---
title: "European and American voyages of scientific exploration"
chunk: 2/11
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:39:10.846547+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

== Maritime exploration in the Age of Enlightenment ==
By the 18th century maritime exploration had become safer and more efficient with technical innovations that vastly improved navigation and cartography: improvements were made to the theodolite, octant, precision clocks, as well as the compass, telescope, and general shipbuilding techniques.
From the mid-18th century through the 19th century scientific missions mapped the newly discovered regions, brought back to Europe the newly discovered fauna and flora, made hydrological, astronomical and meteorological observations and improved the methods of navigation. This stimulated great advances in the scientific disciplines of natural history, botany, zoology, ichthyology, conchology, taxonomy, medicine, geography, geology, mineralogy, hydrology, oceanography, physics, meteorology etc. – all contributing to the sense of "improvement" and "progress" that characterized the Enlightenment. Often these missions brought together diverse researchers of different ethnic and regional background, thus creating a "transnational culture of expertise". Artists were used to record landscapes and indigenous peoples, while natural history illustrators captured the appearance of organisms before they deteriorated after collection. Some of the world's finest natural history illustrations were produced at this time and the illustrators changed from informed amateurs to fully trained professionals acutely aware of the need for scientific accuracy.
By the middle of the 19th century, all of the world's major land masses, and most of the minor ones, had been discovered by Europeans and their coastlines charted. This marked the end of this phase of science as the Challenger Expedition of 1872–76 began exploring the deep seas beyond a depth of 20 or 30 meters. In spite of the growing community of scientists, for nearly 200 years science had been the preserve of wealthy amateurs, educated middle classes and clerics. At the start of the 18th century, most voyages were privately organized and financed, but by the second half of the century these scientific expeditions, like James Cook's three Pacific voyages under the auspices of the British Admiralty, were instigated by government. In the late 19th century, when this phase of science was drawing to a close, it became possible to earn a living as a professional scientist although photography was beginning to replace the illustrators. The exploratory sailing ship had gradually evolved into the modern research vessels. From now on maritime research in new European colonies in America, Africa, Australia, India and elsewhere, would be carried out by researchers within the occupied territories themselves.

=== Chronology of voyages ===
This compendium of voyages of scientific exploration provides an overview of maritime scientific research carried out at the time of the Enlightenment in Europe.
Published journals and accounts are included with the individual voyages.

==== 1735–39: French Geodesic Mission ====
The French Geodesic Mission to the Equator was an 18th-century expedition to what is now Ecuador carried out for the purpose of measuring the roundness of the Earth and measuring the length of a degree of latitude at the Equator. The mission was one of the first geodesic (or geodetic) missions carried out under modern scientific principles, and the first major international scientific expedition.

Ships: from Spain to Colombia, El Conquistador and Incendio; from France to Colombia, Portefaix; from Colombia to Ecuador, San Cristóbal; from Ecuador to Chile and return, Nuestra Señora de Belén and Rosa, and finally from Ecuador to France  Liz, Nuestra Señora de la Deliberanza, Luis Erasmo, Marquesa de Antin (among a convoy of 53 ships).
French astronomers: Charles Marie de La Condamine (1701–1774), Pierre Bouguer (1698–1758) and Louis Godin (1704–1760).
Spanish geographers: Jorge Juan y Santacilla (1713–1773) and Antonio de Ulloa (1716–1795).
Assistants: Joseph de Jussieu (1704–1779) and Jean Godin (1713–1792).
Ecuadoran geographer and topographer: Pedro Maldonado (1704–1748).
Publications: Relación histórica del viaje a la América meridional, Jorge Juan and Ulloa, 1748; Figure de la terre determine, Bouguer, 1749; Journal du voyage, La Condamine, 1751; Le procès des étoiles, 1735–71, ISBN 978-2-232-10176-2, 978-2-232-11862-3.

==== 1764–66: HMS Dolphin ====

Considered the first scientific voyage undertaken by the Royal Navy, its primary purpose was the discovery of new lands in the South Atlantic Ocean. It was during this trip that several islands of the Tuamotu archipelago were discovered. Dolphin was a 24-gun post ship launched in 1751 and used as a survey ship from 1764, making two circumnavigations under the command of John Byron and Samuel Wallis. She was broken up in 1777.

Captain: John Byron (1723–1786).
Publications: J. Byron, A Voyage round the world. (London, 1767), translated into French the same year under the title Journey around the world in 1764 and 1765, on the English warship "The Dolphin", commissioned by Vice-Admiral Byron ... (Paris).

==== 1766–68: HMS Dolphin and HMS Swallow ====
A circumnavigation by the English navigator Samuel Wallis, on board HMS Dolphin, accompanied by Philip Carteret on the consort ship Swallow. In August 1766, the two ships passed through the Strait of Magellan. In December 1766, conflicts between the two captains led to the separation of the ships. Dolphin reached Tahiti in June 1767, where Wallis and the British opened fire on the native Tahitians with the ship’s cannons, killing many Tahitians. There was also an exploitative trade and the transfer of disease, which was often devastating for indigenous societies. Meanwhile, Philip Carteret in Swallow explored and studied the Solomon Islands, New Ireland (island) (now part of Papua New Guinea) and the islands of the Indonesian archipelago (Sulawesi among others). The expedition also stopped in Batavia from June to September 1768 and returned to London in March 1769.

Captains: Samuel Wallis (1728–1795) (leader of the expedition), Philip Carteret (1733–1796) (Commander of Swallow which was separated from the Dolphin and returned to its point of departure a year later).
Second Lieutenant: Tobias Furneaux (1735–1781).

==== 1766:  HMS Niger ====
This British ship explored Newfoundland and Labrador with Constantine Phipps aboard and Thomas Adams (Captain?), and with Joseph Banks also aboard. HMS Niger was a 33-gun fifth-rate launched in 1759, converted to a prison ship in 1810 and renamed Negro in 1813. She was sold in 1814.