronal activation at adjacent areas of the infarcted motor cortex.
+There are many types of therapies that are designed to overcome maladaptive plasticity in clinic and research, such as constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT), body weight support treadmill training (BWSTT) and virtual reality therapy. These interventions are shown to enhance motor function in paretic limbs and stimulate cortical reorganization in patients with brain damage.
+
+=== Motor redundancy ===
+
+Motor redundancy is a widely used concept in kinesiology and motor control which states that, for any task the human body can perform, there are effectively an unlimited number of ways the nervous system could achieve that task. This redundancy appears at multiple levels in the chain of motor execution:
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+---
+title: "Kinesiology"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:28.914113+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kinematic redundancy means that for a desired location of the endpoint (e.g. the hand or finger), there are many configurations of the joints that would produce the same endpoint location in space.
+Muscle redundancy means that the same net joint torque could be generated by many different relative contributions of individual muscles.
+Motor unit redundancy means that for the same net muscle force could be generated by many different relative contributions of motor units within that muscle.
+The concept of motor redundancy is explored in numerous studies, usually with the goal of describing the relative contribution of a set of motor elements (e.g. muscles) in various human movements, and how these contributions can be predicted from a comprehensive theory. Two distinct (but not incompatible) theories have emerged for how the nervous system coordinates redundant elements: simplification and optimization. In the simplification theory, complex movements and muscle actions are constructed from simpler ones, often known as primitives or synergies, resulting in a simpler system for the brain to control. In the optimization theory, motor actions arise from the minimization of a control parameter, such as the energetic cost of movement or errors in movement performance.
+
+== Scope of practice ==
+In Canada, kinesiology is a professional designation as well as an area of study. In the province of Ontario the scope has been officially defined as, "the assessment of human movement and performance and its rehabilitation and management to maintain, rehabilitate or enhance movement and performance"
+Kinesiologists work in a variety of roles as health professionals. They work as rehabilitation providers in hospitals, clinics and private settings working with populations needing care for musculoskeletal, cardiac and neurological conditions. They provide rehabilitation to persons injured at work and in vehicular accidents. Kinesiologists also work as functional assessment specialists, exercise therapists, ergonomists, return to work specialists, case managers and medical legal evaluators. They can be found in hospital, long-term care, clinic, work, and community settings. Additionally, kinesiology is applied in areas of health and fitness for all levels of athletes, but more often found with training of elite athletes.
+
+== Licensing and regulation ==
+
+=== Canada ===
+In Canada, kinesiology has been designated a regulated health profession in Ontario. Kinesiology was granted the right to regulate in the province of Ontario in the summer of 2007 and similar proposals have been made for other provinces. The College of Kinesiologists of Ontario achieved proclamation on April 1, 2013, at which time the professional title "Kinesiologist" became protected by law. In Ontario only members of the college may call themselves a Registered Kinesiologist. Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments. They also work in cardiac rehabilitation, health and safety, hospital and long-term care facilities and community health centers just to name a few.
+
+== Health service ==
+
+Health promotion
+Kinesiologists working in the health promotion industry work with individuals to enhance the health, fitness, and well-being of the individual. Kinesiologists can be found working in fitness facilities, personal training/corporate wellness facilities, and industry.
+Clinical/rehabilitation
+Kinesiologists work with individuals with disabling conditions to assist in regaining their optimal physical function. They work with individuals in their home, fitness facilities, rehabilitation clinics, and at the worksite. They also work alongside physiotherapists and occupational therapists.
+Ergonomics
+Kinesiologists work in industry to assess suitability of design of workstations and provide suggestions for modifications and assistive devices.
+Health and safety
+Kinesiologists are involved in consulting with industry to identify hazards and provide recommendations and solutions to optimize the health and safety of workers.
+Disability management/case coordination
+Kinesiologists recommend and provide a plan of action to return an injured individual to their optimal function in all aspects of life.
+Management/research/administration
+Kinesiologists frequently fulfill roles in all above areas, perform research, and manage businesses.
+Health education
+Kinesiologists working in health education teach people about behaviors that promote wellness. They develop and implement strategies to improve the health of individuals and communities. Community health workers collect data and discuss health concerns with members of specific populations or communities.
