---
title: "Perceptual control theory"
chunk: 7/7
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_control_theory"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:56:52.953091+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

== Current situation and prospects ==
The preceding explanation of PCT principles provides justification of how this theory can provide a valid explanation of neural organisation and how it can explain some of the current issues of conceptual models.
Perceptual control theory currently proposes a hierarchy of 11 levels of perceptions controlled by systems in the human mind and neural architecture. These are: intensity, sensation, configuration, transition, event, relationship, category, sequence, program, principle, and system concept. Diverse perceptual signals at a lower level (e.g. visual perceptions of intensities) are combined in an input function to construct a single perception at the higher level (e.g. visual perception of a color sensation). The perceptions that are constructed and controlled at the lower levels are passed along as the perceptual inputs at the higher levels. The higher levels in turn control by adjusting the reference levels (goals) of the lower levels, in effect telling the lower levels what to perceive.
While many computer demonstrations of principles have been developed, the proposed higher levels are difficult to model because too little is known about how the brain works at these levels. Isolated higher-level control processes can be investigated, but models of an extensive hierarchy of control are still only conceptual, or at best rudimentary.
Perceptual control theory has not been widely accepted in mainstream psychology, but has been effectively used in a considerable range of domains in human factors, clinical psychology, and psychotherapy (the "Method of Levels"), it is the basis for a considerable body of research in sociology, and it has formed the conceptual foundation for the reference model used by a succession of NATO research study groups.
Recent approaches use principles of perceptual control theory to provide new algorithmic foundations for artificial intelligence and machine learning.

== Selected bibliography ==
Cziko, Gary (1995). Without miracles: Universal selection theory and the second Darwinian revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (A Bradford Book). ISBN 0-262-53147-X
Cziko, Gary (2000). The things we do: Using the lessons of Bernard and Darwin to understand the what, how, and why of our behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (A Bradford Book). ISBN 0-262-03277-5
Forssell, Dag (Ed.), 2016. Perceptual Control Theory, An Overview of the Third Grand Theory in Psychology: Introductions, Readings, and Resources. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing. ISBN 978-1938090134.
Mansell, Warren (Ed.), (2020). The Interdisciplinary Handbook of Perceptual Control Theory: Living Control Systems IV. Cambridge: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0128189481.
Marken, Richard S. (1992) Mind readings: Experimental studies of purpose. Benchmark Publications: New Canaan, CT.
Marken, Richard S. (2002) More mind readings: Methods and models in the study of purpose. Chapel Hill, NC: New View. ISBN 0-944337-43-0
Pfau, Richard H. (2017). Your Behavior: Understanding and Changing the Things You Do. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 9781557789273
Plooij, F. X. (1984). The behavioral development of free-living chimpanzee babies and infants. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Plooij, F. X. (2003). "The trilogy of mind". In M. Heimann (Ed.), Regression periods in human infancy (pp. 185–205). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Powers, William T. (1973). Behavior: The control of perception. Chicago: Aldine de Gruyter. ISBN 0-202-25113-6. [2nd exp. ed. = Powers (2005)].
Powers, William T. (1989). Living control systems. [Selected papers 1960–1988.] New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications. ISBN 0-9647121-3-X.
Powers, William T. (1992). Living control systems II. [Selected papers 1959–1990.] New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications.
Powers, William T. (1998). Making sense of behavior: The meaning of control.  New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications. ISBN 0-9647121-5-6.
Powers, William T. (2005). Behavior: The control of perception. New Canaan: Benchmark Publications. ISBN 0-9647121-7-2. [2nd exp. ed. of Powers (1973). Chinese tr. (2004) Guongdong Higher Learning Education Press, Guangzhou, China. ISBN 7-5361-2996-3.]
Powers, William T. (2008). Living Control Systems III: The fact of control. [Mathematical appendix by Dr. Richard Kennaway. Includes computer programs for the reader to demonstrate and experimentally test the theory.] New Canaan, CT: Benchmark Publications. ISBN 978-0-9647121-8-8.
Powers, William. T., Clark, R. K., and McFarland, R. L. (1960). "A general feedback theory of human behavior [Part 1; Part 2]. Perceptual and Motor Skills 11, 71–88; 309–323.
Powers, William T. and Runkel, Philip J. 2011. Dialogue concerning the two chief approaches to a science of life: Word pictures and correlations versus working models. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing ISBN 0-9740155-1-2.
Robertson, R. J. & Powers, W.T. (1990). Introduction to modern psychology: the control-theory view. Gravel Switch, KY: Control Systems Group.
Robertson, R. J., Goldstein, D.M., Mermel, M., & Musgrave, M. (1999). Testing the self as a control system: Theoretical and methodological issues. Int. J. Human-Computer Studies, 50, 571–580.
Runkel, Philip J[ulian]. 1990. Casting Nets and Testing Specimens: Two Grand Methods of Psychology. New York: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-93533-7. [Repr. 2007, Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing ISBN 0-9740155-7-1.]
Runkel, Philip J[ulian]. (2003). People as living things. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing ISBN 0-9740155-0-4
Taylor, Martin M. (1999). "Editorial: Perceptual Control Theory and its Application," International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, Vol 50, No. 6, June 1999, pp. 433–444.

=== Sociology ===
McClelland, Kent (1994). "Perceptual Control and Social Power". Sociological Perspectives. 37 (4): 461–496. doi:10.2307/1389276. JSTOR 1389276. S2CID 144872350.
McClelland, Kent (2004). "The Collective Control of Perceptions: Constructing Order from Conflict". International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. 60: 65–99. doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2003.08.003.
McClelland, Kent and Thomas J. Fararo, eds. (2006). Purpose, Meaning, and Action: Control Systems Theories in Sociology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
McPhail, Clark. 1991. The Myth of the Madding Crowd. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

== References ==

== External links ==

=== Articles ===
PCT for the Beginner by William T. Powers (2007)
The Dispute Over Control theory by William T. Powers (1993) – requires access approval 
Demonstrations of perceptual control by Gary Cziko (2006)

=== Audio ===
Interview with William T. Powers on origin and history of PCT (Part One – 20060722 (58.7M) Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
Interview with William T. Powers on origin and history of PCT (Part Two – 20070728  (57.7M) Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine

=== Videos ===
Demonstration of a robot arm with visual servoing and pressure control based on principles of PCT

=== Websites ===
The International Association for Perceptual Control Systems – The IAPCT website.
PCTWeb Archived 2020-01-30 at the Wayback Machine – Warren Mansell's comprehensive website on PCT.
Living Control Systems Publishing – resources and books about PCT.
Mind Readings – Rick Marken's website on PCT, with many interactive demonstrations.
Method of Levels – Timothy Carey's website on the Method of Levels.
Perceptual Robots – The PCT methodology and architecture applied to robotics.
ResearchGate Project – Recent research products.