---
title: "History of ethics"
chunk: 2/4
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ethics"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:59:35.737272+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

== Ancient Greek ethics ==
While Greek moral thought was originally based on mythology, which provided moral meaning but no comprehensive framework, from the 600s BC a new moral approach emerged which used rational arguments instead, leading to the rise of philosophy as a distinct mode of thought. This has been especially attributed to Socrates. The Socratic method aimed to establish moral truths by questioning the beliefs of others, rather than by explaining them directly. He opposed the moral relativism of the Sophists, insisting on the formulation of moral principles from beginning. As portrayed in Plato's Republic, he articulates the greatest good as the transcendent "form of good itself". In his personal life, Socrates lived extremely morally. He was chaste, disciplined, pious, responsible, and cared for his friends. In the so-called Euthyphro dilemma, he raised the problem of whether divine action was motivated by it being good, or whether it was good because it was divine. In Gorgias he defends the notion that it is better to suffer injustice than to do it.
The key work of Plato's ethics was the Republic, which was focused on conceiving justice, a concept which for Plato was inclusive of wider morality as well. In a dialogue, Thrasymachus argued that conventional morality was a ruse invented to keep the elite in power, which should be discarded in favour of self-interest. Plato responded by planning a utopia and giving a metaphysical theory of what is good. He argued there were five regimes into which different societies could be divided, with the best one being aristocracy, in which "the desires of the inferior many are controlled by the wisdom and desires of the superior few". In contrast, democracy would lead to the degradation of culture and morality, with him arguing that "extreme freedom can't be expected to lead to anything but a change to extreme slavery". Whereas ordinary people were living in an illusion, demonstrated by the allegory of the cave, the theory of forms suggested that objective definitions, as looked for by Socrates, did actually exist. The highest form was that of the Good, which gave purpose for everything in the world and could only be understood by the philosophers.
Aristotle's ethics builds upon Plato's with important variations. Aristotle defined the good as "that at which all things aim". While many different goods were being pursued by different people and activities, that good which is being pursued for its own sake was the supreme good, or what he called eudaimonia, which has been translated as 'happiness' but may be more broadly described as 'flourishing', and involves "living well and doing well", not mere pleasure (which will itself follow). A "great-souled" citizen who lives a life of virtue can expect to achieve eudaimonia, which Aristotle argues is the highest good for man. Following Plato, Aristotle gives a significant role in moral life to the virtues, fixed habits of behaviour that lead to good outcomes; the main virtues are courage, justice, prudence and temperance. The highest form of life is, however, purely intellectual activity. However, the virtues for him are merely the means to an end. Furthermore, he disagreed with Plato on there being a universal transcendental good, instead seeing ethics as practical and particular.  Rather, the virtues should be based on finding the golden mean between extremes.
Later Greek schools of philosophy, such as the Epicureans and Stoics, debated the conditions of the good life. Both of these schools argued that tranquility should be the aim of life but disagreed on the means of getting there despite both claiming the Socratic tradition. Epicurus taught that the greatest good was pleasure and freedom from pain.  However, the latter was more important, as indulgences should be avoided so they did not lead to want and therefore suffering. Instead, the Epicureans emphasized the quiet enjoyment of pleasures, especially mental pleasure, free of fear and anxiety. Founded by Zeno of Citium, the Stoics thought the greatest good not pleasure but reason and everything in accord with reason, even if painful. Hence, they praised the life of reason lived in accordance with nature. They had been influenced by the Cynics' and Socrates' ascetism and indifference to adversity. The acceptance of the inevitable subsequently became a key aspect of their thinking, based also on their belief in determinism. Whereas the Epicureans believed the universe was essentially meaningless, the Stoics believed that God (understood to be one with the universe) gave meaning to the world. In response to the problem of evil, the Stoics developed the concept of theodicy. The Stoic philosopher Hierocles also developed the concept of morality being based on concentric circles of proximity to the individual, such as family, community and humanity, with the process of bringing the self and the other together called Oikeiôsis.

== Indian ethics ==