+Athletic coaches and scouts
+Kinesiologists who pursue a career as an athletic coach develop new talent and guide an athlete's progress in a specific sport. They teach amateur or professional athletes the skills they need to succeed at their sport. Many coaches are also involved in scouting. Scouts look for new players and evaluate their skills and likelihood for success at the college, amateur, or professional level.
+Physical education teacher
+Kinesiologists working as physical education teachers are responsible for teaching fitness, sports and health. They help students stay both mentally and physically fit by teaching them to make healthy choices.
+Physical therapy
+Kinesiologists working in physical therapy diagnose physical abnormalities, restore mobility to the client, and promote proper function of joints.
+
+== History of kinesiology ==
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+---
+title: "Kinesiology"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:28.914113+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics (sv) G.C.I. was founded 1813 in Stockholm, Sweden by Pehr Henrik Ling. It was the first Physiotherapy school in the world, training hundreds of medical gymnasts who spread the Swedish physical therapy around the entire world.
+In 1887, Sweden was the first country in the world to give a national state licence to physiotherapists/physical therapists.
+The Swedish medical gymnast and kinesiologist Carl August Georgii (sv), Professor at the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute GCI in Stockholm, was the one who created and coined the new international word Kinesiology in 1854.
+The term Kinesiology is a literal translation to Greek+English from the original Swedish word Rörelselära, meaning "Movement Science". It was the foundation of the Medical Gymnastics, the original Physiotherapy and Physical Therapy, developed for over 100 years in Sweden (starting 1813).
+The new medical therapy created in Sweden was originally called Rörelselära (sv), and later in 1854 translated to the new and invented international word "Kinesiology". The Kinesiology consisted of nearly 2,000 physical movements and 50 different types of massage therapy techniques.
+They were all used to affect various dysfunctions and even illnesses, not only in the movement apparatus, but also into the internal physiology of man.
+Thus, the original classical and Traditional Kinesiology was not only a system of rehabilitation for the body, or biomechanics like in modern Academic Kinesiology, but also a new therapy for relieving and curing diseases, by affecting the autonomic nervous system, organs and glands in the body.,
+In 1886, the Swedish Medical Gymnast Nils Posse (1862–1895) introduced the term kinesiology in the U.S. Nils Posse was a graduate of the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm, Sweden and founder of the Posse Gymnasium in Boston, MA. He was teaching at Boston Normal School of Gymnastics BNSG.
+The Special Kinesiology Of Educational Gymnastics was the first book ever written in the world with the word "Kinesiology" in the title of the book. It was written by Nils Posse and published in Boston, 1894–1895. Posse was elected posthumously as an Honorary Fellow in Memoriam in the National Academy of Kinesiology.
+The National Academy of Kinesiology was formally founded in 1930 in the United States. The academy's dual purpose is to encourage and promote the study and educational applications of the art and science of human movement and physical activity and to honor by election to its membership persons who have directly or indirectly contributed significantly to the study of and/or application of the art and science of human movement and physical activity. Membership in the National Academy of Kinesiology is by election and those elected are known as Fellows. Fellows are elected from around the world. Election into the National Academy of Kinesiology is considered a pinnacle achievement and recognition with the discipline. For further information see: National Academy of Kinesiology | National Academy of Kinesiology
+
+== Technology in kinesiology ==
+Motion capture technology has application in measuring human movement, and thus kinesiology. Historically, motion capture labs have recorded high fidelity data. While accurate and credible, these systems can come at high capital and operational costs. Modern-day systems have increased accessibility to mocap technology.
+
+== Adapted physical activity ==
+Adapted physical activity (APA) is a branch of kinesiology, referring to physical activity that is modified or designed to meet the needs of individuals with disabilities. The term originated in the field of physical education and is commonly used in the field of physical education and rehabilitation to refer to physical activities and exercises that have been modified or adapted for individuals with disabilities. These activities are often led by trained professionals, such as adapted physical educators, occupational therapists, or physical therapists.
+In 1973 the Federation Internationale de lʼ Activite Physique Adaptee (International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - IFAPA) was formed and is described as a discipline/profession that purpose to facilitates physical activity across people with a wide range of individual differences, emphasizing in empowerment, self-determination and opportunities access.
