---
title: "Outline of science"
chunk: 1/4
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science:
Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine.

== Study and experimentation ==

Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable.

Design of experiments
History of experiments
Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments.
Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory.
Empirical evidence is evidence gathered through direct observation instead of indirect theory.
Falsifiability is the ability to test a hypothesis through experimentation to determine whether it is false. Karl Popper argued that a claim must be falsifiable to be recognized as scientific.
Hard and soft science are descriptions of how measurable and precise a branch of science is. Hard sciences like biology and physics are more measurable while soft sciences like anthropology and psychology are less measurable.
Laboratories are places where scientists engage in research and study.
Measurement is the use of precise units to describe a quantity.
Models are representations of scientific phenomena to assist in studying or explaining them.
Observations are the use of one's senses to obtain information, and the resulting discoveries.
Observational studies are a type of research conducted solely by observing without controlling variables or testing specific hypotheses.
Reproducibility or replicability is the ability for subsequent experiments to confirm the accuracy of previous ones by producing the same result. This may be through an identical experiment or a test of the same hypothesis under different conditions.
Prediction is the use of observation to determine future results through inference.
The scientific method is a series of steps taken to engage in experimentation and produce factual results. The exact steps to be taken, or whether an all-encompassing sequence exists, is the subject of debate.
History of scientific method
Outline of scientific method
Timeline of the history of the scientific method

== Scientific knowledge ==

Anomalies are abnormal or deviating phenomena that are inconsistent with previous data or cannot be precisely classified or explained.
Classification is the use of categories to organize and describe individual subjects. This can be done descriptively to explain existing differences or prescriptively to create groups in a way that is useful.
Consilience is the process in which distinct findings can produce novel conclusions when considered together.
Data are sets of facts or information.
Deductive reasoning is reasoning conducted purely through logic.
Discoveries are the finding or explanation of new information.
Inductive reasoning is the use of varied observations to make an inference.
Explanation is the understanding of why a phenomenon occurs.
Hypotheses are proposals of scientific fact that have yet to be definitively verified.
Objectivity is the answering of scientific questions impartially without affecting the results with biases.
Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that leads people to seek evidence that supports existing beliefs and interpret new evidence as supporting these beliefs.
Reliability is the consistency in data as it is collected to demonstrate reproducibility.
Scientific laws are descriptions of scientific fact that apply universally under all circumstances.
Scientific theories are descriptions of scientific fact that are known to be true but cannot be proven to apply universally.
Validity is the accurate correspondence and relevance of data to the real-world phenomena it is meant to measure. Valid data is derived from objective observation or experimentation.
Verisimilitude is the degree to which a claim approaches the truth. The verisimilitude between two false ideas can be compared to determine which is less flawed.

== Branches of science ==

Science is divided into disciplines that explore different subject matter. Each discipline has its own considerations when being studied, and different methods are used between them. Scientists typically specialize in one discipline. Interdisciplinary sciences pull from multiple fields of study.

== History ==

=== Timeline ===

Science in the ancient world
Science in the middle ages
Science in the Renaissance – The Renaissance allowed for expanded intellectual thought that influenced later scientific developments.
The Scientific Revolution – A period of activity occurred c. 1550 – c. 1700 which developed the modern conception of what is now considered science. The scientific movement remained tied with Christianity, and most theories of the world blended empiricism and religion. It culminated in the studies of Isaac Newton and his 1687 treatise Principia. It also included the Copernican Revolution that was initiated by Nicolaus Copernicus and his argument for heliocentrism.
Science in the Age of Enlightenment
19th century in science – Science first developed in the 19th century as its own subject that encompassed varying fields of inquiry. Biology and chemistry continued a period of growth that had begun in the late-18th century.
20th century in science – Physics became the dominant branch of science in the 20th century through the development of atomic technology. Logical empiricism was a major influence in the mid-20th century, but it lost favor by the 1970s. The science wars were a period of disagreement in the late-20th century about whether mainstream science should be held as an authoritative feature of society.
21st century in science

=== Historical disciplines ===