---
title: "Materialism controversy"
chunk: 3/6
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:11:37.526414+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---

During the summer of 1854, the 31st Naturalists' Meeting was held in Göttingen. A major topic of discussion was the existence of the soul and its compatibility with emerging materialist views in science. During the event, physiologist Rudolf Wagner gave a prominent lecture on human creation and the nature of the soul, in which he sharply criticized materialism. He argued that denying the existence of a soul created by God—and especially the rejection of free will—would undermine the moral foundations of society.
Wagner claimed that materialist theories, such as those proposed by Carl Vogt, reduced human beings to passive machines without responsibility, which conflicted with the ethical duties of scientists. Later that year, Wagner published a second paper that expanded on his criticisms. He argued that science and faith occupy separate domains, and that science alone could neither prove nor disprove religious beliefs.
He explained that while physiologists can describe the structure and function of physical organs, their findings can be interpreted in different ways. Materialists use these observations to argue that mental functions are based on physical processes, while dualists believe the body interacts with an immaterial soul. Wagner maintained that physiology cannot determine which interpretation is correct. He stated: "There is not a single point in the biblical]doctrine of the soul ... that would contradict any doctrine of modern physiology and natural science."

=== Charcoal burning faith and science ===
Wagner’s public criticism brought the materialism debate into the spotlight. In response, Carl Vogt published a strongly worded counterattack titled Köhlerglaube und Wissenschaft (Charcoal-Burner's Faith and Science), directly aimed at Hofrat Rudolf Wagner. The first part of the text consisted largely of personal attacks. Vogt accused Wagner of lacking scientific originality, claiming that he relied on the work of others while presenting himself as a leading scholar. He also alleged that Wagner had tried to silence materialist thinkers by using political influence and state power. Wagner had linked the denial of free will with the revolutionary upheavals of 1848, suggesting that materialist ideas posed a risk to political and social stability. Vogt, angered by this accusation, turned the discussion into a broader attack on Wagner’s attempt to reconcile religion and science.
In the second part of the pamphlet, Vogt took aim at Wagner’s claim that simple religious belief—referred to sarcastically as Köhlerglaube (the "faith of a charcoal burner")—could coexist with modern science. Vogt argued that if someone places the soul beyond the reach of scientific investigation, that belief cannot be tested or disproven. However, he insisted that such an assumption was scientifically meaningless. Vogt argued that the growing understanding of how mental functions depend on the brain supported a materialist interpretation. He pointed out that Wagner himself accepted that all organs, such as the kidneys or muscles, follow biological laws. Yet when it came to the brain, Wagner made an exception by invoking an immaterial soul. According to Vogt, this selective reasoning showed that belief in an immaterial soul was a holdover from theology, not a conclusion supported by science. He concluded that materialism offered a more consistent and evidence-based framework for understanding human nature.

=== Food, strength and substance ===
By 1855, materialism had become an increasingly influential intellectual movement, even though the ideas promoted by Carl Vogt continued to face resistance in academic and political circles. Vogt was supported by two younger scientists, Jakob Moleschott and Ludwig Büchner, who also advanced materialist ideas through widely read popular science publications. Together, the three were seen as prominent advocates of materialism, which many at the time considered a compelling and coherent worldview. The controversy surrounding materialism sparked wider public debates about the relationship between science and society. These discussions also played a key role in the popularisation of science, paving the way for the reception of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution in the late 1850s.

Jakob Moleschott was born in 's-Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands, in 1822. He encountered Hegelian philosophy early in his life but went on to study medicine at the University of Heidelberg. Influenced by Ludwig Feuerbach, Moleschott developed a materialist perspective focused on metabolism and nutrition. In his book Die Lehre der Nahrungsmittel: Für das Volk (The Science of Food: For the People), Moleschott argued that nutrition was the foundation of both physical and mental functions. This reflected his belief that humans are entirely material beings. His aim was not only to deny the existence of an immaterial soul or God, but also to use scientific knowledge to improve people's lives, especially the poor, by offering practical dietary advice.
In 1850, Moleschott sent a copy of the book to Feuerbach, who responded with a widely read review titled Die Naturwissenschaft und die Revolution (Science and the Revolution). While Feuerbach had previously positioned his philosophy beyond both idealism and materialism, this publication marked his explicit support for the materialist movement. He argued that while philosophers continued to debate the nature of body and soul, the natural sciences had already resolved the question in favor of materialism.
Ludwig Büchner, born in Darmstadt in 1824, played an even more prominent public role than Moleschott. As a student, he met Carl Vogt, and in 1848 joined Vogt’s citizen militia during the revolutionary uprisings. After an unsatisfying academic career—including a brief assistantship at the University of Tübingen—Büchner decided to publish a concise and accessible overview of the materialist worldview. His book, Kraft und Stoff (Force and Matter), became a major success: it went through 12 editions in 17 years and was translated into 16 languages. Unlike Vogt and Moleschott, who framed their materialism through their own scientific research, Büchner presented it as a general scientific summary, written for readers without a background in philosophy or science. The central idea was the unity of force and matter—a concept Moleschott had also emphasized. Büchner argued that forces cannot exist without matter, and matter cannot exist without forces. Therefore, the idea of an immaterial soul was inconsistent with scientific understanding, since it would require a force without a material base.