+A common definition of APA is "a cross-disciplinary body of practical and theoretical knowledge directed toward impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions in physical activity. It is a service delivery profession and an academic field of study that supports an attitude of acceptance of individual differences, advocates access to active lifestyles and sport, and promotes innovative and cooperative service delivery, supports, and empowerment. Adapted physical activity includes, but is not limited to, physical education, sport, recreation, dance, creative arts, nutrition, medicine, and rehabilitation." This definition aligns with the World Health Organization International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health whereby disability is seen as the interaction between impairments or conditions with activity limitations, participation restrictions and contextual factors.
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+---
+title: "Kinesiology"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:28.914113+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Overview ===
+The term APA has evolved in the course of years, and in some countries could be recognized with alternative terms that contain a similar set of constructs, for example, sports for disabled people, sports therapy, and psychomotor therapy. The APA is considered as (i) activities or service delivery, (ii) a profession, and (iii) an academic field of study with a unique body of knowledge that differs from terms such as adapted physical education or para-sport. Principally, APA is an umbrella term that incorporates the mentioned terms considered sub-specializations (i.e., physical education, para-sports, recreation, and rehabilitation).
+APA is proposed to have close links between the field of practice and the field of study with unique theories and growing bodies of practical and scientific knowledge, where APA practitioners are those who provide the services and activities, while APA scholars generate and promote evidence-based research practices among practitioners.
+Adaptation to physical activity opportunities is most often provided in the form of appropriately designed and modified equipment (prosthesis, wheelchairs, mono-ski, ball size), task criteria (e.g., modifying skill quality criteria or using a different skill), instructions (e.g., using personal supports, peer tutors, non-verbal instructions, motivational strategies), physical and social environments (e.g., increasing or decreasing court dimensions; segregated vs. inclusive; type of training climate: mastery-oriented, collaborative or competitive social environment; degree of peer and parental support), and rules (e.g., double bounce rule in wheelchair tennis).
+In general, the APA presents various sub-specializations such as physical education (e.g., inclusion in physical education, attention to students with special needs, development of new education contents), sports (e.g., development of paralympic sports, activity by sports federations for athletes with disabilities), recreation (e.g., development of the inclusive sport approach and attitudes change programs), and rehabilitation (e.g., physical activity programs in rehabilitation centers, involvement of health-related professionals).
+
+The role of sports and physical activity participation in the population with disabilities has been recognized as a human right in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and declared in other international organization agreements such as:
+
+International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport (UNESCO).
+International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS).
+Marseille Declaration, Universal Fitness Innovation & Transformation - UFIT Launch October 2015. A Commitment to Inclusion by and for the Global Fitness Industry.
+Sustainable Development Goals, Sports and Physical Activity, United Nations (UN).
+In this line, the APA as a discipline/profession plays an essential role in addressing the needs from a theoretical and practical framework to provide full participation access in physical activity to populations with disabilities.
+There are many educational programmes offered around the world that specialise in APA, including disability sports, adapted sports, rehabilitation, adapted physical education and parasport management. In Europe there is the European Diploma of Adapted Physical Activity for bachelor's degrees. At the master's degree level, there is the International Masters in Adapted Physical Activity and the master's degree in Adapted Physical Activity offered by the Lithuanian Sports University. A doctoral programme in adapted physical activity can be studied through the Multi-Institution Mentorship Consortium (MAMC). Furthermore, there is offered a Master of Adapted Physical Education in the North American region in Oregon State University (USA). In the South American Region, the San Sebastian University (Chile) offers a Master of Physical Activity and Adapted Sports. The universities Viña del Mar and UMCE in Chile offers a specialization in adapted physical activity.
+
+=== International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity ===
+The International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA) is an international scientific organization of higher education scholars, practitioners and students dedicated to promoting APA. IFAPA was founded in 1973 in Quebec, Canada, presenting an original purpose declared "to give global focus to professionals who use adapted physical activities for instruction, recreation, remediation, and research". From these initial times, IFAPA evolved from a small organization to an international corporation with active regional federations in different world regions.
+The current purpose of IFAPA are:
+
+To encourage international cooperation in the field of physical activity to the benefit of individuals of all abilities,
+to promote, stimulate and support research in the field of adapted physical activity throughout the world,
+and to make scientific knowledge of and practical experiences in adapted physical activity available to all interested persons, organizations and institutions.
