---
title: "Women in STEM"
chunk: 1/11
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:22:08.521064+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since the origins of these fields in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment.
Scholars are exploring the various reasons for the continued existence of this gender disparity in STEM fields. Those who view this disparity as resulting from discriminatory forces are also seeking ways to redress this disparity within STEM fields. STEM professions are typically construed as well-compensated, high-status professions with universal career appeal.

== History ==
Women's participation in science, technology, and engineering has been limited and also under-reported throughout most of history. This has been the case, with exceptions, until large-scale changes began around the 1970s. Scholars have discussed possible reasons and mechanisms behind the limitations such as ingrained gender roles, sexism, and sex differences in psychology. There has also been an effort among historians of science to uncover under-reported contributions of women. The "Computer Women" at NASA during the 1950s and 1960s were a group of women known as "computers" who performed essential calculations for aeronautical and space research. They worked as mathematicians, engineers, and analysts, laying the groundwork for early space exploration, even though their contributions were often overlooked.
The term STEM was first used in 2001, primarily in connection with the choice of education and career. Different STEM fields have different histories, but women's participation, although limited, has been seen throughout history. Science, protoscience and mathematics have been practiced since ancient times, and during this time women have contributed to fields such as medicine, botany, astronomy, algebra, and geometry. In the Middle Ages in Europe and the Middle East, Christian monasteries and Islamic madrasas were places where women could work on such subjects as mathematics and the study of nature. Ada Lovelace, an English mathematician, is often credited as the world's first computer programmer. In the mid-1800s, she worked on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. She created an algorithm intended to be processed by the machine, making her a pioneer in the field of computer science.
Universities in the Christian tradition began as places of education for a professional clergy that allowed no women, and the practice of barring women continued even after universities' missions broadened. Because women were generally barred from formal higher education until late in the 19th century, it was very difficult for them to enter specialized disciplines.
The development of industrial technology was dominated by men, and early technical achievements, such as the invention of the steam engine, were mainly due to men. Nevertheless, there are many examples of women's contributions to engineering.
Initially, a "computer" was a person who performed computations, who was often a woman. Working as a computer required conscientiousness, accuracy and speed. Some women who initially worked as human computers later advanced from doing simpler calculations to higher levels of work, where they specified tasks and algorithms and analyzed results.
Women's participation rates in the STEM fields started increasing noticeably in the 1970s and 1980s. Some fields, such as biotechnology now has almost 50% participation of women.

== Gender imbalance in STEM fields ==

Studies suggest that many factors contribute to attitudes toward achievement in mathematics and science among young people, including encouragement from parents, interactions with mathematics and science teachers, curriculum content, hands-on laboratory experiences, high school achievement in mathematics and science, and resources available at home. In the United States, research findings are mixed concerning when boys' and girls' attitudes about mathematics and science diverge. Analyzing several nationally representative longitudinal studies, one researcher found few differences in girls' and boys' attitudes toward science in the early secondary school years. Students' aspirations to pursue careers in mathematics and science influence both the courses they choose to take in those areas and the level of effort they put forth in these courses.
A 1996 U.S. study suggested that girls begin to lose self-confidence in middle school because they believe that men possess more intelligence in technological fields. The fact that men outperform women in some measures of spatial ability, a skill set many engineering professionals deem vital, generates this misconception. Feminist scholars postulate that boys are more likely to gain spatial skills outside the classroom because they are culturally and socially encouraged to build and work with their hands. Research shows that girls can develop these same skills with the same form of training.
A 1996 U.S. study of college freshmen by the Higher Education Research Institute shows that men and women differ greatly in their intended fields of study. Of first-time college freshmen in 1996, 20 percent of men and 4 percent of women planned to major in computer science and engineering, while similar percentages of men and women planned to major in biology or physical sciences. The differences in the intended majors between male and female first-time freshmen directly relate to the differences in the fields in which men and women earn their degrees. At the post-secondary level, women are less likely than men to earn a degree in mathematics, physical sciences, or computer sciences and engineering. An exception to this gender imbalance is seen in the field of life science.

=== Effects of under-representation of women in STEM careers ===
In Scotland, a large number of women graduate in STEM subjects but are less likely than men to pursue a STEM career. The Royal Society of Edinburgh estimates that doubling women's high-skill contributions to Scotland's economy would benefit it by £170 million per annum.
A 2017 study found that closing the gender gap in STEM education would have a positive impact on economic growth in the EU, contributing to an increase in GDP per capita of 0.7–0.9% across the bloc by 2030 and of 2.2–3.0% by 2050.

=== Men's and women's earnings ===