---
title: "Women in science"
chunk: 20/25
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

==== Sub-Saharan Africa ====
Just under one in three (30%) researchers in sub-Saharan Africa is a woman. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is seeing solid gains in the share of women among tertiary graduates in scientific fields. In two of the top four countries for women's representation in science, women graduates are part of very small cohorts, however: they make up 54% of Lesotho's 47 tertiary graduates in science and 60% of those in Namibia's graduating class of 149. South Africa and Zimbabwe, which have larger graduate populations in science, have achieved parity, with 49% and 47% respectively. The next grouping clusters seven countries poised at around 35–40% (Angola, Burundi, Eritrea, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Rwanda). The rest are grouped around 30% or below (Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, Swaziland and Uganda). Burkina Faso ranks lowest, with women making up 18% of its science graduates.
Female representation in engineering is fairly high in sub-Saharan Africa in comparison with other regions. In Mozambique and South Africa, for instance, women make up more than 34% and 28% of engineering graduates, respectively. Numbers of female graduates in agricultural science have been increasing steadily across the continent, with eight countries reporting the share of women graduates of 40% or more (Lesotho, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe). In health, this rate ranges from 26% and 27% in Benin and Eritrea to 94% in Namibia.
Of note is that women account for a relatively high proportion of researchers employed in the business enterprise sector in South Africa (35%), Kenya (34%), Botswana and Namibia (33%) and Zambia (31%). Female participation in industrial research is lower in Uganda (21%), Ethiopia (15%) and Mali (12%).

== Lack of agency and representation ==

=== Social pressures to both conform to femininity and which punish femininity ===
Beginning in the twentieth century to present day, more and more women are becoming acknowledged for their work in science. However, women often find themselves at odds with expectations held towards them in relation to their scientific studies. For example, in 1968 James Watson questioned scientist Rosalind Franklin's place in the industry. He claimed that "the best place for a feminist was in another person's lab". Women were and still are often critiqued of their overall presentation. In Franklin's situation, she was seen as lacking femininity for she failed to wear lipstick or revealing clothing.
Since on average most of a woman's colleagues in science are men who do not see her as a true social peer, she will also find herself left out of opportunities to discuss possible research opportunities outside of the laboratory. In Londa Schiebinger's book, Has Feminism Changed Science?, she mentions that men would have discussed their research outside of the lab, but this conversation is preceded by culturally "masculine" small-talk topics that, whether intentionally or not, excluded women influenced by their culture's feminine gender role from the conversation. Consequently, this act of excluding many women from the after-hours work discussions produced a more separate work environment between the men and the women in science; as women then would converse with other women in science about their current findings and theories. Ultimately, the women's work was devalued as a male scientist was not involved in the overall research and analysis.
According to Oxford University Press, the inequality toward women is "endorsed within cultures and entrenched within institutions [that] hold power to reproduce that inequality". There are various gendered barriers in social networks that prevent women from working in male-dominated fields and top management jobs. Social networks are based on the cultural beliefs such as schemas and stereotypes. According to social psychology studies, top management jobs are more likely to have incumbent schemas that favor "an achievement-oriented aggressiveness and emotional toughness that is distinctly male in character". Gender stereotypes of feminine style assume women to be conforming and submissive to male culture creating a sense of unqualified women for top management jobs. In attempting to demonstrate competence and power, women can still be seen as unlikeable and untrustworthy, even if they excel at traditionally "masculine" tasks. In addition, women's achievements are likely to be dismissed or discredited. These "untrustworthy, dislikable women" could have very well been denied achievement from the fear men held of a woman overtaking his management position. Social networks and gender stereotypes produce many injustices that women have to experience in their workplace, as well as, the various obstacles they encounter when trying to advance in male-dominated and top management jobs. Women in professions like science, technology, and other related industries are likely to encounter these gendered barriers in their careers.