+IFAPA coordinates national, regional, and international functions (both governmental and nongovernmental) that pertain to sport, dance, aquatics, exercise, fitness, and wellness for individuals of all ages with disabilities or special needs. IFAPA is linked with several other international governing bodies, including the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), Special Olympics International and the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE). English is the language used for IFAPA correspondence, conferences. Professor David Legg from Mount Royal University is the current president of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA) since 2019 at the International Symposium of Adapted Physical Activity (ISAPA) hosted by IFAPA Past President Martin Block at the University of Virginia. 
+The biennial ISAPA scheduled for 2021 was planned to be held at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic it was later announced to be held online only, making it the first Online ISAPA since the first one in 1977. The 2023 ISAPA was awarded to a multi-site organisation by Halberg Foundation in New Zealand and Mooven in France.
+
+==== Regions ====
+Africa - no formal organisation
+Asia - Asian society of adapted physical education - ASAPE
+Europe - European Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - EUFAPA
+Middle East - Middle East Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - MEFAPA
+North America - North American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - NAFAPA
+Oceania - no formal organisation
+South and Central America - South American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - SAPA
+
+=== Research and dissemination in adapted physical activity ===
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiology-4.md
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+---
+title: "Kinesiology"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:28.914113+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+It is possible to find numerous sports science journals with research papers on adapted sport, while those specific to APA are lesser. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ) is the only AFA-specific journal indexed in the Journal Citation Reports Index, appearing in both the Sport Sciences and Rehabilitation directories, which is another example of its interdisciplinarity (Impact Score 2020-2021 = 2.61) (Pérez et al., 2012). Additionally, the European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity (EUJAPA) is another international, multidisciplinary journal introduced to communicate, share and stimulate academic inquiry focusing on APA of persons with disabilities, appearing in the Education directories of Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR).
+Regarding the dissemination of scientific knowledge generated by the APA, the most relevant international events are described as follows:
+
+International Symposium of Adapted Physical Activity (ISAPA), organized by IFAPA on a biannual basis.
+Vista conference, organized by the International Paralympic Committee on a biannual basis.
+Paralympic Congress, organized by the International Paralympic Committee every four years.
+European Conference on Adapted Physical Activity (EUCAPA), organized by European Federation in Adapted Physical Activity on a biannual basis.
+North American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (NAFAPA) Conference, organized by NAFAPA on a biannual basis.
+South American Adapted Physical Activity Conference, organized by South American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity.
+
+=== Adapted physical education ===
+
+Adapted physical education is a sub-discipline of physical education with a focus on including students with disabilities into the subject. APE is the term used to refer to the physical education for individuals with disabilities that occurs primarily in elementary and secondary schools. According to Dunn and Leitschuh APE is defined as "Adapted physical education programs are those that have the same objectives as the regular physical education program but in which adjustments are made in the regular offerings to meet the needs and abilities of exceptional students". This education can be provided in separate educational settings as well as in general (regular) educational settings. APE is oriented to educate students to lifelong engagement in physical activities and to live a healthy lifestyle offering possibilities to exploit movements, games, and sports and at the same time personal development.
+Goals and objectives of adapted and general physical education might be the same with some minor differences. For example, learning to push a wheelchair or play wheelchair basketball might be a goal for a child with a spinal cord injury, while running and playing regular basketball is a goal for a child with a disability. In other cases, a child with a disability might focus on fewer objectives or modified objectives within a domain (e.g., physical fitness) compared to peers without disabilities.
+
+=== Parasport or disability sport ===
+
+The APA in this field is oriented principally to the Parasports movement, which organises sports for and by people with disabilities. Examples of para-sports organizations include sports in the Paralympic Games, Special Olympics, Deaflympics as well as Invictus games to name a few. Many para-sports have eligibility criteria according to the characteristics of the participants. In the Paralympics Games, this is known as sport classification, a system that provides a framework for determining who can and who cannot participate according to the impact of the impairments on the outcome of the competition.
+In the Special Olympics individuals eligible have to meet the following criteria
+
+be at least 8 years old
+have been identified by an agency or professional as having one of the following conditions: intellectual disabilities, cognitive delays (as measured by formal assessment), or significant learning or vocational problems due to cognitive delay that require specially designed instruction.
