---
title: "Blinded experiment"
chunk: 1/3
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_experiment"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:43:16.884871+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

In a blind or blinded experiment, information that could influence participants or investigators is withheld until the experiment is completed. Blinding is used to reduce or eliminate potential sources of bias, such as participants’ expectations, the observer-expectancy effect, observer bias, confirmation bias, and other cognitive or procedural influences.  
Blinding can be applied to different participants in an experiment, including study subjects, researchers, technicians, data analysts, and outcome assessors. When multiple groups are blinded simultaneously (for example, both participants and researchers), the design is referred to as a double-blind study.  
In some cases, blinding is desirable but impractical or unethical. For example, it is not possible to blind a participant receiving a physical therapy intervention, or a surgeon performing an operative procedure. Well-designed clinical protocols therefore aim to maximize the effectiveness of blinding within ethical and practical constraints.
During the course of an experiment, a participant becomes unblinded if they deduce or otherwise obtain information that has been masked to them. For example, a patient who experiences a side effect may correctly guess their treatment, becoming unblinded. Unblinding is common in blinded experiments, particularly in pharmacological trials. In particular, trials on pain medication and antidepressants are poorly blinded. Unblinding that occurs before the conclusion of a study is a source of experimental error, as the bias that was eliminated by blinding is re-introduced. The CONSORT reporting guidelines recommend that all studies assess and report unblinding. In practice, very few studies do so.
Blinding is an important tool of the scientific method, and is used in many fields of research. In some fields, such as medicine, it is considered essential. In clinical research, a trial that is not blinded is called an open trial.

== History ==
The first known blind experiment was conducted by the French Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism in 1784 to investigate the claims of mesmerism as proposed by Charles d'Eslon, a former associate of Franz Mesmer. In the investigations, the researchers (physically) blindfolded mesmerists and asked them to identify objects that the experimenters had previously filled with "vital fluid". The subjects were unable to do so.
In 1817, the first recorded blind experiment conducted outside a scientific setting compared the musical quality of a Stradivarius violin with that of a guitar-like violin. A violinist played each instrument while a committee of scientists and musicians listened from another room to avoid prejudice.
An early example of a double-blind protocol was the Nuremberg salt test of 1835 performed by Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven, Nuremberg's highest-ranking public health official, as well as a close friend of Friedrich Schiller. This trial contested the effectiveness of homeopathic dilution.
In 1865, Claude Bernard published his Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, which advocated blinding researchers. Bernard's recommendation that an experiment's observer should not know the hypothesis being tested contrasted starkly with the prevalent Enlightenment-era attitude that scientific observation can only be objectively valid when undertaken by a well-educated, informed scientist. The first study recorded to have a blinded researcher was conducted in 1907 by W. H. R. Rivers and H. N. Webber to investigate the effects of caffeine. The need to blind researchers became widely recognized in the mid-20th century.

== Background ==

=== Bias ===
Several biases arise when a study is insufficiently blinded. Patient-reported outcomes may differ when patients are not blinded to their treatment. Likewise, failure to blind researchers results in observer bias. Unblinded data analysts may favor an analysis that supports their existing beliefs (confirmation bias). These biases are typically the result of subconscious influences, and are present even when study participants believe they do not influence them.

=== Terminology ===

In medical research, the terms single-blind, double-blind and triple-blind are commonly used to describe blinding. These terms describe experiments in which (respectively) one, two, or three parties are blinded to some information. Most often, single-blind studies blind patients to their treatment allocation, double-blind studies blind both patients and researchers to treatment allocations, and triple-blinded studies blind patients, researcher, and some other third party (such as a monitoring committee) to treatment allocations. However, the meaning of these terms can vary across studies.
CONSORT guidelines state that these terms should no longer be used because they are ambiguous. For instance, "double-blind" may mean that the data analysts and patients were blinded; the patients and outcome assessors were blinded; or the patients and those administering the intervention were blinded. The terms also fail to convey the information that was masked and the extent of unblinding. It is not sufficient to specify the number of parties that have been blinded. To describe an experiment's blinding, it is necessary to report who has been blinded to what information, and how well each blind succeeded.