+Another sporting competition for people with intellectual impairments is the Virtus Games (formerly known as International Sports Federation for Persons with Intellectual Disability. This is different from the Special Olympics. Eligibility is based on a master list of
+
+II 1 Intellectual Disability
+II 2 Significant Intellectual Disability
+II 3 Austism
+To be eligible to compete at the Deaflympics, athletes must have a hearing loss of at least 55 decibels in the better ear.
+The Invictus Games were designed to allow sport competitions between wounded, injured or sick servicemen and women (WIS). Therefore, only people in the military sectors can compete in the Invictus games.
+
+=== Physical medicine and rehabilitation ===
+
+The results from APA can help the practice of Physical medicine and rehabilitation, whereby the functional ability and quality of life is improved. Rehabilitation is helping the individual achieve the highest level of functioning, independence, participation, and quality of life possible. The APA and sport in rehabilitation for individuals with disabilities is particularly important and is associated with the legacy of the medical rehabilitation specialist Sir Ludwig Guttman who was the founder of the International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation, the basis of the actual Paralympic movement. APA and sports are strongly recommended in rehabilitation programs due to the positive impact and health benefits in people with different disabilities. The APA practitioner provides exercise and training regimens adapted for specific individual needs and works based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health of the World Health Organization, facilitating a common language with other rehabilitation professionals during the rehabilitation process.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+ The dictionary definition of kinesiology at Wiktionary
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfadeometry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfadeometry-0.md
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+---
+title: "Microfadeometry"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfadeometry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:30.043785+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Microfadeometry, also more popularly known as Microfading or MFT, is a technique that uses tiny spots of intense light to probe and measure color changes in objects of art that are particularly sensitive to light exposure.
+This process is completed using a recently designed instrument known as a microfading tester, or MFT. The data from the test is represented by reflectance spectra.
+
+
+== History ==
+Light-fastness testing dates back to as early as 1733. In the late 19th century with early art conservation studies, Russell and Abney published Action of Light on Watercolors in 1888 sparking a concern with light and the aging of cultural materials. Microfading, as a technique, was first identified in Paul Whitmore's lab book entry on September 21, 1994. His work on the topic was later published in 1999.
+
+
+== Application ==
+Before the creation of this technique, recording light-stability information directly from the objects was nearly impossible. Through the use of microfading technology, it is now possible to obtain both information about the chemical characterization of the dyes and the associated kinetics of color change.
+Benchtop microfaders and microfading testers are used to test and analyze light damage on cultural objects and potential light damage to objects in museum collections.
+
+
+== Theory ==
+Using a powerful xenon arc lamp, 1 lumen of light is focused through an optical fiber onto a 300–400 μm spot of the object's surface. The reflected light is collected by a second fiber optic. The period of exposure is monitored with a probe that transforms the reflectance spectrum into color coordinates in real-time. A typical microfading test is achieved in less than 10 minutes and replicates exposures equivalent to 5–12 years of display at normal museum light levels. The output of the xenon arc lamp is kept at constant by an exposure controller while it is filtered to 400–710 nm using a water filter. The spectrum is then used to quantify the amount of time it would take for the color change to result in a noticeable difference. This information is used to retrofit display conditions and improve the protection of vulnerable objects.
+Calibration of the instrument is achieved by using internal standards such as the Blue Wool Scale.
+
+
+== Reliability ==
+Concerns associated with microfading techniques include diffusion-limited photo-oxidation reaction rates, dehydration and heating of the sample, the variability of using and measuring ISO Blue Wool Standards, variation in spectral power distribution between lamps used in object display, and the lamp used in accelerated light aging, the small sampling area, the required number of sample the length of fading time and the potential interaction of individual chemical components of the object tested.
+
+
+== Institutional Use ==
+Cultural institutions that house their own instruments for microfadeometry include the Library of Congress and the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC, the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Canadian Conservation Institute in Ottawa, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Art Conservation Department at Buffalo State College in New York, The National Archives (United Kingdom), the Scottish National Gallery (United Kingdom), Qatar National Library (Qatar), French National Centre for Scientific Research in Paris, Philadelphia Museum of Art in the US, University of Gothenburg in Sweden, National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design in Norway, Kunstmuseum Basel in Switzerland, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, National Library of Norway, National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts, State Academy of Fine Arts Stuttgart in Germany, and other institutions.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Microfading Tester (MFT), an introduction
+Microfade testing (MFT) at AIC Wiki
+Microfading Tester International Discussion Group - American Institute for Conservation
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